"stated that ""Analects"" is the records of Confucius's first- and second-generation pupils. The view however was challenged by Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu (崔述, 1740–1816) who argued on linguistic ground that the last five books are much later than the rest of the work. Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years, with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings. Because no texts of the ""Analects"" have been discovered earlier, and because the ""Analects"" was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han"
"who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma. Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius () and Xun Zi () both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in"
"learn about Confucius' culture. Confucius, according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Additionally, there are many famous books about Confucius; the most famous one is the Analects which was written by his students. Confucius also helped edit The"
"inherited from the Goryeo dynasty. Confucius (孔夫子 ""Kǒng Fūzǐ"", lit. ""Master Kong"") is generally thought to have been born in 551 BCE and raised by his mother following the death of his father when Confucius was three years old. The Latinized name ""Confucius"" by which most Westerners recognize him is derived from """"Kong Fuzi"""", probably first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China. The Analects, or ""Lunyu"" (論語; lit.""Selected Sayings""), a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher and his contemporaries, is believed to have been written by Confucius' followers during the Warring States period (475 BC"
"the Greek philosophers. Diogenes divides his subjects into two ""schools"" which he describes as the Ionian/Ionic and the Italian/Italic; the division is somewhat dubious and appears to be drawn from the lost doxography of Sotion. The biographies of the ""Ionian school"" begin with Anaximander and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the ""Italian"" begins with Pythagoras and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is classed with the Ionic, while the Eleatics and Pyrrhonists are treated under the Italic. Henricus Aristippus, the archdeacon of Catania, produced a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius's book in southern Italy in"
"using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric for the purpose of teaching aretê—excellence, or virtue—predominantly to young statesmen and nobility. The Cynics were an ascetic sect of philosophers beginning with Antisthenes in the 4th century BC and continuing until the 5th century AD. They believed that one should live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, health, or celebrity, and living a life free from possessions. The Cyrenaics were a hedonist school of philosophy founded in the fourth century BC by Aristippus, who was a student of Socrates. They held"
"motion. Such ""dialectic"" reasoning later became popular. The members of this school were called ""dialecticians"" (from a Greek word meaning ""to discuss""). None of the surviving works of the great fourth-century philosopher Plato (428–347 BC) include any formal logic, but they include important contributions to the field of philosophical logic. Plato raises three questions: The first question arises in the dialogue ""Theaetetus"", where Plato identifies thought or opinion with talk or discourse (""logos""). The second question is a result of Plato's theory of Forms. Forms are not things in the ordinary sense, nor strictly ideas in the mind, but they"
"Archelaus (philosopher) Archelaus (; ; fl. 5th century BCE) was an Ancient Greek philosopher, a pupil of Anaxagoras, and may have been a teacher of Socrates. He asserted that the principle of motion was the separation of hot from cold, from which he endeavoured to explain the formation of the Earth and the creation of animals and humans. Archelaus was a philosopher of the Ionian School, called ""Physicus"" from having been the first to teach natural philosophy at Athens. This statement of Diogenes Laërtius, is contradicted by Clement of Alexandria, but the two may be reconciled by supposing that Archelaus"
"The Incoherence of the Philosophers The Incoherence of the Philosophers (تهافت الفلاسفة ""Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ"" in Arabic) is the title of a landmark 11th-century work by the Persian theologian Al-Ghazali and a student of the Asharite school of Islamic theology criticizing the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy. Muslim philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi (Alpharabius) are denounced in this book. The belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present Will of God, underlies the work. The text was dramatically successful, and marked a milestone in the"
"the Analects Zizhang achieved the conclusion of Confucius' teaching, so much so that the existence of Yaoyue is almost inexplicable. However, both Chin Annping, a lecture of Yale and Cheng Gang, a professor of Qinghua University agree that Yaoyue has its significance. The last paragraph of Yaoyue, according to Chin and Cheng, is a fit conclusion for the Analects. In the last paragraph of Yaoyue, Confucius saith ""A person will have no way to become a gentleman if he does not understand destiny"". The word destiny(命) in this context refers to the insights into one's life acquired through the objective"
"of the most renowned Western philosophers of all time. Chief among these were Socrates, whose ideas exist primarily in a series of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his own; Plato; and Plato's student, Aristotle. Other notable philosophers of the Golden Age included Anaxagoras; Democritus (who first inquired as to what substance lies within all matter, the earliest known proposal of what is now called the atom or its sub-units); Empedocles; Hippias; Isocrates; Parmenides; Heraclitus; and Protagoras. In the second half of the 5th century BC the name of sophist (from the Greek ""sophistês"", expert, teacher, man"
"middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered the greatest and wealthiest of Greek Polis. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy). Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Diogenes of Apollonia were among of the renowned Milesian school philosophers. Heraclitus lived in Ephesus (/ˈɛfəsəs/;[1] Greek: Ἔφεσος Ephesos; Turkish: Efes) another ancient Greek city and Anaxagoras was from Clazomenae, a city on the coast of Ionia and a member of the Ionian League. All Ancient Greek dialects were spoken in Anatolia depending on the"
