"orientation of the grid and this is due to the anisotropy of the bone structure. They made significant progress towards biomedical applications by replacing mechanical scanning of the gratings with electronic scanning of the X-ray source. The grating-based phase-contrast CT field was extended by tomographic images of the dark-field signal and time-resolved phase-contrast CT. Furthermore, the first pre-clinical studies using grating-based phase-contrast X-ray imaging were published. Marco Stampanoni and his group examined native breast tissue with ""differential phase-contrast mammography"", and a team led by Dan Stutman investigated how to use grating-based imaging for the small joints of the hand. Most"
"Breast imaging In medicine, breast imaging is the representation or reproduction of a breast's form. There are various methods of breast imaging. Mammography is the process of using low-energy X-rays (usually around 30 kVp) to examine the human breast, which is used as a diagnostic and screening tool. The goal of mammography is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through detection of characteristic masses and/or microcalcifications. For the average woman, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommended (2009) mammography every two years in women between the ages of 50 and 74. The American College of Radiology and American Cancer"
"Mammography Mammography (also called mastography) is the process of using low-energy X-rays (usually around 30 kVp) to examine the human breast for diagnosis and screening. The goal of mammography is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through detection of characteristic masses or microcalcifications. As with all X-rays, mammograms use doses of ionizing radiation to create images. These images are then analyzed for abnormal findings. It is usual to employ lower-energy X-rays, typically Mo (K-shell x-ray energies of 17.5 and 19.6 keV) and Rh (20.2 and 22.7 keV) than those used for radiography of bones. Ultrasound, ductography, positron emission mammography"
"Chest radiograph A chest radiograph, colloquially called a chest X-ray (CXR), or chest film, is a projection radiograph of the chest used to diagnose conditions affecting the chest, its contents, and nearby structures. Chest radiographs are the most common film taken in medicine. Like all methods of radiography, chest radiography employs ionizing radiation in the form of X-rays to generate images of the chest. The mean radiation dose to an adult from a chest radiograph is around 0.02 mSv (2 mrem) for a front view (PA, or posteroanterior) and 0.08 mSv (8 mrem) for a side view (LL, or latero-lateral)."
"it is used when the detection of breast abnormalities is not possible or not reliable on the basis of mammography and ultrasound. In the scintimammography procedure, a woman receives an injection of a small amount of a radioactive substance called technetium 99 sestamibi. Breast imaging In medicine, breast imaging is the representation or reproduction of a breast's form. There are various methods of breast imaging. Mammography is the process of using low-energy X-rays (usually around 30 kVp) to examine the human breast, which is used as a diagnostic and screening tool. The goal of mammography is the early detection of"
"and a gamma camera is used to take pictures of the breasts. Technetium-99m sestamibi (Tc-MIBI) is the most commonly used radiopharmaceutical. When performed with MIBI the procedure may also be known as a Miraluma test. The typical dose is 740–1,110 megabecquerels (MBq) with the patient lying prone on the bed for imaging approximately 10 minutes after injection. Tc-DMSA and Tc-MDP may also been used, but provide less sensitive results. Breast-specific gamma cameras have been developed with a smaller field of view than conventional cameras, allowing higher resolution imagery and compression of the breast as in x-ray mammography (which improves detection"
"Mammotome A Mammotome device is a vacuum assisted breast biopsy device that uses image guidance such as x-ray, ultrasound and/or MRI to perform breast biopsies. A biopsy using a Mammotome device can be done on an outpatient basis with a local anesthetic, removes only a small amount of healthy tissue, and doesn’t require sutures (stitches) because the incision is very small. Mammotome is a registered trademark of Devicor Medical Products, Inc. A definitive diagnosis of the breast abnormality can usually, but not always, be made. Most women who have had both a surgical excisional biopsy and a biopsy using a"
"BI-RADS BI-RADS is an acronym for Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System, a quality assurance tool originally designed for use with mammography. The system is a collaborative effort of many health groups but is published and trademarked by the American College of Radiology (ACR). The system is designed to standardize reporting, and is used by medical professionals to communicate a patient's risk of developing breast cancer. The document focuses on patient reports used by medical professionals, not ""lay reports"" that are provided to patients. The BI-RADS is published by ACR in the form of the BI-RADS Atlas. As of 2013 the"
