"the same name. Schama returned to the UK in 2000, having been commissioned by the BBC to produce a series of television documentary programmes on British history as part of their Millennium celebrations, under the title ""A History of Britain"". Schama wrote and presented the episodes himself, in a friendly and often jocular style with his highly characteristic delivery, and was rewarded with excellent reviews and unexpectedly high ratings. There has been, however, some irritation and criticism expressed by a group of historians about Schama's condensed recounting of the British Isles' history on this occasion, particularly by those specialising in"
"this area consisted in a contribution to the commemorative volumes for the fifteen hundredth anniversary of the Council (Das Konzil von Chalkedon I-III, eds. Alois Grillmeier, Heinrich Bacht, Wuerzburg 1951-1954). He also edited an early Sources Chrétiennes volume of Athanasius' Letter to Serapion. Joseph Lebon Joseph Lebon (Tamines, 1879–1957) was a Belgian priest and professor of theology at the University of Louvain. He is best known for his immense work devoted to the reception of the Council of Chalcedon in the Syriac and Armenian domains. His 1909 thesis devoted to Monophysite resistance to the Chalcedonian definition or horos centred on"
"an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with the philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association. The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places. Some of these, such as the city of Seron, receive no mention in the surviving texts of any other ancient authority. His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great. He describes the Sadducees, Jewish High Priests of the time, Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple,"
"Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism and Kabbalah. Mirandola's work on Kabbalah was further developed by Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), a Jesuit priest, Hermeticist and polymath; in 1652, Kircher wrote on the subject in ""Oedipus Aegyptiacus"". Johann Reuchlin, (1455–1522), was ""Pico's most important follower"". His main sources for Kabbalah were Menahem Recanati (""Commentary on the Torah"", ""Commentary on the Daily Prayers"") and Joseph Gikatilla (""Sha'are Orah"", ""Ginnat 'Egoz""). Reuchlin argued that human history divides into three periods: a natural period in which God revealed Himself as Shaddai (שדי), the period of the Torah in which God ""revealed Himself to Moses through the four-lettered name"
"process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other – he paid special attention to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and William Harvey. He also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved ""the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind."" Edward Gibbon and his famous masterpiece ""Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"""
"English philosopher, remembered today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book ""Leviathan"" established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be ""representative"" and based on the consent of the people; and"
"European study of history and in people who were interested in the past. King Nabonidus (556–539 BCE), the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, was interested in the past so he could align himself with past glories. He led a revitalization movement and rebuilt ancient temples. Early systemic investigation and historiography can be traced back to the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BCE). He was the first western scholar to systematically collect artifacts and test their accuracy. He was also the first to make a compelling narrative of the past. He is known for a set of nine books"
"his stolen rings are found on an unrecognizable body. A central theme is ""hubris"", or excessive pride which challenges the gods and calls down retribution. Aristo defines the term in an early chapter and describes Jonathan's dismissive attitude to the gods as a fine illustration. Prometheus is the classical example given. Jonathan, Titus, the arrogant Roman doctors, and Agathus are all guilty in different ways. Medicine as practised in the Roman empire, notably herbalism, humorism and bloodletting, is another theme. Mordecai's methods, which echo modern medical beliefs, are shown as the most effective. The fever and the fire are historical"
"all literary ability, they possess, even in their meagerness, a certain value.” In his compilation Jewish and non-Jewish sources are cited indiscriminately side by side; and to Alexander, therefore, the world is indebted for information on the oldest Jewish, Hellenic, and Samaritan elaboration of Biblical history in prose or poetry. The epic poet Philo, the tragic writer Ezekiel, the historian Eupolemus, the chronicler Demetrius, the so-called Artapanus, the historian Aristeas, and Theodotus the Samaritan, as well as an unnamed fellow countryman of the latter often confused with Eupolemus, the rhetorician Apollonius Molon (an anti-Jewish writer)—all of these authors are known"
