"the museum hosted the 3rd International Salon for Peace Initiatives. The building is constructed around the vast steel trusses of an abattoir sales hall on which construction had halted in 1973. The transformation, commissioned on 15 September 1980, was designed by the architect Adrien Fainsilber and engineer Peter Rice. It was opened on 13 March 1986, inaugurated by François Mitterrand upon the occasion of the encounter of the Giotto space probe with Halley's Comet. It is accessible by Métro line 7 at the Porte de la Villette station and by bus lines PC2, 139, 150, 151, 249, and 75. The"
"their instruments examining Halley's Comet: Halley Armada The Halley Armada is the name of five space probes sent to examine Halley's Comet during its 1986 sojourn through the inner Solar System, connected with apparition ""1P/1982 U1"". The armada consisted of one probe from the European Space Agency, two probes that were joint projects between the Soviet Union and France and two probes from the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of Japan. Probes involved (in order of closest approach): Without the measurements from the other space probes, Giotto's closest distance would have been 4,000 km instead of the 596 km"
"Halley Armada The Halley Armada is the name of five space probes sent to examine Halley's Comet during its 1986 sojourn through the inner Solar System, connected with apparition ""1P/1982 U1"". The armada consisted of one probe from the European Space Agency, two probes that were joint projects between the Soviet Union and France and two probes from the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of Japan. Probes involved (in order of closest approach): Without the measurements from the other space probes, Giotto's closest distance would have been 4,000 km instead of the 596 km achieved. Other space probes had"
"photographs of the nucleus at closest approach. ""Giotto""s trajectory was adjusted for an Earth flyby and its science instruments were turned off on 15 March 1986 at 02:00 UTC. ""Giotto"" was commanded to wake up on 2 July 1990 when it flew by Earth in order to sling shot to its next cometary encounter. The probe then flew by the Comet Grigg-Skjellerup on 10 July 1992 which it approached to a distance of about 200 km. Afterwards, Giotto was again switched off on 23 July 1992. In 1999 ""Giotto"" made another Earth flyby but was not reactivated. Images showed Halley's"
"interactions with the solar wind, the atmospheric dynamics, or the generation of the terrestrial magnetic field by means of currents deep in the iron core of our planet. In addition, the Institute has along tradition in cometary research. A major highlight was the camera developed at the Institute for the ESA spacecraft Giotto which delivered the first photographs ever of a comet’s nucleus in 1986. A particular challenge was the development of numerous scientific instruments for the ESA Mission Rosetta, such as cameras, chemical analyzers, and essential components for the landing module Philae. Rosetta was launched in 2004, and matched"
"""Giotto"" probe and the Soviet Union's ""Vega 1"" and ""Vega 2"") that flew through the coma of Halley's Comet in 1986, photographed the nucleus, and observed jets of evaporating material. According to research, large comets with a radius of over 10 kilometers could contain liquid water at their cores by the decay of radioactive isotopes of aluminum or iron. Since 1985, a total of 8 comets have been visited by spacecrafts. These were the comets Halley, Borrelly, Giacobini–Zinner, Tempel 1, Wild 2, Hartley 2, Grigg–Skjellerup and Churyumov–Gerasimenko, generating a host of new findings. In addition, the spacecraft ""Ulysses"" unexpectedly traversed"
"the Giotto probe that visited Halley's Comet. In 1988, Zarnecki was involved in plans to provide instrumentation for a proposed asteroid mission called Vesta, but, when this was dropped in favour of the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn and its moons, he and his team decided to use their expertise to design the Surface Science Package (SSP) for the Huygens probe. The probe would be released from the main spacecraft (Cassini) and descend to the surface of Saturn's largest moon Titan. The proposal was successful and, in 1990, Zarnecki was appointed as the SSP's Principal Investigator. The next seven years were"
"long distance measurements, followed by the Russian Vegas which would locate the nucleus, and the resulting information sent back would allow ""Giotto"" to precisely target very close to the nucleus. Because Giotto would pass so very close to the nucleus ESA was mostly convinced it would not survive the encounter due to the spacecraft colliding at very high speed with the many dust particles from the comet. The coordinated group of probes became known as the Halley Armada. The spacecraft was derived from the GEOS research satellite built by British Aerospace in Filton, Bristol, and modified with the addition of"
