What groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy get their name from the Italian for 'charcoal burners'?
"the Italians"", was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually it was a king and his chief minister who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari (charcoal-burners), a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the French Revolution, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the"
"suppression by conservative governments, the Carbonari operated largely in secret. The name ""Carbonari"" identified the members as rural “charcoal-burners”; the place where they met was called a ""“baracca”"", the members called themselves “good cousin” while people who did not belong to the Carbonari were “pagani”. There were special ceremonies to initiate the members. The aim of the Carbonari was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic; they wanted also to defend the rights of common people against all forms of absolutism. Carbonari, to achieve their purpose, talked of fomenting armed revolts. The membership was separated into two classes—apprentice"
"the Carboneria, a secret political discussion group formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century; the members were called ""Carbonari"". After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections. A void was left that the Carboneria filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle class professionals and business men and some intellectuals. The Carboneria disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed"
"break down the barriers between and among Italians. Not all Italians welcomed French rule, however; Giuseppe Capobianco founded a secret society called the Carbonari to resist both French rule and the Roman Catholic Church. After Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the Congress of Vienna left much of northern Italy in the hands of the Austrians, the Carbonari continued their resistance. The Carbonari led revolts in Naples and Piedmont in 1820 and 1821 and in Bologna, the Papal States, Parma, and Modena in the 1830s. After the failure of these revolts, Giuseppe Mazzini, a Carbonaro"
"nobles, officers of the army, small landlords, government officials, peasants and priests, with a small urban middle class. Society was dominated by the Papacy. On 15 August 1814, Cardinals Ercole Consalvi and Bartolomeo Pacca issued an edict forbidding all secret societies, to become members of these secret associations, to attend their meetings, or to furnish a meeting-place for such, under severe penalties. The Carbonari first arose during the resistance to the French occupation, notably under Joachim Murat, the Bonapartist King of Naples. However, once the wars ended, they became a nationalist organisation with a marked anti-Austrian tendency and were instrumental"
"the failed uprisings of 1831, the governments of the various Italian states cracked down on the Carbonari, who now virtually ceased to exist. The more astute members realised they could never take on the Austrian army in open battle and joined a new movement, Giovane Italia (""Young Italy"") led by the nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini. Independent from French Philadelphians were instead the homonymous ""carbonara"" group born in Southern Italy, especially in Puglia [3] and in the Cilento, between 1816 and 1828. In Cilento, in 1828, an insurrection of Philadelphia, who called for the restoration of the Neapolitan Constitution of 1820, was"
"of Italian unification (called the ""Risorgimento)"", especially the failed Revolution of 1820, and in the further development of Italian nationalism. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish constitutional government. In the north of Italy other groups, such as the Adelfia and the Filadelfia, were associate organizations. The Carbonari were a secret society divided into small covert cells scattered across Italy. Although agendas varied, evidence suggests that despite regional variations, most of the membership agreed upon the creation of a liberal, unified Italy. The Carbonari were anti-clerical in both their philosophy and programme. The Papal constitution Ecclesiam a"
"plethora of theories have been advanced as to the origins of the Carbonari, the organization most likely emerged as an offshoot of Freemasonry, as part of the spread of liberal ideas from the French Revolution. They first became influential in the Kingdom of Naples (under the control of Joachim Murat) and in the Papal States, the most resistant opposition to the ""Risorgimento"". The Carbonari were probably an offshoot of the Freemasons, from whom they differed in important particulars, and first began to assume importance in southern Italy during the Napoleonic wars. As a secret society that was often targeted for"
"Camorra The Camorra (; ) is an Italian Mafia-type crime syndicate, or secret society, which arose in the region of Campania and its capital Naples. It is one of the oldest and largest criminal organizations in Italy, dating back to the 17th century. Unlike the pyramidal structure of the Sicilian Mafia, the Camorra's organizational structure is more horizontal than vertical. Consequently, individual Camorra clans act independently of each other, and are more prone to feuding among themselves. The origins of the Camorra are not entirely clear. It may date back to the 17th century as a direct Italian descendant of"
