Which French physicist gave the first successful theoretical account of heat engines, now known as his namesake cycle, thereby laying the foundations of the second law of thermodynamics?
"Theory of heat In the history of science, the theory of heat or mechanical theory of heat was a theory, introduced in 1798 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (better known as 'Count Rumford') and developed more thoroughly in 1824 by the French physicist Sadi Carnot, that heat and mechanical work are equivalent. It is related to the mechanical equivalent of heat. Over the next century, with the introduction of the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius, this theory evolved into the science of thermodynamics. In 1851, in his ""On the Dynamical Theory of Heat"", William Thomson outlined the"
"the second law of thermodynamics, and remains valid today. It states The efficiency of a quasi-static or reversible Carnot cycle depends only on the temperatures of the two heat reservoirs, and is the same, whatever the working substance. A Carnot engine operated in this way is the most efficient possible heat engine using those two temperatures. The German scientist Rudolf Clausius laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat transfer and work. His formulation of the second law, which was published in German in 1854, is known as the ""Clausius statement"":"
"of any particular reference thermometric body. The second law of thermodynamics may be expressed in many specific ways, the most prominent classical statements being the statement by Rudolf Clausius (1854), the statement by Lord Kelvin (1851), and the statement in axiomatic thermodynamics by Constantin Carathéodory (1909). These statements cast the law in general physical terms citing the impossibility of certain processes. The Clausius and the Kelvin statements have been shown to be equivalent. The historical origin of the second law of thermodynamics was in Carnot's principle. It refers to a cycle of a Carnot heat engine, fictively operated in the"
"turbines operating at even higher temperatures) exceeds that of conventional steam plants. The first prototype of the diesel engine was based on the Carnot cycle. Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by the application of work to the system. It is not an"
"Heat."" The ""Reflections"" contain a number of principles such as the Carnot cycle, the Carnot heat engine, Carnot's theorem, thermodynamic efficiency. Similar to how the ""Reflections"" was the precursor to the second law, English physicist James Joule's 1843 paper ""Mechanical equivalent of heat"" was the precursor to the first law of thermodynamics. Despite the fact that the caloric theory of heat was incorrect, Carnot's work brought together three insights that remain relevant and was used by his successors that led to the concept of entropy: __notoc__ Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire"
"Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by the application of work to the system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct. Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. When a system is taken through a series"
"Ericsson cycle The Ericsson cycle is named after inventor John Ericsson who designed and built many unique heat engines based on various thermodynamic cycles. He is credited with inventing two unique heat engine cycles and developing practical engines based on these cycles. His ""first"" cycle is now known as the closed Brayton cycle, while his second cycle is what is now called the Ericsson cycle. Ericsson is one of the few who built open-cycle engines, but he also built closed-cycle ones. The following is a list of the four processes that occur between the four stages of the ideal Ericsson"
"287 J/(kg·K) and 1.4 for air respectively). The pressure after the heat addition can be calculated from the ideal gas law: formula_4 The second stage (2-3) involves a reversible adiabatic expansion of the fluid back to its original pressure. It can be determined for an isentropic process that the second law of thermodynamics results in the following: <math>\frac = \left( {\frac} \right)^ Lenoir cycle The Lenoir cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle often used to model a pulse jet engine. It is based on the operation of an engine patented by Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir in 1860. This engine is"
"Carnot heat engine A Carnot heat engine is a theoretical engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Carnot engine model was graphically expanded upon by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically explored by Rudolf Clausius in 1857 from which the concept of entropy emerged. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when a system is taken through a series of different states, and finally returned to its initial state. In the process of going through this"
"Lenoir cycle The Lenoir cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle often used to model a pulse jet engine. It is based on the operation of an engine patented by Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir in 1860. This engine is often thought of as the first commercially produced internal combustion engine. The absence of any compression process in the design leads to lower thermal efficiency than the more well known Otto cycle and Diesel cycle. In the cycle, an ideal gas undergoes The expansion process is isentropic and hence involves no heat interaction. Energy is absorbed as heat during the isochoric heating"
"first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the environment as the power of the machine. Such a machine is called a ""perpetual motion machine of the second kind"". The second law declared the impossibility of such machines. Carnot's theorem (1824) is a principle that limits the maximum efficiency for any possible engine. The efficiency solely depends on the temperature difference between the hot and cold thermal reservoirs. Carnot's theorem states: In his ideal model, the heat of caloric converted into work could be reinstated by reversing the motion of the cycle, a concept subsequently known as"
