"rock was affixed to a microscope slide and then ground so thin that light could be transmitted through mineral grains that otherwise appeared opaque. The position of adjoining grains was not disturbed, thus permitting analysis of rock texture. Thin section petrography became the standard method of rock study. Since textural details contribute greatly to knowledge of the sequence of crystallization of the various mineral constituents in a rock, petrography progressed into petrogenesis and ultimately into petrology. It was in Europe, principally in Germany, that petrography advanced in the last half of the nineteenth century. The macroscopic characters of rocks, those"
"Petrology Petrology (from the Greek πέτρος, ""pétros"", ""rock"" and λόγος, ""lógos"", ""subject matter"", see -logy) is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is, on the other hand, commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale"
"and cycles and the use of thermodynamic data and experiments in order to better understand the origins of rocks. There are three branches of petrology, corresponding to the three types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary, and another dealing with experimental techniques: Petrology Petrology (from the Greek πέτρος, ""pétros"", ""rock"" and λόγος, ""lógos"", ""subject matter"", see -logy) is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and"
"Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of artefacts. Samples are ground to a thickness of 0.03 mm and mounted on a glass slide. The approach relies heavily on the geological principles of optical mineralogy, thin section petrography and soil micromorphology. It combines these with an appreciation of the craft of ceramic manufacture and interprets data within an archaeological framework. Ceramic petrography is used in academic"
"origin of the rock. Electron microprobe analysis of individual grains as well as whole rock chemical analysis by atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy are used in a modern petrographic lab. Individual mineral grains from a rock sample may also be analyzed by X-ray diffraction when optical means are insufficient. Analysis of microscopic fluid inclusions within mineral grains with a heating stage on a petrographic microscope provides clues to the temperature and pressure conditions existent during the mineral formation. Petrography as a science began in 1828 when Scottish physicist William Nicol invented the technique for producing polarized light"
"and is also used to make inferences about exchange, economy and social dynamics. The Munsell color system is used to categorize colors of shards, while other aspects such as grain size and hardness are examined using other charts. Information on the process of manufacturing can also be rendered from pottery. Petrology studies characteristics of rocks, which are often used as temper in different forms of pottery. By studying temper in more detail, pottery can be sourced to specific manufacturers or geographic locations. Petrology can also inform studies of manufacturing techniques. Petrological techniques can be applied to pottery and bricks. However,"
"Archaeological Science and Geoarchaeology, as well as edited volumes. Petrographic research is often presented at the International Symposium on Archaeometry, the European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics and the meetings of the Ceramic Petrology Group. Commercial petrographic analysis of ceramics and other artefacts is offered by companies such as ceramicpetrology.co.uk in the UK, and Desert Archaeology in the USA. Ceramic petrography Ceramic petrography (or ceramic petrology) is a laboratory-based scientific archaeological technique that examines the mineralogical and microstructural composition of ceramics and other inorganic materials under the polarised light microscope in order to interpret aspects of the provenance and technology of"
"Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these rock properties by acquiring"
"ΦT – Vsh *Φsh Petrophysics Petrophysics (from the Greek πέτρα, ""petra"", ""rock"" and φύσις, ""physis"", ""nature"") is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids. A major application of petrophysics is in studying reservoirs for the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir engineers and geoscientists understand the rock properties of the reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected, controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the key properties studied in petrophysics are lithology, porosity, water saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of petrophysics is measuring and evaluating these"
"such as Science and Nature. Study material, overviews of certain topics and older works are often found as books. Many works before the plate tectonics paradigm shift in the 1960s and 1970s contains inaccurate information regarding the origin of magmas. Igneous petrology Igneous petrology is the study of igneous rocks—those that are formed from magma. As a branch of geology, igneous petrology is closely related to volcanology, tectonophysics, and petrology in general. The modern study of igneous rocks utilizes a number of techniques, some of them developed in the fields of chemistry, physics, or other earth sciences. Petrography, crystallography, and"
"Metallography Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, by using microscopy. Ceramic and polymeric materials may also be prepared using metallographic techniques, hence the terms ceramography, plastography and, collectively, materialography. The surface of a metallographic specimen is prepared by various methods of grinding, polishing, and etching. After preparation, it is often analyzed using optical or electron microscopy. Using only metallographic techniques, a skilled technician can identify alloys and predict material properties. Mechanical preparation is the most common preparation method. Successively finer abrasive particles are used to remove material from the sample surface until the desired"
"Ferrography Ferrography is a specialized type of oil analysis used to study particle wear on machine components through analysis of contaminants in lubricating oil. It can be used to predict and diagnose errors occurring on machinery. Ferrography is related to tribology, which is the study of friction between interacting surfaces. Since the advent of ferrography in the 1970s it has been used in many industrial settings as a form of preventative maintenance. Ferrography was pioneered in the 1970s by the late Vernon C. Westcott to help the United States military diagnose problems related to bearing failure before the issues became"
