"debated the merits of restoring the Republic. Due to the demands of the army, however, Claudius was declared emperor, but he was ultimately killed, and Nero was declared Emperor. In the decades after the death of Augustus, the Roman Empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time. In 68 AD, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, was proclaimed Emperor by his troops. In Rome, the emperor Nero quickly lost his supporters and committed suicide. The governor of Lower Germany, A. Vitellius, was soon proclaimed Emperor by his troops, and"
"Roman Emperor Nero. His execution was one of the many martyrdoms of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. According to Origen, Peter was crucified head downwards, by his own request because he considered himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus. The crucifixion took place near an ancient Egyptian obelisk in the Circus of Nero. The obelisk now stands in St. Peter's Square and is revered as a ""witness"" to Peter's death. It is one of several ancient Obelisks of Rome. According to tradition, Peter's remains were buried just outside the Circus, on the Mons Vaticanus across"
"The Crucifixion of St. Peter (Michelangelo) The Crucifixion of St. Peter is a fresco painting by the Italian Renaissance master Michelangelo Buonarroti (c. 1546–1550). It is housed in the Cappella Paolina, Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City, Rome. It is the last fresco executed by Michelangelo. The artist portrayed St. Peter in the moment in which he was raised by the Roman soldiers to the cross. Michelangelo concentrated the attention on the depiction of pain and suffering. The faces of the people present are clearly distressed. Pope Paul commissioned this fresco by Michelangelo in 1541 and unveiled it in his"
"emperor (Nero) wished to blame the Christians. This ""dies imperii"" (regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was 'as usual' accompanied by much bloodshed. Traditionally, Roman authorities sentenced him to death by crucifixion. In accordance with the apocryphal Acts of Peter, he was crucified head down. Tradition also locates his burial place where the Basilica of Saint Peter was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar. According to the 1911 ""Catholic Encyclopedia"", Peter labored in Rome during the last portion of his life, and there his life was"
"Holy Roman Emperor on 29 June. Just over a year later, the Emperor died on 24 August 1313 at Buonconvento in Tuscany. The clashes began anew and the Torriani repeatedly engaged Milanese troops, attacked the city, urged the Ghibellines to arise against the Visconti. The sons of Matteo had to travel between the mountains and valleys to restore peace and subdue the rebellious cities. In 1313, they defeated the supporters of the Della Torre at the battles of Gaggiano and Rho. The Guelph league took the opportunity to appoint Robert of Anjou, King of Naples and Count of Provence and"
"died by crucifixion (with arms outstretched) at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in the year 64. The writings of the 1st century Church Father Ignatius of Antioch refer to Peter and Paul giving admonitions to the Romans, indicating Peter's presence in Rome. Margherita Guarducci, who led the research leading to the rediscovery of Peter's reputed tomb in its last stages (1963–1968), concludes Peter died on 13 October AD 64 during the festivities on the occasion of the ""dies imperii"" of Emperor Nero. This took place three months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the"
"Saint Peter Saint Peter (Syriac/Aramaic: ܫܸܡܥܘܿܢ ܟܹ݁ܐܦ݂ܵܐ, ""Shemayon Keppa""; ; ; ; ; r. AD 30; died between AD 64 and 68), also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simon (, ), according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Pope Gregory I called him repeatedly the ""Prince of the Apostles"". According to Catholic teaching, Jesus promised Peter in the ""Rock of My Church"" dialogue in Matthew a special position in the Church. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Romeor popeand also by Eastern"
"center of the image. The earliest reference to Saint Peter's death is in a letter of Clement, bishop of Rome, to the Corinthians (""1 Clement"", a.k.a. ""Letter to the Corinthians"", written c. 96 AD). The historian Eusebius, a contemporary of Constantine, wrote that Peter ""came to Rome, and was crucified with his head downwards,"" attributing this information to the much earlier theologian Origen, who died c. 254 AD. St. Peter's martyrdom is traditionally depicted in religious iconography as crucifixion with his head pointed downward. Peter's place and manner of death are also mentioned by Tertullian (c. 160–220) in ""Scorpiace"", where"
"from his first disciples. Originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesus's inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, and preached on the day of Pentecost. According to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, since he saw himself unworthy to be crucified in the same way"
"year 64 or 67 during the reign of Emperor Nero. Peter is said to be buried in the necropolis because of its proximity to the Circus of Nero where he was martyred. After the Edict of Milan the Emperor Constantine began construction of the first St. Peter's Church, also known as Old St. Peter's Basilica. At this time, the Roman necropolis was still in use. This is known because a coin was found inside an urn dating from 318 AD. During this time, the necropolis was protected by law and was untouchable. However, Emperor Constantine I decided to build a"
"Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II (; ) (6 May 973 – 13 July 1024), also known as Saint Henry the Exuberant, Obl. S. B., was Holy Roman Emperor (""Romanorum Imperator"") from 1014 until his death in 1024 and the last member of the Ottonian dynasty of Emperors as he had no children. The Duke of Bavaria from 995, Henry became King of Germany (""Rex Romanorum"") following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was crowned King of Italy (""Rex Italiae"") in 1004, and was crowned by the Pope as Emperor in 1014. The"
