"time such as woodcut, wood engraving, copper engraving and later lithography. All the illustrations in the ""Encyclopædia Britannica"" of 1911 are steel engravings. Confusingly, the printmaking technique used in steel engravings is, after the earliest years in the 1820s, normally a combination of etching and true engraving, with etching becoming dominant in later examples, after the technique became popular in the 1830s. Engraving is done with a burin, which is a small bar of hardened steel with a sharp point. It is pushed along the plate to produce thin furrowed lines, leaving ""burr"" or strips of waste metal to the"
"Cerography Cerography or glyphography is a printmaking technique related to engraving, using a layer of wax over a metal substrate. After the image is engraved into the wax, a positive plate is produced through stereotyping or electrotyping. This plate can be used with conventional letterpress equipment. The word is derived from the Greek , wax, and , to write). Cerography was invented in the late 1830s by Sidney E. Morse, a son of Jedidiah Morse, and a younger brother of Samuel Morse; it was independently patented in England by Edward Palmer, who primarily conceived of it as an artistic medium."
"Xerox art Xerox art (sometimes, more generically, called copy art, electrostatic art, or xerography) is an art form that began in the 1960s. Prints are created by putting objects on the glass, or platen, of a copying machine and by pressing ""start"" to produce an image. If the object is not flat, or the cover does not totally cover the object, or the object is moved, the resulting image is distorted in some way. The curvature of the object, the amount of light that reaches the image surface, and the distance of the cover from the glass, all affect the"
"Xerography Xerography or electrophotography is a dry photocopying technique. Its fundamental principle was invented by American physicist Chester Carlson and based on Hungarian physicist Pál Selényi's publications. Chester Carlson applied for and was awarded on October 6, 1942. The technique was originally called electrophotography. It was later renamed xerography—from the Greek roots ξηρός ""xeros"", ""dry"" and -γραφία ""-graphia"", ""writing""—to emphasize that, unlike reproduction techniques then in use such as cyanotype, this process used no liquid chemicals. Carlson's innovation combined electrostatic printing with photography, unlike the dry electrostatic printing process invented by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg in 1778. Carlson's original process was"
"yinshua"" 雕版印刷), known as xylography today, was the first method of printing applied to a paper medium. It became widely used throughout East Asia both as a method for printing on textiles and later, under the influence of Buddhism, on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to about 220. ""Ukiyo-e"" is the best known type of Japanese woodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique on paper are covered by the term woodcut (see below), except for the block-books produced mainly in the fifteenth century. According to southern Chinese histories,"
"Xylotechnigraphy Xylotechnigraphy is an architectural term for a decorative treatment to wood. By staining, finishing, and graining, the wood resembles a more expensive or finer type. The process was invented by A. F. Brophy and patented in England in 1871. In a paper read before a meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects three years after xylotechnigraphy was patented, G. T. Robinson described it as ""in principle exceedingly simple. ... To ceilings, doors, dados in our private houses, to partitions and fittings of our banks and commercial offices, this process is, I conceive, exceedingly applicable, and to our larger"
"Vexillography Vexillography is the art and practice of designing flags; it is allied with vexillology, the scholarly study of flags, but is not synonymous with that discipline. A person who designs flags is a vexillographer. Flag designs exhibit a number of regularities, arising from a variety of practical concerns, historical circumstances, and cultural prescriptions that have shaped and continue to shape their evolution. Vexillographers face the necessity for the design to be manufactured (and often mass-produced) into or onto a piece of cloth, which will subsequently be hoisted aloft in the outdoors to represent an organization, individual, idea, or group."
"Crystallography Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure). The word ""crystallography"" derives from the Greek words ""crystallon"" ""cold drop, frozen drop"", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ""graphein"" ""to write"". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used to determine the structure of large biomolecules such as proteins. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was"
"Vitreography Vitreography is a fine art printmaking technique that uses a float glass matrix instead of the traditional matrices of metal, wood or stone. A print created using the technique is called a vitreograph. Unlike a monotype, in which ink is painted onto a smooth glass plate and transferred to paper to produce a unique work, the vitreograph technique involves fixing the imagery in, or on, the glass plate. This allows the production of an edition of prints. In addition to being relatively inexpensive, glass is chemically inert. It does not oxidize, nor does it change or interact with the"
"Calligraphy Calligraphy (from Greek: καλλιγραφία) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, brush, or other writing instruments. A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as ""the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner"". Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable. Classical calligraphy differs from typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both. Calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding invitations and event invitations, font"
"varnished or polished all over, or it may remain as it is left by the last staining process. Xylotechnigraphy Xylotechnigraphy is an architectural term for a decorative treatment to wood. By staining, finishing, and graining, the wood resembles a more expensive or finer type. The process was invented by A. F. Brophy and patented in England in 1871. In a paper read before a meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects three years after xylotechnigraphy was patented, G. T. Robinson described it as ""in principle exceedingly simple. ... To ceilings, doors, dados in our private houses, to partitions and"
"Pyrography Pyrography or pyrogravure is the art of decorating wood or other materials with burn marks resulting from the controlled application of a heated object such as a poker. It is also known as pokerwork or wood burning. The term means ""writing with fire"", from the Greek ""pur"" (fire) and ""graphos"" (writing). It can be practiced using specialized modern pyrography tools, or using a metal implement heated in a fire, or even sunlight concentrated with a magnifying lens. ""Pyrography dates from the 17th century and reached its highest standard in the 19th century. In its crude form it is pokerwork."""
