realizes that his vote has almost no chance of influencing the outcome… He will not even utilize all the free

information available, since assimilating it takes time.” In his classic 1948 novel Walden Two, the psychologist

B. F. Skinner puts the issue even more succinctly via one of his characters, who states: “The chance that one

man’s vote will decide the issue in a national election…is less than the chance that he will be killed on his way

to the polls.” The following Clear It Up feature explores another aspect of the election process: spending.

CLEAR IT UP

How much is too much to spend on an election?
In the 2020 elections, it is estimated that spending for president, Congress, and state and local offices amounted to

$14.4 billion, more than twice what had been spent in 2016. The money raised went to the campaigns, including

advertising, fundraising, travel, and staff. Many people worry that politicians spend too much time raising money
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