"coming from Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa, includes the harvesting of foods such as abalones, limpets, and mussels associated with kelp forest habitats. In 2007, Erlandson et al. suggested that kelp forests around the Pacific Rim may have facilitated the dispersal of anatomically modern humans following a coastal route from Northeast Asia to the Americas. This ""kelp highway hypothesis"" suggested that highly productive kelp forests supported rich and diverse marine food webs in nearshore waters, including many types of fish, shellfish, birds, marine mammals, and seaweeds that were similar from Japan to California, Erlandson and his colleagues also"
"Nereocystis Nereocystis (Greek for ""mermaid's bladder"") is a monotypic genus of kelp containing the species Nereocystis luetkeana. Some common names include edible kelp, bull kelp, bullwhip kelp, ribbon kelp, giant kelp, bladder wrack, and variations on these names. It forms thick beds on rocks, and is an important part of kelp forests. It can grow to a maximum of . ""Nereocystis"" has a holdfast of about , and a single stipe, topped with a pneumatocyst containing carbon monoxide, from which sprout the numerous (about 30-64) blades. The blades may be up to long, and up to wide. It is usually"
"This annual kelp grows on rock from the low intertidal to subtidal zones; it prefers semi-exposed habitats or high-current areas. Offshore beds can persist for one to many years, usually in deeper water than ""Eualaria"" or ""Macrocystis"", where they co-occur. The species ""Nereocystis luetkeana"" was named after Fyodor Petrovich Litke (also spelled Lütke) by Mertens (first as ""Fucus luetkeanus"") and then described by Postels and Ruprecht. Nereocystis Nereocystis (Greek for ""mermaid's bladder"") is a monotypic genus of kelp containing the species Nereocystis luetkeana. Some common names include edible kelp, bull kelp, bullwhip kelp, ribbon kelp, giant kelp, bladder wrack, and"
"As a large temperate wrasse, they are predators of sea urchins and other benthic invertebrates and play a critical role in also regulating prey populations in kelp forests. Since they feed heavily on urchins, they are consequently an important species for indirectly regulating kelp growth in southern California’s coastal waters. However, they exhibit flexibility in prey selection if their main food source is not readily available at a particular time. Populations with diets dominated by crabs and sea urchins, however, reach larger sizes and mature and change sex at larger sizes than populations that consume higher proportions of bivalves, barnacles,"
"kelp. Fish that live in and rely on kelp forests include kelp surfperch (""Brachyistius frenatus""), kelp bass (""Paralabrax clathratus""), giant kelpfish (""Heterostichus rostratus""), and kelp rockfish (""Sebastes atrovirens""). A study conducted near San Luis Obispo, California showed that when kelp was removed from a nearby reef, fish biomass declined by 63%. Juvenile fish rely on kelp beds a nursery grounds. Southern California Edison built a off San Clemente in 2008. The Southern California Bight is home to over 195 species of birds, including endangered species such as the light-footed clapper rail (""Rallus longirostris levipes""). Some birds nest and hunt near"
"many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual irradiance dose > 50 E m). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic upwelling, a process that delivers cool nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean’s mixed surface layer. Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across"
"spot, and the legs are greenish-yellow (brighter and yellower when breeding, duller and greener when not breeding). The call is a strident ""ki-och"". Juveniles have dull legs, a black bill, a dark band in the tail, and an overall grey-brown plumage densely edged whitish, but they rapidly get a pale base to the bill and largely white head and underparts. They take three or four years to reach maturity. There are five subspecies of kelp gull. The African subspecies ""L. d. vetula"" is sometimes split as the Cape gull, ""L. vetula"". It has a more angular head and a smaller"
"worms, and brittle stars. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters, gulls, terns, snowy egrets, great blue herons, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds. Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom Protista), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (kingdom Plantae). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units: In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the"
"kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (""Macrocystis spp."") can grow as much as 30-60 centimetres vertically per day. Some species such as ""Nereocystis"" are annual while others like ""Eisenia"" are perennial, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods and increased storm frequency. Seagrasses are flowering plants from one of four plant families which grow in marine environments. They are called"
"Wrack zone The wrack zone or ""wrack line"" is a coastal feature where organic material (e.g kelp, seagrass, shells) and other debris is deposited at high tide. This zone acts as a natural input of marine resources into a terrestrial system, providing food and habitat for a variety of coastal organisms. The wrack zone is most commonly associated with a sandy beach habitat but can also be present in rocky shores, mangroves, salt marshes, and other coastal systems. Debris is carried up the intertidal zone as the tide comes in, and is deposited on the sand when the tide goes"
"kelp, sticks, bones and lines it with kelp or feathers. The nest is usually in an elevated position such as a rocks, trees or man-made structures, but may be built on the ground. Threats to the species include predation of eggs and chicks by kelp gulls and great white pelicans, human disturbance, oiling, and commercial fishing activities, including entanglement in marine debris and plastic fishing gear. Crowned cormorant The crowned cormorant (""Microcarbo coronatus"") is a small cormorant that is endemic to the waters of the cold Benguela Current of southern Africa. It is an exclusively coastal species and is not"
"annual, sometimes persisting up to 18 months. ""Nereocystis"" is the only kelp which will drop spore patches, so that the right concentration of spores lands near the parent's holdfast. It is common along the Pacific Coast of North America, from Southern California to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. The thallus of this common canopy-forming kelp has a richly branched holdfast (haptera) and a cylindrical stipe long, terminating in a single, gas-filled pneumatocyst from which the many blades, up to long, develop. Blade growth can reach per day. Reproductive patches (sori) develop on the blades and drop to the seafloor at maturity."
"threats to submerged aquatic vegetation include physical disturbance, loss of water clarity, and excessive nutrients. Known to be important ecosystem components that are sensitive to anthropogenic stressors, eelgrass and kelp species are commonly recognized indicators of aquatic vegetation health. There are twenty six species of kelp which grow along Washington’s shorelines, which makes it one of the highest sites of kelp diversity in the world. Changes in the oceans kelp have direct effect on other species. This is particularly due to the unique three-dimensional habitats that the plants provide for invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammals. Widespread loss of kelp throughout"
"depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (""Macrocystis"" spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as ""Nereocystis"", are annuals, while others such as ""Eisenia"" are perennials, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency. Kelps are primarily associated with temperate and arctic waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera, ""Laminaria"" is mainly associated with both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and"
"the coasts of China and Japan; ""Ecklonia"" is found in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa; and ""Macrocystis"" occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern Pacific Ocean, Southern Ocean archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of San Francisco, California, to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of ""Laminaria"" have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters. This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be"
"dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California, ""Macrocystis pyrifera"" forests, the nudibranch ""Melibe leonina"", and skeleton shrimp ""Caprella californica"" are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch ""Brachyistius frenatus"", rockfish ""Sebastes"" spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails ""Tegula"" spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various gastropods, and echinoderms"
"like ""D. antarctica"". The holdfast becomes large and spreads like a plate on rocky substrates (Bradstock, 1989). Durvillaea willana Durvillaea willana is a kelp species. It is similar to ""D. antarctica"" but is found in more sheltered coasts. ""D. willana"" has smaller blades than ""D. antarctica"" and is usually found lower on the shoreline because its tolerance of wave action is not as great as ""D. antarctica"" (Bradstock, 1989). ""D. willana"" has no common name in New Zealand, however is usually mistaken for bull kelp, ""Durvillaea antarctica"". ""D. willana"" stipes are thick and long. Off the stipe there are side"
