"University of Chicago during his early 1900s research at the Indiana Dunes. Conservation became the preferred term for the more anthropocentric model of resource management, while the writing of Leopold and his inspiration, John Muir, led to the development of environmentalism. Utilitarianism was first put forth by British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Though there are many varieties of utilitarianism, generally it is the view that a morally right action is an action that produces the maximum good for people. Utilitarianism has often been used when deciding how to use land and it is closely connected with an"
"that pleasure and pain be broke down in distinct units called hedons and dolors. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy. His conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. Mill also continued Bentham's tradition of advancing and defending utilitarianism. Mill's book ""Utilitarianism"" is a philosophical defense of utilitarianism. The essay first appeared as a series of three articles published in ""Fraser's Magazine"" in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863. Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) also focused on utilitarian"
"Utilitarianism (book) John Stuart Mill's book Utilitarianism is a classic exposition and defence of utilitarianism in ethics. The essay first appeared as a series of three articles published in ""Fraser's Magazine"" in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863. Mill's aim in the book is to explain what utilitarianism is, to show why it is the best theory of ethics, and to defend it against a wide range of criticisms and misunderstandings. Though heavily criticized both in Mill's lifetime and in the years since, ""Utilitarianism"" did a great deal to popularize utilitarian ethics and"
"capitalist and socialist theories, based on subjective Cartesian thinking, undermined the unity of society present in Thomistic metaphysics as neither were sufficiently concerned with moral philosophy. Writing in 1861, the influential British philosopher and economist, John Stuart Mill stated in ""Utilitarianism"" his view that ""Society should treat all equally well who have deserved equally well of it, that is, who have deserved equally well absolutely. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice; towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge."" In the later 19th"
"Largely owing to Mill, utilitarianism rapidly became the dominant ethical theory in Anglo-American philosophy. Though few contemporary ethicists today would agree with all elements of Mill's hedonistic moral philosophy, utilitarianism remains a live option in ethical theory today. Utilitarianism (book) John Stuart Mill's book Utilitarianism is a classic exposition and defence of utilitarianism in ethics. The essay first appeared as a series of three articles published in ""Fraser's Magazine"" in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863. Mill's aim in the book is to explain what utilitarianism is, to show why it is the"
"main duty inculcated by our religion to do all in morals and manners to which the newfangled doctrine of utility pretended."" The term ""utilitarian"" was taken up by John Stuart Mill, whose 1861 book ""Utilitarianism"" included a footnote that, though ""believing himself to be the first person who brought the word utilitarian into use. He did not invent it, but adopted it from a passing expression in Mr. Galt's Annals of the Parish."" Annals of the Parish Annals of the Parish (full title: Annals of the parish: or, The chronicle of Dalmailing; during the ministry of the Rev. Micah Balwhidder,"
"John Stuart Mill, and Henry Sidgwick), with its formula of the ""greatest pleasure of the greatest number"". Other utilitarian-type views include the claims that the end of action is survival and growth, as in evolutionary ethics (the 19th-century English philosopher Herbert Spencer); the experience of power, as in despotism; satisfaction and adjustment, as in pragmatism (20th-century American philosophers Ralph Barton Perry and John Dewey); and freedom, as in existentialism (the 20th-century French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre). The chief problem for eudaemonist theories is to show that leading a life of virtue will also be attended by happiness—by the winning of the"
"Irish Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave of the Fine Gael party. Just society The idea of a just society first gained modern attention when philosophers such as John Stuart Mill asked, ""What is a 'just society'?"" Their writings covered several different perspectives including allowing individuals to live their lives as long as they didn't infringe on the rights to others, to the idea that the resources of society should be distributed to all, including those most deserving first. In 1861, John Stuart Mill published an essay entitled, ""Utilitarianism"". In this famous essay, Mill advocated the latter view, in which decision makers attended"
"one philosophy or normative framework out of many that people use to guide their decisions regarding agriculture on an everyday basis. The most prevalent of these philosophies will be briefly defined below. This view was first put forth by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Though there are many varieties of utilitarianism, generally the view is that a morally right action is an action that produces the maximum good for people. This theory is a form of consequentialism; which basically means that the correct action is understood entirely in terms of the consequences of that action. Utilitarianism is often used"
"Just society The idea of a just society first gained modern attention when philosophers such as John Stuart Mill asked, ""What is a 'just society'?"" Their writings covered several different perspectives including allowing individuals to live their lives as long as they didn't infringe on the rights to others, to the idea that the resources of society should be distributed to all, including those most deserving first. In 1861, John Stuart Mill published an essay entitled, ""Utilitarianism"". In this famous essay, Mill advocated the latter view, in which decision makers attended to the ""common good"" and all other citizens worked"
"a small but concentrated elite minority, summing up British imperialism, which he believed was the result of the economic restrictions of mercantilist policies. To Cobden and many classical liberals, those who advocated peace must also advocate free markets. Utilitarianism provided the political justification for the implementation of economic liberalism by British governments, which was to dominate economic policy from the 1830s. Although utilitarianism prompted legislative and administrative reform and John Stuart Mill's later writings on the subject foreshadowed the welfare state, it was mainly used as a justification for ""laissez-faire"". The central concept of utilitarianism, which was developed by Jeremy"
