"arranged to allow for backup during maintenance. Glass container manufacture in the developed world is a mature market business. World demand for flat glass was approximately 52 million tonnes in 2009. The United States, Europe and China account for 75% of demand, with China's consumption having increased from 20% in the early 1990s to 50%. Glass container manufacture is also a geographical business; the product is heavy and large in volume, and the major raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) are generally readily available, therefore production facilities need to be located close to their markets. A typical glass furnace"
"the chemical composition of the original glass formula. Glass contains three types of components: ""network formers"" establish basic structure, ""network stabilizers"" make glass strong and water resistant, and ""flux"" lowers the melting point at which the glass can be formed. Common formulations of glass may include silica (SiO) as a former, alkali oxides such as soda (NaO) or potash (KO) for flux, and alkaline earth oxides such as lime (CaO) for stabilizing. Structurally, glass is composed of a network of SiO-tetrahedrons. In addition to the ""network former"" silicon which establishes its principal structure, glass contains ""network modifying agents"" such as"
"Glass Glass is a non-crystalline, amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are ""silicate glasses"" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term ""glass"", in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a"
"Benin and Akan during the 16th century are intrinsically related to the access and distribution of foreign glass beads. 3 5 Primary glass production involves the combination of the raw materials Soda, Lime and Silica, heated at specific temperatures in order to produce a basic glass compound (see Glass and Anglo-Saxon Glass). Traditionally, glass has been made from either the mixture of ground quartz stones (providing the silica) and plant ash (supplying the soda and lime elements); or, by utilizing sand as a silica and lime source and then adding a chemical natron for the remaining soda needed. The production"
"of four principal components: In post-Roman times political problems in the Wadi El Natrun area disrupted the supply of natron so alternatives had to be developed. Eastern glassmakers reverted to using sodium-rich plant ash and for a while supplied southern Europe, using existing Roman trade routes, however, the Venetian glassmakers, who had inherited the Roman glassmaking skills, monopolised the trade in plant ash and banned craftsmen from working outside the city. The rest of Europe, north of the Alps, had to find another way of producing glass. The former and stabiliser components of glass occur in all regions as sand"
"lime glass (using today's terminology) that had extra attention focused on its appearance. Glass from that time typically contained 65 to 70 percent silica. A flux, usually soda (sodium oxide as 10 to 20 percent of the glass composition) was added to enable the silica to melt at a lower temperature. A stabilizer, usually lime (calcium oxide as about 10 percent of the glass) was also added for durability and to prevent solubility in water. Small quantities of other ingredients were added to the glass, mostly to affect appearance. Sand is a common source for silica. For certain types of"
"to 74% silica by weight. The manufacturing process for soda–lime glass consists in melting the raw materials, which are the silica, soda, lime (in the form of (Ca(OH)), dolomite (CaMg(CO), which provides the magnesium oxide), and aluminium oxide; along with small quantities of fining agents (e.g., sodium sulfate (NaSO), sodium chloride (NaCl), etc.) in a glass furnace at temperatures locally up to 1675 °C. The temperature is only limited by the quality of the furnace structure material and by the glass composition. Relatively inexpensive minerals such as trona, sand, and feldspar are usually used instead of pure chemicals. Green and"
"glass, the Murano glassmakers used quartz as their source for silica. Quartz pebbles were crushed into a fine powder. Two sources for sand were Creta and Sicily. Quartz pebbles were selected from the Ticino and Adige rivers in Northern Italy. Their source for soda was what they called ""allume catina""—plant ash found in the eastern Mediterranean countries of the Middle East. Beginning in the 16th century, ""allume catina"" was also imported from Mediterranean coastal regions of Spain and France. The mixing and melting of the batch of ingredients was a two-stage process. First, nearly equal amounts of silica and flux"
"in large scale production, with less raw material and faster and as a consequence became more common. From the early Roman times, to Byzantine and early Islamic periods the glass from Northern Europe to Eastern Mediterranean shows an incredible compositional homogeneity in its major elements. Unlike the LBA glass, Roman glass was made from the melting of sand and natron – mineral soda – from the Wadi Natron in Egypt. With one raw material being common to all glass it should be possible to differentiate between glass made from different sands using composition variation of the trace elements and certain"
"primary production respectively, in order to carry out their tasks. Glassmaking had to take place as close as possible to the sources of the raw materials used, namely sand and mineral natron when it comes to the Hellenistic period. Raw glass was traded throughout the Mediterranean in the form of ingots (Stern 1999) and it was then worked and shaped into vessels, inlays, jewellery, etc., in numerous sites of the Hellenistic world. Hellenistic glass is the typical soda-lime-silica glass, to which lime was not intentionally added, but it was provided through the agent of sand. Although, it cannot be argued"
"soda-lime-silica glass but it has also revealed that the composition is different from that of vessel glass, with lower quantities of iron, manganese and titanium suggesting a different source of raw material, possibly from The Levant. The analysis also revealed more about the transition from using soda as a flux, to potash. Window glass in antiquity could be produced in three ways; cylinder blown, crown manufacture or cast. In Anglo-Saxon England there is evidence for all three types of methods being used. The vast majority of glass windows were produced by the cylinder blown method, although possibly on a smaller"
"These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative than traditional glass. Silicon dioxide (SiO) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites. Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure silica. It has excellent resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red"
"glass. The ashes of glasswort plants, and also of their Mediterranean counterpart saltwort plants, yield soda ash, which is an important ingredient for glassmaking and soapmaking. Soda ash is an alkali whose active ingredient is now known to be sodium carbonate. Glasswort and saltwort plants sequester the sodium they absorb from salt water into their tissues (see ""Salsola soda""). Ashing of the plants converts some of this sodium into sodium carbonate (or ""soda,"" in one of the old uses of the term). In the medieval and early post-medieval centuries, various glasswort plants were collected at tidal marshes and other saline"
"sodium oxide, 70% silica (silicon dioxide) and 9% lime (calcium oxide). The sodium carbonate ""soda"" serves as a flux to lower the temperature at which the silica melts. Soda glass has a much lower melting temperature than pure silica, and has slightly higher elasticity. These changes arise because the silicon dioxide and soda react to form sodium silicates of the general formula Na[SiO][SiO]. Sodium oxide Sodium oxide is a chemical compound with the formula NaO. It is used in ceramics and glasses, though not in a raw form. It is the base anhydride of sodium hydroxide, so when water is"
"This ""soda glass"" is mildly water-soluble, so some calcium carbonate is added to the melt mixture to make the glass produced insoluble. This type of glass is known as soda lime glass: ""soda"" for the sodium carbonate and ""lime"" for the calcium carbonate. Soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries. Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong base in various fields. For example, it is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents. It acts as an alkali"
"the biochemistry of the subcellular enzyme-containing structures as well. An estimated 95% of silicon dioxide produced is consumed in the construction industry, e.g. for the production of Portland cement. Silica, in the form of sand is used as the main ingredient in sand casting for the manufacture of metallic components in engineering and other applications. The high melting point of silica enables it to be used in such applications. Crystalline silica is used in hydraulic fracturing of formations which contain tight oil and shale gas. Silica is the primary ingredient in the production of most glass. The glass transition temperature"
"solution of polyvinyl acetate (PVA(CHO)) in distilled water. For ivory it is sometimes necessary to go through longer dehydration baths to insure that the surface of the treated material does not delaminate or crack. Glass is made from silica and a variety of other components that gives the glass color. Glass, usually, is also referred to the most stable of archaeological materials, but glass artifacts, and glass from the 17th century can go through complex disintegration. Normally glass consists of 70% to 74% silica, 16% to 22% alkali and 5% to 10% of flux. The other components and mineral compounds"