"their own. Ferrography Ferrography is a specialized type of oil analysis used to study particle wear on machine components through analysis of contaminants in lubricating oil. It can be used to predict and diagnose errors occurring on machinery. Ferrography is related to tribology, which is the study of friction between interacting surfaces. Since the advent of ferrography in the 1970s it has been used in many industrial settings as a form of preventative maintenance. Ferrography was pioneered in the 1970s by the late Vernon C. Westcott to help the United States military diagnose problems related to bearing failure before the"
"Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, the geological science associated with the study of strata or rock layers. Major focuses include geochronology, comparative geology, and petrology. In general a stratum will be primarily igneous or sedimentary relating to how the rock was formed. Sedimentary layers are laid down by deposition of sediment associated with weathering processes, decaying organic matters (biogenic) or through chemical precipitation. These layers are distinguishable as having many fossils and are important for the study of biostratigraphy. Igneous layers are either plutonic or volcanic in character depending upon the cooling rate of the rock. These layers"
"Petrographic microscope A petrographic microscope is a type of optical microscope used in petrology and optical mineralogy to identify rocks and minerals in thin sections. The microscope is used in optical mineralogy and petrography, a branch of petrology which focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. The method is called ""polarized light microscopy"" (PLM). Depending on the grade of observation required, petrological microscopes are derived from conventional brightfield microscopes of similar basic capabilities by: Petrographic microscopes are constructed with optical parts that do not add unwanted polarizing effects due to strained glass, or polarization by reflection in prisms and mirrors. These"
"and Petrography from the most diversified parts of the world. It is the 4th Natural History Museum in the Region of Great Lisbon () and differs with its uniqueness having pieces covering all the continents of the Earth. There are more than 10000 fossils, a collection of trilobites and some rare and well preserved specimens of dinosaurs. Minerals with parts of rock, isolated and stoned minerals are also exhibited. The Museum is composed of a collection of paleontology (9416 fossils); a collection of mineralogy (900 minerals); A collection of malacology (1347 shells); A collection of petrography (544 samples of rocks)."
"Ampelography Ampelography (ἄμπελος, ""vine"" + γράφος, ""writing"") is the field of botany concerned with the identification and classification of grapevines, ""Vitis"" spp. Traditionally this has been done by comparing the shape and colour of the vine leaves and grape berries; more recently the study of vines has been revolutionised by DNA fingerprinting. The grape vine is an extremely variable species and some , such as Pinot, mutate particularly frequently. At the same time, the wine and table grape industries have been important since ancient times, so large sums of money can depend on the correct identification of different varieties and"
"Petrifaction In geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin). Petrifaction takes place through a combination of two similar processes: permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the"
"archaeological research and commercial archaeology to address a range of issues. A common goal is tracing the movement of pottery and associated trade through provenance determination. The principle of provenance ascription with ceramic petrography relies on the fact that ""the mineral and rock inclusions within a paste are a reflection of the geology of the source area of the ceramics"" and that potters did not transport ceramic raw materials over significant distances. An equally important concern is the nature of ancient ceramic production and its meaning in terms of the knowledge, skills, identity and traditions of potters. As synthetic materials,"
"Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited 'window' into the subsurface world, provided by one (or possibly more) exploration wells. These wells present only a 1-dimensional segment through the Earth and the skill of inferring 3-dimensional characteristics from them is one of the most fundamental"
"ceramics are ""sensitive indicators of human decision making and materials interaction"". By examining microstructural evidence for processes such as clay paste preparation, forming and firing, ceramic petrographers can reconstruct the steps involved in the production of ceramic artefacts. Ceramic petrography originated in the American Southwest with the work of Anna O. Shepard but has mainly been developed in the Old World in the later half of the 20th century. Other early studies include the work of David Peacock and his students in the UK Ceramic petrography continues to be applied to the interpretation of British ceramics and is used heavily"
"in the prehistoric Aegean. In the USA the approach is less popular, though important contributions have been made in the area of quantitative petrography. Other attempts to extend ceramic petrography include the use of automated image analysis, the palaeontological analysis of microscopic fossils within ceramic thin sections and the combined statistical classification of petrographic and chemical data from artefacts. Thin section archaeological petrography can be applied to a range of other artefact types in addition to ceramics; these include plaster, mortar, mudbricks and lithic implements. Academic papers on ceramic petrography are often published in journals such as Archaeometry, Journal of"
"chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past. Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, and the current was well known to mariners, Benjamin Franklin"
"Stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy) and biostratigraphy (biologic stratigraphy). Catholic priest Nicholas Steno established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy when he introduced the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality and the principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the fossilization of organic remains in layers of sediment. The first practical large-scale application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and"
"Pyrography Pyrography or pyrogravure is the art of decorating wood or other materials with burn marks resulting from the controlled application of a heated object such as a poker. It is also known as pokerwork or wood burning. The term means ""writing with fire"", from the Greek ""pur"" (fire) and ""graphos"" (writing). It can be practiced using specialized modern pyrography tools, or using a metal implement heated in a fire, or even sunlight concentrated with a magnifying lens. ""Pyrography dates from the 17th century and reached its highest standard in the 19th century. In its crude form it is pokerwork."""