"be crucified again."" The scene as catalogued in the apocryphal Acts of St. Peter, describes Peter who is fleeing Rome at the time of Emperor Nero's persecution. This encounter is reminiscent of Peter's denial, when Peter chose to deny Jesus three times during his passion and crucifixion. Apostle Peter realizes that he is on his way to making the same mistake all over again now, abandoning Jesus and his church in a moment of danger. Peter turns around when he understands that this was a sign, and returns to Rome to face the martyrdom. It was commissioned by Cardinal Pietro"
"Saint Christopher Saint Christopher (, ""Ágios Christóforos"") is venerated by several Christian denominations as a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd-century Roman Emperor Decius (reigned 249–251) or alternatively under the Roman Emperor Maximinus II Dacian (reigned 308–313). There appears to be confusion due to the similarity in names ""Decius"" and ""Dacian"". However his veneration only appears late in Christian tradition, and did not become widespread in the Western Church until the Late Middle Ages, although churches and monasteries were named after him by the 7th century. It is disputed whether Christopher existed, and if so whether the name"
"Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I (, ; 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa (), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 2 January 1155 until his death. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King of Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. Two years later, the term ' (""holy"") first appeared in a document in connection with his Empire. He was later formally crowned King"
"poet Walter of Speyer portrayed St. Christopher as a giant of a cynocephalic species in the land of the Chananeans who ate human flesh and barked. Eventually, Christopher met the Christ child, regretted his former behavior, and received baptism. He, too, was rewarded with a human appearance, whereupon he devoted his life to Christian service and became an athlete of God, one of the soldier-saints. Saint Christopher Saint Christopher (, ""Ágios Christóforos"") is venerated by several Christian denominations as a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd-century Roman Emperor Decius (reigned 249–251) or alternatively under the Roman Emperor Maximinus"
"Gorgonius Saint Gorgonius of Nicomedia was a Christian martyr, part of the group Gorgonius, Peter Cubicularius and Dorotheus, who died in 304 AD at Nicomedia during the persecution of Emperor Diocletian. According to Lactantius and Eusebius, Gorgonius held a high position in the household of the emperor. When the persecution began he was consequently among the first to be charged, and with his companions, Peter, Dorotheus and several others, brutally tortured to death. According to one version of the legend, Diocletian, wishing to expose Christians in his household, ordered everyone to pay honor to the Roman gods; if they refused,"
"after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of the ""Old St. Peter's Basilica"" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. The New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy, nor even that he established Peter as"
"Licinius Licinius I (; ; c. 263 – 325) was a Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis, and was later executed on the orders of Constantine I. Born to a Dacian peasant family in Moesia Superior, Licinius accompanied his close childhood friend, the future emperor Galerius, on the Persian expedition in 298. He was trusted enough by Galerius that"
"in the Tridentine Calendar, was inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 4 December. In 1969 his feast was moved to 30 July, as close as possible to the day of his death, 31 July, the feast day of Saint Ignatius of Loyola. A contemporary portrait of Saint Peter Chrysologus, found in the mosaics of the Church of San Giovanni Evangelista in Ravenna, depicts him among the members of the eastern and western imperial family, showing his extraordinary influence. Peter Chrysologus Peter Chrysologus (, ""Petros Chrysologos"" meaning ""Peter the ""golden-worded"""") (c. 380 – c. 450) was Bishop of"
"Spartacus), other Roman civil wars in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, and the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. Crassus crucified 6,000 of Spartacus' followers hunted down and captured after his defeat in battle. Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire in 337 out of veneration for Jesus Christ, its most famous victim. Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most"
"Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was always too risky. He was instead proclaimed Emperor elect by Pope Julius II at Trent, thus breaking the long tradition of requiring a papal coronation for the adoption of the imperial title. Maximilian was the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal. He ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of the latter's reign, from c. 1483"
"Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was always too risky. He was instead proclaimed Emperor elect by Pope Julius II at Trent, thus breaking the long tradition of requiring a papal coronation for the adoption of the imperial title. Maximilian was the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal. He ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of the latter's reign, from c. 1483"
"Peter (curopalates) Petrus (, ""Petros"", also known as Peter in English (c. 545 in Arabissus, Cappadocia – 27 November 602 in Constantinople or Chalcedon) was a brother of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice (r. 582 - 602). Petrus was a son of Paul, head of the Byzantine Senate and a sibling to Maurice, Byzantine Emperor, Gordia, the wife of Philippicus, and Theoctista. Raised to the rank of ""curopalates"", he was an important general in the Byzantine army. Together with Priscus and Comentiolus, he was one of the three commanders-in-chief during Maurice's Balkan campaigns. Though less able than Priscus, he succeeded the"
