Who failed to receive a posthumous Nobel Prize in 1962 despite her contribution to building a model of DNA?
"details and credit of the streptomycin discovery; Schatz was awarded a substantial settlement, and, together with Waksman, Schatz was to be officially recognized as a co-discoverer of streptomycin as concerned patent rights. However, he is not recognized as a Nobel Prize laureate. The 1962 Prize awarded to James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins—for their work on DNA structure and properties—did not recognize contributing work from others, such as Alec Stokes and Herbert Wilson. In addition, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery, and Rosalind Franklin (whose key DNA x-ray crystallography work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three)"
"the principal evidence: Franklin was never nominated for a Nobel Prize. Her work was a crucial part in the discovery of DNA's structure, which along with subsequent related work led to Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins being awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962. She had died in 1958, and during her lifetime the DNA structure was not considered as fully proven. It took Wilkins and his colleagues about seven years to collect enough data to prove and refine the proposed DNA structure. Moreover, its biological significance, as proposed by Watson and Crick, was not established. General acceptance for"
"Along with Francis Crick, Watson used characteristics and features of Photo 51, together with evidence from multiple other sources, to develop the chemical model of the DNA molecule. Their model, and manuscripts by Wilkins and colleagues, and Gosling and Franklin, were first published, together, in 1953, in the same issue of Nature. In 1962, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Watson, Crick and Wilkins. The prize was not awarded to Franklin; she had died four years earlier, and although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally does not make posthumous"
"nominated Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Wilkins' share recognized the contribution of X-ray crystallographers at King's College London. Among them was Rosalind Franklin, whose ""photograph 51"" showed that DNA was a double helix, not the triple helix that Linus Pauling had proposed. Franklin died before the prize (which only goes to living people) was awarded. In 1953 the Braggs moved into the elegant flat for the Resident Professor in the Royal Institution in London, the position his father had occupied when he died. In 1931 and 1934 Lawrence had delivered the"
"for which James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. After death, Franklin was largely forgotten outside the scientific community. However, her importance surfaced when Watson published his memoir ""The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA"" in 1968. Although the DNA research centred on Franklin, Watson mostly portrayed her as ""uninteresting"", ""belligerent"", ""sharp, stubborn mind"", with her dresses showing ""all the imagination of English blue-stocking adolescents"", ""the product of an unsatisfied mother"", a physical bully, and always referring to her as ""Rosy"", the name she"
"51, while at King's College London, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Wilkins, but, although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally does not make posthumous nominations. After finishing her work on DNA, Franklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses. Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the"
"best evidence for the structure of DNA. For the discovery of the correct chemical structure of DNA, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 was shared by her colleagues and close researchers James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins; she died four years earlier in 1958 making her inelligible for the award. Rosalind Franklin joined the King's College London in January 1951 to work on the crystallography of DNA. By the end of that year, she established two important facts: one is that phosphate groups, which are the molecular backbone for the nucleotide chains, lie on the outside (it"
"molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"". It did not recognize critical contributions from Alec Stokes, Herbert Wilson, and Erwin Chargaff. In addition, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery and Rosalind Franklin (whose key DNA X-ray crystallography work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three) contributed directly to Watson and Crick's insight to solve the DNA molecule's structure. Avery's death in 1955, and Franklin's in 1958, eliminated them from eligibility. The 1952 prize was awarded solely to Selman Waksman ""for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"" and omitted"
