"vaccinated children had died in both studies; no researchers dared attempt a polio vaccine for another 20 years. Professor John Kolmer, MD (1886–1962), of Temple University in Philadelphia, presented his findings first. He had developed an attenuated poliovirus vaccine, which he tested in about 10,000 children across much of the United States and Canada. Five of these children died of polio and 10 more were paralyzed, usually in the arm where the vaccine was injected, and frequently affecting children in towns where no polio outbreak had occurred. He had no control group, but asserted that many more children would have"
"cells were used by Jonas Salk to test the first polio vaccine in the 1950s. They were observed to be easily infected by poliomyelitis, causing infected cells to die. This made HeLa cells highly desirable for polio vaccine testing since results could be easily obtained. A large volume of HeLa cells were needed for the testing of Salk's polio vaccine, prompting the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP) to find a facility capable of mass-producing HeLa cells. In the spring of 1953, a cell culture factory was established at Tuskegee University to supply Salk and other labs with HeLa cells."
"left crippled, fear of contracting polio grew rampant and led to the closing of many public facilities. By 1952, the polio epidemic reached new heights in the U.S. with 57,628 cases reported. Meanwhile, in 1947, Jonas Salk had been recruited to Pitt where he set up the University's Virus Research Lab in the basement of what is now Pitt's Salk Hall. By 1951, Salk and his team had begun immunization experiments in monkeys using dead polio virus. Soon, however, Salk began to test inoculations in paralyzed polio patients and by 1953 human trials among the general population were initiated (the"
"development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years. Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented, but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic. In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species. It was later determined that SV40 was present as a"
"phenol red in a tissue-culture system. The Salk vaccine is based upon formalin inactivated wild type virus. The key to effective inactivation depended upon a color test developed by Youngner, which allowed formalin induced viral protein degradation to be accurately plotted. From Youngner's work, formalin application for six days was projected to produce only ""one live virus particle in 100 million doses of vaccine."" By 1954, the first virus trials had immunized 800,000 children against polio. Youngner studied the role of in-apparent infections in an effort to link a selection of wild type virus to chronic and persistent infections. His"
"potential safety concerns; Salk's vaccine had the risk of a virus which is not completely inactivated, while Sabin's vaccine had the risk of reversion to virulence. In 1955, a batch of Salk's vaccine made by Cutter Laboratories in California was inadequately inactivated and, as a result, 11 children died. After this incident, production methods were changed and no further incidents were reported. Sabin became highly critical of O'Connor and the March of Dimes, who he believed were biased towards Salk's vaccine and made statements inconsistent with the scientific research. In the meantime, trials of the vaccine based on Sabin's version"
"In 1952 the company offered its first public shares of stock. In 1953 Eugene N. Beesley was named the company's new president, the first non-family member to run the company. Over the next several decades Lilly continued to develop and introduce new drugs to the marketplace. In the 1950s Lilly introduced two new antibiotics: vancomycin and erythromycin. In addition Lilly was heavily involved in production and distribution of Jonas Salk's poliomyelitis (polio) vaccine. In 1954 the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP) contracted with five pharmaceutical companies to produce Salk's polio vaccine for clinical trials. These included Lilly as well"
"anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his creation of a polio vaccine. The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. Albert Sabin"
"moment antibiotics were introduced, the fall became steep so that by the 1980s mortality in developed countries was effectively zero. In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey cross-contamination studies to isolate the three forms of the polio virus that affected hundreds of thousands yearly. Salk's team created a vaccine against the strains of polio in cell cultures of rhesus monkey kidney cells. The vaccine was made publicly available in 1955 and reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the USA over the following five years. Albert Sabin made a superior ""live"" vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal"
