"children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination. The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives."
"Vestal Virgin In ancient Rome, the Vestals or Vestal Virgins (Latin: ""Vestālēs"", singular ""Vestālis"" ) were priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth. The College of the Vestals and its well-being were regarded as fundamental to the continuance and security of Rome. They cultivated the sacred fire that was not allowed to go out. The Vestals were freed of the usual social obligations to marry and bear children and took a 30-year vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were forbidden to the colleges of male priests. Livy, Plutarch,"
"particular god. The three major flamens ""(flamines maiores)"" were the Flamen Dialis, the high priest of Jupiter; the Flamen Martialis, who cultivated Mars; and the Flamen Quirinalis, devoted to Quirinus. The deities cultivated by the twelve ""flamines minores"" were Carmenta, Ceres, Falacer, Flora, Furrina, Palatua, Pomona, Portunus, Volcanus (Vulcan), Volturnus, and two whose names are lost. The Vestal Virgins were the only female members of the college. They were in charge of guarding Rome's sacred hearth, keeping the flame burning inside the Temple of Vesta. Around age 6 to 10, girls were chosen for this position and were required to"
"suppress the Bacchanals, claiming the secret rites corrupted morality and were a hotbed of political conspiracy. One provision of the senatorial decree was that only women should serve as priests of the Dionysian religion, perhaps to guard against the politicizing of the cult, since even Roman women who were citizens lacked the right to vote or hold political office. Priestesses of Liber, the Roman god identified with Dionysus, are mentioned by the 1st-century BC scholar Varro, as well as indicated by epigraphic evidence. Other religious titles for Roman women include ""magistra"", a high priestess, female expert or teacher; and ""ministra"","
"only ""full-time professional clergy."" ""Sacerdos"", plural ""sacerdotes"", was the Latin word for a priest of either gender. Religious titles for women include ""sacerdos"", often in relation to a deity or temple, such as a ""sacerdos Cereris"" or ""Cerealis"", ""priestess of Ceres"", an office never held by men; ""magistra"", a high priestess, female expert or teacher in religious matters; and ""ministra"", a female assistant, particularly one in service to a deity. A ""magistra"" or ""ministra"" would have been responsible for the regular maintenance of a cult. Epitaphs provide the main evidence for these priesthoods, and the woman is often not identified"
"ruined his career. Roman women were present at most festivals and cult observances. Some rituals specifically required the presence of women, but their active participation was limited. As a rule women did not perform animal sacrifice, the central rite of most major public ceremonies. In addition to the public priesthood of the Vestals, some cult practices were reserved for women only. The rites of the Bona Dea excluded men entirely. Because women enter the public record less frequently than men, their religious practices are less known, and even family cults were headed by the ""paterfamilias"". A host of deities, however,"
"Vesta (mythology) Vesta () is the virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family in Roman religion. She was rarely depicted in human form, and was often represented by the fire of her temple in the Forum Romanum. Entry to her temple was permitted only to her priestesses, the Vestals, who tended the sacred fire at the hearth in her temple. As she was considered a guardian of the Roman people, her festival, the ""Vestalia"" (7–15 June), was regarded as one of the most important Roman holidays. During the ""Vestalia"" matrons of the city walked barefoot to the sanctuary of"
"on a basis of complete equality. These rites, which were of great antiquity, lasted until the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I had them forcibly closed in in 392 AD. In Rome, too, priestesses of state cults were able to achieve positions of status and power. Among the most important were the Vestal Virgins, numbering at various times between four and six, charged with maintaining the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta, considered crucial for Rome's prosperity and well-being. The Vestals were the only full time professional clergy in ancient Rome. They were able to live independently from men, made"
"Gratian confiscated their revenues and his successor Theodosius I closed the Temple of Vesta permanently. The Romans also had at least two priesthoods that were each held jointly by a married couple, the ""rex"" and ""regina sacrorum"", and the ""flamen"" and ""flaminica Dialis"". The ""regina sacrorum"" (""queen of the sacred rites"") and the ""flaminica Dialis"" (high priestess of Jupiter) each had her own distinct duties and presided over public sacrifices, the ""regina"" on the first day of every month, and the ""flaminica"" every nundinal cycle (the Roman equivalent of a week). The highly public nature of these sacrifices, like the"
