"people and further disrupting healthcare and sanitation infrastructure in the country. In the aftermath of the earthquake, international workers from many countries arrived in Haiti to assist in the response and recovery efforts, including a number of workers from countries where cholera is endemic. Before the outbreak, no cases of cholera had been identified in Haiti for more than a century, and the Caribbean region as a whole had not been affected by the cholera outbreak originating in Peru in 1991. The population's lack of prior exposure and acquired immunity contributed to the severity of the outbreak. Cholera is caused"
"and the South Pacific saw a few outbreaks by the late 1970s. In 1971, the number of cases reported worldwide was 155,000. In 1991, it reached 570,000. The spread of the disease was helped by modern transportation and mass migrations. Mortality rates, however, dropped markedly as governments began modern curative and preventative measures. The usual mortality rate of 50% dropped to 10% by the 1980s and less than 3% by the 1990s. In 1991, the strain made a comeback in Latin America. It began in Peru, where it killed roughly 10,000 people. Research has traced the origin of the strain"
"malaria, typhus, influenza, and the common cold to the people of South America. Forty years after the arrival of European explorers and conquistadors, Peru’s native population had decreased by about 80%. Population recovery was made almost impossible by the killer pandemics that occurred approximately every ten years. Additionally, the stress caused by war, exploitation, socioeconomic change, and psychological trauma caused by the conquests was enough to further weaken the indigenous people and render recovery impossible. The risk of infectious disease in Peru is considered to be very high. Common ailments include waterborne bacterial diseases, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, dengue fever,"
"care have led to the decrease in cases worldwide. However, although outbreaks are rare, they still occur worldwide, especially in developed nations such as Germany among unvaccinated children, and Canada. After the breakup of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s, vaccination rates in its constituent countries fell so low that an explosion of diphtheria cases occurred. In 1991, 2,000 cases of diphtheria occurred in the USSR. Between 1991 and 1998 as many as 200,000 cases in the Commonwealth of Independent States were reported, with 5,000 deaths. In 1613, Spain experienced an epidemic of diphtheria. The year is known"
"the world, and while some countries have been free of FMD for some time, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. After World War II, the disease was widely distributed throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas included Asia, Africa, and parts of South America; as of August 2007, Chile is disease-free, and Uruguay and Argentina have not had an outbreak since 2001. In May 2014, the FAO informed that Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru were ""just one step away"" from eradication; North America and Australia have been free of FMD for many years. New"
"In the early 1970s, a triple vaccine containing attenuated measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) viruses was introduced. By 2006, confirmed cases in the Americas had dropped below 3000 a year. However, a 2007 outbreak in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile pushed the cases to 13,000 that year. On January 22, 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Pan American Health Organization declared and certified Colombia free of rubella and became the first Latin American country to eliminate the disease within its borders. On April 29, 2015, the Americas became the first WHO region to officially eradicate the disease. The last"
"about 52,000 deaths, down from 87,000 in 1990. Different types of the disease occur in different regions of the world. Cutaneous disease is most common in Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, and Iran, while mucocutaneous disease is most common in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru, and visceral disease is most common in Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, and Sudan. Leishmaniasis is found through much of the Americas from northern Argentina to South Texas, though not in Uruguay or Chile, and has recently been shown to be spreading to North Texas. Leishmaniasis is also known as ""papalomoyo"", ""papa lo moyo,"" ""úlcera de los chicleros"","
"Cuba on the upper end of the scale. Less than 50 percent have such access in Haiti, most of Central America, and the Amazon basin countries, including the rural populations in Brazil. Cholera reemerged with a vengeance in the region in 1991 for the first time in a century with 400,000 new cases, and while dropping to 100,000 cases in 1997, it still comprises two-thirds of the global cholera burden. TB is a growing problem regionwide, especially in Brazil, Peru, Argentina, and the Dominican Republic where drug-resistant cases also are on the rise. Haiti does not provide data but probably"
