"Æthelberht II of East Anglia Æthelberht (Old English: ""Æðelbrihte"", ""ÆÞelberhte""), also called Saint Ethelbert the King (died 20 May 794 at Sutton Walls, Herefordshire), was an eighth-century saint and a king of East Anglia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Little is known of his reign, which may have begun in 779, according to later sources, and very few of the coins issued during his reign have been discovered. It is known from the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"" that he was killed on the orders of Offa of Mercia in 794. He was subsequently locally"
"a charter of Offa's in 772; and he was defeated by Offa in battle in 779 at Bensington, but there is nothing else to suggest Cynewulf was not his own master, and he is not known to have acknowledged Offa as overlord. Offa did have influence in the southeast of the country: a charter of 764 shows him in the company of Heahberht of Kent, suggesting that Offa's influence helped place Heahberht on the throne. The extent of Offa's control of Kent between 765 and 776 is a matter of debate amongst historians, but from 776 until about 784 it"
"eighth century. The relationship between Offa and Cynewulf, who was king of Wessex from 757 to 786, is not well documented, but it seems likely that Cynewulf maintained some independence from Mercian overlordship. Evidence of the relationship between kings can come from charters, which were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen, and which were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land. In some cases a king will appear on a charter as a subregulus, or ""subking"", making it clear that he has an overlord. Cynewulf appears as ""King of the West Saxons"" on"
"Humber. Æthelbald, who came to the throne in 716, had established himself as the overlord of the southern Anglo-Saxons by 731. He was assassinated in 757, and was briefly succeeded by Beornred, but within a year Offa ousted Beornred and took the throne for himself. Offa's daughter Eadburh married Beorhtric of Wessex in 789, and Beorhtric became an ally thereafter. In Kent, Offa intervened decisively in the 780s, and at some point became the overlord of East Anglia, whose king, Æthelred, was beheaded at Offa's orders in 794. Offa appears to have moved to eliminate dynastic rivals to the succession"
"was one of a number of strong Mercian kings who ruled from the mid-7th century to the early 9th, and it was not until the reign of Egbert of Wessex in the 9th century that Mercian power began to wane. The power and prestige that Offa attained made him one of the most significant rulers in Early Medieval Britain, though no contemporary biography of him survives. A key source for the period is the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"", a collection of annals in Old English narrating the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The ""Chronicle"" was a West Saxon production, however, and is sometimes"
"and he did this so successfully that he became the greatest king Mercia had ever known. Not only did he win battles and dominate Southern England, but also he took an active hand in administering the affairs of his kingdom, founding market towns and overseeing the first major issues of gold coins in Britain; he assumed a role in the administration of the Catholic Church in England (sponsoring the short-lived archbishopric of Lichfield, 787 to 799), and even negotiated with Charlemagne as an equal. Offa is credited with the construction of Offa's Dyke, which marked the border between Wales and"
"is a legendary king of the Angles recorded in the 9th-century genealogical tradition of the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"". Most of this tradition is spurious, but in the case of Offa, a case for possible historicity of a 5th-century figure has been made because of a matching account by Saxo Grammaticus. Offa of Essex and Offa of Mercia are two historical Anglo-Saxon kings. Offa of Mercia is said to have had been named Winfreth originally, and to have been the son of an ealdorman named Tingfrith. Because he miraculously recovered from a state of lameness and blindness as a child, he was"
"a (probably authentic) lost charter (S1784) in which Offa grants land in Hemel Hempstead to the bishop of London. He was succeeded by Saelred of Essex. Offa of Essex Offa was King of Essex. D. H. Kirby dates his reign as 705 to 709. Simon Keynes dates it c.694 to 709, when he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, where he died as a monk, along with Cenred, King of Mercia. He may have been co-king with Swæfred. He was the son of Sighere, who had died in about 690. In his ""Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum"", Bede described him as"
