"pine (""Pinus"" species) the bark exudes sticky resin which deters attackers whereas in rubber trees (""Hevea brasiliensis"") it is a milky latex that oozes out. The quinine bark tree (""Cinchona officinalis"") contains bitter substances to make the bark unpalatable. Large tree-like plants with lignified trunks in the Pteridophyta, Arecales, Cycadophyta and Poales such as the tree ferns, palms, cycads and bamboos have different structures and outer coverings. Although the bark functions as a protective barrier, it is itself attacked by boring insects such as beetles. These lay their eggs in crevices and the larvae chew their way through the cellulose"
"was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou. Quinine became the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s when other medications began to be developed. In the 1940s, chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened, first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s. The medicinal value of ""Artemisia annua"" has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat"
"treating malaria; the native Indians of Peru and Ecuador had been using it even earlier for treating fevers. Thompson (1650) introduced this ""Jesuits' bark"" to England. Its first recorded use there was by John Metford of Northampton in 1656. Morton (1696) presented the first detailed description of the clinical picture of malaria and of its treatment with cinchona. Gize (1816) studied the extraction of crystalline quinine from the cinchona bark and Pelletier and Caventou (1820) in France extracted pure quinine alkaloids, which they named quinine and cinchonine. The total synthesis of quinine was achieved by American chemists R.B. Woodward and"
"of Ecuador and Peru for treating fevers. Its role in treating malaria was recognised and recorded first by an Augustine monk from Lima, Peru in 1633. Seven years later the drug had reached Europe and was being used widely with the name 'the Jesuit's bark'. From this point onwards the use of Quinine and the public interest in malaria increased, although the compound was not isolated and identified as the active ingredient until 1820. By the mid-1880s the Dutch had grown vast plantations of cinchona trees and monopolised the world market. Quinine remained the only available treatment for malaria until"
"In the second trial, a picloram and metsulfuron solution was 100% successful in concentrations greater than 4% solution. In the third trial, picloram- metsulfuron solution of 10% concentrations or higher was successful in eradicating the tree. Cinchona pubescens Cinchona pubescens, also known as red cinchona and quina (Quechua) ( ""Cascarilla, cinchona""; ""quina-do-amazonas, quineira""), is native to Central and South America. It is known as a medicinal plant for its bark's high quinine content- and has similar uses to ""Cinchona officinalis"" in the production of quinine, most famously used for treatment of malaria. ""C. pubescens"" varies from small to large in"
"nearly 200 years before the active principles, quinine and other alkaloids, of cinchona bark were isolated. Quinine, a toxic plant alkaloid, is, in addition to its anti-malarial properties, an effective muscle relaxant, as the modern use for nocturnal leg cramps suggests (corroborating its use for shivering by the Peruvian Indians). In 1717, the dark pigmentation of a postmortem spleen and brain was published by the epidemiologist Giovanni Maria Lancisi in his malaria text book ""De noxiis paludum effluviis eorumque remediis"". This was one of the earliest reports of the characteristic enlargement of the spleen and dark color of the spleen"
"tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of the standard—and expensive—ague cure of Peruvian bark. He collected, dried, and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark, and over the next five years tested it on a number of people sick with fever and agues. In his letter, Stone reported consistent success, describing willow extract's effects as identical to Peruvian bark, though a little less potent. (In fact, the active ingredient of Peruvian bark was quinine, which attacked the infectious cause of malaria, while the active ingredient of willow extract, salicin, relieved the symptoms of malaria but could not cure"
"alkaloids, the most familiar of which is quinine, one of the first agents effective in treating malaria. Woodruff (""Galium odoratum"") is a small herbaceous perennial that contains coumarin, a natural precursor of warfarin, and the South American plant ""Carapichea ipecacuanha"" is the source of the emetic ipecac. ""Psychotria viridis"" is frequently used as a source of dimethyltryptamine in the preparation of ayahuasca, a psychoactive decoction. The bark of the species ""Breonadia salicina"" have been used in traditional African medicine for many years. The leaves of the Kratom plant (""Mitragyna speciosa"") contain a variety of alkaloids, including several psychoactive alkaloids and"
"Quinine, which is found naturally in bark of cinchona tree, is known to be used by Quechuas people for malaria-like symptoms. When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue; it is also used to alleviate altitude sickness. Coca leaves are the raw material from which cocaine, one of Peru's most historically important exports, is chemically extracted. Many indigenous women wear the colorful traditional costume, complete with bowler style hat. The hat has been worn by Quechua and Aymara women since the 1920s, when it was brought to the country by British railway workers."
