"in accord with the ""law of similars"" that had been proposed by ancient physicians. An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, and published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Hahnemann's law of similars is a postulate rather than a scientific law. This led to the name """"homeopathy"""", which comes from the ""hómoios"", ""-like"" and ""páthos"", ""suffering"". Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the ""Plasmodium falciparum"" parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas. Hahnemann began to"
"the Quechua, who are indigenous to Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, to halt shivering due to low temperatures. The Quechuas would mix the ground bark of cinchona trees with sweetened water to offset the bark's bitter taste, thus producing tonic water. The Jesuits were the first to bring cinchona to Europe. The Spanish were aware of the medicinal properties of cinchona bark by the 1570s or earlier: Nicolás Monardes (1571) and Juan Fragoso (1572) both described a tree that was subsequently identified as the cinchona tree and whose bark was used to produce a drink to treat diarrhea. Quinine has been"
"to Siam (presently Thailand). He is notable for the introduction of cassava plants (from the island of Bantam, near Sumatra) as a food source to alleviate famines in the then Dutch East Indies. Together with his collaborator Justus Carl Hasskarl, he introduced the cultivation of Cinchona trees (from Peru) for the production of quinine to treat malaria (ca. 1852/1854). There was bitter conflict between Teijsmann and two fellow botanists, Johann Eliza de Vrij (1813–1898) and Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn on the effectiveness of various Cinchona species in the treatment of malaria. Nevertheless, successful experimentation on the plant was carried out in"
"and make them more susceptible to other diseases. Spanish missionaries found that fever was treated by Amerindians near Loxa (Peru) with powder from Peruvian bark (later established to be from any of several trees of genus ""Cinchona""). It was used by the Quechua Indians of Peru to reduce the shaking effects caused by severe chills. Jesuit Brother Agostino Salumbrino (1561–1642), who lived in Lima and was an apothecary by training, observed the Quechua using the bark of the cinchona tree for that purpose. While its effect in treating malaria (and hence malaria-induced shivering) was unrelated to its effect in controlling"
"nearly 200 years before the active principles, quinine and other alkaloids, of cinchona bark were isolated. Quinine, a toxic plant alkaloid, is, in addition to its anti-malarial properties, an effective muscle relaxant, as the modern use for nocturnal leg cramps suggests (corroborating its use for shivering by the Peruvian Indians). In 1717, the dark pigmentation of a postmortem spleen and brain was published by the epidemiologist Giovanni Maria Lancisi in his malaria text book ""De noxiis paludum effluviis eorumque remediis"". This was one of the earliest reports of the characteristic enlargement of the spleen and dark color of the spleen"
"it appears to have been used by Andean populations to combat shivering. The bark became known to treat especially intermittent fevers. Largely due to major influence from the Jesuits, soon the European market became flooded with cinchona barks of various efficacy, as well as with ineffective and even poisonous, fake barks from other trees, such as holly. By the middle of the 17th century, bark as a treatment was becoming widely discussed. Prejudices raised against the use of it, especially those claiming that the Jesuit's bark had no purgative properties and could not treat disease. To counter this, Francesco Torti,"
"another fever remedy. The bark of cinchona can be harvested in a number of ways. One approach was to cut the tree but this and girdling are equally destructive and unsustainable so small strips were cut and various techniques such as ""mossing"", the application of moss to the cut areas, were used to allow the tree to heal. Other approaches involved coppicing and chopping of side branches which were then stripped of bark. The bark was dried into what were called quills and then powdered for medicinal uses. The bark contains alkaloids, including quinine and quinidine. Cinchona is the only"
"any condition. Samuel Hahnemann invented the practise of homeopathy while translating the botanical, ""Treatise of the materia medica"" by the Scottish physician William Cullen from English into German in 1790. Twenty pages in that work are devoted to Peruvian cinchona bark which is used to prepare the medicine quinine. This substance produces fever-like symptoms while being used to cure intermittent fever or ague and this led Hahnemann to conceive the ""principle of similars"": that like may cure like. He went on to develop the ""materia medica"" along these homeopathic lines and others then continued this work to produce great volumes"