"breast MRIs from eight large scale clinical trials were reviewed in 2006. Breast ultrasound is the use of medical ultrasonography to perform imaging of the breast. It can be considered either a diagnostic or a screening procedure. It may be used either with or without a mammogram. Scintimammography is a type of breast imaging test that is used to detect cancer cells in the breasts of some women who have had abnormal mammograms, or for those who have dense breast tissue, post-operative scar tissue or breast implants, but is not used for screening or in place of a mammogram. Rather,"
"enema through the rectum. The term ""barium enema"" usually refers to a lower gastrointestinal series, although enteroclysis (an upper gastrointestinal series) is often called a small bowel barium enema. Abdominal x-ray An abdominal x-ray is an x-ray of the abdomen. It is sometimes abbreviated to AXR, or KUB (for kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder). In children, abdominal x-ray is indicated in the acute setting: Yet, CT scan is the best alternative for diagnosing intra-abdominal injury. For acute abdominal pain in adults, an abdominal x-ray has a low sensitivity and accuracy in general, as well as for specific conditions such as"
"Breast ultrasound Breast ultrasound is the use of medical ultrasonography to perform imaging of the breast. It can be considered either a diagnostic or a screening procedure. It may be used either with or without a mammogram. It may be useful in younger women, where the denser fibrous tissue of the breast may make mammograms more difficult to interpret. Automated whole-breast ultrasound (AWBU) is an ultrasound investigation of the breast that is largely independent of the operator skill and that allows the reconstruction of volumetric images of the breast. Using high-frequency ultrasound, a diagnostic evaluation of the lactiferous ducts by"
"BreastScreen, an Australian organisation that provides free breast cancer screening for eligible women, named one of their mobile screening buses ""Marjorie"" in honour of Dalgarno. Marjorie Dalgarno Marjorie Clare Dalgarno (1901–1983) was an Australian radiologist and a pioneer of mammography. She performed the first mammogram in Australia at the Rachel Forster Hospital and demonstrated the benefits of mammography as a breast cancer screening tool. Dalgarno was born in Sydney in 1901 and studied medicine at the University of Sydney's Women's College. She graduated in 1925 and was hired as a resident medical officer at the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, where"
"brain, biopsy and surgery of the breast are done routinely to locate, sample (biopsy) and remove tissue. Plain X-ray images (radiographic mammography), computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging can be used to guide the procedure. Another accepted form of ""stereotactic"" is ""stereotaxic"". The word roots are ""stereo-"", a prefix derived from the Greek word στερεός (""stereos"", ""solid""), and ""-taxis"" (a suffix of New Latin and ISV, derived from Greek ""taxis"", ""arrangement"", ""order"", from ""tassein"", ""to arrange""). Stereotactic surgery works on the basis of three main components: Modern stereotactic planning systems are computer based. The stereotactic atlas is a series of"
"Abdominal x-ray An abdominal x-ray is an x-ray of the abdomen. It is sometimes abbreviated to AXR, or KUB (for kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder). In children, abdominal x-ray is indicated in the acute setting: Yet, CT scan is the best alternative for diagnosing intra-abdominal injury. For acute abdominal pain in adults, an abdominal x-ray has a low sensitivity and accuracy in general, as well as for specific conditions such as gastrointestinal perforation, bowel obstruction, ingested foreign body, and ureteral stones. Computed tomography, particularly computed tomography after negative abdominal ultrasonography, provides a better workup than projectional abdominal radiography alone. Computed"
"biopsy, the tissue diagnosis remains uncertain and a surgical biopsy will be necessary, especially when atypical or precancerous cells are found on core biopsy. Mammotome A Mammotome device is a vacuum assisted breast biopsy device that uses image guidance such as x-ray, ultrasound and/or MRI to perform breast biopsies. A biopsy using a Mammotome device can be done on an outpatient basis with a local anesthetic, removes only a small amount of healthy tissue, and doesn’t require sutures (stitches) because the incision is very small. Mammotome is a registered trademark of Devicor Medical Products, Inc. A definitive diagnosis of the"
"Positron emission mammography Positron emission mammography (PEM) is a nuclear medicine imaging modality used to detect or characterise breast cancer. Mammography typically refers to x-ray imaging of the breast, while PEM uses an injected positron emitting isotope and a dedicated scanner to locate breast tumors. Scintimammography is another nuclear medicine breast imaging technique, however it is performed using a gamma camera. Breasts can be imaged on standard whole-body PET scanners, however dedicated PEM scanners offer advantages including improved resolution. PEM is not recommended for routine use or for breast cancer screening, in part due to higher radiation dose compared to"
