Presaged by a 1784 letter of Ben Franklin, what concept saw its first widespread use in 1916 as a wartime measure aimed at conserving coal?
"adopt daylight saving time (also known as ""Summer Time"") during part of the year. This typically involves advancing clocks by an hour near the start of spring and adjusting back in autumn (""spring forward"", ""fall back""). Modern DST was first proposed in 1907 and was in widespread use in 1916 as a wartime measure aimed at conserving coal. Despite controversy, many countries have used it off and on since then; details vary by location and change occasionally. Most countries around the equator do not observe daylight saving time, since the seasonal difference in sunlight is minimal. Computer operating systems include"
"taking a more active role in managing coal production. Federal Fuel Administration The Federal Fuel Administration was a World War I-era agency of the Federal government of the United States established by of August 23, 1917 pursuant to the Food and Fuel Control Act, managed use of coal and oil. To conserve energy, it introduced daylight saving time, shortened work weeks for civilian goods factories, and encouraged Heatless Mondays. Even prior to a declaration of war by the United States, shortages of coal were experienced in the winter of 1916-17. To address concerns about a steady supply of fuel to"
"the 1700s American statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin performed extensive investigations of both water-filled and foil Leyden jars, which led him to conclude that the charge was stored in the glass, not in the water. A popular experiment, due to Franklin, which seems to demonstrate this involves taking a jar apart after it has been charged and showing that little charge can be found on the metal plates, and therefore it must be in the dielectric. The first documented instance of this demonstration is in a 1749 letter by Franklin. Franklin designed a ""dissectible"" Leyden jar ""(right)"", which was widely"
"Federal Fuel Administration The Federal Fuel Administration was a World War I-era agency of the Federal government of the United States established by of August 23, 1917 pursuant to the Food and Fuel Control Act, managed use of coal and oil. To conserve energy, it introduced daylight saving time, shortened work weeks for civilian goods factories, and encouraged Heatless Mondays. Even prior to a declaration of war by the United States, shortages of coal were experienced in the winter of 1916-17. To address concerns about a steady supply of fuel to support military and industrial operations and for use by"
"The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States: Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. His essay, “An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light”, written to the editor of ""The Journal of Paris"", observed that Parisians could save on candles by getting out of bed earlier in the morning, making use of the natural morning light instead. Franklin's suggestion seems to have been more of a joke than a real proposal, and nothing came of it. During World War I, in an"
"formed soon after such disasters. In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had two critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wooden frame of a bed(often the most valuable item in a home at the time) into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire. The first American attempt at fire insurance failed after a large fire in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1736. Later in 1740, Benjamin"
"1766 titled 'On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor'. Franklin's ""Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc."" influenced economist Adam Smith. His essay theorized how British mercantilism was unsustainable, and it was a response to the British Parliament's prohibition of the construction of ironworks in America brought about by the demands of British manufacturers. Benjamin Franklin formed both the first public lending library in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania. Social contributions and studies by Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin made many social contributions both through his studies and by founding various institutions."
"not otherwise conduct ..."" and again, ""... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice."" An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in ""Maritime Observations"", published by the Philosophical Society's ""transactions"" in 1786. It contained ideas for sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather. In a 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley, Franklin lays out the earliest known description of the Pro & Con list, a common decision-making technique, now sometimes called a decisional balance sheet: ... my Way is,"
"Daylight Saving Act of 1917 The Daylight Saving Act of 1917 was enacted by the Dominion of Newfoundland to adopt daylight saving time (DST), thus making it one of the first jurisdictions in North America to do so, only a year after the United Kingdom on May 21, 1916. DST was not instituted in the United States until March 31, 1918. While living in Paris in 1784, Benjamin Franklin wrote a satirical essay, in which he suggested that Parisians get up earlier in the morning. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Vernon Hudson in 1895."
