What is the term coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977 to explain a memory that is laid down in great detail during a significant event, often of national or international importance?
"dimensional structure that involves all levels of autobiographical knowledge, whereas flashbulb memories appear to come from a more densely integrated region of autobiographical knowledge. Flashbulb memories and non-flashbulb memories also differ qualitatively and not just quantitatively. Flashbulb memories are considered a form of autobiographical memory but involve the activation of episodic memory, where as everyday memories are a semantic form of recollections. Being a form of autobiographical recollections flashbulb memories are deeply determined by the reconstructive processes of memory, and just like any other form of memory are prone to decay. Brown and Kulik emphasized that importance is a critical"
"interested audience of millions. (Brown & Kulik, 1977, pp. 97–99). The circumstances of a ""now print!"" reaction are described by Brown and Kulik: ""First comes the recognition of high novelty or unexpectedness; then comes a test for biological meaning for the individual; if this second test is met, there follows the permanent registration not only of the significant novelty, but of all recent brain events.""(1967b, p. 576). Brown and Kulik proposed that the ""Now Print!"" theory delivered an evolutionary advantage by giving rise to very specific and durable memories of events of high personal consequence. Such memories might be used"
"and semantic. Tulving described episodic memory as a memory about a specific event that occurred at a particular time and place, for example what you got for your 10th birthday. Semantic memories are abstract words, concepts, and rules stored in long-term memory. Furthermore, Endel Tulving devised the encoding specificity principle in 1983, which explains the importance of the relation between the encoding of information and then recalling that information. To explain further, the encoding specificity principle means that a person is more likely to recall information if the recall cues match or are similar to the encoding cues. The 1960s"
"elaborate accounts. Therefore, the flashbulb memory becomes more accessible and vividly remembered for a long period of time. Some researchers recognized that previous studies of flashbulb memories are limited by the reliance on small sample groups of few nationalities, thus limiting the comparison of memory consistency across different variables. The comprehensive model was born out of similar experimentation as Brown and Kulik's, but with a larger participant sample. One major difference between the two models is that the Photographic Model follows more of a step-by-step process in the development of flashbulb accounts, whereas the Comprehensive Model demonstrates an interconnected relationship"
"of the two major divisions of memory – the other is implicit memory. The term ""episodic memory"" was coined by Endel Tulving in 1972. He was referring to the distinction between knowing and remembering. Knowing is more factual (semantic) whereas remembering is a feeling that is located in the past (episodic). Tulving has seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection. These are a subjective sense of time (or mental time travel), connection to the self, and autonoetic consciousness. Autonoetic consciousness refers to a special kind of consciousness that accompanies the act of remembering which enables an individual to"
"Human memory process Numerous theoretical accounts of memory have differentiated memory for facts and memory for context. Psychologist Endel Tulving (1972; 1983) further defined these two declarative memory conceptions of explicit memory (in which information is consciously registered and recalled) into semantic memory wherein general world knowledge not tied to specific events is stored and episodic memory involving the storage of context-specific information about personal experiences (i.e. time, location, and surroundings of personal knowledge). Conversely, implicit memory (non declarative) involves perhaps unconscious registration (lack of awareness during encoding), yet definite unconscious recollection. Skills and habits, priming, and classical conditioning all"
"words, but not in circumstances of their own choosing."" At a theoretical level, one of Olick’s key contributions within memory studies is the distinction between ""collective"" and ""collected"" memory. While studies of ""collected"" memory examine ""the aggregated individual memories of members of a group,"" studies of ""collective"" memory turn to ""collective phenomena sui generis""--representations of the past that exist outside the confines of individual minds (e.g., memorials, speeches). Historically, Olick identifies a shift in the underlying principles of political legitimation on the global stage. While state rhetoric once overwhelmingly focused on heroic commemorations of glorious pasts, states now increasingly must"
"to be remembered in this mnemonic system are mentally associated with specific physical locations. The method relies on memorized spatial relationships to establish order and recollect memorial content. It is also known as the ""Journey Method"", used for storing lists of related items, or the ""Roman Room"" technique, which is most effective for storing unrelated information. Many effective memorisers today use the ""method of loci"" to some degree. Contemporary memory competition, in particular the World Memory Championship, was initiated in 1991 and the first United States championship was held in 1997. Part of the competition requires committing to memory and"
"Meanderings of Memory Meanderings of Memory is a rare book published in London in 1852 and attributed to Nightlark (probably a pseudonym). Although it is cited as a first or early source for over 50 entries in the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" (OED), the current OED editors have been unable to locate a surviving copy. OED editors made their search for the elusive source public in May 2013. The OED is a comprehensive multi-volume historical dictionary, whose first edition was published in installments called fascicles between 1884 and 1928. The definition of every sense of every headword entry is accompanied by"
"Sydney Siege or of 9/11 are examples of flashbulb memories. Anderson (1976) divides long-term memory into ""declarative (explicit)"" and ""procedural (implicit)"" memories. Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called ""explicit memory"", since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved. Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as"