"the fall of caloric (heat) from a hot to a cold body. The work was unnoticed until 1834 when French mining engineer Émile Clapeyron put it on a graphical footing in his ""Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat"". Through Clapeyron's paper, German physicist Rudolf Clausius learned of Carnot's theory of heat and through a modification of Carnot's suppositions on heat, Clausius put the second law in mathematical form with his introduction of the concept of entropy. By 1849, ""thermo-dynamic"", as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper ""An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of"
"thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law. Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact that heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter. Other formulations followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait's influential work ""Treatise on Natural Philosophy"") and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law's general implications. The second Law was the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738,"
"of the Clausius theorem. According to the second theorem, ""The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance"". Carnot heat engine A Carnot heat engine is a theoretical engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Carnot engine model was graphically expanded upon by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically explored by Rudolf Clausius in 1857 from which the concept of entropy emerged. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when"
"first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law. Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact"
"The text of part of an earlier version of this article was taken from the public domain resource ""A Short Account of the History of Mathematics"" by W. W. Rouse Ball (4th Edition, 1908) Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (; 1 June 1796 – 24 August 1832) was a French military engineer and physicist, often described as the ""father of thermodynamics"". Like Copernicus, he published only one book, the ""Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire"" (Paris, 1824), in which he expressed, at the age of 27 years, the first successful theory of the maximum efficiency of"
"an engine was the earliest modern formulation of the second law of thermodynamics. Because it involves no mathematics, it still often serves as the entry point for a modern understanding of both the second law and entropy. Carnot's focus on heat engines, equilibrium, and heat reservoirs is also the best entry point for understanding the closely related concept of exergy. Carnot believed in the incorrect caloric theory of heat that was popular during his time, but his thought experiment nevertheless described a fundamental limit of nature. As kinetic theory replaced caloric theory through the early and mid-19th century (""see Timeline"
"of rational mechanics began to be applied to experimental phenomena, most influentially with the French mathematician Joseph Fourier's analytical treatment of the flow of heat, as published in 1822. Joseph Priestley proposed an electrical inverse-square law in 1767, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb introduced the inverse-square law of electrostatics in 1798. At the end of the century, the members of the French Academy of Sciences had attained clear dominance in the field. At the same time, the experimental tradition established by Galileo and his followers persisted. The Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences were major centers for the performance"
"radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in ""A New System of Chemistry"" and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics. In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical cyclone, which led"
"him in the front rank of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1895. Hippolyte Carnot Lazare Hippolyte Carnot (6 October 1801, Saint-Omer – 16 March 1888) was a French statesman. He was the younger brother of the founder of thermodynamics Sadi Carnot and the second son of the revolutionary politician and general Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, who also served in the government of Napoleon, as well as the father of French president Marie François Sadi Carnot. Hippolyte Carnot was born at Saint-Omer, Pas-de-Calais. After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, his father"
"Alexis Thérèse Petit Alexis Thérèse Petit (; 2 October 1791, Vesoul, Haute-Saône – 21 June 1820, Paris) was a French physicist. Petit is known for his work on the efficiencies of air- and steam-engines, published in 1818 (""Mémoire sur l’emploi du principe des forces vives dans le calcul des machines""). His well-known discussions with the French physicist Sadi Carnot, founder of thermodynamics, may have stimulated Carnot in his reflexions on heat engines and thermodynamic efficiency. Petit was born in Vesoul, Haute-Saône. At the age of 10, he proved that he was already capable of taking the difficult entrance exam to"
"that heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter. Other formulations followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait's influential work ""Treatise on Natural Philosophy"") and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law's general implications. The second Law was the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, but had fallen out of favor, and was revived by Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault measured the speed of light in water and find"
"years earlier. Nevertheless, François Arago called him the inventor of the steam engine as a result. In this same book, ""Les Raisons des forces mouvantes"", Caus presents a well-known just-intonation scale, now known as the Ellis Duodene, after Alexander John Ellis who reinvented it. It is to Caus that the term ""work"" is owed in the sense that it is used in the field of mechanics. Salomon de Caus Salomon de Caus (1576, Dieppe – 1626, Paris) was a French Huguenot engineer, once (falsely) credited with the development of the steam engine. Caus was the elder brother of Isaac de"