"fine powder and mixed into a liquid (commonly wine) for drinking. An English trader, Charles Ledger, and his Amerindian servant spent four years collecting cinchona seeds in the Andes in Bolivia, highly prized for their quinine but whose export was prohibited. Ledger managed to get seeds out; in 1865, the Dutch government cultivated 20,000 trees of the ""Cinchona ledgeriana"" in Java (Indonesia). By the end of the nineteenth century, the Dutch had established a world monopoly over its supply. In 1834, in British Guiana, a German physician, Carl Warburg, invented an antipyretic medicine: 'Warburg's Tincture'. This secret, proprietary remedy contained"
"course should not be repeated in less than 14 days. The introduction of cinchona into therapeutics was due to the discovery of its efficacy in malaria. In 1921, John used quinine hydrochloride, an alkaloid of cinchona in the treatment of amoebic liver abscess. Later when synthetic derivatives of quinine were introduced, chloroquine phosphate, a 4-aminoquinoline was found to be less toxic than the parent drug. The drug was first quoted in the treatment of this condition in very early reports by Conan (1948)15, Murgatroyd and Kent (1948). It is absorbed rapidly and completely from the gastrointestinal tract. It is found"
"shivering from cold, it was nevertheless effective for malaria. The use of the “fever tree” bark was introduced into European medicine by Jesuit missionaries (Jesuit's bark). Jesuit Bernabé de Cobo (1582–1657), who explored Mexico and Peru, is credited with taking cinchona bark to Europe. He brought the bark from Lima to Spain, and then to Rome and other parts of Italy, in 1632. Francesco Torti wrote in 1712 that only “intermittent fever” was amenable to the fever tree bark. This work finally established the specific nature of cinchona bark and brought about its general use in medicine. It would be"
"treatment for malaria was found in the forests of the Andes in Peru. A such called fever tree, whose bark, made into powder and given as a beverage, cured the fevers and was known to have produced miraculous results in the local population. The bark was obtained from several species of the genus ""Cinchona"", of the Rubiaceae family. Popularized in Europe through the work of jesuits in America, the cinchona tree bark came to be known as Jesuit's bark. Perhaps the most prominent popularizer of the Jesuit's bark was a Spanish Jesuit Cardinal, Juan de Lugo. In 1643, Cardinal Lugo"
"484, p. 583). When cinchona bark was first used its obvious and immediate effect in malarial fever led to the opinion that it had great and unknown powers, and must be used with extreme caution, and this essay is one of a long series extending from the time of Thomas Sydenham to the first half of the nineteenth century, when it was finally determined that the evils anticipated were imaginary, and that bark in moderate doses might be given whenever a general tonic was needed, and to children as well as to adults. He published in the ""Gentleman's Magazine"" for"
"lost their plants when a wave took them off their ship. The Dutch sent Justus Hasskarl who brought plants that were then cultivated in Java from 1854. The English explorer Clements Markham went to collect plants that were introduced in Sri Lanka and the Nilgiris of southern India in 1860. The main species introduced were ""Cinchona succirubra"" or red bark, as its sap turned red on contact with air, and ""Cinchona calisaya"". The alkaloids quinine and cinchonine were extracted by Pelletier and Caventou in 1820. Later two more key alkaloids, quinidine and cinchonidine were identified and it became a routine"
"in the year 1851. Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke mentioned the existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796"". (Source: Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, by Lieut. Lardner Gibbon, USN. Vol.II, Ch.6, pp. 146-47.) The cultivation of cinchona led from the 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine but the quality and production of raw bark by the Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany) however bargained and caused fluctuations in prices which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a"
"acclimatize alpacas in Australia ended in failure, but Ledger was not at fault. Ledger returned to South America in 1864 and turned his attention to another problem. The cinchona tree, the bark of which yields quinine, grew in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, but the export of either trees or seeds was prohibited. The trees were being wastefully cut down without being replaced, and there was some danger that they might become extinct. Some seeds and plants had been introduced into Europe and Asia by Hugh Algernon Weddell in 1848, and Sir Clements Markham went later to Peru, and Bolivia, and"
