Traditionally with what were the seams of wooden sailing ships caulked?
"India run was already an achievement, given that few ships of any nation at the time were able to stay at sea for even a quarter as long without breaking apart at the seams. The success of the India nau depended on 15th-century innovations in Portuguese shipbuilding that greatly improved the seaworthiness and longevity of the ship. Notable among these were the use of iron nails (rather than wooden pegs) to hold planks, the mixing of lead in the seams, and a caulking technique that improved upon traditional oakum with 'galagala' paste (a mixture of oakum, lime and olive oil,"
"Caulk Caulk or (less frequently) caulking is a material used to seal joints or seams against leakage in various structures and piping. The oldest form of caulk consisted of fibrous materials driven into the wedge-shaped seams between boards on wooden boats or ships. Cast iron sewerage pipe were formerly caulked in a similar way. Riveted seams in ships and boilers were formerly sealed by hammering the metal. Modern caulking compounds are flexible sealing compounds used to close up gaps in buildings and other structures against water, air, dust, insects, or as a component in firestopping. In the tunnelling industry, caulking"
"the pitch, or even to supplant the oakum and cotton itself. In riveted steel or iron ship construction, caulking was a process of rendering seams watertight by driving a thick, blunt chisel-like tool into the plating adjacent to the seam. This had the effect of displacing the metal into a close fit with the adjoining piece. Originally done by hand much like wooden vessel caulking, pneumatic tools were later employed. With the advent of electric-arc welding for ship construction, steel ship caulking was rendered obsolete. Caulking of iron and steel, of the same type described above for ship's hulls, was"
"is the sealing of joints in segmental precast concrete tunnels, commonly by using concrete. Traditional caulking (also spelled calking) on wooden vessels uses fibers of cotton and oakum (hemp fiber soaked in pine tar). These fibers are driven into the wedge-shaped seam between planks, with a caulking mallet and a broad chisel-like tool called a caulking iron. The caulking is then covered over with a putty, in the case of hull seams, or else in deck seams with melted pine pitch, in a process referred to as paying, or ""calefaction"" Modern marine sealants are frequently used now in place of"
"bend with the curve of the ship. Once all the framing and planking was completed, caulking waterproofed the ship. Ships made of wood required a flexible material, insoluble in water, to seal the spaces between planks. Pine pitch was often mixed with fibers like hemp to caulk spaces which might otherwise leak. Crude gum or oleoresin could be collected from the wounds of living pine trees. Tools used included the mallets and irons. Mallets were usually 16 inches from end to end with the handle bar usually being about 16 inches. The material that was hammered in between each of"
"Oakum Oakum is a preparation of tarred fibre used to seal gaps. Its main traditional applications were in shipbuilding, for caulking or packing the joints of timbers in wooden vessels and the deck planking of iron and steel ships; in plumbing, for sealing joints in cast iron pipe; and in log cabins for chinking. In ship caulking, it was forced between the seams using a hammer and a caulking iron, then sealed into place with hot pitch. The word oakum derives from Middle English ', from Old English ', from ' (separative and perfective prefix) + ' (akin to Old"
"the planks was typically oakum, a kind of hemp fiber. There were oftentimes 2-3 layers of this oakum fiber placed in between the planks. Putty would be put on afterwards to finish off the waterproofing. Tar, which also came from the thousands of trees available, was oftentimes spread over the top of these planks and they were covered with copper plating. Copper was used because without it the ship’s hull would often get infected with worms. The copper was fastened to the ship with bronze nails. The ships were oftentimes painted yellow, to help make the ship appear faster and"
"varnish, the coating would eventually wear out and the rigging would have to be replaced. Since little was wasted, the old rope would be recycled by unraveling the strands until the rope itself was reduced to single threads and then loosely rewound, resulting in “oakum,” which was used to caulk the seams of wooden ships in order to make them watertight. “Picking oakum”—the actual business in unraveling the strands of rope so that they could be prepared for caulking—was a tedious, sticky job generally delegated to those workers lowest in the pecking order. The machine would do the work of"
"a boat, dig out the caulking between the boat bottom planks, causing the boat to sink and be easily attacked. The other method for disabling a boat was to drill holes in the bottom planks, with an auger. Traditional caulking was made from combining the fibers of cotton and oakum, a type of hemp rope fiber soaked in pine tar. The sticky caulk mixture would be driven into a wedge-shaped seam between the wooden boat hull planks, with a caulking mallet and a broad chisel-like tool called a caulking iron to create a watertight seal. The salvaged boat and cargo"