"as trap sediment and filter coastal water. These process are vital to the local ecosystem. The tropical seagrass ""(Halodule uninervis)"" is also found in the Marine Park particularly around the ‘moat’. ""Kelp"" is a form of subtidal microalgae that forms on the surface of mid water in temperate regions. Kelp plays its part as a form of habitat and is inhabited by a diverse range of marine animals and sea weeds. Kelp is a form of protect and foods source of many local animals and its existent is reliant on the existence of predators which ensure the impact of degradation"
"kelp. It has mature sporophytes as small as and as large at in length. It does not show definite air-floats. All species’ sporophytes consist of a ramified holdfast, an unbranched cylindrical stipe, and a blade with a percurrent, cartilaginous midrib,""Alaria"" is frequently found with lacerations running from the margin to the midrib caused by the ravages of the sea. ""Alaria"" the second largest genus of Laminariales, with about 17 currently recognized species. However, due to its highly plastic morphology, the kelp has over 100 specific and subspecific names, which have arisen since it was first described in 1830. These synonyms"
"the meristem, where the blades and stipe meet. Growth may be limited by grazing. Sea urchins, for example, can reduce entire areas to urchin barrens. The kelp life cycle involves a diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stage. The haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction then results in the beginning of the diploid sporophyte stage, which will develop into a mature individual. The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a mucilage layer, rather than cuticle. Kelp may develop dense forests with high production, biodiversity and ecological"
"Durvillaea willana Durvillaea willana is a kelp species. It is similar to ""D. antarctica"" but is found in more sheltered coasts. ""D. willana"" has smaller blades than ""D. antarctica"" and is usually found lower on the shoreline because its tolerance of wave action is not as great as ""D. antarctica"" (Bradstock, 1989). ""D. willana"" has no common name in New Zealand, however is usually mistaken for bull kelp, ""Durvillaea antarctica"". ""D. willana"" stipes are thick and long. Off the stipe there are side branches of small fronds, this gives the algae a tree like form. The fronds are not honeycombed"
"giant kelp ""Macrocystis pyrifera"", ""Ascophyllum nodosum"", and various types of ""Laminaria"". It is also produced by two bacterial genera ""Pseudomonas"" and ""Azotobacter"", which played a major role in the unravelling of its biosynthesis pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications. Sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid. Its empirical formula is NaCHO. Sodium alginate is a gum, extracted from the cell walls of brown algae. Potassium alginate is a chemical compound that is the potassium salt of alginic acid. It is an extract of seaweed. Its empirical chemical formula"
"are kelp species, which include bull kelp (""Durvillaea antarctica""), which can reach over long and is thought to be the strongest kelp in the world. As many as 47 individual plants can live on , and they can grow at a day. Kelp that is broken off its anchor provides a valuable food source for many animals, as well as providing a method of oceanic dispersal for animals such as invertebrates to travel across the Southern Ocean by riding floating kelp. Human activity poses significant risk for Antarctic wildlife, causing problems such as pollution, habitat destruction, and wildlife disturbance. These"
"Leptopecten latiauratus Leptopecten latiauratus, common name the kelp scallop, is a small saltwater clam, a bivalve mollusk in the family Pectinidae, the scallops. It lives in water up to 850 feet deep. Like other scallops it has many small primitive eyes around the rim of its mantle and escapes predators by jet propulsion. Other common names include the wide-eared scallop, broad-eared pecten, kelp-weed scallop. The species was formerly known as ""Pecten monotimeris"". The shell can be 3 to 5 cm in size. As is the case in most scallops, the shell is mostly circular with two flat auricles or ears"
"Pterygophora californica Pterygophora californica is a large species of kelp, commonly known as stalked kelp. It is the only species in its genus Pterygophora (Ruprecht, 1852). It grows in shallow water on the Pacific coast of North America where it forms part of a biodiverse community in a ""kelp forest"". ""P. californica"" is a large brown seaweed and may grow to about three metres in height. It is attached to a rocky substrate by its holdfast and has a single, tough, woody stipe or stem up to two metres long and 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter. It is a"
