"Constitution of the Roman Empire The Constitution of the Roman Empire was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent. After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate to the Roman Emperor. Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the emperor and the senate were theoretically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however, the actual authority of the imperial Senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power of the state. During the reign of the second emperor, Tiberius, many of the powers that had been"
"Tiberius Tiberius (; ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD) was Roman emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD, succeeding the first emperor, Augustus. Born to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla in a Claudian family, he was given the personal name Tiberius Claudius Nero. His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian—later to ascend to Emperor as Augustus—who officially became his stepfather. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter (from his marriage to Scribonia), Julia the Elder, and even later be adopted by Augustus. Through the adoption, he officially became a Julian, assuming the name Tiberius Julius Caesar."
"Tiberius was married twice, with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood: Tiberius Tiberius (; ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD) was Roman emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD, succeeding the first emperor, Augustus. Born to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla in a Claudian family, he was given the personal name Tiberius Claudius Nero. His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian—later to ascend to Emperor as Augustus—who officially became his stepfather. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter (from his marriage to Scribonia), Julia the Elder, and even later be"
"had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist. Augustus' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana. After Augustus' death in 14 AD, most of his successors as Roman emperors continued his politics. The"
"Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II (; ) (6 May 973 – 13 July 1024), also known as Saint Henry the Exuberant, Obl. S. B., was Holy Roman Emperor (""Romanorum Imperator"") from 1014 until his death in 1024 and the last member of the Ottonian dynasty of Emperors as he had no children. The Duke of Bavaria from 995, Henry became King of Germany (""Rex Romanorum"") following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was crowned King of Italy (""Rex Italiae"") in 1004, and was crowned by the Pope as Emperor in 1014. The"
"313, therefore, there remained only two emperors: Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole Augustus. After the retirement of the two ""Augusti"" both previous ""Caesares"" succeeded them, and two new ""Caesares"" were appointed. Maximinus Daia was Galerius' nephew. After the death of Constantius his legions proclaim his son Constantine the new ""Augustus"", but Galerius elevates Severus to be the new ""junior Augustus"" and compensates Constantine with the rank"
"of Livy. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the shifts on the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him. Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as ""Pax Augusta"" or ""Pax Romana"". Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era. The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD. Augustus' favorites for succeeding him were already dead in his senescence: his nephew Marcellus died"
"he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75, probably from natural causes. However, there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law)"
"adopted by will as his son and heir, becoming Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. After avenging himself on his uncle's murderers and political opponents, Octavian and his allies formed the Second triumvirate. After defeating his former friend, Marcus Antonius, at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian became the sole master of the Roman world. Four years later, the Senate granted him the title of ""Augustus"", which ever after signified the holder of imperial authority. Augustus maintained the outer forms of the Republic, while at the same time concentrating nearly the full power of the state in his own person."
"Augustus Augustus (; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was a Roman statesman and military leader who was the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, controlling Imperial Rome from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. His status as the founder of the Roman Principate has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history. He was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian ""gens"" Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesar's"
"Tiberius was living on the Greek island of Rhodes, while Gaius Caesar was in the Eastern Mediterranean performing various political and military duties on behalf of Augustus. By 4 AD, however, Gaius Caesar had died, and, when Augustus also died in 14 AD, Tiberius succeeded his adoptive father as Roman Emperor. By this time, Archelaus’ health had failed. By 17 AD, Archelaus had reigned over Cappadocia for fifty years and had lived to an advanced age. In Archelaus' final year, there was a shortage of funds for military pay and Tiberius wanted to convert Cappadocia into a Roman province. Tiberius"
"Drusus, and a granddaughter of Mark Antony through his daughter Antonia Minor). At the time of Augustus' death in AD 14, Julia, who was in early childhood, fell ill. Before he died, the aged emperor had asked his wife Livia whether Julia had recovered. Upon the death of Augustus, Julia's paternal grandfather Tiberius succeeded him as Rome's second Emperor. It was during her grandfather's rule, when she was around the age of 16, that Julia married her cousin Nero Caesar (the son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder). The marriage appears to have been an unhappy one, and fell victim"
