"anadromous GM male salmon lack reproductive success and have a reduced number of surviving offspring. GM salmon's lack of fertilization success can be attributed to nest fidelity, quivering frequency, and spawn participation. Under simulated competition environments, 94% of siring occurred by wild-type salmon, while only 5.4% was attributed to GM salmon. This advantage allows more than twice as many wild-type offspring to be produced. Other characteristics that could cause wild-type males to be chosen more frequently could be the lack of growth of the kype, the hooked jaw of a male, and red coloration on anadromous males, which demonstrates sexual"
"occurs in association with other seasonal changes. In the Atlantic salmon (""Salmo salar""), kype development is accompanied by a morphogenesis of bones and cartilages in the ethmoidal zone (the anterior region of the skull) changing the appearance of both jaws, the appearance of ""breeding teeth"" and resorption of scales (more so in males than females). Some salmonids may develop a predominant hump under their dorsal fin. Charles Darwin considered the kype to be a product of sexual selection and as a tool for fighting among males. Others have suggested it has no function, and observed the kype seems to prevent"
"large anadromous males, Dolly Varden trout (""Salvelinus malma"") and Brook trout (""Salvelinus fontinalis""), whereas it is reportedly hardly visible or absent in large nonanadromous males, Arctic char (""Salvelinus alpinus"") and Lake trout (""Salvelinus namaycush""). In salmonids of the genus ""Oncorhynchus"" (meaning ""hooked snout""), the upper jaw becomes more elongated than the lower thereby forming a ""snout"". In some species, the development of the ""kype"" (in this study defined as the distance from the middle of eye to the tip of the snout) is used as an indicator of a difference in behavioural mating strategies. Chinook salmon (""Oncorhynchus tshawytscha"") express one"
"spawning in April. The female kokanee creates a nest called a redd. She will lay around 1000 eggs, depending on food availability. Eggs hatch within 110 days, and the juveniles swim out to the lake. During spawning, the males turn bright red and develop a humped back and an elongated jaw similar to the male Sockeye salmon. Females also dawn a dark red hue during the breeding season, which also corresponds with the breeding season of Sockeye salmon. Competition with introduced lake trout can lead to a decline in Kokanee populations during the summer. Lake trout are predatory and will"
"plankton. At this point the baby salmon are called ""fry"". At the end of the summer the fry develop into juvenile fish called ""parr"". Parr feed on small invertebrates and are camouflaged with a pattern of spots and vertical bars. They remain in this stage for up to three years. As they approach the time when they are ready to migrate out to the sea the parr lose their camouflage bars and undergo a process of physiological changes which allows them to survive the shift from freshwater to saltwater. At this point salmon are called ""smolt"". Smolt spend time in"
"a pronounced curve or hook, called a ""kype"". Studies have shown that larger and more dominant male salmon have a reproductive advantage as female Chinook are often more aggressive toward smaller males. Chinook spawn in larger and deeper waters than other salmon species and can be found on the spawning redds (nests) from September to December. The female salmon may lay her eggs in four to five nesting pockets within a redd. After laying eggs, females guard the redd from four to 25 days before dying, while males seek additional mates. It has been observed that females are typically 98%"
"fish, which has sixteen hooks around its edge. The parasite is viviparous, that is, it produces live offspring. The parasites give birth to live young nearly as big as themselves and at this time, a further generation is already growing inside the neonates. When feeding, the parasite attaches its anterior end to the fish with cephalic glands. It everts its pharynx through the mouth and releases a digestive solution with proteolytic enzymes which dissolves the salmon skin. Mucus and dissolved skin are then sucked into the gut. Attachment of many parasites can cause large wounds, damaging the epidermis of the"
"divergence. Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage. The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle,"
"(""Rorippa subumbellata""), a plant which grows in the wet sand between low- and high-water marks. Each autumn, from late September through mid-October, mature kokanee salmon (""Oncorhyncus nerka"") transform from silver-blue color to a fiery vermilion, and run up Taylor Creek, near South Lake Tahoe. As spawning season approaches the fish acquire a humpback and protuberant jaw. After spawning they die and their carcasses provide a feast for gatherings of mink (""Neovison vison""), bears (""Ursus americanus""), and bald eagles (""Haliaeetus leucocephalus""). The non-native salmon were transplanted from the North Pacific to Lake Tahoe in 1944. North American beaver (""Castor canadensis"") were"
