"Vaporization Vaporization (or vapourisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor (a state of substance below critical temperature) that occurs at temperatures below the boiling temperature at a given pressure. Evaporation occurs ""on the surface"". Evaporation only occurs when the partial pressure of vapor of a substance is less than the equilibrium vapor pressure. For example, due to constantly decreasing or"
"gas-to-solid transition (deposition). While a transition from liquid to gas is described as evaporation if it occurs below the boiling point of the liquid, and as boiling if it occurs at the boiling point, there is no such distinction within the solid-to-gas transition, which is always described as sublimation. At normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures. In these cases, the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state. The pressure referred to is the ""partial pressure"" of the substance, not the ""total"" (e.g. atmospheric) pressure of the"
"Sublimation (phase transition) Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase, without passing through the intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation is an endothermic process that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance's triple point in its phase diagram, which corresponds to the lowest pressure at which the substance can exist as a liquid. The reverse process of sublimation is deposition or desublimation, in which a substance passes directly from a gas to a solid phase. Sublimation has also been used as a generic term to describe a solid-to-gas transition (sublimation) followed by a"
"Phase transition The term phase transition (or phase change) is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter, as well as plasma in rare cases. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of the change of some external condition, such as temperature, pressure, or others. For example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to the boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The measurement"
"rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change. Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation."
"to escape the intermolecular forces of attraction of the liquid and become a gas. This is called evaporation. Evaporation only happens on the surface while boiling happens throughout the liquid. When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but the liquid boils more quickly. This distinction is exclusive to the liquid-to-gas transition; any transition directly from solid to gas is always referred to as sublimation regardless of"
"Deposition (phase transition) Deposition is a thermodynamic process, a phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase. The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation. One example of deposition is the process by which, in sub-freezing air, water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid. This is how snow forms in clouds, as well as how frost and hoar frost form on the ground or other surfaces. Another example is when frost forms on a leaf. For deposition to occur, thermal energy must be removed from"
"Gas to liquids Gas to liquids (GTL) is a refinery process to convert natural gas or other gaseous hydrocarbons into longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as gasoline or diesel fuel. Methane-rich gases are converted into liquid synthetic fuels. Two general strategies exist: (i) direct partial combustion of methane to methanol and (ii) Fischer-Tropsch-like processes that convert carbon monoxide and hydrogen into hydrocarbons. Strategy ii is followed by diverse methods to convert the hydrogen-carbon monoxide mixtures to liquids. Direct partial combustion has been demonstrated in nature but not replicated commercially. Technologies reliant on partial combustion have been commercialized mainly in regions where natural"
"Melting Melting, or fusion, is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases, typically by the application of heat or pressure, which increases the substance's temperature to the melting point. At the melting point, the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state, and the solid melts to become a liquid. Substances in the molten state generally have reduced viscosity as the temperature increases. An exception to this principle is the element sulfur,"
"between liquid and gas becomes a second-order transition. Near the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and compressed that the distinction between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This is associated with the phenomenon of critical opalescence, a milky appearance of the liquid due to density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths (including those of visible light). Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid into a crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry: each point in the fluid has the same properties, but each point in a crystal does not have"
"Fluidization Fluidization (or fluidisation) is a process similar to liquefaction whereby a granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material. When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of a bed of solid particles, it will move upwards through the bed via the empty spaces between the particles. At low gas velocities, aerodynamic drag on each particle is also low, and thus the bed remains in a fixed state. Increasing the velocity, the aerodynamic drag forces will"
"Liquefaction In materials science, liquefaction is a process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas or that generates a non-liquid phase which behaves in accordance with fluid dynamics. It occurs both naturally and artificially. As an example of the latter, a ""major commercial application of liquefaction is the liquefaction of air to allow separation of the constituents, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases."" Another is the conversion of solid coal into a liquid form usable as a substitute for liquid fuels. In geology, soil liquefaction refers to the process by which water-saturated, unconsolidated sediments are"
"Liquefaction of gases Liquefaction of gases is physical conversion of a gas into a liquid state (condensation). The processes are used for scientific, industrial and commercial purposes. Many gases can be put into a liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure by simple cooling; a few, such as carbon dioxide, require pressurization as well. Liquefaction is used for analyzing the fundamental properties of gas molecules (intermolecular forces), for storage of gases, for example: LPG, and in refrigeration and air conditioning. There the gas is liquefied in the ""condenser"", where the heat of vaporization is released, and evaporated in the ""evaporator,"" where"
"methanol, diesel, petrol, synthetic crude, and naphtha. Gas to liquids Gas to liquids (GTL) is a refinery process to convert natural gas or other gaseous hydrocarbons into longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as gasoline or diesel fuel. Methane-rich gases are converted into liquid synthetic fuels. Two general strategies exist: (i) direct partial combustion of methane to methanol and (ii) Fischer-Tropsch-like processes that convert carbon monoxide and hydrogen into hydrocarbons. Strategy ii is followed by diverse methods to convert the hydrogen-carbon monoxide mixtures to liquids. Direct partial combustion has been demonstrated in nature but not replicated commercially. Technologies reliant on partial combustion have"
"phase transition that occurs when a fluid becomes a disordered solid under pressure is called the jamming transition. Phase transitions occur when a liquid becomes a solid or a gas. Another way of producing a solid is by putting atoms, molecules or larger particles together under high pressure. Extrapolations from the jamming transition showed that even fairly orderly materials exhibited behaviors closer to those of the anticrystal than a perfect crystal. Anticrystal principles can also provide insight into crystalline materials. For example, strengthening metal alloys often involves shrinking their crystalline areas, such that their behaviors are better described by anticrystals."
