"implanted with human myosin Vb do not exhibit continuous cytoplasmic streaming. The plants are then allowed to grow under similar conditions. Faster cytoplasmic rates produced larger plants with larger and more abundant leaves. This suggests that the enhanced nutrient storage demonstrated by the Goldstein model allows for plants to grow larger and faster. Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This occurs in the chloroplasts of plants cells. Light photons interact with various intermebrane proteins of the cholorplast to accomplish this. However, these proteins can become saturated with photons, making them unable to"
"Photophosphorylation In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. Only two sources of energy are available to living organisms: sunlight and reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions. All organisms produce ATP, which is the universal energy currency of life. Commonly in photosynthesis this involves photolysis, or photodissociation, of water and a continuous unidirectional flow of electrons from water to PSII . In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to create a high-energy electron donor and a lower-energy electron acceptor. Electrons then move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain."
"in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins. Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic"
"performed via aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Plants use photosynthetic pathways to convert and store energy from sunlight, also conversion of ADP to ATP. Animals use the energy released in the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to convert ADP to ATP, which can then be used to fuel necessary growth and cell maintenance. The ten-step catabolic pathway of glycolysis is the initial phase of free-energy release in the breakdown of glucose and can be split into two phases, the preparatory phase and payoff phase. ADP and phosphate are needed as precursors to synthesize ATP in the payoff reactions of"
"of NADP, and ATP to fuel the dark reactions. ATP is the phosphorylated version of adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which stores energy in a cell and powers most cellular activities. ATP is the energized form, while ADP is the (partially) depleted form. NADP is an electron carrier which ferries high energy electrons. In the light reactions, it gets reduced, meaning it picks up electrons, becoming NADPH. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts use the potential energy stored in an H, or hydrogen ion gradient to generate ATP energy. The two photosystems capture light energy to energize electrons taken from water, and release them down"
"for cells to derive energy from the Sun. Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis. The most common form, oxygenic photosynthesis, turns carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into food. It captures the energy of sunlight in energy-rich molecules such as ATP, which then provide the energy to make sugars. To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product. Some organisms, including purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, use an anoxygenic form of photosynthesis that uses alternatives to hydrogen stripped from water"
"fluorescence polarization, fluorescence-quenching, mobility shift, bead-based detection, and cell-based formats. ATP, the ""high-energy"" exchange medium in the cell, is synthesized in the mitochondrion by addition of a third phosphate group to ADP in a process referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is also synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis. ATP is synthesized at the expense of solar energy by photophosphorylation in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Phosphorylation In chemistry, phosphorylation of a molecule is the attachment of a phosphoryl group. Together with its counterpart, dephosphorylation, it is critical for many cellular processes in biology. Phosphorylation is especially important for protein"
"by ATP synthase, to provide the molecular energy currency for the cell. Phototrophs can be either autotrophs or heterotrophs. As their electron and hydrogen donors are inorganic compounds [Na2S2O3 (PSB) and H2S (GSB)] they can be also called as lithotrophs, and so, some photoautotrophs are also called photolithoautotrophs. Examples of phototroph organisms: ""Rhodobacter capsulatus"", ""Chromatium"", ""Chlorobium"" etc. Originally used with a different meaning, the term took its current definition after Lwoff and collaborators (1946). Most of the well-recognized phototrophs are autotrophic, also known as photoautotrophs, and can fix carbon. They can be contrasted with chemotrophs that obtain their energy by"
"plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary"
"CO as its carbon source. Examples include plants. In contrast to photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs are organisms that depend solely on light for their energy and principally on organic compounds for their carbon. Photoheterotrophs produce ATP through photophosphorylation but use environmentally obtained organic compounds to build structures and other bio-molecules. Phototroph Phototrophs (""Gr"": φῶς, φωτός = light, τροϕή = nourishment) are the organisms that carry out photon capture to acquire energy. They use the energy from light to carry out various cellular metabolic processes. It is a common misconception that phototrophs are obligatorily photosynthetic. Many, but not all, phototrophs often photosynthesize: they"
"this process is: This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling ""n"" water molecules from each side gives the net equation: Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: The equation for this reaction is: Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, ""light-dependent reactions"" or ""light reactions"" capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage,"