"or river. These are the salmon spawning grounds where salmon eggs are deposited, for safety, in the gravel. The salmon spawning grounds are also the salmon nurseries, providing a more protected environment than the ocean usually offers. After 2 to 6 months the eggs hatch into tiny larvae called ""sac fry"" or ""alevin"". The alevin have a sac containing the remainder of the yolk, and they stay hidden in the gravel while they feed on the yolk. When the yolk has gone they must find food for themselves, so they leave the protection of the gravel and start feeding on"
"in coloration and body shape occur between sexually mature males and females. Males develop hooked jaws known as kypes and take on a brilliant red colour. Females remain fairly silver. Most males set up and guard territories and often spawn with several females. The female constructs the nest, or redd. A female anadromous char usually deposits from 3,000 to 5,000 eggs. Char do not die after spawning like Pacific salmon and often spawn several times throughout their lives, typically every second or third year. Young char emerge from the gravel in spring and stay in the river from 5 to"
"before they spawn. These humps may have evolved because they confer species advantages. The humps make it less likely the salmon will spawn in the shallow water at margins of the streambed, which tend to dry out during low water flows or freeze in winter. Further, riffles can contain many salmon spawning simultaneously, as in the image on the right. Predators, such as bears, will be more likely to catch the more visually prominent humped males, with their humps projecting above the surface of the water. This may provide a protective buffer for the females. Dominant male salmon defend their"
"Coho salmon The coho salmon (""Oncorhynchus kisutch;"" Karuk: achvuun) is a species of anadromous fish in the salmon family, one of the several species of Pacific salmon. Coho salmon are also known as silver salmon or ""silvers"". The scientific species name is based on the Russian common name ""kizhuch"" (кижуч). During their ocean phase, coho salmon have silver sides and dark-blue backs. During their spawning phase, their jaws and teeth become hooked. After entering fresh water, they develop bright-red sides, bluish-green heads and backs, dark bellies and dark spots on their backs. Sexually maturing fish develop a light-pink or rose"
"runs occur on odd years. Adult pink salmon enter spawning streams from the ocean, usually returning to the stream where they originated. Spawning occurs between late June and mid-October, in coastal streams and some longer rivers, and in the intertidal zone or at the mouth of streams if hyporheic freshwater is available. Using her tail, the female digs a trough-shaped nest, called a redd (Scandinavian word for ""nest""), in the gravel of the stream bed, where she deposits her eggs. As she expels the eggs, she is approached by one or more males, which fertilize them as they fall into"
"hermaphrodite with reciprocal mating and sperm storage. They lay their eggs in a long, twisted, gelatinous mass. Ziminella salmonacea Ziminella salmonacea, common name the salmon aeolis, is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Paracoryphellidae. This species occurs in the Arctic seas; (Greenland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, North Pacific (Bering Strait, Point Barrow, Alaska, British Columbia), the Western Atlantic (Cape Cod (Mass.) north to Halifax (Nova Scotia)) and the Eastern Atlantic and northern European waters (north coast of Norway). The white, translucent, broad body of this species reaches a length between 25 and 50"
"the use of the breeding teeth which sometimes develop alongside the kype. One suggestion was that the kype is merely the result of a surplus of chemicals, not used for the production of sex products. By contrast, other salmon have been seen in the wild using their kype to firmly grasp an opponent's tail. More recently, the kype is regarded as a secondary sex characteristic displayed by males at the spawning grounds. Therefore, its function is considered to be helping the fish establish a hierarchy among other males where those with larger kypes are dominant over animals with smaller kypes,"
"lay her roe, the female salmon uses her tail (caudal fin), to create a low-pressure zone, lifting gravel to be swept downstream, excavating a shallow depression, called a redd. The redd may sometimes contain 5,000 eggs covering . The eggs usually range from orange to red. One or more males approach the female in her redd, depositing sperm, or milt, over the roe. The female then covers the eggs by disturbing the gravel at the upstream edge of the depression before moving on to make another redd. The female may make as many as seven redds before her supply of"
