"been used since about the 1860s to make statues, tablewares, and lamps that resemble bronze. Spelter is soft and breaks easily. To test for spelter, scratch the base of the piece. Bronze will appear as bright yellow while spelter will show a silvery scratch. The word ""pewter"" is thought to be derived from the word ""spelter"". Zinc ingots formed by smelting might also be termed spelter. Spelter Spelter, while sometimes used merely as a synonym for zinc, is often used to identify a zinc alloy. In this sense it might be an alloy of equal parts copper and zinc, i.e."
"Pewter Pewter () is a malleable metal alloy. It is traditionally composed of 85–99% tin, mixed with copper, antimony, bismuth, and sometimes silver or lead, although the use of lead is less common today. Copper and antimony act as hardeners while lead is more common in the lower grades of pewter, which have a bluish tint. Pewter has a low melting point, around , depending on the exact mixture of metals. The word ""pewter"" is probably a variation of the word ""spelter"", a term for zinc alloys (originally a colloquial name for zinc). Pewter was first used around the beginning"
"often used as a base metal for silver-plated objects. In the late 19th century, pewter came back into fashion with the revival of medieval objects for decoration. New replicas of medieval pewter objects were created, and collected for decoration. Today, pewter is used in decorative objects, mainly collectible statuettes and figurines, game figures, aircraft and other models, (replica) coins, pendants, plated jewellery and so on. Certain athletic contests, such as the United States Figure Skating Championships, award pewter medals to fourth-place finishers. Pewter Pewter () is a malleable metal alloy. It is traditionally composed of 85–99% tin, mixed with copper,"
"iron 'cheese metal' casting, overlaid with this pewter and silver plating. Dependent on source, these can be either thick and robust, or attractive but easily broken due to a loose, fragile inner casting. The latter productions are therefore only suitable for small castings up to around 12 mm, or transient 'fashion' jewelry with a short lifespan. Tibetan silver Tibetan silver is used primarily in jewelry components, and is similar to pewter – an alloy of copper, and sometimes tin or nickel, with a small percentage of pure silver. Its overall appearance is of aged silver, but it can be polished"
"Pot metal Pot metal (or monkey metal) is an alloy of low-melting point metals that manufacturers use to make fast, inexpensive castings. The term ""pot metal"" came about due to the practice at automobile factories in the early 20th century of gathering up non-ferrous metal scraps from the manufacturing processes and melting them in one pot to form into cast products. A small amount of iron usually made it into the castings, but too much iron raised the melting point, so it was minimized. There is no metallurgical standard for pot metal. Common metals in pot metal include zinc, lead,"
"showing that they are made of bronze, not a cheaper alloy such as spelter or pewter. Bronze sculpture Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a ""bronze"". It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs, and small statuettes and figurines, as well as bronze elements to be fitted to other objects such as furniture. It is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a"
"the caster adds other metals to the mix to strengthen the cast part, improve flow of the molten metal, or to reduce cost. With a low melting point of 419 °C (786 °F), zinc is often alloyed with other metals including lead, tin, aluminium, and copper. Pot metal is generally used for parts that are not subject to high stresses or torque. Items created from pot metal include toys, furniture fittings, tool parts, electronics components, automotive parts, inexpensive jewelry and improvised weaponry. It is also used in inexpensive electric guitars and other budget priced musical instruments. Pot metal Pot metal"
"known as ""trifling metal"" or ""trifle"", was used for holloware and is made up of fine metal with approximately 4% lead. The last type of pewter, known as ""lay"" or ""ley"" metal, was used for items that were not in contact with food or drink. It consisted of tin with 15% lead. These three alloys were used with little variation until the 20th century. Older pewters with higher lead content are heavier, tarnish faster, and oxidation gives them a darker silver-gray color. Pewters containing lead are no longer used in items that will come in contact with the human body"
"sledgehammer. During the 20th century and into the 21st century, this role has become increasingly unnecessary and automated through the use of trip hammers or reciprocating power hammers. When iron ore is smelted into usable metal, a certain amount of carbon is usually alloyed with the iron. (Charcoal is almost pure carbon.) The amount of carbon significantly affects the properties of the metal. If the carbon content is over 2%, the metal is called cast iron, because it has a relatively low melting point and is easily cast. It is quite brittle, however, and cannot be forged so therefore not"
"Alabaster Alabaster is a mineral or rock that is soft, often used for carving, and is processed for plaster powder. Archaeologists and the stone processing industry use the word differently from geologists. The former use is in a wider sense that includes varieties of two different minerals: the fine-grained massive type of gypsum and the fine-grained banded type of calcite. Geologists define alabaster only as the gypsum type. Chemically, gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, while calcite is a carbonate of calcium. Both types of alabaster have similar properties. They are usually lightly colored, translucent, and soft stones. They"
"action are to be created, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools as well as cast; repoussé and chasing are among the techniques used in gold and silversmithing. Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify."