"people. Italian sources spelt Quina as Cina which was a source of confusion with ""Smilax"" from China. Haggis argued that Qina and Jesuit's bark actually referred to ""Myroxylon peruiferum"" or Peruvian balsam and that this was an item of importance in Spanish trade in the 1500s. Over time, the bark of the ""Myroxylon"" was adulterated with the similar looking bark of what we now know as ""Cinchona"". Gradually the adulterant became the main product that was the key therapeutic ingredient used in malarial therapy. The bark was included as ""Cortex Peruanus"" in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1677. The ""fever tree"""
"economically practical source of quinine, a drug that is still recommended for the treatment of ""falciparum"" malaria. The Italian botanist Pietro Castelli wrote a pamphlet noteworthy as being the first Italian publication to mention the cinchona. By the 1630s (or 1640s, depending on the reference), the bark was being exported to Europe. In the late 1640s, the method of use of the bark was noted in the ""Schedula Romana."" English King Charles II called upon Robert Talbor, who had become famous for his miraculous malaria cure. Because at that time the bark was in religious controversy, Talbor gave the king"
"in the 17th century. Bernardino Ramazzini Bernardino Ramazzini (4 October 1633 – 5 November 1714) was an Italian physician. (Italian pronunciation: [bernarˈdino ramats'tsini]) Ramazzini, along with Francesco Torti, was an early proponent of the use of cinchona bark (from which quinine is derived) in the treatment of Malaria. His most important contribution to medicine was his book on occupational diseases, ""De Morbis Artificum Diatriba"" (""Diseases of Workers""). Ramazzini was born in Carpi on 4 October 1633 according to his birth certificate. He studied medicine at the University of Parma, where his interest in occupational diseases began. He was appointed to"
"Cinchona pubescens Cinchona pubescens, also known as red cinchona and quina (Quechua) ( ""Cascarilla, cinchona""; ""quina-do-amazonas, quineira""), is native to Central and South America. It is known as a medicinal plant for its bark's high quinine content- and has similar uses to ""Cinchona officinalis"" in the production of quinine, most famously used for treatment of malaria. ""C. pubescens"" varies from small to large in size, growing to 10 meters in height (33 ft). When cut, the bark tends to turn red. Leaves are elliptical to oblate and thin. The leaves have pubescent teeth that turn red when they are older,"
"and neo-quassin. Quassia Quassia ( or ) is a plant genus in the family Simaroubaceae. Its size is disputed; some botanists treat it as consisting of only one species, ""Quassia amara"" from tropical South America, while others treat it in a wide circumscription as a pantropical genus containing up to 40 species of trees and shrubs. The genus was named after a former slave from Suriname, Graman Quassi in the eighteenth century. He discovered the medicinal properties of the bark of ""Quassia amara"". Broader treatments of the genus include the following and other species: It is the source of the"
"in the southwest Pacific died as a result. Quinine remained the antimalarial drug of choice until after World War II, when other drugs, such as chloroquine, that have fewer side effects largely replaced it. ""Bromo Quinine"" were brand name cold tablets containing quinine, manufactured by Grove Laboratories. They were first marketed in 1889 and available until at least the 1960s. From 1969 to 1992, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) received 157 reports of health problems related to quinine use, including 23 which had resulted in death. In 1994, the FDA banned the marketing of over-the-counter quinine as a"
"genus is the source of a variety of alkaloids, the most familiar of which is quinine, an antipyretic (antifever) agent especially useful in treating malaria. Cinchona alkaloids include: They find use in organic chemistry as organocatalysts in asymmetric synthesis. Alongside the alkaloids, many cinchona barks contain cinchotannic acid, a particular tannin, which by oxidation rapidly yields a dark-coloured phlobaphene called red cinchonic, cinchono-fulvic acid or cinchona red. In 1934, efforts to make malaria drugs cheap and effective for use across countries led to the development of a standard called ""totaquina"" proposed by the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations."
