"C.H. (Harry) Carlisle, she published the first such structure of a steroid, cholesteryl iodide (having worked with cholesteryls since the days of her doctoral studies). In 1945, Hodgkin and her colleagues solved the structure of penicillin, demonstrating (contrary to scientific opinion at the time) that it contains a β-lactam ring. The work was not published until 1949. In 1948, Hodgkin first encountered vitamin B, and created new crystals. Vitamin B had first been discovered at Merck earlier that year. It had a structure at the time that was almost completely unknown, and when Hodgkin discovered it contained cobalt, she realized"
"Oxford International Women's Festival has presented an annual memorial lecture, usually in March, in honour of Hodgkin's work. The Lecture is a collaboration between Oxford AWiSE (Association for Women in Science & Engineering), Somerville College and the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Dorothy Hodgkin Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British chemist who developed protein crystallography, for which she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. She advanced the technique of X-ray crystallography, a method used to determine the three-dimensional structures of molecules. Among her most influential discoveries are the confirmation"
"The final structure of B, for which Hodgkin was later awarded the Nobel Prize, was published in 1955. Insulin was one of Hodgkin's most extraordinary research projects. It began in 1934 when she was offered a small sample of crystalline insulin by Robert Robinson. The hormone captured her imagination because of the intricate and wide-ranging effect it has in the body. However, at this stage X-ray crystallography had not been developed far enough to cope with the complexity of the insulin molecule. She and others spent many years improving the technique. Larger and more complex molecules were tackled until in"
"final formula and definite structure was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin and her team, and later worked on the structure and synthesis of vitamin B and vitamin E, the anthocyanins (the pigments of flowers and fruits) from insects (aphids, beetles) and studied alkaloids found in hashish and marijuana. He served as chairman of the Government of the United Kingdom's advisory committee on scientific policy from 1952 to 1964. He was elected a Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge in 1944 and was Master from 1963 to 1978. He became Chancellor of the University of Strathclyde in 1975, and a visiting professor at"
"best evidence for the structure of DNA. For the discovery of the correct chemical structure of DNA, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 was shared by her colleagues and close researchers James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins; she died four years earlier in 1958 making her inelligible for the award. Rosalind Franklin joined the King's College London in January 1951 to work on the crystallography of DNA. By the end of that year, she established two important facts: one is that phosphate groups, which are the molecular backbone for the nucleotide chains, lie on the outside (it"
"time span of 40 years. Robinson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1947 for his work on alkaloids, strychnine included. The process of chemical identification was completed with publications in 1946 by Robinson and later confirmed by Woodward in 1947. X-ray structures establishing the absolute configuration became available between 1947 and 1951 with publications from J. M. Bijvoet and J.H. Robertson Woodward published a very brief account on the strychnine synthesis in 1954 (just 3 pages) and a lengthy one (42 pages) in 1963. Many more methods exist and reported by the research groups of Magnus, Overman, Kuehne,"
"Nobel Prize in Medicine for the development of the radioimmunoassay for insulin. Several Nobel Prizes also have an indirect connection with insulin. George Minot, co-recipient of the 1934 Nobel Prize for the development of the first effective treatment for pernicious anemia, had diabetes mellitus. Dr. William Castle observed that the 1921 discovery of insulin, arriving in time to keep Minot alive, was therefore also responsible for the discovery of a cure for pernicious anemia. Dorothy Hodgkin was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 for the development of crystallography. In 1969, after decades of work, Hodgkin determined the spatial"