"system, during a constant-temperature process. Two common forms of latent heat are latent heat of fusion (melting) and latent heat of vaporization (boiling). These names describe the direction of energy flow when changing from one phase to the next: from solid to liquid, and liquid to gas. In both cases the change is endothermic, meaning that the system absorbs energy. For example, when water evaporates, energy is required for the water molecules to overcome the forces of attraction between them, the transition from water to vapor requires an input of energy. If the vapor then condenses to a liquid on"
"diagram, top right). In this article liquid–liquid transitions are defined as transitions between two liquids of the same chemical substance. Elsewhere the term liquid–liquid transition may also refer to the more common transitions between liquid mixtures of different chemical composition. The stable liquid state unlike most glasses and amorphous solids, is a thermodynamically stable equilibrium state. Thus new liquid–liquid or fluid-fluid transitions in the stable liquid (or fluid) states are more easily analysed than transitions in amorphous solids where arguments are complicated by the non-equilibrium, non-ergodic nature of the amorphous state. Liquid–liquid transitions were originally considered by Rapoport in 1967"
"transition is the solid-liquid transformation of amorphous material. It is a reversible change of the solid and liquid states of supercooled liquids. Glass transition occurs approximately 100˚C-150˚C below the equilibrium melting temperature of a pure substance. This dynamic transition is not a change of state, but a change of phase. It can be looked at in terms of a change in the molecular motion of the liquid, not a change in the molecular order itself. This transition from liquid to solid is what defines the physical appearance of a standard lollipop. The result of the glass transition is a kinetically"
"showing that a substance passes from vapor to liquid state without any breach of continuity. In Andrews' experiments on phase transitions, he showed that carbon dioxide may be carried from any of the states we usually call liquid to any of those we usually call gas, without losing homogeneity. The mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs cited these results in support of the Gibbs free energy equation. They also set off a race among researchers to liquify various other gases. In 1877-78 Louis Paul Cailletet was the first to liquefy oxygen and nitrogen. Thomas Andrews (scientist) Thomas Andrews FRS FRSE (19 December"
"target surface. Again, the molecules do not go through an intermediate liquid state when going from the gas to the solid. See also physical vapor deposition, which is a class of processes used to deposit thin films of various materials onto various surfaces. Deposition releases energy and is an exothermic phase change. Deposition (phase transition) Deposition is a thermodynamic process, a phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase. The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation. One example of deposition is the process by which, in sub-freezing air,"
"Rapid phase transition Rapid phase transition or RPT is a phenomenon realized in liquefied natural gas (LNG) incidents in which LNG vaporizes violently upon coming in contact with water causing what is known as a ""physical explosion"" or ""cold explosion"". During such explosions there is no combustion but rather a huge amount of energy is transferred in the form of heat from the room-temperature water to the LNG at a temperature difference of about 175 kelvins. Liquefied natural gas or LNG is a natural gas that gets liquefied at atmospheric pressure and −161.5 °C. It is odorless, tasteless, colorless, and"
"from a liquid stream through usage of a vapor stream. The stripping gas, typically steam, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide, passes through the liquid solution and dissolves the aromatic compounds within it. Aroma compounds are easily volatilized into the air. For this reason, passing gas through the liquid provides a favorable condition for the compounds to leave the liquid. The equation for determining rate of mass transfer between a food and the gas phase is: Where h is the overall mass transfer coefficient and is substituted for 2(D/πt) The variable dm/dt is the rate of mass transfer into the gas phase,"
"Water-gas shift reaction The water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen (the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (not water) is known as water gas): The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780. It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized. Before the early 20th century, hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron, iron oxide and hydrogen. With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen, such as"
"Liquefied gas Liquified gas (sometimes referred to as liquid gas) is a gas that has been turned into a liquid by cooling or compressing it. Examples of liquified gases include liquid air, liquefied natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas. At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, liquid air has been brought into use as an agent in biological research. An inquiry into the intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus, initiated under the direction of Dr Allan Macfadyen, necessitated the separation of the cell-plasma of the organism. The method at first adopted for the disintegration of the bacteria was to mix"
