"On March 19, 1910, Montgomery became the winter home of the Wright brothers' Wright Flying School. The men frequented Montgomery and founded several airfields, one of which developed into Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base after the Wrights began working with the government to produce planes for military use. According to University of Alabama historian David Beito, Montgomery ""nurtured the modern civil rights movement."" In December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The Montgomery Improvement Association was created by Martin Luther King, Jr., then the pastor"
"Aurelia Shines Browder refused to give up her seat to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama in April 1955, and she filed suit against the city and its Democrat Mayor W.A. ""Tacky"" Gayle. It was on her case, known as ""Browder v Gayle"", that the Supreme Court ruled in 1956 that segregated busing was unconstitutional, thus ending the bus boycott. Aurelia Browder was the lead plaintiff in the case, and Susie McDonald, Claudette Colvin, and Mary Louise Smith were the other plaintiffs. Yet women still occupied a lower position than men in many sectors of American life. In 1957, the"
"also a professor. Glass died in 2012 at the age of 96. Thelma Glass Thelma Glass (May 16, 1916 – July 24, 2012) was an American civil rights activist, noted for helping to organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955, and a professor of geography. Glass was born Thelma McWilliams in Mobile, Alabama, to a hotel cook and homemaker. She graduated from Dunbar High School (Mobile) and attended Alabama State University and Columbia University. In 1955, after Rosa Parks' arrest, Glass and the other members of the Women's Political Council, called for a boycott of the Montgomery bus system, thus"
"Georgia Gilmore Georgia Teresa Gilmore (February 5, 1920 – March 3, 1990) was an African American woman from Montgomery, Alabama, who participated in the Montgomery Bus Boycott through her fund-raising effort selling food at the boycott's mass meetings. Her grass-roots activism helped to sustain the long boycott and inspired similar groups to begin raising money. Gilmore worked as a midwife in Montgomery where she lived with her six children. Though described as kind and motherly, Gilmore was also known for her fiery temper especially in response to the racial injustices so common in 1950s Alabama. She would resist discrimination on"
"Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on that Alabama day in [1955]. The laws were in place. The masses were ready for a change. The leadership had been developed. And the time had finally come."" ""...Irene Morgan was the first strike against the Jim Crow laws with her 1944 Virginia court challenge. There was no fanfare, just her fierce determination."" Charlie Brady Hauser Dr. Charlie Brady Hauser (October 13, 1917 – November 11, 2007), was an educator and legislator. He was a professor of education at Winston-Salem State University in North Carolina for 21 years,"
"from St. Jude Educational Institute. She is still a member of St. Jude Church, where she was baptized. At the age of 18, on October 21, 1955, Smith was returning home on the Montgomery city bus, and was ordered to relinquish her seat to a white passenger who had boarded later. She refused to do so and was arrested. She was charged with failure to obey segregation orders, some 40 days before the arrest of Rosa Parks on similar charges. Her father bailed her out of jail and paid her nine-dollar fine. The incident was initially known only to family"
"refused ridership on streetcars in Washington, D.C., Memphis, and Pennsylvania. Though streetcars in the north were largely de-segregated by the end of the 19th century, segregation on public transportation became the official policy in many cities of the South. In the 20th century, women like Irene Morgan and Mary Louise Smith continued to battle segregation on public transportation. In 1954, Rosa Parks challenged the practice in Montgomery, Alabama, launching a citywide bus boycott and helping to start the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s. In ""African American Women Confront the West"", scholars Quintard Taylor and Shirley Ann Wilson"
"March 2, 1955, she was returning home from school, and in a Capitol Heights bus downtown, she sat down about two seats away from an emergency exit in the colored section. The convention of the time was that if the bus became so crowded that all the so-called ""white seats"" in front were filled and a white person was standing, any African Americans were supposed to get up from these seats, move to the back, and stand if there were no free seats. When a white woman who got on the bus was left standing, the bus driver, Robert W."