"these gases) for hydrogen and argon than for those gases on earth. These isotopic ratio differences have had large implications on models of the nature of the solar nebula and the formation of the present (secondary) atmospheres of the terrestrial planets. Hoffman was a member of the team who flew a mass spectrometer on the European Space Agency's Giotto mission to Halley's Comet in 1986. This instrument was developed by laboratories in four countries, three European and at UT Dallas. It measured both the neutral and ionized constituents of the comet's coma. The coma contains, besides water vapor and H30"
"will also be present in a stationary reference frame that is in a uniform gravitational field. The probe was launched on June 18, 1976 from the NASA-Wallops Flight Center in Wallops Island, Virginia. The probe was carried via a Scout rocket, and attained a height of 10,000 km (6,200 mi), while remaining in space for 1 hour and 55 minutes, as intended. It returned to Earth by splashing down into the Atlantic Ocean. The objective of the Gravity Probe A experiment was to test the validity of the equivalence principle. The equivalence principle was a key component of Albert Einstein's"
"on its side wedged into a dark crevice of the comet, explaining the lack of electrical power to establish proper communication with the orbiter. During the 1986 approach of Halley's Comet, international space probes were sent to explore the comet, most prominent among them being ESA's ""Giotto"". After the probes returned valuable scientific information, it became obvious that follow-ons were needed that would shed more light on cometary composition and answer new questions. Both ESA and NASA started cooperatively developing new probes. The NASA project was the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) mission. The ESA project was the follow-on Comet"
"comets. Space probe Giotto detected hydrogen ions at distance of 7.8 million km away from Halley when it did close flyby of the comet in 1986. A hydrogen gas halo was detected to be 15 times the diameter of Sun (12.5 million miles). This triggered NASA to point the Pioneer Venus mission at the Comet, and it was determined that the Comet emitting 12 tons of water per second. The hydrogen gas emission has not been detected from Earth's surface because those wavelengths are blocked by the atmosphere. The process by which water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen"
"ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe, which was first worked on by ESRO. The ESA collaborated with NASA on the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), the world's first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a star-mapping mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses and the Hubble Space Telescope were all jointly carried"
"much farther the balloon traveled after the final communication. After their encounters, the Vegas' motherships used the gravity of Venus, also known as a gravity assist, to intercept Halley's Comet. Images started to be returned on March 4, 1986, and were used to help pinpoint Giotto's close flyby of the comet. The early images from Vega showed two bright areas on the comet, which were initially interpreted as a double nucleus. The bright areas would later turn out to be two jets emitting from the comet. The images also showed the nucleus to be dark, and the infrared spectrometer readings"
"probe, which imaged both 951 Gaspra (in 1991) and 243 Ida (in 1993) on its way to Jupiter. Launched on January 19, 2006, the ""New Horizons"" probe is the first man-made spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt. This unmanned mission flew by Pluto in July 2015. The mission was extended to observe a number of other Kuiper belt objects, including a close flyby of on New Year's Day, 2019. As of 2011, American scientists are concerned that exploration beyond the Asteroid Belt will hampered by a shortage of Plutonium-238. In 1966, the Moon became the first Solar System body beyond"
"as the second gravity experiment in space, following the successful launch of Gravity Probe A (GP-A) in <time>1976</time>. The mission plans were to test two unverified predictions of general relativity: the geodetic effect and frame-dragging. This was to be accomplished by measuring, very precisely, tiny changes in the direction of spin of four gyroscopes contained in an Earth satellite orbiting at 650 km (400 mi) altitude, crossing directly over the poles. The gyroscopes were intended to be so free from disturbance that they would provide a near-perfect space-time reference system. This would allow them to reveal how space and time"
"dedicated mission aimed to measure the Lense–Thirring node precession of a pair of counter-orbiting spacecraft to be placed in terrestrial polar orbits with drag-free apparatus. A somewhat equivalent, cheaper version of such an idea was put forth in 1986 by Ciufolini who proposed to launch a passive, geodetic satellite in an orbit identical to that of the LAGEOS satellite, launched in 1976, apart from the orbital planes which should have been displaced by 180 deg apart: the so-called butterfly configuration. The measurable quantity was, in this case, the sum of the nodes of LAGEOS and of the new spacecraft, later"