"He"") and Malkuth (Feminine Shekhinah). The teachings of Isaac Luria, which form the basis of modern esoteric Kabbalah, read the mythological doctrine of ""Shevirat HaKeilim"" (""Shattering of the vessels in God's Persona) from the account of the Edomite Kings of Genesis 36:31 and I Chronicles 1:43: ""These are the kings who reigned in the land of Edom before there reigned any king over the children of Israel..."" In Kabbalah, based on exoteric Midrash, the Hebrew Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, embody the sephirot of ""Chesed-Kindness"", ""Gevurah-Strength"" and ""Tiferet-Beauty"". Kindness and Judgement are polar forces and Beauty harmonises. The imbalances emerged"
"Symmachus, and Theodotion. These three, to varying degrees, are more literal renderings of their contemporary Hebrew scriptures as compared to the Old Greek (the original Septuagint). Modern scholars consider one or more of the 'three' to be totally new Greek versions of the Hebrew Bible. Around 235 CE, Origen, a Christian scholar in Alexandria, completed the Hexapla, a comprehensive comparison of the ancient versions and Hebrew text side-by-side in six columns, with diacritical markings (a.k.a. ""editor's marks"", ""critical signs"" or ""Aristarchian signs""). Much of this work was lost, but several compilations of the fragments are available. In the first column"
"century, there was a renewed interest in pre-Reformation English religious thought and practice. Theologians such as John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey and John Henry Newman had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics and theological and devotional works, not least because they largely repudiated the old high church tradition and replaced it with a dynamic appeal to antiquity which looked beyond the Reformers and Anglican formularies. Their work is largely credited with the development of the Oxford Movement, which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in Anglicanism. In contrast to this movement, clergy such as the Bishop of"
"only in the 1st century that Philo of Alexandria, developed a Jewish Pythagoreanism. In the 3rd century Hermippus popularised the belief that Pythagoras had been the basis for establishing key dates in Judaism. In the 4th century this assertion was further developed by Aristobulus. The Jewish Pythagorean numerology developed by Philo held that God as the unique One was the creator of all numbers, of which seven was the most divine and ten the most perfect. The medieval edition of the Kabbalah focused largely on a cosmological scheme of creation, in reference to early Pythagorean philosophers Philolaus and Empedocles, and"
"have suggested that certain ancient and religious texts bear similarities to what would later be called detective fiction. In the Old Testament story of (the Protestant Bible locates this story within the apocrypha), the account told by two witnesses broke down when Daniel cross-examines them. In response, author Julian Symons has argued that ""those who search for fragments of detection in the Bible and Herodotus are looking only for puzzles"" and that these puzzles are not detective stories. In the play ""Oedipus Rex"" by Ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, the protagonist discovers the truth about his origins after questioning various witnesses."
"diplomat for Alexander's father Philip II. Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was Pyrrho of Elis, founder of Pyrrhonism, the school of philosophical skepticism. During the Antigonid period, Antigonos Gonatas fostered cordial relationships with Menedemos of Eretria, founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, and Zenon, the founder of Stoicism. In terms of early Greek historiography and later Roman historiography, Felix Jacoby identified thirteen possible ancient historians who wrote histories about Macedonia in his ""Fragmente der griechischen Historiker"". Aside from accounts in the works of Herodotus and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other"
"by Jonathan Israel. John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work ""Leviathan"" in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be ""representative"" and based on the consent of"
"and Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) produced several major works: Stokes was a leader in optics and fluid dynamics; Kelvin made substantial discoveries in thermodynamics; Hamilton did notable work on analytical mechanics, discovering a new and powerful approach nowadays known as Hamiltonian mechanics. Very relevant contributions to this approach are due to his German colleague Carl Gustav Jacobi (1804–1851) in particular referring to canonical transformations. The German Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) made substantial contributions in the fields of electromagnetism, waves, fluids, and sound. In the United States, the pioneering work of Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903) became the basis for statistical mechanics. Fundamental"
"Clement, Eusebius, the ""Dialogue of Adamantius"", Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and his ideas on the resurrection-restoration of body and soul, infinite striving (""epektasis""), and Christology, Evagrius, Augustine, Dionysius the Areopagite, Maximus the Confessor, John Scotus Eriugena, Philo of Alexandria, the New Testament and many issues of its textual criticism, also with the use of its ancient versions (esp. Syriac, Latin, and Coptic) to establish specific textual points or better understand their meanings, the Seneca-Paul pseudepigraphic correspondence, with innovative arguments about its bilingualism, its intertextuality, its composite nature, and its chronology, Hierocles (Stoic), Annaeus Cornutus and his Stoic handbook"
"criticism, such as Thomas Hobbes's ""Leviathan"" and Spinoza's ""Theologico-Political Treatise"", as well as works by lesser-known authors such as Richard Simon and Isaac La Peyrère, paved the way for the development of critical deism. An important precursor to deism was the work of Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (d. 1648). He has been called the ""father of English deism"", and his book ""De Veritate"" (""On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False"") (1624) ""the first major statement of deism"". However, his beliefs in divine intervention, particularly in response to prayer, are at odds"
"the historicity of the core. The Ionian Enlightenment influenced early patrons like Justin Martyr and Tertullian – both saw the biblical texts as being different to (and having more historicity than) the myths of other religions. Augustine was aware of the difference between science and scripture and defended the historicity of the biblical texts e.g. against claims of Faustus of Mileve. Historians hold that the Bible should not be treated differently from other historical (or literary) sources from the ancient world. One may compare doubts about the historicity of e.g. Herodotus; the consequence of these discussions is not that we"
"an English translation of ""Leben Jesu"" which became a source of religious doubts for Froude and many of his contemporaries. Critics have also identified Thomas Carlyle's novel ""Sartor Resartus"" and Spinoza as sources of Sutherland's doubts, and those of many of his contemporaries. Meanwhile, the Oxford Movement, headed by John Henry Newman as well as Froude's brother Richard Hurrell Froude, was attacking the Church's move towards liberalism and secularism, advocating instead a greater emphasis on Catholic doctrine. The Movement provided a serious challenge to Protestant beliefs, with Newman later converting to Roman Catholicism. Although Froude was devoted to Newman for"
"Integrative Medicine. These include recognizing the importance of taking a complete history which includes environmental exposures as well as foods eaten by the patient which might play a role in his or her illness. Two great Alexandrians laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos. Other Alexandrian surgeons gave us ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as an anaesthetic. Some of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum. Herophilus of Chalcedon, working"
"it attempts to interpret the nature of reality beyond the physical and experiential. Thomas Hobbes and ""Leviathan"" Thomas Hobbes, in his seminal work ""Leviathan"", postulated the first clear notion of law based on the notion of sovereign power. As Hampton writes, ""law is understood [by Hobbes] to depend on the sovereign's will. No matter what a law's content, no matter how unjust it seems, if it has been commanded by the sovereign, then and only then is it law.' There is, however, debate surrounding Hobbes's status as a legal positivist. Jeremy Bentham The English jurist and philosopher, Jeremy Bentham, is"
"and considered as one book. So, too, the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah were joined, and considered as one book, as were First and Second Chronicles (""Paraleipomena"") considered as one book, as were the First and Second Samuel (""Book of First and Second Kingdoms"") considered as one book, and the First and Second Kings (""Book of Third and Fourth Kingdoms"") considered as one book. In spite of Epiphanius' interest in Jewish themes, his narrative often takes on a distorted and stereotypical view of Judaism, based on the dogmas of his persuasion. Still, he is an invaluable source on the lives"
"panentheism. The original ideas of process theology were developed by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000), and influenced a number of Jewish theologians, including British philosopher Samuel Alexander (1859–1938), and Rabbis Max Kadushin, Milton Steinberg and Levi A. Olan, Harry Slominsky, and Bradley Shavit Artson. Abraham Joshua Heschel has also been linked to this tradition. Kabbalah continued to be central to Haredi Orthodox Judaism, which generally rejected philosophy, although the Chabad strain of Chasidism showed a more positive attitude towards philosophy. Meanwhile, non-Orthodox Jewish thought in the latter 20th century saw resurgent interest in Kabbalah. In academic studies, Gershom Scholem began the critical"
"the actual texts to a much wider audience, which combined with the growing climate of intellectual ferment in the 17th century that was the start of the Age of Enlightenment threw a harsh sceptical spotlight on these traditional claims. In Protestant England, the philosopher Thomas Hobbes in his major work Leviathan (1651) denied Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and identified Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles as having been written long after the events they purported to describe. His conclusions rested on internal textual evidence, but in an argument that resonates with modern debates, he noted: ""Who were the original"
"Grotius (1583–1645), and Matthew Tindal (1653–1733). Camerarius advocated for using context to interpret Bible texts. Grotius paved the way for comparative religion studies by analyzing New Testament texts in light of Classical, Jewish and early Christian writings. Tindal, as part of English deism, asserted that Jesus taught natural religion, an undogmatic faith that was later changed by the Church. This view drove a wedge between scripture and the Church's claims of religious truth. The first scholar to separate the historical Jesus from the theological Jesus was philosopher, writer, classicist, Hebraist and Enlightenment free thinker Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768). Copies of"
"the same gematria (numerical value of the letters). The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo, born in Alexandria, (d. ca. 50 CE) presents his allegorical interpretation of the ladder in the first book of his ""De somniis"". There he gives four interpretations, which are not mutually exclusive: A hilltop overlooking the Israeli settlement of Beit El north of Jerusalem that is believed by some to be the site of Jacob's dream is a tourist destination during the holiday of Sukkot. Jesus said in John 1:51 ""And he saith unto him, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Hereafter ye shall see heaven open,"
"Shekinah, or ""presence"", as children of the True God, and most popularly the ten Sephiroth as schema of the universe between Israel and Jehovah. It did this by interpreting the concrete ethics of the scripture rather than, say, the universal parable more evident in the gospels. Through the darker centuries, it became popular with occultists like Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, Pico della Mirandola and Eliphas Levi before being formalised in popular new-age magic. ""Gematria"" was extrapolated from ""The Equinox"" vol. 1, no.5 where it was originally titled ""The First Key of Solomon the King continued"" being the fifth in that series."
"1982-87. He is now professor Emeritus. He became an Honorary Fellow of Jesus College in 1999. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1984 and is also a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Institute of Physics. He is an Honorary Vice-President of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. He has published books on the subjects of materials science, planet formation, mathematics and Big Bang cosmology. He is currently professor Emeritus at the University of York. Michael Woolfson Michael Mark Woolfson (born 9 January 1927) is a British physicist and planetary scientist. His research interests lie in"
"and cautious in decision. Xenophon says he was a member of Socrates' inner circle, and a frequent visitor to the hetaera, Theodote, in Athens. He is also mentioned by Plato in the ""Crito"" and ""Epistle"" ""XIII"". Three dialogues, the ""Hebdome"", the ""Phrynichus"", and the ""Pinax"" or ""Tabula"", are attributed to him by the ""Suda"" and Diogenes Laërtius. The two former are lost, and most scholars deny the authenticity of the ""Tabula"" on the ground of material and verbal anachronisms. The ""Tablet of Cebes"" is probably by a pseudonymous author of the 1st or 2nd century. The work professes to be"
"the teachings of American preachers Jonathan Edwards, who restored to pietism Gerson's focus on obedience and borrowed from early church teachers Origen and Gregory of Nyssa the notion that humans yearn for God, and John Woolman, who combined a mystical view of the world with a deep concern for social issues; like Wesley, Woolman was influenced by Jakob Böhme, William Law and ""The Imitation of Christ"". The combination of pietistic devotion and mystical experiences that are found in Woolman and Wesley are also found in their Dutch contemporary Tersteegen, who brings back the notion of the ""nous"" (""mind"") as the"
"system. He developed an allegoric approach of interpreting holy scriptures (the bible), in contrast to (old-fashioned) literally interpretation approaches. His allegorical exegesis was important for several Christian Church Fathers and some scholars hold that his concept of the Logos as God's creative principle influenced early Christology. Other scholars, however, deny direct influence but say both Philo and Early Christianity borrow from a common source. Between the Ancient era and the Middle Ages most of the Jewish philosophy concentrated around the Rabbinic literature that is expressed in the Talmud and Midrash. In the 9th century Saadia Gaon wrote the text Emunoth"