"Lithography Lithography () is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a cheap method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material. Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum"
"Its primary use, however, was for line drawings, and in particular maps. It was easier than copperplate engraving and allowed lines and printed text to be combined easily in a single plate (the text could simply be stamped into the wax). It also allowed for color illustration. As compared to lithography and copperplate it had the disadvantage that it could not reproduce fine shading well. The technique remained popular to the end of the 19th century but was gradually pushed out by photoengraving. Cerography Cerography or glyphography is a printmaking technique related to engraving, using a layer of wax over"
"Collagraphy Collagraphy (sometimes spelled collography) was introduced in 1955 by Glen Alps and is a printmaking process in which materials are applied to a rigid substrate (such as paperboard or wood). The word is derived from the Greek word ""koll"" or ""kolla"", meaning glue, and ""graph"", meaning the activity of drawing. The plate can be intaglio-inked, inked with a roller or paintbrush or some combination thereof. Ink or pigment is applied to the resulting collage and the board is used to print onto paper or another material using either a printing press or various hand tools. The resulting print is"
"but not in the non-printing areas. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks (using a different block for each color). The art of carving the woodcut can be called ""xylography"", but this is rarely used in English for images alone, although that and ""xylographic"" are used in connection with block books, which are small books containing text and images in the same block. They became popular in Europe during the latter half of the 15th century. A single-leaf woodcut is a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to"
"Xeroradiography Xeroradiography is a type of X-ray imaging in which a picture of the body is recorded on paper rather than on film. In this technique, a plate of selenium, which rests on a thin layer of aluminium oxide, is charged uniformly by passing it in front of a scorotron. The process was developed by engineer Dr. Robert C. McMaster in 1950. As X-ray photon impinges on this amorphous coat of selenium, charges diffuse out, in proportion to energy content of the X-ray. This occurs as a result of photoconduction. The resulting imprint, in the form of charge distribution on"
"X-ray lithography X-ray lithography, is a process used in electronic industry to selectively remove parts of a thin film. It uses X-rays to transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply ""resist,"" on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the produced pattern into the material underneath the photoresist. X-ray lithography originated as a candidate for next-generation lithography for the semiconductor industry, with batches of microprocessors successfully produced. Having short wavelengths (below 1 nm), X-rays overcome the diffraction limits of optical lithography, allowing smaller feature sizes. If the X-ray source isn't collimated,"
"and does not list the physical properties of individual crystals themselves. Each book is about 1000 pages and the titles of the books are: Crystallography Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure). The word ""crystallography"" derives from the Greek words ""crystallon"" ""cold drop, frozen drop"", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ""graphein"" ""to write"". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used"
"are intense and coherent, x-ray holography has been used to capture ultrafast dynamic processes. Holography is a technique that enables a light field (which is generally the product of a light source scattered off objects) to be recorded and later reconstructed when the original light field is no longer present, due to the absence of the original objects. Holography can be thought of as somewhat similar to sound recording, whereby a sound field created by vibrating matter like musical instruments or vocal cords, is encoded in such a way that it can be reproduced later, without the presence of the"
"Sigillography Sigillography (sometimes referred to under its Greek name, sphragistics) is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It refers to the study of seals attached to documents as a source of historical information. It concentrates on the legal and social meaning of seals, as well as the evolution of their design. It has links to diplomatics, heraldry, social history, and the history of art. Antiquaries began to record historic seals in the 15th century, and in the 16th and 17th centuries their study became a fairly widespread antiquarian activity. The term sigillography is first found in the works of"
"X-ray crystallography X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their crystallographic disorder, and various other information. Since many materials can form crystals—such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors,"
"Detonography Detonography is a method for sculpting metal with plastic or other explosives. Essentially a form of giant printmaking, with the explosive acting as the stamping press, it was created by Evelyn Rosenberg in 1986 with the help of the engineers of New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico. The process can create complex surfaces with delicate etched designs, even welding dissimilar metals. The results are lightweight, durable indoor and out, and relatively vandalproof. This process essentially embosses the metal, but with a raised image instead of a depressed one. Rosenberg has produced more than 40"