"oxidative phosphorylation because it uses energy released by the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 to phospolyrize ADP into ATP. The light reactions of photosynthesis generate ATP by the action of chemiosmosis. The photons in sunlight are received by the antenna complex of Photosystem II, which excites electrons to a higher energy level. These electrons travel down an electron transport chain, causing protons to be actively pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid lumen. These protons then flow down their electrochemical potential gradient through an enzyme called ATP-synthase, creating ATP by the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The electrons from"
"photosynthesis and for respiration. Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in many forms. These include: O and CO (mainly from the air via leaves) and HO, NO, HPO and SO (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP. Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example, nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of"
"the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light-independent reactions. The net-reaction of all light-dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is: The two photosystems are protein complexes that absorb photons and are able to use this energy to create an electron transport chain. Photosystem I and II are very similar in structure and function. They use special proteins, called light-harvesting complexes, to absorb the photons with very high effectiveness. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the"
"light energy in the photosystem. Light-harvesting complexes of green plants The light-harvesting complex (or antenna complex) is an array of protein and chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoid membrane of plants, which transfer light energy to one chlorophyll ""a"" molecule at the reaction center of a photosystem. The antenna pigments are predominantly chlorophyll ""b"", xanthophylls, and carotenes. Chlorophyll ""a"" is known as the core pigment. Their absorption spectra are non-overlapping and broaden the range of light that can be absorbed in photosynthesis. The carotenoids have another role as an antioxidant to prevent photo-oxidative damage of chlorophyll molecules. Each antenna complex"
"photosynthesis, the total gross gain of biomass by photosynthesis, minus the biomass lost by respiration. Understanding carnivory requires a cost-benefit analysis of these factors. In carnivorous plants, the leaf is not just used to photosynthesise, but also as a trap. Changing the leaf shape to make it a better trap generally makes it less efficient at photosynthesis. For example, pitchers have to be held upright, so that only their opercula directly intercept light. The plant also has to expend extra energy on non-photosynthetic structures like glands, hairs, glue and digestive enzymes. To produce such structures, the plant requires ATP and"
"Photoheterotroph Photoheterotrophs (""Gk"": photo = light, hetero = (an)other, troph = nourishment) are heterotrophic phototrophs—that is, they are organisms that use light for energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source. Consequently, they use organic compounds from the environment to satisfy their carbon requirements; these compounds include carbohydrates, fatty acids, and alcohols. Examples of photoheterotrophic organisms include purple non-sulfur bacteria, green non-sulfur bacteria, and heliobacteria. Recent research has indicated that the oriental hornet and some aphids may be able to use light to supplement their energy supply. Photoheterotrophs generate ATP using light, in one of two ways:"
"Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria (AAPBs) are alphaproteobacteria and gammaproteobacteriathat are obligate aerobes that capture energy from light by anoxygenic photosynthesis. Anoxygenic photosynthesis is the phototrophic process where light energy is captured and stored as ATP. The production of oxygen is non-existent and, therefore, water is not used as an electron donor. They are widely distributed marine plankton that may constitute over 10% of the open ocean microbial community. They can be particularly abundant in oligotrophic conditions where they were found to be 24% of the community. Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria are photoheterotrophic (phototroph)microbes that exist in"
"metabolic intermediates in fermentation. Because all ATP-generating steps in fermentation involve modifications of metabolic intermediates instead of the use of an electron transport chain fermentation is often referred to as ""substrate-level phosphorylation"". Phototrophs: Light is absorbed in photo receptors and transformed into chemical energy.<br> Chemotrophs: Bond energy is released from a chemical compound. The freed energy is stored as potential energy in ATP, carbohydrates, lipids or proteins. Eventually, the energy is used for life processes as moving, growth and reproduction. Some bacteria can alternate phototrophy and chemotrophy, depending on availability of light. Organotrophs: Organic compounds are used as electron donor.<br>"
"primitive plants lacking some tissue types. Plants are photosynthetic, which means that they manufacture their own food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the pigment chlorophyll. All green plants contain two forms of chlorophyll, chlorophyll ""a"" and chlorophyll ""b"". The latter of these pigments is not found in red or brown algae. The simple equation of photosynthesis is as follows:- 6CO + 6HO → (in the presence of light and chlorophyll) CHO + 6O By means of cells that behave like nerves, plants receive and distribute within their systems information"
"are extremely diverse, and range from the oxidation of ammonia by the Nitrosopumilales to the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide or elemental sulfur by species of ""Sulfolobus"", using either oxygen or metal ions as electron acceptors. Phototrophic archaea use light to produce chemical energy in the form of ATP. In the Halobacteria, light-activated ion pumps like bacteriorhodopsin and halorhodopsin generate ion gradients by pumping ions out of and into the cell across the plasma membrane. The energy stored in these electrochemical gradients is then converted into ATP by ATP synthase. This process is a form of photophosphorylation. The ability of these"