"behavior. Utilitarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior. Friedrich Nietzsche savagely critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating that ""Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does."" Nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate ""goal"" and the aim of one's existence, in his words ""makes one contemptible."" Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than ""mere happiness."" He introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the ""last man"" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians"
"back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham, who found that ""nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"", then, from that moral insight, deriving the ""Rule of Utility"": ""that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people"". He defined the meaning of life as the ""greatest happiness principle"". Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and"
"On Liberty On Liberty is a philosophical work by the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, originally intended as a short essay. The work, published in 1859, applies Mill's ethical system of utilitarianism to society and the state. Mill attempts to establish standards for the relationship between authority and liberty. He emphasizes the importance of individuality, which he conceived as a prerequisite to the higher pleasures—the ""summum bonum"" of utilitarianism. Furthermore, Mill criticizes the errors of past attempts to defend individuality where, for example, democratic ideals resulted in the ""tyranny of the majority"". Among the standards established in this work are"
"in which case, the greatest utility is still being achieved. To that extent, the Utilitarianism that Mill is describing is a default lifestyle that he believes is what people who have not studied a specific opposing field of ethics would naturally and subconsciously utilize when faced with decision. Utilitarianism is thought of by some of its activists to be a more developed and overarching ethical theory of Kant's belief in good will however, and not just some default cognitive process of humans. Where Kant would argue that reason can only be used properly by good will, Mill would say that"
"greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong' and describes this as a fundamental axiom. In ""An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation"" he talks of 'the principle of utility' but later prefers ""the greatest happiness principle"". Utilitarianism is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that the morally correct action is the one that produces the best outcome for all people affected by the action. John Stuart Mill, in his exposition of utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds"
"– still less of the spiritual – and there never yet existed a poet except by the inspiration of that feeling which is the perception of beauty in all forms and by all means which are given us, as well as by sight'. She ends the essay by saying 'It is for you' (i.e. Mill) 'the most worthy apostle of all the loftiest virtues – to teach such as may be taught, that the higher the kind of enjoyment, the greater the degree', and it is noteworthy that Mill is known, in his much-later essay Utilitarianism, for introducing the concept"
"political economy he was a utilitarian on the lines of John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. His work was characterised by its careful investigation of first principles, as in his distinction of positive and normative reasoning, and by critical analysis, not always constructive. His influence was such that for example Alfred Marshall, founder of the Cambridge School of economics, would describe him as his ""spiritual mother and father."" In philosophy, he devoted himself to ethics, and especially to the examination of the ultimate intuitive principles of conduct and commonsense morality, which he probes with great depth and subtlety in his"
"will desire the general happiness. Such allegations began to emerge in Mill's lifetime, shortly after the publication of ""Utilitarianism"", and persisted for well over a century, though the tide has been turning in recent discussions. A defence of Mill against all three charges, with a chapter devoted to each, can be found in Necip Fikri Alican's ""Mill's Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill's Notorious Proof"" (1994). This is the first, and remains the only, book-length treatment of the subject matter. Yet the alleged fallacies in the proof continue to attract scholarly attention in journal articles and book"
"reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference (apatheia) to pleasure and pain: as a consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering. Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. Bentham argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause ""the greatest happiness of the greatest number"". He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. John Stuart Mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Karl"
"philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (c. 1050 – c. 1125) was an early, prominent proponent of nominalism. The 19th-century British philosopher John Stuart Mill discussed the problem of universals in the course of a book that eviscerated the philosophy of Sir William Hamilton. Mill wrote, ""The formation of a concept does not consist in separating the attributes which are said to compose it from all other attributes of the same object and enabling us to conceive those attributes, disjoined from any others. We neither conceive them, nor think them, nor cognize them in any way, as a thing apart, but solely"
"intrinsic nature"". All of this factors into John Mill's own definition of utilitarianism, and shows why it differs from other definitions. Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets. However, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose of animal welfare. Mill originally believed that ""equality of taxation"" meant ""equality of sacrifice"" and that progressive taxation penalised those who worked harder and saved more and was therefore ""a mild form of robbery"". Given an equal tax rate regardless"