"As spawning season approaches the fish acquire a humpback and protuberant jaw. After spawning they die and their carcasses provide a feast for gatherings of mink (""Neovison vison""), black bears (""Ursus americanus""), and bald eagles (""Haliaeetus leucocephalus""). These non-native salmon were translocated from the North Pacific to Lake Tahoe in 1944, and Taylor Creek is their primary spawning stream in the Tahoe basin. Kokanee appear to compete for forage with the recently established threatened Lahontan cutthroat trout in Fallen Leaf Lake. All of the beaver dams in Taylor Creek, which flows from Fallen Leaf Lake to Lake Tahoe, are destroyed"
"the coastrange sculpin (""Cottus aleuticus""), which is quite similar to it in terms of morphology and behavior. It can also be found with the three-spined stickleback (""Gasterosteus aculeatus""), steelhead trout (""Oncorhynchus mykiss""), Klamath small-scale sucker (""Catostomus rimiculus""), coastal cutthroat trout (""Oncorhynchus clarki clarki""), Chinook salmon (""O. tshawytscha""), and coho salmon (""O. kisutch""). Spawning season can extend from February to June. The male creates a nest under debris such as logs or garbage, and the female lays many eggs, from a few hundred up to 11,000. The male guards the nest. He may breed with more than one female per season."
"return to the lake or sea floor or fish aggregation. Sneaking males do not take part in courtship. In salmon and trout, for example, ""jack males"" are common. These are small silvery males that migrate upstream along with the standard, large, hook-nosed males and that spawn by sneaking into redds to release sperm simultaneously with a mated pair. This behaviour is an evolutionarily stable strategy for reproduction, because it is favoured by natural selection just like the ""standard"" strategy of large males. Hermaphroditism occurs when a given individual in a species possesses both male and female reproductive organs, or can"
"Gyrodactylus salaris Gyrodactylus salaris, commonly known as salmon fluke, is a tiny monogenean ectoparasite which lives on the body surface of freshwater fish. This leech-like parasite has been implicated in the reduction of Atlantic salmon populations in the Norwegian fjords. It also parasitises other species, including rainbow trout. ""G. salaris"" requires fresh water, but can survive in brackish water for up to 18 hours. The parasite is long, and cannot be seen with the naked eye, but it can be seen with a magnifying glass. On its posterior end is a haptor, a specialized organ for attaching to the host"
"changes as they prepare for the spawning event ahead. All salmon lose the silvery blue they had as ocean fish, and their colour darkens, sometimes with a radical change in hue. Salmon are sexually dimorphic, and the male salmon develop canine-like teeth and their jaws develop a pronounced curve or hook (""kype""). Some species of male salmon grow large humps. Salmon start the run in peak condition, the culmination of years of development in the ocean. They need high swimming and leaping abilities to battle the rapids and other obstacles the river may present, and they need a full sexual"
"water in the spring, spend summer in brackish estuarine ponds, and then return to fresh water in the fall. Coho salmon live in salt water for one to three years before returning to spawn. Some precocious males, known as ""jacks"", return as two-year-old spawners. Spawning males develop kypes, which are strongly hooked snouts and large teeth. The traditional range of the coho salmon runs along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, from Hokkaidō, Japan and eastern Russia, around the Bering Sea to mainland Alaska, and south to Monterey Bay, California. Coho salmon have also been introduced in all the"
"which elicits an avoidance response in fish. Round-up was only avoided at concentrations that caused acute lethality. <br>Ovulating female salmon release a pheromone in their urine. After detection by the olfactory system of mature male salmon parr, plasma sex steroids and milt increase. A synthetic pyrethroid pesticide, cypermethrin, reduced or inhibited normal olfactory system response in males to the priming effect of these pheromones. Atrazine, carbofuran and diazinon were also found to reduce olfactory detection of female priming pheromones by male Atlantic salmon parr. Chinook salmon previously exposed to diazinon continued to be active and feed in the presence of"
