"courses are single. The courses are numbered sequentially, counting from the highest pitched, so that the ""chanterelle"" is the ""first course"", the next pair of strings is the ""second course"", etc. Thus an 8-course Renaissance lute usually has 15 strings, and a 13-course Baroque lute has 24. The courses are tuned in unison for high and intermediate pitches, but for lower pitches one of the two strings is tuned an octave higher (the course where this split starts changed over the history of the lute). The two strings of a course are virtually always stopped and plucked together, as if"
"the stipe. The flesh has a mild taste, indistinctly reminiscent of cedar wood, with a slight, pleasant smell, also reminiscent of cedar wood. The gills are dark violet, changing to a purplish-brown with age. They have an adnate connection to the stipe, and can be very dark in older specimens. The mushroom stains red when in contact with potassium hydroxide (KOH). Fruit bodies identified as ""C. v. hercynicus"" are less robust than those of the nominate subspecies. The spore print is rust-coloured, while the spores themselves measure 12 to 15 µm by 7 to 8.5 µm. They are rough, from"
"clavate up to 20 cm tall, and 4 cm thick. In mature specimens, the partial veil is torn and left behind as a pendulous ring adorning the stem. Above the ring, the stem is white to yellow and smooth. Below, it is covered with numerous small scales. Its flesh is thick, white and sometimes has a narrow central hollow. The stem base extends deeply into the substrate. The mushroom's odour is strong and nutty, of anise or almonds, which can be associated with the presence of benzaldehyde and benzyl alcohol. Its taste has been described as not distinctive. Under a"
"crowded gills are yellowish, then later rust-brown. The mushroom has an odor that, depending on the author, has been described as resembling garlic, lemon, radish, onion, or skunk. It has a strong taste, resembling radishes. Once thought to be edible, it is now considered and known to be poisonous, especially if consumed in combination with alcohol. The mushroom contains unique chemicals thought to help it infect plants by neutralizing defensive responses employed by them. The very similar ""P. squarrosoides"" differs in having a paler cap that is sticky between the scales, and smaller spores. The species was first described scientifically"
"Russula lutea Russula lutea is a common, edible mushroom in the genus Russula found throughout the Americas and Europe under broad-leaved trees from summer to early autumn. The cap is 2–7 cm across, convex, flattening on the edges and creating a saucer-shaped depression. The cap is usually golden or yellow, but sometimes is apricot, peach, or coral colored either partly or entirely. It is thin-fleshed and rather fragile. The stem is 20–60 x 5–15 mm, white and cylindrical, and is soft and fragile. The flesh is white with a mild taste. There is no smell when young, later the smell"
"narrow club shape. Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of ""S. luteus"". Good field characteristics for ""Suillus luteus"" include the slimy brown cap, glandular dots on the upper stipe, and prominent purplish ring. A frequent lookalike is ""Suillus granulatus"", which is another common, widely distributed and edible species occurring in the same habitat. ""Suillus granulatus"" is yellow fleshed and exudes latex droplets when young, but most conspicuously bears neither a partial veil nor a ring. Other than that, ""Suillus luteus"" is unlikely to be confused with other mushrooms, especially if its preferred habitat under pine trees and the"
"with 4–6 distinct deeply grooved sides divided lengthwise by ribs. The basis of distinction between ""L. mokusin"" and other species of ""Lysurus"" is the angular form of its stipe. The sides branch out into 4–6 arms that are fused together at the tip to form a pointed apex, resembling a spire. As the mushroom matures, the arms may spread apart. The outer surface of the arms is coated by a brownish, slimy, foul-smelling spore mass called the gleba; its fetid odor helps it attract flies and other insects to assist in spore dispersal. The odor has been compared to ""fresh"
"association with plants in the genera ""Ferulago"", ""Cachrys"", ""Laserpitium"", and ""Diplotaenia"". Molecular studies have shown ""Pleurotus nebrodensis"" to be closely related to, but distinct from, ""P. eryngii"". ""Pleurotus fossulatus"" may be another closely related species. The mushroom has a good shelf life and is cultivated widely. It has little flavor or aroma when raw. When cooked, it develops typical mushroom umami flavors with a texture similar to that of abalone. ""Pleurotus eryngii"" may contain chemicals that stimulate the immune system. Dietary intake of ""Pleurotus eryngii"" may function as cholesterol-lowering dietary agent. Like some other ""Pleurotus"" species, ""P. eryngii"" attacks nematodes"