"pagan Emperor of the Roman Empire, Julian the Apostate. Extramural cemeteries where individuals deemed to be saints were interned became prominent sites for Christian communities; St. Peter's Basilica in Rome was for example erected atop an extramural cemetery believed to house the remains of St Peter. Connected to this cult of saints was the cult of relics; in the eastern Roman Empire, the practice of breaking up the original remains for distribution among various churches began, and soon spread to elsewhere in Christendom. As a theoretical justification for this, several Christian thinkers — notably the Archbishop of Rouen, Victricius —"
"Valerian (emperor) Valerian (; ; 193/195/200260 or 264), also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 22 October 253 AD to spring 260 AD. He was taken captive by the Persian Emperor, Shapur I, after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the first Roman emperor to be captured as a prisoner of war, causing shock and instability throughout the empire. Unlike many of the would-be emperors and rebels who vied for imperial power during the Crisis of the Third Century of the Roman Empire, Valerian was of a noble and traditional senatorial family. Details of his early life are"
"pagan nature, only to be stopped by the virtuous Constantine. Finally, on Licinius’s death, his memory was branded with infamy; his statues were thrown down; and by edict, all his laws and judicial proceedings during his reign were abolished. Licinius Licinius I (; ; c. 263 – 325) was a Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis, and was later"
"Justin II Justin II (; ; c. 520 – 5 October 578) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 565 to 574. He was the husband of Sophia, nephew of Justinian I and the Empress Theodora, and was therefore a member of the Justinian Dynasty. His reign was marked by war with the Sassanid Empire, and the loss of the greater part of Italy. He presented the Cross of Justin II to Saint Peter's, Rome. He was a son of Vigilantia and Dulcidio (or Dulcissimus), respectively the sister and brother-in-law of Justinian. His siblings included Marcellus and Praejecta. Justinian I died on"
"Theodosius I Theodosius I (; ; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also known as Theodosius the Great, was a Roman Emperor from 379 to 395, and the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. On accepting his elevation, he campaigned against Goths and other barbarians who had invaded the Empire. His resources were not sufficient to destroy them or drive them out, which had been Roman policy for centuries in dealing with invaders. By treaty, which followed his indecisive victory at the end of the Gothic War, they were"
"Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Caravaggio) The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Italian: ""Crocifissione di san Pietro"") is a work by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painted in 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. Across the chapel is a second Caravaggio work depicting the ""Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus"" (1601). On the altar between the two is the ""Assumption of the Virgin Mary"" by Annibale Carracci. The two lateral paintings were commissioned in September 1600 by Monsignor Tiberio Cerasi, Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII who purchased the chapel from the Augustinian friars on"
"Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Caravaggio) The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Italian: ""Crocifissione di san Pietro"") is a work by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painted in 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. Across the chapel is a second Caravaggio work depicting the ""Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus"" (1601). On the altar between the two is the ""Assumption of the Virgin Mary"" by Annibale Carracci. The two lateral paintings were commissioned in September 1600 by Monsignor Tiberio Cerasi, Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII who purchased the chapel from the Augustinian friars on"
"happen, you can ascertain from the Acts of Pontius Pilate."" The Apology letters were written and addressed by name to the Roman Emperor Pius and the Roman Governor Urbicus. All three of these men lived between 138–161. There is a pseudepigraphic letter reporting on the crucifixion, purporting to have been sent by Pontius Pilate to the Emperor Claudius, embodied in the pseudepigrapha known as the ""Acts of Peter and Paul"", of which the ""Catholic Encyclopedia"" states, ""This composition is clearly apocryphal though unexpectedly brief and restrained."" There is no internal relation between this feigned letter and the 4th-century ""Acts of"
"celebrated in the Catholic Church on 4 or 7 August. Justin the Confessor Justin the Confessor (died 269 in Rome) was a Christian martyr in the Roman Empire. He is honoured as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church. Justin the Confessor lived in the city of Rome at the time of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. It is believed that Justin was martyred, either under Emperor Claudius II or under Emperor Valerian, the latter being more likely. Justin was ordained as a priest by Pope Sixtus II. As a presbyter he led the Christian community of"
"in his ""Prescription Against Heretics"", noting that Peter endured a passion like his Lord's: In his work ""Scorpiace 15"", he also speaks of Peter's crucifixion: ""The budding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross"". Origen in his ""Commentary on the Book of Genesis III"", quoted by Eusebius of Caesaria in his ""Ecclesiastical History (III, 1)"", said: ""Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer."" The Cross of St. Peter inverts the Latin cross based on this refusal, and his"