"Sewn boat A sewn boat is a type of wooden boat which is clinker built and planks sewn, stitched, tied, or bound together with tendons or flexible wood, such as roots and willow branches. Sewn boat construction techniques were used in many parts of the world prior to the development of metal fasteners, and continued to be used long after that time for small boats to reduce construction costs where metal fasteners were too expensive. Although well established, the ""sewn boat"" name is somewhat misleading since it suggests textile or leather skin construction, as often found in kayaks. Some have"
"appliances and can save time, money and hassle by preventing major repairs. Additionally, increasing the lifetime of homes and appliances also puts less waste and pollution into landfills. Sealing cracks and crevices prevents ingress by rodents. Caulk Caulk or (less frequently) caulking is a material used to seal joints or seams against leakage in various structures and piping. The oldest form of caulk consisted of fibrous materials driven into the wedge-shaped seams between boards on wooden boats or ships. Cast iron sewerage pipe were formerly caulked in a similar way. Riveted seams in ships and boilers were formerly sealed by"
"are sewn together. As the planks are placed together, the skin begins to bend into the desired shape. The resulting structure is highly flexible. Internal framing may be added to the planks after they are sewn in, providing additional rigidity. While wooden pegs (often called ""treenails"") can be used to fasten thicker clinker planks, this technique only works if the planks are thick enough to hold the pegs. Because of this, large ships were often built using pegs, while smaller boats would use sewn planks. The earliest example of a sewn boat is the 40+ metres long ""Solar"" funerary boat"
"Sailing ship tactics Sailing ship tactics were the naval tactics employed by sailing ships in contrast to galley tactics employed by oared vessels. This article focuses on the period from c. 1500 to the mid-19th century, when sailing warships were replaced with steam-powered ironclads. Since ancient times, war at sea had been fought much like on land: with melee weapons and bows and arrows, but on floating wooden platforms rather than battlefields. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted"
"with iron nails. Symmetrical ribs or frames were then lashed to the strakes or secured with trenails. Over most of the ribs was laid a slender crossbeam and a thwart. The mast was stepped amidships or nearly so, and oars, including a steering oar, were also used. The stem and stern post sometimes had carefully carved notches for plank ends, with knees securing the thwarts to the strakes and beams joining the heads of the frames. Oak was the wood favoured both in Western Scotland and in Scandinavia, being tough and resistant to decay. Other types of timber were less"
"areas of Russia. The best known boats built with sewn construction are the various forms of Dhow native to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean for over two thousand years. Sewn boat A sewn boat is a type of wooden boat which is clinker built and planks sewn, stitched, tied, or bound together with tendons or flexible wood, such as roots and willow branches. Sewn boat construction techniques were used in many parts of the world prior to the development of metal fasteners, and continued to be used long after that time for small boats to reduce construction"
"had carved wooden hulls with rigging made from human hair, horsehair, silk, or whatever other fine material could be obtained. Bone or ivory would be used for masts and spars, and as a thin veneer over the hull. A consequence of Britain's naval supremacy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was wide public interest in ships and ship models. Numerous fairly crude models were built as children's toys leading to the creation of functional, as opposed to decorative, ship models. Britain also led the world in model ship sailing clubs – in 1838 the ""Serpentine Sailing Society"" was started in"
"keel (spine) of the ship by having its keel cutout placed over the keel and held by precision of fit. Nails and trenails have not been used in this ship to secure frames to keel. The keel is made of beech, but the rest of the ship is made of oak, although no reason for this has yet been suggested. One possible explanation is a simple shortage of oak compared with beech at the time of construction. Almost all woodworking on the ship has been done using axes and adzes, with saw marks found on only a few timbers. The"
"cost of building was less. The Class has never been tempted to adopt construction materials other than wood. Traditionally the sails were made of calico, cotton, and subsequently silk. In recent years Terylene and nylon have been used with the effect that coloured spinnakers are now used by most boats. A variant of the original design, with its double-ended hull, found its way to Herne Bay Sailing Club in Kent, England, and during the 1920s and 1930s several boats were built locally and the class was actively raced during the 1930s and 1940s. These boats, however, were not built to"
"a result, lengths in the 19th century varied between and . Construction methods were common, with: frames of English oak; planking of English elm; hulls sealed by pitch pine; interior fittings made of imported teak. The boats had high bulwarks of between and , with a removable section through which a white-painted clinker-built rowing punt of could easily be put over the side. Punts were painted white to allow them to be seen at night, and traditionally stored on the cutter's port-side. Speed was profit, and so in summer the sails were made of cotton, and in winter of flax."
