again so that current differences are as wide as they were nearly 70 years ago. In both gender and race, an

earnings gap remains.

FIGURE 14.15 Wage Ratios by Sex and Race The ratio of wages for Black workers to White workers rose

substantially in the late 1960s and through the 1970s. The 1990s saw a peak above 80% followed by a bumpy

decline to the low 70s. The ratio of wages for female to male workers changed little through the 1970s. In both

cases, a gap remains between the average wages of Black and White workers and between the average wages of

female and male workers. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

An earnings gap between average wages, in and of itself, does not prove that discrimination is occurring in the

labor market. We need to apply the same productivity characteristics to all parties (employees) involved.

Gender discrimination in the labor market occurs when employers pay people of a specific gender less despite
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