"rotation and vibration spectra were understood and the electron's spin was discovered, leading to the confusion of half-integer quantum numbers. Max Planck introduced the zero point energy and Arnold Sommerfeld semiclassically quantized the relativistic hydrogen atom. Hendrik Kramers explained the Stark effect. Bose and Einstein gave the correct quantum statistics for photons. Kramers gave a prescription for calculating transition probabilities between quantum states in terms of Fourier components of the motion, ideas which were extended in collaboration with Werner Heisenberg to a semiclassical matrix-like description of atomic transition probabilities. Heisenberg went on to reformulate all of quantum theory in terms"
"alone a Christian God."" Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, ForMemRS (; ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German theoretical physicist whose discovery of energy quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator of quantum theory, which revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. In 1948 the German scientific institution the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (of which Planck was twice president) was renamed the Max Planck Society (MPS). The MPS now includes"
"Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, ForMemRS (; ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German theoretical physicist whose discovery of energy quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator of quantum theory, which revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. In 1948 the German scientific institution the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (of which Planck was twice president) was renamed the Max Planck Society (MPS). The MPS now includes 83 institutions representing a"
"Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He is best known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula , which has been dubbed ""the world's most famous equation"". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics ""for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"", a pivotal step"
"to Einstein in 1922. Footnotes Citations Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He is best known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula , which has been dubbed ""the world's most famous equation"". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics ""for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of"
"Richard Feynman Richard Phillips Feynman (; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist, known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics for which he proposed the parton model. For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions describing the behavior of subatomic"
"time of the conception and evolution of the theory. The basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck (1858–1947), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918 for his discovery of the quantified nature of energy. The quantum theory (which previously relied in the ""correspondence"" at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the ""classical"" world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave"
"Julian Schwinger Julian Seymour Schwinger (; February 12, 1918 – July 16, 1994) was a Nobel Prize winning American theoretical physicist. He is best known for his work on the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED), in particular for developing a relativistically invariant perturbation theory, and for renormalizing QED to one loop order. Schwinger was a physics professor at several universities. Schwinger is recognized as one of the greatest physicists of the twentieth century, responsible for much of modern quantum field theory, including a variational approach, and the equations of motion for quantum fields. He developed the first electroweak model, and"
"Father of quantum mechanics Father of quantum mechanics is a moniker applied to several individuals. Strictly speaking, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin Schrödinger have equal claim and recognition. Max Planck originated the vast field of Quantum theory and is regarded as the 'true but reluctant father' of the modern concept of 'quantum of energy' that underlies all quantum phenomena. Planck introduced the concept of a hypothetical energy quantum to explain Black-body radiation spectra in 1900 Albert Einstein cemented the utility of quantum theory through explanation of the Photoelectric effect in a 1905 paper. The fundamental concept that the energy"
"citation awards Heisenberg the credit ""for the creation of quantum mechanics"". Additional fine-tuning by Max Born provided the practical way of interpreting probabilities in quantum theory. Father of quantum mechanics Father of quantum mechanics is a moniker applied to several individuals. Strictly speaking, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin Schrödinger have equal claim and recognition. Max Planck originated the vast field of Quantum theory and is regarded as the 'true but reluctant father' of the modern concept of 'quantum of energy' that underlies all quantum phenomena. Planck introduced the concept of a hypothetical energy quantum to explain Black-body radiation spectra"
"Wolfgang Pauli Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (; ; 25 April 1900 – 15 December 1958) was an Austrian-born Swiss and American theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics. In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his ""decisive contribution through his discovery of a new law of Nature, the exclusion principle or Pauli principle"". The discovery involved spin theory, which is the basis of a theory of the structure of matter. Pauli was born in Vienna to a chemist Wolfgang Joseph Pauli (""né"" Wolf Pascheles, 1869–1955) and his wife"
"David Bohm David Joseph Bohm (; December 20, 1917 – October 27, 1992) was an American scientist who has been described as one of the most significant theoretical physicists of the 20th century and who contributed unorthodox ideas to quantum theory, neuropsychology and the philosophy of mind. Bohm advanced the view that quantum physics meant that the old Cartesian model of reality – that there are two kinds of substance, the mental and the physical, that somehow interact – was too limited. To complement it, he developed a mathematical and physical theory of ""implicate"" and ""explicate"" order. He also believed"
"by Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton (Robert Leighton's son), with support from Kip Thorne and other physicists. Richard Feynman Richard Phillips Feynman (; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist, known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics for which he proposed the parton model. For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965."