"activism and militarism. Members and collaborators amounted to some one thousand. The leaders were Roberto Sandalo, Marco Donat-Cattin, Sergio D'Elia, Michele Viscardi, Enrico Galmozzi, Fabrizio Giai, Sergio Segio, Susanna Ronconi, Diego Forastieri, Roberto Rosso, Maurice Bignami, Bruno La Ronga, Giulia Borelli, and Silviera Russo. The organization used other names for their operations, including Comitati Comunisti Combattenti, Brigate Comuniste Combattenti, Ronde Proletarie. 923 members of Prima Linea and 149 members of Comitati comunisti per la liberazione proletaria (COLP) were questioned. Some members remained unidentified. The groups coming from Lotta Continua began to organize as a separate secret structure in 1974-1976. After"
"and republican organizations like Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy, ""Carboneria"" and others. The moderates and radicals disputed mainly for the methods to unified Italy: the Moderates supported secret pacts and strategic alliances between the patriotic movement and the other European powers, whereas the Mazzini's supporters called a popular revolution to establish a democratic Republic. After the failure of the Italian Revolutions of 1848, attempted by Mazzinians and republicans, the republican ideas declined for the Moderates' agenda. During this time, several politicians of other Italian states are members of the group: in the Kingdom of Sardinia, the leaders were Massimo d'Azeglio and"
"Rome at the time. Unlike other neo-fascists such as Carminati, Giuseppucci was more interested in money and wealth and thus closer in mentality to non-political criminal groups. In those years, the underworld of Rome was disorganized, with many small groups called ""batterie"", each independent and usually containing 3-4 people, dealing mostly in gambling and some robberies. Rome was considered land of conquest for other, already well established criminal organizations such as the Camorra and Cosa Nostra. There was a group, the Marsigliesi clan, led by Albert Bergamelli and Laudavino De Sanctis, that had started gaining considerable money through kidnappings and"
"their own rituals, and were strongly anticlerical. The Carboneria movement spread across Italy. Conservative governments feared the Carboneria, imposing stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Nevertheless, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The ""Carbonari"" condemned Napoleon III (who, as a young man, had fought on the side of the Carbonari) to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858, when Felice Orsini, Giovanni Andrea Pieri, Carlo Di Rudio and Andrea Gomez launched three bombs at him. Many"
"group of humanists and noblemen founded in Naples in the 1540s. Ruscelli's academy is the first recorded example of an experimental scientific society. The academy was later imitated by Giambattista Della Porta, who founded an ‘Accademia dei Secreti’ in Naples in the 1560s. Alexius Pedemontanus Alessio Piemontese, also known under his Latinized name of Alexius Pedemontanus, was the pseudonym of a 16th-century Italian physician, alchemist, and author of the immensely popular book, ""The Secrets of Alexis of Piedmont"". His book was published in more than a hundred editions and was still being reprinted in the 1790s. The work was translated"
"the lesser artisanal guilds, which depended on piecework. ""In Florence, they were openly distinguished: the ""Arti maggiori"" and the ""Arti minori""—already there was a ""popolo grasso"" and a ""popolo magro"""". Fiercer struggles were those between essentially conservative guilds and the merchant class, which increasingly came to control the means of production and the capital that could be ventured in expansive schemes, often under the rules of guilds of their own. German social historians trace the ""Zunftrevolution"", the urban revolution of guildmembers against a controlling urban patriciate, sometimes reading into them, however, perceived foretastes of the class struggles of the 19th"
"the older and better known criminal organization in Naples). Since the 1880s, there is ample evidence of 'Ndrangheta-type groups in police reports and sentences by local courts. At the time they were often being referred to as the ""picciotteria"", ""onorata società"" (honoured society) or ""camorra"" and ""mafia"". These secret societies in the areas of Calabria rich in olives and vines were distinct from the often anarchic forms of banditry and were organized hierarchically with a code of conduct that included omertà – the code of silence – according to a sentence from the court in Reggio Calabria in 1890. An"
"used terms such as ""Communist"", ""Red"", ""subversive"", and ""radical"" instead. Haynes and Klehr indicate that they have instead found many examples of members of the XV International Brigade and their supporters referring to themselves sardonically as ""premature antifascists"". Anti-fascist Italian expatriates in the United States founded the Mazzini Society in Northampton, Massachusetts in September 1939 to work toward ending Fascist rule in Italy. Political refugees from Mussolini's regime, they disagreed among themselves whether to ally with Communists and anarchists or to exclude them. The Mazzini Society joined together with other anti-Fascist Italian expatriates in the Americas at a conference in"