"of ""P. falciparum"", the first human malarial parasite for which the entire cycle was determined. By today's standard, they should have undoubtedly shared the Nobel. Oswald Theodore Avery, best known for his 1944 demonstration that DNA is the cause of bacterial transformation and potentially the material of which genes are composed, never received a Nobel Prize, although two Nobel Laureates, Joshua Lederberg and Arne Tiselius, praised him and his work as a pioneering platform for further genetic research. According to John M. Barry, in his book ""The Great Influenza"", the committee was preparing to award Avery, but declined to do"
"linkage of the ""white"" mutant gene of fruit flies and was especially heightened by his Nobel Prize award in 1933. Stevens was not even recognized immediately after her discovery. For example, Morgan and Wilson were invited to speak at a conference to present their theories on sex determination in 1906 but Stevens was not invited to speak. At 50 years old, and only 9 years after completing her Ph.D., Stevens died of breast cancer on May 4, 1912, in Baltimore, Maryland. Her career span was short, but she published approximately 40 papers.[14] She was buried in the Westford, Massachusetts cemetery"
"of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Wilkins. When Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old graduate student (due to his work during WWII) and Watson was only 23, but he already had a Ph.D. They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic"
"the contribution made by Rosalind Franklin, who died in 1958, was largely forgotten. The main motive for Sayre's book came from James Watson's memoir ""The Double Helix : A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA"". Published in 1968, ""The Double Helix"" reflected the account of the discovery in which Franklin was portrayed as ""uninteresting"", ""belligerent"", and ""sharp, stubborn mind"", referring her as ""Rosy"", the name she did not want to be called. Watson described her as having ""all the imagination of English blue-stocking adolescents"", and ""the product of an unsatisfied mother"". As a close friend of"
"the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery. The 1953 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity for many to see the model of the DNA double helix. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids. Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958 and was therefore ineligible for nomination. The publication of the double helix structure of DNA can be regarded as a turning point in science: human understanding of life was fundamentally changed and the modern era of biology began. In 1956,"
"of DNA labeled as ""Photo 51"", from Rosalind Franklin in 1952, followed by her more clarified DNA image with Raymond Gosling, Maurice Wilkins, Alexander Stokes, and Herbert Wilson, and base-pairing chemical and biochemical information by Erwin Chargaff. The prior model was triple-stranded DNA. The realization that the structure of DNA is that of a double-helix elucidated the mechanism of base pairing by which genetic information is stored and copied in living organisms and is widely considered one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 20th century. Crick, Wilkins, and Watson each received one third of the 1962 Nobel Prize"
"Francis Crick Francis Harry Compton Crick (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004) was a British molecular biologist, biophysicist, and neuroscientist, most noted for being a co-discoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953 with Rosalind Franklin and James Watson. Together with Watson and Maurice Wilkins, he was jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ""for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"". The results were based partly on fundamental studies done by Rosalind Franklin, Raymond Gosling and Wilkins. Crick was an important theoretical"
"Martha Chase Martha Cowles Chase (November 30, 1927 – August 8, 2003), also known as Martha C. Epstein, was an American geneticist known for having in 1952, with Alfred Hershey, experimentally helped to confirm that DNA rather than protein is the genetic material of life. Chase was born in 1927 in Cleveland, Ohio, and had a single sibling, Ruth Chase (now Ruth Daziel). She received a bachelor's degree from the College of Wooster in 1950, then worked as a research assistant before returning to school in 1959 and receiving a PhD in Microbiology from the University of Southern California in"
"and Howard Fields claimed ""the full potential [of PCR] was not realized"" until Mullis' work in 1983. The 1961 prize for carbon assimilation in plants awarded to Melvin Calvin was controversial because it ignored the contributions of Andrew Benson and James Bassham. While originally named the Calvin cycle, many biologists and botanists now refer to the Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, or Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle. Three decades after winning the Nobel, Calvin published an autobiography titled ""Following the trail of light"" about his scientific journey which didn't mention Benson. Economics was not on Nobel's original list of prize disciplines. Sweden's central bank Sveriges"
