"English pewter While the term pewter covers a range of tin-based alloys, the term English pewter has come to represent a strictly-controlled alloy, specified by BSEN611-1 and British Standard 5140, consisting mainly of tin (ideally 92%), with the balance made up of antimony and copper. Significantly, it is free of lead and nickel. Although the exact percentages vary between manufacturers, a typical standard for present-day pewter is approximately 91% tin, 7.5% antimony and 1.5% copper. By the 15th century, the Worshipful Company of Pewterers controlled pewter constituents in England. This company originally had two grades of pewter, but in the"
"known as ""trifling metal"" or ""trifle"", was used for holloware and is made up of fine metal with approximately 4% lead. The last type of pewter, known as ""lay"" or ""ley"" metal, was used for items that were not in contact with food or drink. It consisted of tin with 15% lead. These three alloys were used with little variation until the 20th century. Older pewters with higher lead content are heavier, tarnish faster, and oxidation gives them a darker silver-gray color. Pewters containing lead are no longer used in items that will come in contact with the human body"
"hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips. The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in"
"pewter. Beneath tin is lead, a toxic metal. Ancient people used lead for a variety of things, from food sweeteners to pottery glazes to eating utensils. It has been suspected that lead poisoning is related to the fall of Roman civilization, but further research has shown this to be unlikely. For a long time, lead was used in the manufacturing of paints. It was only within the last century that lead paint use has been restricted due to its toxic nature. Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals, but the term 'metalloid' lacks a strict definition. All of the"
"Diachylon Diachylon (from Latin ""diachȳlōn"", representing Greek ', ""[a medicament] composed of juices""), also rendered diachylum or diaculum""', was originally a kind of medicament made of the juices of several plants (thus its name), but now commonly the name for lead-plaster, ""emplastrum plumbi""—a plaster made of lead oxide boiled together with olive oil and water. It is applied to sheets of linen, and works as an adhesive plaster when heated. Historically, several different types of diachylons have been described. White, or simple, diacyhlon is compounded of common oil, litharge of gold (litharge mixed with red lead), and adhesives drawn from"
"methods are usually used to remove the remaining non-lead components of the mixture, for example the Betterton-Kroll process and the Betts electrolytic process. The non-lead metals are usually sold to other metal processing plants. The refined lead may be made into alloys or directly cast. People who operate or work in such plants are also referred to as smelters. Galena, the most common mineral of lead, is primarily lead sulfide (PbS). The sulfide is oxidized to a sulfite (PbSO) which thermally decomposes into lead oxide and sulfur dioxide gas. (PbO and SO) The sulfur dioxide (like the carbon dioxide in"
"""The Poisoner's Poison"" and ""Inheritance Powder"" (alongside arsenic). Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb (from ) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable other metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shots, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys and"
"copper, and silica. Pewter was used for decorative metal items and tableware in the Ancient World by the Egyptians and later the Romans, and came into extensive use in Europe from the Middle Ages until the various developments in pottery and glass-making during the 18th and 19th centuries. Pewter was the chief material for producing plates, cups, and bowls until the making of porcelain. Mass production of pottery, porcelain and glass products has seen pewter universally replaced in daily life. Pewter artifacts continue to be produced, mainly as decorative or specialty items. Pewter was also used around East Asia. Although"
"check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of ""Eureka!"" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle. The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, during the Bronze Age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean; due to this it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and"
"to the central pot and melted. This was then allowed to cool, as the lead solidified, it was skimmed off and moved to the next pot in one direction, and the remaining metal was then transferred to the next pot in the opposite direction. The process was repeated in the pots successively, and resulted in lead accumulating in the pot at one end and silver in that at the other. The process was economic for lead containing at least 250 grams of silver per ton. The Parkes process, patented in 1850 uses zinc to form a material which the silver"
"carbonate, (PbCO)Pb(OH)) and blue frit (Egyptian Blue). White lead is made by combining lead with vinegar (acetic acid, CHCOOH) in the presence of CO. Blue frit is calcium copper silicate and was made from glass colored with a copper ore, such as malachite. These pigments were used as early as the second millennium BCE Later premodern additions to the range of synthetic pigments included vermilion, verdigris and lead-tin-yellow. The Industrial and Scientific Revolutions brought a huge expansion in the range of synthetic pigments, pigments that are manufactured or refined from naturally occurring materials, available both for manufacturing and artistic expression."
