"The dogmatic use of reason would be the acceptance as true of a statement that goes beyond the bounds of reason while the polemic use of reason would be the defense of such statement against any attack that could be raised against it. For Kant, then, there cannot possibly be any polemic use of pure reason. Kant argues against the polemic use of pure reason and considers it improper on the grounds that opponents cannot engage in a rational dispute based on a question that goes beyond the bounds of experience. Kant claimed that adversaries should be freely allowed to"
"his isolation. It has been noted that in 1778, in response to one of these offers by a former pupil, Kant wrote: When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the ""Critique of Pure Reason"". Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this ""Critique"" was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style. It received few reviews, and these granted it no significance. Kant's former student, Johann Gottfried Herder criticized it for placing"
"Aenesidemus (book) Aenesidemus is a German book published anonymously by Professor Gottlob Ernst Schulze of Helmstedt in 1792. Schulze attempted to refute the principles that Karl Leonhard Reinhold established in support of Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (1781). The title is a reference to Aenesidemus, an ancient Greek skeptical philosopher. Its complete title, in English translation, was ""Aenesidemus or Concerning the Foundations of the Philosophy of the Elements Issued by Professor Reinhold in Jena Together with a Defense of Skepticism against the Pretensions of the Critique of Reason"" (). The book was supposed to be a written correspondence between"
"Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason () is a 1793 book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Although its purpose and original intent has become a matter of some dispute, the book's immense and lasting influence on the history of theology and the philosophy of religion is indisputable. It consists of four parts, called ""Pieces"" (""Stücke""), originally written as a series of four journal articles. He strongly criticises ritual, superstition and a church hierarchy in this work. The First Piece originally appeared as a ""Berlinische Monatsschrift"" article (April 1792). Kant's attempt to"
"Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era. Kant published a second edition of the ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (""Kritik der reinen Vernunft"") in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's ""Critique of Practical Reason"" (known as the second ""Critique"") and 1797's ""Metaphysics of Morals"". The 1790"
"unfolded according to his demonstrative-deductive, mathematical method, which perhaps represents the peak of Enlightenment rationality in Germany. Wolff was one of the first to use German as a language of scholarly instruction and research, although he also wrote in Latin, so that an international audience could, and did, read him. A founding father of, among other fields, economics and public administration as academic disciplines, he concentrated especially in these fields, giving advice on practical matters to people in government, and stressing the professional nature of university education. In 1781, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) published his ""Critique of Pure Reason"", in which"
"with objectivity and the empirical. After Kant's death, a number of philosophers saw themselves as correcting and expanding his philosophy, leading to the various forms of German Idealism. One of these philosophers was Johann Fichte. His student (and critic), Arthur Schopenhauer, accused him of rejecting the distinction between ""a priori"" and ""a posteriori"" knowledge: A priori and a posteriori The Latin phrases a priori ( ""from the earlier"") and a posteriori ( ""from the later"") are philosophical terms popularized by Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (first published in 1781, second edition in 1787), one of the most influential works"
"Francis Haywood Francis Haywood (; 1796–1858) was a Liverpool merchant and translator, the first person to translate Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" into English. Born in Liverpool, Haywood lived there for most of his life. In 1828 (describing himself as a 'layman of the Church of England', though he was in fact active in Liverpool Unitarian circles) he translated a reply by the theological rationalist Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider to Hugh James Rose's essay on the state of Protestantism in Germany. In an 1829 ""Foreign Review"" article Haywood called for an English translation of Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"". Arthur Schopenhauer"
"second edition of the ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (1787), at B413–15. Commentators disagree over whether Kant's criticism is successful. Mendelssohn's arguments have been largely overlooked by contemporary analytic philosophers, but philosophers including Bertrand Russell and E.J. Lowe have offered arguments for the simplicity of the soul. Phaedon Phaedon (), published in 1767, is a book by the Jewish Enlightenment philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, in which Mendelssohn offers a defense of immortality. ""Phaedon"" is a defense of the simplicity and immortality of the soul. It is a series of three dialogues, revisiting the Platonic dialogue Phaedo, in which Socrates argues for the"
