"such transfusions, they begin to slowly petrify. They become the medical staff of doctors at a girls' reform school, assuring a steady supply of vital young bodies to feed upon. However, two outsiders sent to the school, Dr. Jess Rogers (Hudson) and social worker Carol Adams (Austin), become suspicious of the unusual number of otherwise healthy inmates dying of heart failure or suicide. They begin a quiet investigation, eventually exposing the doctors and their crimes and saving future victims. The Man Who Turned to Stone The Man Who Turned to Stone (a.k.a. The Petrified Man) is a 1957 black-and-white science"
"Petrifaction In geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin). Petrifaction takes place through a combination of two similar processes: permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the"
"Mineralization (geology) In geology, mineralization is the deposition of economically important metals in the formation of ore bodies or ""lodes"" by various process. The first scientific studies of this process took place in the English county of Cornwall by J.W.Henwood FRS and later by R.W. Fox, FRS. The term can also refer to the process by which waterborne minerals, such as calcium carbonate (calcite), iron oxide (hematite or limonite) or silica (quartz), replace organic material within the body of an organism that has died and was buried by sediments. Mineralization may also refer to the product resulting from the process"
"of mineralization. For example, mineralization (the process) may introduce metals (such as iron) into a rock. That rock may then be referred to as possessing iron mineralization. Mineralization (geology) In geology, mineralization is the deposition of economically important metals in the formation of ore bodies or ""lodes"" by various process. The first scientific studies of this process took place in the English county of Cornwall by J.W.Henwood FRS and later by R.W. Fox, FRS. The term can also refer to the process by which waterborne minerals, such as calcium carbonate (calcite), iron oxide (hematite or limonite) or silica (quartz), replace"
"microscopic level. One of the processes involved in petrifaction is permineralization. The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large amount of the original material of the specimen. This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals (most commonly quartz, calcite, pyrite, siderite (iron carbonate), and apatite (calcium phosphate) ), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or wood. The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water. Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization. Silicification is the process in which organic matter becomes saturated with silica."
"ferric iron hydroxides or sulfates. The common mineral gypsum is a hydrous sulfate mineral that readily alters to the anhydrous sulfate aptly named anhydrite with prolonged desiccation. This is a reversible reaction. Kaolinization refers to the alteration of alkali feldspar into the clay mineral kaolinite in the presence of slightly acidic solutions. Rain readily dissolves carbon dioxide (CO) from the atmosphere, promoting weathering of granitic rocks. As demonstrated in the following reaction, in the presence of carbonic acid and water, potassium feldspar is altered to kaolinite, with potassium ion, bicarbonate, and silica in solution as byproducts. Epidotization is the alteration"
"walls of the specimen are progressively dissolved and silica is deposited into the empty spaces. In wood samples, as the process proceeds, cellulose and lignin, two components of wood, are degraded and replaced with silica. The specimen is transformed to stone (a process called lithification) as water is lost. For silicification to occur, the geothermic conditions must include a neutral to slightly acidic pH<ref name=""Leo/Barghoorn""></ref> and a temperature and pressure similar to shallow-depth sedimentary environments. Under ideal natural conditions, silicification can occur at rates approaching those seen in artificial petrification. Pyritization is a process similar to silicification, but instead involves"
"iron and aluminum are removed. In tropical rain forests with rain throughout the year, ferrallitic soils develop. In savanna areas, with altering dry and wet climates, ferruginous soils occur. Ferrallitisation Ferrallitisation is the process in which rock is changed into a soil consisting of clay (kaolinite) and sesquioxides, in the form of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium. In humid tropical areas, with consistently high temperatures and rainfall for all or most of the year, chemical weathering rapidly breaks down the rock. This at first produces clays which later also break down to form silica. The silica is removed by"
"formed by biological organisms such as ""Sporosarcina pasteurii"", which binds sand together given organic compounds and a calcium source (Chou ""et al."", 2010). Cementation (geology) Cementation involves ions carried in groundwater chemically precipitating to form new crystalline material between sedimentary grains. The new pore-filling minerals forms ""bridges"" between original sediment grains, thereby binding them together. In this way ""sand"" becomes ""sandstone"", and ""gravel"" becomes ""conglomerate"" or ""breccia"". Cementation occurs as part of the diagenesis or lithification of sediments. Cementation occurs primarily below the water table regardless of sedimentary grain sizes present. Large volumes of pore water must pass through sediment"
"Ferrallitisation Ferrallitisation is the process in which rock is changed into a soil consisting of clay (kaolinite) and sesquioxides, in the form of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium. In humid tropical areas, with consistently high temperatures and rainfall for all or most of the year, chemical weathering rapidly breaks down the rock. This at first produces clays which later also break down to form silica. The silica is removed by leaching and the sesquioxides of iron and aluminium remain, giving the characteristic red colour of many tropical soils. Ferrallitisation is the reverse of podsolisation, where silica remains and the"