"their opinions and gave arguments for their views. For the most part, they were concerned not to advance opinions, but to advance reasoned opinions. This school of thought is made up of the philosophies of three Presocratic philosophers: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. These philosophers all hailed from the Greek city state of Miletus and are known as the first philosophers. Their philosophy is what started the Ionian Intellectual Revolution. According to Aristotle, Thales of Miletus was the “Founder of Natural Philosophy.” Even though he is recognized as the founder of philosophy much of what we know about him and his"
"Plotinus Plotinus (; , ""Plōtinos""; – 270) was a major Greek-speaking philosopher of the ancient world. In his philosophy, described in the ""Enneads"", there are three principles: the One, the Intellect, and the Soul. His teacher was Ammonius Saccas and he is of the Platonic tradition. Historians of the 19th century invented the term Neoplatonism and applied it to him and his philosophy which was influential in Late Antiquity. Much of the biographical information about Plotinus comes from Porphyry's preface to his edition of Plotinus' ""Enneads"". His metaphysical writings have inspired centuries of Pagan, Islamic, Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic metaphysicians"
"which he elaborates on in his work. See also the of the golden mean, and Aristotelian ethics in general. Gautama Buddha (fl. 6th century BC) taught of the Middle Way, a path between the extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence. Confucius in ""The Analects"", written through the Warring States period of Ancient China (c. 479 BC – 221 BC), taught excess is similar to deficiency. A way of living in the mean is the way of Zhongyong. Zhuangzi was the Tao's most famous commentator (369–286 BC). Tiruvalluvar (2nd century BC and the 8th century AD; date disputed) in his"
"""a most noble philosophy, … taking the form of agnosticism and suspension of judgement."" Anaxarchus is said to have praised Pyrrho's ""indifference and sang-froid."" Anaxarchus is said to have possessed ""fortitude and contentment in life,"" which earned him the epithet ""eudaimonikos"" (""fortunate""), which may imply that he held the end of life to be ""eudaimonia."" Plutarch reports that he told Alexander the Great that there was an infinite number of worlds, causing the latter to become dejected because he had not yet conquered even one. Anaxarchus Anaxarchus (; ; ) was a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus. Together"
"Refutation of All Heresies The Refutation of All Heresies (, ), also called the Elenchus or Philosophumena, is a compendious Christian polemical work of the early third century, now generally attributed to Hippolytus of Rome. It catalogues both pagan beliefs and 33 gnostic Christian systems deemed heretical, making it a major source of information on contemporary opponents of Catholic orthodoxy. The first book, a synopsis of Greek philosophy, circulated separately in several manuscripts and was known as the ""Philosophoumena"" ( ""philosophical teachings""), a title which some extend to the whole work. Books IV-X were recovered in 1842 in a manuscript"
"was published in two volumes in 1813 and 1816 by Nicholas Halma, including detailed historical comments in a 69-page preface. The scanned books are available in full at the ""Gallica"" French national library. Almagest The Almagest () is a 2nd-century Greek-language mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths, written by Claudius Ptolemy ( ). One of the most influential scientific texts of all time, its geocentric model was accepted for more than 1200 years from its origin in Hellenistic Alexandria, in the medieval Byzantine and Islamic worlds, and in Western Europe through the"
"(Christian European), and Modern philosophy. The Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools which arose out of the various pupils of Socrates, such as Plato, who founded the Platonic Academy and his student Aristotle, founding the Peripatetic school, who were both extremely influential in Western tradition. Other traditions include Cynicism, Stoicism, Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics (with competing theories such as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia), the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy was"
"Anamnesis (philosophy) In philosophy, anamnesis (; ) is a concept in Plato's epistemological and psychological theory that he develops in his dialogues ""Meno"" and ""Phaedo"", and alludes to in his ""Phaedrus"". It is the idea that humans possess innate knowledge (perhaps acquired before birth) and that learning consists of rediscovering that knowledge within us. In ""Meno"", Plato's character (and old teacher) Socrates is challenged by Meno with what has become known as the sophistic paradox, or the paradox of knowledge: In other words, if you don't know any of the attributes, properties, and/or other descriptive markers of any kind that"
"ones were Confucianism, Daoism (often spelled ""Taoism""), Mohism and Legalism. Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in ""The Analects"", and in the Warring States period, Mencius in ""The Mencius"" and Xunzi in ""The Xunzi"". It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 20th century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the ""state religion"" of imperial China because of its lasting influence on Asian culture. Its influence also"
"foundations of Western philosophy and science. Plato studied philosophy under the guidance of Socrates. Plato discusses his view on the Sophists’ thought, although his attitude is generally hostile. Due to his opposition, he is largely responsible for the modern view of the sophist as a stingy instructor who deceives. He depicts Socrates as refuting some sophists in several ""Dialogues"". These texts depict the sophists in an unflattering light, and it is unclear how accurate or fair Plato's representation of them may be; however, Protagoras and Prodicus are portrayed in a largely positive light in Protagoras (dialogue). Another contemporary, the comic"