"clear and tasteful mode of presentation. Feder decisively countered Kant's idealism. He gained notoriety through his abbreviation of Christian Garve's review of Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"". As philosopher Feder belonged to the better representatives of the eclectics tending towards the Leibniz–Wolff School. Johann Georg Heinrich Feder Johann Georg Heinrich Feder (; 15 May 1740 – 22 May 1821) was a German philosopher. Feder was born on 15 May 1740 in the village of Schornweisach (now a part of Uehlfeld, Bavaria) in the Principality of Bayreuth, the son of Martin Heinrich Feder († 1749), the village pastor. Feder studied theology"
"Ludwig Noiré Ludwig Noiré (26 March 1829 – 27 March 1889) was a German philosopher, known for his studies involving the philosophy of language. He was born in Alzey. He received his education at the University of Giessen, and later relocated to Mainz, where he worked as a grammar school teacher. Alexander Bogdanov attributed some of his ideas, formalized as tektology, on the development of a monistic system to Ludwig Noiré. Noiré contributed an historical introduction to F. Max Müller’s 1881 translation of Kant’s ""Critique of Pure Reason"". It was titled ""The Critique of Pure Reason as Illustrated by a"
"Gottlob Ernst Schulze Gottlob Ernst Schulze (; 23 August 1761 – 14 January 1833) was a German philosopher, born in Heldrungen (modern-day Thuringia, Germany). He was the grandfather of the pioneering biochemist Ernst Schulze. Schulze was a professor at Wittenberg, Helmstedt, and Göttingen. His most influential book was ""Aenesidemus"" (1792), a skeptical polemic against Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" and Karl Leonhard Reinhold's ""Philosophy of the Elements"". In Göttingen, he advised his student Arthur Schopenhauer to concentrate on the philosophies of Plato and Kant. This advice had a strong influence on Schopenhauer's philosophy. In the winter semester of 1810"
"Pure Reason"" to the epistemological concerns of the beginning and middle sections. Reinhold examined the necessary conditions of representation, such as subject and object, that must exist in order for an object to be consciously present. Attribution Karl Leonhard Reinhold Karl Leonhard Reinhold (26 October 1757 – 10 April 1823) was an Austrian philosopher who helped to popularise the work of Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. His ""elementary philosophy"" (""Elementarphilosophie"") also influenced German idealism, notably Johann Gottlieb Fichte, as a critical system grounded in a fundamental first principle. He was the father of Ernst Christian Gottlieb Reinhold (1793–1855),"
"and 1811, Schopenhauer studied both psychology and metaphysics under Schulze. Schulze died in Göttingen. Gottlob Ernst Schulze Gottlob Ernst Schulze (; 23 August 1761 – 14 January 1833) was a German philosopher, born in Heldrungen (modern-day Thuringia, Germany). He was the grandfather of the pioneering biochemist Ernst Schulze. Schulze was a professor at Wittenberg, Helmstedt, and Göttingen. His most influential book was ""Aenesidemus"" (1792), a skeptical polemic against Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" and Karl Leonhard Reinhold's ""Philosophy of the Elements"". In Göttingen, he advised his student Arthur Schopenhauer to concentrate on the philosophies of Plato and Kant. This"
"throughout the book, whereby rational religion is depicted as a naked (""bare"") body while historical religions are regarded as ""clothing"" that are not appropriate ""vehicles"" for conveying religious truths to the populace. The earliest translation treats this metaphor too literally: using ""naked"" ignores the fact that Kant's """"bloßen"""" can also mean ""mere"". The most recent translation solves this problem by using the English ""bare"", which also has both meanings. Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason () is a 1793 book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Although its purpose and original intent"
"On September 5, 2007, Finkelstein resigned after he and the university reached a settlement; they released a joint statement on the resolution of the conflict. In ""The Holocaust Industry"", Finkelstein questioned Elie Wiesel's claim to have read Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" in Yiddish. According to Finkelstein, no translation of the work existed in Yiddish at the time. Dershowitz responded that this was not so: he alleged that one had been published in Warsaw in 1929, and said that he had seen a copy at the Harvard Library. Finkelstein described this latter claim as false and inept, writing that"
"Norman Kemp Smith Norman Duncan Kemp Smith FRSE (5 May 1872 – 3 September 1958) was a Scottish philosopher who was Professor of Psychology (1906–1914) and Philosophy (1914–1919) at Princeton University and was Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Edinburgh (1919–1945). He is noted for his 1929 English translation of Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"". The Kemp Smith Room in Edinburgh University's Philosophy Department is named in his honour. He was born Norman Smith on 5 May 1872 in Dundee, Scotland, the son of a cabinet-maker on the Nethergate. He was educated in Dundee and then"
"to the philosophy of mind the various schools that fall under this label (phenomenology, existentialism, etc.) can globally be seen to differ from the analytic school in that they focus less on language and logical analysis alone but also take in other forms of understanding human existence and experience. With reference specifically to the discussion of the mind, this tends to translate into attempts to grasp the concepts of thought and perceptual experience in some sense that does not merely involve the analysis of linguistic forms. Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"", first published in 1781 and presented again with"
"when Gotthold Ephraim Lessing died and Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" appeared. German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system. German idealists, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and the members of Jena Romanticism (Friedrich Hölderlin, Novalis, and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel), transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable. Arthur Schopenhauer's identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational will to live influenced later 19th-"
"Critique of Cynical Reason Critique of Cynical Reason is a book by the German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk, published in 1983 in two volumes under the German title ""Kritik der zynischen Vernunft"". It discusses philosophical Cynicism and popular cynicism as a societal phenomenon in European history. In the first volume of ""Critique of Cynical Reason"", Sloterdijk discusses his philosophical premises. The second volume builds on these premises to construct a phenomenology of action that incorporates the many facets of cynicism as they appear in various forms of public discourse. In both volumes, the relationship between texts and images is an integral"
"Cassirer–Heidegger debate The Cassirer–Heidegger debate is an encounter between Martin Heidegger and Ernst Cassirer in March 1929 in Davos, Switzerland concerning the significance of Kantian notions of freedom and rationality. Cassirer argues that while Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" emphasizes human temporality and finitude, he also sought to situate human cognition within a broader conception of humanity. Cassirer challenges Heidegger's relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences. In """" (Harvard University Press, 2010), Peter E. Gordon reconstructs the debate between Heidegger and Cassirer, demonstrating its significance as a point of rupture in"
"reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?"" No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. Thirty-three years after Hume's ""Enquiry"" appeared, Immanuel Kant published his ""Critique of Pure Reason"". Although he followed Hume in rejecting much of previous metaphysics, he argued that there was still room for some ""synthetic a priori"" knowledge, concerned with matters of fact yet obtainable independent of experience. These included fundamental structures of space, time, and causality. He also argued for the freedom of the will and the existence of ""things in themselves"", the ultimate (but unknowable) objects"
"and arguably was a professional philosopher only during the five years he lectured at Johns Hopkins. He learned philosophy mainly by reading, each day, a few pages of Immanuel Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"", in the original German, while a Harvard undergraduate. His writings bear on a wide array of disciplines, including mathematics, logic, philosophy, statistics, astronomy, metrology, geodesy, experimental psychology, economics, linguistics, and the history and philosophy of science. This work has enjoyed renewed interest and approval, a revival inspired not only by his anticipations of recent scientific developments but also by his demonstration of how philosophy can be"
"On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason () is an elaboration on the classical Principle of Sufficient Reason, written by German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer as his doctoral dissertation in 1813. The principle of sufficient reason is a powerful and controversial philosophical principle stipulating that everything must have a reason or cause. Schopenhauer revised and re-published it in 1847. The work articulated the centerpiece of many of Schopenhauer's arguments, and throughout his later works he consistently refers his readers to it as the necessary beginning point for a"
"source of morality, and that aesthetics arise from a faculty of disinterested judgment. Kant's views continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of epistemology, ethics, political theory, and post-modern aesthetics. In one of Kant's major works, the ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (1781), he attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as David Hume. Kant regarded himself as"