"as cobalamin) catalyzes the transfer of methyl (−CH) groups between two molecules, which involves the breaking of C−C bonds, a process that is energetically expensive in organic reactions. The metal ion lowers the activation energy for the process by forming a transient Co−CH bond. The structure of the coenzyme was famously determined by Dorothy Hodgkin and co-workers, for which she received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry. It consists of a cobalt(II) ion coordinated to four nitrogen atoms of a corrin ring and a fifth nitrogen atom from an imidazole group. In the resting state there is a Co−C sigma bond"
"the only woman to be award two Nobel prizes). Her prize in chemistry was for her ""discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."" Irene Joliot-Curie, Marie's daughter, became the second woman to be awarded this prize in 1935 for her discovery of artificial radioactivity. Dorothy Hodgkin won the prize in 1964 for the development of protein crystallography. Among her significant discoveries are the structures of penicillin and vitamin B12. Forty five years later, Ada Yonath shared the prize with Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas"
"of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of proteins. She was working with Bernal on the technique's first application to the analysis of a biological substance, pepsin. The pepsin experiment is largely credited to Dorothy herself, but she always made it clear that it was Bernal who initially took the photographs and gave her additional key insights. Her PhD was awarded in 1937 for research on X-ray crystallography and the chemistry of the sterols. In 1933 Hodgkin was awarded a research fellowship by Somerville College, and in 1934, she moved back to Oxford. The college appointed her its first fellow"
"atoms, which makes determining their structure far more complex. In 1934, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin had taken crystallographic data on the structure of the small protein, insulin, although the structure of that and other proteins were not solved until the late 1960s. However, pioneering X-ray fiber diffraction data had been collected in the early 1930s for many natural fibrous proteins such as wool and hair by William Astbury, who proposed rudimentary models of secondary structure elements such as the alpha helix and the beta sheet. Since protein structure was so poorly understood in the 1930s, the physical interactions responsible for stabilizing"
"later a Marxist historian of Africa; in 1937 Thomas Hodgkin married Dorothy Crowfoot, who under her married name would win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Among others Robert Howard Hodgkin was also related to the painter Sir Howard Hodgkin, the namesake of Hodgkin's lymphoma Thomas Hodgkin, and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Hodgkin and his wife purchased an Illington home, Crab Mill, to retire to. It eventually became used as a family retreat, and was taken over in turn as a retirement home by his son and daughter-in-law. Robert Hodgkin died on"
"done by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1945. For this research, Chain, Florey, and Fleming received the Nobel Prize in 1945. Towards the end of World War II, Chain learned his mother and sister were killed by the Nazis. After World War II, Chain moved to Rome, to work at the Istituto Superiore di Sanità (Superior Institute of Health). He returned to Britain in 1964 as the founder and head of the biochemistry department at Imperial College London, where he stayed until his retirement, specialising in fermentation technologies. He was knighted soon after in 1969. He was a lifelong friend of Professor"
"B lectures of Woodward and, therefore, deals with the Harvard-ETH A/B variant only. The X-ray crystal structure of Vitamin B had been determined by Dorothy Hodgkin (Oxford University) in collaboration with Kenneth N. Trueblood (UCLA) and John G. White (Princeton University) in 1956. According to Woodward, an observation made during the synthesis of the Harvard A-D component played an essential role in the conception of the Woodward–Hoffmann rules for orbital symmetry control of organic reactions formulated in 1965. The core of the molecule vitamin B (cobalamin) is a corrin structure (depicted in red) with at its center a cobalt ion."
"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Nowadays the molecular structures of several thousand proteins are determined by X-ray crystallography every year. After 1959, Perutz and his colleagues went on to determine the structure of oxy- and deoxy- haemoglobin at high resolution. As a result, in 1970, he was at last able to suggest how it works as a molecular machine: how it switches between its deoxygenated and its oxygenated states, in turn triggering the uptake of oxygen and then its release to the muscles and other organs. Further work over the next two decades refined and corroborated the proposed mechanism. In addition"
"Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton (married name, Rimmer), they all travelled together in two cars after Hodgkin announced that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA. In 1960, Hodgkin was appointed the Royal Society's Wolfson Research Professor, a position she held until 1970. This provided her salary, research expenses and research assistance to continue her work at the University of Oxford. She was a Fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford from 1977 to 1983. Hodgkin was particularly noted for discovering three-dimensional biomolecular structures. In 1945, working with"
"51, while at King's College London, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Wilkins, but, although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally does not make posthumous nominations. After finishing her work on DNA, Franklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses. Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the"
"of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules. Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin. About terramycin, Woodward's colleague and Nobel Laureate Derek Barton said: In each one of these cases, Woodward again showed how rational facts and chemical principles, combined with chemical intuition, could be used to achieve the task. In the early 1950s, Woodward, along with the British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, then at Harvard, postulated a novel structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron. This marked the beginning of the"
"structure), glucagon, and carbonic anhydrase (theoretical studies). Subsequent Nobel Prize winner Thomas A. Steitz was a doctoral student in Lipscomb's laboratory. Under Lipscomb's direction, after the training task of determining the structure of the small molecule methyl ethylene phosphate, Steitz made contributions to determining the atomic structures of carboxypeptidase A and aspartate carbamoyltransferase. Steitz was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the even larger structure of the large 50S ribosomal subunit, leading to an understanding of possible medical treatments. Subsequent Nobel Prize winner Ada Yonath, who shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas A. Steitz"
"University of Exeter. She was then awarded a Royal Society Dorothy Hodgkin Fellowship at the University of Cambridge. Ashbrook has published over 110 papers in the area of structure and disorder in the solid state, using NMR spectroscopy and DFT calculations. Her work has garnered awards and prizes, including a Royal Society of Chemistry's Corday-Morgan Prize in 2015 for her contribution to the structure of materials by using a combination of solid-state NMR spectroscopy and first-principles calculations. She has also been awarded the Royal Society of Chemistry's Harrison Prize (2004) and the Marlow Award (2011), and the Makdougall Brisbane Medal"
"the group of people in the UK ""whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character"". In 2015 Hodgkin's 1949 paper ""The X-ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin"" was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the University of Oxford (England). This research is notable for its groundbreaking use of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of complex natural products, in this instance, of penicillin. Since 1999, the"
"structure of penicillin, it was actually first proposed by chemists at Merck and Edward Abraham at Oxford and then investigated by other groups, as well (e.g., Shell). Woodward at first endorsed an incorrect tricyclic (thiazolidine fused, amino bridged oxazinone) structure put forth by the penicillin group at Peoria. Subsequently, he put his imprimatur on the beta-lactam structure, all of this in opposition to the thiazolidine–oxazolone structure proposed by Robert Robinson, the then leading organic chemist of his generation. Ultimately, the beta-lactam structure was shown to be correct by Dorothy Hodgkin using X-ray crystallography in 1945. Woodward also applied the technique"
"in the field of nucleic acid structural research. Since the publication of the hammerhead and P structures, numerous major contributions to the field have been made. Some of the most noteworthy examples include the structures of the Group I and Group II introns, and the Ribosome. It should be noted that the first three structures were produced using ""in vitro"" transcription, and that NMR has played a role in investigating partial components of all four structures - testaments to the indispensability of both techniques for RNA research. The 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Ada Yonath, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan,"
"molecules has been known for over 150 years. In 1934, John Desmond Bernal and his student Dorothy Hodgkin discovered that protein crystals surrounded by their mother liquor gave better diffraction patterns than dried crystals. Using pepsin, they were the first to discern the diffraction pattern of a wet, globular protein. Prior to Bernal and Hodgkin, protein crystallography had only been performed in dry conditions with inconsistent and unreliable results. In 1958, the structure of myoglobin, determined by X-ray crystallography, was first reported by John Kendrew. Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz for this discovery. The"
"At Wisconsin, she performed research on the physical chemistry of proteins with John Warren Williams and Alwin M. Pappenheimer, including analysis of antibody-antigen interactions, in particular those between diphtheria toxin and antitoxin. Using ultracentrifugation, they showed that about 2/3 of the native diphtheria antitoxin (later determined to be the Fc portion of IgG) was ""inactive"" - it could be removed by protease treatment and the antitoxin could still bind two antigen molecules, so the binding sites must be close together. Her research on antibodies contributed to Rodney Porter's determination of immunoglobulin structure, for which he received the 1972 Nobel Prize."
"who discovered the mechanism by which glycogen, a derivative of glucose, is transformed in the muscles to form lactic acid, and is later reformed as a way to store energy. For this discovery she and her colleagues were awarded the Nobel prize in 1947, making her the third woman and the first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in science. She was the first woman ever to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Cori is among several scientists whose works are commemorated by a U.S. postage stamp. Nina Byers notes that before 1976, fundamental contributions of"
"Alex Stokes Alexander (Alec) Rawson Stokes (27 June 1919 – 5 February 2003) was a co-author of the second of the three papers published sequentially in ""Nature"" on 25 April 1953 announcing the presumed molecular structure of DNA. The first was authored by Francis Crick and James Watson, and the third by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1962 to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins for this work. In 1993, on the 40th anniversary of the publication of the molecular structure of DNA, a plaque was erected in the Quad (courtyard) of"
"structures of the ribosome, a gigantic biological factory composed of proteins and RNAs that is responsible for protein synthesis, or G-protein coupled receptors with 7 transmembrane helices, are magnificent examples of these new advances. Three crystallographers (V. Ramakrishnan, T.A. Steitz and A. Yonath) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009 for solving the structure of the ribosome. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2012 was awarded to B. Kobilka for the crystallographic structure of a G-protein coupled transmembrane receptor in complex with the intracellular G protein published in 2011, price shared with R. Lefkowitz for the discovery of these receptors."
"in Germany, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins. In 1929, a group at NIMR in Hampstead, London, were working on the structure of vitamin D, which was still unknown, as well as the structure of steroids. A meeting took place with J.B.S. Haldane, J.D. Bernal, and Dorothy Crowfoot to discuss possible structures, which contributed to bringing a team together. X-ray crystallography demonstrated the sterol molecules were flat, not as proposed by the German team led by Windaus. In 1932, Otto Rosenheim and Harold King published"
"awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The experimental evidence, a strong peak at 720 atomic mass units, indicated that a carbon molecule with 60 carbon atoms was forming, but provided no structural information. The research group concluded after reactivity experiments, that the most likely structure was a spheroidal molecule. The idea was quickly rationalized as the basis of an icosahedral symmetry closed cage structure. Kroto mentioned geodesic dome structures of the noted futurist and inventor Buckminster Fuller as influences in the naming of this particular substance as buckminsterfullerene. In 1989 physicists Wolfgang Krätschmer, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald R. Huffman"
"was able to decipher the structure of insulin. She is regarded as one of the pioneer scientists in the field of X-ray crystallography studies of biomolecules, which became an essential tool in the field of structural biology. Dorothy Mary Crowfoot was born in Cairo, Egypt, to John Winter Crowfoot (1873–1959), then working for the country's Ministry of Education and Grace Mary Crowfoot (née Hood) (1877–1957), known to friends and family as Molly. Dorothy was the oldest of three girls, all born in Egypt. The family lived in Cairo during the winter months, returning to England each year to avoid the"
"This double helix structure was first described by Francis Crick and James D. Watson (1953) using data collected by Rosalind Franklin. Each strand is a long polymer chain of repeating nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and an organic base. Nucleotides are distinguished by their bases. There are the purines, large bases which include adenine and guanine, and pyrimidines, small bases which include thymine and cytosine. Chargaff's rules state that adenine will always pair with thymine and guanine will always pair with cytosine. The phosphate groups are held together by a phosphodiester bond and"
"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid ""Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid"" was the first article published to describe the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA, using X-ray diffraction and the mathematics of a helix transform. It was published by Francis Crick and James D. Watson in the scientific journal ""Nature"" on pages 737–738 of its 171st volume (dated 25 April 1953). This article is often termed a ""pearl"" of science because it is brief and contains the answer to a fundamental mystery about living organisms. This mystery"