"seems to have been tenuous until 716, when Æthelbald of Mercia restored Mercia's hegemony for over forty years. Offa's accession in 757 heralded the beginning of a golden age for Mercia. Some historians have suggested that Offa's defeat of the Welsh and the West Saxons of Wessex established the Mercian Supremacy, which remained unchallenged until 825 when Egbert of Wessex supported an East Anglian rebellion against Beornwulf of Mercia, whose defeat at Ellandun, effectively brought the Supremacy to an end. Mercian Supremacy The Mercian Supremacy was the period of Anglo-Saxon history between 600 and 900, when the kingdom of Mercia"
"he apparently controlled the whole of the Kingdom of Sussex. Offa also confirmed two charters of Æðelberht, and in 772 he grants land himself in Sussex, with Oswald, ""dux Suðsax"", as a witness. It is probable that about this time Offa annexed the kingdom of Sussex, as several persons, Osmund, Ælfwald and Oslac, who had previously used the royal title, now sign with that of ""dux"". Offa may not have been able to maintain control in the period 776–785 but he appears to have re-established control afterwards. Mercian power collapsed in the years following Offa's death in 796, and the"
"though the reason why is unrecorded. Æthelbald was initially succeeded by Beornred, about whom little is known. The continuation of Bede comments that Beornred ""ruled for a little while, and unhappily"", and adds that ""the same year, Offa, having put Beornred to flight, sought to gain the kingdom of the Mercians by bloodshed."" It is possible that Offa did not gain the throne until 758, however, since a charter of 789 describes Offa as being in the thirty-first year of his reign. The conflict over the succession suggests that Offa needed to re-establish control over Mercia's traditional dependencies, such as"
"the Welsh, this along with the presence of monks makes it seem unlikely that the raid could have taken place during his rule. The ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"" records the lineage of two Mercian kings of Eowa's blood, Æthelbald and Offa. ""Aethelbald was Alweo's offspring, Alweo Eawa's offspring, Eawa Pybba's offspring..."", Later, it gives the lineage of Eowa's great-great-grandson Offa, who ruled from 757 to 796 and was descended from Osmod rather than Eowa's other son Alweo, ""That Offa was Thingfrith's offspring, Thingfrith Eanwulf's offspring, Eanwulf Osmod's offspring, Osmod Eawa's offspring, Eawa Pybba's offspring, Pybba Creoda's offspring, Creoda Cynewald's offspring, Cynewald Cnebba's"
"subordinate rulers (Offa is described in ""Beowulf"" as ruling an 'empire'). Whilst Offa's line went on to found the Kingdom of Mercia, these putative cadet lines may eventually have engendered the ruling dynasties of East Anglia, Deira and possibly Bernicia. As for the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, the kings of Lindsey appear to have been an offshoot of the Mercian line; those of Wessex claimed descent from the aforementioned Freawine, though their subjects were Saxons; those of Essex and Sussex were Saxon; and those of Kent were Jutish. The genealogy connecting the Icling dynasty of the earliest kings of Mercia with"
"the land. A charter might record the names of both a subject king and his overlord on the witness list appended to the grant. Such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma, for example, where Æthelric, son of king Oshere of the Hwicce, is described as a """"subregulus"""", or subking, of Æthelbald. According to the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"", Ecgfrith only reigned for 141 days. Offa is known to have died in 796, on either 26 July or 29 July, so Ecgfrith's date of death is either 14 December or 17 December of the same year. Coenwulf succeeded Ecgfrith"
"coin. Only three gold coins of Offa's have survived: one is a copy of an Abbasid dinar of 774 and carries Arabic text on one side, with ""Offa Rex"" on the other. The gold coins are of uncertain use but may have been struck to be used as alms or for gifts to Rome. Many historians regard Offa as the most powerful Anglo-Saxon king before Alfred the Great. His dominance never extended to Northumbria, though he gave his daughter Ælfflæd in marriage to the Northumbrian king Æthelred I in 792. Historians once saw his reign as part of a process"
"of Northumbria were married to his daughters. Further afield, Charlemagne, the pre-eminent ruler in the Christian West, appears to have taken an active interest in Northumbrian affairs. Charlemagne initially ruled Francia and parts of Italy, but by 796 had become master of an empire which stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Hungarian Plain. He was a staunch defender of the Papacy, and in the popes and the church hierarchy he had allies whose influence extended to Northumbria and beyond. Events in southern Britain to 796 have sometimes been portrayed as a struggle between Offa and Charlemagne, but the"
"continued to be overshadowed by Mercian hegemony until, in 794, Offa of Mercia had the East Anglian king Æthelberht executed and then took control of the kingdom for himself. A brief revival of East Anglian independence under Eadwald after Offa's death in 796 was soon suppressed by the new Mercian king, Coenwulf. The independence of the East Anglians was restored by a successful rebellion against Mercia led by Æthelstan in 825. Beornwulf of Mercia's attempt to restore Mercian control over East Anglia resulted in his defeat and death, and his successor Ludeca met the same end in 827. The East"