"many-flowered; hypanthium with short coarse hairs; reddish calyx, glabrous or nearly so, with triangular lobes; pink or red corolla, sericeous, the lobes ovate, acute, the corolla tube being about 1 cm. long. Fruit and oblong capsule, 1.5–2 cm. long, almost glabrous. English: quinine, red cinchona, cinchona bark, Jesuit’s bark, loxa bark, Jesuit’s powder, countess powder, Peruvian bark. Spanish: quina, cascarilla, cargua cargua, corteza coja. French: quinquina, écorce du Pérou. ""Cinchona officinalis"" is a medicinal plant, one of several ""Cinchona"" species used for the production of quinine, which is an anti-fever agent. It is especially useful in the prevention and treatment"
"was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou. Quinine became the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s when other medications began to be developed. In the 1940s, chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened, first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s. The medicinal value of ""Artemisia annua"" has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat"
"and to sculpture with it. ""B. sempervirens"" wasn’t known for its medical use until the beginning of the 1600s. After this it was found that the leaves (containing alkaloids, oils and tannin), the bark (containing chlorophyll, wax, resin, lignin and minerals) and the oil from the wood had a medical effect. It then was used to treat gout, urinary tract infections, intestinal worms, chronic skin problems, syphilis, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, headache and piles, but also had the reputation of curing leprosy, rheumatism, HIV, fever and malaria. For treating malaria it was used as a substitute for quinine, but because of the"
"1842 and Herbarium Bogoriense in 1844. In 1852, the Netherlands government sent him to Lima and in early 1853, Justus made an expedition to the interior of Peru and even reaching the eastern border of Lake Titicaca, where he gathered Cinchona trees for Malaria treatment. In 1854 he sent his collections of seeds and specimens back to the Netherlands and introduced Cinchona trees to Java, the extract of the tree would later be used to make quinine. However, due to his worsening health he had to return to Netherlands in 1856. Later he participated in examining and describe the Commelinaceae"
"Cinchona Cinchona is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. They are native to the tropical Andean forests of western South America. A few species are reportedly naturalized in Central America, Jamaica, French Polynesia, Sulawesi, Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, and São Tomé and Príncipe off the coast of tropical Africa. Several species were sought after for their medicinal value and cultivated in India and Java where they also formed hybrids. The barks of several species yield quinine and other alkaloids that were the only effective treatments against"
"viceroy in Lima. While the veracity of the claims and the details are highly debated leaving it best treated as a legend, the curative properties were known even earlier. The history of the plant, their extracts, and the cures are however highly confused and controversial. Suggestions that the plant went by the native name of Quina Quina which yielded Quina bark have been questioned. Other fever cures from South America were known as Jesuit's Bark and Jesuit's Powder in Europe earlier but although they have been traced to ""Cinchona"", there is evidence of materials being derived from other species such"
"sempervirens"" wasn’t known for its medical use until the beginning of the 1600s. After this it was found that the leaves (containing alkaloids, oils and tannin), the bark (containing chlorophyll, wax, resin, lignin and minerals) and the oil from the wood had a medical effect. It then was used to treat gout, urinary tract infections, intestinal worms, chronic skin problems, syphilis, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, headache and piles, but also had the reputation of curing leprosy, rheumatism, HIV, fever and malaria. For treating malaria it was used as a substitute for quinine, but because of the side effects and the fact that"
"who first systematically studied the effect of cinchona in the treatment of malaria, wrote a book which he titled ""Therapeutice Specialis ad Febres Periodicas Perniciosas"". One highlight of the ""Therapeutice Specialis"" is the drawing ""tree of fevers"", where different fevers, such as branches of the tree, are divided into categories: on the left, those that respond to cinchona, are shown as branches covered with bark, while on the right are those for which cinchona is ineffective, and are depicted as denuded leafless branches. Torti clearly identified cinchona as a specific therapy for intermittent fevers, as opposed to continued fevers, which"
"in quinology to examine the contents of these components in assays. The yields of quinine in the cultivated trees were low and it took a while to develop sustainable methods to extract bark. In the meantime Charles Ledger and his native assistant Manuel collected another species from Bolivia. Manuel was caught and beaten by Bolivian officials leading to his death but Ledger obtained seeds of high quality which were offered to the British who were uninterested, leading to the rest being sold to the Dutch. The Dutch saw its value and multiplied the stock. The species later named as ""Cinchona"
