What is the alternative name of vitamin B2, useful in breaking down protein, fat and carbohydrates?
"become sweeter after a heavy frost. Raw kale is composed of 84% water, 9% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a 100 gram serving, raw kale provides 49 calories and a large amount of vitamin K at 3.7 times the Daily Value (DV) (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate, and manganese (see table ""Kale, raw""). Kale is a good source (10–19% DV) of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin E and several dietary minerals, including iron, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus (see table ""Kale, raw""). Boiling"
"Vitamin B12 Vitamin B, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body: it is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the maturation of developing red blood cells in the bone marrow. Vitamin B is one of eight B vitamins; it is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin. It consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers),"
"Biotinidase Biotinidase (, ""amidohydrolase biotinidase"", ""BTD"") is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ""BTD"" gene. This enzyme allows the body to use and to recycle the B vitamin biotin, sometimes called vitamin H. Biotinidase extracts biotin from food because the body needs biotin in its free, unattached form. This enzyme also recycles biotin from enzymes in the body that use it as a helper component in order to function. These enzymes, known as carboxylases, are important in the processing of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Biotin is attached to these carboxylase enzymes through an amino acid (the building"
"intestine. Others studies have looked at the potential benefits of slow and sustained release of carbohydrate during physical activity. Using isomaltulose in place of other ingested carbohydrates, higher rates of fat oxidation also occur during endurance activities, when preserving glycogen is important. In addition, trials using a recovery protein drink have shown that incorporating isomaltulose and a nutritional supplement (β-hydroxy- β-methylbutyrate) may help recovery from resistance exercise—so reducing of muscle damage and improving athletic performance. In people having type 1 diabetes, the ingestion of isomaltulose instead of glucose during moderate carbohydrate loading prior to exercise improves blood glucose control, protects"
"and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions. A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a derivative of vitamin B (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types"
"material of proteins) called lysine, forming a complex called biocytin. Biotinidase removes biotin from biocytin and makes it available to be reused by other enzymes. Biotin, sometimes called vitamin H, is an important water-soluble vitamin that aids in the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. The human body cannot produce biotin, but it can obtain it from the diet, internal recycling and at some extent from intestinal bacteria. Biotin deficiency can result in behavioral disorders, lack of coordination, learning disabilities and seizure. Unlike most vitamins, which are noncovalently bound to enzymes, biotin is chemically linked (covalently bound), and therefore cannot"
"proteins. This means that the enzymes which break these entities down for use in the body cannot function unless Vitamin B is present to induce a conformational change in the enzyme, thus activating it. Vitamin B also plays a role in the synthesis of hormones, red blood cells, neurotransmitters and enzymes. A person who is deficient in Vitamin B could suffer from insomnia, as well as suffer damage to the central nervous system. Pyridoxine 5’-phosphate oxidase catalyzes several reactions; the two most important are the deamination of pyridoxamine-5'-phosphate and the deamination of pyridoxine 5-phosphate, both of which are key intermediates"
"""Corynebacterium"", ""Flavobacterium"", ""Lactobacillus"", ""Micromonospora"", ""Mycobacterium"", ""Nocardia"", ""Protaminobacter"", ""Proteus"", ""Rhizobium"", ""Salmonella"", ""Serratia"", ""Streptococcus"" and ""Xanthomonas"" . Six Nobel Prizes have been awarded for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B. Vitamin B12 Vitamin B, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body: it is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the maturation of developing red blood cells in the"
"Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B (a B vitamin), is a water-soluble vitamin. Pantothenic acid is an essential nutrient. Animals require pantothenic acid in order to synthesize coenzyme-A (CoA), as well as to synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The anion is called pantothenate. Pantothenic acid is the amide between pantoic acid and β-alanine. Its name derives from the Greek ""pantothen"", meaning ""from everywhere"", and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in fortified whole-grain cereals, egg yolks, liver and dried mushrooms. It is commonly found as its alcohol analog,"
"enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine. DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas. Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are"
"carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism as well as the biosynthesis of fatty acids and polyketides. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxol, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine) as pyridoxal 5′-phosphate is a cofactor for many enzymes especially transaminases involve in amino acid metabolism. Vitamin B12 (cobalamins) contain a corrin ring similar in structure to porphyrin and is an essential coenzyme for the catabolism of fatty acids as well for the biosynthesis of methionine. DNA and RNA which store and transmit genetic information are composed of nucleic acid primary metabolites. First messengers are signaling molecules that control metabolism or cellular differentiation. These signaling molecules include hormones and"
