"""Sargassum"" and ""Turbinaria"" species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids, there is a relatively low level of phenolics and tannins. Marine allelochemicals generally are present in greater quantity and diversity in tropical than in temperate regions. Marine algal phenolics have been reported as an apparent exception to this biogeographic trend. High phenolic concentrations occur in brown algae species (orders Dictyotales and Fucales) from both temperate and tropical regions, indicating that latitude alone is not a reasonable predictor of plant phenolic concentrations. In ""Vitis vinifera"" grape, ""trans""-resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced against the growth of fungal pathogens"
"synthetic drugs with similar psychoactive properties, many derived from the aforementioned plants. Many pure active compounds with psychoactive properties have been isolated from these respective organisms and chemically synthesized, including mescaline, psilocybin, DMT, salvinorin A, ibogaine, ergine, and muscimol. Semi-synthetic (e.g., LSD) and synthetic drugs (e.g., DPT and 2C-B used by the Sangoma) have also been developed. Alexander Shulgin developed hundreds of entheogens in PiHKAL and TiHKAL. Most of the drugs in PiHKAL are synthetic. Entheogens used by movements includes biotas like peyote (Native American Church), extracts like Ayahuasca (Santo Daime, União do Vegetal), the semi-synthetic drug LSD (Neo-American Church),"
"grow naturally. The tobacco plant, the cocoa shrub, yohimbe, the betel nut and the ephedra bush are just a few of the naturally occurring stimulants. Other forms of stimulants are man-made, with no naturally occurring plant base, and have been created using synthetic chemicals in a lab, or refined from other preexisting drugs on the market today. Historically speaking, stimulants such as cocaine were first introduced to the medical community and used topically as anesthetics during surgery after an experiment proved its effectiveness 1879, by a scientist named Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Würzburg. He conducted an experiment"
"like ergotamine, a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate; or, theoretically possible, but impractical and uncommon, from ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA) extracted from morning glory seeds. Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically, eliminating the need for ergotamines. A single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms—an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand. Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD. Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram. By comparison, dosages of most drugs, both"
"accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. An example of luck in science is when drugs under investigation become known for different, unexpected uses. This was the case for minoxidil (an antihypertensive vasodilator that was subsequently found to also slow hair loss and promote hair regrowth in some people) and for sildenafil (a medicine for pulmonary arterial hypertension, now familiar as ""Viagra"", used to treat erectile dysfunction). The hallucinogenic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were discovered by Albert Hofmann, who was originally working with the substance to try and treat migraines and bleeding after childbirth."
"have been conducted using illicit LSD users and provide a less clear picture. Interpretation of this data is generally complicated by factors such as the unknown chemical composition of street LSD, concurrent use of other psychoactive drugs, and diseases such as hepatitis in the sampled populations. It seems possible that the small number of genetic abnormalities reported in users of street LSD is either coincidental or related to factors other than a toxic effect of pure LSD. A 2008 medical review concluded, ""The available data suggest that pure LSD does not cause chromosomal abnormalities, spontaneous abortions, or congenital malformations."" However,"
"Growth hormone Growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin (or as human growth hormone [hGH or HGH] in its human form), is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in human development. It is a type of mitogen which is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored and secreted by somatotropic cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland. GH is a stress hormone that stimulates production of IGF-1 and raises the concentration"
"as sunscreen products. Dibenzoylmethane (DBM) is a natural phytochemical found as a minor constitute in the root extract of Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra in the family Leguminosae), and it is a beta-diketone phytochemical with a wide variety of anti-cancer effects. DBM has been shown to prevent the formation of DNA-adducts induced by carcinogen in both in vitro and in vivo studies. DBM could induce apoptosis in human prostate and colon cancer cells, and induce cycle arrest in prostate cancer cells. An investigational use in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases has been suggested; in the study DBM (and Trazodone) demonstrated potential in"
"amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), reportedly slows progression of paralytic disease in this mouse. Derivatives of lanthionine ketimine have been patented as experimental therapeutics to treat neurological diseases and diseases possessing a pathological inflammatory component. Lanthionine ketimine or its ethyl esters can be synthesized by condensation of cysteine derivatives (e.g. L-cysteine-ethyl ester hydrochloride) with 3-bromopyruvate or 3-bromopyruvate derivatives in water, followed by filtration and thorough aqueous washing of the precipitate. When dried, the precipitate can be resolubilized in aqueous medium by slow titration with NaOH or other base. Lanthionine Ketimine Lanthionine ketimine (3,4-dihydro-2H-1,3-thiazine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid) is a naturally occurring sulfur amino acid"
"Pancratistatin Pancratistatin (PST) is a natural compound initially extracted from spider lily, a Hawaiian native plant, belonging to the family Amaryllidaceae (AMD). Pancratistatin occurs naturally in Hawaiian spider lily, a flowering plant within the Amaryllidaceae family. Pancratistatin is mostly found in the bulb tissues of spider lilies. It has been shown that the enrichment of atmospheric CO can enhance the production of antiviral secondary metabolites, including Pancratistatin, in these plants. Pancratistatin can be isolated from the tropical bulbs of Hymenocallis littoralis in the order of 100 to 150 mg/kg when bulbs are obtained from the wild type in Hawaii. However,"
"risk of giving exogenous testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a metabolite of testosterone, is a critical mediator of prostatic growth. DHT is synthesized in the prostate from circulating testosterone by the action of the enzyme 5α-reductase, type 2. DHT can act in an autocrine fashion on the stromal cells or in paracrine fashion by diffusing into nearby epithelial cells. In both of these cell types, DHT binds to nuclear androgen receptors and signals the transcription of growth factors that are mitogenic to the epithelial and stromal cells. DHT is ten times more potent than testosterone because it dissociates from the androgen receptor"
"natural products with a powerful inhibitory effect on HMG-CoA reductase, were discovered in the 1970s, and taken into clinical development as potential drugs for lowering LDL cholesterol. In 1982, some small-scale clinical investigations of lovastatin, a polyketide-derived natural product isolated from ""Aspergillus terreus"", in very high-risk patients were undertaken, in which dramatic reductions in LDL cholesterol were observed, with very few adverse effects. After the additional animal safety studies with lovastatin revealed no toxicity of the type thought to be associated with compactin, clinical studies continued. Large-scale trials confirmed the effectiveness of lovastatin. Observed tolerability continued to be excellent, and"
"pan of water, and the adventitious buds sprout to form shoots. Some plants normally develop adventitious buds on their roots, which can extend quite a distance from the plant. Shoots that develop from adventitious buds on roots are termed suckers. They are a type of natural vegetative reproduction in many species, e.g. many grasses, quaking aspen and Canada thistle. The Pando quaking aspen grew from one trunk to 47,000 trunks via adventitious bud formation on a single root system. Some leaves develop adventitious buds, which then form adventitious roots, as part of vegetative reproduction; e.g. piggyback plant (""Tolmiea menziesii"") and"
"regulate sebaceous glands, apocrine hair growth, and libido. With increasing age, androgens stimulate hair growth on the face, but can suppress it at the temples and scalp vertex, a condition that has been referred to as the 'androgen paradox'. Men with androgenic alopecia typically have higher 5-alpha-reductase, lower total testosterone, higher unbound/free testosterone, and higher free androgens, including DHT. 5-alpha-reductase converts free testosterone into DHT, and is highest in the scalp and prostate gland. DHT is most commonly formed at the tissue level by 5α-reduction of testosterone. The genetic corollary that codes for this enzyme has been discovered. Prolactin has"
"occurs naturally in plants such as ""crocus sativus"", and is related to another carotenoid, saffron. Saffron has been used culturally (e.g., as a dye) and medicinally since ancient times. Trans sodium crocetinate (TSC), a synthetic drug containing the carotenoid structure of trans crocetin has been extensively investigated in animal disease models and in human clinical trials. Clinical trials of TSC have focused on testing the compound's effectiveness in sensitizing hypoxic cancer cells to radiation therapy in patients with glioblastoma, an aggressive form of brain cancer. TSC, which is being developed by Diffusion Pharmaceuticals, has been shown to enhance the oxygenation"
"LDD is that it increases plant fitness by decreasing neighboring plant competition for offspring. However, it is still unclear today as to how specific traits, conditions and trade-offs (particularly within short seed dispersal) effect LDD evolution. Autochorous plants disperse their seed without any help from an external vector, as a result this limits plants considerably as to the distance they can disperse their seed. Two other types of autochory not described in detail here are blastochory, where the stem of the plant crawls along the ground to deposit its seed far from the base of the plant, and herpochory (the"