"The field of quantum chemistry was pioneered by physicists Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who published a study of the covalent bond of the hydrogen molecule in 1927. Quantum chemistry was subsequently developed by a large number of workers, including the American theoretical chemist Linus Pauling at Caltech, and John C. Slater into various theories such as Molecular Orbital Theory or Valence Theory. Beginning in 1927, researchers made attempts at applying quantum mechanics to fields instead of single particles, resulting in quantum field theories. Early workers in this area include P.A.M. Dirac, W. Pauli, V. Weisskopf, and P. Jordan. This"
"values (quantization); objects have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-particle duality); and there are limits to the precision with which quantities can be measured (uncertainty principle). Quantum mechanics gradually arose from theories to explain observations which could not be reconciled with classical physics, such as Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem, and from the correspondence between energy and frequency in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which explained the photoelectric effect. Early quantum theory was profoundly re-conceived in the mid-1920s by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and others. The modern theory is formulated in various specially"
"according to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed. Quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, ""quantum""). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom,"
"Jun Ishiwara Jun Ishiwara or Atsushi Ishihara (石原 純; January 15, 1881 – January 19, 1947) was a Japanese theoretical physicist, known for his works on the electronic theory of metals, the theory of relativity and quantum theory. Being the only Japanese scientist who made an original contribution to the old quantum theory, in 1915, independently of other scientists, he formulated quantization rules for systems with several degrees of freedom. Jun Ishiwara was born in the family of Christian priest Ryo Ishiwara and Chise Ishiwara. In 1906, he completed his studies at the Department of Theoretical Physics at the University"
"and colleague Edward Ginzton. Schiff was elected a fellow of the National Academy of Sciences in 1957. In 1966, he received the Oersted Medal of the American Association of Physics Teachers. Also, he received the Dinkelspiel Award for Excellence in Teaching at Stanford University. Schiff Hall, an undergraduate dormitory at Stanford, is named for him. Leonard I. Schiff Leonard Isaac Schiff was born in Fall River, Massachusetts on March 29, 1915 and died on January 21, 1971 in Stanford, California. He was a physicist best known for his book ""Quantum Mechanics"", originally published in 1949 (a second edition appeared in"
"name on his tombstone. These symbols refer to his calculation of the correction (""anomalous"") to the magnetic moment of the electron. List of things named after Julian Schwinger Julian Schwinger Julian Seymour Schwinger (; February 12, 1918 – July 16, 1994) was a Nobel Prize winning American theoretical physicist. He is best known for his work on the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED), in particular for developing a relativistically invariant perturbation theory, and for renormalizing QED to one loop order. Schwinger was a physics professor at several universities. Schwinger is recognized as one of the greatest physicists of the twentieth"
"Behram Kurşunoğlu Behram Kurşunoğlu (14 March 1922 – 25 October 2003) was a Turkish physicist and the founder and the director of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami. He was best known for his works on unified field theory, energy and global issues. Moreover, he participated in the discovery of two different types of neutrinos in late 1950s. During his University of Miami career, he hosted several Nobel Prize laureates, including Paul Dirac, Lars Onsager and Robert Hofstadter. He wrote several books on diverse aspects of physics, the most notable of which is ""Modern Quantum Theory"" (1962). Behram"
"Albert Einstein came up with the theory of relativity. Nuclear physics was a product of New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford's work on the atomic nucleus, Danish physicist Niels Bohr's identification of atomic structure and American physicist Carl David Anderson's discovery of the positron. Other advances included English physicist James Chadwick discovering the neutron, while French scientists Irène Joliot-Curie and her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie studied artificial radioactivity. Further nuclear research was carried out by Enrico Fermi, who transmuted uranium based on Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka's theories on the atom. German scientist Otto Hahn derived barium from uranium, while uranium was split"
"quantum mechanics."" The question of whether entanglement is a real condition is still in dispute. The [[Bell inequalities]] are the most powerful challenge to Einstein's claims. The idea of quantum field theory began in the late 1920s with British physicist [[Paul Dirac]], when he attempted to [[quantization (physics)|quantise]] the [[electromagnetic field]] – a procedure for constructing a quantum theory starting from a classical theory. A ""field"" in physics is ""a region or space in which a given effect (such as [[magnetism]]) exists."" Other effects that manifest themselves as fields are [[gravitation]] and [[static electricity]]. In 2008, physicist [[Richard Hammond (physicist)|Richard"
"the quantum mechanics developed by Max Born (1882–1970), Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), Paul Dirac (1902–1984), Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961), Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974), and Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958). This revolutionary theoretical framework is based on a probabilistic interpretation of states, and evolution and measurements in terms of self-adjoint operators on an infinite dimensional vector space. That is called Hilbert space, introduced in its elementary form by David Hilbert (1862–1943) and Frigyes Riesz (1880-1956), and rigorously defined within the axiomatic modern version by John von Neumann in his celebrated book ""Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics"", where he built up a relevant part of modern"
"Quantum (book) Quantum: Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate About the Nature of Reality is a science history book written by Manjit Kumar. It was released on October 16, 2008. He describes Einstein, Bohr and the ""Great Debate about the Nature of Reality"" that played out over a number of years, particularly at the Fifth Solvay International Conference on electrons and photons in 1927, where the physicists met to discuss the then newly formulated quantum theory. It narrates the life of some eminent physicists and their work and also gives a view of the environment of science at that time."
"to the relationship of quantum mechanics to healing processes, a connection that has drawn skepticism from physicists who say it can be considered as contributing to the general confusion in the popular press regarding quantum measurement, decoherence and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. In 1998, Chopra was awarded the satirical Ig Nobel Prize in physics for ""his unique interpretation of quantum physics as it applies to life, liberty, and the pursuit of economic happiness"". When interviewed by ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in the Channel 4 (UK) documentary ""The Enemies of Reason"", Chopra said that he used the term ""quantum"
"Quantum gravity Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, and where quantum effects cannot be ignored, such as near compact astrophysical objects where the effects of gravity are strong. The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which is formulated within the framework of classical physics. On the other hand, the other three fundamental forces of physics are described within the framework of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, radically different formalisms for describing physical phenomena. It is sometimes argued"
"and Sciences. In May 1929, Pauli left the Roman Catholic Church. In December of that year, he married Käthe Margarethe Deppner. The marriage was an unhappy one, ending in divorce in 1930 after less than a year. He married again in 1934 to Franziska Bertram (1901–1987). They had no children. Wolfgang Pauli Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (; ; 25 April 1900 – 15 December 1958) was an Austrian-born Swiss and American theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics. In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his ""decisive contribution"
"Qian Sanqiang Qian Sanqiang (; October 16, 1913 – June 28, 1992) was a Chinese nuclear physicist. Due to his central role in the development of China's nuclear industry and nuclear weapons program, he is referred to as China's ""father of the atomic bomb."" A native of Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China, Qian was born in Shaoxing, the son of the scholar Qian Xuantong. Qian attended Peking University and Tsinghua University, graduating in 1936 in the same class as his future wife He Zehui. Qian went to France in 1937. He studied in the Collège de Sorbonne and Collège de France,"
"Quantum Gravity"" is offered to Post-doctoral scholars in the field, the inaugural winner of which was Eugenio Bianchi in 2013. Matvei Petrovich Bronstein Matvei Petrovich Bronstein (, , Vinnytsia – February 18, 1938) was a Soviet theoretical physicist, a pioneer of quantum gravity, author of works in astrophysics, semiconductors, quantum electrodynamics and cosmology, as well as of a number of books in popular science for children. He introduced the cGh scheme for classifying physical theories. ""After the relativistic quantum theory is created, the task will be to develop the next part of our scheme, that is to unify quantum theory"
"The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (German: Physikalische Prinzipien der Quantentheorie) by Nobel laureate (1932) Werner Heisenberg and subsequently translated by Carl Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt. The book was first published in 1930 by University of Chicago Press. Then in 1949, according to its copyright page, Dover Publications reprinted the ""unabridged and unaltered"" 1930's version. The book discusses quantum mechanics and one 1931 review states that this is a ""less technical and less involved account of the theor[y]"". This work has been cited more than 1200 times. In the book, after"
"William Wootters William ""Bill"" Kent Wootters is an American theoretical physicist, and one of the founders of the field of quantum information theory. In a joint paper with Wojciech H. Zurek he proved the no cloning theorem, also independently discovered by Dennis Dieks. He is known for his contributions to the theory of quantum entanglement including quantitative measures of it, entanglement-assisted communication (notably quantum teleportation, discovered by Wootters and collaborators in 1993) and entanglement distillation. He is also credited by Benjamin Schumacher as being the inspiration behind the term qubit. He earned a B.S. from Stanford University in 1973, and"
"Eugene Wigner Eugene Paul ""E. P."" Wigner (; November 17, 1902 – January 1, 1995) was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, engineer and mathematician. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 ""for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles"". A graduate of the Technical University of Berlin, Wigner worked as an assistant to Karl Weissenberg and Richard Becker at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, and David Hilbert at the University of Göttingen. Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory"
"that his theoretical proof was better than Balfour Stewart's, and in some respects it was so. Kirchhoff's 1860 paper did not mention the second law of thermodynamics, and of course did not mention the concept of entropy which had not at that time been established. In a more considered account in a book in 1862, Kirchhoff mentioned the connection of his law with Carnot's principle, which is a form of the second law. According to Helge Kragh, ""Quantum theory owes its origin to the study of thermal radiation, in particular to the ""black-body"" radiation that Robert Kirchhoff had first defined"