because of a factor such as race, gender, or religion. There are many types of discrimination but the focus here

will be on discrimination in labor markets, which arises if workers with the same skill levels—as measured by

education, experience, and expertise—receive different pay or have different job opportunities because of their
race or gender. Much of the data collected and published on these topics are limited in terms of the diversity of

people represented, and focus particularly on binary gender, single-race, and single-ethnicity identities. While

these characterizations do not capture the diversity of Americans, the findings are important in order to

understand discrimination and other practices, and to consider the impacts of policies and changes. Also,

while sex and gender are different, many data sets, laws, court decisions, and media accounts use the terms

interchangeably. For consistency, we will use the terminology found in the source material and government
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