"under strong Mercian influence, for most or all of the 8th century. It is unlikely that Offa had significant influence in the early years of his reign outside the traditional Mercian heartland. The overlordship of the southern English which had been exerted by Æthelbald appears to have collapsed during the civil strife over the succession, and it is not until 764, when evidence emerges of Offa's influence in Kent, that Mercian power can be seen expanding again. Offa appears to have exploited an unstable situation in Kent after 762. Kent had a long tradition of joint kingship, with east and"
"version of events, and it is possible that Offa's direct involvement in Sussex was limited to a short period around 770–71. After 772, there is no further evidence of Mercian involvement in Sussex until c. 790, and it may be that Offa gained control of Sussex in the late 780s, as he did in Kent. In East Anglia, Beonna probably became king in about 758. Beonna's first coinage predates Offa's own, and implies independence from Mercia. Subsequent East Anglian history is quite obscure, but in 779 Æthelberht II became king, and was independent long enough to issue coins of his"
"Mercian kingdom"", and his actions have been seen as going beyond the normal relation of overlordship and extending to the annexation of Kent and the elimination of a local royal line. After 785, in the words of one historian, ""Offa was the rival, not the overlord, of Kentish kings"". Mercian control lasted until 796, the year of Offa's death, when Eadberht Praen was temporarily successful in regaining Kentish independence. Ealhmund was probably the father of Egbert of Wessex, and it is possible that Offa's interventions in Kent in the mid-780s are connected to the subsequent exile of Egbert to Francia."
"to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it was from Repton that in 873-4 that the Great Heathen Army deposed the King of Mercia. Slightly earlier, Offa seems to have favoured Tamworth. It was there where he was crowned and spent many a Christmas. For 300 years (between 600 and 900), having annexed or gained submissions from five of the other six kingdoms of the Heptarchy (East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex), Mercia dominated England south of the River Humber: this period is known as the Mercian Supremacy. The reign of King Offa, who is best remembered for his Dyke that designated"
"is clear from charters that Offa was in control of Kent by 785. Rather than just acting as overlord of his new possession, he attempted to annex it or at least reduce its importance by creating a new diocese in Mercia at Lichfield, possibly because the archbishop of Canterbury Jænberht refused to crown his son Ecgfrith. Jænberht resigned a part of his bishopric and the pro-Mercian Hygeberht was chosen by King Offa to replace him ""through enmity conceived against the venerable Jænberht and the Kentish people"", according to Offa's eventual successor Coenwulf. In 796 Offa died, and in this moment"
"Mercia. Offa exerted himself to ensure that his son Ecgfrith of Mercia would succeed him, but after Offa's death in July 796 Ecgfrith survived for only five months, and the kingdom passed to a distant relative named Coenwulf in December 796. In 821 Coenwulf's brother Ceolwulf succeeded to the Mercian kingship; he demonstrated his military prowess by his attack on and destruction of the fortress of Deganwy in Gwynedd. The power of the West Saxons under Egbert (King of Wessex from 802 to 839) grew during this period, however, and in 825 Egbert defeated the Mercian king Beornwulf (who had"
"Offa's son Ecgfrith. Charlemagne took offence, broke off contact, and closed his ports to English traders. Eventually, normal relations were reestablished and the ports were reopened. Just a few years later, in 796, Charlemagne and Offa concluded the first commercial treaty known in English history. His father associated Charles in the government of Francia and Saxony, Neustria in 790, and installed him as ruler of the ""ducatus Cenomannicus"" (corresponding to the later Duchy of Maine). Charles was crowned King of the Franks at Rome 25 December, 800, the same day his father was crowned Emperor. He killed Sorbian duke Miliduch"
"of his son, Ecgfrith. According to a contemporary letter from Alcuin of York, an English deacon and scholar who spent over a decade as a chief advisor at Charlemagne's court, ""the vengeance of the blood shed by the father has reached the son""; Alcuin added, ""This was not a strengthening of the kingdom, but its ruin."" Offa died in July 796. Ecgfrith succeeded him but reigned for less than five months before Coenwulf came to the throne. The surviving sources do not record whether Ecgfrith died of natural causes or was assassinated, though Alcuin's letter seems to imply the latter."