"for their breadth of ethnobotanical and natural history knowledge. Of particular interest at the time was pharmacological knowledge of New World plants such as ""Chinchona"", the source of the anti-malarial, quinine. In addition to detailed descriptions and paintings of the flora and fauna of Peru and Chile, Ruiz observed the geology and weather of the area, and included cultural information about the life of the Indians and the colonists of the area. The result of these observations was the publication of ""Quinología o tratado del árbol de la quina"" in Madrid, 1792, that was promptly translated into Italian in 1792,"
"with materials from the neem tree (""Azadirachta indica"") but change to quinine-rich leaves of the Krishnachua tree (""Caesalpinia pulcherrima"") during an outbreak of malaria; quinine controls the symptoms of malaria. Zoopharmacognosy is not always exhibited in a way that benefits the individual. Sometimes the target of the medication is the group or the colony. Wood ants (""Formica paralugubris"") often incorporate large quantities of solidified conifer resin into their nests. Laboratory studies have shown this resin inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi in a context mimicking natural conditions. The ants show a strong preference for resin over twigs and stones,"
"Winter's Bark from the South American tree ""Drimys winteri"" to ward off the vitamin-deficiency of scurvy. Today, benzoyl is extracted from ""Lindera benzoin"" (common spicebush) for use as a food additive and skin medicine, due to its anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties. Drugs extracted from the bark of ""Magnolia"" have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine. Scientific investigation of magnolol and honokiol have shown promise for their use in dental health. Both compounds demonstrate effective anti-bacterial activity against the bacteria responsible for bad breath and dental caries. Several members of the family Annonaceae are also under investigation for uses of"
"quinine. Malaria, scarlet fever, yellow fever, and influenza, were prominent along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Sappington developed a preventative pill using quinine that was soon in demand across the country. It was marketed as an anti-fever pill, but Sappington also instructed some of his relatives to take the pills to prevent malaria. Most physicians were still treating malaria by bloodletting the patient and administering calomel. Sappington’s pill to prevent malaria—and also used to cure malaria—was controversial due to its novelty and unfamiliarity. The pill remained in high demand, however, and many other physicians began to develop their own anti-malaria"
"plant cinchona outside of South America. Jesuit's bark Jesuit's Bark, also known as cinchona bark, as Peruvian Bark, and as China Bark, is a former name of the most celebrated specific remedy for all forms of malaria. It is so named because it was obtained from the bark of several species of the genus ""Cinchona"", of the Rubiaceae family, that have been discovered at different times and are indigenous in the Western Andes of South America and were first described and introduced by Jesuit priests who did missionary work in Peru. Other terms referring to this preparation and its source"
"in accord with the ""law of similars"" that had been proposed by ancient physicians. An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, and published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Hahnemann's law of similars is a postulate rather than a scientific law. This led to the name """"homeopathy"""", which comes from the ""hómoios"", ""-like"" and ""páthos"", ""suffering"". Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the ""Plasmodium falciparum"" parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas. Hahnemann began to"
"Quassia Quassia ( or ) is a plant genus in the family Simaroubaceae. Its size is disputed; some botanists treat it as consisting of only one species, ""Quassia amara"" from tropical South America, while others treat it in a wide circumscription as a pantropical genus containing up to 40 species of trees and shrubs. The genus was named after a former slave from Suriname, Graman Quassi in the eighteenth century. He discovered the medicinal properties of the bark of ""Quassia amara"". Broader treatments of the genus include the following and other species: It is the source of the quassinoids quassin"
"of malaria. Other alkaloids that are extracted from this tree include cinchonine, cinchonidine and quinidine. Cinchona officinalis Cinchona officinalis is a South American tree in the Rubiaceae family. It is native to wet montane forests in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, between 1600–2700 meters above sea level. Cinchona officinalis is a shrub or tree with rugose bark and branchlets covered in minute hairs. Stipules lanceolate or oblong, acute or obtuse, glabrous. Leaves lanceolate to elliptic or ovate, usually about 10 cm. long and 3.5–4 cm. wide; acute, acuminate, or obtuse tip; base rounded to attenuate; coriaceous, glabrous above and often"