"central nipple-like bump. The crowded gills are adnate or adnexed early and adnate or free later. Initially lilac, they become silvery and then brown as the spores mature. The cylindrical stipe is up to tall and wide, pale lilac-blue initially before fading to white with age, The base of the stipe is ochre, and the lower part of the stipe is glutinous (slimy). The mushroom has a strong (and unpleasant) smell and taste of cucumber, though can resemble fish in old decaying specimens. The spore print is rusty brown and the warty oval spores measure 9.5–12 by 5.5–6 µm. The"
"this genus bruise blue and contain psilocybin including ""Pluteus brunneidiscus"", ""Pluteus salicinus"", ""Pluteus cyanopus"", ""Pluteus glaucus"", ""Pluteus nigroviridis"", ""Pluteus phaeocyanopus"" and ""Pluteus villosus"". Pluteus Pluteus is a large genus of fungi with over 300 species. They are wood rotting saprobes with pink spore prints and gills that are free from the stem. ""Pluteus"" means ""shed or penthouse"". ""Pluteus"" is separated from ""Volvariella"" due to the lack of a volva, and from ""Entoloma"" by growing on wood and by microscopic features (""Entolomas"" have angular spores). Some of these mushrooms are edible including ""P. petasatus"" and ""P. cervinus"", though most people rate"
"(radial grooves) and may even split. The surface of the cap is dull and smooth. Its color ranges from reddish brown to brownish orange in young specimens, with the color fading as the mushroom matures; the center of the cap is usually darker than the margins. The flesh is thin, and either the same color as the cap or ligher; it may stain a dark red color when bruised.The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem—broadly attached slightly above the bottom of the gill, with most of the gill fused to the stem. They are not closely spaced together,"
"Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle (fruit body) that are not joined together at the base, and the spongy structure of the receptacle. According to a molecular analysis published in 2006, out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study, ""C. ruber"" is most closely related to ""Aseroe rubra"", ""Clathrus archeri"", ""Laternea triscapa"", and ""Clathrus chrysomycelinus"". The generic name ""Clathrus"" is derived from Ancient Greek κλειθρον or ""lattice"", and the specific epithet is Latin ""ruber"", meaning ""red"". The mushroom is commonly known as the ""basket stinkhorn"", the ""lattice stinkhorn"", or the ""red"
"Pluteus Pluteus is a large genus of fungi with over 300 species. They are wood rotting saprobes with pink spore prints and gills that are free from the stem. ""Pluteus"" means ""shed or penthouse"". ""Pluteus"" is separated from ""Volvariella"" due to the lack of a volva, and from ""Entoloma"" by growing on wood and by microscopic features (""Entolomas"" have angular spores). Some of these mushrooms are edible including ""P. petasatus"" and ""P. cervinus"", though most people rate their taste and consistency as average at best. ""Pluteus cervinus"" is the best known species in Europe and North America. Several species of"
"are discernible. The thin flesh has a firm texture similar to cartilage, a distinct strong nitrous odor, and a mild to somewhat bitter taste. The gills have an adnate attachment, but often recede from the stipe as the mushroom matures. Their color is white to dirty pink. They can develop reddish-brown spots in age. Interspersed between the gills are two or three tiers of lamellae (short gills). The stipe measures long by thick, and is roughly the same thickness throughout its length. Its surface texture is smooth or lightly pruinose (as if dusted with a fine white powder), and it"
"and may be flushed with rust at the base. It is sometimes slightly bulbous. The flesh is pale lemon, and may turn very slightly blue on cutting. The pores are ochre, becoming more cinnamon later, and the spore print is walnut brown. Said to smell like an ‘Earth ball’ fungus (""Scleroderma""). The variegatic acid is an orange pigment first isolated from ""Suillus variegatus"". It has strong antioxidant properties, and a nonspecific inhibitory effect on cytochrome P450 enzymes.. When mushroom tissue containing variegatic acid is exposed to air, the chemical is enzymatically oxidized to blue quinone methide anions. ""S. variegatus"" appears"
"between 16 and 26 gills reaching the stipe, and there are up to three tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stipe). The cylindrical stipe is long by thick, hollow, and stiff but flexible; it is somewhat thicker at the base. It has a brownish to grayish-olive color that is sometimes tinged with shades of orange. The surface is smooth except for orange powder near the top, while the base is covered with stiff orange hairs. Smith reports the mushroom tissue to have no distinctive taste or odor, while Aronsen"
"is fruity. The gills are deep saffron color and strongly interlined. The spore print is ochre. The spores are ovoid-elliptic with warts up to 1 micrometre high. Russula lutea Russula lutea is a common, edible mushroom in the genus Russula found throughout the Americas and Europe under broad-leaved trees from summer to early autumn. The cap is 2–7 cm across, convex, flattening on the edges and creating a saucer-shaped depression. The cap is usually golden or yellow, but sometimes is apricot, peach, or coral colored either partly or entirely. It is thin-fleshed and rather fragile. The stem is 20–60 x"