"in 1959 made the distinction between two primary forms of memory. One form was entitled ""remembrances"", the other ""memoria"". The remembrance concept dealt with memories that contained experiences of an autobiographic index, whereas the memoria concept dealt with those memories that did not reference experiences having an autobiographic index. Semantic memory reflects our knowledge of the world around us, hence the term 'general knowledge' is often used. It holds generic information that is more than likely acquired across various contexts and is used across different situations. According to Madigan in his book titled ""Memory"", semantic memory is the sum of"
"episodic memory might contain a specific memory of petting a particular cat. We can learn about new concepts by applying our knowledge learned from things in the past. The counterpart to declarative or explicit memory is nondeclarative memory or implicit memory. The idea of semantic memory was first introduced following a conference in 1972 between Endel Tulving, of the University of Toronto, and W. Donaldson on the role of organization in human memory. Tulving constructed a proposal to distinguish between episodic memory and what he termed semantic memory. He was mainly influenced by the ideas of Reiff and Scheers, who"
"globe. When looking at accuracy, the importance of the event can related to how accurate an individual's flashbulb memory is. Reports found that among British participants no forgetting occur over 4 years since the event. Events that are highly surprising and are rated as highly important to an individual may be preserved in the memory for a longer period of time, and have the qualities of recent events compared to those not as affected. If an event has a strong impact on an individual these memories are found to be kept much longer. It was proposed that the intensity of"
"general event is recalled, it cues the recall of other related events in memory. These clusters of memories often form around the theme of either achieving or failing to achieve personal goals. Clusters of general events that fall under the category of ""first-time"" achievements or occasions seem to have a particular vividness, such as the first time kissing a romantic partner, or the first time going to a ball game. These memories of goal-attainment pass on important information about the self, such as how easily a skill can be acquired, or an individual's success and failure rates for certain tasks."
"of flashbulb accounts is the degree of consequentiality, which in turn, triggers a certain level of emotional arousal. Brown and Kulik described consequentiality as the things one would imagine may have gone differently if the event hadn't occurred, or what consequences the event had on an individual's life. Furthermore, Brown and Kulik believed that high levels of these variables would also result in frequent rehearsal, being either covert (""always on the mind"") or overt (ex. talked about in conversations with others). Rehearsal, which acts as a mediating process in the development of a flashbulb account, creates stronger associations and more"
"Explicit memory Explicit memory (or declarative memory) is one of the two main types of long-term human memory. It is the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences and concepts. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories: ""episodic memory"", which stores specific personal experiences, and ""semantic memory"", which stores factual information. Declarative memory's counterpart is known as implicit memory or procedural memory, which refers to unconscious memories such as skills (e.g. knowing how to get dressed, eat, drive, ride a bicycle without having to re-learn the skill each time). People use explicit memory throughout the day, such as"
"sequence. For more complex concepts, understanding is the key to remembering. In a study done by Wiseman and Neisser in 1974 they presented participants with picture (the picture was of a Dalmatian in the style of pointillism making it difficult to see the image). They found that memory for the picture was better if the participants understood what was depicted. Another way understanding may aid memory is by reducing the amount that has to be remembered via chunking. Chunking is the process of organizing objects into meaningful wholes. These wholes are then remembered as a unit rather than separate objects."
"as well that range from shallow to deep, with the varying depths of encoding representing different levels of memory processing. Together, with Robert Lockhart, Craik co-wrote an article on the levels-of-processing that rivaled the previously accepted Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model at the time. This article changed what was previously thought on how memory is processed and stored in the human mind and gained support as the new paradigm for memory processing. A follow-up article was done by Craik and Tulving in 1975 which provided more evidence for this new model through a series of experiments. As Craik’s research endeavors explored memory"
"recognized if seen. Hart expanded upon limited investigations of FOK which had presupposed that FOK was accurate. The results of Hart’s study indicate that FOK is indeed a relatively accurate indicator of what is in memory. In a 1970 review of memory research, Tulving and Madigan concluded that advances in the study of memory might require the experimental investigation of “one of the truly unique characteristics of human memory: its knowledge of its own knowledge”. It was around the same time that John H. Flavell coined the term ""metamemory"" in a discussion on the development of memory. Since then, numerous"
"and flashbulb memory, although it exists for general memory. Flashbulb memory A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. The term ""flashbulb memory"" suggests the surprise, indiscriminate illumination, detail, and brevity of a photograph; however flashbulb memories are only somewhat indiscriminate and are far from complete. Evidence has shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the memories can be forgotten. Flashbulb memories are one type of autobiographical memory. Some researchers believe that there"
"Memorization Memorization is the process of committing something to memory. Mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall items such as experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information. The scientific study of memory is part of cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Within the first three years of a child's life, they begin to show signs of memory that is later improved into their adolescent years. This includes short term memory, long term memory, working memory, and autobiographical"
"Episodic memory Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place. For example, if one remembers the party on their 6th birthday, this is an episodic memory. They allow an individual to figuratively travel back in time to remember the event that took place at that particular time and place. Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one"