"(such as cups, plates, or jewelry) due to health concerns stemming from the lead content. Modern pewters are available that are completely free of lead, although many pewters containing lead are still being produced for other purposes. A typical European casting alloy contains 94% tin, 1% copper, and 5% antimony. A European pewter sheet would contain 92% tin, 2% copper, and 6% antimony. Asian pewter, produced mostly in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, contains a higher percentage of tin, usually 97.5% tin, 1% copper, and 1.5% antimony. This makes the alloy slightly softer. So-called ""Mexican pewter"" is an alloy of aluminum,"
"castings. Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out. The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, and aluminium-based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized parts are needed"
"enough was known of metallic zinc to make brass solder directly by combining copper and spelter (zinc ingots). In 1738 a patent was granted to William Champion, a Bristol brass founder, for the large-scale reduction of calamine to produce spelter. In 1684 a paper presented to the Royal Society touched on the medicinal and veterinary properties of the compound when in finely powdered form. Calamine (mineral) Calamine is a historic name for an ore of zinc. The name ""calamine"" was derived from ""lapis calaminaris"", a Latin corruption of Greek ""cadmia (καδμία)"", the old name for zinc ores in general. The"
"Skelp Skelp (sometimes spelled scelp) is wrought iron or steel that is rolled or forged into narrow strips and ready to be made into pipe or tubing by being bent (into a cylindrical shape) and welded. The word is most commonly used in the traditional terminology of smithing and in the iron and steel industries. Before the 20th century, the welding was likely to be forge welding. In the 20th and 21st centuries, it has been likelier to be arc welding or gas welding. In the context of traditional gunsmithing, one way to make gun barrels has been to make"
"sand mold, which allows the metal to fill thin cross-sections; the minimum possible cross-section is . This results in a near net shape casting, which can be a cost advantage on complex parts. It also produces minimal scrap material. The major disadvantage of the process is that it can only be used with lower melting temperature non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, magnesium, and zinc. The most commonly used materials is aluminium. The maximum working temperature of plaster is , so higher melting temperature materials would melt the plaster mold. Also, the sulfur in the gypsum reacts with iron, making it"
"normally very close to the die dimensions, but with 5-15% porosity, and thus sub-wrought steel properties. There are several other PM processes which have been developed over the last fifty years. These include: The history of powder metallurgy and the art of metal and ceramic sintering are intimately related to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. The ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, though mass manufacturing of PM products did not begin until the mid- or late- 19th century. In these early manufacturing"
"filling a mold due to its lower melting point. Bronze is a superior metal than copper for sculpture casting because of its higher tensile strength. The island of Cyprus supplied most of the bronze used for artistic purposes throughout the ancient Mediterranean region. The earliest forms of Greek bronze sculptures were simple, hand-worked sheets of bronze known as ""sphyrelaton"" (literally, “hammer-driven”). Like modern clay sculpture, these metal sheets could be embellished by hammering the metal over various wooden shapes made with textures that created a desired look or depth. This was later adapted to become the technique known today as"
"and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized. Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to today’s high technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity. Investment"
"have good flow characteristics, have the ability to cast fine detail without an excessive amount of porosity and cast at between 230 °C and 300 °C (450 °F and 575 °F). In compliance with British law, the British fine art trade uses the term ""white metal"" in auction catalogues to describe foreign silver items which do not carry British Assay Office marks, but which are nonetheless understood to be silver and are priced accordingly. Tin-lead and tin-copper alloys such as Babbitt metal have a low melting point that is ideal for use as solder, but these alloys also have ideal"
"in order to minimize metallic contamination. ASTM F138[3]-compliant steel is also used in the manufacture of body piercing jewellery[4] and body modification implants. 440 and 420 stainless steels, known also by the name ""Cutlery Stainless Steel"", are high carbon steels alloyed with chromium. They have very good corrosion resistance compared to other cutlery steels, but their corrosion resistance is inferior to 316 stainless. Biomedical cutting instruments are often made from 440 or 420 stainless due to its high hardness coupled with acceptable corrosion resistance. Long story short, not all ""surgical stainless steel"" is safe for initial or healed piercings. Your"
"easily (unlike silicone) and are widely available. Gravity casting Gravity casting is among the oldest known processes for fabricating metals and metal alloys. It involves the pouring of molten metal from a crucible into a mold under only the force of gravity, without the use of pressurized gasses, vacuums, or centrifugal force. Small-scale molds used for this form of casting have most commonly been made of sand, tufa stone, and cuttlebone as well as charcoal and plaster as these materials are generally easy to shape (unlike iron or steel), do not break down when suddenly exposed to high temperatures (unlike"