"are low in fat, and have vitamins and minerals in amounts comparable or superior to terrestrial vegetables. ""Alaria esculenta"", in particular, is an excellent source of protein and iodine. As with all kelps, ""Alaria"" demonstrate a heteromorphic, sporic life history, with a macroscopic, dominant sporophyte, and a microscopic gametophyte. Unique to the genus ""Alaria"" is that the sori of the unilocular sporangia are restricted to certain blades, the sporophylls. The sporophylls are formed as lateral blades from the stipe. Most species are perennial; after reproduction, the blade sloughs off, leaving the stipe and meristem. The persisting meristem produces a new"
"are eaten by perch and probably by other fish species. Leptopecten latiauratus Leptopecten latiauratus, common name the kelp scallop, is a small saltwater clam, a bivalve mollusk in the family Pectinidae, the scallops. It lives in water up to 850 feet deep. Like other scallops it has many small primitive eyes around the rim of its mantle and escapes predators by jet propulsion. Other common names include the wide-eared scallop, broad-eared pecten, kelp-weed scallop. The species was formerly known as ""Pecten monotimeris"". The shell can be 3 to 5 cm in size. As is the case in most scallops, the"
"Macrocystis pyrifera Macrocystis pyrifera, commonly known as giant kelp or giant bladder kelp, is a species of kelp (large brown algae), and one of four species in the genus ""Macrocystis"". Giant kelp is common along the coast of the eastern Pacific Ocean, from Baja California north to southeast Alaska, and is also found in the southern oceans near South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Individual algae may grow to more than long at a rate of as much as per day. Giant kelp grows in dense stands known as kelp forests, which are home to many marine animals"
"Species such as ""Nereocystis luetkeana"" and ""Pelagophycus porra"" bear a single large pneumatocyst between the top of the stipe and the base of the blades. In contrast, the giant kelp ""Macrocystis pyrifera"" bears many blades along its stipe, with a pneumatocyst at the base of each blade where it attaches to the main stipe. Species of ""Sargassum"" also bear many blades and pneumatocysts, but both kinds of structures are attached separately to the stipe by short stalks. In species of ""Fucus"", the pneumatocysts develop within the lamina itself, either as discrete spherical bladders or as elongated gas-filled regions that take"
"may grow to up to long or more. The kelp often grows even longer than the distance from the bottom to the surface as it will grow in a diagonal direction due to the ocean current pushing against the kelp. The stalks arise from a holdfast and branch three or four times from near the base. Blades develop at irregular intervals along the stipe, with a single pneumatocyst (gas bladder) at the base of each blade. A related and similar-looking, but smaller species, ""M. integrifolia"", grows to only to long. It is found on intertidal rocks or shallow subtidal rocks"
"shorter bill. The adult has a dark eye, whereas the nominate kelp gull usually has a pale eye. Young Cape gulls have almost identical plumage to similarly aged kelp gulls. Kelp gulls are omnivores like most ""Larus"" gulls, and they will scavenge as well as seek suitable small prey. They gather on landfills and a sharp increase in population is therefore considered as an indicator for a degraded environment. Kelp gulls have been observed feeding on live right whales since at least 1996. The kelp gull uses its powerful beak to peck down centimetres into the skin and blubber, often"
"substances. In 2009, a study determined that this and ""Macrocystis pyrifera"" may be the same species. Macrocystis integrifolia Macrocystis integrifolia is one of four species of kelp (large brown algae) in the genus ""Macrocystis"" which grows to about long. Deep brown color on flattened rhizomes which are profusely dichotomously branched. Each is attached by branched root-like structures coming out of the sides of the rhizomes. Slender main stipes (about wide to long) come from the rhizome which is up to at the widest. Periodically wide and long flattened leaf-like branches derive from the stipe. They have furrowed surfaces and taper"
"kelp gull superficially resembles two gulls from further north in the Atlantic Ocean, the lesser black-backed gull and the great black-backed gull and is intermediate in size between these two species. This species ranges from in total length, from in wingspan and from in weight. Adult males and females weigh on average and respectively. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the bill is and the tarsus is . The adult kelp gull has black upperparts and wings. The head, underparts, tail, and the small ""mirrors"" at the wing tips are white. The bill is yellow with a red"