"Roma's priesthood was male, perhaps in acknowledgment of the virility of Rome's military power. Priesthood of the Roma cult was competed among the highest ranking local elites. In contrast to her putative ""Amazonian"" Roman original, Greek coinage depicts Roma in the ""dignified and rather severe style"" of a Greek goddess, often wearing a mural crown, or sometimes a Phrygian helmet. She is occasionally bareheaded. In this and later periods, she was often associated with Zeus (as guardian of oaths) and Fides (the personification of mutual trust). Her Eastern cult appealed for Rome's loyalty and protection - there is no reason"
"The priest of the gods, from history's dawn in Asia and Egypt down to the richly-robed Roman prelates of today, have set themselves conspicuously apart from their fellow males by the assumption of female attire. There was the chaste Venus, or, using other expressions, the triumphant, sacred 'Virgin', who shared the characteristics of the unconquered and the invincible Diana, who, when seen in her nakedness, and therefore in her profanation, was cited as a sacred personage with the office of launching the magic penalty by the power of transfixing with the curse, which terror and annihilation Diana inflicts on Actaeon,"
"refer to women who assisted the priest in receiving women into the Church for baptism by full immersion (which is still practiced by the Eastern Catholic Churches and by some parishes in the Western or Latin Church as well). These women also ministered to sick women and often served in similar positions to male deacons. Male deacons did not anoint the sick. The only woman in Scripture called a deacon is Phoebe (Romans 16:1). Further historical evidence points to women serving in many areas of the Church in the West as well as in the East. Monastic women deacons in"
"the God's Wife of Amun, whose religious importance overshadowed the High Priests of Amun in the Late Period. In ancient Rome and throughout Italy, the ancient sanctuaries of Ceres and Proserpina were invariably led by female ""sacerdotes"", drawn from women of local and Roman elites. It was the only public priesthood attainable by Roman matrons and was held in great honor. A Roman matron was any mature woman of the upper class, married or unmarried. Females could serve public cult as Vestal Virgins but few were chosen, and then only from young maidens of the upper class. In ancient Israel"
"""templa"" were often altars that were consecrated and later had buildings erected around them. The temple of Vesta in Rome was an ""aedes"" and not a ""templum"", because of the character of the cult of Vesta – the exact reason being unknown. The Vestales were one of the few full-time clergy positions in Roman religion. They were drawn from the patrician class and had to observe absolute chastity for 30 years. It was from this that the Vestales were named the Vestal virgins. They wore a particular style of dress and they were not allowed to let the fire go"
"Romans. The exact relationship between male and female deacons varies. In some traditions a female deacon is simply a member of the order of deacons, while in others, deaconesses constitute a separate order. In some traditions, the title ""deaconess"" was also sometimes given to the wife of a deacon. Female deacons are mentioned by Pliny the Younger in a letter to the emperor Trajan dated c. 112. “I believed it was necessary to find out from two female slaves (ex duabus ancillis) who were called deacons (ministrae), what was true—and to find out through torture (per tormenta)”This is the earliest"
"a deacon then they are on their way to priesthood, but this is not true. Deacons and priests are two completely different orders. The argument for women being ordained as deacons is based on the fact that ""the first deacons were called forth by apostles, not by Christ."" The Church claims that Jesus called on his apostles and his apostles were male. Though according to this theory it does not apply to deacons. Also, again citing scripture, the only person who had the job title of ""deacon"" is Phoebe, a woman. Women in the Catholic Church In the history of"
"of it (such as Aphrodite). In Roman times, the Vestal Virgins were the highly respected, strictly celibate (although not necessarily virginal) priestesses of Vesta, and keepers of the sacred fire of Vesta. The Vestals were committed to the priesthood before puberty (when 6–10 years old) and sworn to celibacy for a period of 30 years. The chastity of the Vestals was considered to have a direct bearing on the health of the Roman state. Allowing the sacred fire of Vesta to die out, suggesting that the goddess had withdrawn her protection from the city, was a serious offence and was"