"claimed between 60% and 90% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. A handful of historians argue that a disease called Bartonellosis might have been responsible for some outbreaks of illness, but this opinion is in the scholarly minority. The effects of Bartonellosis were depicted in the ceramics of the Moche people of ancient Peru. Even after the two largest empires of the Americas were defeated by the virus and disease, smallpox continued its march of death. In 1561, smallpox reached Chile by sea, when a ship carrying the new governor Francisco de Villagra"
"1921 in Kenya. The disease remained restricted to Africa until 1957, when it was reported in Lisbon, Portugal. A further outbreak occurred in Portugal in 1960. Subsequent to these initial introductions, the disease became established in the Iberian peninsula, and sporadic outbreaks occurred in France, Belgium, and other European countries during the 1980s. Both Spain and Portugal had managed to eradicate the disease by the mid-1990s through a slaughter policy. In 1971 an outbreak of the disease occurred in Cuba, resulting in the slaughter of 500,000 pigs to prevent a nationwide animal epidemic. The outbreak was labeled the ""most alarming"
"in Gansu. In August 2010, Peru's health minister Oscar Ugarte announced that an outbreak of plague had killed a 14-year-old boy and had infected at least 31 people in a northern coastal province. The boy died of bubonic plague on 26 July 2010. Ugarte stated that authorities were screening sugar and fish meal exports from Ascope Province, located about 325 miles (520 km) northwest of Lima, not far from popular Chicama beach. Most of the infections in Peru were bubonic plague, with four cases of pneumonic plague. The first recorded plague outbreak in Peru was in 1903. The last, in"
"Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica, and Venezuela, as well as from the states of Hawaii, Texas, Florida and South Carolina. Until 1998, it was considered to be a Western Hemisphere virus. The first Asian outbreak occurred in Taiwan. It has more recently been identified in Thailand, Myanmar, China, Korea, and Indonesia, where it has been associated with severe epizootics in farmed ""Penaeus vannamei"" and ""Penaeus monodon"". The wide distribution of the disease has been attributed to the movement of infected host stocks for aquaculture purposes. This might have been helped by the highly stable nature of the"
"which still infects more than 24,000 people in the United States each year. Scientists discovered the bacterium in a 43-year-old American woman who had traveled to Peru for three weeks. She suffered from possibly life-threatening anemia, an enlarged spleen, a 102 degree Fahrenheit (39 degree Celsius) fever, and insomnia two weeks after returning to the United States, symptoms akin to those of typhoid fever and malaria. The patient's sickness was first attributed to ""Bartonella bacilliformis"", a known related species with a similar appearance under a microscope that is spread by sand flies and infects 10% of the human population in"
"prior to 1957. The virus was included in the 1978–79 vaccine. An epidemic of influenza-like illness of unknown causation occurred in Mexico in March–April 2009. On 24 April 2009, following the isolation of an A/H1N1 influenza in 7 ill patients in the southwest US. The WHO issued a statement on the outbreak of ""influenza like illness"" in the confirmed cases of A/H1N1 influenza had been reported in Mexico, and that 20 confirmed cases of the disease had been reported in the US.The next day, the number of confirmed cases rose to 40 in the US, 26 in Mexico, 6 in"
"reduce contact between the vesper mouse and humans may have contributed to limiting the number of outbreaks, with no cases identified between 1973 and 1994. Although there are no cures or vaccine for the disease, a vaccine developed for the genetically related Junín virus which causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever has shown evidence of cross-reactivity to Machupo virus, and may therefore be an effective prophylactic measure for people at high risk of infection. Post infection (and providing that the person survives the infection), those that have contracted BHF are usually immune to further infection of the disease. Bolivian hemorrhagic fever was"
"and hypertension, which are generally observed more often in urban populations. Perhaps because of these health risks, many indigenous people choose to live in voluntary isolation from mainstream society. See also Healthcare in Peru Health in Peru Health in Peru has changed drastically from pre-colonial times to the modern era. When European conquistadors invaded Peru, they brought with them diseases against which the Inca population had no immunity. Much of the population was decimated, and this marked an important turning point in the nature of Peruvian healthcare. Since Peru gained independence, the country's major healthcare concern has shifted to the"