"reducing the antimony and at the same time removing the unwanted sulfur. In this way ferro-sulfide was formed, that would evaporate with all the fumes. The mixture of stibnite and nails was heated red hot in an open-air furnace, until all is molten and finished. The resulting metal can contain up to 9% of iron. Further purification can be done by mixing the hot melt with kitchen-salt, NaCl. After this red hot lead from another melting pot is added and stirred thoroughly. Some tin was added to the alloy for casting small characters and narrow spaces, to better fill narrow"
"and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a ""slat,"" and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is"
"of zinc in a solution of the lead(II) acetate. In alchemy, ""Saturn"" was the name used for lead. Sophick mercury: a combination of distilled mercury, gold, and heat Over time, the Tree of Diana has been recreated using various processes and ingredients. One of the earliest recorded recipes of the “tree” involves the continuous distillation of mercury and then heating it with gold. An alloy metal would be created, and its branch-like formations looked similar to the Tree of Diana. The sophick mercury experiment is said to have potentially influenced Isaac Newton in later experiments, and it is believed that"
"principal active ingredient in progressive types of hair colouring dyes. Lead(II) acetate is also used as a mordant in textile printing and dyeing, and as a drier in paints and varnishes. It was historically used as a sweetener and for cosmetics. Lead acetate can be made by boiling elemental lead in acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. This method will also work with lead carbonate or lead oxide. Pb(s) + HO(aq) + 2 H(aq) → Pb(aq) + 2 HO(l) <br> Pb(aq) + 2 CHCOO(aq) → Pb(CHCOO)(aq) Lead(II) acetate can also be made via a single displacement reaction between copper acetate and"
"Lead smelting Plants for the production of lead are generally referred to as lead smelters. Primary lead production begins with sintering. Concentrated lead ore is fed into a sintering machine with iron, silica, limestone fluxes, coke, soda ash, pyrite, zinc, caustics or pollution control particulates. Smelting uses suitable reducing substances that will combine with those oxidizing elements to free the metal. Reduction is the final, high-temperature step in smelting. It is here that the oxide becomes the elemental metal. A reducing environment (often provided by carbon monoxide in an air-starved furnace) pulls the final oxygen atoms from the raw metal."
"the 'fluxing' elements added to the sintering machine (predominantly silica, limestone, iron and zinc) can either be discarded or further processed to recover the contained zinc. The crude lead bullion, containing significant quantities of copper will then undergo 'copper drossing'. In this step elemental sulphur, usually in solid form is added to the molten crude lead bullion to react with the contained copper. A ""matte"" layer forms in this step, containing most of the copper originating from the crude lead bullion and some other impurities as metal sulfides. The speiss and the matte are usually sold to copper smelters where"
"agent added to linseed oil during heating to produce ""boiled"" linseed oil, the lead and heat acting to cause the oil to cure faster than raw linseed oil. Lead(II) acetate Lead(II) acetate (Pb(CHCOO)), also known as lead acetate, lead diacetate, plumbous acetate, sugar of lead, lead sugar, salt of Saturn, or Goulard's powder, is a white crystalline chemical compound with a sweetish taste. It is made by treating lead(II) oxide with acetic acid. Like other lead compounds, it is toxic. Lead acetate is soluble in water and glycerin. With water it forms the trihydrate, Pb(CHCOO)·3HO, a colourless or white efflorescent"
"lead metal: Cu(CHCOO) + Pb → Cu + Pb(CHCOO) Like other lead(II) salts, lead(II) acetate has a sweet taste, which led to its historical use as a sugar substitute. The ancient Romans, who had few sweeteners besides honey, would boil must (grape juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called ""defrutum"", concentrated again into ""sapa"". This syrup was used to sweeten wine and to sweeten and preserve fruit. It is possible that lead(II) acetate or other lead compounds leaching into the syrup might have caused lead poisoning in those who consumed it. Lead acetate is no longer"
"Lead(II) acetate Lead(II) acetate (Pb(CHCOO)), also known as lead acetate, lead diacetate, plumbous acetate, sugar of lead, lead sugar, salt of Saturn, or Goulard's powder, is a white crystalline chemical compound with a sweetish taste. It is made by treating lead(II) oxide with acetic acid. Like other lead compounds, it is toxic. Lead acetate is soluble in water and glycerin. With water it forms the trihydrate, Pb(CHCOO)·3HO, a colourless or white efflorescent monoclinic crystalline substance. The substance is used as a reagent to make other lead compounds and as a fixative for some dyes. In low concentrations, it is the"
"latter accounting for 40% of world production. Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms, with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased were used in ancient Judea. Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire; the Latin word for the metal, ""plumbum"", is the origin of the English word ""plumbing"". Its ease of working and resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, and warfare. Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder, Columella, and Pliny the Elder,"
"of the world's primary lead production is still produced using the sinter plant–blast furnace combination, and this combination was formerly often used in copper smelting (at the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting smelter in Wollongong, New South Wales, for example). Many countries, including India, France and Germany, have underground deposits of iron ore in dust form (blue dust). Such iron ore cannot be directly charged in a blast furnace. In the early 20th century, sinter technology was developed for converting ore fines into lumpy material chargeable in blast furnaces. Sinter technology took 30 years to gain acceptance in the iron-making domain,"