"(the p70S6 kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1). The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in plasma insulin. Similarly, increased muscle protein synthesis (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed muscle protein breakdown (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid. Aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and an increased capacity for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance. Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role"
"leading to vitamin B deficiency. Protein-bound vitamin B must be released from the proteins by the action of digestive proteases in both the stomach and small intestine. Gastric acid releases the vitamin from food particles; therefore antacid and acid-blocking medications (especially proton-pump inhibitors) may inhibit absorption of B. B taken in a low-solubility, non-chewable supplement pill form may bypass the mouth and stomach and not mix with gastric acids, but acids are not necessary for the absorption of free B not bound to protein; acid is necessary only to recover naturally-occurring vitamin B from foods. R-protein (also known as haptocorrin"
"cofactors include members of the vitamin B family. Vitamin B1 as thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase, 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, and transketolase which are all involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is a constituent of FMN and FAD which are necessary for many redox reactions. Vitamin B3 (nicotinic acid or niacin), synthesized from tryptophan is a component of the coenzymes NAD and NADP which in turn are required for electron transport in the Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, as well as many other redox reactions. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) is a constituent of coenzyme A, a basic component of"
"B vitamins B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexist in the same foods. In general, dietary supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific number or name of each vitamin: B = thiamine, B = riboflavin, B = niacin, etc. Some are better known by name than number: niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin and folate. Each B vitamin is either a cofactor (generally a coenzyme)"
"Vitamin B3 Vitamin B is a vitamin that includes three forms: nicotinamide (niacinamide), niacin (nicotinic acid), and nicotinamide riboside. All three forms of vitamin B are converted within the body to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). NAD is required for human life and people are unable to make it within their bodies without one of the vitamin B or tryptophan. Nicotinamide riboside was identified as a form of vitamin B in 2004. The group is also occasionally referred to as vitamin B complex. NAD, along with its phosphorylated variant nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), are utilized in transfer reactions within DNA"
"the body, sustaining good bone health as well as muscle function. When calcium in the body becomes under provided for normal bodily functions, calcitriol, an active form of Vitamin D, pairs with parathyroid hormone. Together they act to assemble cells in order to increase the calcium stores taken from bone. The popular term Sunshine vitamin, as it’s often called, is one of the one main sources of achieving sufficient Vitamin D through sunlight on the skin known as D3. The second form is commonly known as D2, which is found in foods such as fatty fish and fortified products like"
"Biotin Biotin is a water-soluble B vitamin, also called vitamin B and formerly known as vitamin H or coenzyme R. It is involved in a wide range of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Biotin deficiency can be caused by inadequate dietary intake or inheritance of one or more inborn genetic disorders that affect biotin metabolism. Subclinical deficiency can cause mild symptoms, such as hair thinning or skin rash typically on the face. Neonatal screening for biotinidase deficiency began in the United States in 1984, with"
"pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Vitamin B was named pyridoxine to indicate its structural homology to pyridine. Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which"
"from their diets. Carotenes contribute to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy they absorb to chlorophyll. They also protect plant tissues by helping to absorb the energy from singlet oxygen, an excited form of the oxygen molecule O which is formed during photosynthesis. β-Carotene is composed of two retinyl groups, and is broken down in the mucosa of the human small intestine by β-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase to retinal, a form of vitamin A. β-Carotene can be stored in the liver and body fat and converted to retinal as needed, thus making it a form of vitamin A for humans and some"
"is commonly used to refer to B-deficient anemia as a whole, regardless of cause. Vitamin B refers to a group of compounds called cobalamins that are available in the human body in a variety of mostly interconvertible forms. Together with folate, cobalamins are essential cofactors required for DNA synthesis in cells where chromosomal replication and division are occurring—most notably the bone marrow and myeloid cells. As a cofactor, cobalamins are essential for two cellular reactions: Cobalamins are characterized by a porphyrin-like corrin nucleus that contains a single cobalt atom bound to a benzimidazolyl nucleotide and a variable residue (R) group."