"the structure. Wilkins turned down this offer, as he had taken no part in building the model. He later expressed regret that greater discussion of co-authorship had not taken place as this might have helped to clarify the contribution the work at King's had made to the discovery. There is no doubt that Franklin's experimental data were used by Crick and Watson to build their model of DNA in 1953. Some, including Maddox, have explained this citation omission by suggesting that it may be a question of circumstance, because it would have been very difficult to cite the unpublished work"
"1964. In 1950, Chase began working as a research assistant at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in the laboratory of bacteriologist and geneticist Alfred Hershey. In 1952, she and Hershey performed the Hershey–Chase experiment, which helped to confirm that genetic information is held and transmitted by DNA, not by protein. The experiment involved radioactively labeling either protein or nucleic acid of the bacteriophage T2 (a virus that infects bacteria) and seeing which component entered E coli upon infection. They found that nucleic acids but not protein were transferred, helping resolve controversy over the composition of hereditary information. Hershey won the Nobel"
"Rosalind Franklin and DNA Rosalind Franklin and DNA is a biography of an English chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958) written by her American friend Anne Sayre in 1975. Franklin was a physical chemist who made pivotal research in the discovery of the structure of DNA, known as ""the most important discovery"" in biology. DNA itself had become ""life's most famous molecule"". While working at the King's College London in 1951, she discovered two types of DNA called A-DNA and B-DNA. Her X-ray images of DNA indicated helical structure. Her X-ray image of B-DNA (called Photo 51) taken in 1952 became the"
"Ruth Sager Ruth Sager (February 7, 1918 – March 29, 1997) was an American geneticist. Sager enjoyed two scientific careers. Her first was in the 1950s and 1960s when she pioneered the field of cytoplasmic genetics by discovering transmission of genetic traits through Chloroplast DNA, the first known example of genetics not involving the cell nucleus. The academic community did not acknowledge the significance of her contribution until after the second wave of feminism in the 1970s. Her second career began in the early 1970s and was in cancer genetics; she proposed and investigated the roles of tumor suppressor genes."
"without her knowledge or consent by Watson and Crick in their construction of the double helix model of DNA. Of the four DNA researchers, only Franklin had a degree in chemistry; Wilkins and Crick had backgrounds in physics, Watson in biology. Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little direct interaction with Franklin herself. They were, however, aware of her work, more aware than she herself realized. Watson was present at a lecture, given in November 1951, where Franklin presented the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, and discussed the position"
"had not been guilty of it"". After Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins received the 1962 Nobel Prize for their work on discovering the double helix of DNA, Chargaff withdrew from his lab and wrote to scientists all over the world about his exclusion. He died on 20 June 2002 in Manhattan, New York City. Honors awarded to him include the Pasteur Medal (1949) and the National Medal of Science (1974). Erwin Chargaff Erwin Chargaff (11 August 1905 – 20 June 2002) was an Austro-Hungarian biochemist who immigrated to the United States during the Nazi era and was a"
"and of the stepwise chemical reaction. According to the 1961 Crick–Monod letter, this experimental proof, along with Wilkins having initiated the DNA diffraction work, were the reasons why Crick felt that Wilkins should be included in the DNA Nobel Prize. In 1962 the Nobel Prize was subsequently awarded to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins. Nobel rules prohibit posthumous nominations or splitting of Prizes more than three ways. The award was for their body of work on nucleic acids and not exclusively for the discovery of the structure of DNA. By the time of the award Wilkins had been working on the"
"without including any of the sociological considerations and cultural and academic gender-bias facts explored in the article. Grete Kellenberger-Gujer Grete Kellenberger-Gujer (1919–2011) was a Swiss molecular biologist known for her discoveries on genetic recombination and restriction modification system of DNA. She was a pioneer in the genetic analysis of bacteriophages and contributed to the early development of molecular biology. After earning her ""matura"" in classics at the Töchterschule in Zürich, Grete Gujer studied chemistry at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. There, she met Eduard Kellenberger, a physics student. The couple married in 1945. In 1946 they moved"