"to get unprecedented observations of the planet. In particular, the polar regions, that where never observed before ""Juno"", can be observed with high spatial resolution. On August 27, 2016, JIRAM observed Jupiter at infrared wavelengths. The first science observation in space was conducted on Earth's Moon in October 2013. The JIRAM project was started by Professor Angioletta Coradini, however she died in 2011. The instrument was developed from Leonardo under the directions and supervision of the Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetogy (IAPS) which is part of the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics and was funded by the Italian Space"
"where it underwent payload commissioning. Scientific research started on March 8, 2016. The goal of LPF was to demonstrate a noise level 10 times worse than needed for LISA. However, LPF exceeded this goal by a large margin approaching the LISA requirement noise levels. Gravitational-wave astronomy seeks to use direct measurements of gravitational waves to study astrophysical systems and to test Einstein's theory of gravity. Indirect evidence of gravitational waves was derived from observations of the decreasing orbital periods of several binary pulsars, such as the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar. In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO project announced that it had"
"Research Center observing Jovian moons, before moving to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1986. She worked as science coordinator for the plasma wave instrument aboard the Galileo spacecraft before becoming the project manager of the mission in its final phase. The mission discovered 21 new moons of Jupiter and the presence of an atmosphere on Ganymede. The discovery of the atmosphere, more precisely a ""surface bound exosphere"", caused scientists to rethink their assumptions that Ganymede was inactive moon. She was the final project manager for the mission, and oversaw the spacecraft's dive into Jupiter's atmosphere at the mission's conclusion in"
"in 1979–1980 and traveled almost in its equatorial plane. Voyager 1, which passed within 5 ""R"" from the planet's center, was first to encounter the Io plasma torus. It received a radiation dosage one thousand times the lethal level for humans, the damage resulting in serious degradation of some high-resolution images of Io and Ganymede. Voyager 2 passed within 10 ""R"" and discovered the current sheet in the equatorial plane. The next probe to approach Jupiter was Ulysses in 1992, which investigated the planet's polar magnetosphere. The Galileo spacecraft, which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003, provided a comprehensive coverage"
"that time. As a result of the commercial success, after the tenth Ariane mission was flown, the ESA transferred responsibility for Ariane over to Arianespace. The Giotto mission's spaceprobe was successfully launched on the tenth Ariane 1 mission, ""V-14"", on 2 July 1985. The first SPOT satellite was put into orbit by the eleventh and last launch of Ariane 1 on 22 February 1986. By early 1986, the Ariane 1, along with its Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 derivate, were the dominant launcher on the world market. Ariane 1 Ariane 1 was the first rocket in the Ariane family of"
"their outgassing. Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets (see Extinct comets) which no longer experience outgassing. Two near-Earth asteroids with albedos this low include 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote. The first really close mission to a comet nucleus was space probe Giotto. This was the first time a nucleus was imaged at such proximity, coming as near as 596 km. The data was a revelation, showing for the first time the jets, the low-albedo surface, and organic compounds. During its flyby, Giotto was hit at least 12,000 times by particles,"
"was elected as the project leader and spokesperson of the ATLAS project at CERN. ATLAS involved a collaboration of around 3,000 physicists from 180 institutions in 38 countries. ATLAS was one of the two experiments involved in the observation of the Higgs boson. On 4 July 2012 Gianotti announced the discovery of the particle. Until then, the Higgs boson was a theoretical part of the standard model in particle physics theory to explain how some fundamental particles acquire mass. Gianotti's deep understanding of many ATLAS aspects and her leadership were recognised as major factors in the discovery. She appeared in"
"LIGO is currently paused but will start running again in early 2019 for the O3 run (joint with Virgo) LIGO's mission is to directly observe gravitational waves of cosmic origin. These waves were first predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity in 1916, when the technology necessary for their detection did not yet exist. Their existence was indirectly confirmed when observations of the binary pulsar PSR 1913+16 in 1974 showed an orbital decay which matched Einstein's predictions of energy loss by gravitational radiation. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1993 was awarded to Hulse and Taylor for this discovery. Direct detection"
