"modern ones, carbon fiber composite. Maraging steel Maraging steels (a portmanteau of ""martensitic"" and ""aging"") are steels (iron alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. ""Aging"" refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25 wt.% nickel. Secondary alloying elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates. Original development (by Bieber of Inco"
"special properties, such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability. Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are added during the steelmaking process to remove dissolved oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides. Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of inclusions. Sulphur (in the form of manganese sulphide) lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase machinability. The alloying elements"
"niobium. Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron. With modern steelmaking techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties. Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies"
"the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel. Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have"
"of iron. From prehistory through the creation of the blast furnace, iron was produced from iron ore as ""wrought iron"", 99.82% - 100% Fe, and the process of making steel involved adding carbon to the iron, usually via serendipity in the forge or via the cementation process. The introduction of the blast furnace reversed the problem. A blast furnace produces ""pig iron"", which is an alloy of approximately 90% iron and 10% carbon. If the process of steelmaking begins with ""pig iron"" instead of ""wrought iron"", the challenge is to remove a sufficient amount of carbon to get it to"
"81 million mt of iron and steel were produced from scrap. Most steel from scrap is produced using electric arc furnaces. Coke is used to reduce iron ore (made up of iron oxides) to metallic iron. Flux is added to the furnace charge (iron ore, pig iron, or scrap) to lower the melting point, and draw unwanted impurities into the slag. The most common flux is lime. Other fluxes include dolomite, soda ash, and fluorspar. Other metals are commonly added to steel to produce alloy steels of various types. Common alloy metals are manganese, nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium. Stainless"
"for carbon in steel casting. Of the non-metallic elements less often recognised as metalloids, selenium—in the form of ferroselenium (50–58% selenium)—is used to improve the machinability of stainless steels. All six of the elements commonly recognised as metalloids have toxic, dietary or medicinal properties. Arsenic and antimony compounds are especially toxic; boron, silicon, and possibly arsenic, are essential trace elements. Boron, silicon, arsenic, and antimony have medical applications, and germanium and tellurium are thought to have potential. Boron is used in insecticides and herbicides. It is an essential trace element. As boric acid, it has antiseptic, antifungal, and antiviral properties."
"Iron Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from ) and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust. Its abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high-mass stars, where it is the last element to be produced with release of energy before the violent collapse of a supernova, which scatters the iron into space. Like the other"
"Steelmaking Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron ore and scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel. Limiting dissolved gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, and entrained impurities (termed ""inclusions"") in the steel is also important to ensure the quality of the products cast from the liquid steel. Steelmaking has existed for millennia, but it was not commercialized on a massive scale until the 19th century. The ancient"
"both metal and non-metal, that can be added to steel to make it easier to cut. These additives may work by lubricating the tool-chip interface, decreasing the shear strength of the material, or increasing the brittleness of the chip. Historically, sulphur and lead have been the most common additives, but bismuth and tin are increasingly popular for environmental reasons. Lead can improve the machinability of steel because it acts as an internal lubricant in the cutting zone. Since lead has poor shear strength, it allows the chip to slide more freely past the cutting edge. When it is added in"
"iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle. Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, and the formation of those carbides. Nickel"
"Iron–nickel alloy An iron–nickel alloy or nickel–iron alloy, abbreviated FeNi or NiFe, is a group of alloys consisting primarily of the elements nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe). It is the main constituent of the ""iron"" planetary cores and iron meteorites. The acronym NiFe refers to various chemical reactions that involve an iron–nickel catalyst or component, or in geology, to the general composition of planetary cores (including Earth's). Some iron–nickel alloys are called nickel steel and usually contain additional elements, depending on the purpose. Iron and nickel are notable for being the final elements produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, and the heaviest"
"Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. In the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-centered cubic, there is one atom at the"
"carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type). However, the term ""alloy steel"" is the standard term referring to steels with ""other"" alloying elements added deliberately ""in addition to"" the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium. The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may"
"liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond , it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to"
"Such processes later informed Marie Curie in her search for new elements. Traces of a cerium and lanthanum mischmetal are sometimes added to the Galfan galvanising process for steel wire. This is a zinc and 5-10% aluminium coating, with traces of mischmetal. Mischmetal Mischmetal (from – ""mixed metal"") is an alloy of rare-earth elements. It is also called cerium mischmetal, or rare-earth mischmetal. A typical composition includes approximately55% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and 15-18% neodymium with other rare earth metals following. Its most common use is in the pyrophoric ferrocerium ""flint"" ignition device of many lighters and torches, although an alloy"
"require heat treating. Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine blades of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers. A few common low alloy steels are: Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. As a guideline, alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve"
"the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus, the iron and carbon smelting must be kept at an oxygen deficient (reducing) state to promote burning of carbon to produce not . The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals are deliberately added such as flux which makes a blast furnace more efficient. Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give"