"Phoebe (biblical figure) Phoebe (Koine Greek ) was a first-century Christian woman mentioned by the Apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans, verses . A notable woman in the church of Cenchreae, she was trusted by Paul to deliver his letter to the Romans. Paul refers to her both as a deacon (Gk. ""diakonon"") and as a helper or patron of many (Gk. ""prostatis""). This is the only place in the New Testament where a woman is specifically referred to with these two distinctions. Paul introduces Phoebe as his emissary to the church in Rome and, because they are"
"or female lamb to Juno on the first day of each month. The names of some ""reginae sacrorum"" are recorded by inscriptions. The ""regina"" was the wife of the ""rex sacrorum"", ""king of the sacred rites,"" an archaic priesthood regarded in the earliest period as more prestigious than even the Pontifex Maximus. These highly public official duties for women contradict the commonplace notion that women in ancient Rome took part only in private or domestic religion. The dual male-female priesthoods may reflect the Roman tendency to seek a gender complement within the religious sphere; most divine powers are represented by"
"Bona Dea Bona Dea ( 'Good Goddess') was a divinity in ancient Roman religion. She was associated with chastity and fertility in Roman women, healing, and the protection of the state and people of Rome. According to Roman literary sources, she was brought from Magna Graecia at some time during the early or middle Republic, and was given her own state cult on the Aventine Hill. Her rites allowed women the use of strong wine and blood-sacrifice, things otherwise forbidden them by Roman tradition. Men were barred from her mysteries and the possession of her true name. Given that male"
"the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod remembers her on October 25, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church place her feast day as September 3. Phoebe (biblical figure) Phoebe (Koine Greek ) was a first-century Christian woman mentioned by the Apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans, verses . A notable woman in the church of Cenchreae, she was trusted by Paul to deliver his letter to the Romans. Paul refers to her both as a deacon (Gk. ""diakonon"") and as a helper or patron of many (Gk. ""prostatis""). This is the only place in the New Testament where"
"was St. Priscilla, a Jewish missionary from Rome, who may have helped found the Christian community at Corinth. She traveled as a missionary with her husband and St Paul, and tutored the Jewish intellectual Apollos. Others include the four daughters of Philip the Evangelist, from Caesarea, Palestine, who were said to be prophets and to have hosted St Paul in their home. From the early patristic age, the offices of teacher and sacramental minister were reserved for men throughout most of the church in the East and West. Tertullian, the 2nd-century Latin father, wrote that ""It is not permitted to"
"which said women could not attain Buddhahood until they changed into men. However, in 1249, 12 women received full ordination as priests. In the Roman Catholic tradition, there are a large number of religious institutes of nuns and sisters (the female equivalent of male monks or friars), each with its own charism or special character. Traditionally, nuns are members of enclosed religious orders and take solemn religious vows, while sisters do not live in the papal enclosure and formerly took vows called ""simple vows"". As monastics, nuns living within an enclosure historically commit to recitation of the full Liturgy of"
"married women. In most cults a priestess served only for a limited time. This was especially true of virgin priestesses. Priestesses required to be unmarried virgins during their tenure served for a limited time prior to marriage, often only a year. The priestesses serving the cult of Athena Alea of Tegea, Artemis of Aigeira, Artemis Triklaria of Patrai, Artemis of Ephesus and Poseidon of Kalaureia all served only for a short time between that of reaching adulthood until their wedding. In contrast, the priestess of Heraion of Argos, who was a married woman, served for life. The priestess was the"
"and was present in the College of Pontiffs. The ""Vestalis Maxima"" Occia presided over the Vestals for 57 years, according to Tacitus. The last known chief vestal was Coelia Concordia, who stepped down in 394 with the disbanding of the College of the Vestals. The ""Vestalium Maxima"" was the most important of Rome's high priestesses. Although the ""Flaminica Dialis"" and the ""regina sacrorum"" each held unique responsibility for certain religious rites, each came into her office as the spouse of another appointed priest, whereas the vestals all held office independently. According to Plutarch, there were only two Vestal Virgins when"
