"Béla Schick Béla Schick (16 July 1877 – 6 December 1967) was a Hungarian-born American pediatrician. He is the founder of the Schick test. Bela Schick was born in Balatonboglár, Hungary, and brought up in Graz, Austria, where he attended medical school. In 1902 he joined the Medicine Faculty of the University of Vienna where he remained until 1923. Studying problems of immunity, he and Clemens von Pirquet first coined the term 'allergy' as a clinical entity. His discovery of a test for susceptibility to diphtheria (""the Schick test"") made him world famous. From 1923 he directed the Pediatric Department"
"became hemorrhagic, but the study found that a daily dose of ten milligrams was sufficient to prevent or reverse scurvy in several cases. The vitamin C research led to the issue of free orange juice for children. The Medical Research Council established recommended daily intakes of vitamins A and C on the basis of the institute's research. Scabies is a skin disease caused by the burrowing of the mite ""Sarcoptes scabiei"". It leads to what sufferers have described as an ""almost intolerable"" itching. The experiment was carried out in 1941 and its purpose was to investigate the mode of transmission"
"in cases of scurvy, and Dengue fever. The test is named after Alfred Fabian Hess. Hess test The Hess test or Rumpel-Leede test is a medical test used to assess capillary fragility. It is also called the Tourniquet test. To perform the test, pressure is applied to the forearm with a blood pressure cuff inflated to between systolic and diastolic blood pressure for 10 minutes. After removing the cuff, the number of petechiae in a 5 cm diameter circle of the area under pressure is counted. Normally less than 15 petechiae are seen. 15 or more petechiae indicate capillary fragility,"
"as cutaneous leishmaniasis, a milder disease caused by another protozoan of the Leishmania genus which also causes skin lesions.) Immunity to Leishmania is determined by the interplay of white blood cells, cytokines, immune complexes, and genetic and environmental factors. Protective immunity develops either after successful treatment of VL (cured) or after asymptomatic infections that resolve without development of VL (asymptomatic). Both types of immunity are characterized by cell-mediated immunity (CMI), including skin test positivity, proliferation, and interleukin 2 (IL-2), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin 12 (IL-12) secretion by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in response to leishmania antigens. T cells"
"Prausnitz–Küstner test The Prausnitz–Küstner test (PK test, Prausnitz-Küstner reaction) is an immunologic test formerly used by physicians to determine if a patient has an allergic reaction to a specific antigen. The test has been replaced by the safer skin prick test. The PK test involves transferring serum from the test subject to another healthy person, essentially using the second person as a mixing vessel for antibodies and antigen. This is a pathway for transmission of blood-borne ailments like Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, AIDS, and others, which is why the test is no longer recommended. Or in simple words, a test for the"
"kin selection hypothesis, the predator attraction hypothesis remained popular for quite some time. The final hypothesis posits that schreckstoff has an immune function and may be the first line of defense against pathogens, parasites, and/or UVB radiation. Evidence for this hypothesis is strong. A recent comprehensive study revealed that exposure to parasites and pathogens that penetrate the skin of ostariophysans stimulated the production of alarm cells. Additionally, increased exposure to UV radiation was correlated with an increase in alarm cell production. The role of schreckstoff in immune response was further strengthened by the finding that skin extracts from fathead minnows"
"such, accurate history is imperative when making the diagnosis. Since IgE and IgG are key players in mosquito allergy, diagnosis can be confirmed by an immunosorbent assay measuring IgE and IgG to mosquito saliva antigens. The Skeeter syndrome should not be confused with another type of reactivity to mosquito bites, severe mosquito bite allergy (SMBA). SMBA is most often an Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease that complicates ~33% of individuals with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection or, in extremely rare cases, individuals with Epstein-Barr virus-positive Hodgkin disease or an Epstein-Barr virus-negative lymphoid disease such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia and mantle cell"
"and recover from the attack. Testing and validating these assumptions would provide support for the predator attraction hypothesis. The third hypothesis proposes that schreckstoff has an immune function, providing protection against pathogens, parasites and/or UVB radiation. For this hypothesis to be supported, a correlation between alarm substance cell production and the presence of pathogens and parasites would need to be observed. Direct evidence that schreckstoff inhibits the growth of aquatic pathogens and parasites would provide additional support for the immunity hypothesis. Another hypothesis is that schreckstoff is a breakdown product of mucus and club cells, induced by injury. Selection for"
