"and assess its course and complications. The confidence of a diagnosis can be compromised if laboratory tests are not available. One comprising factor is the number of febrile illnesses present in Africa, such as malaria or typhoid fever that could potentially exhibit similar symptoms, particularly for non-specific manifestations of Lassa fever. In cases with abdominal pain, in countries where Lassa is common, Lassa fever is often misdiagnosed as appendicitis and intussusception which delays treatment with the antiviral ribavirin. In West Africa, where Lassa is most prevalent, it is difficult for doctors to diagnose due to the absence of proper equipment"
"transmitted by the bite of female mosquitoes (the yellow fever mosquito, ""Aedes aegypti"", and other species) and is found in tropical and subtropical areas in South America and Africa. The origin of the disease is most likely to be Africa, from where it was introduced to South America through the slave trade in the 16th century. During Faget's lifetime, yellow fever was deemed one of the most dangerous infectious diseases. Faget worked to recognize the correct diagnosis of yellow fever. The earliest accepted signs of the fever were jaundice and vomit containing blood. Faget was convinced that other fevers had"
"The virus was then found variously in Egypt, Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Gabon; Between 1969 and 1983, Zika was found in equatorial Asia including India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Pakistan. Zika is generally found in mosquitoes and monkeys in a band of countries stretching across equatorial Africa) and Asia (Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia). The first confirmed case of Zika fever in a human occurs in Uganda during 1964 in a field researcher, who experiences a mild, non-itchy rash. Federated States of Micronesia The first major outbreak is identified outside of Africa and Asia, on"
"in Africa. Diagnosis can be confirmed by testing a lesion for the virus's DNA. The disease can appear similar to chickenpox. The smallpox vaccine is believed to prevent infection. Cidofovir may be useful as treatment. The risk of death in those infected is up to 10%. The disease mostly occurs in Central and West Africa. It was first identified in 1958 among laboratory monkeys. The first cases in humans were found in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. An outbreak that occurred in the United States in 2003 was traced to a pet store where imported Gambian rodents"
"Boutonneuse fever Boutonneuse fever (also called Mediterranean spotted fever, fièvre boutonneuse, Kenya tick typhus, Indian tick typhus, Marseilles fever, or African tick-bite fever, or Astrakhan Fever) is a fever as a result of a rickettsial infection caused by the bacterium ""Rickettsia conorii"" and transmitted by the dog tick ""Rhipicephalus sanguineus"". Boutonneuse fever can be seen in many places around the world, although it is endemic in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. This disease was first described in Tunisia in 1910 by Conor and Bruch and was named ""boutonneuse"" (French for ""spotty"") due to its papular skin rash characteristics. After an"
"on the African continent. In 2008, the largest number of recorded cases was in Togo. In 2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. In March and April, 11 cases were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history. Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector ""A. aegypti"". Five genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in"
"first discovered in monkeys (hence the name) in 1958, and in humans in 1970. Between 1970 and 1986, over 400 cases in humans were reported. Small viral outbreaks with a death rate in the range of 10% and a secondary human-to-human infection rate of about the same amount occur routinely in equatorial Central and West Africa. The primary route of infection is thought to be contact with the infected animals or their bodily fluids. The first reported outbreak outside of the African continent occurred in the United States in 2003 in the Midwestern states of Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, with"
"Rat-bite fever Rat-bite fever is an acute, febrile human illness caused by bacteria transmitted by rodents, in most cases, which is passed from rodent to human by the rodent's urine or mucous secretions. Not to be confused with Rat fever which is usually alternative name for Leptospirosis. Alternative names for rat-bite fever include streptobacillary fever, streptobacillosis, spirillary fever, bogger, and epidemic arthritic erythema. It is a rare disease spread by infected rodents and can be caused by two specific types of bacteria. Most cases occur in Japan, but specific strains of the disease are present in the United States, Europe,"
