"is considered an important source of vitamin A, and because pasteurization appears to increase vitamin A concentrations in milk, the effect of milk heat treatment on this vitamin is a not a major public health concern. Results of meta-analyses reveal that pasteurization of milk leads to a significant decrease in vitamin C and folate, but milk is also not an important source of these vitamins. A significant decrease in vitamin B2 concentrations was found after pasteurization. Vitamin B2 is typically found in bovine milk at concentrations of 1.83 mg/liter. Because the recommended daily intake for adults is 1.1 mg/day, milk"
"Vitamin B12 Vitamin B, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body: it is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the maturation of developing red blood cells in the bone marrow. Vitamin B is one of eight B vitamins; it is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin. It consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers),"
"B vitamins B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexist in the same foods. In general, dietary supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific number or name of each vitamin: B = thiamine, B = riboflavin, B = niacin, etc. Some are better known by name than number: niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin and folate. Each B vitamin is either a cofactor (generally a coenzyme)"
"Vitamin B3 Vitamin B is a vitamin that includes three forms: nicotinamide (niacinamide), niacin (nicotinic acid), and nicotinamide riboside. All three forms of vitamin B are converted within the body to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). NAD is required for human life and people are unable to make it within their bodies without one of the vitamin B or tryptophan. Nicotinamide riboside was identified as a form of vitamin B in 2004. The group is also occasionally referred to as vitamin B complex. NAD, along with its phosphorylated variant nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), are utilized in transfer reactions within DNA"
"all of which show physiological activity. It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt (chemical symbol Co) positioned in the center of a corrin ring. The only organisms to produce vitamin B are certain bacteria, and archaea. Some of these bacteria are found in the soil around the grasses that ruminants eat; they are taken into the animal, proliferate, form part of their gut flora, and continue to produce vitamin B. There are no naturally occurring notable vegetable dietary sources of the vitamin, so vegans and vegetarians are advised to take a supplement or fortified foods. Otherwise, most omnivorous people in"
"""Corynebacterium"", ""Flavobacterium"", ""Lactobacillus"", ""Micromonospora"", ""Mycobacterium"", ""Nocardia"", ""Protaminobacter"", ""Proteus"", ""Rhizobium"", ""Salmonella"", ""Serratia"", ""Streptococcus"" and ""Xanthomonas"" . Six Nobel Prizes have been awarded for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B. Vitamin B12 Vitamin B, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body: it is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the maturation of developing red blood cells in the"
"two pyrrole rings to give dihydrosirohydrochlorin, which is oxidized to sirohydrochlorin, which undergoes further reactions, notably a ring contraction, to give the corrin ring. The complete laboratory synthesis of B was achieved by Robert Burns Woodward and Albert Eschenmoser in 1972, and remains one of the classic feats of organic synthesis, requiring the effort of 91 postdoctoral fellows (mostly at Harvard) and 12 PhD students (at ETH Zurich) from 19 nations. The synthesis constitutes a formal total synthesis, since the research groups only prepared the known intermediate cobyric acid, whose chemical conversion to vitamin B was previously reported. Though it"
"is commonly used to refer to B-deficient anemia as a whole, regardless of cause. Vitamin B refers to a group of compounds called cobalamins that are available in the human body in a variety of mostly interconvertible forms. Together with folate, cobalamins are essential cofactors required for DNA synthesis in cells where chromosomal replication and division are occurring—most notably the bone marrow and myeloid cells. As a cofactor, cobalamins are essential for two cellular reactions: Cobalamins are characterized by a porphyrin-like corrin nucleus that contains a single cobalt atom bound to a benzimidazolyl nucleotide and a variable residue (R) group."
"Cyclin B2 G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ""CCNB2"" gene. Cyclin B2 is a member of the cyclin family, specifically the B-type cyclins. The B-type cyclins, B1 and B2, associate with p34cdc2 and are essential components of the cell cycle regulatory machinery. B1 and B2 differ in their subcellular localization. Cyclin B1 co-localizes with microtubules, whereas cyclin B2 is primarily associated with the Golgi region. Cyclin B2 also binds to transforming growth factor beta RII and thus cyclin B2/cdc2 may play a key role in transforming growth factor beta-mediated cell cycle control. Cyclin B2"
"a vitamin. Pangamic acid, also called ""pangamate,"" and ""vitamin B,"" is the name given to the chemical compound described as d-gluconodimethylamino acetic acid with the empirical formula CHON and purportedly isolated from apricot seeds. It was initially promoted by Ernst T. Krebs, Sr. and his son Ernst T. Krebs, Jr. as a medicinal compound for use in treatment of a wide range of diseases. They also termed this chemical ""Vitamin B,"" though it is not a true vitamin, has no nutritional value, has no known use in the long term treatment of any disease and has been called a ""quack"
"dietary B; adults in these regions are also at risk. Other causes of vitamin B deficiency are much less frequent. B is the most chemically complex of all the vitamins. The structure of B is based on a corrin ring, which is similar to the porphyrin ring found in heme. The central metal ion is cobalt. Four of the six coordination sites are provided by the corrin ring, and a fifth by a dimethylbenzimidazole group. The sixth coordination site, the reactive center, is variable, being a cyano group (–CN), a hydroxyl group (–OH), a methyl group (–CH) or a 5′-deoxyadenosyl"
"constitutes an intellectual achievement of the highest caliber, the Eschenmoser–Woodward synthesis of vitamin B is of no practical consequence due to its length, taking 72 chemical steps and giving an overall chemical yield well under 0.01%. And although there have been sporadic synthetic efforts since 1972, the Eschenmoser–Woodward synthesis remains the only completed (formal) total synthesis. Bacterial (or, perhaps archaeal) fermentation remains the only industrially viable source of the vitamin for food production and medicine. Species from the following genera and species are known to synthesize B: ""Propionibacterium shermanii,"" ""Pseudomonas"" ""denitrificans"", ""Streptomyces"" ""griseus"", ""Acetobacterium"", ""Aerobacter"", ""Agrobacterium"", ""Alcaligenes"", ""Azotobacter"", ""Bacillus"", ""Clostridium"","
"this synthesis is complete, the human body has the ability (except in rare cases) to convert any form of B to an active form, by means of enzymatically removing certain prosthetic chemical groups from the cobalt atom and replacing them with others. The four vitamers of B are all deeply red-colored crystals and water solutions, due to the color of the cobalt-corrin complex. The U.S. Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin B in 1998. The EAR for vitamin B for women and men ages"
"Vitamin B12 total synthesis The total synthesis of the complex biomolecule vitamin B was first accomplished by the collaborating research groups of Robert Burns Woodward at Harvard and Albert Eschenmoser at ETH in 1972. It is considered a classic in the field of total synthesis of natural products. Work on the synthesis started 1960 at ETH, and in 1961 at Harvard, it was collaboratively pursued after 1965, and required the effort of 91 post-doctoral fellows (mostly at Harvard) and 12 Ph.D. students (at ETH) from 19 different nations. There are two variants of this synthesis, concomitantly accomplished in 1972. These"
"Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B (a B vitamin), is a water-soluble vitamin. Pantothenic acid is an essential nutrient. Animals require pantothenic acid in order to synthesize coenzyme-A (CoA), as well as to synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The anion is called pantothenate. Pantothenic acid is the amide between pantoic acid and β-alanine. Its name derives from the Greek ""pantothen"", meaning ""from everywhere"", and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in fortified whole-grain cereals, egg yolks, liver and dried mushrooms. It is commonly found as its alcohol analog,"
"pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Vitamin B was named pyridoxine to indicate its structural homology to pyridine. Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which"
"Vitamin B however has two major forms in the human body: Propionyl CoA → Methylmalonyl CoA → Succinyl CoA Methyl THF → CH + THF It is therefore understood that vitamin B is involved in complex DNA synthesis, along with folate, as well as in acid-base metabolism. To understand the basic pathophysiology of Imerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, it is imperative to understand the absorption of vitamin B. The following lists principal events that lead to absorption of vitamin B along the GI tract: Cubam is composed of two molecules, amnionless (AMN) and cubilin. Cubilin is a multi-ligand protein that contains eight epidermal"
"until 1948, when it was isolated by two chemists, Karl A. Folkers of the United States and Alexander R. Todd of Great Britain. The substance was a cobalamin, which the discoverers named vitamin B. The new vitamin in liver juice was eventually completely purified and characterized in the 1950s, and other methods of producing it from bacteria were developed. It could be injected into muscle with even less irritation, making it possible to treat PA with even more ease. Pernicious anemia was eventually treated with either injections or large oral doses of B, typically between 1 and 4 mg daily."
"Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which also catalyzes the conversion of PNP to PLP. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is dependent on flavin"
"deoxyadenosylcobalamin. Hydroxocobalamin Hydroxocobalamin, also known as vitamin B and hydroxycobalamin, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat vitamin B12 deficiency including pernicious anemia. Other uses include treatment for cyanide poisoning, Leber's optic atrophy, and toxic amblyopia. It is given by injection into a muscle or vein. Side effects are generally few. They may include diarrhea, low blood potassium, allergic reactions, and high blood pressure. Normal doses are considered safe in pregnancy. Hydroxocobalamin is the natural form of vitamin B and a member of the cobalamin family of"
"group (here the C5′ atom of the deoxyribose forms the covalent bond with cobalt respectively, to yield the four vitamers (forms) of B. Historically, the covalent C-Co bond is one of the first examples of carbon-metal bonds to be discovered in biology. The hydrogenases and, by necessity, enzymes associated with cobalt utilization, involve metal-carbon bonds. Vitamin B is a generic descriptor name referring to a collection of cobalt and corrin ring molecules which are defined by their particular vitamin function in the body. All of the substrate cobalt-corrin molecules from which B is made must be synthesized by bacteria. After"
"artificial cream flavor, iron, sodium ascorbate and ascorbic acid (vitamin C), niacinamide, red #40, yellow #5, zinc oxide, blue #1, pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B), yellow #6, riboflavin (vitamin B), thiamin hydrochloride (vitamin B), vitamin A palmitate, BHT (preservative), folic acid, turmeric color, vitamin D, and vitamin B. Hunny B's Hunny B's was a breakfast cereal made by Kellogg's under license from Disney, described by the company as a ""naturally sweetened honey-graham cereal."" The individual cereal pieces were in the shape of the letter ""B"", with biscuits in the shapes of honey pots, Pooh's head and bees (for a time, biscuits"
"Vitamin K2 Vitamin K or menaquinone () has nine related compounds, generally subdivided into the short-chain menaquinones (with MK-4 as the most important member) and the long-chain menaquinones, of which MK-7, MK-8 and MK-9 are nutritionally the most recognized. Vitamin K, the main storage form in animals, has several subtypes, which differ in isoprenoid chain length. These vitamin K homologues are called menaquinones, and are characterized by the number of isoprenoid residues in their side chains. Menaquinones are abbreviated MK-""n, where M stands for menaquinone, the K stands for vitamin K, and the n"" represents the number of isoprenoid side"
"Hydroxocobalamin Hydroxocobalamin, also known as vitamin B and hydroxycobalamin, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat vitamin B12 deficiency including pernicious anemia. Other uses include treatment for cyanide poisoning, Leber's optic atrophy, and toxic amblyopia. It is given by injection into a muscle or vein. Side effects are generally few. They may include diarrhea, low blood potassium, allergic reactions, and high blood pressure. Normal doses are considered safe in pregnancy. Hydroxocobalamin is the natural form of vitamin B and a member of the cobalamin family of compounds."