"coined the word ""allergy"" to describe this hypersensitivity reaction. Soon thereafter von Pirquet discovered the same type of reaction took place in those infected with tuberculosis, and he thus found the utility of what would become the tuberculin skin test. Individuals with active tuberculosis were usually tuberculin positive, but many of those with disseminated and rapidly progressive of disease were negative. This led to the widespread but erroneous belief that tuberculin reactivity is an indicator of immunity to tuberculosis. In Koch's time, close to one in seven Germans died of tuberculosis. For that reason, the public reacted euphorically to the"
"excessive and impaired immune function: immune deficiency, autoimmunity, inflammatory skin disorders and cold-induced hives (cold urticaria). ""The mutation discovered occurs in a gene for phospholipase C-gamma2 (PLCG2), an enzyme involved in the activation of immune cells. The investigators have named the condition PLCG2-associated antibody deficiency and immune dysregulation, or PLAID."" Diagnosis is typically obtained by an allergist or other licensed practitioner performing a cold test. During the cold test, a piece of ice is held against the forearm, typically for 3–4 minutes. A positive result is a specific looking mark of raised red hives. The hives may be the shape"
"antigens from bacteria, viruses, and parasites. It is characterized by nonfunctional T and B-lymphocytes and a complete lack of gammaglobulins. Death is secondary to infection. Differences between this disease and the form found in Bassets and Corgis include a complete lack of IgM and the presence of the disease in females. SCID mice are routinely used as model organisms for research into the basic biology of the immune system, cell transplantation strategies, and the effects of disease on mammalian systems. They have been extensively used as hosts for normal and malignant tissue transplants. In addition, they are useful for testing"
"Furthermore, the mechanisms underlying this supposed increased susceptibility to disease are unknown. For example, helminth infections cause potent and highly polarized immune response characterized by increased T-helper cell type 2 (T2) cytokine and Immunoglobulin E(IgE) production. However, the effect of such responses on the human immune response is unknown. Additionally, both malaria and helminth infection can cause anemia, but the effect of co-infection and possible enhancement of anemia is poorly understood. The hygiene hypothesis states that infants and children who lack exposure to infectious agents are more susceptible to allergic diseases via modulation of immune system development. The theory was"
"Tourniquet test A tourniquet test (also known as a Rumpel-Leede capillary-fragility test or simply a capillary fragility test) determines capillary fragility. It is a clinical diagnostic method to determine a patient's haemorrhagic tendency. It assesses fragility of capillary walls and is used to identify thrombocytopenia (a reduced platelet count). The test is part of the WHO algorithm for diagnosis of Dengue fever. A blood pressure cuff is applied and inflated to the midpoint between the systolic and diastolic blood pressures for five minutes. The test is positive if there are more than 10 to 20 petechiae per square inch. Some"
"implicated in potential treatment for several communicable and non-communicable diseases. SCID was rare in its prevalence and involved a complex mechanism that involved harmful lymphocytic differentiation. The test subjects for this experiment were 11 children of various ages who presented with SCID and were admitted into Necker Hospital. Initially, after the therapy was administered to the children, some showed signs of improved conditions. One child, a three year old, became the face of the experiment's success, as the symptoms of his once life-threatening disease began to diminish. Indeed, this was a breakthrough in the application capabilities of gene therapy in"
"able to respond to pathogens such as viruses and create antibodies against them, which has helped scientists better understand how the human immune system protects against pathogen infection. For example, they have been used to study Dengue virus and malaria, as well as to assess the efficacy of drugs that target these diseases. It is important to note that the use of SCID mice has been questioned as a model for studying the human immune system. Some studies have suggested that after a period of time, human T cells in the immunocompromised mice become anergic, meaning that they no longer"
"years has been on the rise. Countries including England, Wales, South Korea, Vietnam, China, and Hong Kong. Researchers are unsure as to what has caused the spike in cases of the disease. The Dick test was invented in 1924 and was used to identify those susceptible to scarlet fever. The Dick test consisted of injecting a diluted strain of the streptococci known to cause scarlet fever into a person's skin. A local reaction in the skin at the site of injection appeared in people who were susceptible to developing scarlet fever. This reaction was most notable around 24 hours after"