"form the mineral pyrite. Opalization is the alteration of amorphous silica, often as organic remains of siliceous microfossils in lithified sedimentary rocks, into the mineraloid opal. Uralitization is the process of deuteric alteration of pyroxene (most commonly augite) to form amphibole (actinolite-tremolite). The alteration occurs during either late-stages of magmatic crystallization at low temperatures (< 500 °C) or during low-grade metamorphic events (sub-greenschist facies metamorphism). The reaction is paramorphic, meaning that the structure of the mineral is modified, but its original chemistry is retained. Mineral alteration Mineral alteration refers to the various natural processes that alter a mineral's chemical composition"
"to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and"
"Mineral hydration Mineral hydration is an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral, usually creating a new mineral, usually called a ""hydrate"". In geological terms, the process of mineral hydration is known as ""retrograde alteration"" and is a process occurring in retrograde metamorphism. It commonly accompanies metasomatism and is often a feature of wall rock alteration around ore bodies. Hydration of minerals occurs generally in concert with hydrothermal circulation which may be driven by tectonic or igneous activity. There are two main ways in which minerals hydrate. One is conversion of an oxide"
"""The Siljan Experiment"" regarding the deep drilling project in Sweden to prove the theory of abiotic/abiogenic oil and gas: ""...the ground of Sweden, composed almost entirely of primary rock and not of sediments..."" Primary rocks are the source of primary minerals and primary water. Primary rock Primary rock is an early term in geology that refers to crystalline rock formed first in geologic time, containing no organic remains, such as granite, gneiss and schist as well as igneous and magmatic formations from all ages. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary published in 1913 provides the following term as used in geology: Ninety"
"(in geological terms) oxidize on exposure to air and turn to rust – iron oxides – just like the Rocky Mountains. Cast Iron - the product extracted from iron ore. Iron oxide-rich ore is heated to a molten state in the presence of limestone within a large flask. Oxygen makes a chemical transition from the iron oxides to the calcium forming a ""slag"" which floats to the top of an increasingly iron-rich molten pool. When done, the bottom of the flask is opened and the iron pours out - historically into sand patterns to produce cast iron stoves and such,"
"of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification. At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are"
"formed. This process is called metamorphism, meaning to ""change in form"". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization. The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion"
"of environment the organism was likely to live in. Most fossils that have been silicified are bacteria, algae, and other plant life. Silicification is the most common type of permineralization. Carbonate mineralization involves the formation of coal balls. Coal balls are the fossilizations of many different plants and their tissues. They often occur in the presence of seawater or acidic peat. Coal balls are calcareous permineralizations of peat by calcium and magnesium carbonates. Often spherical in shape and ranging from a few grams to several hundred kilograms in mass, coal balls are formed when water containing carbonate permeates the cells"
"as subsurface and hydrothermal environments are conducive to dolomitization. Dolomitization Dolomitization is a geological process by which the carbonate mineral dolomite is formed when magnesium ions replace calcium ions in another carbonate mineral, calcite. It is common for this mineral alteration into dolomite to take place due to evaporation of water in the sabkha area. Dolomitization involves substantial amount of recrystallization. This process is described by the stoichiometric equation: 2 CaCO + Mg ↔ CaMg(CO) + Ca Dolomitization depends on specific conditions which include low Ca:Mg ratio in solution, reactant surface area, the mineralogy of the reactant, high temperatures which"
"A common source of silica is volcanic material. Studies have shown that in this process, most of the original organic matter is destroyed. Silicification most often occurs in two environments-either the specimen is buried in sediments of deltas and floodplains or organisms are buried in volcanic ash. Water must be present for silicification to occur because it reduces the amount of oxygen present and therefore reduces the deterioration of the organism by fungi, maintains organism shape, and allows for the transportation and deposition of silica. The process begins when a specimen is permeated with an aqueous silica solution. The cell"
"physical stresses within the rock. For example, iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction: This reaction theoretically results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available to drive the reaction. In reality, pure water rarely acts as a H donor. Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a weak acid and H donor. This hydrolysis reaction is much more common. Carbonic acid"
"Cementation (geology) Cementation involves ions carried in groundwater chemically precipitating to form new crystalline material between sedimentary grains. The new pore-filling minerals forms ""bridges"" between original sediment grains, thereby binding them together. In this way ""sand"" becomes ""sandstone"", and ""gravel"" becomes ""conglomerate"" or ""breccia"". Cementation occurs as part of the diagenesis or lithification of sediments. Cementation occurs primarily below the water table regardless of sedimentary grain sizes present. Large volumes of pore water must pass through sediment pores for new mineral cements to crystallize and so millions of years are generally required to complete the cementation process. Common mineral cements"
"(silicon dioxide), usually 70% or more. Crystalline rocks with obsidian's composition include granite and rhyolite. Because obsidian is metastable at the Earth's surface (over time the glass becomes fine-grained mineral crystals), no obsidian has been found that is older than Cretaceous age. This breakdown of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water. Having a low water content when newly formed, typically less than 1% water by weight, obsidian becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the presence of impurities. Iron and other transition elements"