"wooden ship is in remarkably good condition and is among the best-preserved ships from the late medieval period. That the wreckage has been left relatively free of sea worm damage has been attributed to the brackishness of the waters. The ship is also significant for being carvel-built, the oldest such found in Nordic waters, which were at the time dominated by clinker-built ships. Surveys of the wreck indicate the ship had a length of and a beam of . The keel is oriented northeast to southwest. Among the artifacts found in the wreckage are chain mail, bones, barrels, glass, and"
"for tacking. Like the kayak, the traditional umiak was made from a driftwood or whalebone frame pegged and lashed together, sometimes with antlers or ivory, over which walrus or Bearded seal skins are stretched. Oil, usually from seals, would be used to coat and waterproof the seams. A large umiak, , would require about seven skins which would be sewn together, stretched over the frame and allowed to dry. Modern versions are essentially identical with the exception of using metal bolts and screws. The open umiak is significantly larger than the enclosed kayak which was built to carry one or"
"of the Melaleuca species is placed over the dowels before the new plank is hammered home. This 1 – 2 mm layer of a natural material has remarkable sealing properties. It is an ancient and unique building technique, the origins of which might date back to the Proto-Malay migrations that colonised the archipelago thousands of years ago. The tradition of building wooden boats in modern Malaysia reaches far back in time, involving overseas trade, fishing, piracy, travelling up the many rivers. For each purpose they developed a special design. With Malacca becoming the main trading centre for the spices arriving"
"wood are used to make a typical tomol. Once the planks were bent, fitted and lashed together the heart of dry tule rush was forced into the cracks between the planks on the outside of the canoe hull to act as caulking. All seams between planks, plank ends and holes for cords or thongs were then caulked with 'yop', a mixture of hard tar and pine pitch melted and then boiled. In many respects their boat construction technique mirrored that utilized for making small wooden boats around the world. The lack of metal tools and fasteners forced them to use"
"to retain anchor or mooring lines. Analysis of timber samples from Viking long boats shows that a variety of timbers were used, but there was strong preference for oak, a tree associated with Thor in Viking mythology. Oak is a heavy, durable timber that can be easily worked by adze and axe when green (wet/unseasoned). Generally large and prestigious ships were made from oak. Other timber used were ash, elm, pine, spruce and larch. Spruce is light and seems to have been more common in later designs for internal hull battens (stringers). Although it is used for spars in modern"
"Caïque A caïque (, ""kaiki"", from ) is the term for a traditional fishing boat usually found among the waters of the Ionian or Aegean Sea, and also a light skiff used on the Bosporus. It is traditionally a small wooden trading vessel, brightly painted and rigged for sail. The caïque is also a typical case of positioning the widest beam far aft, with a long sharp bow. Caïques were built on the foreshore in a shipyard, from pine wood. The hull of the craft is built with sawn ribs and a timber keel, stem, etc. covered with carvel planking,"
"parts”), covering it with hides cured with oak bark. Tar was used to seal the places where the skins joined. A mast was then erected in the middle of the vessel and a sail supplied. Though the voyage itself is essentially a wonder-tale, it is implied that the vessel as described was built in accordance with ordinary practice at the time. An Irish martyrology of the same period says of the Isle of Aran that the boat commonly used there was made of wickerwork and covered with cowhide. Gerald of Wales, in his ""Topographia Hibernica"" (1187), relates that he was"