"come to ""alzare il livello dello scontro"" (escalate of the conflict), in other words, to start using firearms. Especially after the more effective prosecution, following the Moro Affair in early 1978, many autonomi went underground, reinforcing groups such as the Red Brigades, the Nuclei Armati Proletari (NAP) (a group active mainly in Naples prisons, where many autonomi members had been incarcerated), the ""Squadre Proletarie di Combattimento"", the ""Proletari Armati per il Comunismo"" (PAC), ""Azione Rivoluzionaria"", the ""Unità Comuniste Combattenti"" and ""Prima Linea"", spread mainly throughout northern and central Italy. Also over 200 small, localised, armed groups were briefly active before"
"Historical Left The Left group (), later called Historical Left () by historians to distinguish it from the left-wing groups of the 20th century, was a liberal and reformist parliamentary group in Italy during the second half of the 19th century. The members of the Left were also known as Democrats or Ministerials. Differently by his Right counterpart, the Left was the result of coalition who represented Northern and Southern middle class, urban bourgeoisie, small businessmen, journalists and academics. It also supported a right to vote and the public school for all children. Moreover, the party was against the high"
"terrorist and paramilitary groups in Italy were ""Barbagia Rossa"", ""Movimento Armato Sardo"" e ""Comitato di Solidarietà con il Proletariato Prigioniero Sardo Deportato,"" most of them were loyal to the communist and secessionist ideology; within a decade, they claimed several attacks, assassinations and kidnappings. Among the main supporters of the subversive and secessionist cause, there was Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, who tried several times to make contact with numerous organizations in order to make Sardinia independent from Italy, helped by secessionists, and in order to establish a communist government, helped by Left subversive, based on the model proposed by Fidel Castro in Cuba."
"the Italian FAI as an inspiration for their own activity. Consequently, the FAI has praised Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei, stating ""Conspiracy’s project, like ours, is based on the action and methods of revolutionary violence."" Informal Anarchist Federation Informal Anarchist Federation (FAI) (in Italian: Federazione Anarchica Informale) is an insurrectionary anarchist organization. It has been described by Italian intelligence sources as a ""horizontal"" structure of various anarchist terrorist groups, united in their beliefs in revolutionary armed action. Groups comprising the FAI act both as separate organizations and also under the FAI, and are known to format group campaigns. The group has"
"Red Brigades The Red Brigades ( , often abbreviated ""BR"") was a left-wing terrorist organization, based in Italy, responsible for numerous violent incidents, including assassinations, kidnapping and robberies during the so-called ""Years of Lead"". Formed in 1970, the organization sought to create a ""revolutionary"" state through armed struggle, and to remove Italy from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The Red Brigades attained notoriety in the 1970s and early 1980s with their violent attempts to destabilise Italy by acts of sabotage, bank robberies, kidnappings and murders. Models for the Red Brigades included the Latin American urban guerrilla movements and the World"
"secret republican organization), mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the Holy Alliance. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily, including the scholar Michele Amari, were forced into exile during the decades that followed. The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the House of Savoy. The Piedmont revolt started in"
"the secret society. Membership in the ""Santa"" is only known to other members. Contrary to the 'Ndrangheta code, it allowed bosses to establish close connections with state representatives, even to the extent that some were affiliated with the ""Santa"". These connections were often established through the Freemasonry, which the ""santisti"" – breaking another rule of the traditional code – were allowed to join. The rank of ""santista"" was established at the end of the 1960s by Girolamo Piromalli, leader of the Piromalli family in Gioia Tauro, and by the chiefs of several other families. They were eager to modify the"
"Jesu Christo and the encyclical ""Qui pluribus"" were directed against them. The controversial document Alta Vendita, which called for a liberal or modernist takeover of the Catholic Church, was attributed to the Sicilian Carbonari. Although it is not clear where they were originally established, they first came to prominence in the Kingdom of Naples during the Napoleonic wars. Although some of the society's documents claimed that it had origins in medieval France, and that its progenitors were under the sponsorship of Francis I of France during the sixteenth century, this claim can not be verified by outside sources. Although a"
"figures are all the Apostles and Saint Peter and Saint Paul, while the historical figures are Giuseppe Mazzini as the founder and promoter of secret societies in general, and Count Camillo Benso di Cavour representing the mind of a statesman. Later, the rank of ""vangelista"" was followed by the institution of the position of ""trequartino"" (three-quarters) or ""quintino"" (fifth). Finally, the current highest rank of ""associazione"" (society) was established – reserved for the supreme bosses of the 'Ndrangheta. Important ""vangelista"" were Giuseppe Muià from Siderno, Domenico Martino, Sebastiano Romeo, Antonio Pelle and members from the Nirta family from San Luca."
