"cities, including Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Lucca, Cremona, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, and many others, had become large trading metropoles, able to obtain independence from their formal sovereigns. Among the earliest city-states of Italy was the Duchy of Naples from 661 which, although nominally under Byzantine control, was effectively independent. Later, the Republic of Venice, which also ""de facto"" broke apart from the Byzantine Empire from 742 (when the Doge title was finally subtracted from the appointment of the Byzantine emperor), becoming also ""de jure"" independent in the following centuries. The other first Italian city-states to appear in"
"communal revenues held at the """". Doge A doge (; ; plural dogi or doges) was an elected lord and chief of state in many of the Italian city-states during the medieval and renaissance periods. Such states are referred to as ""crowned republics"". The word is from the Venetian dialect, reaching English via French. ', along with the related English word ""duke"" and the Italian ', descends from the Latin ', meaning ""leader"", especially in a military context. The wife of a doge is styled a ' and the office of the doge is termed ""dogeship"". The title of ""doge"""
"of the Republic. In the 18th century the Senate was ""de facto"" the highest institution of the Republic and senators became ""nobles of the nobility"". While the Republic was under the rule of Venice (1204–1358), the duke - head of the state (Latin: ""comes"", Italian: ""conte"", Croatian: ""knez"") was Venetian; but after 1358 the elected Rector (from 1358 nominal head of the state was known as Latin: ""rector"", Italian: ""rettore"", Croatian: ""knez"") was always a person from the Republic of Ragusa chosen by the Grand Council. The length of the Rector's service was only one month, and a person was"
"in the 18th century, the ""sopracomiti"" of the galleys were always selected by the Great Council of Venice. Only in the case of the bastard galleys that were used as flagships (""generalizie"") by the squadron commanders (the ""Capi di Mare"") was the selection of the captain (termed a ""governatore"" or ""direttore"") in the hands of the respective commander. Galleys equipped by the cities subject to Venice were commanded by nobles from these cities, which often led to friction with the Venetian patricians. Election to the post required a minimum of four years' prior service as a ""nobile"" (patrician cadet officer)"
"Podestà Podestà () is the name given to certain high officials in many Italian cities beginning in the later Middle Ages. Mainly it meant the chief magistrate of a city state, the counterpart to similar positions in other cities that went by other names, e.g. ""rettori"" (""rectors""), but it could also mean the local administrator, who was the representative of the Holy Roman Emperor. Currently, ""Podestà"" is the title of mayors in Italian-speaking municipalities of Graubünden in Switzerland. The term derives from the Latin word ""potestas"", meaning power. There is a similar derivation for the Arabic term ""Sultan"": originally meaning"
"of the king, ', or military chaplain of the emperor, ' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called """". Lay abbots (M. Lat. ', ', ', ', ' or ', ', or sometimes simply ') were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation, by which—to meet a contemporary emergency—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of"
"was used for the elected chief of state in a number of Italian ""crowned republics"". The two best known such republics, Venice and Genoa, rivaled each other and the other regional great powers, by building their historical city-states into maritime, commercial, and territorial mini-empires. Simone Boccanegra was elected as doge for life on September 24, 1339, as the candidate of the ""popular"" Ghibelline faction. Boccanegra was opposed by the aristocratic Guelf faction, representing the old mercantile nobility, which his first actions excluded from public life. With the old nobility excluded from power, a new class of mercantile house arose. There"
"which was only regarded as a rank of nobility in Italy. The patriciate was an urban aristocracy, as opposed to a feudal one. However, the Republic of Venice also granted feudal titles. In the republics of Venice, Genoa and Ragusa, the head of state had the title of ""Doge"", a variant form of ""Duca"" (Duke) or Rector. In the Middle Ages, During the Renaissance the monarchs conquered all the city-republics except Venice, Genoa, Lucca, San Marino and Ragusa. So, in most of Italy, patricians were integrated into the low ranks of aristocracy. Until 1806, Northern Italy (except Venice and Ragusa,"
"of primate or he has individually been created a cardinal) and has an important role in the selection of bishops. The name nuncio is derived from the ancient Latin word, ""nuntius"", meaning ""envoy"" or ""messenger"". Formerly, the title (Apostolic) Internuncio denoted a papal diplomatic representative of the second class, corresponding to Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary as a title for diplomatic representatives of states (cf. Article 14, par. 2 of the Vienna Convention). Before 1829, Internuncio was the title applied instead to the ""ad interim"" head of a mission when one Nuncio had left office and his replacement had not"
"ranging between approximately 16 months to three years. The general title of the leaders was ""Rettore"", translated as rector. However the specific title awarded the rector varied depending on the location they administered. Thus in the Kingdom of Candia the leader was called ""Duca"", in Zante the term was ""Conte"" and in Corfu the leader of the regiment was given the title of ""Bailo"". Being elected ""Rettore"" was an honour and established that the elected leader had the confidence of his peers in the Senate and Great Council and, although a mission in the overseas protectorates of Venice was expensive"
