data collection. Children born to mothers 35 years or older had a higher risk of mortality than children born to younger mothers. linking a mother's health and a child's survival. Female infants and children often had a higher mortality rate, especially in times of food insecurity, compared to male infants and children. However, a maternal presence worked as a protective factor for children. regardless of age or gender. Economics Food insecurity and shortages were common throughout this time period and were matched with the high food prices and high unemployment rate. This is shown through the differences in mortality rates between the lower and upper class, with poor infants being up to two times more likely to die than their wealthier counterparts. In 17th century Europe, it was common that at least one in five children from the same family would die before the age of one. Because of this high rate, it was common for there to be a large number of children in one family so that there would be a higher rate of survival. Especially among poorer families, having multiple children was common in order to ensure there would be children to contribute to the family later on. During the early modern era, house calls were common. If the patient was female, the doctor, commonly an upper class male, would typically be summoned by a male family member who would remain throughout the examination. The physician and male family member would then discuss the diagnosis and treatment plan without the female's input. This practice reinforced and perpetuated social hierarchies and patriarchal values. Death and diseases Food shortages and insecurity were leading concerns in the 18th century, especially in Europe, and these were exacerbated by reduced harvests yields. Disease was another leading cause of death, with rats and fleas being the common carriers of disease, specifically plagues, during this era. The Black Death was a plague that affected much of the world, originating in Asia and spreading to Europe through diseased fleas and rats. This epidemic has been reported to have been the cause of death for approximately "60% of the European population". During the end of the 19th century, there was a plague, known as the Modern Plague, that started in China and spread to different cities through ports, reportedly causing roughly ten million deaths. This plague affected Asia, the Americas, and Africa and lasted into the