"been used as a plasticizer. Furoin Furoin or 1,2-di(furan-2-yl)-2-hydroxyethanone is an organic compound with formula CHO. It can be produced from furfural by a benzoin condensation reaction catalyzed by cyanide ions. Furoin synthesis from furfural is also catalyzed by vitamin B (thiamine). In 1957, R. Breslow proposed that this reaction involves a relatively stable carbene form of thiamine. In the catalytic cycle shown below two molecules of furfural react to give furoin, via a thiazol-2-ylidene catalyst, resulting from loss of one proton at carbon 2 of the thiazolium cation of vitamin B: This was the first evidence for the existence"
"Beta-2 adrenergic receptor The beta-2 adrenergic receptor (β adrenoreceptor), also known as ADRB2, is a cell membrane-spanning beta-adrenergic receptor that interacts with (binds) epinephrine, a hormone and neurotransmitter (ligand synonym, adrenaline) whose signaling, via adenylate cyclase stimulation through trimeric Gs proteins, increased cAMP, and downstream L-type calcium channel interaction, mediates physiologic responses such as smooth muscle relaxation and bronchodilation. The official symbol for the human gene encoding the β adrenoreceptor is ADRB2. The gene is intronless. Different polymorphic forms, point mutations, and/or downregulation of this gene are associated with nocturnal asthma, obesity and type 2 diabetes. The 3D crystallographic structure"
"B-complex vitamins described above (e.g., there is no vitamin B). Some of them, though not essential to humans, are essential in the diets of other organisms; others have no known nutritional value and may even be toxic under certain conditions. B vitamins B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexist in the same foods. In general, dietary supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific"
"B lectures of Woodward and, therefore, deals with the Harvard-ETH A/B variant only. The X-ray crystal structure of Vitamin B had been determined by Dorothy Hodgkin (Oxford University) in collaboration with Kenneth N. Trueblood (UCLA) and John G. White (Princeton University) in 1956. According to Woodward, an observation made during the synthesis of the Harvard A-D component played an essential role in the conception of the Woodward–Hoffmann rules for orbital symmetry control of organic reactions formulated in 1965. The core of the molecule vitamin B (cobalamin) is a corrin structure (depicted in red) with at its center a cobalt ion."
"Robert R. Williams Robert Runnels Williams (February 16, 1886 – October 2, 1965) was an American chemist, known for being the first to chemically fully characterize and then synthesize thiamine (vitamin B). He first isolated thiamine in 1933, and synthesized vitamin B in 1935, reporting this in 1936. Williams also provided the modern name ""thiamine"" from the molecule's sulfur atom, and it being a vitamin (a class ultimately named for the earlier-known amine of thiamine itself). Among his awards were the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1940 and the Perkin Medal in 1947. His brother was Roger J. Williams, another important"
"is not always) grouped under an alphabetized vitamin ""generic descriptor"" title, such as ""vitamin A"". Other examples of vitamers include cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalamin, and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin (adenosylcobalamin—AdoB-12), which are all vitamers of B, and thus all possess ""B activity"". Another example is that both niacinamide and nicotinic acid (niacin) have vitamin B activity. Vitamer A vitamer of a particular vitamin is any of a number of chemical compounds, generally having a similar molecular structure, each of which shows vitamin activity in a vitamin-deficient biological system. For instance, vitamin A has at least six vitamer chemicals that all qualify as ""vitamin A"","
"Histone H2B Histone H2B is one of the 4 main histone proteins involved in the structure of chromatin in eukaryotic cells. Featuring a main globular domain and long N-terminal and C-terminal tails, H2B is involved with the structure of the nucleosomes. Histone H2B is a lightweight structural protein made of 126 amino acids. Many of these amino acids have a positive charge at cellular pH, which allows them to interact with the negatively charged phosphate groups in DNA. Along with a central globular domain, histone H2B has two flexible histone tails that extend outwards – one at the N-terminal end"
"be synthetic or naturally derived from lichen, a non-animal source of D3. Vitamin B is the only vitamin not present in plant sources. The largest and most complex of all the vitamins, vitamin B, is synthesized only by bacteria and some archaea species, as eukaryotes lack the enzyme. It is integral to the health and function of the nervous system, key in hematopoiesis, as well as required to synthesize methionine and catabolize propionate for energy. Grazing animals are able to obtain B when they ingest bits of soil with the grass, as the vitamin and B-producing bacteria are found in"
"Collection strain number ATCC 49442), which develops a yellow color due to production of riboflavin while growing on pyridine, but not when grown on other substrates, such as succinic acid. Vitamin B was originally considered to have two components, a heat-labile vitamin B and a heat-stable vitamin B. In the 1920s, vitamin B was thought to be the factor necessary for preventing pellagra. In 1923, Paul Gyorgy in Heidelberg was investigating egg-white injury in rats; the curative factor for this condition was called vitamin H (which is now called biotin or vitamin B7). Since both pellagra and vitamin H deficiency"