"used to modify the coercive field at which magnetization reversal occurs. As a result of the dependence of the magnetic hysteresis on the gate bias the electric field could be used to assist magnetization reversal or even demagnetize the ferromagnetic material. The combining of magnetic and electronic functionality demonstrated by this experiment is one of the goals of spintronics and may be expected to have a great technological impact. Another important spintronic functionality that has been demonstrated in DMSs is that of spin injection. This is where the high spin polarization inherent to these magnetic materials is used to transfer"
"past. Hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, as well as in the deformation of rubber bands and shape-memory alloys and many other natural phenomena. In natural systems it is often associated with irreversible thermodynamic change such as phase transitions and with internal friction; and dissipation is a common side effect. Hysteresis can be found in physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, and economics. It is incorporated in many artificial systems: for example, in thermostats and Schmitt triggers, it prevents unwanted frequent switching. Hysteresis can be a dynamic lag between an input and an output that disappears if the input is varied"
"in every substance, where ""ε"" is the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field and polarization, if a polarization process loses its response, permittivity decreases. Dielectric relaxation is the momentary delay (or lag) in the dielectric constant of a material. This is usually caused by the delay in molecular polarization with respect to a changing electric field in a dielectric medium (e.g., inside capacitors or between two large conducting surfaces). Dielectric relaxation in changing electric fields could be considered analogous to hysteresis in changing magnetic fields (for inductors or transformers)."
"Flash lag illusion The flash lag illusion or flash-lag effect is a visual illusion wherein a flash and a moving object that appear in the same location are perceived to be displaced from one another). Several explanations for this simple illusion have been explored in the neuroscience literature (for a review see). The first proposed explanation for the flash-lag effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting for neural delays by extrapolating the trajectory of a moving stimulus into the future. In other words, when light from a moving object hits the retina, a certain amount of time is"
"Hysteresivity Hysteresivity derives from “hysteresis”, meaning “lag”. It is the tendency to react slowly to an outside force, or to not return completely to its original state. Whereas the area within a hysteresis loop represents energy dissipated to heat and is an extensive quantity with units of energy, the hysteresivity represents the fraction of the elastic energy that is lost to heat, and is an intensive property that is dimensionless. When a force deforms a material it generates elastic stresses and internal frictional stresses. Most often, frictional stress is described as being analogous to the stress that results from the"
"Stewart–Tolman effect The Stewart–Tolman effect is a phenomenon in electrodynamics caused by the finite mass of electrons in conducting metal, or, more generally, the finite mass of charge carriers in an electrical conductor. It is named after T. Dale Stewart and Richard C. Tolman, two American physicists who carried out their experimental work in the 1910s. This eponym appears to be first used by Lev Landau. In a conducting body undergoing accelerating motion, inertia causes the electrons in the body to ""lag"" behind the overall motion. In the case of linear acceleration, negative charge accumulates at the end of the"
"Relaxation in general is a delay or lag in the response of a linear system, and therefore dielectric relaxation is measured relative to the expected linear steady state (equilibrium) dielectric values. The time lag between electrical field and polarization implies an irreversible degradation of Gibbs free energy. In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation response of a dielectric medium to an external, oscillating electric field. This relaxation is often described in terms of permittivity as a function of frequency, which can, for ideal systems, be described by the Debye equation. On the other hand, the distortion related to ionic"
"is clear - A delay between a physical input occurring (e.g., I/O pin voltage change) and it being processed electronically (I/O pins read by processor and memory registers updated to reflect the state of the pins) is input lag, and a delay between an electronic output being sent (e.g., memory register set to reflect the desired state of an output) and it being processed into a physically observable phenomenon (e.g., memory register read and I/O pin voltage modified accordingly), is output lag. In short, Input Lag occurs on input devices, Output Lag occurs on output devices. The following are descriptions"
"Backlash (engineering) In mechanical engineering, backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is a clearance or lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps between the parts. It can be defined as ""the maximum distance or angle through which any part of a mechanical system may be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or motion to the next part in mechanical sequence"". An example, in the context of gears and gear trains, is the amount of clearance between mated gear teeth. It can be seen when the direction of movement is reversed and the slack or lost motion is"
"Larmor precession In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moment of an object about an external magnetic field. Objects with a magnetic moment also have angular momentum and effective internal electric current proportional to their angular momentum; these include electrons, protons, other fermions, many atomic and nuclear systems, as well as classical macroscopic systems. The external magnetic field exerts a torque on the magnetic moment, where formula_2 is the torque, formula_3 is the magnetic dipole moment, formula_4 is the angular momentum vector, formula_5 is the external magnetic field, formula_6 symbolizes the cross product,"
