"farther development in technology, it can be useful for efficient biofuel. Algal mat Algal mat is one of many types of microbial mat formed on the water surface or on the surface of rocks. It is made out of blue-green cyanobacteria and sediments. It is formed by having alteration layers between the blue-green bacteria and sediments, creating dark-laminated layers. Stromatolites are prime examples of algal mat. Algal mats played an important role in the Great Oxidation Event on Earth some 2.3 billion years ago. Overpopulation of algal mat may be an ecological problem, when mats disrupt the other underwater marine"
"the bay bottom leads to anoxia and in turn, algal blooms. Blue-green algae causes numerous severe health consequences for the marine ecosystem as well surrounding human populations. Blooms result in reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations, alterations in aquatic food webs, algal scum lining the shores, the production of compounds that cause distasteful drinking water and fish flesh, and the production of toxins severe enough to poison aquatic as well as terrestrial organisms. Blooms have been reported throughout the continental United States, and resulting cyanotoxins have been associated with human and animal illness and death in at least 43 states. Most cyanobacteria"
"the river experienced the flourishing of extensive algae blooms, along with Lake Okeechobee and the Caloosahatchee River. The cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, causes numerous severe health consequences for the marine ecosystem as well surrounding human populations. Blooms result in reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations, alterations in aquatic food webs, algal scum lining the shores, the production of compounds that cause distasteful drinking water and fish flesh, and the production of toxins severe enough to poison aquatic as well as terrestrial organisms. Blooms have been reported throughout the continental United States, and resulting cyanotoxins have been associated with human and animal illness"
"or blue-green algae, are photosynthetic bacteria. They grow in many types of water. Their rapid growth (""bloom"") is related to high water temperature as well as eutrophication (resulting from enrichment with minerals and nutrients often due to runoff from the land that induces excessive growth of these algae). Many genera of cyanobacteria produce several toxins. Cyanotoxins can be dermatotoxic, neurotoxic, and hepatotoxic, though death related to their exposure is rare. Cyanotoxins and their non-toxic components can cause allergic reactions, but this is poorly understood. Despite their known toxicities, developing a specific biomarker of exposure has been difficult because of the"
"accumulation in the population of algae (typically microscopic) in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Freshwater algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients, particularly some phosphates. Harmful algal blooms are algal bloom events involving toxic or otherwise harmful phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates of the genus ""Alexandrium"" and ""Karenia"" or diatoms of the genus ""Pseudo-nitzschia"". is an algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms via production of natural toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are often associated with large-scale marine mortality events and"
"algal bloom he observed in the estuary of the Murray River in Australia, as ""a thick scum like green oil paint, some two to six inches thick."" Wildlife which drank the water died rapidly and terribly. Most reported incidents of poisoning by microalgal toxins have occurred in freshwater environments, and they are becoming more common and widespread. For example, thousands of ducks and geese died drinking contaminated water in the midwestern United States. In 2010, for the first time, marine mammals were reported to have died from ingesting cyanotoxins. Cyanotoxins are produced by cyanobacteria, a phylum of bacteria that obtain"
"such as microcystins. Although blue-green or other algae do not usually pose a direct threat to health, the toxins (poisons) which they produce are considered dangerous to humans, land animals, sea mammals, birds and fish when the toxins are ingested. The toxins are neurotoxins which destroy nerve tissue which can affect the nervous system, brain, and liver, and can lead to death. Tests have shown some toxins near blooms can be in the air and thereby be inhaled, which could affect health. There is no treatment available for animals, including livestock cattle, if they drink from algal blooms where such"
"toxic blue-green algae that the zebra mussels which infest the lake don't eat. There periodically is a ""dead zone"", or region of low oxygen, in the lake whose exact location varies. Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have been studying the lake's blue-green algae blooms, and trying to find ways to predict when they are spreading or where they might hit landfall; typically the blooms arrive late each summer. This problem was extreme in the mid and late 1960s and the Lake Erie Wastewater Management Study (LEWMS) conducted by the Buffalo District of the US Army Corps of"
"Harmful algal bloom A harmful algal bloom (HAB) are organisms that can severely lower oxygen levels in natural waters, killing marine life. Some HABs are associated with algae-produced toxins. Blooms can last from a few days to many months. After the bloom dies, the microbes which decompose the dead algae use up even more of the oxygen, which can create fish die-offs. When these zones of depleted oxygen cover a large area for an extended period of time, they are referred to as dead zones, where neither fish nor plants are able to survive. HABs are induced by an overabundance"
"conditions for these toxic blooms to occur. Climate change has been contributing to the increased incidence of harmful algal blooms. Across the oceans SST has been on the rise and coastal upwelling events have been more and more common. As climate change continues to affect the oceans, it is predicted that harmful algal blooms (such as red tides caused by ""Cochlodinium polykrikoides"") will be more frequent in the upcoming years. Cochlodinium polykrikoides Cochlodinium polykrikoides is a species of red tide producing marine dinoflagellates known for causing fish kills around the world, and well known for fish kills in marine waters"
"visible surface blooms like many other harmful dinoflagellate species (red tides). A decrease in coral reefs due to bleaching, pollution or overfishing usually facilitates the growth of macroalgae, which can cause spreading of this epiphytic dinoflagellate genus. Several ""Gambierdicus"" species produce potent toxin such as ciguatoxin and maitotoxin, which cause ciguatera fish poisoning. Humans often consume the toxins, as herbivorous fish, which feed on macroalgae, ingest the dinoflagellates. Afterwards, carnivorous fish, which are targeted by fishing industries, move the toxins further up the food chain. Ciguatera is the most common form of seafood poisoning caused by harmful algal blooms in"
"thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen. In the coast of southwest Florida, harmful algal blooms have existed for over 100 years. These algal blooms have been a cause of species of fish, turtles, dolphins, and shrimp to die and cause harmful effects on humans who swim in the water. Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved"
"is increasing, as is the frequency of ""H. akashiwo"" HAB formation. Heterosigma akashiwo Heterosigma akashiwo is a species of microscopic algae of the class Raphidophyceae. It is a swimming marine alga that episodically forms toxic surface aggregations known as harmful algal bloom. The species name ""akashiwo"" is from the Japanese for ""red tide"". Synonyms include ""Olisthodiscus luteus"" (Hulburt 1965), and ""Entomosigma akashiwo"" (Hada 1967). ""H. akashiwo"" and ""H. inlandica"" have been recognized as two species of ""Heterosigma"". However, Hara and Chihara (1987) described both specimens as one species, validly describing them as ""H. akashiwo"". ""H. akashiwo"" cells are relatively small,"
"Bay. Without the freshwater, the water has become stagnant and salty with excess nitrogen from the fertilizer. This hyper-salinity contributes to the massive seagrass die-offs and algal blooms, and kills submerged aquatic vegetation. Cyanobacterial harmful algae blooms (also known as blue-green algae) have flourished in the bay due to a variety of environmental stressors: Agricultural fertilizer run-off increases nutrients in the delicately balanced environment and the excess increases the bacteria's rate of growth; The newly hyper-saline environment provides an ideal breeding ground for cyanobacteria; Rafts of dead seagrass floating on the surface of the water as well as decaying on"
"of this project. As a result of substantially slowing the flow rate in rivers and changing flow regimes generally, cyanobacteria, also known as ""blue-green algae,"" blooms have occurred annually every year since the project was declared complete. While algal blooms were not uncommon prior to the installation of the dams, weirs, and river dredging, the extent and duration of these blooms has greatly increased. Additionally, dredging the rivers had the unintended side effect of altering the typical depths of flow for the major rivers that were part of the project. This interrupted the natural ecosystem present in those rivers, and"
"California. Shellfish poisoning affected over a hundred humans, and now saxitoxin is recognized as one of the most deadly algal toxins. These algal blooms have caused severe disruptions in the fisheries of these waters, and have caused filter-feeding shellfish in affected waters to become poisonous for human consumption. Because of this, A. ""catenella"" is categorized as a Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) species. While in some areas the causes of HABs appears to be completely natural, in others, they appear to be a result of human activity, which is often coastal water pollution and over-fertilization. ""Alexandrium catenella""'s multiplication is stimulated by"
"allows for eutrophication of ocean waters. This increased growth of algae and phytoplankton in turn can have dire consequences. These algal blooms can emit toxic substances that can be harmful to humans if consumed. Organisms, such as shellfish, marine crustaceans and even fish, feed on or near these infected blooms, ingest the toxins and can be consumed unknowingly by humans. One of these toxin producing algae is Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called domoic acid which is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning. The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater concentrations associated with ocean"
