"price of butter without a significant impact in transporting the product. In May 1871, through the butter industry Jurgens met Hippolyte Mege-Mouries, a Frenchman, who had invented margarine. Mege-Mouries had licensed his patent to business in other countries but not to anyone in the Netherlands, as the Netherlands did not have a patent law until 1910. Jurgens paid for a demonstration of Mege-Mouries' process. Later that year Jurgens started experimental production of margarine to which initially real butter was added. Around 1875 Jurgens wound down his activities in the company. As a Roman Catholic he bequeathed, in 1876, a head"
"of oleomargarine, which never became popular in France. Jurgens and van den Bergh created a substantial export industry, selling margarine to England and other countries, as did a number of smaller competitors. In the 1880s there were at least 70 margarine factories in the Netherlands. In 1911 Jurgens exported 111,000 tons of margarine, and Van den Bergh 112,000. Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès died on May 31, 1880. He was buried near his wife and son, in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès (Draguignan 24 October 1817 – Paris 31 May 1880) was a French chemist and inventor. Although he"
"Hippolyte Marié-Davy Edme Hippolyte Marié-Davy (28 April 1820 – 26 July 1893) was a French chemist and inventor of the 19th century. He was born in Clamecy, Nièvre. In 1854, he invented the first naval periscope, consisting in a vertical tube with two small mirrors fixed at each end at 45°. He also invented a mercury bisulfate battery that bears his name, ""the Marie-Davy"". In 1854, Marié-Davy invented an electromagnetic motor. Based on it, he proposed a submarine with an electrically driven propeller. McClintock and Watson once planned to use the device on the ""Hunley"". The engine was said to"
"have been Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two"
"have the power of ""a one-horse steam engine"". In the 1860s, he was Deputy Director of the Paris Observatory, in charge of meteorology. He devoted himself to the study of local thunderstorms, following the destructive storm of 14 November 1854, in the Crimean War. Hippolyte Marié-Davy Edme Hippolyte Marié-Davy (28 April 1820 – 26 July 1893) was a French chemist and inventor of the 19th century. He was born in Clamecy, Nièvre. In 1854, he invented the first naval periscope, consisting in a vertical tube with two small mirrors fixed at each end at 45°. He also invented a mercury"
"working class, Napoleon III offered a prize to anyone who could develop an inexpensive substitute for butter; the prize was won by the French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès, who in 1869 patented a product he named oleomargarine, later shortened to simply margarine. His most important social reform was the 1864 law which gave French workers the right to strike, which had been forbidden since 1810. In 1866 he added to this an ""Edict of Tolerance,"" which gave factory workers the right to organize. He issued a decree regulating the treatment of apprentices, limited working hours on Sundays and holidays, and removed"
"pharmacist in the central pharmacy of the Hôtel-Dieu hospital in Paris. Mège started to publish original contributions in applied chemistry, such as a form of the syphilis medicine Copahin refined with nitric acid. that eliminated side-effects. He also obtained patents for effervescent tablets, for techniques in paper making and sugar refining, and for the tanning of leather using egg yolks. By 1852, Mège-Mouriès was studying the chemistry of foods. He added calcium phosphate and protein to chocolate in an attempt to make it healthier. By 1855, Mège-Mouriès was studying bread. In addition to examining the coloration of bread, he developed"
"on astronomy. He is also credited with the invention of several devices, including a means to throw flames from ships, but his most famous invention is his clock. On his epitaph, he is credited with the creation of a ""nocturnal clock"" (""horologium nocturmum""). This was long believed to be the first mechanical clock, or Water clock, a fact repeated in numerous sources even up to the present day. In medieval texts and illustrations however, it is shown that his ""clock"" was in fact an observation tube with crosshairs, accompanied by an ""argumentum"", a text containing instructions on how to interpret"
"Paul Magès Paul Ernest Mary Magès (1908–1999) is known for his invention of the first self-leveling automobile suspension, known as hydro-pneumatic suspension. This system replaced conventional steel springs with an adaptive system of hydraulic struts, resulting in a motoring experience that felt like no other automobile of the era. This suspension achieved its initial design brief, fast travel on poor road surfaces. This advantage is still noted today, especially in applications where ride quality is important, like ambulance design. His formal schooling was modest – he earned his National diploma (""Brevet d'Etudes du Premier Cycle""), a preparatory course for the"