"Rock (geology) Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a common rock, is a combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar and biotite. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. Rock has been used by humankind throughout history. The minerals and metals in rocks have been essential to human civilization. Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology. Rocks are composed of grains of minerals, which"
"Dolomitization Dolomitization is a geological process by which the carbonate mineral dolomite is formed when magnesium ions replace calcium ions in another carbonate mineral, calcite. It is common for this mineral alteration into dolomite to take place due to evaporation of water in the sabkha area. Dolomitization involves substantial amount of recrystallization. This process is described by the stoichiometric equation: 2 CaCO + Mg ↔ CaMg(CO) + Ca Dolomitization depends on specific conditions which include low Ca:Mg ratio in solution, reactant surface area, the mineralogy of the reactant, high temperatures which represents the thermodynamic stability of the system, and the"
"redeposition to form sedimentary rock. Siliciclastic Siliciclastic rocks (commonly misspelled ""siliclastic"") are clastic noncarbonate sedimentary rocks that are almost exclusively silica-bearing, either as forms of quartz or other silicate minerals. All siliciclastic rocks are formed by inorganic processes, or deposited through some mechanical process, such as stream deposits (delta deposits) that are subsequently lithified. They are sandstone based rocks accounting for about 50 - 60% of the world oil and gas exploration.The other silicate minerals that are generally present in siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are feldspar, biotite etc... siliciclastic sediments are silica-based sediments, lacking carbon compounds, which are formed from pre-existing"
"by magma and finds openings to the surface. The formation of the springs depends both on the rocks the water has passed through and the profusion of volcanic discharges mixed with the groundwater. Iron oxide, iron sulfides and other substances usually colour pools of boiling mud brilliant yellow, red, brown or green. Hot springs comprising significantly softened silica may deposit it to form siliceous sinter, whereas those comprising softened calcium carbonate deposit spongy-looking calcareous rock called tufa. Overflow of the springs can build masses, spires or stepped terraces of calcareous sinter or tufa. As early as 10,000 years ago, the"
"with organic matter, precipitation as carbonates or sulfides. The latter results from sediment-borne anaerobic bacteria capable of reverting sulfate ions into sulfide ions. These sulfide ions can then bind with heavy metal ions, precipitating heavy metals out of solution and effectively reversing the entire process. The attractiveness of a constructed wetlands solution lies in its relative low cost. They are limited by the metal loads they can deal with (either from high flows or metal concentrations), though current practitioners have succeeded in developing constructed wetlands that treat high volumes (see description of Campbell Mine constructed wetland) and/or highly acidic water"
"sand to mud, but do not contain a lot of silica. They are also more aluminous. They are not laminated and sometimes contain ""ooids"". Ooids can be a distinct characteristic though they are not normally a main component of ironstones. Within ironstones, ooids are made up of iron silicates and/or iron oxides and sometimes occur in alternating laminae. They normally contain fossil debris and sometimes the fossils are partly or entirely replaced by iron minerals. A good example of this is pyritization. They are smaller in size and less likely to be deformed or metamorphosed than iron formations. The term"
"that have been forming and re-working the crust for billions of years. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering, and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to this geologic cycle. For example, a type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons (""tests"") from silica extracted from seawater. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediment, and of diatomaceous earth. A silicate mineral is generally an ionic solid whose anions consist predominantly of silicon and oxygen atoms. In most minerals in the Earth's crust, each silicon atom is the center of an ideal tetrahedron,"
"react with gangue minerals (i.e. silica and silicate impurities) to produce liquid slag that floats and can be poured off from the much denser molten metal (i.e., iron). The slag cools to become a stone-like material that is commonly crushed and recycled as construction aggregate. In addition, 4.53 million tonnes of crushed stone was used for fillers and extenders (including asphalt fillers or extenders), 2.71 million tonnes for sulfur oxide removal-mine dusting-acid water treatment, and 1.45 million tonnes sold or used for poultry grit or mineral food. Crushed stone is recycled primarily as construction aggregate or concrete. Crushed stone or"
"Permineralization Permineralization is a process of fossilization in which mineral deposits form internal casts of organisms. Carried by water, these minerals fill the spaces within organic tissue. Because of the nature of the casts, permineralization is particularly useful in studies of the internal structures of organisms, usually of plants. Permineralization is a type of fossilization involving deposits of minerals within the cells of organisms. Water from the ground, lakes, or oceans seeps into the pores of organic tissue and forms a crystal cast with deposited minerals. Crystals begin to form in the porous cell walls. This process continues on the"
"the deposition of iron and sulfur in the pores and cavities of an organism. Pyritization can result in both solid fossils as well as preserved soft tissues. In marine environments, pyritization occurs when organisms are buried in sediments containing a high concentration of iron sulfides. Organisms release sulfide, which reacts with dissolved iron in the surrounding water, when they decay. This reaction between iron and sulfides forms pyrite (FeS). Carbonate shell material of the organism is then replaced with pyrite due to a higher concentration of pyrite and a lower concentration of carbonate in the surrounding water. Pyritization occurs to"