"other metal is not easily oxidized in air and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. The firstalloy, used in large scale since 3000 BC, was bronze, an alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for tableware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more of tin. Another large application for tin is"
"(heating and cooling), addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of conformal coatings. Traditionally, lead was added to slow down whisker growth in tin-based solders. Following the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS), the European Union banned the use of lead in most consumer electronic products from 2006 due to health problems associated with lead and the ""high-tech trash"" problem, leading to a re-focusing on the issue of whisker formation in lead-free solders. Metal whiskering is a crystalline metallurgical phenomenon involving the spontaneous growth of tiny, filiform hairs from a metallic surface. The effect is primarily seen"
"the health and environmental benefits of avoiding lead-based electronic components. They are almost exclusively used today in consumer electronics. Plumbers often use bars of solder, much thicker than the wire used for electrical applications. Jewelers often use solder in thin sheets, which they cut into snippets. On July 1, 2006 the European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) came into effect, restricting the inclusion of lead in most consumer electronics sold in the EU, and having a broad effect on consumer electronics sold worldwide. In the US, manufacturers may receive tax"
"disadvantages. Soft solder is so called because of the soft lead that is its primary ingredient. Soft soldering uses the lowest temperatures (and so thermally stresses components the least) but does not make a strong joint and is unsuitable for mechanical load-bearing applications. It is also unsuitable for high-temperature applications as it loses strength, and eventually melts. Silver soldering, as used by jewelers, machinists and in some plumbing applications, requires the use of a torch or other high-temperature source, and is much stronger than soft soldering. Brazing provides the strongest of the non-welded joints but also requires the hottest temperatures"
"concerns over atmospheric pollution and hazardous waste disposal, the electronics industry has been gradually shifting from rosin flux to water-soluble flux, which can be removed with deionized water and detergent, instead of hydrocarbon solvents. In contrast to using traditional bars or coiled wires of all-metal solder and manually applying flux to the parts being joined, much hand soldering since the mid-20th century has used flux-core solder. This is manufactured as a coiled wire of solder, with one or more continuous bodies of inorganic acid or rosin flux embedded lengthwise inside it. As the solder melts onto the joint, it frees"
"to PCBs, terminals, and wires. Musical instruments, especially brass and woodwind instruments, use a combination of soldering and brazing in their assembly. Brass bodies are often a soldered together, while keywork and braces are most often brazed. Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in melting point) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. Some examples of soft-solder are tin-lead for general purposes, tin-zinc for joining aluminium,"
"and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive came into effect on 1 July 2006, the lead content in such alloys has decreased. Replacing lead has many problems, including a higher melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers causing electrical problems. Tin pest can occur in lead-free solders, leading to loss of the soldered joint. Replacement alloys are rapidly being found, although problems of joint integrity remain. Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating lead, zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation, and this"
"in electronics (soft soldering) was rosin-based, using the rosin from selected pine trees. It was nearly ideal in that it was non-corrosive and non-conductive at normal temperatures but became mildly reactive (corrosive) at elevated soldering temperatures. Plumbing and automotive applications, among others, typically use an acid-based (hydrochloric acid) flux which provides rather aggressive cleaning of the joint. These fluxes cannot be used in electronics because their residues are conductive leading to unintended electrical connections, and because they will eventually dissolve small diameter wires. Citric Acid is an excellent water soluble acid type flux for copper and electronics but must be"
"joint over time. Solder used in making electrical connections also needs to have favorable electrical characteristics. Soft solder typically has a melting point range of , and is commonly used in electronics, plumbing, and sheet metal work. Alloys that melt between are the most commonly used. Soldering performed using alloys with a melting point above is called ""hard soldering"", ""silver soldering"", or brazing. In specific proportions, some alloys can become eutectic — that is, their melting point is the same as their freezing point, and the alloy's melting point is lower than that of either component. Non-eutectic alloys have markedly"
"ferrimagnetic but nonconductive. Ferrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain iron oxides combined with nickel, zinc, and/or manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called """"soft ferrites"""" to distinguish them from """"hard ferrites"""", which have a high coercivity and are used to make ferrite magnets. The low coercivity means the material's magnetization can easily reverse direction without dissipating much energy (hysteresis losses), while the material's high resistivity prevents eddy currents in the core, another source of energy loss. The most common soft ferrites are: For applications below 5 MHz, MnZn ferrites are used; above that,"
"partially brittle joint separation to a ductile tearing with the SAC. Tin-silver-copper Tin-silver-copper (SnAgCu, also known as SAC), is a lead-free (Pb-free) alloy commonly used for electronic solder. The tin-silver-copper alloy has been the prevailing alloy system used to replace tin-lead because it is near eutectic, with adequate thermal fatigue properties, strength, and wettability. Lead-free solder is gaining much attention as the environmental effects of lead in industrial products is recognized, and as a result of Europe’s RoHS legislation to remove lead and other hazardous materials from electronics. Japanese electronics companies have also looked at Pb-free solder for its industrial"
