"the length of the chromosome which, topologically speaking, would have no net twists. Such a chromosome does not need to either spin or unwind during replication. Rodley in later published work makes it clear that it was not the intention of his team that the model utilized alternating half turns of opposite helical sense, but lengths of DNA having alternating helical senses deployed in the available space along the DNA molecule that would not exactly be half turns. One key observation in support of a double-helical structure is that the individual single strands of small circular viral and plasmid DNA"
"to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize ""for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances"" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix. The amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e.,"
"description reads: ""A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease."" The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located"
"helical structure proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. The model proposed by Sasisekharan allowed the separation of polynucleotides without uncoiling them and was reported to have been a new solution. He has published his research findings as articles in peer-reviewed journals; PubMed, an online article repository has listed 89 of them while Microsoft Academic Search has listed 14 of his articles. He holds 5 US patents for his researches. His son, Ram Sasisekharan, is also a known biophysicist and a co-author of some of his publications. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research awarded Sasisekharan the Shanti"
"to Lipscomb ""for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding"". In a way this continued work on the nature of the chemical bond by his Doctoral Advisor at the California Institute of Technology, Linus Pauling, who was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry ""for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances."" The source for about half of this section is Lipscomb's Nobel Lecture. Lipscomb's later research focused on the atomic structure of proteins, particularly how enzymes work. His group used"
"memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The , bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon. Ribbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase. Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2."
"the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not. It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general. In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and"
"keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix. Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of ""planar"" peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful"
"to have won two Nobel prizes in physics, having done so in 1956 and 1972 while on faculty at the university. In 2003, two faculty members won Nobel prizes in different disciplines: Paul C. Lauterbur for physiology or medicine, and Anthony Leggett for physics. Fazlur Rahman Khan, considered to be the preeminent structural engineer of the 20th century, is an alumnus. Khan had been responsible for the engineering design of many major architectural projects, such as the 100-story John Hancock Center, and the 110-story Willis Tower (formerly known as Sears Tower). Richard Hamming, known for the Hamming code and Hamming"
"been a stumbling block on the way to fully computational materials design. Now, with more powerful algorithms and high-performance computing, structures of medium complexity can be predicted using such approaches as evolutionary algorithms, random sampling, or metadynamics. The crystal structures of simple ionic solids (e.g., NaCl or table salt) have long been rationalized in terms of Pauling's rules, first set out in 1929 by Linus Pauling, referred to by many since as the ""father of the chemical bond"". Pauling also considered the nature of the interatomic forces in metals, and concluded that about half of the five d-orbitals in the"
"Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure. In 1948 Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray"
"Linus Pauling discovered the chemical structure of protein and proposed a completely wrong structure for DNA, which carries hereditary information from parent to offspring. Pauling guessed a wrong structure for DNA because he assumed that a pattern that worked for protein would also work for DNA. He overlooked the gross chemical differences between protein and DNA. Francis Crick and James Watson paid attention to the differences and found the correct structure for DNA that Pauling had missed a year earlier. Astronomer Fred Hoyle discovered the process by which the heavier elements essential to life are created by nuclear reactions in"
"bonds. The four bonds are of the same length and strength, which yields a molecular structure as shown below: Owing to these exceptional theories, Pauling won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Notably he has been the only person to ever win two unshared Nobel prizes, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1963. In 1926, French physicist Jean Perrin received the Nobel Prize in physics for proving, conclusively, the existence of molecules. He did this by calculating Avogadro's number using three different methods, all involving liquid phase systems. First, he used a gamboge soap-like emulsion, second by doing experimental work"
"Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth. There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet. The asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by Eleanor F. Helin, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday. Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling. Nobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him. In 2010, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including"
"Linus Pauling Linus Carl Pauling (; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, educator, and husband of American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics. ""New Scientist"" called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time, and as of 2000, he was rated the 16th most important scientist in history. Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology. His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include"
"standard pressures and temperatures, it will convert into crystalline ceramic phases like leucite or pollucite upon heating.' ""For ceramic scientists"" In 1937, W. L. Bragg published a method for classifying all kinds of silicates and their crystal structures based on the concept of the ionic theory by L. Pauling. The fundamental unit is a tetrahedral complex consisting of a small cation such as Si, or Al in tetrahedral coordination with four oxygens (Pauling’s first rule). Many textbooks explain the geometry of the SiO tetrahedron and other mineral structures as determined by the relative sizes of the different ions. This ionic"
"fact that the hexagonal crystalline structure of common water ice contains oxygen atoms with four neighboring hydrogen atoms. In ice, for each oxygen atom, two of the neighboring hydrogen atoms are near (forming the traditional HO molecule), and two are further away (being the hydrogen atoms of two neighboring water molecules). Pauling noted that the number of configurations conforming to this ""two-near, two-far"" ice rule grows exponentially with the system size, and, therefore, that the zero-temperature entropy of ice was expected to be extensive. Pauling's findings were confirmed by specific heat measurements, though pure crystals of water ice are particularly"