"Converting (metallurgy) Converting is a type of metallurgical smelting that includes several processes; the most commercially important form is the treatment of molten metal sulfides to produce crude metal and slag, as in the case of copper and nickel converting. A now-uncommon form is batch treatment of pig iron to produce steel by the Bessemer process. The vessel used was called the ""Bessemer converter"". Modern steel mills use basic oxygen process converters. The converting process occurs in a ""converter"". Two kinds of converters are widely used: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal (which are an improvement of the ) prevail in the"
"Bronze sculpture Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a ""bronze"". It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs, and small statuettes and figurines, as well as bronze elements to be fitted to other objects such as furniture. It is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from"
"Semi-steel Semi-steel casting is a lower cost method to produce a casting that is not quite as strong as a steel casting but less expensive to manufacture. It was used more commonly as a marketing term. The carbon and silicon percentages are reduced to the amount approximately consistent with those in steel. This is done using pig iron or gray iron casting scrap and reducing the amount of carbon through the addition of relatively pure steel or wrought iron scrap in a well heated cupola furnace. The percentage of carbon is typically between foundry cast iron and wrought iron. 6-pounder"
"copper, tin, magnesium, aluminium, iron, and cadmium. The primary advantage of pot metal is that it is quick and easy to cast. Because of its low melting temperature, it requires no sophisticated foundry equipment or specialized molds. Manufacturers sometimes use it to experiment with molds and ideas (e.g., prototypes) before casting final products in a higher quality alloy. Depending on the exact metals ""thrown into the pot,"" pot metal can become unstable over time, as it has a tendency to bend, distort, crack, shatter, and pit with age. The low boiling point of zinc and fast cooling of newly cast"
"wear blocks. Before hardening, cast steels and iron are of a uniform and lamellar (or layered) pearlitic grain structure. This is a mixture of ferrite and cementite formed when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. Pearlite is not an ideal material for many common applications of steel alloys as it is quite soft. By heating pearlite past its eutectoid transition temperature of 727 °C and then rapidly cooling, some of the material’s crystal structure can be transformed into a much harder structure known as martensite. Steels with this martensitic structure are often used in"
"below 35 K. Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys, due to a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance. It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal. Because it is a liquid, mercury dissolves other metals and the alloys that are formed are called amalgams. For example, such amalgams are known with gold, zinc, sodium, and many other metals. Because iron is an exception, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Other metals that do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum, tungsten and platinum. Sodium amalgam"
"minimal machining is necessary. Stellite is more often machined by grinding, rather than by cutting. The alloys also tend to have extremely high melting points due to the cobalt and chromium content. Typical applications include saw teeth, hardfacing, and acid-resistant machine parts. Stellite was a major improvement in the production of poppet valves and valve seats for the valves, particularly exhaust valves, of internal combustion engines. By reducing their erosion from hot gases, the interval between maintenance and re-grinding of their seats was dramatically lengthened. The first third of the M2HB machine gun and M60 machine gun barrels (starting from"
"Gunmetal Gunmetal, also known as red brass in the United States, is a type of bronze – an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. Proportions vary by approximation but 88% copper, 8–10% tin, and 2–4% zinc is an approximation. Originally used chiefly for making guns, it has largely been replaced by steel. Gunmetal, which casts and machines well and is resistant to corrosion from steam and salt water, is used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, gears, statues, and various small objects, such as buttons. It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific gravity of"
"normal eutectoid. Pearlite can be hard and strong but is not particularly tough. It can be wear-resistant because of a strong lamellar network of ferrite and cementite. Examples of applications include cutting tools, high strength wires, knives, chisels, and nails. Pearlite Pearlite is a two-phased, lamellar (or layered) structure composed of alternating layers of ferrite (88 wt%) and cementite (12 wt%) that occurs in some steels and cast irons. During slow cooling of an iron-carbon alloy, pearlite forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite cools below (the eutectoid temperature). Pearlite is a microstructure occurring in many common grades of steels."
"Panchaloha Panchaloha (Sanskrit: पञ्चलोह;), also called ""Panchadhatu"" or ""Panchdhatu"" (Sanskrit: पञ्चधातु, lit. ""five metals"") is a term for traditional five-metal alloys of sacred significance, used for making Hindu temple murtis and jewelry. The composition is laid down in the ""Shilpa shastras"", a collection of ancient texts that describe arts, crafts, and their design rules, principles and standards. Panchaloha is traditionally described as an alloy of gold(Au), silver(Ag), copper(Cu), zinc(Zn) and iron(Fe) as the major constituents. Also, in some cases tin (Sn) or lead (Pb) is used instead of zinc. It is widely believed that wearing jewellery made of such an"
"Spent potlining Spent Potlining (SPL) is a waste material generated in the primary aluminium smelting industry. Spent Potlining is also known as Spent Potliner and Spent Cell Liner. Primary aluminium smelting is the process of extracting aluminium metal from aluminium oxide (also known as alumina). The process takes place in electrolytic cells that are known as pots. The pots are made up of steel shells with two linings, an outer insulating or refractory lining and an inner carbon lining that acts as the cathode of the electrolytic cell. During the operation of the cell, substances, including aluminium and fluorides, are"