"discharge rates, and parasites and diseases. However, ""at present there are no reliable indicators to predict whether an individual arriving at a spawning area will in fact survive to spawn."" The eggs of a female salmon are called her roe. To lay her roe, the female salmon builds a spawning nest, called a ""redd"", in a riffle with gravel as its streambed. A riffle is a relatively shallow length of stream where the water is turbulent and flows faster. She builds the redd by using her tail (caudal fin) to create a low-pressure zone, lifting gravel to be swept downstream,"
"King-of-the-salmon King-of-the-salmon, ""Trachipterus altivelis"", is a species of ribbonfish in the family Trachipteridae. Its common name comes from the legends of the Makah people west of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which hold that this fish leads the salmon annually to their spawning grounds. Catching or eating king-of-the-salmon was forbidden, as it was feared killing one would stop the salmon run. This myth is reflected by a former specific epithet used for this fish, ""rex-salmonorum"", ""rex"" being Latin for ""king"". The king-of-the-salmon is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Chile. It is usually found in the"
"with broad white or yellow median bands, as suggested by the common name. Flight period is from January to May and June to August, with two broods. Adults have been recorded feeding from flowers, including those of ""Eupatorium"" species and teak. Adult males are sometimes also attracted to bird droppings. The larvae feed on the young foliage of ""Parinari curatellifolia"". They are green but turn salmon pink just before pupation. The larvae construct leaf shelters by cutting a leaf at either end of the shelter and with the edge of the leaf pulled across to touch the leaf surface. The"
"from Connecticut in the United States north to northern Labrador and Arctic Canada. The species constructs a nest or ""redd"" in the gravel bed of a stream. The female creates a powerful downdraught of water with her tail near the gravel to excavate a depression. After she and a male fish have eggs and milt (sperm), respectively, upstream of the depression, the female again uses her tail, this time to shift gravel to cover the eggs and milt which have lodged in the depression. Unlike the various Pacific salmon species which die after spawning (semelparous), the Atlantic salmon is iteroparous,"
"the upper one and on the midlateral part of the lower jaw there are 2-4 rows of teeth. These solitary groupers live in seaward reefs and in shallow lagoon, usually at depths less than 20 m., but they can reach about 50 m. Juveniles prefer reefs with staghorn corals (Acropora species). They mainly feed on fishes, crabs, shrimps and cephalopods, with and increase of piscivory with age. After the sexual maturity they are initially females and later they turn into males. Usually the groupers with a length of 16 cm are still females. These fishes usually spawn from January to"
"dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy. ""Melucuaq"" (lit. «small roe») or ""Elquaq"" (lit. «seaweed») is herring roe-on-kelp, herring spawn-on-kelp, or herring eggs on kelp. This is the fertilized eggs or roe (""qaarsat, meluk, imlauk"") of the Pacific herring attached to eelgrass, seaweed or other submerged vegetation. Herring spawn-on-kelp"
"from attached marine organisms. They are ovoviviparous like all in their family, and the whole reproductive cycle takes place at sea. Male sea snakes have two penises (or hemipenes), of which only one is employed in the prolonged mating act. A salt excreting gland is located under the tongue. It is found in the Ashmore and Cartier Islands and the Ningaloo Reef off the coast of Northwestern Australia. It was thought to only breed on Ashmore Reef, where it had not been recorded for fifteen years and hence was feared extinct. A 2015 study found that samples from the short-nosed"
"females lack the black throat blotch of males, and instead have a distinctive ""cheek patch"": a patch of salmon, orange, or brick red extending from the base of the front legs to the snout, and up to the eye. The cheek patch appears as females attain reproductive maturity. Prior to mating, males seize the skin of the necks or backs of females in their jaws, and sometimes carry them short distances before mating. Females lay clutches of 1 to 6 white, leathery, elliptical eggs, with larger clutches generally occurring in larger females. On Santa Cruz Island, 2 eggs is most"
"clear notes and may include mimicry of other bird calls. The breeding season is from February to July. The cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass. Two to four eggs, pale salmon coloured with reddish blotches on the broad end, are laid in the nest which may be 20 to 30 feet high in the fork of a tree. These are aggressive at the nest and will potential threats much larger than themselves. When mobbing they have been observed to imitate the alarm"