"or lead. Until the year 2012 lead had been replaced with the metal zinc and was used in the ratio of 50% tin and 50% zinc. This alloy had a low melting point of approximately 360 degrees Fahrenheit but is no longer available. Today terne coated metal is coated with 99.9% tin, instead of hot-dipping, a more consistent galvanic deposition process is applied. Additionally the substrate has been changed from steel to stainless steel, benefitting from the corrosion resistance of stainless steel alloys. The pure tin alloy makes soldering easier, as the melting point is homogenised and doesn't need to"
"of the workpieces at the junction to form an electrically conductive gas- and liquid-tight bond. Soft soldering is characterized by having a melting point of the filler metal below approximately , whereas silver soldering and brazing use higher temperatures, typically requiring a flame or carbon arc torch to achieve the melting of the filler. Soft solder filler metals are typically alloys (often containing lead) that have liquidus temperatures below . In this soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and to bond to the workpieces in a surface alloying process called"
"the flux and releases that on it as well. Hard solders are used for brazing, and melt at higher temperatures. Alloys of copper with either zinc or silver are the most common. In silversmithing or jewelry making, special hard solders are used that will pass assay. They contain a high proportion of the metal being soldered and lead is not used in these alloys. These solders vary in hardness, designated as ""enameling"", ""hard"", ""medium"" and ""easy"". Enameling solder has a high melting point, close to that of the material itself, to prevent the joint desoldering during firing in the enameling"
"which would otherwise cause electrical shorting. However, RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) regulations enacted beginning in 2006 require that no lead be added intentionally and that the maximum percentage not exceed 1%. Some exemptions have been issued to RoHS requirements in critical electronics applications due to failures which are known to have occurred as a result of tin whisker formation. In some cases, it is desirable to co-deposit two or more metals resulting in an electroplated alloy deposit. Depending on the alloy system, an electroplated alloy may be solid solution strengthened or precipitation hardened by heat treatment to improve the"
"be cut by a laser, or by wire EDM. Electrical steel is an iron alloy which may have from zero to 6.5% silicon (Si:5Fe). Commercial alloys usually have silicon content up to 3.2% (higher concentrations usually provoke brittleness during cold rolling). Manganese and aluminum can be added up to 0.5%. Silicon significantly increases the electrical resistivity of the steel; this change decreases the induced eddy currents and narrows the hysteresis loop of the material, thus lowering the core loss. However, the grain structure hardens and embrittles the metal; this change adversely affects the workability of the material, especially when rolling"
"lead has been widely believed to mitigate the formation of tin whiskers, though the precise mechanism for this is unknown. Today, many techniques are used to mitigate the problem, including changes to the annealing process (heating and cooling), addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of conformal coatings. Alloys commonly used for electrical soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at , and 63/37 Sn-Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is a eutectic alloy of these metals, which: In the United States, lead is prohibited in solder and flux in plumbing applications for drinking water use, per"
"temperature, not the strength of the joint. Extra-easy solder contains 56% silver and has a melting point of . Extra-hard solder has 80% silver and melts at . If multiple joints are needed, then the jeweler will start with hard or extra-hard solder and switch to lower-temperature solders for later joints. Silver solder is somewhat absorbed by the surrounding metal, resulting in a joint that is actually stronger than the metal being joined. The metal being joined must be perfectly flush, as silver solder cannot normally be used as a filler and will not fill gaps. Another difference between brazing"
"relativistically stabilised and it is more difficult to get them involved in chemical bonding than for the heavier elements. Thus, very few electrons are available for metallic bonding, similar to the neighboring elements mercury and lead, and hence thallium, like its congeners, is a soft, highly electrically conducting metal with a low melting point of 304 °C. A number of standard electrode potentials, depending on the reaction under study, are reported for thallium, reflecting the greatly decreased stability of the +3 oxidation state: Thallium is the first element in group 13 where the reduction of the +3 oxidation state to"
"of 600 V (numeric value of the highest voltage at which an electrical insulating material withstands 50 drops of electrolytic test solution) is achieved. Further benefits of polyamides and polyesters containing aluminium diethyl phosphinate are low smoke density which makes them suitable for rolling stock applications to EN 45545, as well as good light stability which is needed for outdoor applications. The EU’s RoHS directive forced E&E manufacturers to switch to lead-free solder systems running at about 30 °C higher temperatures than traditional systems. In particular, in the so-called surface mount technology (SMT) used to connect semiconductor components mechanically and"
"(95%+) tin. For example, the common ""SAC305"" solder is 3.0% silver and 0.5% copper. Cheaper alternatives with less silver are used in some applications, such as SAC105 and SAC0307 (0.3% silver, 0.7% copper), at the expense of a somewhat higher melting point. SAC alloys are the main choice for lead-free surface-mount technology (SMT) assembly in the electronics industry. SMT is a process where components of circuit assemblies are mounted directly onto the surface of a printed circuit board and soldered in place. SMT has largely replaced “through-hole technology” where components are fitted with wire leads into holes in the circuit"
"objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators. Jewelry components, machine tools and some refrigeration and plumbing components are often assembled and repaired by the higher temperature silver soldering process. Small mechanical parts are often soldered or brazed as well. Soldering is also used to join lead came and copper foil in stained glass work. Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic components to printed circuit boards by utilizing a metallic alloy substance called solder. This special alloy is melted by using a soldering iron, a wave bath, or a specialized oven, as it joins conductors"
"materials generally considered difficult to solder without premetallization. The active solders can be protected against excessive oxidation of their active element by addition of rare earth elements with higher affinity to oxygen (typically cerium or lanthanum). Another common additive is gallium – usually introduced as a wetting promoter. Mechanical activation, needed for active soldering, can be performed by brushing (for example with use of stainless wire brush or steel spatula) or ultrasonic vibration (20–60 kHz). Active soldering has been shown to effectively bond ceramics, aluminium, titanium, silicon, graphite and carbon nanotube based structures at temperatures lower than 450 °C or"
"on heating, force, drying, illumination, or sometimes spontaneously. To avoid the formation of such compounds, ammonia and acetylene should be kept away from silver equipment. Salts of silver with strongly oxidising acids such as silver chlorate and silver nitrate can explode on contact with materials that can be readily oxidised, such as organic compounds, sulfur and soot. Silver Silver is a chemical element with symbol Ag (from the Latin """", derived from the Proto-Indo-European ""h₂erǵ"": ""shiny"" or ""white"") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any"
"coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60 ppm germanium. It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is ball grid array (BGA) using tin-lead solder"
"the joint is produced using a metal with a lower melting temperature than the workpiece, the joint will weaken as the ambient temperature approaches the melting point of the filler metal. For that reason, the higher temperature processes produce joints which are effective at higher temperatures. Brazed connections can be as strong or nearly as strong as the parts they connect, even at elevated temperatures. ""Hard soldering"" or ""silver soldering"" is used to join precious and semi-precious metals such as gold, silver, brass, and copper. The solder is usually described as easy, medium, or hard in reference to its melting"
"Mu-metal Mu-metal is a nickel–iron soft ferromagnetic alloy with very high permeability, which is used for shielding sensitive electronic equipment against static or low-frequency magnetic fields. It has several compositions. One such composition is approximately 77% nickel, 16% iron, 5% copper, and 2% chromium or molybdenum. More recently, mu-metal is considered to be ASTM A753 Alloy 4 and is composed of approximately 80% nickel, 5% molybdenum, small amounts of various other elements such as silicon, and the remaining 12 to 15% iron. The name came from the Greek letter mu (μ) which represents permeability in physics and engineering formulae. A"
"electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity. Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding. The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.91×10 cm. Gold is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance)."
"with any material they could arise after prolonged contact with the human body. Ti6Al4V ELI alloy contains aluminum and vanadium. When the EU Nickel Directive came into force - high nickel bearing alloys were restricted from use in primary (new) piercings. Because of its virtually 'Nickel Free' content Titanium has become one of the preferred materials used in piercing jewellery within the borders of the EU. Titanium jewellery is lightweight (around 60% the weight of stainless steel given the same volume), it is highly corrosion resistant and less likely to react with body fluids, is not magnetic, it can be"
"electropositive elements: lanthanides, strontium, barium, yttrium, caesium) form nonvolatile fluorides. Few metals in the fission products (the transition metals niobium, ruthenium, technetium, molybdenum, and the halogen iodine) form volatile (boiling point <200 °C) fluorides that accompany the uranium and plutonium hexafluorides, together with inert gases. Distillation is then used to separate the uranium hexafluoride from the mixture. The nonvolatile alkaline fission products and minor actinides is most suitable for further processing with 'dry' electrochemical processing (pyrochemical) non-aqueous methods. The lanthanide fluorides are difficult to dissolve in the nitric acid used for aqueous reprocessing methods, such as PUREX, DIAMEX and SANEX,"
"roentgenium have been known since prehistoric times, as all of them occur in metallic form in nature and no extraction metallurgy is necessary to produce them. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior, although roentgenium is probably an exception: All Group 11 elements are relatively inert, corrosion-resistant metals. Copper and gold are colored. These elements have low electrical resistivity so they are used for wiring. Copper is the cheapest and most widely used. Bond wires for integrated circuits are usually gold. Silver and"
"The free element, a silvery metal with a gray cast, has the sixth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms hard, stable carbides in alloys, and for this reason most of world production of the element (about 80%) is used in steel alloys, including high-strength alloys and superalloys. Most molybdenum compounds have low solubility in water, but when molybdenum-bearing minerals contact oxygen and water, the resulting molybdate ion is quite soluble. Industrially, molybdenum compounds (about 14% of world production of the element) are used in high-pressure and high-temperature applications as pigments and catalysts. In its pure form, molybdenum is"
"silver wiring on the front is eliminated and replaced by a transparent electrode material, similar to the materials used in LCD televisions and similar devices. These electrodes have poorer electrical characteristics than silver, but by covering the entire face of the cell they improve overall performance, while eliminating light blockage. The back of the cell replaces the thin aluminum layer with a thicker copper one, which both improves electrical performance as well as offering a much more physically robust platform while eliminating corrosion that occurs in the aluminum over time. On June 23, 2010, The company announced that it has"