"as their leader Giordano Pierleoni, son of the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician, since the term ""consul"" had been deprecated as a noble styling. This renovated form of government was constantly embattled. By the end of the 12th century, it had undergone a radical transformation, with the reduction of the number of senators to a single one – ""Summus Senator"" – being thereafter the title of the head of the civil government of Rome. In modern terms, for example, this is comparable to the reduction of a board of commissioners to a single commissioner, such as the"
"three-man ruling panel, or ""administration"". The Genovese crime family are credited with inventing the rank of Messaggero, who is tasked with serving as a liaison between the other American Mafia families. In Italian, ""consigliere"" means ""adviser"" or ""counselor"" and is still a common title for example for members of city councils in Italy and Switzerland. It is derived from Latin ""consiliarius"" (advisor) and ""consilium"" (advice). The terminology of the American Mafia is taken from that of the Sicilian Mafia, and suggests that an analogy is intended to imitate the court of a medieval Italian principality. For example, Venice was led"
"Augustus (title) Augustus (plural augusti; ; , Latin for ""majestic"", ""the increaser"" or ""venerable""), was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Octavius (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form ""Augusta"" was used for Roman empresses and other females of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as"
"dialect development of the Latin ""dux"" (""leader""); the corresponding word in English is ""duke"", in standard Italian ""duce"".) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was ""granted numerous privileges and concessions"" and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as ""dux"" and given the added title of ""hypatus"" (Greek for ""Consul"".) In 751 the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat"
"local politics, the affairs of the colony and, most importantly, the prices and quantities of goods in the local market. He was the superior of the consuls operating in the same country. By the end of the 15th century, the office of ""bailo"" had mostly disappeared, with those operating on foreign soil being downgraded to consuls and those governing Venetian territories being termed rectors, captains or ""podestà"". The bailates of Constantinople and Corfu, however, survived until the end of the republic in 1797. Bailo Bailo or baylo (plural ""baili"" or ""bayli"") is a Venetian title that derives from the Latin"
"Bailo Bailo or baylo (plural ""baili"" or ""bayli"") is a Venetian title that derives from the Latin term ""baiulus"", meaning ""porter, bearer"". In English, it may be translated bailiff, or otherwise rendered as bailey, baili, bailie, bailli or baillie. The office of a ""bailo"" is a ""bailaggio"" (sometimes anglicised ""bailate""). The term was transliterated into Greek as μπαΐουλος (""baioulos""), but Nicephorus Gregoras translated it ἐπίτροπος (""epitropos"", steward) or ἔφορος (""ephoros"", overseer). In the Middle Ages, a ""bailo"" was a resident ambassador of the Republic of Venice. The most famous ""baili"" were those at Constantinople, who were, from 1268, the Venetian"
"Provveditore The Italian title prov[v]editore (plural ""provveditori""; also known in ; ), ""he who sees to things"" (overseer), was the style of various (but not all) local district governors in the extensive, mainly maritime empire of the Republic of Venice. Like many political appointments, it was often held by noblemen as a stage in their career, usually for a few years. Some were Venetian possessions much earlier, but no data on the style of their governors exist; most were lost to the Ottoman Empire. The ""provveditore generale"", or governor-general, was the style of Venetian state officials supervising a whole region"
"Praetorium The Latin term praetorium — or prœtorium or pretorium — originally signified a general's tent within a Roman castra, castellum, or encampment. It derived from the name of one of the chief Roman magistrates, the praetor. ""Praetor"" (Latin, ""leader"") was originally the title of the highest-ranking civil servant in the Roman Republic, but later became a position directly below the rank of consul. The general's war council would meet within this tent, thus acquiring an administrative and juridical meaning that was carried over into the Byzantine Empire, where the ""praitōrion"" was the residence of a city's governor. The term"
"Octavian. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than ""Romulus"", the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome. The title of ""Romulus"" was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid. ""Princeps"" comes from the Latin phrase ""primum caput"", ""the first head"", originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial roster. In the case of Augustus, however, it became an almost regnal title for"
"by Felice Cornicola. Domenico Leoni Domenico Leoni (Latin: ""Dominicus Leo Abrogatis""; lifedates unknown) was a Venetian statesman, originally from Malamocco, who served as ""magister militum"" of Venice in 737. Following the assassination of Orso Ipato, an assembly is said to have been convened by Venice's tribunes, at which the decision was reached to abolish the office of doge. It was then decided that a ""magister militum"", renewed annually, would be appointed instead. This marked the beginning of an interregnum lasting from 737–42, during which five ""magistri militum"" served. Domenico Leoni was the first of these, holding the office in 737."