"lead has been widely believed to mitigate the formation of tin whiskers, though the precise mechanism for this is unknown. Today, many techniques are used to mitigate the problem, including changes to the annealing process (heating and cooling), addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of conformal coatings. Alloys commonly used for electrical soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at , and 63/37 Sn-Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is a eutectic alloy of these metals, which: In the United States, lead is prohibited in solder and flux in plumbing applications for drinking water use, per"
"the furnace. The cupel should be heated at the same time. The scorifier is removed and the metal transferred to the cupel. Alternatively the ore can be smelted in a triangular crucible, and then have lead mixed with it when it is added to the cupel. The cupel is placed in the furnace and copper is separated into the lead which forms lithage in the cupel leaving the noble metal. Gold and silver are parted using an aqua which is probably nitric acid. Agricola describes precautions for ensuring the amount of lead is correct and also describes the amalgamation of"
"for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed. The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer),"
"both metal and non-metal, that can be added to steel to make it easier to cut. These additives may work by lubricating the tool-chip interface, decreasing the shear strength of the material, or increasing the brittleness of the chip. Historically, sulphur and lead have been the most common additives, but bismuth and tin are increasingly popular for environmental reasons. Lead can improve the machinability of steel because it acts as an internal lubricant in the cutting zone. Since lead has poor shear strength, it allows the chip to slide more freely past the cutting edge. When it is added in"
"grinding and heating ingredients. Then heated waxes are added to the mix for texture. Oils and lanolin are added for specific formula requirements. Afterwards, the hot liquid is poured into a metal mold. The mixture is then chilled. Once they have hardened, they are heated in flame for half a second to create a shiny finish and to remove imperfections. In 2007, a study by the Campaign for Safe Cosmetics released a report called A Poison Kiss that tested 33 popular brands of lipstick for its lead content. The study found that 61 percent of lipsticks contained lead with levels"
"blended with the clay, sand, and natural fiber to improve the workability and strength of a plaster. Sometimes additives are added to the finish coat and other times additives may be added to all coats. Some of the most common additives are wheat flour paste, manure, cactus juice, casein (milk protein) and various natural oils such as linseed oil. Other additives include, salt, stearate, tallow, tannin, leaves and bark of certain trees, xanthan gum, alum, natural glues, gum arabic, kelp, lime, powdered milk, or the blood of livestock. Cooked flour paste is a cheap natural glue that is easy to"
"Romans, who had few sweeteners besides honey, would boil must in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called ""defrutum"", concentrated again into ""sapa"". This syrup was used to some degree to sweeten wine and food. If acidic must is boiled within lead vessels the sweet syrup it yields will contain a quantity of Pb(CHO) or lead(II) acetate. Lead was also leached from the glazes on amphorae and other pottery, from pewter drinking vessels and cookware, and from lead piping used for municipal water supplies and baths. The main culinary use of ""defrutum"" was to sweeten wine, but it"
"process. Hundreds or thousands of earthenware pots containing vinegar and lead were embedded in a layer of either tan bark or cow feces. The pots were designed so that the vinegar and lead were in separate compartments, but the lead was in contact with the vapor of the vinegar. The lead was usually coiled into a spiral, and placed on a ledge inside the pot. The pot was loosely covered with a grid of lead, which allowed the carbon dioxide formed by the fermentation of the tan bark or the dung to circulate in the pot. Each layer of pots"
"16th century a third grade was added. The first type, known as ""fine metal"", was used for tableware. It consisted of tin with as much copper as it could absorb, which is about 1%. The second type, known as ""trifling metal"" or ""trifle"", was used for holloware. It is made up of fine metal with approximately 4% lead. The last type of pewter, known as ""lay"" or ""ley"" metal, was used for items that were not in contact with food or drink. It consisted of tin with 15% lead. These three alloys were used, with little variation, until the 20th"
"metallic lead as thin buckles and corroded with acetic acid in the presence of carbon dioxide. This was done by placing them over pots with a little vinegar (which contains acetic acid). These were stacked up and covered with a mixture of decaying dung and spent tanner's bark, which supplied the CO2, and left for six to fourteen weeks, by which time the blue-grey lead had corroded to white lead. The pots were then taken to a separating table where scraping and pounding removed the white lead from the buckles. The powder was then dried and packed for shipment or"
"the PCB through the different zones, a pan of solder used in the soldering process, a pump that produces the actual wave, the sprayer for the flux and the preheating pad. The solder is usually a mixture of metals. A typical leaded solder has the chemical makeup of 50% tin, 49.5% lead, and 0.5% antimony. The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (ROHS) has led to the elimination of leaded solder in modern manufacturing however, and lead-free alternatives are used. Both tin-silver-copper and tin-copper-nickel alloys are commonly used, with one common alloy (SN100C) being 99.25% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel and"