"sodium bicarbonatebaking soda, sodium sulfite, sodium tripolyphosphate, and chemical caustic soda Soda ash is made in three main grades - light, medium and dense These have the same chemical properties and only differ in physical characteristics, such as bulk density and particle size and shape ANSAC supplies dense and medium dense soda ash The dense soda ash exported by ANSAC has the following properties: Fifty percent of the world-wide production of soda ash is earmarked for soda-lime silica glass manufacture, generally used in the flat glass automotive and construction, glass container food and drink and many other glass industries The"
"Soda–lime glass Soda–lime glass, also called soda–lime–silica glass, is the most prevalent type of glass, used for windowpanes and glass containers (bottles and jars) for beverages, food, and some commodity items. Glass bakeware is often made of borosilicate glass. Soda–lime glass accounts for about 90% of manufactured glass. Soda–lime glass is relatively inexpensive, chemically stable, reasonably hard, and extremely workable. Because it can be resoftened and remelted numerous times, it is ideal for glass recycling. It is used in preference to chemically-pure silica, which is silicon dioxide (SiO), otherwise known as fused quartz. Whereas pure silica has excellent resistance to"
"chains of trigonal BO structural units, each sharing two oxygen atoms with adjacent units, whereas NaBO and KBO contain the cyclic [BO] ion. Borosilicate glass, also known as pyrex, can be viewed as a silicate in which some [SiO] units are replaced by [BO] centers, together with additional cations to compensate for the difference in valence states of Si(IV) and B(III). Because of this substitution leads to imperfections, the material is slow to crystallise and forms a glass with low coefficient of thermal expansion and is resistant to cracking when heated, unlike soda glass. Common borate salts include sodium metaborate,"
"glasses composed of metaphosphates of various metals. Instead of the SiO tetrahedra observed in silicate glasses, the building block for this glass former is phosphorus pentoxide (PO), which crystallizes in at least four different forms. The most familiar polymorph (see figure) comprises molecules of PO. Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers with a high concentration of doping rare-earth ions. A mix of fluoride glass and phosphate glass is fluorophosphate glass. The chalcogens—the elements in group 16 of the periodic table—particularly sulfur (S), selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te)—react with more electropositive elements, such as silver, to"
"specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO), sodium oxide (NaO) from sodium carbonate (NaCO), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their primary use as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These"
"alternative of coal. The development of lead glass in the late 17th century propelled England to the forefront of the glass industry and paved the way for advancements in the Industrial Revolution. Glass has three major components: a ""network former"" (silica), a ""network modifier"" (flux), and a ""network stabilizer"" (predominantly lime). In the early 16th and 17th centuries glassmaking (the manufacture of glass from raw materials) and glassworking (the creation of objects from glass) occurred within the same glasshouse. Glass was also recycled at this time in the form of cullet. In the early modern era, network formers were obtained"
"additives such as vinegar, lemon, lime, or orange juice. On August 26, 1969, Melvin E. Stonebraker and Samuel P. Wise received U.S. patent #3,463,735 for a glass cleaning composition, listing example formulae, one of which is 4.0% isopropyl alcohol, 1% ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, 0.1% sodium lauryl sulfate (a surfactant), calcium (Ca) 0.01%, tetrasodium pyrophosphate (a water softener), 0.05% of 28% ammonia, 1% of a dye solution, and 0.01% perfume. This formula was not only inexpensive to manufacture but allowed the product to be packaged in glass bottles and dispensed with a plastic sprayer. In 1989, Windex was a 5%"
"both as enamel or as cut glass insets. A clear distinction between glass making and glass working must be made. Glass making is the production of raw glass from the raw materials. Glass working on the other hand refers to the processing of raw glass or recycled glass to create new glass objects, although this may take place in the same location as glass making, it can also take place elsewhere. Glass consists of four principal components; a former, alkali flux, stabiliser and colourants/opacifiers. The main type of glass found in the Anglo-Saxon period is a soda-lime-silica glass, continuing the"