"is water, creating oxygen as a waste product. In anoxygenic photosynthesis various electron donors are used. Cytochrome b6f and ATP synthase work together to create ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation, which occurs in two different ways. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from PSII to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane creates a proton-motive force, used by ATP synthase to form ATP. In cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from not only PSII but also PSI to create more ATP and to stop"
"Phototroph Phototrophs (""Gr"": φῶς, φωτός = light, τροϕή = nourishment) are the organisms that carry out photon capture to acquire energy. They use the energy from light to carry out various cellular metabolic processes. It is a common misconception that phototrophs are obligatorily photosynthetic. Many, but not all, phototrophs often photosynthesize: they anabolically convert carbon dioxide into organic material to be utilized structurally, functionally, or as a source for later catabolic processes (e.g. in the form of starches, sugars and fats). All phototrophs either use electron transport chains or direct proton pumping to establish an electro-chemical gradient which is utilized"
"of energy for two main purposes: the biosynthesis of micro and macromolecules, and the active transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes. The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channelled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined together) that release energy when needed. ATP can undergo hydrolysis in two ways: the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, or the removal"
"Energy charge The adenylate energy charge is an index used to measure the energy status of biological cells. ATP or Mg-ATP is the principal molecule for storing and transferring energy in the cell : it is used for biosynthetic pathways, maintenance of transmembrane gradients, movement, cell division, etc... More than 90% of the ATP is produced by phosphorylation of ADP by the ATP synthase. ATP can also be produced by “substrate level phosphorylation” reactions (ADP phosphorylation by (1,3)-bisphosphoglycerate, phosphoenolpyruvate, phosphocreatine), by the succinate-CoA ligase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylkinase, and by adenylate kinase, an enzyme that maintains the three adenine nucleotides in"
"cytoplasm. Fermentation is the metabolism of organic compounds in the absence of air. It involves substrate-level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain. The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is: Anaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of . Prokaryotes can utilize a variety of electron acceptors. These include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide. ATP can also be synthesized through several so-called ""replenishment"" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDKs), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the family. In plants, ATP is synthesized in"
"Light-harvesting complexes of green plants The light-harvesting complex (or antenna complex) is an array of protein and chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoid membrane of plants, which transfer light energy to one chlorophyll ""a"" molecule at the reaction center of a photosystem. The antenna pigments are predominantly chlorophyll ""b"", xanthophylls, and carotenes. Chlorophyll ""a"" is known as the core pigment. Their absorption spectra are non-overlapping and broaden the range of light that can be absorbed in photosynthesis. The carotenoids have another role as an antioxidant to prevent photo-oxidative damage of chlorophyll molecules. Each antenna complex has between 250 and 400"
"as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which"
"Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name ""photosynthesis"", from the Greek φῶς, ""phōs"", ""light"", and σύνθεσις, ""synthesis"", ""putting together"". In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the"
"both cellular respiration and photosynthesis by ATP synthase. ATP synthase couples the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate with an electrochemical gradient generated by the pumping of protons through either the inner mitochondrial membrane (cellular respiration) or the thylakoid membrane (photosynthesis). This electrochemical gradient is necessary because the formation of ATP is energetically unfavourable. The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi proceeds as follows: This reaction is energetically favourable and releases 30.5 kJ/mol of energy. In the cell, this reaction is often coupled with unfavourable reactions to provide the energy for them to proceed. GTP is occasionally used"
"ATP test The ATP test is a process of rapidly measuring actively growing microorganisms through detection of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally occurring firefly enzyme luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of ATP present in the sample. ATP tests can be used to: 1st generation ATP tests are derived from hygiene monitoring uses where samples"
"the stronger bonds formed when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism. Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials; i.e. ATP can be synthesized from"
"the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. The process is called photophosphorylation. The ""machinery"" is similar to that in mitochondria except that light energy is used to pump protons across a membrane to produce a proton-motive force. ATP synthase then ensues exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation. Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle, which produces triose sugars. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.2 moles. The majority of ATP is recycled from ADP by the aforementioned processes. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP"