"development of a second mental lexicon (L2) in bilingual speakers has also emerged as a topic of interest, suggesting that a speaker's multiple languages are not stored together, but as separate entities that are actively chosen from in each linguistic situation. Although the mental lexicon is often called a mental ""dictionary"", in actuality, research suggests that it differs greatly from a dictionary. For example, the mental lexicon is not organized alphabetically like a dictionary; rather, it seems to be organized in a more complex manner, with links between phonologically and semantically related lexical items. This is suggested by evidence of"
"to be known"". Samuel Johnson Jr. Samuel Johnson Jr. (March 10, 1757 – August 20, 1836) was the author of the first English dictionary compiled by an American, ""A school dictionary: being a compendium of the latest and most improved dictionaries"". It was printed in New Haven, in 1798, by Edward O'Brien. Martha Jane Gibson, from Yale University, sees Johnson Jr. as America's first lexicographer. He was a schoolteacher, born in the town of Guilford, Connecticut. Although he was a contemporary of British lexicographer Dr. Samuel Johnson, they were not related in any way. The coincidence of names leads many"
"Samuel Johnson Jr. Samuel Johnson Jr. (March 10, 1757 – August 20, 1836) was the author of the first English dictionary compiled by an American, ""A school dictionary: being a compendium of the latest and most improved dictionaries"". It was printed in New Haven, in 1798, by Edward O'Brien. Martha Jane Gibson, from Yale University, sees Johnson Jr. as America's first lexicographer. He was a schoolteacher, born in the town of Guilford, Connecticut. Although he was a contemporary of British lexicographer Dr. Samuel Johnson, they were not related in any way. The coincidence of names leads many people to believe"
"copied heavily from the 1706 Phillips-Kersey English dictionary. A second edition of Martin's dictionary was published in 1754, a year before Samuel Johnson's dictionary. In compiling his 24,500 word dictionary, he gave up on trying to ""fix"" the language: This dynamic view of language was also adopted by Johnson and has become the accepted view in modern lexicography. His dictionary also pre-saged Johnson in that he laid out a detailed set of objectives (that it should be universal, explain the etymologies, etc.). While his etymologies are often inconsistent and tended to err in favour of Latin origins, his work was"
"but according to Bate, the ""Dictionary"" ""easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who laboured under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time."" Johnson's dictionary was not the first, nor was it unique. It was, however, the most commonly used and imitated for the 150 years between its first publication and the completion of the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" in 1928. Other dictionaries, such as Nathan Bailey's ""Dictionarium Britannicum"", included more words, and in the 150 years preceding Johnson's dictionary about twenty other general-purpose monolingual"
"the development of historiography. Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose ""Dictionary of the English Language"" was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement but was also dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen. Researchers and scholars who write about their discoveries and ideas sometimes have profound effects on society. Scientists and philosophers are good examples because their new ideas can revolutionise the way people think and how they behave. Three of the best known examples of such a"
"the end of the eighteenth century, 'I cannot imagine that Dr Johnson's reputation will be very lasting.' His dictionary was 'a surprising work for one man', but 'the task is too much for one man, and ... a society should alone pretend to publish a standard dictionary.' Walpole's reservations notwithstanding, the admirers out-numbered the detractors, and the reputation of the ""Dictionary"" was repeatedly boosted by other philologists, lexicographers, educationalists and word detectives."" Johnson's dictionary was made when etymology was largely based on guesswork. His Classical leanings led him to prefer spellings that pointed to Latin or Greek sources, ""while his"
"A Greek–English Lexicon A Greek–English Lexicon, often referred to as Liddell & Scott (), Liddell–Scott–Jones, or LSJ, is a standard lexicographical work of the Ancient Greek language. The lexicon was begun in the nineteenth century and is now in its ninth (revised) edition. Based on the earlier ""Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache"" by the German lexicographer Franz Passow (first published in 1819, fourth edition 1831), which in turn was based on Johann Gottlob Schneider's ""Kritisches griechisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch"", it has served as the basis for all later lexicographical work on the ancient Greek language, such as the ongoing Greek–Spanish dictionary project ""Diccionario"
