'Petrology' is the study of the origin, structure and composition of what?
"Petrology Petrology (from the Greek πέτρος, ""pétros"", ""rock"" and λόγος, ""lógos"", ""subject matter"", see -logy) is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is, on the other hand, commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale"
"Petroleum geochemistry Petroleum geochemistry is the branch of geochemistry which deals with the application of chemical principles in the study of the origin,generation,migration, accumulation, and alteration of petroleum...(John M. Hunt, 1979). Petroleum is generally considered oil and natural gases having various compounds composed of primarily hydrogen and carbon. They are usually generated from the decomposition and/or thermal maturation of organic matter. The organic matter originated from plants and algae. The organic matter is deposited after the death of the plant in sediments, where after considerable time, heat, and pressure the compounds in the plants and algae are altered to oil,"
"Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited 'window' into the subsurface world, provided by one (or possibly more) exploration wells. These wells present only a 1-dimensional segment through the Earth and the skill of inferring 3-dimensional characteristics from them is one of the most fundamental"
"Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these rock properties by acquiring"
"Petrochemistry Petrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. These petrochemicals have become an essential part of the chemical industry today. It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely"
"Petroleum Petroleum () is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface. It is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a fractionating column. It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name ""petroleum"" covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities"
"Petrography Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are described in detail. The classification of rocks is based on the information acquired during the petrographic analysis. Petrographic descriptions start with the field notes at the outcrop and include macroscopic description of hand specimens. However, the most important tool for the petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the micro-texture and structure are critical to understanding the"
"ΦT – Vsh *Φsh Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these"
"or traded from elsewhere. This kind of information, along with other evidence, can support conclusions about settlement patterns, group and individual mobility, social contacts, and trade networks. In addition, an understanding of how certain minerals are altered at specific temperatures can allow archaeological petrographers to infer aspects of the ceramic production process itself, such as minimum and maximum temperatures reached during the original firing of the pot. Petrography Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are"
"Petroleomics Petroleomics is the identification of the totality of the constituents of naturally occurring petroleum and crude oil using high resolution mass spectrometry. In addition to mass determination, petroleomic analysis sorts the chemical compounds into heteroatom class (nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur), type (degree of unsaturation, and carbon number). The name is a combination of petroleum and -omics (collective chemical characterization and quantification). Mass spectrometry characterization of petroleum has been performed since the first commercial mass spectrometers were introduced in the 1940s. Early mass spectrometry was limited to relatively low molecular weight nonpolar species accessed mainly by electron ionization with mass"
"below) and by the technique of formation evaluation using wireline tools passed down the well itself. Modern advances in seismic data acquisition and processing have meant that seismic attributes of subsurface rocks are readily available and can be used to infer physical/sedimentary properties of the rocks themselves. Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: In general,"
"Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 95 million barrels each day. The word ""petroleum"" comes from Medieval Latin ""petroleum"" (literally ""rock oil""), which comes from Latin ""petra', ""rock"", (from , ""rock"") and Latin ""oleum"", ""oil"". The term was used in the treatise ""De Natura Fossilium"", published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola. In the 19th century, the term ""petroleum"" was often used to refer to mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as cannel coal (and later"
"to access a much greater volume of the strata. Hydraulic fracturing creates greater permeability and increases hydrocarbon flow to the wellbore. Petroleum Petroleum () is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface. It is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a fractionating column. It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name ""petroleum"" covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude"
"crucial and controversial role in new methods of oil extraction. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations. It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat and pressure in Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the decayed residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into Earth’s crust and preserved there between hot and pressured layers, gradually transforming into oil reservoirs."
"Oil shale geology Oil shale geology is a branch of geologic sciences which studies the formation and composition of oil shales–fine-grained sedimentary rocks containing significant amounts of kerogen, and belonging to the group of sapropel fuels. Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition (carbonate minerals such as calcite or detrital minerals such as quartz and clays) or by their depositional environment (large lakes, shallow marine, and lagoon/small lake settings). Much of the organic matter in oil shales is of algal origin, but may"
"the source rock; (3) assess the potential migration pathways; and (4) correlate petroleum compounds found in reservoirs, leaks, and surface seeps to find new pools of petroleum. Some of the petroleum geochemical techniques used are: stable isotopes; hydrocarbon analysis (fingerprinting) of specific organic compounds (biological organic markers) with gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS); maturity indicators like vitrinite reflectance; laboratory pyrolysis and analysis; kerogen typing; and other more exotic techniques. Petroleum geochemistry Petroleum geochemistry is the branch of geochemistry which deals with the application of chemical principles in the study of the origin,generation,migration, accumulation, and alteration of petroleum...(John"
"Petroleum engineering Petroleum engineering is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. Exploration and production are deemed to fall within the ""upstream"" sector of the oil and gas industry. Exploration, by earth scientists, and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industry's two main subsurface disciplines, which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs. Petroleum geology and geophysics focus on provision of a static description of the hydrocarbon reservoir rock, while petroleum engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of"
"so-called C4 derivatives, including butadiene—and aromatics, so called because of their distinctive perfumed smell, i.e., mainly benzene, toluene and the xylenes. Then petrochemicals go through various processes that eventually contribute to the final output of products like plastics, soaps and detergents, healthcare products like aspirin, synthetic fibres for clothes and furniture, rubbers, paints, insulating materials etc. Petrochemistry Petrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. These petrochemicals have become an essential part of the chemical industry today. It may be possible to make petroleum from"