"wrote to him on the matter, but was offended when Haywood suggested they should collaborate on a translation. Haywood's translation of the first ""Critique"" appeared anonymously in 1838. Haywood died on 29 May 1858 at Feckenham in Worcestershire, and was buried in the churchyard of St John the Baptist in Feckenham. Haywood's daughter Lucy Franklin published an anonymous memoir of her father in the ""Cornhill Magazine"". There are some papers relating to him at Duke University library. Francis Haywood Francis Haywood (; 1796–1858) was a Liverpool merchant and translator, the first person to translate Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" into"
"Max Horkheimer Max Horkheimer (; ; February 14, 1895 – July 7, 1973) was a German philosopher and sociologist who was famous for his work in critical theory as a member of the 'Frankfurt School' of social research. Horkheimer addressed authoritarianism, militarism, economic disruption, environmental crisis, and the poverty of mass culture using the philosophy of history as a framework. This became the foundation of critical theory. His most important works include ""Eclipse of Reason"" (1947), ""Between Philosophy and Social Science"" (1930–1938) and, in collaboration with Theodor Adorno, ""Dialectic of Enlightenment"" (1947). Through the Frankfurt School, Horkheimer planned, supported and"
"Lewis White Beck claimed that the chief interest of the ""Prolegomena"" to the student of philosophy is ""the way in which it goes beyond and against the views of contemporary positivism"". He wrote: ""The ""Prolegomena"" is, moreover, the best of all introductions to that vast and obscure masterpiece, the ""Critique of Pure Reason"". … It has an exemplary lucidity and wit, making it unique among Kant's greater works and uniquely suitable as a textbook of the Kantian philosophy."" Ernst Cassirer asserted that ""the ""Prolegomena"" inaugurates a new form of truly philosophical popularity, unrivaled for clarity and keenness"". Schopenhauer, in 1819,"
"16 and was appointed to a chair in metaphysics there in 1770 at the age of 46. While working there he published his ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (arguing that knowledge arises from the application of innate concepts to sensory experience) and his ""Metaphysics of Morals"" which argues that virtue is acquired by the performance of duty for its own sake. In 1736, the mathematician Leonhard Euler used the arrangement of the city's bridges and islands as the basis for the Seven Bridges of Königsberg Problem, which led to the mathematical branches of topology and graph theory. In the 19th century"
"The basic Christian doctrines of a transcendent God and an immortal human soul were presuppositions in his thinking. However, he disagreed with Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, who thought that the only way to avoid nihilism, fatalism, and atheism was to believe in the religious morality that was revealed by God. Reinhold tried to show that Kant's philosophy provided an alternative to either religious revelation or philosophical skepticism and fatalistic pantheism. But Kant's ""Critique of Pure Reason"" was a difficult and confusing book. It was not widely read and had little influence. Reinhold decided to write his comments on it in the"
"and Heinz Heimsoeth on aspects of ontology, and Peter Strawson on the limits of reason within the boundaries of sensory experience. Hannah Arendt and Jean-François Lyotard dealt with its work of orientation of a limited understanding in the field of world history. The A and B numbers used as standard references refer to the page numbers of the first (1781) and second (1787) German editions respectively. Sometimes NKS numbers are used to refer to pages of the Norman Kemp Smith English translation (St. Martin's Press, Macmillan, 1929). Critique of Pure Reason The Critique of Pure Reason () is a 1781"
"the Lumières) heavily criticised the limitations of pure reason in his work ""Critique of Pure Reason"" (), but also that of English empiricism in ""Critique of Practical Reason"" (). Compared with the rather subjective metaphysics of Descartes, Kant developed a more objective viewpoint in this branch of philosophy. Great thinkers at the end of the Lumières movement (Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson and even the young Goethe) adopted into their philosophy the ideas of self-organising and evolutionary forces. The Lumières' stance was then presented with reference to what was seen as a universal truth: that Good is fundamental in nature, but"
"Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose ""Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose"" or ""The Idea of a Universal History on a Cosmopolitical Plan"" () is a 1784 essay by Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), a lecturer in anthropology and geography at Königsberg University. The essay was published as Kant was gaining repute as a philosopher following the publication of his revolutionary treatise on epistemology, ""The Critique of Pure Reason"" (1781) and preceding his critique of ethical theory, ""Critique of Practical Reason"" (1788). ""Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose"" embroiled Kant in"