"Thelma Glass Thelma Glass (May 16, 1916 – July 24, 2012) was an American civil rights activist, noted for helping to organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955, and a professor of geography. Glass was born Thelma McWilliams in Mobile, Alabama, to a hotel cook and homemaker. She graduated from Dunbar High School (Mobile) and attended Alabama State University and Columbia University. In 1955, after Rosa Parks' arrest, Glass and the other members of the Women's Political Council, called for a boycott of the Montgomery bus system, thus beginning the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a key action in the Civil Rights"
"December 1, 1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost row for black people. When a Caucasian man boarded the bus, the bus driver told everyone in her row to move back. At that moment, Parks realized that she was again on a bus driven by Blake. While all of the other black people in her row complied, Parks refused, and was arrested for failing to obey the driver's seat assignments, as city ordinances did not explicitly mandate segregation but did give the bus driver authority to assign seats. Found guilty on December 5, Parks was fined $10 plus a court"
"It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. The former Carolina Trailways Bus Terminal, located at 1114 Roanoke Avenue, was the site of the event that lead to the United States Supreme Court case of Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.. Shortly after midnight on August 1, 1952, when the Carolina Trailways bus she was riding on pulled in, an African American woman, Sarah Keys, was forced to give up her seat and move to the so-called ""colored section"" in the back of the bus. Keys refused and was arrested, charged, jailed orvernight in Roanoke Rapids, and"
"(NAACP) as a secretary. Rosa Parks had become an activists by an event that triggered other events to occur. On December 1, 1955 Parks had taken the bus home from work, when all of a sudden she was being forced to give up her seat for a white male. Rosa Parks had been frustrated of the way black individuals were treated; thus, she refused and was arrested and fined $14. Parks' refusal and arrest had caused a dilemma for white individuals, especially for the ones that owned the bus business. The Montgomery bus boycott had started to desegregate public transportation."
"evening of July 31, 1952 bound for her hometown of Washington, North Carolina, she boarded an integrated bus in New Jersy and transferred without incident in Washington, D.C. to a Carolina Trailways vehicle, taking the fifth seat from the front in the white section. When her bus pulled into the Roanoke Rapids Trailways terminal, however, a new driver took the wheel and demanded that she comply with the carrier's Jim Crow regulation by moving to the so-called ""colored section"" in the back of the bus so that a white Marine could occupy her seat. Keys refused to move, whereupon the"
"some women mounted their own individual challenges. For instance, 15-year-old student Claudette Colvin was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger in March 1955, nine months before Parks' action. Nixon rejected Colvin because she became an unwed mother, another woman who was arrested because he did not believe she had the fortitude to see the case through, and a third woman, Mary Louise Smith, because her father was allegedly an alcoholic. (In 1956, Colvin and Smith were among five originally included in the successful case, ""Browder v. Gayle"", filed on behalf of them specifically and"
"""The first time, the Court reversed the decision and turned it back to the state supreme court for rehearing. The second time, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear the case but later dismissed it, thus leaving the Alabama court free to electrocute."" The governor failed to commute his sentence. Claudette Colvin was a younger classmate of Reeves and among those very upset about his case during the years that appeals were underway. On March 2, 1955, she defied Montgomery's bus segregation rules, which required blacks to give up seats to whites in the middle of the bus once"