"electors. Initially the doge of Genoa was elected without restriction and by popular suffrage. Following reforms in 1528, plebeians were declared ineligible, and the appointment of the doge was entrusted to the members of the great council, the "". In Venice, doges normally ruled for life, although a few were forcibly removed from office. While doges had great temporal power at first, after 1268, the doge was constantly under strict surveillance: he had to wait for other officials to be present before opening dispatches from foreign powers; he was not allowed to possess any property in a foreign land. After"
"from among the senatorial class of Rome. There were two main positions; the ""legatus legionis"" was an ex-praetor given command of one of Rome's elite legions, while the ""legatus pro praetore"" was an ex-consul, who was given the governorship of a Roman province with the magisterial powers of a praetor, which in some cases gave him command of four or more legions. A ""legatus"" was entitled to twelve ""lictors"" who carried out punishments with fasces (bundled rods). By the time of the Roman Republic, the term ""legatus"" was applied to those holding delegated authority (usually a consul or proconsul). Julius"
"Signoria of Venice The Signoria of Venice (""Serenissima Signoria"") was the supreme body of government of the Republic of Venice. The oldest name, ""Commune Veneciarum"", was replaced by ""Serenissima Signoria"" from 1423, being later officially adopted in the ""Promissione Ducale"" by Cristoforo Moro (12 May 1462). It constituted a center of power which included the doge's power. The Signoria ruled Venice for a thousand years. The Signoria can be thought of as the combination of the Doge and the other persons commissioned to collaborate and to rule with him. With the passage of time these functionaries became copartners of this"
"Duce Duce (, ""leader"") is an Italian title, derived from the Latin word ""dux"", and cognate with ""duke"". National Fascist Party leader Benito Mussolini was identified by Fascists as ""Il Duce"" (""The Leader"") of the movement. In 1925 it became a reference to the dictatorial position of ""Sua Eccellenza Benito Mussolini, Capo del Governo, Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell'Impero"" (""""His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Leader of Fascism and Founder of the Empire""""). Mussolini held this title together with that of President of the Council of Ministers: this was the constitutional position which entitled him to rule Italy"
"the role of commander-in-chief. However, from about 508 BC Rome no longer had a king. The commanding position of the army was given to the consuls, ""who were charged both singly and jointly to take care to preserve the Republic from danger"". The term legion is derived from the Latin word ""legio""; which ultimately means draft or levy. At first there were only four legions. These legions were numbered ""I"" to ""IIII"", with the fourth being written as such and not ""IV"". The first legion was seen as the most prestigious. The bulk of the army was made up of"
"master of the soldiers, consul and imperial duke of the province of Venetiae. Doge Justinian Partecipacius (d. 829) used the title ""imperialis hypatus et humilis dux Venetiae"", imperial consul and humble duke of Venice. These early titles combined Byzantine honorifics and explicit reference to Venetia's subordinate status. Titles like ""hypatos"", ""spatharios"", ""protospatharios"", ""protosebastos"" and ""protoproedros"" were granted by the emperor to the recipient for life but were not inherent in the office (ἀξία διὰ βραβείου, ""axia dia brabeiou""), but the title ""doux"" belonged to the office (ἀξία διὰ λόγου, ""axia dia logou""). Thus, into the eleventh century the Venetian doges"
"Commune Veneciarum The Commune Veneciarum (Latin for ""Community of Venice"") is the title with which the government of the city of Venice and its Republic was designated from 1143. The municipality, similar to other medieval municipalities, was based on the popular power of the assembly, called Concio in Venice. It represented the patriciate of the city with a system of assemblies including the Great Council, Minor Council, Senate and the Council of Forty. Unlike other Italian cities, Venice retained some vestiges of their previous institution of the monarchy embodied by the Doge for setting bounds for power that such assemblies"