"to how Sicilian Mafia members imprisoned in northern Italy began colluding with and influencing local Northern Italian criminal groups near their prisons, giving birth of the Mala del Brenta. The most famous terrorist movements and paramilitary forces, who were born on the island, were "" Barbagia Rossa"", ""Moviment Armato Sardo"" and ""Comitato di Solidarietà con il Proletariato Prigioniero Sardo Deportato"" (Committee of Solidarity with the Sardinian Deported Proletariat Prisoner), in the majority of communist and independentist ideology, within a decade claimed several attacks and kidnappings. Among the main supporters of the separatist and subversive because there was the publisher Giangiacomo"
"Abarno, Gabriella Segata Antolini, Pietro Angelo, Luigi Bacchetti, Mario Buda also known as ""Mike Boda"", Carmine Carbone, Andrea Ciofalo, Ferrucio Coacci, Emilio Coda, Alfredo Conti, Nestor Dondoglio also known as ""Jean Crones"", Roberto Elia, Luigi Falzini, Frank Mandese, Riccardo Orciani, Nicola Recchi, Giuseppe Sberna, Andrea Salsedo, Raffaele Schiavina, Carlo Valdinoci, and, most notably, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Galleani and his group promoted radical anarchism by speeches, newsletters, labor agitation, political protests, secret meetings, and, above all, direct action. Many used bombs and other violent means to promote their political position, practices that Galleani actively encouraged but in which he"
"the regime. They wore black hooded coats and operated at night from their refuge in the remains of the catacombs and underground channels of Palermo. It is not known when the Beati Paoli was established, but the novel by Luigi Natoli sets the scene in the 17th century in the town of Paoli. The origin of the name is also unknown, although some tie it to Saint Francis of Paola, or Beato Paola. The Beati Paoli have the same connotation to many Sicilians as Robin Hood has to Northern Europeans. Today, traces of the Beati Paoli can be found in"
"revolts by jobless farm workers (Avola, Battipaglia 1969), occupations of Universities by students, social unrest in the large Northern factories (1969 ""autunno caldo"", hot autumn). While conservative forces tried to roll back some of the social advances of the 1960s, and part of the military indulged in ""sabre rattling"" in order to intimidate progressive political forces, numerous left-wing activists became increasingly frustrated at social inequalities, while the myth of guerrilla (Che Guevara, the Uruguayan Tupamaros) and of the Chinese Maoist ""cultural revolution"" increasingly inspired extreme left-wing violent movements. Social protests, in which the student movement was particularly active, shook Italy"
"Potere Operaio Potere Operaio (""Workers' Power"") was a radical left-wing Italian political group, active between 1968 and 1973. (It shouldn't be confused with ""Potere Operaio Pisano"" which was one of the components of a competing revolutionary group, Lotta Continua.) Among the group's leaders were Antonio ('Toni') Negri, Nanni Balestrini, Franco Piperno, Oreste Scalzone and Valerio Morucci, who led its clandestine armed wing. It was part of the ""workerist"" movement (""operaismo""), leading to the later development of the Autonomist movement. ""Potere Operaio""<nowiki>'</nowiki>s main sphere of operations was in factories, especially big factories in the industrial North, and publishing newspapers and leaflets."
"Gabriele Rossetti Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti (28 February 1783 – 24 April 1854) was an Italian nobleman, poet, constitutionalist, scholar, and founder of the secret society Carbonari who emigrated to England. He was a member of the Italian noble and Boyar princely Rossetti family. Rossetti was born in Vasto in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; the original family of his ancestors was della Gherardesca. Since many members of the della Gherardesca family had red hair, they adopted the nickname ""Rossetti"" approximately four generations before Gabriele's birth. He was a Roman Catholic. Rossetti's support for Italian revolutionary nationalism forced him"
"which circulated around Europe in 1614-15, ""Fama fraternitatis"" and ""Confessio Fraternitatis"", claimed to be manifestos of a highly select, secret society of alchemists and sages called the Brotherhood of Rosicrucians. The books were hoaxes, but were obviously written by a small group who were reasonably knowledgeable about the sciences of the day, and their main theme was to promote educational reform (they were anti-Aristotelian). However, these books also promoted an occult view of science containing elements of Paracelsian philosophy, neo-Platonism, Cabalism and Hermeticism. In effect, they sought to establish a new form of scientific religion with some pre-Christian elements. Mersenne"