"Two years later measles was responsible for the deaths of half the indigenous population of Honduras, and ravaged Mexico, Central America, and the Inca civilization. Historically, measles was very prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the National Immunization Program, 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15, acquiring immunity to further outbreaks. Until a vaccine was developed in 1963, measles was considered to be deadlier than smallpox. Vaccination reduced the number of reported occurrences by 98%. Major epidemics have predominantly occurred in unvaccinated populations, particularly among nonwhite Hispanic and African American children under"
"it might have been an indigenous viral hemorrhagic fever, perhaps exacerbated by the worst droughts to affect that region in 500 years and living conditions for indigenous peoples of Mexico in the wake of Spanish conquest (c. 1519). Some historians have suggested it was typhus, measles, or smallpox, though the symptoms did not match. In 2018, it became known that DNA from the teeth of 29 skeletons belonged to a rare strain of the bacterium ""Salmonella enterica enterica"" which causes paratyphoid fever as a likely cause. Cocoliztli epidemics The cocoliztli epidemic or The great pestilence refers to millions of deaths"
"1961 in Indonesia and is marked by the emergence of a new strain, nicknamed ""El Tor"", which still persists (as of 2018) in developing countries. Cholera did not occur in the Americas for most of the 20th century after the early 1900s in New York City. It reappeared in the Caribbean toward the end of that century and seems likely to persist. Deaths in India between 1817 and 1860, in the first three pandemics of the nineteenth century, are estimated to have exceeded 15 million people. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917, during the next three pandemics. Cholera"
"follow this plan as well. The effectiveness of these vaccinations is demonstrated by the fact that during the period where Argentine Polar Dogs lived in Antarctica (1951-1994), not a single case of canine distemper was registered in the Argentine bases or the bases of any other country, concluding that the diseases was never present on the continent. The only diseases reported to have infected the dogs consisted of parasitosis and dermatitis transmitted to canines by penguins and seals. Records show that dogs may have once devoured a penguin, but it would have been beneficial in controlling the overpopulation of penguin"
"it across the Atlantic. In addition, TB spread via humans on the trade routes of the Old World. Other researchers have argued there is other evidence that suggests the tuberculosis bacteria is older than 6,000 years. This TB strain found in Peru is different from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain likely brought by European colonists. However, this result is criticised by other experts from the field, for instance because there is evidence of the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 9000 year old skeletal remains. Although relatively little is known"
"from Argentina and Chile. The virus spread and, in total, 442,000 animals were slaughtered and the outbreak had an estimated cost of £370 million. Taiwan had previous epidemics of FMD in 1913–14 and 1924–29, but had since been spared, and considered itself free of FMD as late as in the 1990s. On the 19th of March 1997, a sow at a farm in Hsinchu Prefecture, Taiwan, was diagnosed with a strain of FMD which only infects swine. Mortality was high, nearing 100% in the infected herd. The cause of the epidemic was not determined, but the farm was near a"
"by S.J. Liu ""et al"". in 1984. The Chinese outbreak was spread by the angora rabbit, which had originated in Europe. Fourteen million domesticated rabbits died within nine months in the outbreak. In 1984 the virus that caused the disease was identified. The virus spread westward and reached Europe in 1988. The virus has since appeared in Mexico, Cuba, Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Canada. In 1992, the United Kingdom reported its first case of RHD in domestic show rabbits. By the late 1990s, RHD stretched to forty countries and had become endemic in wild and feral rabbit"
"diarrhoea occurred in Nicaragua. This unusually large and severe outbreak was associated with mutations in the rotavirus A genome, possibly helping the virus escape the prevalent immunity in the population. A similar large outbreak occurred in Brazil in 1977. Rotavirus B, also called adult diarrhoea rotavirus or ADRV, has caused major epidemics of severe diarrhoea affecting thousands of people of all ages in China. These epidemics occurred as a result of sewage contamination of drinking water. Rotavirus B infections also occurred in India in 1998; the causative strain was named CAL. Unlike ADRV, the CAL strain is endemic. To date,"
"and should replace 17D at some point. Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America. Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, though, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and ""A. aegypti"" has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban"