"Caligula Caligula (; Latin: ""Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus""; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD) was Roman emperor from AD 37 to AD 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus' uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in AD 14. Although he was born Gaius Caesar, after Julius Caesar, he acquired the nickname ""Caligula"" (meaning ""little soldier's boot"", the diminutive form of ""caliga"") from his father's soldiers"
"forces of Arminius, which had made him popular as he avenged the humiliating Roman defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. In October AD 14, Germanicus received a delegation from the Senate giving its condolences for the death of Augustus. Augustus had died in August and Tiberius became emperor, making Germanicus heir to the empire. At the direction of Tiberius, Germanicus was dispatched to Asia to reorganize the provinces and assert imperial authority there. The provinces were in such disarray that the attention of a member of the leading family was deemed necessary. However, after two years in the east,"
"as the next Roman emperor. Augustus banished his grandson Postumus Agrippa, who was adopted after the death of his brothers, to the small island of Planasia (around AD 6 or 7) where he was later executed, and Tiberius was recalled to Rome and officially adopted by Augustus. By Augustus' request, Tiberius adopted his nephew Germanicus, son of his late brother Drusus and biological great-nephew of Augustus through his mother. Germanicus subsequently married Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina. On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died. Tiberius had already been established as Princeps in all but name, and his position as heir was confirmed"
"of his Empire. He associated himself with a co-emperor (""Augustus""), and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of ""Caesar"", to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner. The tetrarchy collapsed, however, in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus. In 330, Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople, which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the"
"Augustus (title) Augustus (plural augusti; ; , Latin for ""majestic"", ""the increaser"" or ""venerable""), was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Octavius (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form ""Augusta"" was used for Roman empresses and other females of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as"
"decisive victory against the Praetorians, whose emperor was killed during the fighting. With the death of Maxentius, Constantine definitively disbanded the remnants of the Praetorian Guard. The remaining soldiers were sent out to various corners of the empire, and the ""Castra Praetoria"" was dismantled in a grand gesture inaugurating a new age in Roman history and ending that of the Praetorians. While campaigning, the Praetorians were the equal of any formation in the Roman army. On the death of Augustus in 14 AD, his successor, Tiberius, was faced with mutinies among both the Rhine and Pannonian legions. According to Tacitus,"
"BC to Lucius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, in 60 BC to Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the previously mentioned Lucius Julius Caesar, in 45 BC again to Gaius Julius Caesar, in 44 BC to Marcus Iunius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (younger brother and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). In 15 AD Germanicus was also ""imperator"" during the empire (see below) of his adoptive father Tiberius. After Augustus established the Roman Empire, the title ""imperator"" was generally restricted to the emperor, though in the early years of the empire it"
"as Cleopatra's successor as Pharaoh). Octavian's ally Gaius Maecenas forestalled a conspiracy allegedly organised by Lepidus's son (31 BC). With the complete defeat of Antony and the marginalisation of Lepidus, Octavian, having been restyled ""Augustus"" in 27 BC, remained as the sole master of the Roman world, and proceeded to establish the Principate as the first Roman ""emperor"". Second Triumvirate The Second Triumvirate is the name historians have given to the official political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Caesar Augustus), Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed on 27 November 43 BC with the enactment of the"
"last sole Roman emperor, Theodosius I (r. 379-95), led to the final split of the empire into two political entities, the West (""Occidentale"") and the East (""Orientale""). The system of dual emperors (called ""Augusti"" after the founder of the empire, Augustus) had been instituted a century earlier by the great reforming emperor Diocletian (r.284-305). But it had never been envisaged as a political separation, purely as an administrative and military convenience. Decrees issued by either emperor were valid in both halves and the successor of each ""Augustus"" required the recognition of the other. The empire was reunited under one emperor"
"the ""Emperor Claudius"" in 270 AD and as a result was beheaded. Since then, February 14 marks Valentine's Day, a day set aside by the Christian church in memory of the Roman priest and physician. Claudius Gothicus Claudius Gothicus (; May 10, 214 – January 270), also known as Claudius II, was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. He died after succumbing to ""pestilence"", possibly the Plague of Cyprian that had ravaged the provinces of the Empire. Claudius' origin is uncertain."