"and his wife Herdis were not only Salk's lifelong friends, but were also appointed by the Danish government to direct the vaccination of all 7 to 12 year olds. The Statens Serum Institut produced its own modified polio vaccine using techniques based on what the von Magnus's had learnt in the spring of 1953, when they accepted an invitation to visit Salk's laboratory. Due to the limited supply of inactivated virus, the Danish institute administered the vaccine subcutaneously, requiring smaller doses. Naturally occurring pox infections in non-human primates were first reported by Rijk Gispen in 1949. Due to the similar"
"Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in 1937 and remained as a director of the laboratory when it was transferred to the School of Hygiene arid Public Health in 1942. At his retirement in 1959, he was adjunct professor of epidemiology. He and his associates traced the pathways through the body of the polio virus, identified the three types of virus and produced immunity in chimpanzees with inactivated virus. In 1952, he successfully inoculated children at the Rosewood State Hospital, just before the pioneer inoculation programs of Dr. Jonas Salk who used a more refined vaccine that was easier to mass"
"a serious threat in parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria. Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine Polio (Infantile paralysis or poliomyelitis) epidemics were a concern during the summer months for children globally, with records of polio from the Egyptians and Greeks to the 1950s epidemics. In the summer of 1921, this epidemic became notorious when Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the Democratic contender for the vice presidency, was struck down by polio at the age of 39. Two U.S. virologists, Jonas Salk of the University of Pittsburgh and Albert B. Sabin of the University of Cincinnati emerged as the most prominent"
"assembled, devoted himself to this work for the next seven years. The field trial set up to test the Salk vaccine was, according to O'Neill, ""the most elaborate program of its kind in history, involving 20,000 physicians and public health officers, 64,000 school personnel, and 220,000 volunteers."" Over 1,800,000 school children took part in the trial. When news of the vaccine's success was made public on April 12, 1955, Salk was hailed as a ""miracle worker"" and the day almost became a national holiday. Around the world, an immediate rush to vaccinate began, with countries including Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway,"
"1 strain called SM was reported in 1954. A less virulent version of the SM strain was reported by Koprowski in 1957. The name of the vaccine strain was ""CHAT"" after ""Charlton"", the name of the child who was the donor of the precursor virus. The Sabin, Koprowski and Cox vaccines were clinically tested in millions of individuals and found to be safe and effective. Because monkey trials found fewer side effects with the Sabin vaccine, in the early 1960s, the Sabin vaccine was licensed in the USA and its use supported by the World Health Organization. Between 1957 and"
"prevent polio; the field trials involving the Salk vaccine would grow to be the largest medical experiment in history. Immediately following licensing, vaccination campaigns were launched, by 1957, following mass immunizations promoted by the March of Dimes the annual number of polio cases in the United States was reduced, from a peak of nearly 58,000 cases, to 5,600 cases. Eight years after Salk's success, Albert Sabin developed an ""oral polio vaccine"" (OPV) using live but weakened (""attenuated"") virus. Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957 and it was licensed in 1962. Following the development of oral polio vaccine, a"
"Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine Polio (Infantile paralysis or poliomyelitis) epidemics were a concern during the summer months for children globally, with records of polio from the Egyptians and Greeks to the 1950s epidemics. In the summer of 1921, this epidemic became notorious when Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the Democratic contender for the vice presidency, was struck down by polio at the age of 39. Two U.S. virologists, Jonas Salk of the University of Pittsburgh and Albert B. Sabin of the University of Cincinnati emerged as the most prominent among dozens of American researchers on the quest for a"
"a spokesperson for health. On the other hand, controversy surrounding failed batches of polio vaccine threatened to destroy public faith in the Federal health establishment. After the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis sponsored a successful national trial of Jonas Salk's vaccine in Ann Arbor, Michigan (1954), PHS had released licensing standards for the vaccine and approved six manufacturers to begin production. Scheele and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) Secretary Oveta Culp Hobby released this long-awaited news at a press conference on April 12, 1955, the tenth anniversary of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's death from complications of polio. Health"