"held titles typical of Byzantine rulers in outlying regions, such as Sardinia. As late as 1202, the Doge Enrico Dandolo was styled ""protosebastos"", a title granted by Alexios III. As Byzantine power declined in the region in the late ninth century, reference to Venice as a province disappeared in the titulature of the doges. The simple titles ""dux Veneticorum"" (duke of the Venetians) and ""dux Venetiarum"" (duke of the Venetias) predominate in the tenth century. The plural reflects the doge's rule of several federated townships and clans. After defeating Croatia and conquering some Dalmatian territory in 1000, Doge Pietro II"
"a successor from a list of three men chosen by him, and submit the name for approval by the king. As of 1940 he may have been preparing his son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano for the role. Duce Duce (, ""leader"") is an Italian title, derived from the Latin word ""dux"", and cognate with ""duke"". National Fascist Party leader Benito Mussolini was identified by Fascists as ""Il Duce"" (""The Leader"") of the movement. In 1925 it became a reference to the dictatorial position of ""Sua Eccellenza Benito Mussolini, Capo del Governo, Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell'Impero"" (""""His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head"
"Domenico Leoni Domenico Leoni (Latin: ""Dominicus Leo Abrogatis""; lifedates unknown) was a Venetian statesman, originally from Malamocco, who served as ""magister militum"" of Venice in 737. Following the assassination of Orso Ipato, an assembly is said to have been convened by Venice's tribunes, at which the decision was reached to abolish the office of doge. It was then decided that a ""magister militum"", renewed annually, would be appointed instead. This marked the beginning of an interregnum lasting from 737–42, during which five ""magistri militum"" served. Domenico Leoni was the first of these, holding the office in 737. He was succeeded"
"or ""presbyter"" are derived etymologically from ""presbyteros"". The New Testament meaning is taken by some scholars as the Latin word ""Legate"" which describes the ancient classical function as a herald who represents the highest state office and might be a governor of a province. ""Episkopos"" (ἐπίσκοπος, ) was a common word in the Greek culture for any official who acted as a superintendent, manager, overseer, controller, curator, guardian or ruler. It occurs only five times in the New Testament, once referring to Christ and the other four times to church leaders. The Authorised Version translates the word as ""bishop"", emphasizing"
"became a breeding ground for despotism and hereditary lordship. By gaining control of the election process for choosing the title-holder, many influential families (including aristocrats that the establishment of this office had contributed to keeping out of power) gained control over their cities and towns of residence, thus assuring their long-lasting influence and progressively transforming the ""Comune"" into a ""Signoria"" (i.e. lordship). Capitano del popolo Captain of the People () was an administrative title used in Italy during the Middle Ages. It was created in the early 13th century when the ""populares"", the increasingly wealthy classes of commoners (merchants, professionals,"
"and Gambarare. In lieu of the earlier tribunes (elected by the people) and gastalds (corresponding with the Doge), during the Republic each district was led by a patrician with the title of ""podestà"", with the exception of Grado, headed by a Count. It was one of the three subdivisions of the Republic's possessions, the other two being the ""Stato da Màr"" (""Sea State"") and the ""Domini di Terraferma"" (""mainland domains""). ""Dogado"" was the equivalent of ""Ducato"" (duchy), the Italian city states that (unlike Venice) had a duke as hereditary head of state. Dogado The Dogado or Duchy of Venice was"