"Kennedy was assassinated. The ability to recall episodic information concerning a memory has been termed source monitoring, and is subject to distortion that may lead to source amnesia. Human memory process Numerous theoretical accounts of memory have differentiated memory for facts and memory for context. Psychologist Endel Tulving (1972; 1983) further defined these two declarative memory conceptions of explicit memory (in which information is consciously registered and recalled) into semantic memory wherein general world knowledge not tied to specific events is stored and episodic memory involving the storage of context-specific information about personal experiences (i.e. time, location, and surroundings of"
"kill only warriors in fights. When remembering things from one's past, it is easier to remember events that are tied to a major life-changing event (e.g. flashbulb memories. Research done by Norman Brown, Peter Lee, and others, tested the hypothesis that memory is organized based on life-changing events by having participants recall memories with historically defined autobiographical periods (H-DAPs; i.e. ""during the war"", ""after the earthquake""). The results found that participants that lived in war zones or places where a natural disaster such as a tsunami had occurred typically would refer to their H-DAPs to date personal events, while New"
"participants are asked, without prior warning, to recall as many of the words they had seen as possible within a given time limit. Craik and Tulving's original experiment showed that structural and phonemic tasks lead only to ""shallow"" encoding, while the semantic tasks lead to ""deep"" encoding and resulted in better recall. However, in 1977, it was shown that self-relevant or self-descriptive encoding leads to even better recall than semantic tasks. Experts suggest that the call on associative memory required by semantic tasks is what provides the advantage over structural or phonemic tasks, but is not enough to surpass the"
"information. The key information recorded includes: location, description, category, inscription, names recorded and photographs. War memorials are defined as any tangible object which has been erected or dedicated to commemorate war, conflict, victory or peace; or casualties who served in, were affected by or killed as a result of war, conflict or peacekeeping; or those who died as a result of accident or disease whilst engaged in military service. This includes memorials to civilian casualties and animals. While most memorials commemorate the First and Second World Wars, all conflicts are covered, from the Roman conquest of Britain to current-day actions"
"accident. Tulving's work with KC highlighted the central importance of episodic memory for the subjective experience of one's self in time, an ability he dubbed ""autonoetic consciousness"". KC lacked this ability, failing to remember prior events and also failing to imagine or plan for the future. Tulving also developed a cognitive task to measure different subjective states in memory, called the ""remember""/""know"" procedure. This task has been used extensively in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Another area where Tulving has had an impact is the distinction between conscious or explicit memory (such as episodic memory) and more automatic forms of implicit"
"function. These events tend to be more talked about than events occurring outside this period. Flashbulb memories from the ""reminiscence bump"" are better remembered by older adults than are memories are having recently occurred. Generally the factors that influence flashbulb memories are considered to be constant across cultures. Tinti et al. (2009) conducted a study on memories of Pope John Paul II's death amongst Polish, Italian, and Swiss Catholics. The results showed that personal involvement was most important in memory formation, followed by proximity to the event. Flashbulb memories differ among cultures with the degree to which certain factors influence"
"Elaborative encoding Elaborative encoding is a mnemonic that relates to-be-remembered information to pre-existing memories and knowledge. One can make such connections visually, spatially, semantically or acoustically. Practitioners use multiple techniques, such as the method of loci, the link system, the peg-word method, PAO (person, action, object), etc., to store information in long-term memory and to make it easier to recall this information in the future. Mnemonists at the World Memory Championships use many different forms and techniques of elaborative encoding - in addition to the ones listed above - to remember large quantities of information pertaining to each event of"
"young adults. In 1986, when ""Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids"" was first published, the author had written 22 books on taking standardized tests. A work in two volumes, one for upper elementary grades and the other for middle school, the ""Guide"" has methods for taking tests and completing schoolwork. Memorization is the process of committing something to memory. The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall items such as experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music"
"Reminiscence is a technical term, coined by Ballard in 1913, denoting improvement in the performance of a partially learned act that occurs while the subject is resting, that is, not performing the act in question. (Eysenck and Frith, 1977, page 3). The reality of reminiscence was first experimentally demonstrated by Oehrn (1896). In experiments on reminiscence the same task is always administered twice or more. One is mainly interested in the effect of the rest periods between the tasks. Learning might not be apparent within a task but it may be across tasks. Reminiscing also contributes towards consolidation of memory,"
"Levels-of-processing effect The levels-of-processing effect, identified by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing. Deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer-lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow levels of analysis. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing (e.g., processing based on phonemic and orthographic components) leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing (e.g., semantic processing) results in a more durable memory trace. This theory contradicts the multi-store Atkinson-Shiffrin memory"
"remember a given list of words. These results show that pain states can also affect memory. Studies have shown that simply creating the same internal state that you had at the time of encoding is sufficient to serve as a retrieval cue. Therefore putting yourself in the same mindset that you were in at the time of encoding will help recall in the same way that being in the same situation helps recall. This effect called context reinstatement was demonstrated by Fisher and Craik 1977 when they matched retrieval cues with the way information was memorized. State-dependent memory has widespread"