"heat since introduced by Antoine Lavoisier in 1783. Lavoisier's prestige and the practical success of Sadi Carnot's caloric theory of the heat engine since 1824 ensured that the young Joule, working outside either academia or the engineering profession, had a difficult road ahead. Supporters of the caloric theory readily pointed to the symmetry of the Peltier–Seebeck effect to claim that heat and current were convertible in an, at least approximately, reversible process. Further experiments and measurements with his electric motor led Joule to estimate the ""mechanical equivalent of heat"" as 4.1868 joules per calorie of work to raise the temperature"
"other devices, such as the hydrometer and reflecting goniometer, and improved the Gravesand heliostat and Fahrenheit's aerometer. In addition he confirmed Benjamin Franklin's electrical experiments. Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes), describing how gases tend to expand when heated, was first published by natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he credited it to unpublished work by Jacques Charles, and named the law in his honour. Around 1787 Charles did an experiment where he filled 5 sites to the same volume with different adds. He then raised the temperature of the sites to 80 °C and"
"complete until at least a century later. Guillaume Amontons is also the inventor of the hot air engine. In 1699 he built his first engine, means over one century before the well-known Stirling Engine. This engine, named by Amontons ""FIre Mill"" was following a new thermodynamic cycle, that later became the Stirling cycle. The fire mill is a wheel that make use of the heated air and its expansion to generate motive power. The calculated power of Amontons' Fire Mill was 39 HP ; this was the level of power of the most powerful hot air engines of the 19th"
"He further considered questions of phase transitions in what later became known as Stefan problems. Clapeyron also worked on the characterisation of perfect gases, the equilibrium of homogeneous solids, and calculations of the statics of continuous beams, notably the theorem of three moments (Clapeyron's theorem). Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron (; 26 February 1799 – 28 January 1864) was a French engineer and physicist, one of the founders of thermodynamics. Born in Paris, Clapeyron studied at the École polytechnique, graduating in 1818. He also studied at École des mines. In 1820 he and Gabriel Lamé went to"
"Thermodynamicist In thermodynamics, a thermodynamicist is someone who studies thermodynamic processes and phenomena, i.e. the physics that deal with mechanical action and relations of heat. Among the well-known number of , include Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, Willard Gibbs, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Max Planck. Although most consider the French physicist Nicolas Sadi Carnot to be the first true thermodynamicist, the term ""thermodynamics"" itself wasn’t coined until 1849 by Lord Kelvin in his publication ""An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat"". The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, a civil and mechanical engineering"
"by an external agent, the refrigeration system. Lord Kelvin expressed the second law as Suppose there is an engine violating the Kelvin statement: i.e., one that drains heat and converts it completely into work in a cyclic fashion without any other result. Now pair it with a reversed Carnot engine as shown by the figure. The net and sole effect of this newly created engine consisting of the two engines mentioned is transferring heat formula_6 from the cooler reservoir to the hotter one, which violates the Clausius statement(This is a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, as for the"
"Jointly primitive with this notion of heat were the notions of empirical temperature and thermal equilibrium. This framework also took as primitive the notion of transfer of energy as work. This framework did not presume a concept of energy in general, but regarded it as derived or synthesized from the prior notions of heat and work. By one author, this framework has been called the ""thermodynamic"" approach. The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics, by Rudolf Clausius in 1850, referred to cyclic thermodynamic processes. Clausius also stated the law in another form, referring to the existence of"
"the ""Kelvin-Planck statement"" of the law, as for example in the text by ter Haar and Wergeland. The Kelvin–Planck statement (or the ""heat engine statement"") of the second law of thermodynamics states that Planck stated the second law as follows. Rather like Planck's statement is that of Uhlenbeck and Ford for ""irreversible phenomena"". Constantin Carathéodory formulated thermodynamics on a purely mathematical axiomatic foundation. His statement of the second law is known as the Principle of Carathéodory, which may be formulated as follows: In every neighborhood of any state S of an adiabatically enclosed system there are states inaccessible from S."
"modern theories in physics, including field theory and quantum mechanics. The French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830) introduced the notion of Fourier series to solve the heat equation, giving rise to a new approach to solving partial differential equations by means of integral transforms. Into the early 19th century, the French Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) made paramount contributions to mathematical astronomy, potential theory, and probability theory. Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) worked in analytical mechanics and potential theory. In Germany, Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) made key contributions to the theoretical foundations of electricity, magnetism, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. In England,"
"Brayton cycle The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas turbine engines and airbreathing jet engines also follow the Brayton cycle. Although the cycle is usually run as an open system (and indeed must be run as such if internal combustion is used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes of thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system. The engine cycle is named"