"received his doctorate and visited Heitler and London in Zürich on a Guggenheim Fellowship. Subsequently, in 1931, building on the work of Heitler and London and on theories found in Lewis' famous article, Pauling published his ground-breaking article ""The Nature of the Chemical Bond"" (see: manuscript) in which he used quantum mechanics to calculate properties and structures of molecules, such as angles between bonds and rotation about bonds. On these concepts, Pauling developed hybridization theory to account for bonds in molecules such as CH, in which four sp³ hybridised orbitals are overlapped by hydrogen's ""1s"" orbital, yielding four sigma (σ)"
"The high latent heat of sublimation is principally indicative of the strength of the hydrogen bonds in the crystal lattice. The latent heat of melting is much smaller, partly because liquid water near 0 °C also contains a significant number of hydrogen bonds. The refractive index of ice I is 1.31. The accepted crystal structure of ordinary ice was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1935. The structure of ice I is roughly one of crinkled planes composed of tessellating hexagonal rings, with an oxygen atom on each vertex, and the edges of the rings formed by hydrogen bonds. The"
"Nobel Prize in Physics winner H. David Politzer is a current professor at Caltech, as is astrophysicist and author Kip Thorne and eminent mathematician Barry Simon. Linus Pauling pioneered quantum chemistry and molecular biology, and went on to discover the nature of the chemical bond in 1939. Seismologist Charles Richter, also an alumnus, developed the magnitude scale that bears his name, the Richter magnitude scale for measuring the power of earthquakes. One of the founders of the geochemistry department, Clair Patterson was the first to accurately determine the age of the Earth via lead:uranium ratio in meteorites. In engineering, Theodore"
"Maynard Daly who was the first woman of color in the United States to earn her doctorate in Chemistry. In 1948, Branson took a leave and spent time at the California Institute of Technology, in the laboratory of the chemist Linus Pauling. There he was assigned work on the structure of proteins, specifically to use his mathematical abilities to determine possible helical structures that would fit both the available X-ray crystallography data and a set of chemical restrictions outlined by Pauling. After some months of work, Branson handed in a report narrowing the possible structures to two helices: a tighter"
"of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Wilkins. When Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old graduate student (due to his work during WWII) and Watson was only 23, but he already had a Ph.D. They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic"
"the physics and chemistry departments. At both NYU and Chicago, he continued to refine his molecular-orbital theory. Up to this point, the primary way to calculate the electronic structure of molecules was based on a calculation by Walter Heitler and Fritz London on the hydrogen molecule (H) in 1927. With the conception of hybridized atomic orbitals by John C. Slater and Linus Pauling, which rationalized observed molecular geometries, the method was based on the premise that the bonds in any molecule could be described in a manner similar to the bond in H, namely, as overlapping atomic orbitals centered on"
"in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of"
"faces, aligned with each set of four parallel edges of the cube. This structure was conjectured to be analogous to that of the hypothetical dodecahedral fullerene . However, this claim was soon disputed by Linus Pauling who proposed an alternative arrangement—with the titanium atoms still at the corners of a cube, but with the carbon atoms pushed inwards so as to be nearly coplanar with the faces of that cube. The first ab initio theoretical investigations of the structure of (by Li and others, Methfessel and others, in 1993) indicated a slightly distorted version of the dodecahedron proposed by Guo"
"discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure. Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the ""father of molecular biology"". His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a ""molecular disease"" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level. Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, ""The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain,"" was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the"
"the head of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology at the University of Cambridge, wrote the first paper documenting the elusive 3-helix. Together with Lawrence Bragg and John Kendrew, Perutz published an exploration of polypeptide chain configurations in 1950, based on cues from noncrystalline diffraction data as well as from small molecule crystal structures such as collagen found in hair. Their proposals included what is now known as the 3 helix, but did not include the two most common structural motifs now known to occur. The following year, Linus Pauling predicted both of those motifs, the alpha helix"
"and B forms of DNA were composed of two helical chains. By then, James Watson and Francis Crick at the Cambridge University had built a correct double helical model of DNA, based on her experimental data. The discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 is regarded as ""the greatest and most important scientific discovery of the 20th Century"". Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for the discovery. This discovery laid the foundation for modern biology, including medical and molecular researches. The discoverers earned a lasting worldwide fame. But"
"helical model as valid among different biological species, as well as in living systems, to establish the universality of the double helix structure. He became deputy director of the MRC Biophysics Unit at King's in 1955, and succeeded Randall as director of the unit from 1970 to 1972. Wilkins was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959 and an EMBO Member in 1964. In 1960 he was presented with the American Public Health Association's Albert Lasker Award, and in 1962 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Also in 1962 he shared"
"Balliol. In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938 he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures and completed the bulk of his famous textbook ""The Nature of the Chemical Bond"". While at Cornell, Pauling resided at the Telluride House. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 ""for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its"
"the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model: Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. However, he declined, not wanting to uproot his family. Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts. The National Defense Research"
"by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than one kelvin. He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not solidify at atmospheric pressure. Onnes' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressure. In 1913, Niels Bohr published his ""trilogy"" on atomic structure that included a reconsideration of the Pickering–Fowler series as central evidence in support of his model of the atom. This series is named for Edward Charles Pickering, who in 1896 published observations of previously"
"than the best materials. The situation is comparable with heat pipes where heat is transported via gas–liquid conversion. The high thermal conductivity of He-II is applied for stabilizing superconducting magnets such as in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. L. D. Landau's phenomenological and semi-microscopic theory of superfluidity of helium-4 earned him the Nobel Prize in physics, in 1962. Assuming that sound waves are the most important excitations in helium-4 at low temperatures, he showed that helium-4 flowing past a wall would not spontaneously create excitations if the flow velocity was less than the sound velocity. In this model, the"