"condition deteriorated and died on 16 April 1958. Sayre's book placed Franklin to its important place in the history of science as a major contributor to the discovery of the structure of DNA. However, Sayre's book is known for its strong feminism, representing Franklin as a feminist icon, and also misrepresenting sexism of the time. Sayre states, ""In 1951 ... King's College as an institution, was not distinguished for the welcome that it offered to women ... Rosalind ... was unused to ""purdah"" [a religious and social institution of female seclusion] ... there was one other woman scientist on the"
"Oswald Avery Oswald Theodore Avery Jr. (October 21, 1877 – February 20, 1955) was a Canadian-American physician and medical researcher. The major part of his career was spent at the Rockefeller University Hospital in New York City. Avery was one of the first molecular biologists and a pioneer in immunochemistry, but he is best known for the experiment (published in 1944 with his co-workers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty) that isolated DNA as the material of which genes and chromosomes are made. The Nobel laureate Arne Tiselius said that Avery was the most deserving scientist to not receive the Nobel"
"1963, President John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty. The signing of this treaty directly resulted in Linus Pauling's receipt of the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize, his second unshared Nobel Prize. In an interview which aired on the Nova TV series in 1977, Ava Helen Pauling explained: Ava Helen Pauling died on December 7, 1981 after a long battle with stomach cancer and subsequent internal hemorrhaging. In recognition of her efforts for peace and equality, Oregon State University's College of Liberal Arts established the Ava Helen Pauling Lectureship on World Peace, now known as the"
"20th century, behind the Ford Model T. 1962: Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand born and Birmingham raised, receives the Nobel Prize for his work on DNA structure, he is one of three who become known as the Code Breakers. Wilkins is educated at King Edward's School (and St John's College, Cambridge), he receives a PhD for the study of phosphors at the University of Birmingham, where he works on radar display screens and uranium isotope separation before moving to the Manhattan Project. 1962: Bill Fransen of American company Chamberlins brings two of their musical instruments to England to search for someone"
"Dorothy Hodgkin Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British chemist who developed protein crystallography, for which she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. She advanced the technique of X-ray crystallography, a method used to determine the three-dimensional structures of molecules. Among her most influential discoveries are the confirmation of the structure of penicillin as previously surmised by Edward Abraham and Ernst Boris Chain, and the structure of vitamin B, for which she became the third woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1969, after 35 years of work, Hodgkin"
"Stony Brook University, has Anne Sayre Prize for students. The prize carries $500 and a copy of Anne Sayre's book. Anne Sayre Anne Colquhoun Sayre (April 10, 1923 – March 13, 1998) was an American writer well known for her biography of Rosalind Franklin, one of the discoverers of the structure of DNA. She was married to an American crystallographer David Sayre (1924–2012). Her literary contributions are in short stories, the earnings from which she supported her husband during his PhD course. She achieved her lifelong educational ambition of getting a law degree in her early 50s. She ultimately became"
"the Academy was not successful. Marietta Blau died in Vienna from cancer in 1970. Her illness was related to her unprotected handling of radioactive substances as well as her cigarette smoking over many years. No obituary appeared in any scientific publication. In 1950, Cecil Powell received the Nobel prize for the development of the photographic method for particle detection and the discovery of the pion by use of this method. Marietta Blau Marietta Blau (29 April 1894 – 27 January 1970) was an Austrian physicist. Blau was born in a middle-class Jewish family, to Mayer (Markus) Blau, a court lawyer"
"Florence Bell (scientist) Florence Ogilvy Bell (1 May 1913 – 23 November 2000), later Florence Sawyer, was a British scientist who contributed to the discovery of DNA. She was an X-ray crystallographer in the lab of William Astbury. In 1938 they published a paper in ""Nature"" that described the structure of DNA as a ""Pile of Pennies"". Florence Ogilvy Bell was born at 47 Hanover Road, Brondesbury Park, London, the second daughter of Thomas Bell and his wife, Annie Mary Lucas. Her father was a photographer and later advertising manager who had been born in Allendale, Northumberland, and later he"