"a bitter and extended controversy with Johannes Elias Teijsmann, hortulanus of 's Lands Plantentuin at Buitenzorg (now Bogor) and J.C. Hasskarl about the effectiveness of ""Cinchona"" species in the treatment of malaria. This controversy was conducted in public and in print with open letters to and demands on ""Het Natuurkundig Genootschap""; part of this exchange of minds can be followed in ""Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië"" from 1862 onwards. At his direction massive plantation of Chincocina was carried out in Java, making it leading producer of Kina (Chinocina bark). He remained on Java until his death from liver disease in"
"letter on 16 January 1833 even suggested to Riis to entirely close the mission station. After becoming ill from tropical fever two months later, Riis sought treatment with the Danish doctor at Christiansborg, Dr. Tietz but his condition worsened each day for the next week. Upon the recommendation of his mulatto trader friend, George Lutterodt, he went to a native African herbalist for treatment. The healing process consisted of washing the body with soap, lemon and cold water and drinking a boiled potion containing naturally occurring quinine from tree bark, which proved to be quite effective. Riis' decision to visit"
"tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of the standard—and expensive—ague cure of Peruvian bark. He collected, dried, and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark, and over the next five years tested it on a number of people sick with fever and agues. In his letter, Stone reported consistent success, describing willow extract's effects as identical to Peruvian bark, though a little less potent. (In fact, the active ingredient of Peruvian bark was quinine, which attacked the infectious cause of malaria, while the active ingredient of willow extract, salicin, relieved the symptoms of malaria but could not cure"
"long conflict over the good or harm effected by Peruvian Bark"". The Spanish Jesuit missionaries in Peru were taught the healing power of the bark by natives, between 1620 and 1630, when a Jesuit at Loxa was indebted to its use for his cure from an attack of malaria (""Loxa Bark""). It was used at the recommendation of the Jesuits in 1630, when the Countess of Chinchon (Cinchon; the derivative is Cinchona, the appellation selected by Carl Linnaeus in 1742; Clements Markham preferred Chinchona), wife of the new viceroy, who had just arrived from Europe, was taken ill with malaria"
"come along. A tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain. For cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract (decoction) of ""Mimosa tenuiflora"" is drunk. A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup. The solution is drunk until the symptoms subside. One preliminary clinical study found ""Mimosa tenuiflora"" to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations. Aqueous extracts of Mimosa are widely used for wound healing and burns in Middle and South America. The tree is an acceptable source of forage or fodder for"
"study the cinchona tree with its medicinally active bark (containing the anti-malarial drug quinine), the tree being hardly known in Europe. After returning to Quito on 20 June 1737, he found that Godin refused to disclose his results, whereupon La Condamine joined forces with Bouguer. The two men continued with their length measurements in the mountainous and inaccessible region close to Quito. When in December 1741 Bouguer detected an error in a calculation of La Condamine's, the two explorers got into a quarrel and stopped speaking to each other. However, working separately, the two completed their project in May 1743."
"the indifference of the medical profession. The ""Schedula Romana"" gained great popularity due to the success of the bark. The ""Schedula Romana"" was the base of at least three centuries of quinine reasonable dosing, until it was suddenly reduced in the 1970s to a dose as low as 5 mg/kg/24 h, which is eight times lower than the amount today recommended. Schedula Romana The Schedula Romana was a pharmaceutical handbill published in 1649. Generally assumed to have been designed after the knowledge of the cinchona bark properties brought from South America by Spanish Jesuit Juan de Lugo, the ""Schedula Romana"""
"quinine. Malaria, scarlet fever, yellow fever, and influenza, were prominent along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Sappington developed a preventative pill using quinine that was soon in demand across the country. It was marketed as an anti-fever pill, but Sappington also instructed some of his relatives to take the pills to prevent malaria. Most physicians were still treating malaria by bloodletting the patient and administering calomel. Sappington’s pill to prevent malaria—and also used to cure malaria—was controversial due to its novelty and unfamiliarity. The pill remained in high demand, however, and many other physicians began to develop their own anti-malaria"