"carbides at the grain boundaries and the strong increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an important alloying material for steel. The high-speed tool steels contain between 3 and 5% chromium. Stainless steel, the primary corrosion-resistant metal alloy, is formed when chromium is introduced to iron in sufficient concentrations, usually where the chromium concentration is above 11%. For stainless steel's formation, ferrochromium is added to the molten iron. Also, nickel-based alloys increase in strength due to the formation of discrete, stable metal carbide particles at the grain boundaries. For example, Inconel 718 contains 18.6% chromium. Because of the excellent high-temperature properties"
"in the crystal lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), slows the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include such things as the hardness, quenching behavior, need for annealing, tempering behavior, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared"
"it some other desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determine how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel. Silica () is almost always present in iron ore. Most of it is slagged off during the smelting process. At temperatures above 1300 °C some will be reduced and form an alloy with the iron. The hotter the furnace, the more silicon will be present"
"steelmaking process. Without the necessity for this preparatory step the HIsarna process is more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional steelmaking processes. Steelmaking Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron ore and scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel. Limiting dissolved gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, and entrained impurities (termed ""inclusions"") in the steel is also important to ensure the quality of the products"
"metal which raises the carbon content of the iron. Silicon carbide and ferromanganese briquettes may also be added to the charge materials. The silicon carbide dissociates and carbon and silicon enters into the molten metal. Likewise, the ferromanganese melts and is combined into the pool of liquid iron in the 'well' at the bottom of the cupola. Additions to the molten iron such as ferromanganese, ferrosilicon, Silicon carbide and other alloying agents are used to alter the molten iron to conform to the needs of the castings at hand. Pea-sized raw ore of metals such as iron, copper, lead, and"
"Ferrotitanium Ferrotitanium is a ferroalloy, an alloy of iron and titanium with between 10–20% iron and 45–75% titanium and sometimes a small amount of carbon. It is used in steelmaking as a cleansing agent for iron and steel; the titanium is highly reactive with sulfur, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, forming insoluble compounds and sequestering them in slag, and is therefore used for deoxidizing, and sometimes for desulfurization and denitrification. In steelmaking the addition of titanium yields metal with finer grain structure. Ferrotitanium can be manufactured by mixing titanium sponge and scrap with iron and melting them together in an induction"
"be cut by a laser, or by wire EDM. Electrical steel is an iron alloy which may have from zero to 6.5% silicon (Si:5Fe). Commercial alloys usually have silicon content up to 3.2% (higher concentrations usually provoke brittleness during cold rolling). Manganese and aluminum can be added up to 0.5%. Silicon significantly increases the electrical resistivity of the steel; this change decreases the induced eddy currents and narrows the hysteresis loop of the material, thus lowering the core loss. However, the grain structure hardens and embrittles the metal; this change adversely affects the workability of the material, especially when rolling"
"multi-layered and nearly pure iron. To the best of my knowledge, there is no new wrought iron being produced today. Well, maybe Japanese Samurai swordsmiths still make their own – but if it's in Home Depot and says ""Wrought Iron"" it isn't. Steel - basically a mixture of iron and carbon, although other metals may be added to change the characteristic of the steel (add chrome, get stainless steel; add nickel, get armor plate). The carbon content of steel is closely controlled in its manufacture - the more carbon the ""stronger"" the steel. Steel varies from iron in that it"
"iron-making blast furnaces. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials to make steel—98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel. Indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is ""more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil"". Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of deep mantle xenoliths. Although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority"
"wear blocks. Before hardening, cast steels and iron are of a uniform and lamellar (or layered) pearlitic grain structure. This is a mixture of ferrite and cementite formed when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. Pearlite is not an ideal material for many common applications of steel alloys as it is quite soft. By heating pearlite past its eutectoid transition temperature of 727 °C and then rapidly cooling, some of the material’s crystal structure can be transformed into a much harder structure known as martensite. Steels with this martensitic structure are often used in"
"the appropriate additives are added in very controlled measure to the near-pure iron in the furnace to produce the type of steel required. Tempering - as mentioned above, steel can be hardened. When heated to red-hot, the iron and carbon in the steel arrange themselves into a lattice network. When quickly quenched, the lattice is frozen in place and forms a rigid structure; the more carbon, the greater the rigidity. When quenched, the steel is as hard as it will become. The harder the steel, the more brittle it is. A file is absolutely hard. It will cut lots of"
"chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. Their alloy content raises their cost, and so they are usually only employed for specialist uses. One common alloy steel, though, is stainless steel. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost. Apart from traditional applications, iron is also used for protection from ionizing radiation. Although it is lighter than another traditional protection material, lead, it is much stronger mechanically. The attenuation of radiation as a function"
"performance of FeO using nanostructuring, surface functionalization, or by employing alternate crystal phases such as β-FeO. A mixture of zinc oxide with about 0.5% iron(III) oxide is called calamine, which is the active ingredient of calamine lotion. Iron(III) oxide Iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(II,III) oxide (FeO), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, FeO is the main source of iron for the steel"
"together with pig iron from blast furnaces. Once all the steel has melted, slag forming agents, such as limestone, are added. The oxygen in iron oxide and other impurities decarburize the pig iron by burning excess carbon away, forming steel. To increase the oxygen contents of the heat, iron ore can be added to the heat. The process is far slower than that of Bessemer converter and thus easier to control and sample for quality assessment. Preparing a heat usually takes 8 h to 8 h 30 min to complete into steel. As the process is slow, it is not"
"0.07 and 0.12%. It also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high temperatures. This would decrease its usefulness in making blister steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption is the overriding consideration. The addition of phosphorus has a down side. At concentrations higher than 0.2% iron becomes increasingly cold short, or brittle at low temperatures. Cold short is especially important for bar iron. Although bar iron is usually worked hot, its uses often require it to be tough, bendable, and resistant"