"text—double columned—was set in 3.5 mm pica. This first edition of the dictionary contained a 42,773-word list, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions. One of Johnson's important innovations was to illustrate the meanings of his words by literary quotation, of which there are around 114,000. The authors most frequently cited by Johnson include Shakespeare, Milton and Dryden. For example: Furthermore, Johnson, unlike Bailey, added notes on a word's usage, rather than being merely descriptive. Unlike most modern lexicographers, Johnson introduced humour or prejudice into quite a number of his definitions. Among the best-known are: A"
"the letter displayed on a table for anyone to read. The ""Dictionary"" was finally published in April 1755, with the title page acknowledging that the University of Oxford had awarded Johnson a Master of Arts degree in anticipation of the work. The dictionary as published was a large book. Its pages were nearly tall, and the book was wide when opened; it contained 42,773 entries, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions, and it sold for the extravagant price of £4 10s, perhaps the rough equivalent of £350 today. An important innovation in English lexicography was"
"Early English dictionaries Before Samuel Johnson's two-volume ""A Dictionary of the English Language"", published in 1755 and considered the most authoritative and influential work of early English lexicography, there were other early English dictionaries: more than a dozen had been published during the preceding 150 years. This article lists the most significant ones. This was a Latin-English dictionary, not a monolingual dictionary, published in 1538 and dedicated to Henry VIII. 1542 saw an enlarged second edition. Composed by Richard Mulcaster, headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School in London, The Elementarie is now viewed as an important forerunner of the first actual"
"it alone – set out to satisfy and capitalise on this need by the ever-increasing reading and writing public. Johnson's dictionary was not the first English dictionary, nor even among the first dozen. Over the previous 150 years more than twenty dictionaries had been published in England, the oldest of these being a Latin-English ""wordbook"" by Sir Thomas Elyot published in 1538. The next to appear was by Richard Mulcaster, a headmaster, in 1583. Mulcaster compiled what he termed ""a generall table [of eight thousand words] we commonlie use...[yet] It were a thing verie praise worthy...if som well learned...would gather"
"the World"", a biography of Samuel Johnson's epochal ""A Dictionary of the English Language"" (1755). The first popular account of Dr Johnson's magnum opus, it ""charts the struggle and ultimate triumph of one of the first attempts to 'fix' the language, which despite its imperfections proved to be one of the English language's most significant cultural monuments"". Avoiding the more usual portrayal of Dr Johnson as ""a lovable eccentric"", Hitchings ""keeps drawing attention to the unremitting intelligence that Johnson's lexicographical labours demanded, not least in separating out the ramifying senses of common words"". Whilst declaring, ""Hitchings's task is to rescue"
"also obtained many sham-antique words from reading Bailey and Kersey. Bailey's ""An Universal Etymological English Dictionary"", from its publication in 1721, became the most popular English dictionary of the 18th century, and went through nearly thirty editions. It was a successor to Kersey's ""A New English Dictionary"" (1702), and drew on it. A supplementary volume of his dictionary appeared in 1727, and in 1730 a folio edition, the ""Dictionarium Britannicum"" containing many technical terms. Bailey had collaborators, for example John Martyn who worked on botanical terms in 1725. Samuel Johnson made an interleaved copy the foundation of his own ""Johnson's"
"make a good critic. His works were dominated with his intent to use them for literary criticism, including his ""Dictionary"" to which he wrote: ""I lately published a Dictionary like those compiled by the academies of Italy and France, ""for the use of such as aspire to exactness of criticism, or elegance of style"""". Although the smaller dictionary was written for the masses and become the common household dictionary, Johnson's original dictionary was an academic tool that examined how words were used, especially those uses that were found in literary works. To achieve this purpose, Johnson included quotations from Bacon,"
"words with careful distinctions, compiled by William Lloyd. Elisha Coles published his ""English Dictionary"" in 1676. It was not until Samuel Johnson's ""A Dictionary of the English Language"" (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced. Many people today mistakenly believe that Johnson wrote the first English dictionary: a testimony to this legacy. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring"
"Johnson's dictionary, came the equally hefty price: £4/10/- (equivalent to approximately £ in 2019). So discouraging was the price that by 1784, thirty years after the first edition was published, when the dictionary had by then run through five editions, only about 6,000 copies were in circulation—an average sale of 200 books a year for thirty years. Johnson's etymologies would be considered poor by modern standards, and he gave little guide to pronunciation; one example being ""Cough: A convulsion of the lungs, vellicated by some sharp serosity. It is pronounced coff"". Much of his dictionary was prescriptivist. It was also"
"Defining vocabulary A defining vocabulary is a list of words used by lexicographers to write dictionary definitions. The underlying principle goes back to Samuel Johnson's notion that words should be defined using 'terms less abstruse than that which is to be explained', and a defining vocabulary provides the lexicographer with a restricted list of high-frequency words which can be used for producing simple definitions of any word in the dictionary. Defining vocabularies are especially common in English monolingual learner's dictionaries. The first such dictionary to use a defining vocabulary was the ""New Method English Dictionary"" by Michael West and James"
"all these elements together, creating the first ""modern"" dictionary. Johnson's dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" in short fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50 years to complete this huge work, and they finally released the complete ""OED"" in twelve volumes in 1928. It remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months. One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester"
"linguistically conservative, advocating traditional spellings such as ""publick"" rather than the simpler spellings that would be favoured 73 years later by Noah Webster. In spite of its shortcomings, the dictionary was far and away the best of its day. Its scope and structure were carried forward in dictionaries that followed, including Noah Webster's ""Webster's Dictionary"" in 1828 and the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" later in the same century. From the beginning there was universal appreciation not only of the content of the ""Dictionary"" but also of Johnson's achievement in single-handedly creating it: ""When Boswell came to this part of Johnson's life,"
"available on A Dictionary of the English Language as an electronic scan. The Preface to the ""Dictionary"" is available on Project Gutenberg. In addition, a scan of the 6th (1785) edition can be found at the Internet Archive in its two volumes. A Dictionary of the English Language Published on 4 April 1755 and written by Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language, sometimes published as Johnson's Dictionary, is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language. There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers"
"much less well-known example is: He included whimsical little-known words, such as: On a more serious level, Johnson's work showed a heretofore unseen meticulousness. Unlike all the proto-dictionaries that had come before, painstaking care went into the completeness when it came not only to ""illustrations"" but also to definitions as well: The original goal was to publish the dictionary in two folio volumes: A–K and L–Z. But that soon proved unwieldy, unprofitable, and unrealistic. Subsequent printings ran to four volumes; even these formed a stack tall, and weighed in at nearly . In addition to the sheer physical heft of"
"layers. This strategy is used in the ""Learn These Words First"" multi-layer dictionary, where a 360-word beginning-level defining vocabulary is used to explain a 2,000-word intermediate-level defining vocabulary, which in turn is used to define the remaining words in the dictionary. Defining vocabulary A defining vocabulary is a list of words used by lexicographers to write dictionary definitions. The underlying principle goes back to Samuel Johnson's notion that words should be defined using 'terms less abstruse than that which is to be explained', and a defining vocabulary provides the lexicographer with a restricted list of high-frequency words which can be"
"his intent to use them for literary criticism. This was especially true of his ""Dictionary"" of which he wrote: ""I lately published a Dictionary like those compiled by the academies of Italy and France, ""for the use of such as aspire to exactness of criticism, or elegance of style"""". Although a smaller edition of his ""Dictionary"" became the standard household dictionary, Johnson's original ""Dictionary"" was an academic tool that examined how words were used, especially in literary works. To achieve this purpose, Johnson included quotations from Bacon, Hooker, Milton, Shakespeare, Spenser, and many others from what he considered to be"
"by capitalization, Frenchified suffixes, irregular orthography) as can be found in Samuel Pepys's diary. Ackroyd read 18th-century texts for half a year in the British Library. ""texts about how to cure the gout, by a surgeon. Necromantic texts. I didn’t mind what it was as long as it was the right period."" The most important source was Samuel Johnson’s ""Dictionary"": ""Whenever I had to write a sentence about, say, someone looking out of the window, then I’d look up ‘window’ in Johnson, and there’d be all sorts of definitions, and phrases with the word in it, and these I also"
"the American Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, founder and first president of King's College in New York City (now Columbia University) published in New York ""An English Grammar; the First Easy Rudiments of Grammar Applied to the English Tongue"". It ""appears to have been the first English grammar prepared by an American and published in America."" In 1767, Johnson combined it with a Hebrew grammar, and published it as ""An English and Hebrew grammar, being the first short rudiments of those two languages"", suggesting the languages be taught together to children, which went to four more imprints by 1776.. Johnson developed"
"Johnson Johnson is a surname of English and Scottish origin. The name itself is a patronym of the given name ""John"", literally meaning ""son of John"". The name ""John"" derives from Latin ""Johannes"", which is derived through Greek ""Iōannēs"" from Hebrew ""Yohanan"", meaning ""Yahweh has favoured"". The name has been extremely popular in Europe since the Christian era as a result of it being given to St John the Baptist, St John the Evangelist and nearly one thousand other Christian saints. Johnson is the second most common in the United States and 154th most common in the world. As a"
"Lexicographic error A lexicographic error is an inaccurate entry in a dictionary. Such problems, because they undercut the intention of providing authoritative guidance to readers and writers, attract special attention. An early English-language example was the definition of ""pastern"" as ""the knee of a horse"" in Dr. Johnson's famed 18th-century ""Dictionary of the English Language"". That would suit the word ""fetlock"", but the pastern is in fact a long portion of the leg immediately below the fetlock. When a woman asked him why he had made the error, Johnson, according to Boswell, replied, ""Ignorance, Madam, pure ignorance."" In the 1930s,"
"français du Nouveau Testament"" (the Greek-French Dictionary of the New Testament), based on some ""Lexicon"" of the New Testament and the Septuagint. A Greek–English Lexicon A Greek–English Lexicon, often referred to as Liddell & Scott (), Liddell–Scott–Jones, or LSJ, is a standard lexicographical work of the Ancient Greek language. The lexicon was begun in the nineteenth century and is now in its ninth (revised) edition. Based on the earlier ""Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache"" by the German lexicographer Franz Passow (first published in 1819, fourth edition 1831), which in turn was based on Johann Gottlob Schneider's ""Kritisches griechisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch"", it has"
"what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title."" In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his ""English Expositor"". ""Glossographia"" by Thomas Blount, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. Edward Phillips wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled ""The New World of English Words: Or a General Dictionary"" which boldly plagiarized Blount's work, and the two denounced each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. John Wilkins' 1668 essay on philosophical language contains a list of 11,500"
"An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary is a dictionary of Old English, a language that is also known as Anglo-Saxon. Four editions of the dictionary were published. It has often (especially in earlier times) been considered the definitive lexicon for Old English. It is often referred to by the names of its compilers, for example ""Bosworth"" or ""Bosworth & Toller"". This was written by Joseph Bosworth, who in 1858 became the Rawlinsonian Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the University of Oxford: the post was renamed in 1916 as the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon, in Bosworth's honour. While being attributed"
"Jones. A Latin Dictionary A Latin Dictionary (or Harpers' Latin Dictionary, often referred to as Lewis and Short or L&S) is a popular English-language lexicographical work of the Latin language, published by Harper and Brothers of New York in 1879 and printed simultaneously in the United Kingdom by Oxford University Press. The work is usually referred to as Lewis and Short after the names of its editors, Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. It was derived from the 1850 English translation by Ethan Allen Andrews of an earlier Latin-German dictionary, ""Wörterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache"", by the German philologist Wilhelm Freund,"
"A Dictionary of the English Language Published on 4 April 1755 and written by Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language, sometimes published as Johnson's Dictionary, is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language. There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £ in 2019. Johnson took seven years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. He did so single-handedly, with"