"Brazilian spotted fever, and Indian tick typhus. Using DNA analysis by advanced polymerase chain reaction, different rickettsial infection can be identified from eschars. ""O. tsutsugamushi"" is most often detected from blood serum using Weil–Felix test. Weil–Felix test is the most simple and rapid test, but it is not sensitive and specific as it detects any kind of rickettsial infection. More sensitive tests such as rapid immunochromatographic test (RICT), immunofluorescence assays (IFA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and DNA analysis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are used. IFA is regarded as the gold standard test, as it gives reliable result. However, it"
"and Th17 immune responses required for protection against them leading to illness or disease. Evidence in support of the idea that helminthic infections reduce the severity of autoimmune diseases is primarily derived from animal models. Studies conducted on mice and rat models of colitis, muscular sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, and asthma have shown helminth-infected subjects to display protection from the disease. While helminths are often considered a homogenous group, considerable differences exist between species and the utilization of species in clinical research varies between human and animal trials. As such, caution must be exercised when interpreting the results from animal"
"After they married in 1914, Dick served as a pathologist at Evanston Hospital and later joined her husband at the John R. McCormick Institute for Infectious Diseases. She also served as a bacteriologist for the United States Public Health Service and worked at St. Luke's Hospital. In October, 1923, Dick and her husband successfully isolated hemolytic streptococcus ""as the causative agent of scarlet fever,"" and later developed the Dick test, a skin test which determined a person's susceptibility to the disease and produced ""active immunization by larger doses of toxin and antitoxin for treatment, prevention, and diagnosis. They patented their"
"linked to the hygiene hypothesis. Some evidence indicates that autism is correlated to factors (such as certain cytokines) that are indicative of an immune disease. One publication speculated that the lack of early childhood exposure could be a cause of autism. The risk of chronic inflammatory diseases also depends on factors such as diet, pollution, physical activity, obesity, socio-economic factors and stress. Genetic predisposition is also a factor. Although the idea that exposure to certain infections may decrease the risk of allergy is not new, Strachan was one of the first to formally propose it, in an article published in"
"lipopolysaccharides (a cell wall component of Gram-negative bacteria). These cytokines acted by various humoral and nerve routes upon the hypothalamus and other areas of the brain. Further research showed that the brain can also learn to control the various components of sickness behavior independently of immune activation.. In 2015, Shakhar and Shakhar suggested instead that sickness behavior developed primarily because it protected the kin of infected animals from transmissible diseases. According to this theory, termed the Eyam hypothesis, after the English Parish of Eyam, sickness behavior protects the social group of infected individuals by limiting their direct contacts, preventing them"
"Immunogenetics Immunogenetics or immungenetics is the branch of medical genetics that explores the relationship between the immune system and genetics. Autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are complex genetic traits which result from defects in the immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approaches. Alternatively, genetic variations can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease. Its origin is usually attributed to Edward Jenner, who discovered in 1796 that cowpox, or vaccinia, induced protection against human smallpox. It took two centuries before the World Health Organization announced in"
"1953. Premunity Premunity is a term used to signify progressive development of immunity in individuals exposed to an infective agent, mainly belonging to protozoa and Rickettsia, but not in viruses. After the initial infection, which generally occurs in childhood, the effect in subsequent infections is diminished. Infections thereafter may exhibit little or no symptomatology in spite of parasitemia. The next stage is resistance to infection altogether. Loss of premunity is estimated to be the cause of the rebound of malaria in 1965 in India after the dramatic success of the National Malaria Control Programme that was launched for rural India"
"selected for its conferred partial resistance to the disease. While homozygotes will have either no protection from malaria or a dramatic propensity to sickle cell anemia, heterozygotes have fewer physiological effects and a partial resistance to malaria. Population Geneticist John H. Gillespie established the following model: Where h is the heterozygote effect and s is the recessive allele effect. Thus given a value for s (i.e.: 0<s<1), h can yield the following information: For the case of sickle cell anemia the situation corresponds to the case h<0 in the Gillespie Model . Overdominance Overdominance is a condition in genetics where"