"up the hymenophore on the underside of the cap. These large pores are decurrent in their attachment to the stipe. Bright yellow, they turn blue-grey when cut or bruised. The thin flesh is pale yellow. The ringless stipe is initially the same colour as the cap but later darkens to a red-brown; it is high by wide. The spore print is olive-brown and the oval spores are 4.5–6 x 3–4 μm. The mushroom has a non-distinctive smell and taste. In the United States, ""Gyrodon lividus"" could be mistaken for ""Boletinellus merulioides"", which is generally a larger mushroom overall with larger"
"""a"" locus lost functionality in determining specificity, as has occurred in the mushroom ""Coprinellus disseminatus""; or 2) both mating loci have become physically linked such that they now act as a single locus; this has occurred in the smut plant pathogen ""U. hordei"" and in the human pathogen ""Cryptococcus neoformans"". Virulence success in these two pathogens is highly associated with mating and their mating type locus. Other bipolar species include the white rot fungus ""Phanerochaete chrysosporium"" and the edible mushroom ""Pholiota nameko"". In the ""B"" or ""a"" locus there are linked genes that code for pheromones and pheromone receptors. The"
"measuring on average less than 12.5 µm long. Volvopluteus michiganensis Volvopluteus michiganensis is a species of mushroom in the family Pluteaceae. It was originally described under the name ""Pluteus michiganensis"" but molecular studies have placed it in the ""Volvopluteus"", a genus described in 2011. The cap of this mushroom is about in diameter, gray, and has a cracked margin that is sticky when fresh. The gills start out as white but they soon turn pink. The stipe is white and has a volva at the base. Microscopical features and DNA sequence data are of great importance for separating this taxon"
"curves inward and is often lobed; as the mushroom matures the margin can either pull away from the stipe, or remain attached. The short and stout stipe measures long by thick; it extends into the cap, where it is known as the ""columella"". More or less equal in width throughout, or thicker on either end, its color is whitish to brownish to rusty-brown. The flesh of the cap is white and soft, while it is brownish and tougher in the stipe. Its odor ranges from mild to distinctly fruity, reminiscent of bubble gum. The gills, colored brown to cinnamon brown"
"of the plant's basidiomycete symbionts. The plants defy cultivation outside of laboratory conditions, as they require not only specific fungal symbionts, but also specific host trees with which these mushroom species form mycorrhizal relationships. Large plants of this species can produce a rather stunning woodland display with up to a dozen flower stalks at once bearing 3–4 flowers each growing out of coniferous leaf litter. Epipogium aphyllum Epipogium aphyllum, the ghost orchid (not to be confused with the American ghost orchid, ""Dendrophylax lindenii"") is a hardy myco-heterotrophic orchid lacking chlorophyll. It is famous for its unpredictable appearance; in many localities"
"typically between thick, has a slightly lighter colouration than the cap. It is firm, with a velvety or smooth surface that sometimes has depressions running longitudinally up and down its length. The gills are adnate to slightly decurrent, brittle, narrow, quite closely spaced and sometimes forked. Normally a pale golden yellow colour, the gills turn brown when bruised. Interspersed between the gills are lamellulae, short gills that do not extend to the stem. The flesh is whitish and firm. The mushroom smells somewhat fishy; one source suggests the odour is ""like a dead shad, which anglers will tell you is"
"distribution, as typical of many mushroom-forming Basidiomycota. The gills, which produce basidiospores on their surface, split when the mushroom dries out, earning this mushroom the common name split gill. It is common in rotting wood, but can also cause disease in humans. It has 23,328 distinct sexes, properly called mating types. Individuals of any sex are compatible for mating with all but their own sex. However, there are two genetic loci determining the mating type, locus A with 288 alleles and locus B with 81 alleles. A pair of fungi will only be fertile if they have different A and"
"break down lignin. Omphalotus Omphalotus is a genus of basidiomycete mushroom formally circumscribed by Victor Fayod in 1889. Members have the traditional cap and stem toadstool form. They are saprobic, and fruit in clumps on trees. The best known and type species is the jack-o'-lantern mushroom ""(Omphalotus olearius)"". Species of ""Omphalotus"" have been mistaken for chanterelles. All ""Omphalotus"" species are presumed poisonous, causing gastrointestinal symptoms. Some ""Omphalotus"" species have bioluminescent properties. Victor Fayod originally erected the genus with ""Pleurotus olearius"" and ""P. eryngii"" as its principal species in 1889, placing it in a ""tribus"" (""alliance"") with the genera ""Pleurotus"" and"