"brush the upper Earth atmosphere, with the rotational motion cancelling the orbital motion at ground level. These ""rotating"" skyhook versions were proposed by Moravec in 1976, and Sarmont in 1994. When the Italian scientist Giuseppe Colombo proposed in the early 1970s the idea of using a tidally stabilized tether for downward-looking Earth observation satellites, NASA officially began to assess in 1979 the possible scientific applications for long tethers in space and whether the development of a tethered system was justified. This resulted in a Shuttle-based tether system: the TSS-1R mission, launched 22 February 1996 on STS-75 that focused in characterizing"
"being ejected from the Earth-Moon system and into a heliocentric orbit. Its last and closest pass over the Moon, on December 22, 1983, was only above the lunar surface; following this pass, the spacecraft was re-designated as the International Cometary Explorer (ICE). Its new orbit put it ahead of the Earth on a trajectory to intercept comet Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the craft passed through the comet's plasma tail. ICE transited between the Sun and Comet Halley in late March 1986, when other spacecraft were near the comet on their early-March comet rendezvous missions. (This ""Halley Armada"" included Giotto,"
"Riccardo Giacconi Riccardo Giacconi (October 6, 1931 – December 9, 2018) was an Italian-American Nobel Prize-winning astrophysicist who laid down the foundations of X-ray astronomy. He was a professor at the Johns Hopkins University. Born in Genoa, Italy, Giacconi received his Laurea from the University of Milan before moving to the US to pursue a career in astrophysics research. In 1956, his Fulbright Fellowship led him to go to the United States to collaborate with physics professor R. W. Thompson at Indiana University. Since cosmic X-ray radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, space-based telescopes are needed for X-ray astronomy."
"the Space Shuttle. In 1993, it employed aerobraking techniques to lower its orbit. This was the first prolonged use of the technique, which had been tested by Hiten in 1991. Magellan created the first (and currently the best) high resolution mapping of the planet's surface features. Prior Venus missions had created low resolution radar globes of general, continent-sized formations. Magellan, performed detailed imaging and analysis of craters, hills, ridges, and other geologic formations, to a degree comparable to the visible-light photographic mapping of other planets. Galileo was an unmanned spacecraft sent by NASA to study the planet Jupiter and its"
"Cosmic Background Explorer The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE ), also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology, which operated from 1989 to 1993. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos. COBE's measurements provided two key pieces of evidence that supported the Big Bang theory of the universe: that the CMB has a near-perfect black-body spectrum, and that it has very faint anisotropies. Two of COBE's principal investigators, George Smoot and John Mather, received the Nobel Prize in"
"results of the ""Galileo"" mission include: On December 11, 2013, NASA reported, based on results from the Galileo mission, the detection of ""clay-like minerals"" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa, moon of Jupiter. The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists. NASA launched ""Juno"" on August 5, 2011 to study Jupiter in detail. It entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016. The spacecraft is studying the planet's composition, gravity field, magnetic field, and polar magnetosphere. ""Juno"""
"1979 and Saturn in 1980 – 1981. ""Voyager 2"" then went on to make close approaches to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The ""Voyager"" probes are now far beyond Neptune's orbit, and are on course to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. According to NASA, both ""Voyager"" probes have encountered the termination shock at a distance of approximately 93 AU from the Sun. The first flyby of a comet occurred in 1985, when the ""International Cometary Explorer"" (ICE) passed by the comet Giacobini–Zinner, whereas the first flybys of asteroids were conducted by the ""Galileo"" space"
"Italian Space Agency to further coordinate the nation's space activities. ASI’s first large scientific satellite mission was BeppoSAX, developed in collaboration with the Netherlands and launched in 1996. Named after Giuseppe “Beppo” Occhialini, an important figure in Italian high-energy physics, the satellite was a mission to study the universe in the X-ray part of the spectrum. Following on from this ASI developed another high-energy astronomical satellite, AGILE for gamma ray astronomy, launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 2007. A particular innovation was the use of a single instrument to measure both Gamma rays and hard X-rays. ASI"