"invasive disease caused by the pathogenic bacteria ""Streptococcus pneumoniae"". It is believed that smoking increases the risk of these and other pulmonary and respiratory tract infections both through structural damage and through effects on the immune system. The effects on the immune system include an increase in CD4+ cell production attributable to nicotine, which has tentatively been linked to increased HIV susceptibility. Smoking increases the risk of Kaposi's sarcoma in people without HIV infection. One study found this only with the male population and could not draw any conclusions for the female participants in the study. The incidence of impotence"
"carry or carries to a much lesser degree. Some countries, such as South Africa, or Thailand have very different infectious disease-related epidemiology to Europe and North America. Exposure to diseases without having built up natural immunity can be a hazard for weakened individuals, specifically with respect to gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. hepatitis A, amoebic dysentery, paratyphoid) which could weaken progress and expose the patient to mosquito-transmitted diseases, influenza, and tuberculosis. However, because in poor tropical nations diseases run the gamut, doctors seem to be more open to the possibility of considering any infectious disease, including HIV, TB, and typhoid, while there"
"itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease). Of these three the most important was ""psora"" (Greek for ""itch""), described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin, supposed to be derived from suppressed scabies, and claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed psora to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts. Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing one or more of psora's proposed functions, including tuberculosis and cancer miasms. The law of susceptibility implies that a negative state of mind can attract"
"Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed. Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded"
"an explanation for the rapid 20th century rise in allergic diseases such as asthma and hay fever. It is now also recognised that the ""reduced microbial exposure"" concept applies to a much broader range of chronic inflammatory diseases than asthma and hay fever, which includes diseases such as type 1 diabetes and multiple sclerosis, and also some types of depression and cancer. In 2003 Graham Rook proposed the ""old friends hypothesis"" which some claim offers a more rational explanation for the link between microbial exposure and inflammatory disorders. He argues that the vital microbial exposures are not colds, influenza, measles"
"of infection. Particular organ problems (e.g. diseases involving the skin, heart, facial development and skeletal system) may be present in certain conditions. Others predispose to autoimmune disease, where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, or tumours (sometimes specific forms of cancer, such as lymphoma). The nature of the infections, as well as the additional features, may provide clues as to the exact nature of the immune defect. The basic tests performed when an immunodeficiency is suspected should include a full blood count (including accurate lymphocyte and granulocyte counts) and immunoglobulin levels (the three most important types of antibodies:"
"a ground-breaking research paper published in 1952 describing a boy unable to develop immunities to common childhood diseases and infections. It is the first known immune deficiency, and is classified with other inherited (genetic) defects of the immune system, known as primary immunodeficiency disorders. Affects males 50% of the time if mother is a carrier for the gene. Children are fine until 6–9 months of age. Present with recurrent infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, hepatitis virus, and enterovirus CNS infections. Examination shows lymphoid hypoplasia (tonsils and adenoids, no splenomegaly or lymphadenopathy). There is significant decrease in all"
"of cholera and, later, of typhoid fever. Asymptomatic or subclinical infection carriers are now known to be a common feature of many infectious diseases, especially viruses such as polio, herpes simplex, HIV, and hepatitis C. As a specific example, all doctors and virologists agree that poliovirus causes paralysis in just a few infected subjects, and the success of the polio vaccine in preventing disease supports the conviction that the poliovirus is the causative agent. The third postulate specifies ""should"", not ""must"", because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera, not all organisms exposed to an infectious"
"Kveim test The Kveim test, Nickerson-Kveim or Kveim-Siltzbach test is a skin test used to detect sarcoidosis, where part of a spleen from a patient with known sarcoidosis is injected into the skin of a patient suspected to have the disease. If non caseating granulomas are found (4–6 weeks later), the test is positive. If the patient has been on treatment (e.g. glucocorticoids), the test may be false negative. The test is not commonly performed, and in the UK no substrate has been available since 1996. There is a concern that certain infections, such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, could be"