"Arrangement of British Plants"". Setting ""Suillus luteus"" as the type species, he described the genus as those mushrooms with a centrally placed stipe, a distinct ring, a circular cap, and tubes that are stuck together. They have been commonly called ""slippery jacks"" because the cap of the fruit body is sometimes slimy. The genus name is derived from the Latin ""sus"", meaning ""pig"". Before 1997, the genus ""Suillus"" was considered part of the family Boletaceae. The genus also contains what were known as the larch boletes, several species that were described in the genus ""Fuscoboletinus"". These grow in association with"
"the range of the host tree. It occurs throughout Europe, and also in Japan. In Europe, it is considered an uncommon to rare fungus and it is to be found in the same habitat as the common larch bolete, ""Suillus grevillei"", and also the rare ""Suillus tridentinus"". Fruiting bodies are found in groups among grass under larch, from summer to autumn. <br> Suillus viscidus Suillus viscidus (commonly known as the sticky bolete) is an edible, uncommon mushroom in the genus ""Suillus"". It associates with larch and is found throughout Europe and in Japan. The cap is hemispherical when young, later"
"16 to 24 gills extending fully from the cap margin to the stipe, and two or three tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe). The smooth, cylindrical stipe is up to long, and up to in diameter at the base, narrowing towards the top. It is hollow, silky to shiny, and mucilaginous—usually with thick slime at the base. Sometimes, there are short white hairs at the bottom of the stipe, although their presence is variable. The mushroom has no distinctive odor. Spores are roughly ellipsoidal in shape with a"
"Volvopluteus gloiocephalus Volvopluteus gloiocephalus, commonly known as the big sheath mushroom, rose-gilled grisette, or stubble rosegill, is a species of mushroom in the family Pluteaceae. For most of the 20th century it has been known under the names ""Volvariella gloiocephala"" or ""Volvariella speciosa"", but recent molecular studies have placed it as the type species of the genus ""Volvopluteus"", newly created in 2011. The cap of this mushroom is about in diameter, varies from white to grey or grey-brown, and is markedly sticky when fresh. The gills start out as white but they soon turn pink. The stipe is white and"
"epithet ""russellii"" honors American botanist and Unitarian minister John Lewis Russell, the first collector of the species. Common names given to the mushroom include shagnet, jagged-stem bolete, and Russell's bolete. The cap is hemispheric to convex or broadly convex, reaching a diameter of . The cap surface is initially velvety, with a margin rolled inward, but after maturing the cap becomes cracked and forms scale-like patches. The color is yellow-brown to reddish-brown to olive-gray, while the flesh is pale yellow to yellow. The pore surface is yellow to greenish yellow; when the pore surface is rubbed or injured it will"
"Gyrodon lividus Gyrodon lividus, commonly known as the alder bolete, is a pored mushroom bearing close affinity to the genus ""Paxillus"". Although found predominantly in Europe, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with alder, it has also recorded from China, Japan and California. Fruit bodies are distinguished from other boletes by decurrent bright yellow pores that turn blue-grey on bruising. ""G. lividus"" mushrooms are edible. The alder bolete was initially described by French mycologist Pierre Bulliard in 1791 as ""Boletus lividus"", before being given its current binomial name in 1888 by Pier Andrea Saccardo when he transferred it to"
"of the genus ""Mycena"", along with other similar-looking mushrooms, such as ""M. aetites"", ""M. austera"", ""M. parca"", and ""M. aronsenii"". Some of these have a nitrous smell similar to ""M. leptocephala"". The specific epithet ""leptocephala"" is derived from the Greek λεπτος ""leptos"", ""thin"" and κεφαλη ""kephale"", ""head"", and refers to the delicate cap. The mushroom is commonly known as the ""nitrous bonnet"". The cap of ""M. leptocephala"" is in diameter, and initially a fat conical shape with the margin pressed close to the stem. As the cap expands, it becomes broadly conic to convex, sometimes broadly bell-shaped, and sometimes convex"
"Suillus variegatus Suillus variegatus, commonly called the velvet bolete or variegated bolete, is a species of edible mushroom in the genus ""Suillus"". Like all bolete-like species it has tubes, and pores, instead of gills under its cap. The mushroom forms a mycorrhizal relationship with pine and occurs in North America and Eurasia. The cap is 6 – 13 cm in diameter. It is rusty to tawny, or ochraceous, and has a velvety or downy feel when young. As it matures the surface becomes smoother, even greasy, and tacky in wet periods. The stem is ochre, more yellow towards the top,"