"including ailanthinone, glaucarubinone, and holacanthone. These have been reported to kill protozoa, amoeba, ""Plasmodium"" (the cause of malaria) and also cancerous human cells. The antimalarial properties were first investigated by scientists in 1947; they found that in chickens, 1 mg of bark extract per 1 kg of body weight had strong antimalarial activity. In 1997 a patent was filed in the United States for using an extract in a skin care product. Simarouba amara Simarouba amara is a species of tree in the family Simaroubaceae, found in the rainforests and savannahs of South and Central America and the Caribbean. It"
"in the year 1851. Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke mentioned the existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796"". (Source: Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, by Lieut. Lardner Gibbon, USN. Vol.II, Ch.6, pp. 146-47.) The cultivation of cinchona led from the 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine but the quality and production of raw bark by the Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany) however bargained and caused fluctuations in prices which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a"
"and to sculpture with it. ""B. sempervirens"" wasn’t known for its medical use until the beginning of the 1600s. After this it was found that the leaves (containing alkaloids, oils and tannin), the bark (containing chlorophyll, wax, resin, lignin and minerals) and the oil from the wood had a medical effect. It then was used to treat gout, urinary tract infections, intestinal worms, chronic skin problems, syphilis, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, headache and piles, but also had the reputation of curing leprosy, rheumatism, HIV, fever and malaria. For treating malaria it was used as a substitute for quinine, but because of the"
"any approach to it"". He also stated that quinine only ""relieves"", whereas Warburg's Tincture ""cures"". He advocated that Warburg's Tincture could be employed at all stages of fever, as well as a prophylactic. In the Victorian era Warburg's Tincture was principally employed in the treatment of tropical fevers, including malaria, yellow fever and typhus. It was therefore an antipyretic, and an antimalarial drug. Warburg's Tincture was vaunted as being superior to quinine in the treatment of malaria by many in the Victorian era. Quinine remained the first-line antimalarial drug of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs replaced it. Until"
"Quinine Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to ""Plasmodium falciparum"" that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While used for restless legs syndrome, it is not recommended for this purpose due to the risk of side effects. It can be taken by mouth or used intravenously. Malaria resistance to quinine occurs in certain areas of the world. Quinine is also the ingredient in tonic water that gives it its bitter taste. Common side effects include headache, ringing in the ears, trouble seeing, and sweating. More severe"
"sempervirens"" wasn’t known for its medical use until the beginning of the 1600s. After this it was found that the leaves (containing alkaloids, oils and tannin), the bark (containing chlorophyll, wax, resin, lignin and minerals) and the oil from the wood had a medical effect. It then was used to treat gout, urinary tract infections, intestinal worms, chronic skin problems, syphilis, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, headache and piles, but also had the reputation of curing leprosy, rheumatism, HIV, fever and malaria. For treating malaria it was used as a substitute for quinine, but because of the side effects and the fact that"
"malaria during the height of colonialism which made them of great economic and political importance. The synthesis of quinine in 1944, an increase in resistant forms of malaria, and alternate therapies ended the large-scale economic interest in their cultivation. Academic interest continues as cinchona alkaloids show promise in treating ""falciparum"" malaria which has evolved resistance to synthetic drugs. Carl Linnaeus named the genus in 1742 based on a claim, first recorded by the Italian physician Sebastiano Bado in 1663, that the plant had cured the wife of the Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón, Count of Chinchón, a"
"cramps, chest weakness, anaemia, some suppression of myeloid activity and abdominal pains. In cases of over-dosage granulocytopenia may occur. Artemisinin is a Chinese herb (qinghaosu) that has been used in the treatment of fevers for over 1,000 years, thus predating the use of Quinine in the western world. It is derived from the plant ""Artemisia annua"", with the first documentation as a successful therapeutic agent in the treatment of malaria is in 340 AD by Ge Hong in his book ""Zhou Hou Bei Ji Fang"" (""A Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies""). Ge Hong extracted the artemesinin using a simple macerate,"
"worms and nematodes. Simple bark-extracts have recently been shown to be effective in vitro against the intestinal bacteria salmonella typhi, vibrio cholera, herpes simplex, HIV, and tumors. Pseudopelletierine Pseudopelletierine is the main alkaloid derived from the root-bark of the pomegranate tree (""Punica granatum""), along with at least three other alkaloids: pelletierine, isopelletierine, and methylpelleteirine (C9H17ON), which yield 1.8, 0.52, 0.01, and 0.20 grams per kilogram of raw bark. Isopelletierine is optically inactive. It is a homolog of tropinone, and can be synthesized in a manner analogous to the classical Robinson tropinone synthesis, using glutaraldehyde (rather than succinaldehyde), acetonedicarboxylic acid, and"