"Latency (engineering) Latency is a time interval between the stimulation and response, or, from a more general point of view, a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being observed. Latency is physically a consequence of the limited velocity with which any physical interaction can propagate. The magnitude of this velocity is always less than or equal to the speed of light. Therefore, every physical system will experience some sort of latency, regardless of the nature of stimulation that it has been exposed to. The precise definition of latency depends on the"
"phenomenon is called ""plastic deformation"". For example, if one stretches a coil spring up to a certain point, it will return to its original shape, but once it is stretched beyond the elastic limit, it will remain deformed and won't return to its original state. Elastic deformation stretches the bonds between atoms away from their equilibrium radius of separation, without applying enough energy to break the inter-atomic bonds. Plastic deformation, on the other hand, breaks inter-atomic bonds, and therefore involves the rearrangement of atoms in a solid material. In materials science parlance, dislocations are defined as line defects in a"
"is anticipated by the brain to compensate for the processing time: it is this differentiated treatment that causes the flash-lag effect. Moreover, this could also explain related phenomena such as motion reversal. Flash lag illusion The flash lag illusion or flash-lag effect is a visual illusion wherein a flash and a moving object that appear in the same location are perceived to be displaced from one another). Several explanations for this simple illusion have been explored in the neuroscience literature (for a review see). The first proposed explanation for the flash-lag effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting"
"Seasonal lag Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation. This also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after the date of minimum insolation. An analogous temperature lag phenomenon occurs in diurnal temperature variation, where maximum daily temperature occurs after noon (maximum insolation). Earth's seasonal lag is largely caused by the presence of large amounts of water, which has a high latent heat of freezing and of condensation. The length of seasonal lag"
"Accordion effect In physics, the accordion effect, known also as the slinky effect, concertina effect, elastic band effect, and string instability, occurs when fluctuations in the motion of a travelling body causes disruptions in the flow of elements following it. This can happen in road traffic, foot marching, bicycle and motor racing, and, in general, to processes in a pipeline. These are examples of nonlinear processes. The accordion effect generally decreases the throughput of the system in which it occurs. The accordion effect in road traffic refers to the typical decelerations and accelerations of a vehicle when the vehicle in"
"shape - memory effect at room temperature, depending on the nickel / titanium ratio. Ferroelasticity Ferroelasticity is a phenomenon in which a material may exhibit a spontaneous strain. In ferroics, ferroelasticity is the mechanical equivalent of ferroelectricity and ferromagnetism. When stress is applied to a ferroelastic material, a phase change will occur in the material from one phase to an equally stable phase, either of different crystal structure (e.g. cubic to tetragonal), or of different orientation (a 'twin' phase). This stress-induced phase change results in a spontaneous strain in the material. The shape memory effect and superelasticity are manifestations of"
"the strain at which failure occurs. Once the static loading causes the specimen to surpass this point the specimen will begin permanent, or plastic, deformation. In mechanical design, most failures are due to time-varying, or dynamic, loads that are applied to a system. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure. Fatigue is known as the weakness in a material due to variations of stress that are repeatedly applied to said material. For example, when stretching a rubber band to a certain length without breaking it (i.e. not surpassing the yield stress of the rubber band) the rubber band will return"
"Ferroelasticity Ferroelasticity is a phenomenon in which a material may exhibit a spontaneous strain. In ferroics, ferroelasticity is the mechanical equivalent of ferroelectricity and ferromagnetism. When stress is applied to a ferroelastic material, a phase change will occur in the material from one phase to an equally stable phase, either of different crystal structure (e.g. cubic to tetragonal), or of different orientation (a 'twin' phase). This stress-induced phase change results in a spontaneous strain in the material. The shape memory effect and superelasticity are manifestations of ferroelasticity. Nitinol (nickel titanium), a common ferroelastic alloy, can display either superelasticity or the"
"Landau damping In physics, Landau damping, named after its discoverer, the eminent Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau (1908–68), is the effect of damping (exponential decrease as a function of time) of longitudinal space charge waves in plasma or a similar environment. This phenomenon prevents an instability from developing, and creates a region of stability in the parameter space. It was later argued by Donald Lynden-Bell that a similar phenomenon was occurring in galactic dynamics, where the gas of electrons interacting by electrostatic forces is replaced by a ""gas of stars"" interacting by gravitation forces. Landau damping can be manipulated exactly"
"Magnetic levitation Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational acceleration and any other accelerations. The two primary issues involved in magnetic levitation are ""lifting forces"": providing an upward force sufficient to counteract gravity, and ""stability"": ensuring that the system does not spontaneously slide or flip into a configuration where the lift is neutralized. Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, contactless melting, magnetic bearings and for product display purposes. Magnetic materials and systems are"