"oil shale assessments, as comparable in size to the Green River Formation. Oil shale geology Oil shale geology is a branch of geologic sciences which studies the formation and composition of oil shales–fine-grained sedimentary rocks containing significant amounts of kerogen, and belonging to the group of sapropel fuels. Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition (carbonate minerals such as calcite or detrital minerals such as quartz and clays) or by their depositional environment (large lakes, shallow marine, and lagoon/small lake settings). Much of"
"Studies of ancient sediments and rock provide insights into the origins and sources of oil petroleum geochemistry and the biochemical antecedents of life. Modern organic geochemistry includes studies of recent sediments to understand the carbon cycle, climate change, and ocean processes. Organic geochemistry Organic geochemistry is the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on the Earth. The study of organic geochemistry is usually traced to the work of Alfred E. Treibs, ""the father of organic geochemistry."" Treibs first isolated metalloporphyrins from petroleum. This discovery established the biological origin of petroleum, which was previously poorly understood. Metalloporphyrins"
"gas, and kerogen. Kerogen can be thought of as the remaining solid material of the plant. The sediment - usually clay and/or calcareous (lime) ooze, hardens during this alteration process into rock i.e. shale and/or limestone. The shale or limestone rock containing the organic matter is called the source rock because it is the source, having generated the petroleum. In our quest to find more oil and gas, we use numerous petroleum geochemical techniques to (1) identify source rocks and determine the amount, type, and maturation level of the organic matter; (2) evaluate the potential timing of petroleum migration from"
"as iron, copper, and uranium. Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium. Petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins, they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic"
"Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World. Books on the subject included the ""Naturalis Historia"" of Pliny the Elder, which not only described many different minerals but"
"Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of artefacts. Samples are ground to a thickness of 0.03 mm and mounted on a glass slide. The approach relies heavily on the geological principles of optical mineralogy, thin section petrography and soil micromorphology. It combines these with an appreciation of the craft of ceramic manufacture and interprets data within an archaeological framework. Ceramic petrography is used in academic"
"Organic geochemistry Organic geochemistry is the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on the Earth. The study of organic geochemistry is usually traced to the work of Alfred E. Treibs, ""the father of organic geochemistry."" Treibs first isolated metalloporphyrins from petroleum. This discovery established the biological origin of petroleum, which was previously poorly understood. Metalloporphyrins in general are highly stable organic compounds, and the detailed structures of the extracted derivatives made clear that they originated from chlorophyll. The relationship between the occurrence of organic compounds in sedimentary deposits and petroleum deposits has long been of interest."
"in petroleum geology. Recently, the availability of inexpensive, high quality 3D seismic data (from reflection seismology) and data from various electromagnetic geophysical techniques (such as Magnetotellurics) has greatly aided the accuracy of such interpretation. The following section discusses these elements in brief. For a more in-depth treatise, see the second half of this article below. Evaluation of the source uses the methods of geochemistry to quantify the nature of organic-rich rocks which contain the precursors to hydrocarbons, such that the type and quality of expelled hydrocarbon can be assessed. The reservoir is a porous and permeable lithological unit or set"
"related source rock to unravel the stratigraphic origin and migration pathways of presently existing petroleum deposits. Biomarker (petroleum) Biomarkers are any of a suite of complex organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, which are found in crude oils, bitumens, petroleum source rock and eventually show simplification in molecular structure from the parent organic molecules found in all living organisms. Essentially, they are complex carbon-based molecules derived from formerly living organisms. Biomarker compounds are typically analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Some examples of biomarkers found in petroleum are pristane, phytane,"
"rain, and various illnesses in humans. Petroleum also fuels climate change, due to the increased greenhouse gas emissions in its extraction, refinement, transport and consumption phases. Petroleum is a complex mixture of many components . These components include straight chained , branched , cyclic , monocyclic aromatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The toxicity of oils can be understood using the toxic potential or the toxicity of each individual component of oil at the water solubility of that component. There are many methods that can be used to measure the toxicity of crude oil and other petroleum related products. Certain studies"
"the author follows, that water gets heated by beds of sulfur before it emerges on the surface. Naphtha is associated with this process, because together with sulfur it forms a kind of burner to transport fuel to the fire. De Proprietatibus Elementorum De Proprietatibus Elementorum (English: On the Properties of the Elements) is a Medieval Arabic treatise on geology. It is also known as De Causis Proprietatum Elementorum, De Proprietatibus Elementorum et Planetarum or simply De Elementis. It was probably written in the ninth or tenth century. The author of the work claimed to be Aristotle, but eventually it was"
"Petrochemical Petrochemicals (also known as petroleum distillates) are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as corn, palm fruit or sugar cane. The two most common petrochemical classes are olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and aromatics (including benzene, toluene and xylene isomers). Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions. Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha. Olefins"
"Archaeological Science and Geoarchaeology, as well as edited volumes. Petrographic research is often presented at the International Symposium on Archaeometry, the European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics and the meetings of the Ceramic Petrology Group. Commercial petrographic analysis of ceramics and other artefacts is offered by companies such as ceramicpetrology.co.uk in the UK, and Desert Archaeology in the USA. Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of"
"if current demand remains static. Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity. The ""alkanes"", also known as ""paraffins"", are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CH. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules"
"Phenol Phenol is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula CHOH. It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−CH) bonded to a hydroxy group (−OH). It is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from coal tar, but today is produced on a large scale (about 7 billion kg/year) from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds. It is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its"