"most often cause the mildest of symptoms. This was not known until the virus was isolated in cultured cells and many people were shown to have had mild infections that did not lead to poliomyelitis. But, unlike other viral infections, the incidence of polio – the rarer severe form of the infection – increased in the 20th century and reached a peak around 1952. The invention of a cell culture system for growing the virus enabled Jonas Salk (1914–1995) to make an effective polio vaccine. Denis Parsons Burkitt (1911–1993) was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. He was the first"
"production of an important new weapon against disease. Twenty-five million doses of Salk Poliomyelitis vaccine were produced at CSL in the 1950s and 1960s under Dr. Bazeley's leadership as director of the government institution. This led to widespread recognition. He was awarded a C.B.E. (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) and was deservedly renowned in the general community where, for example, he was chosen as Victorian Father of the Year in 1958. In 1961, Dr. Bazeley returned to the United States to work with Jonas Salk at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California. Subsequently, he joined UC"
"of Oak Park, Illinois, gave some vials of 1955 Salk vaccine to researcher Michele Carbone. Ratner, the Health Commissioner of Oak Park at the time the Salk vaccine was introduced, had kept these vials of vaccine in a refrigerator for over forty years. Upon testing this vaccine, Carbone discovered that it contained not only the SV40 strain already known to have been in the Salk vaccine (containing two 72-bp enhancers) but also the same slow-growing SV40 strain currently found in some malignant tumors and lymphomas (containing one 72-bp enhancers). It is unknown how widespread the virus was among humans before"
"Disappointed by polio vaccine's development and involvement in some cases of polio and death—what Enders attributed to Salk's technique—Enders began development of measles vaccine. In October 1960, an Enders team began trials on 1,500 mentally retarded children in New York City and on 4,000 children in Nigeria. On September 17, 1961, ""The New York Times"" announced the measles vaccine effective. Refusing credit for only himself, Enders stressed the collaborative nature of the effort. In 1963, Pfizer introduced a deactivated measles vaccine, and Merck & Co introduced an attenuated measles vaccine. John Franklin Enders John Franklin Enders (February 10, 1897 –"
"to the virus's cultivation. In the mid-20th century, measles was particularly devastating in West Africa, where child mortality rates were 50 percent before age 5, and the children were struck with the type of rash and other symptoms common prior to 1900 in England and other countries. The first trial of a live attenuated measles vaccine was undertaken in 1960 by David Morley in a village near Ilesha, Nigeria; in case he could be accused of exploiting the Nigerian population, Morley included his own four children in the study. The encouraging results led to a second study of about 450"
"eradication. 1580-1350 BC: An Egyptian tablet portrays a priest with a withered leg, suggesting Polio dates back to ancient times and has been paralysing people for centuries. 1840: German doctor Jacob von Heine investigates and suggests polio may be contagious. 1894: An outbreak of infantile paralysis – subsequently identified as polio – sweeps the United States. 1916: The New York Polio epidemic receives worldwide attention, accelerating research into polio. 1948: Thomas Huckle Weller and Frederick Robbins grow poliovirus in cells, for which they later receive Nobel Prize. 1952: Dr. Jonas Salk develops the first vaccine against polio – an injectable,"
"majority were Allegheny County residents). By the spring of the following year, the largest controlled field trials in medical history were underway and by 1955 the ""Pitt vaccine"", developed by Salk and his team of Pitt researchers, was declared effective. By 1962, when Albert Sabin's oral live-virus vaccine was approved, Pitt's vaccine had reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by ""95 percent"". Together, these two vaccines eradicated naturally occurring poliomyelitis from North and South America, and Western Europe. In 1999 the U.S. Office of Public Health and Science recommended returning to the use of the Pitt dead-virus"
"Sidney Farber, pediatric pathologist, requested Dr. Yellapragada Subbarow (of Lederle lab and his friend and colleague at Harvard Medical School) to supply Aminopterin and later Amithopterin (Methotrexate) to conduct trials on acute leukemic children. He achieves the world's first partial remission of acute leukemia. He went on to co-found the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in 1950. 1954: Dr. John Enders and his colleagues win the Nobel Prize for successfully culturing the polio virus in 1949, making possible the development of the Salk and Sabin vaccines. Enders and his team went on to culture the measles virus. 1971: Dr. Judah Folkman publishes"