"being $2 a bushel and the ceiling at $2.20. One of its posters said: ""FOOD WILL WIN THE WAR; DON’T WASTE IT."" By the end of 1918, about one-fourth of all American production was diverted to the war effort. The Fuel Administration under Harry Garfield, the President of Williams College, directed efforts to save coal. Nonessential factories were closed, and the Federal government had complete control over all aspects of the coal industry including production, pricing, sale, shipment, and distribution. Although the Act also included oil and natural gas, it gave the government less authority over those energy sources and"
"consumers, in 1917 the Federal Fuel Administration was established and US President Woodrow Wilson appointed Harry A. Garfield to lead the agency. Garfield in turn selected local administrators for each state. Fuel committees were organized down to the county level. The activities of the administration included setting and enforcing the prices of coal. The administration had broad powers to set the price of coal at various points (mine, dock) and the cost of transportation (by rail), and in regard to end use (home, factory, or business, etc.). Daylight Saving Time was formally adopted in the United States in 1918 by"
"started construction of a new fort. The main residence at the fort was designed with two 11 foot wide fireplaces which were stocked with wood and coal from up river. As early as 1643, the French were sending coal and other supplies to the British colony at Boston. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century, and later spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan, was based on the availability of coal to power steam engines. International trade expanded exponentially when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships during the Victorian era. Coal"
"17th century, under the direction of artist Jan van der Heyden, who had improved the designs of both fire hoses and fire pumps. The city of Boston, Massachusetts established America's first publicly funded, paid fire department in 1679. Fire insurance made its debut in the American colonies in South Carolina in 1736, but it was Benjamin Franklin who imported the London model of insurance. He established the colonies' first fire insurance company in Philadelphia named the Philadelphia Contributionship, as well as its associated Union Volunteer Fire Company, which was an unpaid (volunteer) company. In 1754, Halifax, Nova Scotia established the"
"of 1917, but Congress overrode the veto. Its goal was to reduce immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe, by requiring literacy tests. It was the first U.S. law to restrict immigration from Europe, and it foreshadowed the more restrictive immigration laws of the 1920s. With the American entrance into World War I in April 1917, Wilson became a war-time president. The War Industries Board, headed by Bernard Baruch, was established to set U.S. war manufacturing policies and goals. Future President Herbert Hoover led the Food Administration; the Federal Fuel Administration, run by Henry Garfield, introduced daylight saving time and rationed"
"covered by an iron plate. Only in 1735 did the first design that completely enclosed the fire appear: the ""Castrol stove"" of the French architect François de Cuvilliés was a masonry construction with several fireholes covered by perforated iron plates. It is also known as a ""stew stove"". Near the end of the 18th century, the design was refined by hanging the pots in holes through the top iron plate, thus improving heat efficiency even more. In 1743, Benjamin Franklin invented an all-metal fireplace with an attempt to improve the efficiency. It was still an open faced fireplace, but improved"
"the fort. The coal was extracted from drift mine entries into the Pittsburgh coal seam at outcrop along the hillside about 200 feet above the river. The coal was poured into trenches dug into the hillside, rolled to the edge of the river, and transported by canoe and boats to the military garrison. Sometime around 1765, a fire broke out in this mine, which continued to burn for years, leading to collapse of part of the face of the hill. Mining rights were formally purchased from the chiefs of the Six Nations in 1768, and from this point on, coal"
"(his first). The cgs unit of electric charge has been named after him: one ""franklin"" (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb. Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire which destroyed the original Harvard Hall in 1764. The collection he assembled would later become part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, now on public display in its Science Center. Franklin briefly investigated electrotherapy, including the use of the electric bath. This work led to the field becoming widely known. Franklin published a proposal"
"issued by President Woodrow Wilson in his own speech to Congress in April 1917, when the United States entered World War I. Wilson laid out the strategic threat posed by Germany and stressed the idealistic goals behind America's participation in the war. During the 1930s, however, American public opinion turned strongly against such themes, and was wary of, if not actively hostile to, idealistic visions of remaking the world through a ""just war"". Roosevelt, therefore, chose to make an appeal aimed more at the gut level—in effect, an appeal to patriotism, rather than to idealism. Nonetheless, he took pains to"
"meant proportionately less sulfur and ash. At the time the process was invented, good coking coal was only available in sufficient quantities in Great Britain and western Germany, so iron furnaces in the US were using charcoal. This meant that any given iron furnace required vast tracts of forested land for charcoal production, and generally went out of blast when the nearby woods had been felled. Attempts to use anthracite as a fuel had ended in failure, as the coal resisted ignition under cold blast conditions. In 1831, Dr. Frederick W. Gessenhainer filed for a US patent on the use"
"rod invention to protect wooden buildings such as houses and churches. Watson turned over some of these Franklin letters to the local publisher Edward Cave, who had them printed in ""The Gentleman's Magazine"" in 1750. In April 1751 Cave printed in a publication more of the letters Collinson had received and they included corrections personally added by Franklin. This publication was titled, ""Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made in Philadelphia in America by Mr. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN and Communicated in several letters to Mr. P. Collinson of London, F.R.S"" (London). It was a 90-page pamphlet of 86 numbered pages. The pamphlet"
"Forest Reserve Act of 1891 The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 is a law that allowed the President of the United States to set aside forest reserves from the land in the public domain. This act passed by the United States Congress under Benjamin Harrison's administration. Harrison issued proclamations establishing of land a Forest Reserves; Grover Cleveland proclaimed and William McKinley proclaimed . In 1907 a law was passed limiting the President's authority to proclaim Forest Reserves in certain states and renamed the existing ""Forest Reserves"" as ""National Forests."" A further provision to the act was added in 1939, when"
"long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. Advances in helicopter technology since World War II have brought increased flexibility to the scope of airborne operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely replaced combat glider operations. Benjamin Franklin envisioned the danger of airborne attack in 1784, only a few months after the first manned flight in a hot air balloon: ""Five Thousand Balloons capable of raising two Men each, would not cost more than Five Ships of the Line: And where is the Prince who can afford so to cover"
"insurance company that underwrote fire insurance was formed in Charles Town (modern-day Charleston), South Carolina in 1732. Benjamin Franklin helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly Property insurance to spread the risk of loss from fire, in the form of perpetual insurance. In 1752, he founded the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. Franklin's company made contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, but it also refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses."
