by adding the market shares—that is, the percentage of total sales—of the four largest firms in the market. A

Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) is another way of measuring the extent of competition in a market. We

calculate it by taking the market shares of all firms in the market, squaring them, and then summing the total.

The forces of globalization and new communications and information technology have increased the level of

competition that many firms face by increasing the amount of competition from other regions and countries.

11.2 Regulating Anticompetitive Behavior

Antitrust firms block authorities from openly colluding to form a cartel that will reduce output and raise

prices. Companies sometimes attempt to find other ways around these restrictions and, consequently, many

antitrust cases involve restrictive practices that can reduce competition in certain circumstances, like tie-in

sales, bundling, and predatory pricing.
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