"of the monkeys (no. 776) developed a fever and blood samples revealed the first known case of Zika fever. Population surveys at the time in Uganda found 6.1% of individuals to be seropositive for Zika. The first human cases were reported in Nigeria in 1954. A few outbreaks have been reported in tropical Africa and in some areas in Southeast Asia. There have been no documented cases of Zika virus in the Indian subcontinent. Surveys have found antibodies to Zika in healthy people in India which could indicate past exposure, though it could also be due to cross-reaction with other"
"East Coast fever East Coast fever, also known as theileriosis, is a disease of cattle which occurs in Africa and is caused by the protozoan parasite ""Theileria parva"". The primary vector which spreads ""T. parva"" between cattle is a tick, ""Rhipicephalus appendiculatus"". East Coast fever is of major economic importance to livestock farmers in Africa, killing at least one million cattle each year. The disease occurs in Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia. In 2003, East Coast fever was introduced to Comoros by cattle imported from Tanzania. It has been eradicated"
"the virulence and rapid spread of this novel virus strain caused alarm among health professionals as well as public fear. The fears of a major pandemic were not realised, and by July 2003, after causing around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths, the outbreak had ended. The exact origin of the SARS virus is not known, but evidence suggests that it came from bats. West Nile virus, a flavivirus, was first identified in 1937 when it was found in the blood of a feverish woman. The virus, which is carried by mosquitoes and birds, caused outbreaks of infection in North Africa"
"by the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1947, scientists researching yellow fever placed a rhesus macaque in a cage in the Zika Forest. The monkey developed a fever, and researchers isolated from its serum a transmissible agent that was first described as Zika virus in 1952. Other noteworthy arboviruses discovered at the institute include Chikungunya virus, West Nile virus, Bwamba virus, Semliki Forest virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, and Kadam virus. In 1950, after gaining regional recognition, the Institute was renamed the East African Virus Research Institute, under which identity many of its noteworthy accomplishments were published. In 1977, it was reorganized under its"
"History of yellow fever The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the virus originated from East or Central Africa, with transmission between primates and humans, and spread from there to West Africa. The virus as well as the vector ""Aedes aegypti"", a mosquito species, were probably brought to the western hemisphere and the Americas by slave trade ships from Africa after the first European exploration in 1492. The first outbreaks of disease that were probably yellow fever occurred in the Windward Islands of the Caribbean on Barbados in 1647 and Guadalupe in"
"in Asia. Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and changing climate increasing the habitat for mosquitoes. The disease originated in Africa, from where it spread to South America through the slave trade in the 17th century. Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was seen as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases. In 1927"
"shows fever since it has a mononucleosis-like illness. In advanced stages of infection fever mostly is the result of a superimposed infections. In 2010, the first indigenous African hantavirus, Sangassou virus (SANGV) was isolated from an African wood mouse in a forest in Guinea, West Africa. A retrospective seroepidemiological analysis revealed the presence of Sangassou virus-specific neutralizing antibodies in the sera of patients suffering from fever of unknown origin. Unless the patient is acutely ill, no therapy should be started before the cause has been found. This is because non-specific therapy is rarely effective and mostly delays diagnosis. An exception"
"cargo ships, which were harbouring the ""Aedes aegypti"" mosquito that carries the virus. The first recorded epidemic in Africa occurred in Ghana, in West Africa, in 1926. In the 1930s the disease re-emerged in Brazil. Fred Soper, an American epidemiologist (1893–1977), discovered the importance of the sylvatic cycle of infection in non-human hosts, and that infection of humans was a ""dead end"" that broke this cycle. Although the yellow fever vaccine is one of the most successful ever developed, epidemics continue to occur. In 1986–91 in West Africa, over 20,000 people were infected, 4,000 of whom died. In the 1930s,"