"in the end Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family. Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his adopted son Germanicus. The new emperor not only belonged to both the Julian and Claudian sides of the Imperial family, but was also a direct descendant of Augustus Caesar through his mother Agrippina the Elder. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on"
"lead to a series of civil wars; the first between the two generals Julius Caesar and Pompey. Despite his victory and appointment as dictator for life, Caesar was murdered in 44 BC. Caesar's heir Octavian and lieutenant Mark Antony defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, but then turned against each other. The final defeat of Mark Antony and his ally Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian as ""Augustus"" in 27 BC – which effectively made him the first Roman emperor – thus ended the Republic."
"Constantius II Constantius II (; ; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman Emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples, while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars and usurpations, culminating in Constantius' overthrow as emperor by his cousin Julian. His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death. The second son of Constantine I and Fausta, Constantius was made ""Caesar"" by his father in 324. He led the Roman army in war against the Sasanian Empire in 336. A"
"his great-uncle Tiberius was the second emperor, his brother Gaius (Caligula) was the third emperor, his uncle Claudius was the fourth emperor, and his nephew Lucius Domitius (Nero) was the fifth and final emperor of the dynasty. His father was the adopted son of Tiberius, who was himself the adoptive son of Augustus, whose adoptions were the result of the death of Gaius Caesar in February AD 4. Gaius, who was the heir of Augustus, had died of illness in Syria. Germanicus was for some time considered the new heir by Augustus, but Augustus later decided in favor of his"
"emperor Augustus was deified after his death (AD 14), so he may have been admitted to the second first. Then we learn he was a ""legatus pro praetor"" or governor for two provinces, one during the reign of Augustus (thus falling before AD 14), the other under the reign of Tiberius (14-37); it was not the practice in the early years of the Principate to name the province one governed, so that information is missing. The identity of one province is obvious, for these inscriptions -- as well as several others -- have been found in the territory of Roman"
"In the mid-1st century BC Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title ""Augustus"", effectively making him the first emperor. The first two centuries of the Empire were a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (""Roman"
"Claudius in AD 54, becoming the last direct descendant of Augustus to rule the Roman Empire. Within a year of Nero's suicide in AD 68, the Julio-Claudian dynasty was succeeded by the Flavian emperors following a brief civil war over the vacant Imperial throne. Lacking any male child and heir Augustus married his only daughter Julia to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, previously married to Augustus' niece, the sister of Marcellus. This marriage produced five children, three sons"
"Cultural depictions of Augustus Caesar Augustus (63 BC–AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors. Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BC because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month. Augustus was one of the most widely depicted individuals in ancient times, appearing in coins, sculptures, cameos, plaques, and other media. His dominant portrait type is that of the serene,"
"Augustus accepted ""imperium consulare"" on an ""ad personam"" basis in 19 BC and was elected ""pontifex maximus"" in 13 BC. Thus the Imperial dignity was fully established as the extraordinary concentration of ordinary powers and immunities. ""Caesar Augustuss third wife Livia Drusilla (subsequently ""Julia Augusta"") had previously borne two children by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero: Tiberius and Drusus. Tiberius's second wife was Julia the Elder, Marcus Agrippa's widow (his first wife had been Vipsania, Agrippa's daughter by his first marriage); Caesar Augustus adopted Tiberius on June 26, 4, whereupon Tiberius himself adopted his brother Drusus's son by Mark"
"dead and having had Germanicus' elder two sons Nero and Drusus convicted of treason and killed, along with their mother Agrippina, Tiberius appointed Caligula, Germanicus' youngest son, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of Drusus the Younger and grandson of Tiberius, co-heirs. Drusus III's wife Aemilia Lepida was later forced to commit suicide after being accused of adultery. Rome's second Emperor died at the port town of Misenum on 16 March AD 37, at the age of 78 years, having reigned for 23 years. Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow"
"his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as ""Divus Aurelianus"". There is substantial evidence that Aurelian's wife Ulpia Severina, who had been declared ""Augusta"" in 274, may have ruled the Empire by her own power for some time after his death. The sources indicate that there was an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death. Aurelian's short reign reunited a fragmented Empire while saving Rome from barbarian invasions that had reached Italy itself. His death prevented a full restoration of political"