"paid in his book, """". King wrote: About a week after the protest started, a white woman who understood and sympathized with the Negroes' efforts wrote a letter to the editor of the ""Montgomery Advertiser"" comparing the bus protest with the Gandhian movement in India. Miss Juliette Morgan, sensitive and frail, did not long survive the rejection and condemnation of the white community, but long before she died in the summer of 1957, the name of Mahatma Gandhi was well known in Montgomery. On March 3, 2005, Juliette Hampton Morgan was inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame. Later"
"James F. Blake James Fred Blake (April 14, 1912 – March 21, 2002) was the bus driver whom Rosa Parks defied in 1955, prompting the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Blake was drafted into the Army on December 23, 1943. He was enlisted and sworn in at Ft. McClellan, Alabama. His enlistment record states he was married and had attended 1 year of high school. Blake also had previous experience in chauffeuring, truck, and tractor driving. He served for five years in active duty in the European theatre during and after World War II. He worked as a bus driver for Montgomery"
"buses and even confronted white men in the community if they mistreated her or her family. Gilmore also worked at the National Lunch Company in Montgomery as a cook until the beginning of the bus boycott in late 1955. After Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to leave her seat on December 1, 1955, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) declared a boycott of the bus system beginning on December 5. Gilmore, who had already refused to use the buses in Montgomery, heard of the arrest on the news and quickly joined the new Montgomery Improvement Association; this is when the"
"enter the bus again from the back door, a rule imposed by some drivers that was sometimes followed by the bus leaving before they could get back on. She got off and waited for the next bus, swearing to herself she would never ride with Blake again (though she forgot to check who was driving 12 years later). Twelve years later, they encountered each other again on December 1, 1955, when Blake ordered Rosa Parks and three other black people to move from the middle to the back of his Cleveland Avenue bus (number 2857) in order to make room"
"Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company, 64 MCC 769 (1955) is a landmark civil rights case in the United States in which the Interstate Commerce Commission, in response to a bus segregation complaint filed in 1953 by a Women's Army Corps (WAC) private named Sarah Louise Keys, broke with its historic adherence to the ""Plessy v. Ferguson"" separate but equal doctrine and interpreted the non-discrimination language of the Interstate Commerce Act as banning the segregation of black passengers in buses traveling across state lines. The case was argued on the eve of the explosion of"
"day at work. Thus, after Park's arrest, King gathered the black community. in hopes for boycotting against the bus, by cutting the use of transportation. This boycott continued on for 382 days. Although, King had to overcome many attacks towards him such as arrest, and violent harassment, the result was their (African-Americans) first victory: black men and women were allowed to ride the buses in Montgomery equally as the whites. Rosa Parks was born on February 4, 1913 in Montgomery, Alabama. She attended the all-black Alabama State College, and soon worked at National Association for the Advancement of Colored People"
"on a bus to a white man, as required by law at the time; shortly after this a bus boycott began, inspired by her actions, advocating for an end to all segregated busing. The night of Rosa Parks' arrest, with her permission, Mrs. Jo Ann Robinson stayed up mimeographing 35,000 handbills calling for a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. Prior to Rosa Parks' action, Claudette Colvin and Mary Louise Smith had refused to give up their seats on buses to white women, but their cases were eventually rejected by civil rights lawyers as they were not considered sympathetic enough."
"the RCNL, Howard led campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of Nashville which, in turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims of a ""credit squeeze"" by the White Citizens' Councils. After Claudette Colvin was arrested for not giving up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in March 1955, a bus boycott was considered and rejected. But when Rosa Parks was arrested in December, Jo Ann Gibson Robinson of the Montgomery Women's Political Council put the bus boycott protest in motion."