"algal blooms around the world. Some of these blooms in the North Atlantic can produce compounds that are toxic to other marine organisms under the correct environmental conditions. It is common for blooms to be formed between April and August in Scandinavian coastal waters, however the specific ""Chrysochromulina"" species present varies from year to year. In the late spring of 1988 the ""Chrysochromulina"" bloom that travelled from the Kattegat to the Skagerrak was made up of only one species, ""C. polylepis"". This particular bloom was toxic to other marine organisms including protozoa, invertebrates, and 900 tonnes of farmed fish due"
"have been associated with various types of shellfish poisonings. Such blooms often take on a red or brown hue and are known colloquially as red tides. It is unclear what causes HABs; their occurrence in some locations appears to be entirely natural, while in others they appear to be a result of human activities. The program created by the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act ""has served as the federal government's research and response framework for harmful algal blooms."" A report by the NOAA indicated that ""U.S. seafood and tourism industries suffer annual losses of $82 million"
"of blue-green algae create neurotoxins, hepatoxins, cytotoxins or endotoxins that can cause serious and sometimes fatal neurological, liver and digestive diseases in humans. Cyanobacteria grow best in warmer temperatures (especially above 25 degrees Celsius), and so areas of the world that are experiencing general warming as a result of climate change are also experiencing harmful algal blooms more frequently and for longer periods of time. During times of intense precipitation (such as during the “wet season” in much of the tropical and sub-tropical world, including Australia and Panama), nutrients that cyanobacteria depend on are carried from groundwater and the earth's"
"other micro-organisms and fishes. The cause of the blooms and their subsequent damage to the populations of other organisms has been studied. The exudate of ""Botryococcus braunii"" in the form of free fatty acids has been identified as the cause. A higher alkalinity changes these free fatty acids into a form which is more toxic to other species, thus causing ""Botryococcus braunii"" to become more dominant. Higher alkalinity often occurs when ashes from burned areas are washed into a body of water. While the dominance of ""Botryococcus braunii"" can be seen as damaging to the environmental diversity of a body"
"Once nutrient pollution reaches the coastal zone, it stimulates harmful overgrowths of algae, which can have direct toxic effects and ultimately result in low-oxygen conditions. Certain types of algae are toxic. Overgrowths of these algae result in harmful algal blooms, which are more colloquially referred to as ""red tides"" or ""brown tides"". Zooplankton eat the toxic algae and begin passing the toxins up the food chain, affecting edibles like clams, and ultimately working their way up to seabirds, marine mammals, and humans. The result can be illness and sometimes death. There is increasing awareness that a greater understanding and emphasis"
"beaches around Texas and Florida. Humans can also become seriously ill from eating oysters and other shellfish contaminated with the red tide toxin. The term ""red tide"" is also commonly used to describe harmful algal blooms on the northern east coast of the United States, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. This type of bloom is caused by another species of dinoflagellate known as ""Alexandrium fundyense"". These blooms are natural phenomenon, but the exact cause or combination of factors that result in red tides outbreak not fully understood. Just as an algae bloom can lead to oxygen depletion, introduction of"
"the last decade with hundreds of square kilometers of the lake covered with a thick toxic layer of blue-green algae. Local residents in surrounding communities say the blue-green algae is well known for creating deadly water conditions in prairie dugouts and have been known to even kill livestock. Commercial and aboriginal fishermen on the lake often find their nets temporarily disabled during the summer months because of the thick algae conditions. The Lake Winnipeg algae blooms are considered the worst algae problem of any large freshwater lake in the world. The LWF is a non-profit organization that was founded in"
"acidification. Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; Ciguatera fish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and the above-mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning. Infectious disease often accompanies extreme weather events, such as floods, earthquakes and drought. These local epidemics occur due to loss of infrastructure, such as hospitals and sanitation services, but also because of changes in local ecology and environment. For example, malaria outbreaks have been strongly associated with the El Niño cycles of a number of countries (India and Venezuela, for example). El Niño can lead to"