"stitched together in a similar fashion used in ""Indian Seas"". Though Arabian ships of this type have not been found before, they are mentioned in text including the late-Tang ""Ling biao lu yi"" (""Strange Things Noted in the South""). According to John Guy, curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the book ""describes the ships of foreign merchants as being stitched together with the fiber of coir-palms and having their seams caulked rather than using iron nails to secure their planks"". Samples of wood from the shipwreck were sent for analysis at the Forest and Forest Products division of the"
"were of course adapted for the screw driven by their reciprocating steam engines. In common with older vessels, they were coppered to reduce fouling from marine growth, and the copper sheathing was affixed to timber as in wooden ships, but that timber was not structural, but simply encased the metal hull beneath. Royal Navy corvettes had been built of iron since 1867, but the ""Comus"" class and the ""Calypso""s were built of steel. They carried a barque rig of sail on three masts, including a full set of studding sails on fore and mainmasts. This rig enabled them to serve"
"– 21 – and had learned a branch of mechanics known as ( caulking- ship work) ... when I took a ""job"" of caulking at the same place on one of the government flats."" Caulking was hard and dirty work, consequently often one by enslaved or free blacks. Typically caulkers worked done with a special hammer or wedge, then hot pitch was poured on the oakum and a hot caulking iron applied tar to seal the seam. Some slaveholders (including Jane Thomas), allowed their bondsmen to seek work on their own and to negotiate with potential employers. Frederick Douglass who"
"with the relative softness of wood compared to metal, thereby tending to bruise or stun rather than simply cut the skin. The belaying pins and deadeyes aboard USS ""Constitution"" and many other sailing ships were made from lignum vitae. Due to its density and natural oils, they rarely require replacement, despite the severity of typical marine weathering conditions, and also resisted jamming in their mortise holes. The sheaves of blocks on sailing vessels were made of lignum vitae until the introduction of modern synthetics. Due to lignum vitae's toughness, it can also be used as a lap in the process"
"between the planks of the hull when the ship was new, but once submerged the planks would absorb the water and expand thus forming a watertight hull. Problems would occur for example when shipbuilders would use green wood for the hull; when green timber is allowed to dry it loses moisture which causes cracks in the wood that could cause catastrophic damages to the ship. The sailyards and masts were preferably made from fir because fir trees were naturally tall and provided these parts in usually a single piece. Making durable rope consisted of using both papyrus and white flax;"
"from the single trunk of hardwoods like ""tugas"" (""Vitex parviflora"") or ""tindalo"" (""Afzelia rhomboidea""). Strakes were built up along the sides of the keel, forming the hull. They were usually made from ""lawaan"" wood (""Shorea"" spp.) and were tightly fitted to the keel and with each other by dowels reinforced further with fiber lashings (usually from sugar palm) on carved lugs. Ribs for support and seating connected the strakes across, which were also lashed together with fiber. The use of dowels and lashings instead of nails made the hull flexible, able to absorb collisions with underwater objects that would have"
"thin wedge inserted to expand the peg. Some treenails have been found with traces of linseed oil suggesting that treenails were soaked before the pegs were inserted. When dried the oil would act as a semi-waterproof weak filler/glue. The longship's narrow deep keel provided strength beneath the waterline. A typical size keel of a longer ship was amidships, tapering in width at the bow and stern. Sometimes there was a false outer keel to take the wear while being dragged up a beach. These large timbers were shaped with both adze and broadaxe. At the bow the cut water was"