"along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30–35; 28:9–12; 39:6–14, 30. Prints: Of gems: Of guns: Of coins: Of postage stamps: Of pins: Engraving Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it with a burin. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel, or glass are engraved, or may provide an intaglio printing plate, of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper as prints or illustrations; these images are also called"
"of these fibers for textile applications is more recent. The first commercial production of fiberglass was in 1936. In 1938, fiberglass was invented by Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning. 1938 Xerography Xerography, which means ""dry writing"" in Greek, is a process of making copies. Xerography makes copies without using ink. In this process, static electricity charges a lighted plate; a plastic powder is applied to the areas of the page to remain white. The photocopier was invented in 1938 by Chester Floyd Carlson who marketed his revolutionary device to about 20 companies before he could interest any. The Haloid Company,"
"although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress. Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in glasses or polycrystals that have been made anisotropic by working or stress—for example, stress-induced birefringence. ""Crystallography"" is the science of measuring the crystal structure (in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is X-ray diffraction. Large numbers of known crystal"
"Glass engraving Glass engraving is a form of decorative glasswork that involves engraving a glass surface or object. It is distinct from glass art in the narrow sense, which refers to moulding and blowing glass, and from glass etching which uses acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances to achieve artistic effects. Some artists may combine two or more techniques. There are several different types of glass engraving. Glass engraving is considered by many to be a dying art form. While this is far from accurate it is certainly a form that has seen its heyday come and go. Despite this, there"
"A group of artists who later formed the National Serigraph Society, including WPA artists Max Arthur Cohn and Anthony Velonis, coined the word Serigraphy in the 1930s to differentiate the artistic application of screen printing from the industrial use of the process.""Serigraphy"" is a compound word formed from Latin ""sēricum"" (silk) and Greek ""graphein"" (to write or draw). The Printers' National Environmental Assistance Center says ""Screenprinting is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes. Since rudimentary screenprinting materials are so affordable and readily available, it has been used frequently in underground settings and subcultures, and the non-professional look of"
"Stone rubbing Stone rubbing is the practice of creating an image of surface features of a stone on paper. The image records features such as natural textures, inscribed patterns or lettering. By rubbing hard rendering materials over the paper, pigment is deposited over protrusions and on edges; depressions remain unpigmented since the pliable paper moves away from the rendering material. Common rendering materials include charcoal, wax, graphite or inksticks. Over time, the practice of stone rubbing can cause permanent damage to cultural monuments due to abrasion. For an artist, stone rubbings can become an entire body of creative work that"
"Flexography Flexography (often abbreviated to flexo) is a form of printing process which utilizes a flexible relief plate. It is essentially a modern version of letterpress which can be used for printing on almost any type of substrate, including plastic, metallic films, cellophane, and paper. It is widely used for printing on the non-porous substrates required for various types of food packaging (it is also well suited for printing large areas of solid colour). In 1890, the first such patented press was built in Liverpool, England by Bibby, Baron and Sons. The water-based ink smeared easily, leading the device to"
"Holography Holography is the science and practice of making holograms. Typically, a hologram is a photographic recording of a light field, rather than of an image formed by a lens, and it is used to display a fully three-dimensional image of the holographed subject, which is seen without the aid of special glasses or other intermediate optics. The hologram itself is not an image and is usually unintelligible when viewed under diffuse ambient light. It is an encoding of the light field as an interference pattern of seemingly random variations in the opacity, density, or surface profile of the photographic"
"is chemically applied to a plate, generally through exposure of photosensitive layers on the plate material. Lithography is based on the fact that water and oil do not mix, which enables the planographic process to work. In the context of a printing plate, a wettable surface (the non-image area) may also be termed hydrophilic and a non-wettable surface (the image area) hydrophobic. Gravure is a process in which small cells or holes are etched into a copper cylinder, which are able to be filled with ink. All the colours are etched in different angles, thus while printing every colour is"
"traditional duplicating technologies. After considering several options, Haloid chose a term invented by a public-relations employee at Battelle, who had asked a classics professor at Ohio State University for ideas. The professor suggested the term ""xerography""—formed by combining the Greek words ""xeros"" (""dry"") and ""graphein"" (""writing""). Carlson was not fond of the name, but Haloid's Wilson liked it, and so Haloid's board of directors voted to adopt it. The company's patent department wanted to trademark ""xerography;"" Haloid's head of sales and advertising, John Hartnett, vetoed the idea: ""Don't do ""that"". We want people to ""use"" the word."" On October 22,"