"Plain radiography can also refer to radiography without a radiocontrast agent or radiography that generates single static images, as contrasted to fluoroscopy. Projectional radiography of the breasts is called mammography. This has been used mostly on women to screen for breast cancer, but is also used to view male breasts, and used in conjunction with a radiologist or a surgeon to localise suspicious tissues before a biopsy or a lumpectomy. Breast implants designed to enlarge the breasts reduce the viewing ability of mammography, and require more time for imaging as more views need to be taken. This is because the"
"with an acute myocardial infarction may have a completely normal chest radiograph. Chest radiograph A chest radiograph, colloquially called a chest X-ray (CXR), or chest film, is a projection radiograph of the chest used to diagnose conditions affecting the chest, its contents, and nearby structures. Chest radiographs are the most common film taken in medicine. Like all methods of radiography, chest radiography employs ionizing radiation in the form of X-rays to generate images of the chest. The mean radiation dose to an adult from a chest radiograph is around 0.02 mSv (2 mrem) for a front view (PA, or posteroanterior)"
"obtained by changing the relative orientation of the body and the direction of the x-ray beam. The most common views are ""posteroanterior"", ""anteroposterior"", and ""lateral"". In a posteroanterior (PA) view, the x-ray source is positioned so that the x-ray beam enters through the posterior (back) aspect of the chest and exits out of the anterior (front) aspect, where the beam is detected. To obtain this view, the patient stands facing a flat surface behind which is an x-ray detector. A radiation source is positioned behind the patient at a standard distance (most often 6 feet, 1,8m), and the x-ray beam"
"of a contrast agent that is mildly invasive with some risk of a negative reaction. Compared to DATG these scans require substantial facilities and the scanning and interpretation is considerably more expensive. ""Breast CT Scanning"" employs penetrating radiation and so includes some x-ray dose delivered to the patient. Unlike mammography the breast is not “flattened” or “manipulated” to equalize the contrast. Instead, gravity is used and the breast hangs down into the source-detector envelope. For the same dose delivered in mammography Breast CT produces 3D volumetric images of tumors and lesions that can show the connection to the vascular network."
"acquired are very high resolution (85 – 160 micron typical ), much higher than CT, DBT is unable to offer the narrow slice widths that CT offers (typically 1-1.5 mm). However, the higher resolution detectors permit very high in-plane resolution, even if the Z-axis resolution is less. The primary interest in DBT is in breast imaging, as an extension to mammography, where it offers better detection rates with little extra increase in radiation. Tomosynthesis is now Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for use in breast cancer screening. Xeromammography is a photoelectric method of recording an x-ray image on a"
"Chest photofluorography Chest photofluorography, or abreugraphy (also called mass miniature radiography), is a photofluorography technique for mass screening for tuberculosis using a miniature (50 to 100 mm) photograph of the screen of an X-ray fluoroscopy of the thorax, first developed in 1936. Abreugraphy receives its name from its inventor, Dr. Manuel Dias de Abreu, a Brazilian physician and pulmonologist. It has received several different names, according to the country where it was adopted: mass radiography, miniature chest radiograph (United Kingdom and United States), roentgenfluorography (Germany), radiophotography (France), schermografia (Italy), photoradioscopy (Spain) and photofluorography (Sweden). In many countries, miniature mass radiographs"
"high-risk populations, such as homosexuals and intravenous drug users. New advances in digital radiography, coupled with much lower x-ray dosages may herald better MMR technologies. Chest photofluorography Chest photofluorography, or abreugraphy (also called mass miniature radiography), is a photofluorography technique for mass screening for tuberculosis using a miniature (50 to 100 mm) photograph of the screen of an X-ray fluoroscopy of the thorax, first developed in 1936. Abreugraphy receives its name from its inventor, Dr. Manuel Dias de Abreu, a Brazilian physician and pulmonologist. It has received several different names, according to the country where it was adopted: mass radiography,"
"material used in the implant is very dense compared to breast tissue, and looks white (clear) on the film. The radiation used for mammography tends to be softer (has a lower photon energy) than that used for the harder tissues. Often a tube with a molybdenum anode is used with about 30 000 volts (30 kV), giving a range of X-ray energies of about 15-30 keV. Many of these photons are ""characteristic radiation"" of a specific energy determined by the atomic structure of the target material (Mo-K radiation). Chest radiographs are used to diagnose many conditions involving the chest wall,"
"volumetric image data of the breast. The resulting image data can be read at any convenient time by the radiologist, who is freed from performing the scan. This allows selected scan planes to be visualized, and also allows the data to be displayed as a volumetric image. AWBU has been proposed, in particular as additional cancer screening modality, in particular for women with dense breasts. Studies have consistently shown an increased detection of breast cancer by supplementary ultrasound screening, compared to mammography alone. AWBU offers advantages in terms of speed and standardization of ultrasound imaging, rendering the result largely independent"
