"of oxides to replicate the chemistry of the rock/system in question) in an apparatus capable of creating and sustaining high pressures and temperatures such as a Diamond anvil cell. In general, it is ideal if the enclosing capsule is relatively nonreactive, such as diamond or platinum/gold alloys . Experimental igneous petrology is the subset of experimental petrology concerned with quantifying the behavior of magmas and their associated igneous rocks at depth. Standard procedure generally involves the creation of a synthetic magma (often corresponding to a real world analog) which is then cooled to a target temperature. After crystallization, the products"
"or traded from elsewhere. This kind of information, along with other evidence, can support conclusions about settlement patterns, group and individual mobility, social contacts, and trade networks. In addition, an understanding of how certain minerals are altered at specific temperatures can allow archaeological petrographers to infer aspects of the ceramic production process itself, such as minimum and maximum temperatures reached during the original firing of the pot. Petrography Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are"
"Petrography Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are described in detail. The classification of rocks is based on the information acquired during the petrographic analysis. Petrographic descriptions start with the field notes at the outcrop and include macroscopic description of hand specimens. However, the most important tool for the petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the micro-texture and structure are critical to understanding the"
"and is also used to make inferences about exchange, economy and social dynamics. The Munsell color system is used to categorize colors of shards, while other aspects such as grain size and hardness are examined using other charts. Information on the process of manufacturing can also be rendered from pottery. Petrology studies characteristics of rocks, which are often used as temper in different forms of pottery. By studying temper in more detail, pottery can be sourced to specific manufacturers or geographic locations. Petrology can also inform studies of manufacturing techniques. Petrological techniques can be applied to pottery and bricks. However,"
"Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these rock properties by acquiring"
"ΦT – Vsh *Φsh Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these"
"Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of artefacts. Samples are ground to a thickness of 0.03 mm and mounted on a glass slide. The approach relies heavily on the geological principles of optical mineralogy, thin section petrography and soil micromorphology. It combines these with an appreciation of the craft of ceramic manufacture and interprets data within an archaeological framework. Ceramic petrography is used in academic"
"Archaeological Science and Geoarchaeology, as well as edited volumes. Petrographic research is often presented at the International Symposium on Archaeometry, the European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics and the meetings of the Ceramic Petrology Group. Commercial petrographic analysis of ceramics and other artefacts is offered by companies such as ceramicpetrology.co.uk in the UK, and Desert Archaeology in the USA. Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of"
"Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited 'window' into the subsurface world, provided by one (or possibly more) exploration wells. These wells present only a 1-dimensional segment through the Earth and the skill of inferring 3-dimensional characteristics from them is one of the most fundamental"
"origin of the rock. Electron microprobe analysis of individual grains as well as whole rock chemical analysis by atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy are used in a modern petrographic lab. Individual mineral grains from a rock sample may also be analyzed by X-ray diffraction when optical means are insufficient. Analysis of microscopic fluid inclusions within mineral grains with a heating stage on a petrographic microscope provides clues to the temperature and pressure conditions existent during the mineral formation. Petrography as a science began in 1828 when Scottish physicist William Nicol invented the technique for producing polarized light"
"Petrochemistry Petrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. These petrochemicals have become an essential part of the chemical industry today. It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely"
"and plants that produce cones (e.g. pine trees). Spores are asexual reproductive bodies of ferns, mosses and fungi. Palynology is used by geologists to help date rocks for petroleum, mining and water exploration and to help unravel the history of plants on Earth; by geographers to investigate climatic and environmental change: by botanists for plant taxonomy and phylogeny; by immunologist to investigate allergenic pollen; by archaeologists to study the customs, rituals and agricultural practices of ancient peoples; by zoologists and environmental scientists to understand foraging habits of insects, birds and mammals and to investigate past native vegetation and habitats in"
"below) and by the technique of formation evaluation using wireline tools passed down the well itself. Modern advances in seismic data acquisition and processing have meant that seismic attributes of subsurface rocks are readily available and can be used to infer physical/sedimentary properties of the rocks themselves. Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: In general,"
"Petroleum engineering Petroleum engineering is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. Exploration and production are deemed to fall within the ""upstream"" sector of the oil and gas industry. Exploration, by earth scientists, and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industry's two main subsurface disciplines, which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs. Petroleum geology and geophysics focus on provision of a static description of the hydrocarbon reservoir rock, while petroleum engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of"
"Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World. Books on the subject included the ""Naturalis Historia"" of Pliny the Elder, which not only described many different minerals but"
"Petrifaction In geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin). Petrifaction takes place through a combination of two similar processes: permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the"
"Petroleomics Petroleomics is the identification of the totality of the constituents of naturally occurring petroleum and crude oil using high resolution mass spectrometry. In addition to mass determination, petroleomic analysis sorts the chemical compounds into heteroatom class (nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur), type (degree of unsaturation, and carbon number). The name is a combination of petroleum and -omics (collective chemical characterization and quantification). Mass spectrometry characterization of petroleum has been performed since the first commercial mass spectrometers were introduced in the 1940s. Early mass spectrometry was limited to relatively low molecular weight nonpolar species accessed mainly by electron ionization with mass"
"Rheology Rheology (; from Greek ῥέω ""rhéō"", ""flow"" and -λoγία, -""logia"", ""study of"") is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as ""soft solids"" or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force. It is a branch of physics which deals with the deformation and flow of materials, both solids and liquids. The term ""rheology"" was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner. The term was inspired by"
"this process is mining. The study of sedimentology is of prime importance to the delineation of economic reserves of petroleum and coal energy resources. Economic geology Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals, construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal, and water. Economic geology is a subdiscipline of the geosciences; according to Lindgren (1933) it is “the application of geology”. Today, we might call it the scientific study of the Earth’s sources of mineral raw materials and the practical application of the acquired knowledge."