"identity. Traditionally, Roman marriages included a ritual where the bride's hair was cut or parted with a spear - some see this as the result of Juno's association with marriage, although other explanations for the ritual are given as well. Juno Quiritis is said to have been the only deity worshipped by all thirty of the original ""curiae"" (political and military divisions) established by Romulus. There was a temple to Juno Quiritis on the Campus Martius, an area where soldiers traditionally trained. Quiritis Quiritis was a Sabine (pre-Roman) goddess of motherhood. She was often associated with protection. In later years,"
"in terms of her marital status. The Vestals possessed unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. It was also possible for them to amass ""considerable wealth."" Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly and only to the Pontifex Maximus. Their vow of chastity freed them of the traditional obligation to marry and rear children, but its violation carried a heavy penalty: a Vestal found to"
"as at her ancient sanctuaries of Henna and Catena, Ceres' ""ritus graecus"" and her joint cult with Proserpina were invariably led by female ""sacerdotes"", drawn from local and Roman elites: Cicero notes that once the new cult had been founded, its earliest priestesses ""generally were either from Naples or Velia"", cities allied or federated to Rome. Elsewhere, he describes Ceres' Sicilian priestesses as ""older women respected for their noble birth and character"". Celibacy may have been a condition of their office; sexual abstinence was, according to Ovid, required of those attending Ceres' major, nine-day festival. Her public priesthood was reserved"
"which women rule themselves, without reference to men or Venus, drinking ""milk and honey"", which are ""markers par excellence of utopian golden times"" – under the divine authority of Bona Dea. Bona Dea Bona Dea ( 'Good Goddess') was a divinity in ancient Roman religion. She was associated with chastity and fertility in Roman women, healing, and the protection of the state and people of Rome. According to Roman literary sources, she was brought from Magna Graecia at some time during the early or middle Republic, and was given her own state cult on the Aventine Hill. Her rites allowed"
"dress, or a Romanised version of it. The priest presided in Greek fashion, with his head bare or wreathed. In 204 BC, the Galli priesthood were brought to Rome from Phrygia, to serve the ""Trojan"" Mother Goddess Cybele and her consort Attis on behalf of the Roman state. They were legally protected but flamboyantly ""un-Roman"". They were eunuchs, and told fortunes for money; their public rites were wild, frenzied and bloody, and their priestly garb was ""womanly"". They wore long, flowing robes of yellow silk, extravagant jewellery, perfume and make-up, and turbans or exotic versions of the ""phrygian"" hat over"
"held by all the Church's faithful."" Additionally, the Catholic Church teaches that only men can receive ordination to the diaconate. While references are made within the earliest Christian communities to the ordination of men (through the laying on of hands), there are occasional references to the role of women. Paul's letter to the Romans, written in the first century AD, for example mentions a woman deacon: In AD 494, in response to reports that women were serving at the altar in the south of Italy, Pope Gelasius I wrote a letter condemning female participation in the celebration of the Eucharist,"
"one of the earliest known Christian converts who lived in Rome. Her name is a Roman diminutive for ""Prisca"" which was her formal name. She is often thought to have been the first example of a female preacher or teacher in early church history. Coupled with her husband, she was a celebrated missionary, and a friend and co-worker of Paul. While the view is not widely held among scholars, some scholars have suggested that Priscilla was the author of the Book of Hebrews. Although acclaimed for its artistry, originality, and literary excellence, it is the only book in the New"
"a male celebrant wore Greek-style vestments, and remained bareheaded before the deity, or else wore a wreath. While Ceres' original Aventine cult was led by male priests, her ""Greek rites"" (""ritus graecus Cereris"") were exclusively female. Towards the end of the Second Punic War, around 205 BC, an officially recognised joint cult to Ceres and her daughter Proserpina was brought to Rome from southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) along with Greek priestesses to serve it. In Rome, this was known as the ""ritus graecus Cereris""; its priestesses were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods"