"Grape-Nuts Grape-Nuts is a breakfast cereal developed in 1897 by C. W. Post, a former patient and later competitor of the 19th-century breakfast food innovator, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg. The cereal originally prepared by C. W. Post when developing the product was a batter that came from the oven as a rigid sheet. He then broke the sheet into pieces and ran them through a coffee grinder to produce the ""nut""-sized kernels. Despite the name, the cereal contains neither grapes nor nuts; it is made with wheat and barley. Post believed that glucose (which he called ""grape sugar"") formed in"
"glucose-6-phosphate. These cellular processes promote the exchange between organic H and HO within the plant tissues leading to around 158‰ of D-enrichment of those exchanged sites. The δD of C3 plants such as Sugar beet, orange and grape ranges from -132‰ to -117‰, and that of C4 plants such as sugar cane and maize ranges from -91‰ to -75‰. The δD of CAM such as pineapple is estimated to be around -75‰. Sugar beet and sugar cane contain sucrose, and maize contain glucose. Orange and pineapple are the sources of glucose and fructose. The deuterium content of the sugars from"
"Sugars in wine Sugars in wine are at the heart of what makes winemaking possible. During the process of fermentation, sugars from wine grapes are broken down and converted by yeast into alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide. Grapes accumulate sugars as they grow on the grapevine through the translocation of sucrose molecules that are produced by photosynthesis from the leaves. During ripening the sucrose molecules are hydrolyzed (separated) by the enzyme invertase into glucose and fructose. By the time of harvest, between 15 and 25% of the grape will be composed of simple sugars. Both glucose and fructose are six-carbon"
"White sugar White sugar, also called table sugar, granulated sugar or regular sugar, is the sugar commonly used in North America and Europe, made either of beet sugar or cane sugar, which has undergone a refining process. The refining completely removes the molasses and makes the white sugar actually sucrose (with a purity higher than 99.7%), whose molecular formula is CHO. The origin of the sugar thus produced is therefore chemically indistinguishable (sugar cane or sugar beet): it's however possible to identify its origin through a carbon-13 analysis (similar to radiocarbon dating used in archeology). From a chemical and nutritional"
"sugar, as triose phosphate (TP), which is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) together with dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP): An alternative perspective accounts for NADPH (source of e) and ATP: The formula for inorganic phosphate (P) is HOPO + 2H. Formulas for triose and TP are CHO-CHOH and CHO-CHOPO + 2H Somewhere between 3.5 and 2.3 billion years ago, the ancestors of cyanobacteria evolved oxygenic photosynthesis, enabling the use of the abundant yet relatively oxidized molecule HO as an electron donor to the electron transport chain of light-catalyzed proton-pumping responsible for efficient ATP synthesis. When this evolutionary breakthrough occurred, autotrophy (growth using inorganic carbon"
"Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, also known as Harden-Young ester, is fructose sugar phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (i.e., is a fructosephosphate). The β--form of this compound is common in cells. Upon entering the cell, most glucose and fructose is converted to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate lies within the glycolysis metabolic pathway and is produced by phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate. It is, in turn, broken down into two compounds: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. It is an allosteric activator of pyruvate kinase through distinct interactions of binding and allostery at the enzyme's catalytic site ""The numbering of the carbon atoms"
"of glucose 6-phosphate. It is in turn further phosphorylated to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. Fructose 6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate (sometimes called the Neuberg ester) is a derivative of fructose, which has been phosphorylated at the 6-hydroxy group. It is one of several possible fructosephosphates. The β--form of this compound is very common in cells. The great majority of glucose and fructose is converted to fructose 6-phosphate upon entering a cell. The name ""Neuberg ester"" comes from the German biochemist Carl Neuberg. In 1918, he found that the compound (later identified as fructose 6-phosphate) was beproduced by mild acid hydrolysis of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Fructose 6-phosphate"
"the maturation of the grapes. Many different sugars coexist: the most common are glucose and fructose which will be consumed by anaerobic yeast to convert it to alcohol during fermentation. They are in substantially equal amounts. To verify the completion of the fermentation they can be quantified by chemical assay (glucose and fructose are ""reducing"" sugars that react with an alkaline copper solution called Fehling's solution), an enzymatic method, or by infrared spectroscopy. Other sugars are not fermentable at all. After consumption by the yeast, the ratio of non-fermentable sugars (the ones that are not consumed by yeast: arabinose and"
"of animals as blood sugar. The naturally occurring form of glucose is D-glucose, while L-glucose is produced synthetically in comparably small amounts and is of lesser importance. Glucose is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. The name glucose derives through the French from the Greek γλυκός, which means ""sweet,"" in reference to must, the sweet, first press of grapes in the making of wine. The suffix ""-ose"" is a chemical classifier, denoting a sugar. Glucose was first isolated from raisins in 1747 by the German chemist Andreas"
"Glucose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate (sometimes called the Robison ester) is a glucose sugar phosphorylated at the hydroxy group on carbon 6. This dianion is very common in cells as the majority of glucose entering a cell will become phosphorylated in this way. Because of its prominent position in cellular chemistry, glucose 6-phosphate has many possible fates within the cell. It lies at the start of two major metabolic pathways: glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway. In addition to these two metabolic pathways, glucose 6-phosphate may also be converted to glycogen or starch for storage. This storage is in the liver"
"main safety concern about GSE is inhibition of the liver enzyme, cytochrome P450, which controls liver metabolism of drugs; consequently its inhibition by GSE unpredictably increases the blood concentrations of prescribed drugs. Grapefruit seed extract Grapefruit seed extract (GSE), also known as citrus seed extract, is a liquid extract derived from the seeds, pulp, and white membranes of grapefruit. GSE is prepared by grinding the grapefruit seed and juiceless pulp, then mixing with glycerin. Commercially available GSEs sold to consumers are made from the seed, pulp, glycerin blended together. GSE is sold as a dietary supplement and is used in"
"Grapefruit seed extract Grapefruit seed extract (GSE), also known as citrus seed extract, is a liquid extract derived from the seeds, pulp, and white membranes of grapefruit. GSE is prepared by grinding the grapefruit seed and juiceless pulp, then mixing with glycerin. Commercially available GSEs sold to consumers are made from the seed, pulp, glycerin blended together. GSE is sold as a dietary supplement and is used in cosmetics. Laboratory tests have found that GSE has no antimicrobial or other anti-disease attributes. The grapefruit is a subtropical citrus tree grown for its fruit which was originally named the ""forbidden fruit"""
"Upon the introduction of active yeasts to the grape must, phosphates are attached to the sugar and the six-carbon sugar molecules begin to be split into three-carbon pieces and go through a series of rearrangement reactions. During this process, the carboxylic carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this anaerobic process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction, to ethanol. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, a small amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess, can contribute to the wine fault"
"of juice contains 20gm of dissolved compounds. There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes, specific gravity, Oechsle (Germany) and Baumé (France). °Bx is usually measured with a refractometer while the other methods use a hydrometer which measures specific gravity. Generally, hydrometers are a cheaper alternative. In the French Baumé (Be° or Bé° for short) one Be° corresponds approximately to one percent alcohol. One Be° is equal to 1.8 °Bx, that is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred grams. Therefore, to achieve one percent alcohol the winemaker adds sugar at a rate of 1.8 grams per 100"
"Uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine Uridine diphosphate ""N""-acetylglucosamine or UDP-GlcNAc is a nucleotide sugar and a coenzyme in metabolism. It is used by glycosyltransferases to transfer ""N""-acetylglucosamine residues to substrates. -Glucosamine is made naturally in the form of glucosamine-6-phosphate, and is the biochemical precursor of all nitrogen-containing sugars. To be specific, glucosamine-6-phosphate is synthesized from fructose 6-phosphate and glutamine as the first step of the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway. The end-product of this pathway is UDP-GlcNAc, which is then used for making glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and glycolipids. UDP-GlcNAc is extensively involved in intracellular signaling as a substrate for ""O""-linked ""N""-acetylglucosamine transferases (OGTs) in a"
"Ribose Ribose is a carbohydrate with the formula CHO; specifically, it is a pentose monosaccharide (simple sugar) with linear form H−(C=O)−(CHOH)−H, which has all the hydroxyl groups on the same side in the Fischer projection. The term may refer to either of two enantiomers. The term usually indicates -ribose, which occurs widely in nature and is discussed here. Its synthetic mirror image, -ribose, is not found in nature. -Ribose was first reported in 1891 by Emil Fischer. It is a C'-2 carbon epimer of the sugar -arabinose (both isomers of which are named for their source, gum arabic) and ribose"
"Fructose 6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate (sometimes called the Neuberg ester) is a derivative of fructose, which has been phosphorylated at the 6-hydroxy group. It is one of several possible fructosephosphates. The β--form of this compound is very common in cells. The great majority of glucose and fructose is converted to fructose 6-phosphate upon entering a cell. The name ""Neuberg ester"" comes from the German biochemist Carl Neuberg. In 1918, he found that the compound (later identified as fructose 6-phosphate) was beproduced by mild acid hydrolysis of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Fructose 6-phosphate lies within the glycolysis metabolic pathway and is produced by isomerisation"
"taste of the wine. Brix (°Bx) is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called total dissolved solids (TDS). Because sugar is the dominant compound in grape juice, these units are effectively a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes determines the final alcohol content of the wine as well as indirect index of grape maturity. °Bx is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 °Bx means that 100 grams"
"as chaptalization solely in order to boost the alcohol content – chaptalization does not increase the ""sweetness"" of a wine. Glucose, along with fructose, is one of the primary sugars found in wine grapes. In wine, glucose tastes less sweet than fructose. It is a six-carbon sugar molecule derived from the breakdown of sucrose. At the beginning of the ripening stage there is usually more glucose than fructose present in the grape (as much as five times more) but the rapid development of fructose shifts the ratio to where at harvest there are generally equal amounts. Grapes that are over"
"Grape juice Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7-23 percent of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as ""must"". The sugars in grape juice allow it to be used as a sweetener, and fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar. In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In"
"the cell lacks transporters for G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to the charged nature of G6P. Glucose may alternatively be formed from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen. In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity for glucose (K in the vicinity of normal glycemia), and differs in regulatory properties. The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels. ""Cofactors:"" Mg G6P is then"
"led to the development and use of various artificial sweeteners. Scientifically, ""sugar"" loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called ""simple sugars,"" the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular formula . The names of typical sugars end with -""ose"", as in ""glucose"" and ""fructose"". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These"
"sugars but three-, four-, five- and seven-carbon sugars are also present in the grape. Not all sugars are fermentable with sugars like the five-carbon arabinose, rhamnose and xylose still being present in the wine after fermentation. Very high sugar content will effectively kill the yeast once a certain (high) alcohol content is reached. For these reasons, no wine is ever fermented completely ""dry"" (meaning without any residual sugar). Sugar's role in dictating the final alcohol content of the wine (and such its resulting body and ""mouth-feel"") sometimes encourages winemakers to add sugar (usually sucrose) during winemaking in a process known"
"Marggraf. Glucose was discovered in grapes by Johann Tobias Lowitz in 1792 and recognized as different from cane sugar (sucrose). Glucose is the term coined by Jean Baptiste Dumas in 1838, which has prevailed in the chemical literature. Friedrich August Kekulé proposed the term dextrose (from Latin dexter = right), because in aqueous solution of glucose, the plane of linearly polarized light is turned to the right. In contrast, D-fructose (a ketohexose) and L-glucose turn linearly polarized light to the left. The earlier notation according to the rotation of the plane of linearly polarized light (""d"" and ""l""-nomenclature) was later"
"Glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde (glyceral) is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula CHO. It is the simplest of all common aldoses. It is a sweet, colorless, crystalline solid that is an intermediate compound in carbohydrate metabolism. The word comes from combining glycerol and aldehyde, as glyceraldehyde is glycerol with one hydroxymethyl group oxidized to an aldehyde. Glyceraldehyde has one chiral center and therefore exists as two different enantiomers with opposite optical rotation: While the optical rotation of glyceraldehyde is (+) for ""R"" and (−) for ""L"", this is not true for all monosaccharides. The stereochemical configuration can only be determined from the"
"Grape reaction product The grape reaction product (GRP, GRP1 or 2-S-glutathionyl caftaric acid) is a phenolic compound explaining the disappearance of caftaric acid from grape must during processing. It is also found in aged red wines. Its enzymatic production by polyphenol oxidase is important in limiting the browning of musts, especially in white wine production. The product can be recreated in model solutions. Determining its concentration in wine is possible by mass spectrometry. S-Glutathionyl caftaric acid is itself oxidizable. It is not a substrate for grape polyphenol oxidase, but laccase from ""Botrytis cinerea"" can use it to form GRP2. Other"
"to adverse health outcomes independent of any effects related to its presence as a component of total and free sugars."" The word ""fructose"" was coined in 1857 from the Latin for ""fructus"" (fruit) and the generic chemical suffix for sugars, ""-ose"". It is also called fruit sugar and levulose. Fructose is a 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure owing to the stability of its hemiketal and internal hydrogen-bonding. This form is formally called -fructopyranose. In solution, fructose exists as an equilibrium mixture of 70% fructopyranose and about 22% fructofuranose, as well as small amounts of three other"
"forms of glucose are colorless and easily soluble in water, acetic acid, and several other solvents. They are only sparingly soluble in methanol and ethanol. Glucose is a monosaccharide with formula CHO or H-(C=O)-(CHOH)-H, whose five hydroxyl (OH) groups are arranged in a specific way along its six-carbon back. Glucose is usually present in solid form as a monohydrate with a closed pyran ring (dextrose hydrate). In aqueous solution, on the other hand, it is has an open-chain to a small extent and is present predominantly as α- or β-pyranose, which partially mutually merge by mutarotation. From aqueous solutions, the"
"(GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The carbohydrate composition in agave syrup depends on the species from which the syrup was made. In ""A. tequilana"", the syrup contains some 56% to 60% fructose, 20% glucose, and trace amounts of sucrose, whereas in ""A. salmiana"", sucrose is the main sugar. Fructose molecules in ""A. tequilana"" syrup chain together to create fructans and fructooligosaccharides, which have sweetening effects. Agave syrup is 1.4 to 1.6 times sweeter than sugar, and may be substituted for sugar or honey in recipes. It is added to some breakfast cereals as a binding agent. Agave"
"in the human gut. Trehalose Trehalose is a sugar consisting of two molecules of glucose. It is also known as mycose or tremalose. Some bacteria, fungi, plants and invertebrate animals synthesize it as a source of energy, and to survive freezing and lack of water. Extracting trehalose was once a difficult and costly process, but around 2000, the Hayashibara company (Okayama, Japan) discovered an inexpensive extraction technology from starch. Trehalose has high water retention capabilities, and is used in food, cosmetics and as a drug. Trehalose is a disaccharide formed by a bond between two α-glucose units. Two other isomers"
"Glucose Glucose (also called dextrose) is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight. There it is used to make cellulose in cell walls, which is the most abundant carbohydrate. In energy metabolism, glucose is the most important source of energy in all organisms. Glucose for metabolism is partially stored as a polymer, in plants mainly as starch and amylopectin and in animals as glycogen. Glucose circulates in the blood"
"rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point. The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to F6P. The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphoglucose isomerase, to proceed. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high F6P concentration, this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle. Isomerization"
"his grapes by means of a refractometer accepts a sugar content reading based on the refractive properties of sucrose despite the fact that the primary sugar in grape juice is fructose, not sucrose. This usually does not result in significant error. The ICUMSA is constituted of representatives from national committees designated by the governments of major sugar importing and exporting countries; the votes of these representatives are weighted according to the amount of sugar their countries import and export. International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA) is an international"