"as iron, copper, and uranium. Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium. Petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins, they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic"
"the temperature at boundaries. Results are compared with petrological experimental results for validation. By combining petrological methods and thermal modeling techniques, the understanding of metamorphic processes due to tectonic events is facilitated. Petrological results provide realistic variables to be plugged into a model simulation, while numerical modeling techniques often place constraints on the possible tectonic environments. The two methods complement the limitations of each other, and formulate a comprehensive evolutionary history of the metamorphic and tectonic events. Areas with collision-related tectonic events or under subduction zones commonly produce metamorphic rocks with ""clockwise P-T-t paths"" with near-isothermal decompressional P-T trajectories, and"
"Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ""pedon"", ""soil""; and λόγος, ""logos"", ""study"") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification, while edaphology studies the way soils influence plants, fungi, and other living things. Soil is not only a support for vegetation, but it is also the pedosphere, the locus of numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals) and its residues, the mineral material of the original and added rock, and its position"
"Pharology Pharology is the scientific study of lighthouses and signal lights, their construction and illumination. The variation ""pharonology"" is occasionally attested. Those who study or are enthused by lighthouses are known as pharologists. The term originally began as pharonology and is prevalent in many 1840s papers on the study of lighthouses. The term stems from the classical Latin or its ancient Greek etymon ""Pharos"", meaning lighthouse (Pharos was also the proper name of the famed lighthouse of Alexandria) and the Greek root “logos"" (a word or discourse) in John Purdy's ""The Colombian Navigator; Or, Sailing Directory for the American Coasts"
"Petrifaction in mythology and fiction Petrifaction, or petrification as defined as turning people to stone, is a common theme in folklore and mythology, as well as in some works of modern fiction. Petrification is associated with the legends of Medusa, the basilisk, the Svartálfar and the cockatrice, among others. In fairy tales, characters who fail in a quest may be turned to stone until they are rescued by the successful hero, as in the tales such as The Giant Who Had No Heart in His Body, The Water of Life and The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking"
"gravel were moved along. This process shaped the landscape and influenced the shape of some stones. They are round at the top and flattened at the bottom. A showcase is devoted to the theme of petrification. Exhibited are petrified plants and animals. So far only a few smaller caves have been discovered. Some of them are filled with ice which does not melt even in summer. There is the possibility of astronomical observations at night. Since 2013, this private museum has been cooperating with the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. In two classrooms, school classes are taught about the geology of"
"Patriology Patriology or Paterology, in Christian theology, refers to the study of God the Father. Both terms are derived from two Greek words: πατήρ (""patḗr"", father) and λογος (""logos"", teaching). As a distinctive theological discipline, Patriology or Paterology is closely connected with Christology (study of Christ as God the Son) and Pneumatology (study of Holy Ghost as God the Spirit). Terms ""Patriology"" and ""Paterology"" should not be confused with similar term patrology that involves the study of teachings of the Church Fathers (patristics). Christian Patriology or Paterology is primarily based on the study and interpretation of Bible verses that are"
"an area thousands or millions of years ago. This is a fundamental part of research into climate change. Palynology Palynology is the ""study of dust"" (from , ""strew, sprinkle"" and ""-logy"") or ""particles that are strewn"". A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, or from deposits including sediments of any age. The condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. The term is sometimes narrowly used to refer to a subset of the discipline, which is defined as ""the study"
"provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area. Geologists use a number of field, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface."
"will most likely facilitate the spread of pests and diseases, creating an additional threat to forest trees and their populations. To inhibit these problems human interventions, such as transfer of forest reproductive material, may be needed. Palynology is the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen. Palynology is used to infer the geographical distribution of plant species, which vary under different climate conditions. Different groups of plants have pollen with distinctive shapes and surface textures, and since the outer surface of pollen is composed of a very resilient material, they resist decay. Changes in the type of pollen found"
"with a conoscopic lens. In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical evolution of rock units. Petrologists can also use fluid inclusion data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks. This work can also help to"
"Ferrography Ferrography is a specialized type of oil analysis used to study particle wear on machine components through analysis of contaminants in lubricating oil. It can be used to predict and diagnose errors occurring on machinery. Ferrography is related to tribology, which is the study of friction between interacting surfaces. Since the advent of ferrography in the 1970s it has been used in many industrial settings as a form of preventative maintenance. Ferrography was pioneered in the 1970s by the late Vernon C. Westcott to help the United States military diagnose problems related to bearing failure before the issues became"
"Anthracology Anthracology (from ""anthrax"" (ἄνθραξ), the Greek word for coal) is a multidisciplinary science that relies on the analysis and identification of charcoal based on wood anatomy, which remains perfectly preserved after carbonization. Remains of carbonized wood may come from archaeological sites or from sediments, and make evidence either of natural or anthropogenic paleofires or of several aspects of human activity. Anthracological studies may also be applied to extant material, in which case they can focus either on the anatomical description of reference material or on the inspection of charcoal of illegal provenience. The identification of species from carbonized wood"
"petrology and structural geology) might all be used to understand, describe, and exploit an ore deposit. Economic geology is studied and practiced by geologists. Economic geology may be of interest to other professions such as engineers, environmental scientists, and conservationists because of the far-reaching impact that extractive industries have on society, the economy, and the environment. The purpose of the study of economic geology is to gain understanding of the genesis and localization of ore deposits plus the minerals associated with ore deposits. Though metals, minerals and other geologic commodities are non-renewable in human time frames, the impression of a"