"which the anterior pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone. Human growth hormone occurs naturally in the human body. Use of exogenous human growth hormone (HGH), via injection, was originally for medical purposes until athletes began abusing HGH with the goal of increasing their abilities. Before recombinant human growth hormone (rHGH) was developed in 1981, HGH was only available from cadavers. The arrival of rHGH combined with other peptide hormone advancements has increased the availability of HGH on both the legitimate and black markets. The first description of the use of GM as a doping agent was Dan Duchaine’s “Underground Steroid"
"LSD. However, while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies, in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages, they are otherwise quite different. The two substances are not chemically similar or related, as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine. They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects, which manifest themselves over different timescales. For example, the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD, whose effects can persist for 8–12 hours. A particular"
"Saizen Saizen is a commercial preparation of synthetic somatropin (growth hormone, a.k.a. GH). Manufactured by Merck Serono, Saizen is produced by recombinant DNA technology from a mammalian cell line (mouse C127) that was modified by the addition of the human GH gene, resulting in an identical 191-amino acid sequence and structure. Saizen is injected. It is intended for long-term treatment of individuals who are growth hormone deficient. Saizen, like all synthetic somatropin, has special importance for children and adolescents whose growth failure is due to inadequate production of growth hormone. Studies have shown that somatropin usage fails to produce athletic"
"Lysophosphatidylethanolamine A lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE) is a type of chemical compound derived from a phosphatidylethanolamine, which is typical of cell membranes. LPE results from partial hydrolysis of phosphatidylethanolamine, which removes one of the fatty acid groups. The hydrolysis is generally the result of the enzymatic action of phospholipase A2. LPE can be used in agricultural use to regulate plant growth such as color increase, sugar content increase, plant health increase, and storability increase without side effect. LPE is present as a minor phospholipid in the cell membrane. Actually, LPE was detected in human serum, and its level is reported to be"
"Phytogenics Phytogenics are a group of natural growth promoters (NGPs) or non-antibiotic growth promoters used as feed additives, derived from herbs, spices or other plants. The term phytogenic feed additives was coined by an Austrian multinational feed additives company named Delacon and was first introduced to the market in the 1980s. They are commonly regarded as favorable alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) in livestock production. Essential oils represent a concentrated form of phytogenics, containing mainly the active ingredients of the plants. The spectrum of phytogenic feed additives is vast and does not only consist of essential oils, but also"
"Secondary growth In botany, secondary growth is the growth that results from cell division in the cambia or lateral meristems and that causes the stems and roots to thicken, while primary growth is growth that occurs as a result of cell division at the tips of stems and roots, causing them to elongate, and gives rise to primary tissue. Secondary growth occurs in most seed plants, but monocots usually lack secondary growth. If they do have secondary growth, it differs from the typical pattern of other seed plants. The formation of secondary vascular tissues from the cambium is a characteristic"
"Laticifer A laticifer is a type of elongated secretory cell found in the leaves and/or stems of plants that produce latex and rubber as secondary metabolites. Laticifers may be divided into: Non-articulated laticifers begin their growth from the meristematic tissue of the embryo, termed the laticifer initial, and can exhibit continual growth throughout the lifetime of the plant. Laticifer tubes have irregularly edged walls and a larger inner diameter than the surrounding parenchyma cells. In the development of the cell, elongation occurs via karyokinesis and no cell plate develops resulting in coenocytic cells which extend throughout the plant. These cells"
"growing not from a seed but from a meristem of the root at the base or at a certain distance from a tree or shrub. This is a phenomenon of natural asexual spread, also known in plants as vegetative reproduction. It is a plant propagation strategy and the complex of individuals formed by a mother plant and all its clones produced form a single genetic individual, a genet. The plant suckers are clones from the mother plant. The plant will have a genome identical to that from which it arose. Many species of plant reproduce through vegetative reproduction, such as"
"can refer either to the natural hormone produced by the pituitary (somatotropin), or biosynthetic GH for therapy. Cadaver growth hormone is the term for GH extracted from the pituitary glands of human cadavers between 1960 and 1985 for therapy of deficient children. In the U.S., cadaver GH, also referred to as NPA growth hormone, was provided by the National Pituitary Agency, and by other national programs and commercial firms as well. In 1985 it was associated with the development of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, and was withdrawn from use. RHGH (rHGH, rhGH) refers to recombinant human growth hormone, that is, somatropin (INN)."