"have been determined through the use of X-ray fluorescence radiation to be of a soda-lime type composition. The glass contained elements that can be attributed to calcareous sand and mineral soda, typical of the east coast of the Mediterranean region. The analyses also narrowed down the production time of the glass to between the second century BC and first century AD. The workflow of the manufacturing process consisted of a few steps that required a great amount of skill. Batches of silver were melted in crucibles with the addition of copper for a subtler alloy. The melted silver was cast"
"with its attendant colorants. Typical compositions of some historical and ancient glasses - the components are given in weight per cent; in addition to those listed the ancient glasses also would have contained up to one per cent iron oxide and up to three per cent aluminium oxide, in addition to any colorants and opacifiers Experimenting with the new technology, the forest glassmakers found it difficult to achieve the high standards of clarity and colour of the Roman methods, due mainly to the great variability of colour-controlling elements in the raw materials. European sand and soil is generally higher in"
"Phosphate glass Phosphate glass is a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of various metals. Instead of SiO in silicate glasses, the glass forming substrate is PO. PO crystallizes in at least four forms. The most familiar polymorph (see figure) comprises molecules of PO. The other polymorphs are polymeric, but in each case the phosphorus atoms are bound by a tetrahedron of oxygen atoms, one of which forms a terminal P=O bond. The O-form adopts a layered structure consisting of interconnected PO rings, not unlike the structure adopted by certain polysilicates. Phosphate glasses are highly resistant to hydrofluoric acid."
"has several similar naturally occurring minerals as it is itself a melt glass. While trinitite and similar materials are anthropogenic, fulgurites, found in many thunderstorm-prone regions and in deserts, are naturally-formed, hollow or solid glassy tubes, masses, droplets, clumps, or crusts composed of quartzose sand, silica, rock, caliche, biomass, clay or other soil and sediment types, and are generated by lightning strikes. A material similar to trinitite can be formed by meteor impacts, these are impact glasses. For a time it was believed that the desert sand had simply melted from the direct radiant thermal energy of the fireball and"
"appropriate molar masses of the batch ingredients one obtains the batch mass fraction matrix M: formula_4 formula_5 or formula_6 The matrix M, normalized to sum up to 100% as seen above, contains the final batch composition in wt%: 39.216 sand, 16.012 trona, 10.242 lime, 16.022 albite, 4.699 orthoclase, 7.276 dolomite, 6.533 borax. If this batch is melted to a glass, the desired composition given above is obtained. During glass melting, carbon dioxide (from trona, lime, dolomite) and water (from trona, borax) evaporate. Simple glass batch calculation can be found at the website of the University of Washington. If the number"
"whole numbers. The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO), usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to weathering. The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings are eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other organic or organically derived fragmental material, suggesting sand formation depends on living organisms, too."
"tutorials can be found in Internet. Faience is a mixture of powdered clays and lime, soda and silica sand. This is mixed with water to make a paste and molded around a small stick or bit of straw. It is then ready to be fired into a bead. As the bead heats up, the soda, sand and lime melt into glass that incorporates and covers the clay. The result is a hard bead covered in bluish glass. This process was probably discovered first in Mesopotamia and then imported to ancient Egypt. However, it was the Egyptians who made it their"
"the Levant, which continued to produce raw and manufactured glass. Scholars once believed that glassware was an expensive luxury good reserved for the upper strata of society, however, recent archaeological excavations have unearthed a considerable quantity of unadorned glassware intended for lower-class residents. Chemical analyses of Byzantine glassware have demonstrated that Byzantine glass was composed of the same basic materials as Roman glass—combining sand-derived silica, a fluxing agent, and lime, as well as various coloring agents. Roman and Byzantine glass-making was divided into two phases. The first, called ""primary glass-making"" involved the conversion of sand and stabilizer into raw glass."