"have studied under Stilpo and Diodorus Cronus, and to have disputed with Philo the Dialectician. It was perhaps the Dialecticians, Diodorus and Philo, who were the biggest influence on the development of Stoic logic, and that Zeno studied under Stilpo to learn his moral teachings, although Stilpo, too, is said to have excelled ""in the invention of arguments and in sophistry."" Euclides had been a pupil of Socrates, but ancient historians regarded him as a successor to the Eleatics, hence his philosophy was seen as a fusion of Eleatic and Socratic thought. Thus the Eleatic idea of ""The One"" was"
"Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks () is an incomplete book by Friedrich Nietzsche. He had a clean copy made from his notes with the intention of publication. The notes were written around 1873. In it he discussed five Greek philosophers from the sixth and fifth centuries BC. They are Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Anaxagoras. He had, at one time, intended to include Democritus, Empedocles, and Socrates. The book ends abruptly after the discussion of Anaxagoras's cosmogony. Nietzsche stated that he wanted to present the outlooks of very worthy"
"(55–135 AD), Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD), Clement of Alexandria (150–215 AD), Alcinous (2nd century AD), Sextus Empiricus (3rd century AD), Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century AD), Ammonius Saccas (3rd century AD), Plotinus (205–270 AD), Porphyry (232–304 AD), Iamblichus (242–327 AD), Themistius (317–388 AD), Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD), Proclus (411–485 AD), Philoponus of Alexandria (490–570 AD), Damascius (462–540 AD), Boethius (472–524 AD), and Simplicius of Cilicia (490–560 AD). Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by that of Greece. Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included several important philosophers and theologians such as St Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the student of"
"Plato Plato (; ""Plátōn"", in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the pivotal figure in the development of Western philosophy. Unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Plato's entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy and science. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: ""the safest general characterization of"
"treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the ""Almagest"", although it was originally entitled the ""Mathematical Treatise"" (, ""Mathēmatikē Syntaxis"") and then known as the ""Great Treatise"" (, ""Hē Megálē Syntaxis""). The second is the ""Geography"", which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the ""Apotelesmatika"" () but more commonly known as"
"Almagest The Almagest () is a 2nd-century Greek-language mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths, written by Claudius Ptolemy ( ). One of the most influential scientific texts of all time, its geocentric model was accepted for more than 1200 years from its origin in Hellenistic Alexandria, in the medieval Byzantine and Islamic worlds, and in Western Europe through the Middle Ages and early Renaissance until Copernicus. The ""Almagest"" is the critical source of information on ancient Greek astronomy. It has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient"
"Xenocrates Xenocrates (; ; c. 396/5314/3 BC) of Chalcedon was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, and leader (scholarch) of the Platonic Academy from 339/8 to 314/3 BC. His teachings followed those of Plato, which he attempted to define more closely, often with mathematical elements. He distinguished three forms of being: the sensible, the intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which correspond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion. He considered unity and duality to be gods which rule the universe, and the soul a self-moving number. God pervades all things, and there are daemonical powers, intermediate between the divine and"
"Apollodorus of Seleucia Apollodorus of Seleucia (; flourished c. 150 BC), or Apollodorus Ephillus, was a Stoic philosopher, and a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon. He wrote a number of handbooks () on Stoicism, including ones on Ethics and Physics which are frequently cited by Diogenes Laërtius. Apollodorus is famous for describing Cynicism as """"the short path to virtue"""", and he may have been the first Stoic after the time of Zeno to systematically attempt to reconcile Stoicism with Cynicism. The lengthy account of Cynicism given by Diogenes Laërtius, which is presented from a Stoic point of view, may be"
"Euclid's Elements The Elements ( ""Stoicheia"") is a mathematical treatise consisting of 13 books attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt c. 300 BC. It is a collection of definitions, postulates, propositions (theorems and constructions), and mathematical proofs of the propositions. The books cover plane and solid Euclidean geometry, elementary number theory, and incommensurable lines. ""Elements"" is the oldest extant large-scale deductive treatment of mathematics. It has proven instrumental in the development of logic and modern science, and its logical rigor was not surpassed until the 19th century. Euclid's ""Elements"" has been referred to as the"
"Yao Yue Yao Yue () is one of the 20 books of the Analects of Confucius. Notably, it is the last book of the Analects. As the concluding book, Yaoyue is one of the hotly debated book of the Analects due to its distinct writing style and inconsistency with previous books. The name ""Yao Yue"" refers to the mythological Chinese king Yao. ""Yue"", in Classical Chinese, means ""to say"". Therefore, the frase ""Yao Yue"" can be expounded as ""Yao saith"". The book Yao Yue starts with a conversation initiated by Yao with his successor Shun. The conversation's subject was Yao's"
"Alexander of Aphrodisias Alexander of Aphrodisias (; ) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria, and lived and taught in Athens at the beginning of the 3rd century, where he held a position as head of the Peripatetic school. He wrote many commentaries on the works of Aristotle, extant are those on the ""Prior Analytics"", ""Topics"", ""Meteorology"", ""Sense and Sensibilia"", and ""Metaphysics"". Several original treatises also survive, and include a work ""On Fate"", in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine"