"from the cinchona tree (""Cinchona"") and was for a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria. Aspirin was synthesised to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of willow trees (""Salix"") which had unpleasant side effects. The anti-cancer drug Paclitaxel is derived from taxol, a substance found in the bark of the Pacific yew (""Taxus brevifolia""). Other tree based drugs come from the paw-paw (""Carica papaya""), the cassia (""Cassia spp.""), the cocoa tree (""Theobroma cacao""), the tree of life (""Camptotheca acuminata"") and the downy birch (""Betula pubescens""). The papery bark of the white birch tree"
"inflammation and also used willow bark to mitigate them. On 25 April 1763, Edward Stone wrote to the Royal Society describing his observations on the use of willow bark-based medicines in febrile patients. The active ingredient of willow bark, a glycoside called salicin, was first isolated by Johann Andreas Buchner in 1827. By 1829, French chemist Henri Leroux had improved the extraction process to obtain about 30g of purified salicin from 1.5 kg of bark. By hydrolysis, salicin releases glucose and salicylic alcohol which can be converted into salicylic acid, both in vivo and through chemical methods. The acid is"
"Pliny the Elder and others believed willow bark could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. It has long been used in Europe and China for the attempted treatment of these conditions. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient Egypt, Sumer, and Assyria. The first ""clinical trial"" was reported by Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire, England, in 1763 with a successful treatment of malarial fever with the willow bark. The bark is often macerated in ethanol to produce a tincture. The active extract of the bark, called salicin, after the Latin name ""Salix"","
"preparations became a standard part of the ""materia medica"" of Western medicine beginning at least with the Greek physician Hippocrates in the fifth century BCE; he recommended chewing on willow bark to relieve pain or fever, and drinking tea made from it to relieve pain during childbirth. The Roman encyclopedist Celsus, in his ""De Medicina"" of ca. 30 AD, suggested willow leaf extract to treat the four signs of inflammation: redness, heat, swelling and pain. Willow treatments also appeared in Dioscorides's ""De Materia Medica"", and Pliny the Elder's ""Natural History"". By the time of Galen, willow bark was commonly used"
"with chronic renal insufficiency and some children with congestive heart failure was contraindicated. Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well as the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt. Hippocrates referred to their use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century. By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related"
"other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes. Medicines derived from willow trees and other salicylate-rich plants have been part of pharmacopoeias at least dating back to ancient Sumer. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical text from ca. 1543 BCE, mentions use of willow and myrtle (another salicylate-rich plant) to treat fever and pain. Willow bark"
"tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of the standard—and expensive—ague cure of Peruvian bark. He collected, dried, and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark, and over the next five years tested it on a number of people sick with fever and agues. In his letter, Stone reported consistent success, describing willow extract's effects as identical to Peruvian bark, though a little less potent. (In fact, the active ingredient of Peruvian bark was quinine, which attacked the infectious cause of malaria, while the active ingredient of willow extract, salicin, relieved the symptoms of malaria but could not cure"
"In 1834, Swiss pharmacist Johann Pagenstecher discovered what he thought was a new pain-reducing substance, isolated from the common remedy of meadowsweet (""Spiraea ulmaria""). By 1838, Italian chemist Raffaele Piria found a method of obtaining a more potent acid form of willow extract, which he named salicylic acid. The German chemist who had been working to identify the ""Spiraea"" extract, Karl Jacob Löwig, soon realized that it was in fact the same salicylic acid that Piria had found. Salicylate medicines—including salicin, salicylic acid, and sodium salicylate— were difficult and wasteful to extract from plants, and in 1860 Hermann Kolbe worked"
"the product with sulfuric acid gives salicylic acid: It can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) or methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) with a strong acid or base. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder and others knew that willow bark could ease pain and reduce fevers. It was used in Europe and China to treat these conditions. This remedy is mentioned in texts from ancient Egypt, Sumer and Assyria. The Cherokee and other Native Americans used an infusion of the bark for fever and other medicinal purposes. In 2014, archaeologists identified traces of salicylic acid on 7th"