"Magnetism Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys. The prefix """" refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural"
"Shutter lag In photography, shutter lag is the delay between triggering the shutter and when the photograph is actually recorded. This is a common problem in the photography of fast-moving objects or people in motion. The term narrowly refers only to shutter effects, but more broadly refers to all lag between when the shutter button is pressed and when the photo is taken, including metering and focus lag. In film cameras, the delay is caused by the mechanism inside the camera that opens the shutter, exposing the film. Because the process is mechanical, however, and relatively brief, shutter lag in"
"Thermal lag Thermal lag describes a body's temperature with respect to time as a result of its thermal mass. A body with high thermal mass (high heat capacity and low conductivity) will have a large thermal lag. α = Thermal diffusivity (m/s) Ω = External angular frequency (s) L = thickness (m) The slow night-time cooling of a home after its external brick wall has been heated by the sun is one example of thermal lag. Thermal lag is the reason the high temperatures in summer continue to increase after the summer solstice (in this case, it is termed seasonal"
"Input lag The general use of the phrase ‘input lag’ is used to describe the delay between an electrical input from the point of stimulation to action, for example, pressing a button and seeing the event after as little as 1/24th of a second. In video games, input lag is either the delay between the television or monitor receiving a signal and it being displayed on the screen (see display lag below), or the delay between pressing a button and seeing the game react. In electronic hardware development, input lag is the delay between an electronic input signal being generated"
"Plasticity (physics) In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a (solid) material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield. Plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals, soils, rocks, concrete, foams, bone and skin. However, the physical mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary widely. At a crystalline scale, plasticity in metals is usually a"
"Leading and lagging current Leading and lagging current are phenomena that occur as a result of alternating current. In a circuit with alternating current, the value of voltage and current vary sinusoidally. In these types of circuits, the terms lead, lag, or in phase are used to describe current with reference to voltage. Current is in phase with voltage when there is no phase shift between the sinusoids describing their time varying behavior. This generally occurs when the load drawing the current is resistive. In electric power flow, it is important to know whether current is leading or lagging because"
"Magnetostriction Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive strain until reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when observing a sample of iron. This effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The effect is also responsible for the low-pitched humming sound that can be heard coming from transformers, where oscillating AC currents produce a changing magnetic field."
"Elasticity (physics) In Physics, elasticity (from Greek ἐλαστός ""ductible"") is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid objects will deform when adequate forces are applied to them. If the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size when these forces are removed. The physical reasons for elastic behavior can be quite different for different materials. In metals, the atomic lattice changes size and shape when forces are applied (energy is added to the system). When"
"a period of time fretting which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in bearings, although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem occurs when cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the two phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the small particles removed by wear are oxidised in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces"
"Kaiser effect (material science) The Kaiser effect is a phenomenon observed in geology and material science that describes a pattern of acoustic emission or seismicity in a body of rock or other material subjected to repeated cycles of mechanical stress. In material that exhibits an initial seismic response under a certain load, the Kaiser effect describes the absence of acoustic emission or seismic events until that load is exceeded. The Kaiser effect results from discontinuities (fractures) created in material during previous steps that do not move, expand, or propagate until the former stress is exceeded. Induced seismicity associated with fluid"
"Retardation time Retardation is the delayed response to an applied force or stress and can be described as ""delay of the elasticity"" Ideal elastic materials show an immediate deformation after applying a jump-like stress, and an immediate reformation after removing the stress afterwards in the jump-like form again. For viscoelastic samples, this elastic behaviour occurs with a certain time delay. The term ""relaxation time"" has been described. It is used in combination with tests presetting the strain (deformation) or strain rate (shear rate), eg, when performing relaxation tests. On the other hand, the term ""retardation time"" is used for tests"
"an applied magnetic field – a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them. The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and metamagnetism. Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with"
"force causing it is called stress. Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or elasticity. As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of ""radiation friction"" which would"