"in rapid re-forestation of affected areas. The charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company. The process was further popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood and sawdust byproducts from automobile fabrication as a feedstock. Ford Charcoal went on to become the Kingsford Company. Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used a clamp. This is essentially a pile of wooden logs (e.g. seasoned oak) leaning against a chimney (logs are placed in a circle). The chimney consists of"
"million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"" The first corporation founded in the 13 Colonies was Harvard College (1636), designed primarily to train young men for the clergy. A leading theorist was the Puritan theologian Cotton Mather (1662–1728), who in 1710 published a widely read essay, ""Bonifacius, or an Essay to Do Good."" Mather worried that the original idealism had eroded, so he advocated philanthropic benefaction as a way of life. Though his context was Christian, his idea was also characteristically American and explicitly Classical, on the threshold of the Enlightenment. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an"
"modern terms. Franklin was inducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1999. The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor. In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, Franklin was an advocate for paper money, publishing ""A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency"" in 1729, and his printer printed"
"no ability to control the price of oil and gas. Copying the methods of the Food Administration, citizens were encouraged to save fuel with ""gasless Sundays,"" ""heatless Mondays,"" and ""lightless nights."" Garfield's most dramatic action was an attempt to speed fuel to eastern ports where ships were idled for lack of fuel. On January 17, 1918, he order the closing of all factories east of the Mississippi. That accomplished his goal, but exposed the Wilson administration to criticism both from its usual opponents and members of the President's own party. On February 4, 1918, Garfield announced rules to govern the"
"edition and numbered 1–154. In this first set of letters Franklin talked about ""electrical fire"", later (1749) changing the terminology to ""electrical fluid"". He wrote to Collinson on June 5, 1747, that his experiments showed that the electrical fire was a new element of matter existing as particles in all ordinary matter. Franklin determined that a friction rubbing process like that of rubbing glass with a cloth does not create these particles, but only temporararily groups them together so that they can be collected and held in a Leyden jar of water and metal. According to Franklin, one side of"
"10, 1752, and later repeated several more times throughout Europe, though after a fatality in 1753 it was less frequently tried. Franklin declared that this ""sentry-box experiment"" showed that lightning and electricity were one and the same. Franklin realized that wooden buildings could be protected from lightning strikes, and the deadly fires that often resulted, by placing a pointed iron on a rooftop, with the other end of the rod placed deep into the ground. The sharp point of the lightning rod would attract the electrical discharge from the cloud, and the lightning bolt would hit the iron rod instead"
"All of the jars in the series could be charged simultaneously, which multiplied the electrical effect. A similar apparatus had been created earlier by Daniel Gralath. Franklin was the first to call the device an ""electrical battery"". At that time, the word ""battery"" was a military term for a group of cannons. Franklin was the first to use ""positive"" and ""negative"" as applied to electricity which is sometimes referred to as ""plus"" and ""minus"". Through his research, Franklin was among first to prove the electrical principal of conservation of charge in 1747: a similar discovery was made independently in 1746"
"opening. In 1713, Frenchman Nicolas Gauger (c. 1680–1730) published a book, ""La Mécanique du Feu"" (The Mechanics of Fire), in which he presented novel designs for fireplaces. Gauger surrounded the hearth with hollow spaces. Inside these spaces were baffles. Cool room air entered the spaces through lower openings, was warmed as it snaked around the baffles in the spaces, and returned to the room through upper openings. In Franklin's stove, a hollow baffle was positioned inside and near the rear of the stove. The baffle was a wide but thin cast-iron box, which was open to the room's air at"
"Albert Einstein. Around the turn of the New Year in 1943, the U.S. achieves its first sustaining chain reaction at its plant in Hanford, Washington. The British and the French are also rumored to be working on atomic weapons. Following the defeat of the Confederate Army at Pittsburgh, the Southern forces find themselves on the defensive in Ohio. Neither the U.S. nor the Confederate forces have adequate supplies for a major push; however, the U.S. position is getting stronger daily. After sufficient buildup, a massive invasion from Indiana crosses the Ohio River and enters Kentucky. General Morrell employs the ""blitzkrieg""-like"
"the coal torpedo. The correspondence was forwarded to Admiral David Porter, who immediately issued his General Order 184, which began and vessels in the shape of torpedoes, and an article resembling coal, which is to be placed in our coal piles for the purpose of blowing the vessels up, or injuring them. Officers will have to be careful in overlooking coal barges. Guards will be placed over them at all times, and anyone found attempting to place any of these things amongst the coal will be shot on the spot. In April 1865, most of the official papers of the"