"the Hwicce and the Magonsæte. Charters dating from the first two years of Offa's reign show the Hwiccan kings as ""reguli"", or kinglets, under his authority; and it is likely that he was also quick to gain control over the Magonsæte, for whom there is no record of an independent ruler after 740. Offa was probably able to exert control over the kingdom of Lindsey at an early date, as it appears that the independent dynasty of Lindsey had disappeared by this time. Little is known about the history of the East Saxons during the 8th century, but what evidence"
"Offa's Dyke. It consists of the usual bank and ditch of an ancient dyke, with the ditch on the western side, meaning that the dyke faces Wales and by implication can be seen as protecting the English lands to the east. The placement of the dyke in the terrain also shows that care was taken to provide clear views to the west and to use local features to the best defensive advantage. The dyke was previously thought to date to the early 8th century, constructed by Aethelbald king of Mercia who reigned from 716 to 757. Aethelbald's successor, Offa, built"
"list should read ""Ecgfrið Rex"", and refers to Offa's son. He was anointed King of the Mercians in 787, nine years before his succession in 796, and would have been correctly styled ""rex"". Stenton suggested that the name 'Biscop' came from the title 'bishop' and must post-date Paulinus's mission to Lindsey of 628 CE. But, as Sarah Foot has pointed out, Biscop does not need to have been derived from an external origin. The other genealogies in the Anglian collection close with historic personages whose dates are known, such as Edwin of Deira (616-33), Ethelred of Mercia (675-704) and Ethelbert"
"of Haestingas to Ine as part of the treaty. In 771 King Offa of Mercia invaded Southern England, and over the next decade gradually seized control of Sussex and Kent. Symeon of Durham records a battle fought at an unidentified location near Hastings in 771, at which Offa defeated the Haestingas tribe, effectively ending its existence as a separate kingdom. By 790, Offa controlled Hastings effectively enough to confirm grants of land in Hastings to the Abbey of St Denis, in Paris. But, the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"" for 1011 relates that Vikings overran ""all Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Haestingas"", indicating the"
"that Kentish independence was restored for some years. Offa's victory over Wessex at Bensington, Mercian pressure resumed and Kent was absorbed into Mercia. Henry of Huntingdon wrote that it was the Mercians who were victorious. Battle of Otford (776) The Battle of Otford was a battle fought in 776 between the Mercians, led by Offa of Mercia, and the Jutes of Kent. The battle took place at Otford, in the modern English county of Kent. The ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"" recorded that the Mercians and the people of Kent fought at Otford, without giving the outcome, although it is considered significant that"
"a malady, and departed this life."" His reign lasted 141 days. Ecgfrith was succeeded by a distant relative, Coenwulf, presumably because Offa had arranged the murder of nearer relatives in order to eliminate dynastic rivals. According to a contemporary letter from Alcuin of York, an English deacon and scholar who spent over a decade at Charlemagne's court as one of his chief advisors: Alcuin added: ""This was not a strengthening of the kingdom, but its ruin."" Ecgfrith of Mercia Ecgfrith was king of Mercia from 29 July to December 796. He was the son of Offa, one of the most"
"Offa of Essex Offa was King of Essex. D. H. Kirby dates his reign as 705 to 709. Simon Keynes dates it c.694 to 709, when he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, where he died as a monk, along with Cenred, King of Mercia. He may have been co-king with Swæfred. He was the son of Sighere, who had died in about 690. In his ""Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum"", Bede described him as ""a youth of most lovely age and beauty, and most earnestly desired by all his nation to be their king. He, with like devotion, quit his"
"Evidently he was demoted from king to ealdorman following Offa's conquest of Sussex. Osmund of Sussex Osmund (fl. ) was a King of Sussex, apparently reigning jointly with Oswald, Ælfwald, and Oslac. According to the ""Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"", version D, Osmund was reigning in Sussex when Archbishop Cuthbert died in 760, so his rule commenced before that event. Osmund issued a charter, dated 762 in error for 765, as ""Osmundus"". Osmund also issued a charter dated 770 in which he is listed as ""Osmundus rex"". So Osmund’s reign was from in or before 760 to between 770 and 772, as he"