Ras GTPases, which are monomeric G proteins, play a role in various signaling pathways that control cell division, proliferation, and death. Many mutations in proteins involved in the Ras signaling pathway can cause cancer or inactivate tumor suppressors. Mutations in Ras genes that hinder GTPase activity and the overexpression of Ras proteins resulting from transcriptional activation lead to continuous cell proliferation, a crucial step in the development of cancer in organs like the pancreas, colon, and lungs. Similarly, mutations in and overexpression of GEFs, which facilitate the exchange of GTP for GDP, and GTPase-activating proteins, which accelerate GTP hydrolysis, may also have oncogenic effects.

The TGF-β receptor, a threonine/serine kinase consisting of two subunits, plays a crucial role in cellular responses such as cell growth, cell differentiation, and apoptosis. When TGF-β binds to the type II subunit, it induces phosphorylation of specific serine and threonine residues on the type I subunit. This, in turn, triggers the phosphorylation of downstream effector proteins on serine and threonine residues, leading to the elicitation of cellular responses.

There are two classes of tyrosine kinase receptors. One class includes nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors, which exhibit the typical characteristics of this class. Binding of the ligand to two NGF receptors facilitates their dimerization, enabling the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase domain of each monomer to phosphorylate and activate the other monomer. Subsequently, the phosphorylated monomer recruits GEFs such as growth factor-receptor bound protein 2 to the plasma membrane, activating Ras and downstream kinases that regulate gene transcription programs important for cell survival and proliferation.

The other type of tyrosine kinase receptor is exemplified by the activation of the insulin receptor. The insulin receptor, composed of two α and two β subunits, is tetrameric. Binding of insulin to the α subunits induces a conformational change that facilitates interaction between the two α and β pairs. This interaction triggers autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the catalytic domains of the β subunits. The activated receptor then phosphorylates cytoplasmic proteins, initiating cellular effects such as the stimulation of glucose absorption from the blood into skeletal muscle and fat tissue.

Tyrosine kinase–associated receptors lack intrinsic kinase activity but associate with proteins that possess tyrosine kinase activity, including tyrosine kinases of the Src family and Janus family. Cytokines such as interleukin-6 and erythropoietin bind to receptors in this class, which assemble into homodimers (αα), heterodimers (αβ), or heterotrimers (αβγ) upon ligand binding. The assembly of subunits enhances the binding of tyrosine kinases, resulting in kinase activity and the subsequent phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on both the kinases and the receptor. Most polypeptide growth factors bind to tyrosine-kinase-associated receptors.

Signal transduction pathways involving steroid and thyroid hormones, cAMP, and receptor tyrosine kinases regulate gene expression. These molecules, which function as transcription factors, participate in signal transduction pathways. This section focuses on the regulation of gene expression by steroid and thyroid hormones, cAMP, and receptor tyrosine kinases.
Ras GTPases, monomeric G proteins, are involved in many signaling pathways that control cell division, proliferation, and death. Many mutations of proteins in the Ras signaling pathway are oncogenic (cancer causing) or inactivate tumor suppressors. Mutations in Ras genes that inhibit GTPase activity, as well as overexpression of Ras proteins as a result of transcriptional activation, lead to continuous cell proliferation, a major step in the development of cancer in many organs, including the pancreas, colon, and lungs. In addition, mutations in and overexpression of GEFs, which facilitate exchange of GTP for GDP, and GTPase-activating proteins, which accelerate GTP hydrolysis, may also be oncogenic (see
Fig. 3.8B nitric oxide, which increases cGMP and thereby relaxes smooth muscle in coronary arteries, it has long been used to treat angina pectoris (i.e., chest pain caused by inadequate blood flow to heart muscle; see
The TGF-β receptor is a threonine/serine kinase that has two subunits. Binding of TGF-β to the type II subunit induces it to phosphorylate the type I subunit on specific serine and threonine residues, which in turn, phosphorylates other downstream effector proteins on serine and threonine residues and thereby elicits cellular responses, including cell growth, cell differentiation, and apoptosis.
There are two classes of tyrosine kinase receptors. Nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors are typical examples of one class. Ligand binding to two NGF receptors facilitates their dimerization and thus enables the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase domain of each monomer to phosphorylate and activate the other monomer. Once the other monomer is phosphorylated, the cytoplasmic domains can recruit GEFs such as growth factor-receptor bound protein 2 to the plasma membrane, which in turn activates Ras and downstream kinases that regulate gene transcription programs important for cell survival and proliferation.
Activation of the insulin receptor (which is tetrameric and composed of two α and two β subunits) by insulin is an example of the other type of tyrosine kinase receptor. Binding of insulin to the α subunits produces a conformational change that facilitates interaction between the two α and β pairs. Binding of insulin to its receptor causes autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the catalytic domains of the β subunits, and the activated receptor then phosphorylates cytoplasmic proteins to initiate its cellular effects, including stimulating the absorption of glucose from the blood into skeletal muscle and fat tissue.
The tyrosine kinase–associated receptors have no intrinsic kinase activity but associate with proteins that do have
CHAPTER 3 Signal Transduction, Membrane Receptors, Second Messengers, and Regulation of Gene Expression tyrosine kinase activity, including tyrosine kinases of the Src family and Janus family. Receptors in this class bind several cytokines, including interleukin-6, a proinflammatory cytokine that is necessary for resistance to bacterial infections, and erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells. Tyrosine kinase–associated receptor subunits assemble into homodimers (αα), heterodimers (αβ), or heterotrimers (αβγ) when ligands bind. Subunit assembly enhances the binding of tyrosine kinases, which induces kinase activity and thereby phosphorylates tyrosine residues on the kinases, as well as on the receptor. Most polypeptide growth factors bind to tyrosine-kinase-associated receptors.
Regulation of Gene Expression by Signal Transduction Pathways
Steroid and thyroid hormones, cAMP, and receptor tyrosine kinases are transcription factors that regulate gene expression and thereby participate in signal transduction pathways. This section discusses the regulation of gene expression by steroid and thyroid hormones, cAMP, and receptor tyrosine kinases.