"from riboflavin. Bacteria, fungi and plants can produce riboflavin, but other eukaryotes, such as humans, have lost the ability to make it. Therefore, humans must obtain riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, from dietary sources. Riboflavin is generally ingested in the small intestine and then transported to cells via carrier proteins. Riboflavin kinase (EC 2.7.1.26) adds a phosphate group to riboflavin to produce flavin mononucleotide, and then FAD synthetase attaches an adenine nucleotide; both steps require ATP. Bacteria generally have one bi-functional enzyme, but archaea and eukaryotes usually employ two distinct enzymes. Current research indicates that distinct isoforms exist in"
"Apolipoprotein B Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ""APOB"" gene. Apolipoprotein B is the primary apolipoprotein of chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, and LDL particles (LDL - known commonly by the misnomer ""bad cholesterol"" when in reference to both heart disease and vascular disease in general), which is responsible for carrying fat molecules (lipids), including cholesterol, around the body (within the water outside cells) to all cells within all tissues. While all the functional roles of ApoB within the LDL (and all larger) particles remains somewhat unclear, it is the primary organizing protein (of the"
"Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which also catalyzes the conversion of PNP to PLP. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is dependent on flavin"
"with grape juice, lemonade, or many high glycemic index drinks. Some studies have suggested that consumption of creatine with protein and carbohydrates can have a greater effect than creatine combined with either protein or carbohydrates alone. When combined with an appropriate exercise program, dietary supplementation with β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate (HMB) has been shown to dose-dependently augment gains in muscle hypertrophy (i.e., the size of a muscle), muscle strength, and lean body mass, reduce exercise-induced skeletal muscle damage, and expedite recovery from high-intensity exercise. HMB is believed to produce these effects by increasing muscle protein synthesis and decreasing muscle protein breakdown by"
"out for instance that while B vitamins do ""help unlock the energy in foods,"" most Americans acquire the necessary amounts easily in their diets. Because they are soluble in water, excess B vitamins are generally readily excreted, although individual absorption, use and metabolism may vary…"" The elderly and athletes may need to supplement their intake of B and other B vitamins due to problems in absorption and increased needs for energy production. In cases of severe deficiency, B vitamins, especially B, may also be delivered by injection to reverse deficiencies. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetics may also be"
"body burns fat and regulates insulin, triglycerides, and total cholesterol. 3-Aminoisobutyric acid 3-Aminoisobutyric acid (or β-aminoisobutyric acid, BAIBA) is a product formed by the catabolism of thymine. During exercise, the increase of PGC-1α protein triggers the secretion of BAIBA from exercising muscles to blood (concentration 2 to 3 µM in human serum). When BAIBA reaches the white fat tissue, it activates the expression of thermogenic genes via PPARα receptors, resulting in a browning of white fat cells. One of the consequences of the BAIBA activity is the increase of the background metabolism of the BAIBA target cells. It has recently"
"but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in"
"are broken down in the body, they must be replaced. This concept is called protein turnover, and different types of proteins have very different turnover rates. Protein synthesis occurs during the process of translation on ribosomes. Protein breakdown occurs generally in two cellular locations: Protein turnover Protein turnover is the balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. More synthesis than breakdown indicates an anabolic state that builds lean tissues, more breakdown than synthesis indicates a catabolic state that burns lean tissues. According to D.S. Dunlop, protein turnover occurs in brain cells the same as any other eukaryotic cells, but that"
"is able to hydrolyze the peptide bonds by using ATP energy. This process is further helped by the use of enzymes called proteases. The proteases help cleave off the remaining peptide residues to produce individual amino acids, ready to be converted into usable molecules for either glycolysis or the TCA cycle, to produce energy for the organisms, or to be used to create new proteins. Different types of proteases help cleave the proteins in different formats. There are serine, aspartate, metalloproteases, and many other classes. All use different mechanisms to cleave the peptide bonds to begin protein degradation. For example,"
"Lamin B2 Lamin B2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ""LMNB2"" gene. It is the second of two type B nuclear lamins, and it is associated with laminopathies. Model organisms have been used in the study of Lamin B2 function. A conditional knockout mouse line, called ""Lmnb2"" was generated as part of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium program — a high-throughput mutagenesis project to generate and distribute animal models of disease to interested scientists. Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Twenty four tests were carried out on"
"food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair) and form the enzymes which catalyse chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids which contain nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Amino acids"
"presence of mRNAs which encode for enzymes in the metabolic pathway. BCAAs fill several metabolic and physiologic roles. Metabolically, BCAAs promote protein synthesis and turnover, signaling pathways, and metabolism of glucose. Oxidation of BCAAs may increase fatty acid oxidation and play a role in obesity. Physiologically, BCAAs take on roles in the immune system and in brain function. BCAAs are broken down effectively by dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes expressed by immune cells, and are required for lymphocyte growth and proliferation and cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. Lastly, BCAAs share the same transport protein into the brain with aromatic amino acids (Trp,"