"doses required to vaccinate the entire population of the endemic area. Between 1991 and 2005 more than 240,000 people were vaccinated, achieving a great decrease in the numbers of reported cases (94 suspect and 19 confirmed in 2005). The Junín vaccine has also shown cross-reactivity with Machupo virus and, as such, has been considered as a potential treatment for Bolivian hemorrhagic fever. Argentine hemorrhagic fever was one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before the nation suspended its biological weapons program. The Soviet Union also"
"outbreak among foreign workers who traveled to La Oroya to participate in the construction of the Oroya-Lima railway. Most of the workers were transferred to Guadalupe Hospital and died of an unknown disease characterized by fever and severe anemia. Fourteen patients with anemia and fever were studied by Barton. He discovered bacillus within their red blood cells. If the patients recovered from the acute phase, the bacillus changed shape to cocci; and if the patients developed characteristic skin lesions—hemangioma-like nodules in the skin and mucous membranes-the so-called ""Verruga peruana"", the bacteria disappeared from the peripheral blood. On October 5, 1905,"
"region of the Americas declared on 29 April 2015 it had eliminated rubella and congenital rubella syndrome. The last confirmed endemic case of rubella in the Americas was in Argentina in February 2009. The WHO European region missed its elimination target of 2010 due to undervaccination in Central and Western Europe; it has set a new goal of 2015. The disease remains problematic in other regions; in Japan, there were 15,000 cases in 2013. Onchocerciasis (river blindness) is the world's second leading cause of infectious blindness. It is caused by the nematode ""Onchocerca volvulus"", which is transmitted to people via"
"had become a major cause of child mortality and had emerged in the Pacific and the Americas. Dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome were first noted in Central and South America in 1981, as DENV-2 was contracted by people who had previously been infected with DENV-1 several years earlier. The origins of the Spanish word ""dengue"" are not certain, but it is possibly derived from ""dinga"" in the Swahili phrase ""Ka-dinga pepo"", which describes the disease as being caused by an evil spirit. Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait"
"made a comeback over the last decade throughout the Amazon basin, and there have been several recent outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease attributed to ""E. coli"" infection in Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Peru Hemorrhagic fevers are present in almost all South American countries, and most hantavirus pulmonary syndrome occurs in the southern cone. has substantial TB and hepatitis B and C prevalence, but conservative social mores, climatic factors, and the high level of health spending in the oil-producing states tend to limit some globally prevalent diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and malaria. The region has the lowest HIV infection rate among all"
"and make them more susceptible to other diseases. Spanish missionaries found that fever was treated by Amerindians near Loxa (Peru) with powder from Peruvian bark (later established to be from any of several trees of genus ""Cinchona""). It was used by the Quechua Indians of Peru to reduce the shaking effects caused by severe chills. Jesuit Brother Agostino Salumbrino (1561–1642), who lived in Lima and was an apothecary by training, observed the Quechua using the bark of the cinchona tree for that purpose. While its effect in treating malaria (and hence malaria-induced shivering) was unrelated to its effect in controlling"
"deadly infections of smallpox, measles, and influenza were unheard of. The Native Americans did not have the immunities the Europeans developed through long contact with the diseases. Christopher Columbus ended the Americas' isolation in 1492 while sailing under the flag of Castile, Spain. Deadly epidemics swept across the Caribbean. Smallpox wiped out villages in a matter of months. The island of Hispaniola had a population of 250,000 Native Americans. 20 years later, the population had dramatically dropped to 6,000. 50 years later, it was estimated that approximately 500 Native Americans were left. Smallpox then spread to the area which is"
"failure and an 84% decline in admissions by unexplained renal failure. A propolis syrup manufactured by Huilen Laboratories in Buenos Aires, Argentina, contained between 24 and 66.5% DEG, and caused the death of 29 people. In the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, diseases are not recognized unless they become large or unusual. Between November 1995 and June 1996, almost 109 children admitted to the University Hospital in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, presented with acute renal failure. By June 1996, with no idea what was causing the epidemic, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Haiti representative contacted the World Health Organization (WHO,"