"century pottery fragments found in east central Colorado. The Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, noted in 1763 that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever. The active extract of the bark, called ""salicin"", after the Latin name for the white willow (""Salix alba""), was isolated and named by the German chemist Johann Andreas Buchner in 1828. A larger amount of the substance was isolated in 1829 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist. Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, was able to convert the substance into a sugar and a second component, which"
"Salicin Salicin is an alcoholic β-glucoside. Salicin is produced in (and named after) willow (""Salix"") bark and acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the human body. Salicin is also commonly found in the bark of ""Populus"" species, and the leaves of willows and poplars. It is also found in castoreum, which was used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic. The activity of castoreum has been credited to the accumulation of salicin from willow trees in the beaver's diet, which is transformed to salicylic acid and has an action very similar to that of aspirin. Salicin was the historical origin of"
"1853—a modification of salicylic acid or salicin, a folk remedy found in the bark of the willow plant. By 1899 Bayer's trademark Aspirin was registered worldwide for Bayer's brand of acetylsalicylic acid, but it lost its trademark status in the United States, France and the United Kingdom after the confiscation of Bayer's US assets and trademarks during World War I by the United States, and because of the subsequent widespread usage of the word. The term ""aspirin"" continued to be used in the US, UK and France for all brands of the drug, but it is still a registered trademark"
"natural maladies carry their cures along with them or that their remedies lie not far from their causes was so very apposite to this particular case that I could not help applying it [...]."" He experimented by drying a pound of willow bark and creating a powder which he gave to about fifty persons: it was consistently found to be ""a powerful astringent and very efficacious in curing agues and intermitting disorders"".’ He had discovered salicylic acid, the active ingredient in aspirin. On 25 April 1763, he sent a letter announcing his discovery to George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield,"
"throughout the Roman and Arab worlds, as a small part of a large, growing botanical pharmacopoeia. The major turning point for salicylate medicines came in 1763, when a letter from English chaplain Edward Stone was read at a meeting of the Royal Society, describing the dramatic power of willow bark extract to cure ague—an ill-defined constellation of symptoms, including intermittent fever, pain, and fatigue, that primarily referred to malaria. Inspired by the doctrine of signatures to search for a treatment for agues near the brackish waters that were known to cause it, Stone had tasted the bark of a willow"
"piece of bark from a willow tree and was struck by its extremely bitter taste. Knowing that the bark of the Peruvian cinchona tree − from which quinine (used in the treatment of malarial fevers) is derived − has a similarly bitter taste, he surmised that the willow might also have therapeutic properties. Stone's interest in willows was due to the ancient ""doctrine of signatures"" – whereby the cause of a disease offers a clue to its treatment. According to Stone: ""As this tree delights in a moist or wet soil, where agues chiefly abound, the general maxim that many"
"History of aspirin The history of aspirin (IUPAC name acetylsalicylic acid ) begins with its synthesis and manufacture in 1899. Before that, salicylic acid had been used medicinally since antiquity. Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well as the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt. Hippocrates referred to their use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the"
"or sensitive to salicylates and suffer reactions similar to those produced by aspirin. People should not take salicin if they have asthma, diabetes, gout, gastritis, hemophilia, stomach ulcers; also contraindicated are children under 16, and pregnant and breastfeeding women. Salicin Salicin is an alcoholic β-glucoside. Salicin is produced in (and named after) willow (""Salix"") bark and acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the human body. Salicin is also commonly found in the bark of ""Populus"" species, and the leaves of willows and poplars. It is also found in castoreum, which was used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic. The activity"
"it.) Stone's letter (mistakenly attributed to ""Edmund"" rather than ""Edward"" Stone) was printed in ""Philosophical Transactions"", and by the end of the 18th century willow was gaining popularity as an inexpensive substitute for Peruvian bark. In the 19th century, as the young discipline of organic chemistry began to grow in Europe, scientists attempted to isolate and purify the active components of many medicines, including willow bark. After unsuccessful attempts by Italian chemists Brugnatelli and Fontana in 1826, Joseph Buchner obtained relatively pure salicin crystals in 1828; the following year, Henri Leroux developed another procedure for extracting modest yields of salicin."
"property, echinacea has been commercialized and has had clinical trials support that it reduces the duration of a cold by 1–4 days and reduces the chance of developing a cold by 58%. Witch hazel works as an astringent, a substance that causes the constriction of body tissues. The tannins and flavonoids found in witch hazel have astringent and antioxidant properties, respectively, which are thought to contract and protect blood vessels, thereby reducing inflammation. However, modern witch hazel extracts are often distilled and do not contain tannins due to health concerns. Willow bark contains salicin, a compound similar to aspirin that"
"was isolated to its crystalline form in 1828 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist, and Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicylic acid, like aspirin, is a chemical derivative of salicin. Salix alba Salix alba, the white willow, is a species of willow native to Europe and western and central Asia. The name derives from the white tone to the undersides of the leaves. It is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree growing up to 10–30 m tall, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter and an irregular,"
"Winter's Bark from the South American tree ""Drimys winteri"" to ward off the vitamin-deficiency of scurvy. Today, benzoyl is extracted from ""Lindera benzoin"" (common spicebush) for use as a food additive and skin medicine, due to its anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties. Drugs extracted from the bark of ""Magnolia"" have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine. Scientific investigation of magnolol and honokiol have shown promise for their use in dental health. Both compounds demonstrate effective anti-bacterial activity against the bacteria responsible for bad breath and dental caries. Several members of the family Annonaceae are also under investigation for uses of"
"to salicylic acid, the active component of willow extract. In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time; in the second half of the nineteenth century, other academic chemists established the compound's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines, and identified a new way to synthesize it. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The word"
"2007. The process uses high-capacity high-speed countercurrent chromatography (high-capacity HSCCC). Through this method honokiol can be separated and purified to above 98% purity with a high yield in under an hour. Extracts from the bark or seed cones of the ""Magnolia"" tree have been widely used in traditional medicine in China, Korea, and Japan. Magnolia bark has traditionally been used in Eastern medicine as analgesic and to treat anxiety and mood disorders. In traditional Chinese medicine, magnolia bark is called ""Houpu"" and is most commonly taken from two species, ""Magnolia obovata"" and ""Magnolia officinalis"". Some Chinese traditional formulas containing Houpu"
"ash tree. Some scholars now think that in the past an error has been made in the interpretation of the ancient writings, and that the tree is most likely a European yew (""Taxus baccata""). Certain compounds found in the bark of yew trees were discovered by Wall and Wani in 1967 to have efficacy as anti-cancer agents. The precursors of the chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (taxol) was later shown to be synthesized easily from extracts of the leaves of European yew, which is a much more renewable source than the bark of the Pacific yew (""Taxus brevifolia"") from which they were"
"plant was used for several medicinal purposes, such as relieving toothache, helping to stop bleeding, curing diarrhoea and indigestion, and as a poultice on wounds. Both the Gwich’in and Inuit in the Bathurst Inlet area were known to eat parts of the arctic willow, which is high in vitamin C and tastes sweet. Salix arctica Salix arctica, the arctic willow, is a tiny creeping willow (family Salicaceae). It is adapted to survive in Arctic conditions, specifically tundras. The arctic willow grows in tundra and rocky moorland, and is the northernmost woody plant in the world, occurring far above the tree"
"abnormal in certain disease states, and accumulation may occur even with normal dosage. Ibuprofen and diclofenac have short half-lives (2–3 hours). Some NSAIDs (typically oxicams) have very long half-lives (e.g. 20–60 hours). From the era of Greek medicine to the mid-19th century, the discovery of medicinal agents was classed as an empirical art; folklore and mythological guidance were combined in deploying the vegetable and mineral products that made up the expansive pharmacopeia of the time. Myrtle leaves were in use by 1500 BCE. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) first reported using willow bark and in 30 BCE Celsus described the signs of"