"in South Africa. A more acute form of East Coast fever called corridor disease occurs when buffalo-derived ""T. parva"" is transmitted to cattle. Another form, called January disease, only occurs over the winter months in Zimbabwe due to the tick lifecycle. Native cattle are often resistant to the parasite, but not without symptoms. They are hosts to the parasite, but do not suffer as severely as foreign cattle. Mortality can be up to 100%, with death occurring around 18–30 days after the initial attachment of infected ticks, because the incubation required is around 10–25 days, and the parasite spreads quickly"
"Zambezi river, in 1902. It became known as East Coast fever after it was determined that the disease had originated in cattle imported from the East Coast of Africa. East Coast fever East Coast fever, also known as theileriosis, is a disease of cattle which occurs in Africa and is caused by the protozoan parasite ""Theileria parva"". The primary vector which spreads ""T. parva"" between cattle is a tick, ""Rhipicephalus appendiculatus"". East Coast fever is of major economic importance to livestock farmers in Africa, killing at least one million cattle each year. The disease occurs in Burundi, Democratic Republic of"
"viruses. The main vector (""A. aegypti"") also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever has never occurred there, until jet travel introduced 11 cases from the 2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak in Africa. Proposed explanations include: But none is considered satisfactory. Another proposal is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. The trans-Atlantic slave trade probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa. The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the"
"Africa, in goats and sheep in 1940. It spread to East Africa and Arabia at the beginning of 1980s and to Pakistan and India in early 1990s (Calcutta goat markets) finally reaching Tibet in 2007. The first description of this virus in India was in 1987. The outbreak in Burkina Faso in 1999 was caused by the lineage I group. Genotype III has caused outbreaks in Ethiopia (1996) and also in Arabia, southern India, and Tamil Nadu (1992). This lineage was found in Yemen in 2001. Genotype IV has been isolated in Kuwait in 1999. As of 2017, the disease"
"against East Coast fever reportedly had been approved and registered by the governments of Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania. This consists of cryopreserved sporozoites from crushed ticks, but it is expensive and can cause disease. Control of the disease relies on control of ticks of domestic animals. This is a major concern in tropical countries with large livestock populations, especially in the endemic area. Pesticides (acaricides) are applied in dipping baths or spray races, and cattle breeds with good ability to acquire immune resistance to the vector ticks are used. This disease was first reported in southern Africa, south of the"
"to 1906 primarily in Uganda and the Congo Basin and two in 1920 and 1970 in several African countries. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease. Other animals, such as cows, may carry the disease and become infected in which case it is known as animal trypanosomiasis. African trypanosomiasis symptoms occur in two stages. The first stage, known as the hemolymphatic phase, is characterized by fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching. Fever is intermittent, with attacks lasting from a day to a week, separated by intervals of a few days to a month or longer. Invasion of the circulatory"
"transmitted by the rodent genus ""Mastomys natalensis"".The multimammate rat is able to excrete the virus in its urine and droppings. These rat are often found in the savannas and forests of Africa. When these rats scavenge and enter households this provides an outlet for direct contact transmission with humans. It has also been found that airborne transmission can occur by engaging in cleaning activities such as sweeping. In some areas of Africa, the Mastomys rodent is caught and used as a source of food. This process can also lead to transmission and infection. Rat-bite Fever (RBF) is an rodent borne"
"expression. In 1937, Bwamba fever was first recognized as a clinical illness among construction workers building a road to Bwamba County, Western Uganda, present day Bundibugyo District. Bwamba fever is present in large parts of Africa and antibodies of the virus have been found ‘as far south as the Republic of South Africa and as far north westwards as Gambia’. Bwamba fever is endemic in several African countries, including Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda, where the virus was initially discovered. The distribution of the virus tends to be underestimated because the symptoms are relatively mild and are often mistaken for malaria."
