"soul. A sick or injured body does not do what we want or moves in ways we do not want. He believed the death of the body stopped it from being fit to bring about movement. This did not necessarily happen because the soul left the body. René Descartes believed the body could exist through mechanical means alone. This included digestion, blood circulation, muscle movement and some brain function. He felt we all know what the human body is like because animals have similar bodies and we have all seen them opened up. He saw the body as a machine."
"Leptin Leptin (from Greek λεπτός ""leptos"", ""thin""), ""the hormone of energy expenditure"", is a hormone predominantly made by adipose cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger. Leptin is opposed by the actions of the hormone ghrelin, the ""hunger hormone"". Both hormones act on receptors in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. In obesity, a decreased sensitivity to leptin occurs (similar to insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes), resulting in an inability to detect satiety despite high energy stores and high levels of leptin. Although regulation of fat stores is deemed to be the primary function of leptin,"
"human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber. In non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice pectin has been shown to increase the incidence of diabetes. A study found that after consumption of fruit the concentration of methanol in the human body increased by as much as an order of magnitude due to the degradation of natural pectin (which is esterified with methyl alcohol) in the colon). Pectin has been observed to have some function in DNA repair of plants. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in"
"body (sepsis). As affected individuals get older, blistering is less frequent, erythroderma becomes less evident, and the skin becomes thick (hyperkeratotic), especially over joints, on areas of skin that come into contact with each other, or on the scalp or neck. This thickened skin is usually darker than normal. Bacteria can grow in the thick skin, often causing a distinct odor. Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis can be categorized into two types. People with PS-type epidermolytic hyperkeratosis have thick skin on the palms of their hands and soles of their feet (palmoplantar or palm/sole hyperkeratosis) in addition to other areas of the body."
"ability to perform tasks requiring concentration and coordination, such as driving a car, increased heart rate, potential cardiac dangers for those with preexisting heart disease, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth and throat, decreased social inhibitions, paranoia, hallucinations, impaired or reduced short-term memory, impaired or reduced comprehension, altered motivation and cognition, making the acquisition of new information difficult, psychological dependence, impairments in learning and memory, perception, and judgment, anxiety or panic attacks, and more. Peptide hormones are water-soluble hormones composed of a few amino acids that introduce a series of chemical reactions to change the cell's metabolism. Examples of peptide hormones and"
"peptides are GRP, the mammalian form of bombesin, and CGRP; these substances exert direct mitogenic effects on epithelial cells and exhibit many properties akin to growth factors. Specialized groups of neuroendocrine cells can be found at the base of the third ventricle in the brain (in a region called the hypothalamus). This area controls most anterior pituitary cells and thereby regulates functions in the entire body, like responses to stress, cold, sleep, and the reproductive system. The neurons send processes to a region connecting to the pituitary stalk and releasing hormones are delivered into the bloodstream. They are carried by"
"in fatty tissues, such as adipose, cardiac, and muscle. Lipoprotein lipase is downregulated by high levels of insulin, and upregulated by high levels of glucagon and adrenaline. Pectinases, also called pectolytic enzymes, are a class of exoenzymes that are involved in the breakdown of pectic substances, most notably pectin. Pectinases can be classified into two different groups based on their action against the galacturonan backbone of pectin: de-esterifying and depolymerizing. These exoenzymes can be found in both plants and microbial organisms including fungi and bacteria. Pectinases are most often used to break down the pectic elements found in plants and"
"secretion, stimulate pancreatic secretion, increase blood circulation and water secretion in the stomach and intestine, and stimulate smooth muscle contraction. Originally found in the gut, these hormones have since been shown to be present in various parts of the nervous system. Like many other active peptides they are synthesized as larger protein precursors that are then enzymatically converted into their mature forms. They exist in several molecular forms due to tissue-specific post-translational processing. The biological activity of gastrin and CCK is associated with the last five C-terminal residues. One or two positions downstream, there is a conserved sulphated tyrosine residue."