"To illustrate this, she states that ""Dioscorides describes many valuable drugs including aconite, aloes, bitter apple, colchicum, henbane, and squill"". The work mentions the painkillers willow (leading ultimately to aspirin, she writes), autumn crocus and opium, which however is also narcotic. Many other substances that Dioscorides describes remain in modern pharmacopoeias as ""minor drugs, diluents, flavouring agents, and emollients ... [such as] ammoniacum, anise, cardamoms, catechu, cinnamon, colocynth, coriander, crocus, dill, fennel, galbanum, gentian, hemlock, hyoscyamus, lavender, linseed, mastic, male fern, marjoram, marshmallow, mezereon, mustard, myrrh, orris (iris), oak galls, olive oil, pennyroyal, pepper, peppermint, poppy, psyllium, rhubarb, rosemary, rue,"
"from the medicinal plant ""Rauwolfia serpentina""). A major breakthrough was achieved in the 1950s with the discovery of well-tolerated oral diuretics, the first of which was chlorothiazide (Diuril). This was derived from the antibiotic sulfanilamide and became available in 1958. A randomized controlled trial sponsored by the Veterans Administration comparing hydrochlorothiazide plus reserpine plus hydralazine versus placebo had to be stopped early because those not receiving treatment developed many more complications and it was deemed unethical to withhold treatment from them. The study continued in people with lower blood pressures and showed that treatment even in people with mild hypertension"
"Peto convinced the U.S. FDA and much of the medical community that the aspirin studies, in aggregate, showed aspirin's effectiveness with relative certainty. By the end of the 1980s, aspirin was widely used as a preventive drug for heart attacks and had regained its former position as the top-selling analgesic in the U.S. History of aspirin The history of aspirin (IUPAC name acetylsalicylic acid ) begins with its synthesis and manufacture in 1899. Before that, salicylic acid had been used medicinally since antiquity. Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well"
"London. It remained the antimalarial drug of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs took over. The form of quinine most effective in treating malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. In 1820, French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou first isolated quinine from the bark of a tree in the genus ""Cinchona"" - probably ""Cinchona officinalis"" - and subsequently named the substance. The name was derived from the original Quechua (Inca) word for the cinchona tree bark, ""quina"" or ""quina-quina"", which means ""bark of bark"" or ""holy bark"". Prior to 1820, the bark"
"way from Asia Minor to all parts of Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries. Throughout 1200–1500 A.D. in England, a potion called dwale was used as an anesthetic. This alcohol-based mixture contained bile, opium, lettuce, bryony, henbane, hemlock and vinegar. Surgeons roused them by rubbing vinegar and salt on their cheekbones. One can find records of dwale in numerous literary sources, including Shakespeare's ""Hamlet"", and the John Keats poem ""Ode to a Nightingale"". In the 13th century, we have the first prescription of the ""spongia soporifica""—a sponge soaked in the juices of unripe mulberry, flax, mandragora leaves, ivy, lettuce"
"has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic properties. The following table examines why various tribes use willow. One reason for the vast differences in the use of the willow is that there are many ways to prepare it and these different preparations allow for it to be utilized in different ways. For example, the Thompson people would make a concoction of wood, willow, soapberry branches and ""anything weeds"" to treat broken bones. If they wanted to treat a cold, however, the Thompson people would make a decoction of red willow branches and wild rose roots. Native American ethnobotany This is a list"
"but the patient is alert and oriented throughout and afterwards. Accordingly, George Harley (1829–1896) showed in 1850 that curare (wourali) was effective for the treatment of tetanus and strychnine poisoning. It is important to note that if seizure activity is present, the use of muscle paralysis will only mask the signs of ongoing seizure activity despite otherwise ongoing present brain damage. Strychnine was the first alkaloid to be identified in plants of the genus ""Strychnos"", family Loganiaceae. ""Strychnos"", named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is a genus of trees and climbing shrubs of the Gentianales order. The genus contains 196"