"in the lungs. Any tissue or organ throughout the body may develop an abscess. Rat-bite fever Rat-bite fever is an acute, febrile human illness caused by bacteria transmitted by rodents, in most cases, which is passed from rodent to human by the rodent's urine or mucous secretions. Not to be confused with Rat fever which is usually alternative name for Leptospirosis. Alternative names for rat-bite fever include streptobacillary fever, streptobacillosis, spirillary fever, bogger, and epidemic arthritic erythema. It is a rare disease spread by infected rodents and can be caused by two specific types of bacteria. Most cases occur in"
"and sub-Saharan Africa, tick-borne relapsing fever has been recognized for over a century, since it was first isolated by the British physicians Joseph Everett Dutton and John Lancelot Todd in 1905. ""Borrelia"" in the manifestation of Lyme disease in this region is presently unknown, but evidence indicates the disease may occur in humans in sub-Saharan Africa. The abundance of hosts and tick vectors would favor the establishment of the infection in Africa. In East Africa two cases of Lyme disease have been reported in Kenya. In Australia, no definitive evidence exists for the existence of ""B. burgdorferi"" or for any"
"as a result of the numerous deaths, of the French company licensed to build the canal resulted in a massive financial crisis in France. History of yellow fever The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the virus originated from East or Central Africa, with transmission between primates and humans, and spread from there to West Africa. The virus as well as the vector ""Aedes aegypti"", a mosquito species, were probably brought to the western hemisphere and the Americas by slave trade ships from Africa after the first European exploration in 1492. The"
"Africa. This led to the World Health Organization declared it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in February 2016. The emergency was lifted in November 2016, but 84 countries still reported cases as of March 2017. Most people who are infected have no or few symptoms. Otherwise the most common signs and symptoms of Zika fever are fever, rash, conjunctivitis (red eyes), muscle and joint pain, and headache, which are similar to signs and symptoms of dengue and chikungunya fever. The time from a mosquito bite to developing symptoms is not yet known, but is probably a few days"
"animals had been documented in South Africa. The last major outbreak of the disease in humans occurred between 1974 and 1976, where an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 cases were recorded. On March 2016, a male butcher from Kabale District in western Uganda reported to a local hospital with symptoms of headache, fever, fatigue and bleeding, subsequently testing positive for Rift Valley Fever. CDC sent epidemiologists to the District to assist the Ugandan Ministry of Health with the epidemiologic investigation of this small, localized outbreak of 3 confirmed and 2 probable cases. Working with the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) and"
"patients may also develop a body rash"", as reported by the Uganda Virus Research Institute, who also discovered the disease in the 1940s. Bwamba Fever Bwamba Fever virus (BWAV) belongs to the genus Orthobunyavirus and the order Bunyavirales RNA viruses. BWAV is present in large parts of Africa,endemic in Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda. It is transmitted to humans through mosquito bites and results in a brief benign generalised infection with headache, skin rash, diarrhea and joint pain and lasts 4–5 days. The animal reservoir of the virus includes birds, monkeys and donkeys. Bwamba Fever virus (BWAV) has a negative sense"
"Western Africa. Monkeypox is carried by both animals and humans. It was first identified by Preben von Magnus in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1958 in crab-eating macaque monkeys (""Macaca fascicularis"") being used as laboratory animals. It has also been identified in the giant Gambian rat which was the source of a 2003 outbreak in the United States. Monkeypox virus causes the disease in both humans and animals. The crab-eating macaque is often used for neurological experiments. The virus is mainly found in tropical rainforest regions of central and West Africa. The virus can spread both from animal to human and from"
"later, in 1906, transmission by the ""Aedes"" mosquitoes was confirmed, making yellow fever and dengue fever the first two diseases known to be caused by viruses. Thomas Milton Rivers published the first clear description of a virus as distinct from a bacterium in 1927. The discovery of the West Nile virus came in 1937, and has since been found in ""Culex"" populations causing epidemics throughout Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. In 1999, the virus was introduced into the Western Hemisphere, sparking a series of epidemics. During the latter half of the 20th century, Dengue fever reemerged as a global"
"The diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. It can be confirmed by culture, PCR, or immunofluorescence. There is no vaccine. Prevention is by avoiding tick bites by covering the skin, using DEET, or using permethrin treated clothing. Evidence regarding treatment, however, is limited. The antibiotic doxycycline appears useful. Chloramphenicol or azithromycin may also be used. The disease will also tend to resolve without treatment. The disease occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, the West Indies, and Oceania. It is relatively common among travelers to sub-Saharan Africa. Most infections occur between November and April. Outbreaks of the disease may occur. The earliest descriptions"