"She then moved to her seat but driver James F. Blake told her to follow city rules and enter the bus again from the back door. When Parks exited the vehicle, Blake drove off without her. Parks waited for the next bus, determined never to ride with Blake again. After working all day, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus, a General Motors Old Look bus belonging to the Montgomery City Lines, around 6 p.m., Thursday, December 1, 1955, in downtown Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat in the first row of back seats reserved for"
"Irene Morgan Irene Amos Morgan (April 9, 1917 – August 10, 2007), later known as Irene Morgan Kirkaldy, was an African-American woman from Baltimore, Maryland, who was arrested in Middlesex County, Virginia, in 1944 under a state law imposing racial segregation in public facilities and transportation. She was traveling on an interstate bus that operated under federal law and regulations. She refused to give up her seat in what the driver said was the ""white section"". At the time she worked for a defense contractor on the production line for B-26 Marauders. Morgan consulted with attorneys to appeal her conviction"
"bus boycott in 1955, resulting from Rosa Parks's refusal to relinquish her bus seat to a white passenger. As the only black reporter covering the story for a national newspaper, Rowan struck a special friendship with the boycott's leaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr. When news of an unlikely compromise settlement of the boycott came to Rowan's attention across the Associated Press wire, he notified King, who made quick steps to discredit the story, which was about to appear in a Montgomery newspaper, thus ensuring the continuance of the boycott. Founded in 1987 by Rowan, Project Excellence was a college"
"In spite of the violence of the actions, juries often refused to convict the defendants. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr, James Bevel, Rosa Parks, and other activists in the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s used civil disobedience techniques. Among the most notable civil disobedience events in the U.S. occurred when Rosa Parks refused to move on the bus when a white man tried to take her seat. Although 15-year-old Claudette Colvin had done the same thing nine months earlier, Parks' action led directly to the Montgomery Bus Boycott. A more common act of civil disobedience (in"
"copy of King's dissertation held in the university library, noting that numerous passages were included without the appropriate quotations and citations of sources. Significant debate exists on how to interpret King's plagiarism. In March 1955, Claudette Colvin—a fifteen-year-old black schoolgirl in Montgomery—refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in violation of Jim Crow laws, local laws in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; E. D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue because"
"Emily Hewitt, Carter Heyward, Suzanne Hiatt, Marie Moorefield, Jeannette Piccard, Betty Bone Schiess, Katrina Swanson, and Nancy Wittig. Harvard University professor Charles V. Willie, who was also the vice president of the House of Deputies at the time, preached a sermon entitled, “The Priesthood of All Believers,” which began, “The hour cometh and now is when the true worshipers shall worship God in spirit and in truth,” followed by Dr. Willie’s declaration that “as blacks refused to participate in their own oppression by going to the back of the bus in 1955 in Montgomery, women are refusing to cooperate in"
"to a white passenger. In response, the Women's Political Council, an African-American civil rights organization founded in Montgomery, organized a boycott of the city's buses by members of the black community. A leaflet distributed to thousands of Montgomery's black citizens read: ""don't ride the bus to work, to town, to school, or anyplace Monday, December 5"". The final sentence read: ""come to a mass meeting Monday at 7:00 pm at the Holt Street Baptist Church for further instructions"". The boycott began the following Monday, December 5, 1955, the day Parks appeared in court. That evening, a mass meeting was held"
"to work. She spent a year working for an uncle in Ohio before returning to South Carolina, where she moved in with a cousin and began working two jobs as a domestic worker in Columbia, South Carolina. On June 24, 1954, Flemming boarded a bus to go to work. She took the only empty seat, which she believed began the rows in which black riders were allowed to sit. The driver challenged her, and humiliated, she signalled to get off at the next stop. The bus driver blocked her attempt to exit through the front of the bus and punched"
"1955 Rosa Parks first told the story of her arrest and the group decided to mount a bus boycott. What participants initially decided was to have a one-day boycott on Monday December 5, but because the boycott that day was so successful, discussion of continuing it began at a meeting afterward at the church due to the fact that roughly 70 percent of Montgomery's bus passengers were black and most stayed off the buses. A few years earlier, the minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church had tried to prompt a group of blacks to walk off a bus in"
"policy in the Montgomery bus system. They agreed to become plaintiffs in a federal civil action lawsuit, thus bypassing the Alabama court system. Reese dropped out of the case in February 1956 because of intimidation by members of the white community. She falsely claimed she had not agreed to the lawsuit, which led to an unsuccessful attempt to disbar Gray for supposedly improperly representing her. On February 1, 1956, Gray filed the case ""Browder v. Gayle"" in U.S. District Court. Browder was a Montgomery woman, Aurelia Browder; W. A. Gayle was the mayor of Montgomery. On June 13, 1956, the"