"viral diseases, such as polio and encephalomyelitis. In 1944 Morgan joined a group of virologists, including David Bodian, at Johns Hopkins, where she began experiments to immunize monkeys against polio with killed poliovirus grown in nervous tissue and inactivated with formaldehyde. After vaccination with the inactivated virus, the monkeys were able to resist injections with high concentrations of live poliovirus. Maurice Brodie had demonstrated the same induction of immunity with inactivated virus in 1935. Morgan's work was a key link in the chain of progress toward a killed-virus polio vaccine, one that culminated in the approval of Jonas Salk's vaccine"
"of volunteers, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis became the prototype for dozens of similar foundations. The organization initially focused on the rehabilitation of victims of paralytic polio, and supported the work of Jonas Salk and others that led to the development of polio vaccines. On April 12, 1955 – ten years after Roosevelt's death – the National Foundation published the successful results of Salk's research on the development of a polio vaccine. After Roosevelt's death, the foundation gradually began taking care of patients with handicaps of all kinds. In 1974, the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation sold the property in"
"1955. “The devil’s advocate and the Salk vaccine program: A contribution toward an objective evaluation,” ""The Bulletin of the American Association of Public Health Physicians"" 2 (5): 3–8, November; 2 (6): 5–8, December.* 1956. “Is preventive medicine the ultimate goal of public health?” ""The Bulletin of the American Association of Public Health Physicians"" 3 (4): 3–4, May. Reprinted in ""Child & Family"" 10 (3): 218–224, 1971. 1956. “Poliomyelitis vaccine,” correspondence. ""J Am Med Assoc"" 160: 231–32, January 21.* 1957. “Acceptance of authority, IV,” guest editorial. ""Northwest Medicine"" 56 (6): 680–8, June. 1957. “Stalking the Salk,” correspondence. ""GP"" 15 (5), May.*"
"it came into use in 1955. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Salk preferred not to have his career as a scientist affected by too much personal attention, as he had always tried to remain independent and private in his research and life, but this proved to be impossible. ""Young man, a great tragedy has befallen you—you've lost your anonymity"", the television personality Ed Murrow said to Salk shortly after the onslaught of media attention. When Murrow asked him, ""Who owns this patent?"", Salk"
"of a total 3,100 patients that they vaccinated. After changing the seed virus strain, they observed no cases of jaundice in the subsequent 8,000 vaccinations. A New York University researcher named Saul Krugman continued this research into the 1950s and 1960s, most infamously with his experiments on mentally disabled children at the Willowbrook State School in New York, a crowded urban facility where hepatitis infections were highly endemic to the student body. Krugman injected students with gamma globulin, a type of antibody. After observing the temporary protection against infection this antibody provided, he then tried injected live hepatitis virus into"
"to develop drugs to fight the TB epidemic. In 1933, they began running experimental vaccination trials on Indigenous children from nearby communities. The vaccination was declared a success despite limited validation; there were also several problems, including a need to re-vaccinate every two years. Also, people vaccinated with the drug would test as false positives by the Mantoux skin test for TB that was in standard use, meaning successfully inoculated people would end up in hospital anyways. In 1952 two inoculated girls tested positive for TB, but this was hushed up by government officials. By 1954, this vaccination was a"
"Crick, codiscoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule, was a leading professor at the institute until his death in 2004. The institute also served as the basis for Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar's 1979 book ""Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts"". Beginning in the mid-1980s, Salk also engaged in research to develop a vaccine for another, more recent plague, AIDS. To further this research, he cofounded the Immune Response Corporation with Kevin Kimberlin, to search for a vaccine, and patented Remune, an immune-based therapy. He was unable to secure product liability Insurance. The AIDS vaccine project was discontinued"
"population in the 1850s. In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population. In the 19th century, the disease killed 50% of the Andamanese population. Seven to eight million children are thought to have died from measles each year before the vaccine was introduced. In 1954, the virus causing the disease was isolated from a 13-year-old boy from the United States, David Edmonston, and adapted and propagated on chick embryo tissue culture. To date, 21 strains of the measles virus have been identified. While at Merck, Maurice Hilleman developed the first successful vaccine. Licensed vaccines to prevent"