"Transition state The transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. It is defined as the state corresponding to the highest potential energy along this reaction coordinate. At this point, assuming a perfectly irreversible reaction, colliding reactant molecules always go on to form products. It is often marked with the double dagger ‡ symbol. As an example, the transition state shown below occurs during the S2 reaction of bromoethane with a hydroxyl anion: The activated complex of a reaction can refer to either the transition state or to other states along the reaction coordinate"
"Incongruent transition Incongruent transition, in chemistry, is a mass transition between two phases which involves a change in chemical composition. This is contrasted with congruent transition, for which the composition remains the same. The transition may be that of melting, vaporization or allotropism. The concept is also often extended to related phenomena, for example, incongruent dissolution of a solid by a liquid solvent, which is often encountered in geology. The term ""phase decomposition"" is sometimes used to describe incongruent transition. However, it has to be kept in mind that incongruent transition is described by an equilibrium. For an example, see"
"transition between solid and liquid. Liquid gases may fall here, or into refrigerants, as their temperature is often maintained by evaporation. Liquid nitrogen is the best known example encountered in laboratories. The phase change may not occur at the cooled interface, but on the surface of the liquid, to where the heat is transferred by convective or forced flow. Water is the most common coolant. Its high heat capacity and low cost makes it a suitable heat-transfer medium. It is usually used with additives, like corrosion inhibitors and antifreeze. Antifreeze, a solution of a suitable organic chemical (most often ethylene"
"transition energy and proceed to product. Transition state The transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. It is defined as the state corresponding to the highest potential energy along this reaction coordinate. At this point, assuming a perfectly irreversible reaction, colliding reactant molecules always go on to form products. It is often marked with the double dagger ‡ symbol. As an example, the transition state shown below occurs during the S2 reaction of bromoethane with a hydroxyl anion: The activated complex of a reaction can refer to either the transition state or to"
"liquid-like state. For example, liquefactive necrosis in pathology, or liquefaction as a parameter in semen analysis. Liquefaction In materials science, liquefaction is a process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas or that generates a non-liquid phase which behaves in accordance with fluid dynamics. It occurs both naturally and artificially. As an example of the latter, a ""major commercial application of liquefaction is the liquefaction of air to allow separation of the constituents, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases."" Another is the conversion of solid coal into a liquid form usable as a substitute for"
"the product of all these reactions was in fact ethane. The name ""ethane"" is derived from the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry. ""Eth-"" is derived from the German for potable alcohol (ethanol), and ""-ane"" refers to the presence of a single bond between the carbon atoms. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. It has a boiling point of and melting point of . Solid ethane exists in several modifications. On cooling under normal pressure, the first modification to appear is a plastic crystal, crystallizing in the cubic system. In this form, the positions of the"
"Gas Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The"
"Glass transition The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline materials), from a hard and relatively brittle ""glassy"" state into a viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased. An amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved by supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification. The glass-transition temperature ""T"" of a material characterizes the range of temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting temperature, ""T"", of the"
"Hydrogenolysis Hydrogenolysis is a chemical reaction whereby a carbon–carbon or carbon–heteroatom single bond is cleaved or undergoes lysis (breakdown) by hydrogen. The heteroatom may vary, but it usually is oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. A related reaction is hydrogenation, where hydrogen is added to the molecule, without cleaving bonds. Usually hydrogenolysis is conducted catalytically using hydrogen gas. The term ""hydrogenolysis"" was coined by Carleton Ellis in reference to hydrogenolysis of carbon–carbon bonds. Earlier, Sabatier had already observed the hydrogenolysis of benzyl alcohol to toluene, and as early as 1906, Padoa and Ponti had observed the hydrogenolysis of furfuryl alcohol. Homer Burton"