"and the previously unknown palmitic acid. Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory butter alternative, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes. French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called ""oleomargarine"", which became shortened to the trade name ""margarine"". Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France, but had little commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, now part of Unilever. In the same year a German pharmacist, Benedict Klein from Cologne, founded the first"
"vegetable forms, and to propose a new classification of metals that were not based on affinity to oxygen but in the laws governing ""the formation of absorbency in precipitates."" He studied the reflection of light and invented a ""trifocal light mirror."" He invented an apparatus for producing a vacuum without the need for a ""pneumo-barometer"" machine. This was very successful in Paris and was recommended in scientific journals. His other inventions were a clock marking World Time, a device that allowed lifting any weight that was patented in the United States and an invention called Double Ludion which was patented"
"and Napoleon III offered a prize for producing a butter substitute. Mège-Mouriès experimented with what was believed to be a new fatty acid discovered by Michel Eugene Chevreul, acide margarique or margaric acid. By 1867, Mège-Mouriès was working at la Ferme Impériale de la Faisanderie, Napoleon III's private farm in Vincennes near Paris. Mège-Mouriès's invention, originally known as ""oleomargarine"", was created by mixing processed beef tallow with skimmed milk. It produced whitish-looking beads or pearls. A British patent application describes the process as follows: Although he did not correctly understand the chemistry involved, the Mège-Mouriès process was a significant achievement"
"in that he successfully rendered a bland, neutral fat at low temperatures, using water, and discovered that working fat and milk together gave the result a flavor similar to butter. His process resulted in a cheap but qualitatively good substitute for butter for the working class and incidentally the French Navy. Mège-Mouriès received a prize in 1870 from the French government, formally led by Emperor Louis Napoleon III. He attempted to start a manufacturing facility at Poissy, but the enterprise floundered because of the Franco-Prussian War. Mège-Mouriès applied for a number of patents for the process of making margarine. French"
"a 1784 painting. The Frenchman Paul Lemaire d'Augerville built and used autonomous diving equipment in 1824, as did the British William H. James in 1825. James' helmet was made of ""thin copper or sole of leather"" with a plate window, and the air was supplied from an iron reservoir. A similar system was used in 1831 by the American Charles Condert, who died in 1832 while testing his invention in the East River at only deep. After having travelled to England and discovering William James' invention, the French physician Manuel Théodore Guillaumet, from Argentan in (Normandy), patented the oldest known"
"power steering. The 1955 Citroën DS, developed around Magès' engineering innovations, placed third in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, behind the Ford Model T and the BMC/BL Mini. Paul Magès Paul Ernest Mary Magès (1908–1999) is known for his invention of the first self-leveling automobile suspension, known as hydro-pneumatic suspension. This system replaced conventional steel springs with an adaptive system of hydraulic struts, resulting in a motoring experience that felt like no other automobile of the era. This suspension achieved its initial design brief, fast travel on poor road surfaces. This advantage is still noted today, especially in"
"revolutionary Hydropneumatic suspension of later Citroën models including, most notably, the 1955 DS. The inventor of the Hydropneumatic suspension, Paul Magès, was born in 1908, so it is technically possible that he saw the glimmer of a good idea in the ""Messier"" and spent WW2 focused on intensive experimentation to improving the idea. He eventually used pressurized oil, not air, as the springing mechanism. The notable feature of the cars was their Air suspension. The engines were bought in from specialist engine manufacturers. The first cars used a 4-cylinder engine from CIME. There was a racing model powered by a"
"Nicéphore Niépce Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (; 7 March 1765 – 5 July 1833) was a French inventor, now usually credited as the inventor of photography and a pioneer in that field. Niépce developed heliography, a technique he used to create the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process: a print made from a photoengraved printing plate in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he used a primitive camera to produce the oldest surviving photograph of a real-world scene. Among Niépce's other inventions was the Pyréolophore, the world's first internal combustion engine, which he conceived, created, and developed with his older"
"“""Goutte de lait""” (Drop of milk), an organization that devised safer methods of infant feeding to reduce childhood mortality Dufour died on May 23, 1928. Deflandre was also the aunt of Georges Deflandre (1897-1973), a noted paleo geologist. Mme. Dufour-Deflandre died at 74 on June 7, 1946 in Paris. She was buried in Eglise St. Etienne in Fécamp on June 13, 1946. Clotilde-Camille Deflandre Clotilde-Camille Deflandre (November 21, 1871 – June 7, 1946) was a French scientist primarily known for her discovery with her mentor Paul Carnot of ""Hémopoïétine"""" (erythropoietin). She also pioneered work that led to the development of"
"Jean Baptiste Meusnier Jean Baptiste Marie Charles Meusnier de la Place (Tours, 19 June 1754 — le Pont de Cassel, near Mainz, 13 June 1793) was a French mathematician, engineer and Revolutionary general. He is best known for Meusnier's theorem on the curvature of surfaces, which he formulated while he was at the École Royale du Génie (Royal School of Engineering). He also discovered the helicoid. He worked with Lavoisier on the decomposition of water and the evolution of hydrogen. Meusnier is sometimes portrayed as the inventor of the dirigible, because of an uncompleted project he conceived in 1784, not"
"Hippolyte Fontaine Hippolyte Fontaine (born François-Hypolite Fontaine, 12 April 1833 in Dijon – 17 February 1910 in Hyères) was a French electrical engineer who worked with Zénobe Gramme on the development of the Gramme machine (the first industrially viable electrical generator), and whose contributions were essential to the creation of the dynamo. He was the first to transmit electricity via electrical wires. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, Fontaine managed the production of cannons in Paris. Colleagues he met in this position recommended him to Zenobe Gramme, and in 1871, Fontaine was hired to administer the newly established Société des"
"Prieur also patented a number of designs for mechanical lead computing sights for both ship to ship and anti-aircraft guns. In 1925 Le Prieur saw a demonstration at the Industrial and Technical Exhibition in Paris of a diver using a breathing apparatus invented by Maurice Fernez. The Fernez breathing apparatus consisted of a simple T-shaped rubber mouthpiece. On one side this was connected to a long tube down which air was pumped from the surface. On the other side of the mouthpiece, excess and exhaled air escaped from a simple rubber ""ducks bill"" valve. The diver's nose was pinched by"
"Jean-Jacques Meyer Jean-Jacques Meyer (1804–1877) was a French engineer, noted for his work with steam engines and steam locomotives. His first major invention was the Meyer expansion valve, used to improve efficiency in stationary steam engines. The first locomotives to use this invention were a pair of 2-2-2 locomotives Mayer built for the in 1842. Named ""L'Espérance"" (Hope) and ""Le Succès"" (Success), they continued in service for S-B's successor, the Chemins de fer de l'Est until 1859. He was the originator of the articulated locomotives which bear his name. Meyer registered his first patent describing the system in 1861. The"
"and died on 12 May 1684 in Paris. Mariotte is best known for his recognition in 1679 of Boyle's law about the inverse relationship of volume and pressures in gases. In 1660 he had discovered the eye's blind spot. A small coin placed in the blind spot disappears from vision, a seemingly magical event that amazed the French royal court when first presented by Mariotte. He was one of the first members of the French Academy of Sciences founded at Paris in 1666. The first volume of the ""Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie"" (1733) contains many original papers by him"
"l'Association Gens d'Images. Nicéphore Niépce Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (; 7 March 1765 – 5 July 1833) was a French inventor, now usually credited as the inventor of photography and a pioneer in that field. Niépce developed heliography, a technique he used to create the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process: a print made from a photoengraved printing plate in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he used a primitive camera to produce the oldest surviving photograph of a real-world scene. Among Niépce's other inventions was the Pyréolophore, the world's first internal combustion engine, which he conceived, created, and developed"
"to several seconds. Although the apparatus was used primarily for medical research, Londe noted that it was portable, and he used it for other subjects - for example, horses and other animals and ocean waves. General Sobert developed, in conjunction with Londe, a chronophotographic device used to study ballistics. Londe's pictures were used as illustrations in several books, most notably those by Paul Richer, that were widely read by the medical and artistic fraternity. With Étienne-Jules Marey (1830–1904), Londe performed many photographic experiments of movement, and the layout of his laboratory at the Salpêtrière was similar to Marey's renowned ""Station"
"notoriously dirty, smelly and unhealthy business. In or about 1820, the Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie nationale offered a prize for the discovery of a method, chemical or mechanical, which could be used to separate the peritoneal membrane of animal intestines without causing putrefaction. Labarraque experimented with different compositions, finding that a solution of ""chloride of lime"" (calcium hypochlorite) had better anti-putrid properties than the already-known """"Eau de Javel"""" (dilute water solution of sodium hypochlorite, first produced for bleaching purposes by Claude Berthollet in 1789), but caused slower detachment of the gut mucous membrane. He therefore preferred ""Eau de Javel,"" which"
"Maurice Fernez Maurice Fernez (30 August 1885 - 31 January 1952, Alfortville, Paris, France) was a French inventor and pioneer in the field of underwater breathing apparatus, respirators and gas masks. He was pivotal in the transition of diving from the tethered diving helmet and suit of the nineteenth century to the free diving with self-contained equipment of the twentieth century. All Fernez invented apparatus were surface-supplied but his inventions, especially his mouthpiece equipped with a one-way valve, inspired the scuba diving pioneer Yves le Prieur. He was also a talented businessman who created a company to manufacture and sell"
"Machines magnéto-électriques Gramme, a corporation dedicated to the development of the Gramme machine. In this role, he accompanied Gramme to the Weltausstellung 1873 Wien, where he demonstrated the reversibility of the electrical generator and the transmission of electricity over a two-kilometre distance via copper wiring. In 1881, he helped organize the Exposition internationale d'Électricité in Paris, which hosted the first international congress of electricians; in response, the French government inducted him into the Légion d'honneur. He is buried in Cimetière du Montparnasse. Hippolyte Fontaine Hippolyte Fontaine (born François-Hypolite Fontaine, 12 April 1833 in Dijon – 17 February 1910 in Hyères)"
"Clotilde-Camille Deflandre Clotilde-Camille Deflandre (November 21, 1871 – June 7, 1946) was a French scientist primarily known for her discovery with her mentor Paul Carnot of ""Hémopoïétine"""" (erythropoietin). She also pioneered work that led to the development of organ transplantation. She was the first woman in France to receive both a """"docteur en médicine""” (doctorate in medicine) and a ""docteur ès naturel sciences"" (doctorate in natural sciences). Deflandre was born in the 7th arrondissement of Paris on November 21, 1871. Her father, Gustave Edouard Deflandre (1851-1909) was a railroad employee, a composer of religious music, and an organist at Dom"
"rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate. Soon after, the Carabine à tige was invented by Louis-Etienne de Thouvenin, which provided for a stem at the bottom at the barrel that would deform and expand the base of the bullet when rammed, therefore enabling accurate contact with the rifling. However, the area around the stem would clog and get dirty easily. One of the most famous was the Minié system, invented by French Army Captain Claude-Étienne Minié, which relied on a conical bullet (known as a Minié ball) with a hollow skirt at the base of"
"it in their ""Book of Ingenious Devices"", mainly for protecting workers in polluted wells. In 1785, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier invented a respirator. Primitive respirator examples were used by miners and introduced by Alexander von Humboldt already in 1799, when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. There were also plague doctor's bird-beak-shaped mask filled with herbs originating from the seventeenth century. The forerunner to the modern gas mask was invented in 1847 by Lewis P. Haslett, a device that contained elements that allowed breathing through a nose and mouthpiece, inhalation of air through a bulb-shaped filter, and a"
"Le Prieur himself in Paris in 1935. Fernez had previously invented the noseclip, a mouthpiece (equipped with a one-way valve for exhalation) and diving goggles, and Yves le Prieur just joined to those three Fernez elements a hand-controlled regulator and a compressed-air cylinder. Fernez's goggles didn't allow a dive deeper than ten metres due to ""mask squeeze"", so, in 1933, Le Prieur replaced all the Fernez equipment (goggles, noseclip and valve) by a full face mask, directly supplied with constant flow air from the cylinder. In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the"
"have any practical sexual function, if operating primarily as a humorous gift, such as sex dice. Some food products may be considered novelty items, especially when first introduced, such as deep-fried Mars bars. The French mathematician and astronomer Pierre Hérigone (1580–1643) describes a novelty item that was a camera obscura in the form of a goblet. Hérigone's device was constructed so that the user could spy on others while taking a drink. Its 45-degree mirror had a stylized opening for the lens and the lid bore a magnifying lens at the top. Lenticular printing was developed in the 1940s, and"