"Breast augmentation Breast augmentation and augmentation mammoplasty (colloquially known as a ""boob job"") are plastic surgery terms for the breast-implant and the fat-graft mammoplasty approaches used to increase the size, change the shape, and alter the texture of the breasts of a woman. As a primary reconstruction, augmentation mammoplasty is applied to effect a post–mastectomy breast reconstruction, the repair of the chest wound consequent to the removal of a cancerous breast; to correct congenital defects of the breast(s); and to correct congenital defects of the chest wall. As an elective, cosmetic surgery, primary augmentation changes the aestheticsof size, shape, and"
"conception or includes two or more X-rays of the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract or lower abdomen. In medical radiography the x-ray beam is adjusted to expose only the area of which an image is required, so that generally shielding is applied to the patient to avoid exposing the gonads, whereas in an airport backscatter scan, the testicles of men and boys will be deliberately subjected to the direct beam in order to check for weapons in the underpants, and some radiation will also reach the ovaries of female subjects. A linear dose-response relationship has been observed between x-ray dose and"
"head-to-foot (craniocaudal, CC) view and angled side-view (mediolateral oblique, MLO) images of the breast are taken. Diagnostic mammography may include these and other views, including geometrically magnified and spot-compressed views of the particular area of concern. Deodorant, talcum powder or lotion may show up on the X-ray as calcium spots, so women are discouraged from applying them on the day of their exam. There are two types of mammogram studies: screening mammograms and diagnostic mammograms. Screening mammograms, consisting of four standard X-ray images, are performed yearly on patients who presents with no symptoms. Diagnostic mammograms are reserved for patients with"
"quality. Many names exist in the medical literature for moving pictures taken with X-rays. They include fluoroscopy, fluorography, cinefluorography, photofluorography, fluororadiography, kymography (electrokymography, roentgenkymography), cineradiography (cine), videofluorography, and videofluoroscopy. Today the word ""fluoroscopy"" is widely understood to be a hypernym of all the aforementioned terms, which explains why it is the most commonly used and why the others are declining in usage. The profusion of names is an idiomatic artifact of technological change, as follows: As soon as X-rays (and their application of seeing inside the body) were discovered in the 1890s, both looking and recording were pursued. Both live"
"Breast MRI One alternative to mammography, Breast MRI or contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), has shown substantial progress in the detection of breast cancer. The available literature suggests that the sensitivity of contrast-enhanced breast MRI in detection of cancer is considerably higher than that of either radiographic mammography or ultrasound and is generally reported to be in excess of 94%. The ""specificity"" (the confidence that a lesion is cancerous and not a false positive) is only fair ('modest'), (or 37%-97%) thus a ""positive"" finding by MRI should not be interpreted as a definitive diagnosis. The reports of 4,271 breast"
"the person themselves. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of either type of breast exam, as by the time a lump is large enough to be found it is likely to have been growing for several years and thus soon be large enough to be found without an exam. Mammographic screening for breast cancer uses X-rays to examine the breast for any uncharacteristic masses or lumps. During a screening, the breast is compressed and a technician takes photos from multiple angles. A general mammogram takes photos of the entire breast, while a diagnostic mammogram focuses on a specific lump or"
"show tumors long before they are large enough to palpate. They are recommended for women who have symptoms of breast cancer or who are at increased risk of developing the disease. They are performed with the patient standing, the breast pressed between two plastic plates, as the image is taken. The interpretation has to be performed by a specialist. Breast ultrasound is a complementary study of mammography. In many women the tissue that makes up the breast is very dense, representing fibrous tissue and glandular tissue, which produces milk during lactation. This limits the radiologist interpreting the study, so, in"
"Breast self-examination Breast self-examination (BSE) is a screening method used in an attempt to detect early breast cancer. The method involves the woman herself looking at and feeling each breast for possible lumps, distortions or swelling. BSE was once promoted heavily as a means of finding cancer at a more curable stage, but large randomized controlled studies found that it was not effective in preventing death, and actually caused harm through needless biopsies, surgery, and anxiety. Breast awareness is an informal alternative to structured breast self-examinations. According to a meta-analysis in the Cochrane Collaboration, two large trials in Russia and"