"out some of the visual processing that the cortex performs in mammals. The term ""tectal plate"" (or ""quadrigeminal plate"") is used to describe the junction of the gray and white matter in the embryo. () Tectum The tectum (Latin: ""roof"") is a region of the brain, specifically the dorsal (top) part of the midbrain (mesencephalon). The position of the tectum is contrasted with the tegmentum, which refers to the region ventral (lower) to the ventricular system. The tectum is responsible for auditory and visual reflexes. The optic tectum projects through the reticular formation and interacts with motor neurons in the"
"categorized according to their sources and function. According to the Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides, some groups of peptides include plant peptides, bacterial/antibiotic peptides, fungal peptides, invertebrate peptides, amphibian/skin peptides, venom peptides, cancer/anticancer peptides, vaccine peptides , immune/inflammatory peptides, brain peptides, endocrine peptides, ingestive peptides, gastrointestinal peptides, cardiovascular peptides, renal peptides, respiratory peptides, opiate peptides, neurotrophic peptides, and blood–brain peptides. Some ribosomal peptides are subject to proteolysis. These function, typically in higher organisms, as hormones and signaling molecules. Some organisms produce peptides as antibiotics, such as microcins. Peptides frequently have posttranslational modifications such as phosphorylation, hydroxylation, sulfonation, palmitoylation, glycosylation and"
"Gastric chief cell A gastric chief cell (or peptic cell, or gastric zymogenic cell) is a type of cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and gastric lipase and is the cell responsible for secretion of chymosin in ruminants. The cell stains basophilic upon H&E staining due to the large proportion of rough endoplasmic reticulum in its cytoplasm. Gastric chief cells are generally located deep in the mucosal layer of the stomach lining. Chief cells release the zymogen (enzyme precursor) pepsinogen when stimulated by a variety of factors including cholinergic activity from the vagus nerve and acidic condition in the"
"to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ. In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a ""treatise on the heart"", with vessels"
"continuous pattern of stimulation. These experiments led to interest in ""stimulus-secretion coupling"" - the relationship between electrical activity and secretion. Supraoptic neurons are unusual because of the large amounts of peptide that they secrete, and because they secrete the peptides into the blood. However, many neurons in the brain, and especially in the hypothalamus, synthesize peptides. It is now thought that bursts of electrical activity might be generally important for releasing large amounts of peptide from peptide-secreting neurons. Supraoptic neurons have typically 1-3 large dendrites, most of which projecting ventrally to form a mat of process at the base of"
"to preoptic hypothalamic areas. The circumventricular organs may also be the site of action of interleukins to elicit both fever and ACTH secretion, via effects on paraventricular neurons. It is not clear how all peptides that influence hypothalamic activity gain the necessary access. In the case of prolactin and leptin, there is evidence of active uptake at the choroid plexus from the blood into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Some pituitary hormones have a negative feedback influence upon hypothalamic secretion; for example, growth hormone feeds back on the hypothalamus, but how it enters the brain is not clear. There is also"
"Tectum The tectum (Latin: ""roof"") is a region of the brain, specifically the dorsal (top) part of the midbrain (mesencephalon). The position of the tectum is contrasted with the tegmentum, which refers to the region ventral (lower) to the ventricular system. The tectum is responsible for auditory and visual reflexes. The optic tectum projects through the reticular formation and interacts with motor neurons in the brain stem. These connections are important for the recognition and reaction to various sized objects which is facilitated by excitatory optic nerve transmitters like L-glutamate. Recent lesion studies have suggested that the tectum has no"
"as a treatment for complications of leptin deficiency, and for the diabetes and hypertriglyceridemia associated with congenital or acquired generalized lipodystrophy. The leptine was discovered by Jeffrey Freidman in 1994 after several decades of research conducted by others institutions since 1950 on obese mouse models Leptin Leptin (from Greek λεπτός ""leptos"", ""thin""), ""the hormone of energy expenditure"", is a hormone predominantly made by adipose cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger. Leptin is opposed by the actions of the hormone ghrelin, the ""hunger hormone"". Both hormones act on receptors in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. In"
"Peptic ulcer disease Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a break in the inner lining of the stomach, first part of the small intestine or sometimes the lower esophagus. An ulcer in the stomach is known as a gastric ulcer while that in the first part of the intestines is known as a duodenal ulcer. The most common symptoms of a duodenal ulcer are waking at night with upper abdominal pain or upper abdominal pain that improves with eating. With a gastric ulcer the pain may worsen with eating. The pain is often described as a burning or dull ache. Other"
"Chief cell In human anatomy, there are three types of chief cells, the gastric chief cell, the parathyroid chief cell, and the type 1 chief cells found in the carotid body. The gastric chief cell (also known as a zymogenic cell or peptic cell) is a cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and chymosin. Pepsinogen is activated into the digestive enzyme pepsin when it comes in contact with acid produced by gastric parietal cells. This type of cell also secretes gastric lipase enzymes, which help digest triglycerides into free fatty acids and di- and mono-glycerides. There is also evidence"
"peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self-contained enteric nervous system. The rate can be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers"
"muscle cell contraction, and epithelial cell proliferation. Gastrin-releasing peptide is a regulatory human peptide that elicits gastrin release and regulates gastric acid secretion and enteric motor function. The post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve that innervate the G cells of the stomach release GRP, which stimulates the G cells to release gastrin. GRP is also involved in the biology of the circadian system, playing a role in the signaling of light to the master circadian oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Furthermore, GRP seems to mediate certain aspects of stress. This is the reason for the observed fact"
"disseminate to other parts of the body where they can form abscesses and septic infarctions. The first capillaries that the emboli encounter where they can nestle themselves are the pulmonary capillaries. As a consequence, the most frequently involved site of septic metastases are the lungs, followed by the joints (knee, hip, sternoclavicular joint, shoulder and elbow). In the lungs, the bacteria cause abscesses, nodulary and cavitary lesions. Pleural effusion is often present. Other sites involved in septic metastasis and abscess formation are the muscles and soft tissues, liver, spleen, kidneys and nervous system (intracranial abscesses, meningitis). Production of bacterial toxins"
"that appeared to provide negative feedback. Leptin is a peptide hormone that affects homeostasis and immune responses. Lowering food intake can lower leptin levels in the body, while increasing the intake of food can raise leptin levels. Later studies showed that appetite regulation is an immensely complex process involving the gastrointestinal tract, many hormones, and both the central and autonomic nervous systems. The circulating gut hormones that regulate many pathways in the body can either stimulate or suppress appetite. For example, ghrelin stimulates appetite, whereas cholecystokinin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) suppress appetite. The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, a part"
"VIPR1 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 1 also known as VPAC, is a protein, that in humans is encoded by the ""VIPR1"" gene. VPAC is expressed in the brain (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala), lung, prostate, peripheral blood leukocytes, liver, small intestine, heart, spleen, placenta, kidney, thymus and testis. VPAC is a receptor for vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), a small neuropeptide. Vasoactive intestinal peptide is involved in smooth muscle relaxation, exocrine and endocrine secretion, and water and ion flux in lung and intestinal epithelia. Its actions are effected through integral membrane receptors associated with a guanine nucleotide binding protein which activates adenylate"
"Sphincter A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning. Sphincters are found in many animals. There are over 60 types in the human body, some microscopically small, in particular the millions of precapillary sphincters. Sphincters relax at death, often releasing fluids. Sphincters control the passage of liquids and solids. This is evident, for example, in the blowholes of numerous marine mammals. Many sphincters are used every day in the normal course of digestion. For example, the lower esophageal sphincter (or cardiac sphincter),"
"from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the vagus nerve. When this occurs, the reflex is called vagovagal reflex. The myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus are both located in the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut or the CNS. ""For further information see Gastrointestinal hormone"" GI peptides are signal molecules that are released into the blood by the GI cells themselves. They act on a variety of tissues including the brain, digestive accessory organs, and the GI tract. The effects range from excitatory or inhibitory effects on motility and"
"only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system. The sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in which great mental stress or physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are released, which increases heart rate and blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while simultaneously decreasing activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The"
"individual since its production is corelated to the benefit of a chronic physical exercise in aged individuals. Apelin Apelin (also known as APLN) is a peptide that in humans is encoded by the ""APLN"" gene. Apelin is the endogenous ligand for the G-protein-coupled APJ receptor that is expressed at the surface of some cell types. It is widely expressed in various organs such as the heart, lung, kidney, liver, adipose tissue, gastrointestinal tract, brain, adrenal glands, endothelium, and human plasma. Apelin is a peptide that was identified in 1998 by Professor M. Fujino’s team. Apelin gene encodes a pre-proprotein of"
"Hippus Hippus, also known as pupillary athetosis, is spasmodic, rhythmic, but regular dilating and contracting pupillary movements between the sphincter and dilator muscles. Pupillary hippus comes from the Greek ""hippos"" meaning horse, perhaps due to the rhythm of the contractions representing a galloping horse. It is particularly noticeable when pupil function is tested with a light, but is independent of eye movements or changes in illumination. It is usually normal, however pathological hippus can occur. Pathologic hippus, the phenomena of increased oscillation or their amplitude, is associated with aconite poisoning, altered mental status, trauma, cirrhosis, and renal disease; suggesting a"
"not peptides, codeine and morphine are also produced in the human body. Exogenous opioid substances are called exorphins, as opposed to endorphines. Exorphins include opioid food peptides like Gluten exorphin and opioid food peptides and are mostly contained in cereals and animal milk. They mimic the actions of endorphines because they bind to the same opioid receptors in the brain. These are the most common exorphins: Opioid peptide Opioid peptides are peptides that bind to opioid receptors in the brain; opiates and opioids mimic the effect of these peptides. Such peptides may be produced by the body itself, for example"
"to the hormone leptin, central vs peripheral refers to the hypothalamic portion of the brain vs non-hypothalamic ""location of action"" of leptin; direct vs indirect refers to whether there is no intermediary, or there is an intermediary in the ""mode of action"" of leptin; and primary vs secondary is an arbitrary description of a particular ""function"" of leptin. In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The primary effect of leptins is in the hypothalamus, a part of the central nervous system. Leptin receptors are expressed not"
"birds; tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs; fang-strikes in snakes; etc. In some vertebrates, including fish and birds, the tectum is one of the largest components of the brain. In mammals, and especially primates, the massive expansion of the cerebral cortex reduces the tectum (""superior colliculus"") to a much smaller fraction of the whole brain. It remains nonetheless important in terms of function as the primary integrating center for eye movements. ""Note on terminology"": This article follows terminology established in the literature, using the term ""superior colliculus"" when discussing mammals and ""optic tectum"" when discussing either specific non-mammalian species or vertebrates"
"had seven or eight digits. Pes (anatomy) The pes (Latin for ""foot"") is the zoological term for the distal portion of the hind limb of tetrapod animals. It is the part of the pentadactyl limb that includes the metatarsals and digits (phalanges). During evolution, it has taken many forms and served a variety of functions. It can be represented by the foot of primates, the lower hind limb of hoofed animals, the lower portion of the leg of birds and dinosaurs or the rear paw. It is also represented in the rear 'paddle' of extinct marine reptiles, such as plesiosaurs."
"stomach. Gastrin and secretin may also act as secretagogues. It works in conjunction with the parietal cell, which releases gastric acid, converting the pepsinogen into pepsin. The terms ""chief cell"" and ""zymogenic cell"" are often used without the word ""gastric"" to name this type of cell. However those terms can also be used to describe other cell types (for example, parathyroid chief cells). Chief cells are also known as peptic cells. Gastric chief cell A gastric chief cell (or peptic cell, or gastric zymogenic cell) is a type of cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and gastric lipase and"