"derived from a natural phytotoxin, leptospermone, obtained from the Australian bottlebrush plant (""Callistemon citrinus""). HPPD is essential in plants and animals for catabolism, or breaking apart, of tyrosine. In plants, preventing this process leads to destruction of chlorophyll and the death of the plant. In toxicology studies of the herbicide, it was discovered that it had activity against HPPD in rats and humans. In Type I tyrosinemia, a different enzyme involved in the breakdown of tyrosine, fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase is mutated and doesn't work, leading to very harmful products building up in the body. Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase acts on tyrosine after HPPD"
"grow from the base, via an intercalary meristem. It is believed that microphylls evolved from outgrowths on stems, such as spines, which later acquired veins (vascular traces). Although the living lycophytes are all relatively small and inconspicuous plants, more common in the moist tropics than in temperate regions, during the Carboniferous period tree-like lycophytes (such as ""Lepidodendron"") formed huge forests that dominated the landscape. The euphyllophytes, making up more than 99% of living vascular plant species, have large 'true' leaves (megaphylls), which effectively grow from the sides or the apex, via marginal or apical meristems. One theory is that megaphylls"
"In some orchids, the apical meristem of the rhizome forms an ascendent swollen stem called a pseudobulb, and the apical meristem is consumed in a terminal inflorescence. Continued growth occurs in the rhizome, where a lateral meristem takes over to form another pseudobulb and repeat the process. This process is evident in the jointed appearance of the rhizome, where each segment is the product of an individual meristem, but the sympodial nature of a stem is not always clearly visible. Sympodial Sympodial growth is type of bifurcating branching pattern where one branch develops more strongly than the other, resulting in"
"Psilocybin Psilocybin ( ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of mushrooms, collectively known as psilocybin mushrooms. The most potent are members of the genus ""Psilocybe"", such as ""P. azurescens"", ""P. semilanceata"", and ""P. cyanescens"", but psilocybin has also been isolated from about a dozen other genera. As a prodrug, psilocybin is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of LSD, mescaline, and DMT. In general, the effects include euphoria, visual and mental hallucinations, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, spiritual"
"of the GA3 production is Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) that allows the use of agro-industrial residues. Gibberellic acid is a simple gibberellin, a pentacyclic diterpene acid promoting growth and elongation of cells. It affects decomposition of plants and helps plants grow if used in small amounts, but eventually plants develop tolerance to it. GA stimulates the cells of germinating seeds to produce mRNA molecules that code for hydrolytic enzymes. Gibberellic acid is a very potent hormone whose natural occurrence in plants controls their development. Since GA regulates growth, applications of very low concentrations can have a profound effect while too much"
"energy. In 1993, paclitaxel was discovered as a natural product in a newly described endophytic fungus living in the yew tree. It has since been reported in a number of other endophytic fungi, including ""Nodulisporium sylviforme"", ""Alternaria taxi"", ""Cladosporium cladosporioides"" MD2, ""Metarhizium anisopliae"", ""Aspergillus candidus"" MD3, ""Mucor rouxianus"", ""Chaetomella raphigera"", ""Phyllosticta tabernaemontanae"", ""Phomopsis"", ""Pestalotiopsis pauciseta"", ""Phyllosticta citricarpa"", ""Podocarpus"" sp., ""Fusarium solani"", ""Pestalotiopsis terminaliae"", ""Pestalotiopsis breviseta"", ""Botryodiplodia theobromae"", ""Gliocladium"" sp., ""Alternaria alternata"" var. ""monosporus"", ""Cladosporium cladosporioides"", ""Nigrospora"" sp., ""Pestalotiopsis versicolor"", and ""Taxomyces andreanae"". However, there has been contradictory evidence for its production by endophytes, with other studies finding independent production is"
"Spiruchostatin Spiruchostatins are a group of chemical compounds isolated from ""Pseudomonas sp."" as gene expression-enhancing substances. They possess novel bicyclic depsipeptides involving 4-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylhexanoic acid and 4-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylheptanoic acid residues. The two main forms are spiruchostatin A and spiruchostatin B. Since the early 1960s, small organic molecules derived naturally from microbes and plants have provided a number of useful cancer chemotherapeutic drugs. The search for naturally occurring lead compounds of this type has continued in recent years, with the constituents of marine fauna and flora as well as those of terrestrial microorganisms and plants being investigated for their anticancer activities. Natural products"
"synthetic analogs have replaced the natural hormone in clinical use. Its analogue leuprorelin is used for continuous infusion, to treat breast cancer, endometriosis, prostate cancer, and following research in the 1980s by researchers, including Dr. Florence Comite of Yale University, it was used to treat precocious puberty. GnRH activity influences a variety of sexual behaviors. Increased levels of GnRH facilitate sexual displays and behavior in females. GnRH injections enhance copulation solicitation (a type of courtship display) in white-crowned sparrows. In mammals, GnRH injections facilitate sexual behavior of female display behaviors as shown with the musk shrew’s (Suncus murinus) reduced latency"