"or Hypereutrophic areas, and is adapted to living in such conditions. The eutrophication of areas outside its natural range partially explain the fish's success in colonising these areas after being introduced. Some algal blooms, otherwise called ""nuisance algae"" or ""harmful algal blooms"", are toxic to plants and animals. Toxic compounds can make their way up the food chain, resulting in animal mortality. Freshwater algal blooms can pose a threat to livestock. When the algae die or are eaten, neuro- and hepatotoxins are released which can kill animals and may pose a threat to humans. An example of algal toxins working"
"organisms cause severe disruptions in fisheries of these waters as the toxins in the phytoplankton cause filter-feeding shellfish in affected waters to become poisonous for human consumption. If the HAB event results in a high enough concentration of algae the water may become discoloured or murky, varying in colour from purple to almost pink, normally being red or green. Not all algal blooms are dense enough to cause water discolouration. ""Red tide"" is a term often used synonymously with HABs in marine coastal areas; however, the term is misleading since algal blooms can widely vary in color, and growth of"
"Microcystin Microcystins — or cyanoginosins — are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater blue-green algae. Over 50 different microcystins have been discovered so far, of which microcystin-LR is the most common. Chemically they are cyclic heptapeptides produced through nonribosomal peptide synthases. Cyanobacteria can produce microcystins in large quantities during algal blooms which then pose a major threat to drinking and irrigation water supplies, and the environment at large. Microcystins — or cyanoginosins — are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria; primarily ""Microcystis aeruginosa"" but also other ""Microcystis"", as well as members of the ""Planktothrix"", ""Anabaena"","
"Debromoaplysiatoxin Debromoaplysiatoxin is a toxic agent produced by the blue-green alga ""Lyngbya majuscula"". This alga lives in marine waters and causes seaweed dermatitis. Furthermore, it is a tumor promoter which has an anti-proliferative activity against various cancer cell lines in mice. The first reported case of seaweed dermatitis was from 1958 in Hawaii on Oahu island. About 125 people who had been swimming in the sea get suffered from symptoms like itching, burning, blisters, rash and desquamation. The causative substance of this seaweed dermatitis was not known till 1968 when people in Okinawa, Japan, suffered from the same symptoms as"
"Pfiesteria piscicida Pfiesteria piscicida is a dinoflagellate species of the genus ""Pfiesteria"" that some researchers claim is responsible for many harmful algal blooms in the 1980s and 1990s on the coast of North Carolina and Maryland. ""Piscicida"" means ""fish-killer"". Early research suggested a very complex life cycle of ""Pfiesteria piscicida"" with up to 24 different stages, spanning from cyst to several amoeboid forms with toxic zoospores. Transformations from one stage to another depend on environmental conditions such as the availability of food. However these results have become controversial as additional research has found only a simple haplontic life cycle with"
"several problems in oceanic ecosystems. The main cause of DSP, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning, outbreaks in waters along Europe has been due to this species[3].Likewise, the close knit sisters of Dinophysis acuminata called Dinophysis norvegica, a photosynthetic organism with yellow chloroplast and posterior nucleus, Dinophysis acuta, and Dinophysis fortii have also been known to cause the same problems as D. acuminata[1]. Dinophysis norvegica is a marine plankton dinoflagellate that is found in neritic waters[1]. This species of the Dinophysis genus is a bloom-forming toxic species[1]. Both species reproduce asexually by binary fission to make identical copies of itself[1]. Speculations of sexual"
"Heterosigma akashiwo Heterosigma akashiwo is a species of microscopic algae of the class Raphidophyceae. It is a swimming marine alga that episodically forms toxic surface aggregations known as harmful algal bloom. The species name ""akashiwo"" is from the Japanese for ""red tide"". Synonyms include ""Olisthodiscus luteus"" (Hulburt 1965), and ""Entomosigma akashiwo"" (Hada 1967). ""H. akashiwo"" and ""H. inlandica"" have been recognized as two species of ""Heterosigma"". However, Hara and Chihara (1987) described both specimens as one species, validly describing them as ""H. akashiwo"". ""H. akashiwo"" cells are relatively small, ranging in size from 18 to 34 μm in diameter. They"
"would dump untreated sewage twice annually into the lake. Most recently, in August 2014, toxins were confirmed present in blue-green algae blooms. Leeds, Grenville & Lanark District Health Unit issued a public health notice warning not to drink the lake water, or allow pets or livestock to do so. This outbreak can be attributed to the sewage dump, erosion, high spring runoff, and zebra mussel population among other causes. Blue-green algae blooms, although not always toxic, is a repeated issue for residents and visitors of Upper Rideau Lake. Plans for the management, protection, and sustainability of the Rideau Canal, including"