demanded while 10,000 would be supplied, leading to an excess supply of 6,000 workers.

4. Unions have sometimes opposed new technology out of a fear of losing jobs, but in other cases unions have

helped to facilitate the introduction of new technology because unionized workers felt that the union was

looking after their interests or that their higher skills meant that their jobs were essentially protected. And

the new technologies meant increased productivity.

5. In a few other countries (such as France and Spain), the percentage of workers belonging to a union is

similar to that in the United States. Union membership rates, however, are generally lower in the United

States. When the share of workers whose wages are determined by union negotiations is considered, the

Access for free at openstax.org
557

United States ranks by far the lowest (because in countries like France and Spain, union negotiations often

determine pay even for nonunion employees).
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