"medieval world, like the state consequentialism of Mohism or the political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli. Mohist consequentialism advocated communitarian moral goods including political stability, population growth, and wealth, but did not support the utilitarian notion of maximizing individual happiness. Machiavelli was also an exponent of consequentialism. He believed that the actions of a state, however cruel or ruthless they may be, must contribute towards the common good of a society. Utilitarianism as a distinct ethical position only emerged in the eighteenth century. Although utilitarianism is usually thought to start with Jeremy Bentham, there were earlier writers who presented theories that"
"an economy is for the rate of profit to decline due to diminishing returns in agriculture and increase in population at a Malthusian rate John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873), usually cited as J. S. Mill, was a British philosopher, political economist, and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, and political economy. Dubbed ""the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century"", Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and"
"for utilitarian philosophy through the late nineteenth century. In contemporary legal theory, the utilitarian approach is frequently championed by scholars who work in the law and economics tradition. John Rawls was an American philosopher, a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University and author of ""A Theory of Justice"" (1971), ""Political Liberalism"", """", and ""The Law of Peoples"". He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century. His theory of justice uses a device called the original position to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions"
"of enhancing the moral sensibilities of all family members, and reaching the public at large through intense, very well organized agitation and propaganda. They focused on exciting a personal revulsion against social evils and personal misbehavior. Asa Briggs points out, ""There were as many treatises on 'domestic economy' in mid-Victorian England as on political economy"" The third effect came from the philosophical utilitarians, led by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), James Mill (1773–1836) and his son John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). They were not moralistic but scientific. Their movement, often called ""Philosophic Radicalism,"" fashioned a formula for promoting the goal of ""progress"" using"
"larger social utility. Thus, an action that results in the greatest pleasure for the utility of society is the best action, or as Jeremy Bentham, the founder of early Utilitarianism put it, as the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Mill not only viewed actions as a core part of utility, but as the directive rule of moral human conduct. The rule being that we should only be committing actions that provide pleasure to society. This view of pleasure was hedonistic, as it pursued the thought that pleasure is the highest good in life. This concept was adopted by Jeremy"
"ephemeral ""pleasure"". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Whether a particular consequentialist theory focuses on a single good or many, conflicts and tensions between different good states of affairs are to be expected and must be adjudicated. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes a positive effect, such as ""happiness"", ""welfare"", or the ability to live according to personal preferences. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are influential proponents of this school of thought. In ""A Fragment on Government"" Bentham says 'it is the"
"do, in fact, desire happiness, Mill now has to show that it is the ""only"" thing they desire. Mill anticipates the objection that people desire other things such as virtue. He argues that whilst people might start desiring virtue as a ""means"" to happiness, eventually, it becomes part of someone's happiness and is then desired as an end in itself. The description of ideal utilitarianism was first used by Hastings Rashdall in ""The Theory of Good and Evil"" (1907), but it is more often associated with G. E. Moore. In ""Ethics"" (1912), Moore rejected a purely hedonistic utilitarianism and argued"
"rectitude?,"" he replies, the greatest good of the universe of rational beings. This is a version of utilitarianism. Nor does it look merely to the lower pleasures, the pleasures of sense, for the constituents of good, but rises above them to include especially what tends to perfect, strengthen and expand our true nature. Existence and the extension of our powers of body and mind are held to be good for their own sakes without respect to enjoyment. Cumberland's views on this point were long abandoned by utilitarians as destroying the homogeneity and self-consistency of their theory; but John Stuart Mill"
"for our time?"" at the great hall of the university. He was prevented from finishing the lecture by the police. When the university administrators threatened him with expulsion, Lennstrand resigned and left Uppsala for Stockholm, where he took advantage of the opportunity to promote his atheistic and secularist views as a Freethought lecturer in 1887-1888. Strongly attracted to the utilitarian philosophy of John Stuart Mill, Lennstrand organized the Stockholm-based ""Utilitiska Stamfund"" (Utilitarian Society) in 1888. He founded the ""Fritänkaren"" (""Freethinker"") in 1889. Such activism was regarded with great social hostility and met with a series of attacks from the establishment,"
"the ""age of chivalry is dead, that of sophisters, economists and calculators has succeeded, and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever."" Smith's contemporary influences included François Quesnay and Jacques Turgot whom he met on a visit to Paris, and David Hume, his Scottish compatriot. The times produced a common need among thinkers to explain social upheavals of the Industrial revolution taking place, and in the seeming chaos without the feudal and monarchical structures of Europe, show there was order still. Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was perhaps the most radical thinker of his time, and developed the concept of utilitarianism. Bentham"
"Utility Within economics the concept of utility is used to model worth or value, but its usage has evolved significantly over time. The term was introduced initially as a measure of pleasure or satisfaction within the theory of utilitarianism by moral philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. But the term has been adapted and reapplied within neoclassical economics, which dominates modern economic theory, as a utility function that represents a consumer's preference ordering over a choice set. As such, it is devoid of its original interpretation as a measurement of the pleasure or satisfaction obtained by the"