"Palaeography Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from , ""palaiós"", ""old"", and , ""graphein"", ""to write"") is the study of ancient and historical handwriting (that is to say, of the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents). Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. The discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating ancient texts. However, it cannot in general be used to pinpoint dates with high precision."
"Crystallography Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure). The word ""crystallography"" derives from the Greek words ""crystallon"" ""cold drop, frozen drop"", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ""graphein"" ""to write"". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used to determine the structure of large biomolecules such as proteins. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was"
"and does not list the physical properties of individual crystals themselves. Each book is about 1000 pages and the titles of the books are: Crystallography Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure). The word ""crystallography"" derives from the Greek words ""crystallon"" ""cold drop, frozen drop"", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ""graphein"" ""to write"". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used"
"Igneous petrology Igneous petrology is the study of igneous rocks—those that are formed from magma. As a branch of geology, igneous petrology is closely related to volcanology, tectonophysics, and petrology in general. The modern study of igneous rocks utilizes a number of techniques, some of them developed in the fields of chemistry, physics, or other earth sciences. Petrography, crystallography, and isotopic studies are common methods used in igneous petrology. The composition of igneous rocks and minerals can be determined via a variety of methods of varying ease, cost, and complexity. The simplest method is observation of hand samples with the"
"Rheology Rheology (; from Greek ῥέω ""rhéō"", ""flow"" and -λoγία, -""logia"", ""study of"") is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as ""soft solids"" or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force. It is a branch of physics which deals with the deformation and flow of materials, both solids and liquids. The term ""rheology"" was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner. The term was inspired by"
"Paleoceanography (journal) Paleoceanography is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Geophysical Union. It covers the history of the ocean and its plant and animal life. The editor-in-chief of ""Paleoceanography"" is Christopher D. Charles (University of California, San Diego). ""Paleoceanography"" accepts articles that reconstruct past conditions and processes recorded in sediments deposited in water. The main focus is on marine sediments, but also extends to sediments from freshwater environments. The past is reconstructed using sedimentology, geochemistry, paleontology, oceanography, geophysics, and modeling. Contributions are global and regional in scope and cover all ages, Precambrian to Quaternary, including modern analogs. ""Paleoceanography"""
"45 covered only manual chart methods and an image analysis method for making such chart measurements was described in ASTM E 1122. The image analysis methods are currently being incorporated into E 45). A stereological method for characterizing discrete second-phase particles, such as nonmetallic inclusions, carbides, graphite, etc., is presented in ASTM E 1245. Metallography Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, by using microscopy. Ceramic and polymeric materials may also be prepared using metallographic techniques, hence the terms ceramography, plastography and, collectively, materialography. The surface of a metallographic specimen is prepared by various methods"
"in each of its research areas: Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Philippe Guionneau, Professor at the Institut de Chimie et de la Matière Condensée in Bordeaux is the current President of the AFC. Crystallography studies crystals from the atomic to the macroscopic scale. These crystals may be composed of atoms, ions, organic molecules or biological macromolecules, but they may also be quasi-crystalline objects such as those of material physicists. Experimental methods, instrumentation and fields of research of crystallography thus cover areas of physics, chemistry and biology, but also mathematics, which play an essential role in structural determination methods. Crystallography is thus"