"are of indigenous descent. Changing climate, recorded and documented over several decades has already caused noticeable regional environmental instability and threatened or endangered a number of species. Tundra is predominant in: The northern mainland terrains, the Arctic coastal tundra and the Arctic Lowlands connect with the Alaskan coastal plain to the west and adjoin the coastal tundra of Greenland to the east. Countless lakes, rivers, deltas, marine straits and an extensive, rugged coastline comprise this complex and interdependent patchwork of terrestrial and marine habitats. The Arctic Archipelago is subdivided into three biogeographical regions with distinctive floral and faunal communities: The"
"névé. It is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice. ""Permafrost"" is soil at or below the freezing point of water (0°C or 32°F) for two or more years. In practice it is a large stretch of land (found mostly in Siberia) with soil frozen all over deep to the bottom. """"Meta incognita"""" means ""unknown frontier"" in Latin. It's also another name for Baffin Island. Permafrost (album) Permafrost is the third solo album from German ambient music producer, Thomas Köner. Considered by many as his greatest work, he further develops the icy drone style of previous works, making"
"a desert because of its aridity-adapted plants. The North Slope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than of precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert. Other regions of the world have cold deserts, including areas of the Himalayas and other high-altitude areas in other parts of the world. Polar deserts cover much of the ice-free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic. A non-technical definition is that deserts are those parts of the Earth's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population. Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of precipitation in providing a scientific"
"horses as well as hay-fields. Alas (geography) Alas () is a shallow depression which occurs primarily in Yakutia, which is formed by subsidence of the Arctic permafrost due to repeated melting and refreezing. An alas first develops as a shallow lake as melt water fills the depression. The lake eventually dries out and is replaced by grasses and other herbaceous vegetation. An alas is different from thermokarst depressions found elsewhere in the Arctic in that the lake is only temporary. Due to the aridity of Yakutia, the lake will dry up once the underlying ice has been depleted. Alases are"
"Muskeg Muskeg (; , lit. ""moss bog"") is an acidic soil type common in Arctic and boreal areas, although it is found in other northern climates as well. Muskeg is approximately synonymous with bogland, but ""muskeg"" is the standard term in Western Canada and Alaska, while 'bog' is common elsewhere. The term became common in these areas because it is of Cree origin; ""maskek"" (ᒪᐢᑫᐠ) meaning low-lying marsh. Large tracts of this soil existing in Siberia may be called muskeg or bogland interchangeably. Muskeg consists of dead plants in various states of decomposition (as peat), ranging from fairly intact sphagnum"
"Basin formed during the Cenozoic Era from seafloor spreading. Amundsen Basin The Amundsen Basin, with depths up to 4.4 km, is the deepest abyssal plain in the Arctic Ocean. The Amundsen Basin is embraced by the Lomonosov Ridge (from to ) and the Gakkel Ridge (from to ). It is named after the polar researcher Roald Amundsen. Together with the Nansen Basin, the Amundsen Basin is often summarized as Eurasian Basin. The Russian-American cooperation Nansen and Amundsen Basin Observational System (NABOS) aims ""to provide a quantitative observationally based assessment of circulation, water mass transformations, and transformation mechanisms in the Eurasian"
"in these polar biomes. Polar desert Polar deserts are the regions of the Earth that fall under an ice cap climate (""EF"" under the Köppen classification). Despite rainfall totals low enough to normally classify as a desert, polar deserts are distinguished from true deserts (' or ' under the Köppen classification) by low annual temperatures and evapotranspiration. Most polar deserts are covered in ice sheets, ice fields, or ice caps. Ice-free areas have no vegetation whatsoever. Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes: polar deserts and Arctic tundra. They are called polar deserts because of their flat environment. These"
"Alas (geography) Alas () is a shallow depression which occurs primarily in Yakutia, which is formed by subsidence of the Arctic permafrost due to repeated melting and refreezing. An alas first develops as a shallow lake as melt water fills the depression. The lake eventually dries out and is replaced by grasses and other herbaceous vegetation. An alas is different from thermokarst depressions found elsewhere in the Arctic in that the lake is only temporary. Due to the aridity of Yakutia, the lake will dry up once the underlying ice has been depleted. Alases are often used for pasturage for"
"The soil there is frozen from down, making it impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support certain kinds of Arctic vegetation, low growing plants such as moss, heath (Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry), and lichen. There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very cold and dark, with the average temperature around , sometimes dipping as low as . However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south (for"
"Polar desert Polar deserts are the regions of the Earth that fall under an ice cap climate (""EF"" under the Köppen classification). Despite rainfall totals low enough to normally classify as a desert, polar deserts are distinguished from true deserts (' or ' under the Köppen classification) by low annual temperatures and evapotranspiration. Most polar deserts are covered in ice sheets, ice fields, or ice caps. Ice-free areas have no vegetation whatsoever. Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes: polar deserts and Arctic tundra. They are called polar deserts because of their flat environment. These biomes are located at"
"water-saturated and therefore has sufficient supply for the growing ice core. Palsa (plural: palsas) is a term from the Finnish language meaning ""a hummock rising out of a bog with a core of ice,"" which in turn is a borrowing from Northern Sami, ""balsa"". As palsas particularly develop in moorlands they are therefore also named ""palsamoors"". ""Bugor"" and ""bulginniakhs"" are general terms in the Russian language (the latter of Yakutian origin) for both palsas and pingos. Pictures of palsas and further information: Palsa A palsa is a low, often oval, frost heave occurring in polar and subpolar climates, which contain"
"The NCSS glossary instead suggests ""flood plain"". Alluvial plain An alluvial plain is a largely flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular period of time, whereas the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the floodplains have shifted over geological time. As the highlands erode due to weathering and water flow, the sediment from the hills"
"Talik A talik is a layer of year-round unfrozen ground that lies in permafrost areas. In regions of continuous permafrost, taliks often occur underneath shallow thermokarst lakes and rivers, where the deep water does not freeze in winter, and thus the soil underneath will not freeze either. Sometimes closed, open and through talik are distinguished. These terms refer to whether the talik is completely surrounded by permafrost, is open to the top (e.g. a thermokarst lake), or open to both top and unfrozen layers beneath the permafrost, respectively. Due to climate fluctuation or change, some permafrost regions may develop an"
"the pattern of habitats in the Southern Arctic is the same: sprawling shrublands, wet sedge meadows, and cold, clear lakes. Superimposed on this pattern are the fascinating shapes and textures created by intense frost action in the soil. The Southern Arctic is the region of transition from the treeless Arctic tundra to the conifer forests. dwarf birch and Arctic willow are among the common shrub species, along with heaths, herbaceous plants, and lichens. Where nutrients and moisture are available along the rivers and streams, scattered clumps of stunted spruce trees grow. Sedges and mosses thrive in the wetlands of the"
"Amundsen Basin The Amundsen Basin, with depths up to 4.4 km, is the deepest abyssal plain in the Arctic Ocean. The Amundsen Basin is embraced by the Lomonosov Ridge (from to ) and the Gakkel Ridge (from to ). It is named after the polar researcher Roald Amundsen. Together with the Nansen Basin, the Amundsen Basin is often summarized as Eurasian Basin. The Russian-American cooperation Nansen and Amundsen Basin Observational System (NABOS) aims ""to provide a quantitative observationally based assessment of circulation, water mass transformations, and transformation mechanisms in the Eurasian and Canadian Basins of the Arctic Ocean"". The Amundsen"
"Desert A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one-third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or ""cold deserts"". Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location."
"altitudes, temperatures increase but precipitation is so low that the subarctic climate grades into a cold semi-arid climate. Subarctic climate The subarctic climate (also called subpolar climate, subalpine climate, or boreal climate) is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at latitudes from 50° to 70°N poleward of the humid continental climates. These climates represent Köppen climate classification ""Dfc"", ""Dwc"", ""Dsc"", ""Dfd"", ""Dwd"" and ""Dsd"". In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin, Iran,"
"down to . Discontinuous permafrost is often further divided into ""extensive discontinuous permafrost"", where permafrost covers between 50 and 90 percent of the landscape and is usually found in areas with mean annual temperatures between , and ""sporadic permafrost"", where permafrost cover is less than 50 percent of the landscape and typically occurs at mean annual temperatures between . In soil science, the sporadic permafrost zone is abbreviated SPZ and the extensive discontinuous permafrost zone DPZ. Exceptions occur in ""un-glaciated"" Siberia and Alaska where the present depth of permafrost is a relic of climatic conditions during glacial ages where winters"
"to aridity; but today the word is most often used in its climate-science sense (an area of low precipitation). Phrases such as ""desert island"" and ""Great American Desert"", or Shakespeare's ""deserts of Bohemia"" (""The Winter's Tale"") in previous centuries did not necessarily imply sand or aridity; their focus was the sparse population. A desert is a region of land that is very dry because it receives low amounts of precipitation (usually in the form of rain, but it may be snow, mist or fog), often has little coverage by plants, and in which streams dry up unless they are supplied"
"fjords, and large bordering bodies of water, distinctive of many similar arctic regions in the world. Although the terrain is infamous for its unforgiving conditions, humans maintained an established population of 1000 people – 80% of which were Inuit. In addition, the landscape is 75% covered by ice or exposed bedrock, with a continuous permafrost that persists throughout the year, making plant and animal life somewhat scarce. The temperature of the Arctic Cordillera ranges from 6 °C in summer, down to −16 °C in winter. Vegetation is largely absent in this area due to permanent ice and snow. The Arctic"
"Permafrost is substrate that has been frozen for a minimum of 2 years. There are two types of permafrost: discontinuous and continuous. Discontinuous permafrost is found in areas where the mean annual air temperature is only slightly below freezing (); this forms in sheltered locations. In areas where the mean annual soil surface temperature is below , continuous permafrost forms. This is not limited to sheltered areas and ranges from a few inches below the surface to over deep. The top layer is called the active layer. It thaws in the summer and is critical to plant life. Moisture and"
"peat bog. Permafrost plateaus may have parts suffering decay while others are growing at the same time. Permafrost plateaus are usually surrounded by wetlands but have often internal water pools during summer due to uneven relief, partial decay and thaw. Palsas are typical forms of the discontinuous permafrost zone regions and are therefore found in Subarctic regions of northern Canada and Alaska, Siberia, northern Fennoscandia and Iceland. They are almost exclusively associated with bogs and commonly occur in areas where the winters are long and the snow cover tends to be thin. In some places palsas extend into underlying permafrost;"
"Fell A fell (from Old Norse ""fell"", ""fjall"", ""mountain"") is a high and barren landscape feature, such as a mountain range or moor-covered hills. The term is most often employed in Fennoscandia, the Isle of Man, parts of Northern England, and Scotland. The English word ""fell"" comes from Old Norse ""fell"" and ""fjall"" (both forms existed). It is cognate with Danish ""fjeld"", Faroese ""fjall"" and ""fjøll"", Icelandic ""fjall"" and ""fell"", Norwegian ""fjell"" with dialects ""fjøll"", ""fjødd"", ""fjedd"", ""fjedl"", ""fjill"", ""fil(l)"" and ""fel"", and Swedish ""fjäll"", all referring to mountains rising above the alpine tree line. In Northern England, especially in"
"Subarctic climate The subarctic climate (also called subpolar climate, subalpine climate, or boreal climate) is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at latitudes from 50° to 70°N poleward of the humid continental climates. These climates represent Köppen climate classification ""Dfc"", ""Dwc"", ""Dsc"", ""Dfd"", ""Dwd"" and ""Dsd"". In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Alaska and other parts of the northwestern United States (Eastern Washington, Eastern Oregon and Idaho)"
"the northern and southern land areas receive their winter snow cover, which combined with the reduced solar radiation at the surface, ensures an end to the warm days those areas may experience in summer. By November, winter is in full swing in most of the Arctic, and the small amount of solar radiation still reaching the region does not play a significant role in its climate. The Arctic is often perceived as a region stuck in a permanent deep freeze. While much of the region does experience very low temperatures, there is considerable variability with both location and season. Winter"
"Abyssal zone The abyssal zone or abyssopelagic zone is a layer of the pelagic zone of the ocean. ""Abyss"" derives from the Greek word , meaning bottomless. At depths of , this zone remains in perpetual darkness. These regions are also characterized by continuous cold and lack of nutrients. The abyssal zone has temperatures around through the large majority of its mass. It is the deeper part of the ""midnight zone"" which starts in the bathypelagic waters above. The area below the abyssal zone is the sparsely inhabited hadal zone. The zone above is the bathyal zone. The deep trenches"
"or nearly horizontal bedrock-cut benches on slopes, spurs and on broad interfluves"" that are formed by the ""parallel retreat of steeper slope segments under periglacial conditions"". Additionally, with the effect of cryoplanation on the landscape, the vegetation on these frost-altered terraces is also reshaped. The vegetation tends to be uniquely uniform both laterally and vertically. The results of this unique freeze-thaw cycle are customarily found in Arctic periglacial regions of Eastern Siberia and Alaska. They may also be found in areas that currently or have sometime in the past experienced intense seasonal freezing or permafrost. In 1950 Peltier proposed the"
"Periglaciation Periglaciation (adjective: ""periglacial,"" also referring to places at the edges of glacial areas) describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing of snow in areas of permafrost, the runoff from which refreezes in ice wedges and other structures. ""Periglacial"" suggests an environment located on the margin of past glaciers. However, freeze and thaw cycles influence landscapes outside areas of past glaciation. Therefore, periglacial environments are anywhere that freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner. Tundra is a common ecological community in periglacial areas. Periglaciation became a distinct subject within the study of geology after Walery Łoziński,"
"Cryoplanation In geomorphology, cryoplanation or altiplanation is a term used to both describe and explain the formation of plains, terraces and pediments in periglacial environments. Uncertainty surrounds the term, and the effectiveness of the cryoplanation process is held to be limited meaning it can only produce small terraces. Instead, many of so-called cryoplanation terraces are likely an expression of the underlying lithology and rock structure rather than being unique products of cold-climate processes. Cryoplanation can be seen as a variant of pediplanation that is restricted to cold climates. All the cryoplanation surfaces that exists at present date to the Quaternary."
"Pingo A pingo, also called a hydrolaccolith or a bulgunniakh, is a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and subarctic that can reach up to in height and up to in diameter. The term originated as the Inuvialuktun word for a small hill. The plural form is ""pingos"". The term is also used for depressions, often water filled, formed by the melting of ice at the end of the last glaciation. A pingo is a periglacial landform, which is defined as a nonglacial landform or process linked to colder climates. ""Periglacial"" suggests an environment located on the margin"
"ranges from zero to about eight feet (2.4m). Below that depth, the temperature varies, but is always above . Alternatively, in Arctic and Antarctic locations the freezing depth is so deep that it becomes year-round permafrost, and the term ""thaw depth"" is used instead. Finally, in tropical regions, frost line may refer to the vertical geographic elevation below which frost does not occur. ""Frost front"" refers to the varying position of the frost line during seasonal periods of freezing and thawing. Building codes sometimes take frost depth into account because of frost heaving which can damage buildings by moving their"
"the global climate and in climate model response to global changes. The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features. Cryology is the study of cryospheres. Frozen water is found on the Earth’s surface primarily as snow cover, freshwater ice in lakes and rivers, sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, and frozen ground and permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The residence time of water in each of these cryospheric sub-systems varies widely. Snow cover and freshwater ice are essentially seasonal, and most sea ice, except for ice in the central Arctic, lasts only a few years if it is not seasonal. A"
"Arctic desert The Arctic desert ecoregion (WWF ID:PA1101) is a terrestrial ecoregion that covers the island groups of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Severny Island and Severnaya Zemlya in the Artic Ocean, above 75 degrees north latitude. The islands are covered with glaciers, snow, and bare rock in a harshly cold environment. The temperature does rise above freezing for short periods in the summer, so some ice melt occurs, and the area supports colonies of sea birds and mammals. It has an area of . The ecoregion stretches 2,000 km west-to-east, and 1,000 km north-to-south, across the Arctic Ocean north of"