"certainty of immortality"". Piers Brendon wrote that Macaulay is ""the only British rival to Gibbon."" In 1972, J. R. Western wrote that: ""Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's ""History of England"" has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period."" In 1974 J. P. Kenyon stated that: ""As is often the case, Macaulay had it exactly right."" W. A. Speck wrote in 1980, that a reason Macaulay's ""History of England"" ""still commands respect is that it was based upon a prodigious amount of research"". Speck claimed: According to Speck: On the other hand, Speck also wrote"
"Porphyry, Iamblichus, Plotinus, ""et al."". Following suggestions laid out by Gemistos Plethon, Ficino tried to synthesize Christianity and Platonism. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian philosopher /writer, and is considered one of the most influential Italian Renaissance philosophers and one of the main founders of modern political science. His most famous work was ""The Prince"". ""The Prince""'s contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism. Niccolò Machiavelli’s best-known book exposits and describes the arts with which a ruling prince can maintain control"
"perverted admirers"". In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, not that politicians telegraph their intentions in writing, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism. The English playwrights William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe incorporated this view into some of their works. Shakespeare's Gloucester, later Richard III, refers to Machiavelli in ""Henry VI, Part III"", for instance: <poem>I can add colours to the chameleon, Change shapes with Proteus for advantages, And set the murderous Machiavel to"
"Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (, ; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian diplomat, politician, historian, philosopher, humanist, writer, playwright and poet of the Renaissance period. He has often been called the father of modern political science. For many years he was a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned by Italian scholars. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of"
"of highly by Thomas Cromwell in England and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace. A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor Charles V. In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de' Medici and the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. As reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers ""associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic"". In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings. One of the most"
"State were clarified and contested in this period. In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works. During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative"
"Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), born in Scotland and later a resident of London. He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as Schiller and Goethe to the attention of a British audience. An essayist and historian, he invented the phrase ""hero-worship"", lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. His """" (1837) dramatised the plight of the French aristocracy, but stressed the inevitability of history as a force. With French historian Jules Michelet, he is associated with the use"
"It meant 'answer to a why question' or 'explanation', and Aristotelian scholars recognized four kinds of such answers. With the end of the Middle Ages, in many philosophical usages, the meaning of the word 'cause' narrowed. It often lost that broad meaning, and was restricted to just one of the four kinds. For authors such as Niccolò Machiavelli, in the field of political thinking, and Francis Bacon, concerning science more generally, Aristotle's moving cause was the focus of their interest. A widely used modern definition of causality in this newly narrowed sense was assumed by David Hume. He undertook an"
"Machiavelli's realism saw a value to war and political violence, his lasting influence has been ""tamed"" so that useful conflict was deliberately converted as much as possible to formalized political struggles and the economic ""conflict"" encouraged between free, private enterprises (; ). Starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by Bacon and Descartes, applied to humanity and politics . Notable attempts to improve upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke , Spinoza , Giambattista , and . David Hume made what he considered to"
"society rather than in isolation from society. During the 13th century Thomas Aquinas adopted the Aristotelian position that the senses are essential to mind into scholasticism. Bonaventure (1221–1274), one of Aquinas' strongest intellectual opponents, offered some of the strongest arguments in favour of the Platonic idea of the mind. In the late renaissance various writers began to question the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition in a more fundamental way. In political and historical writing Niccolò Machiavelli and his friend Francesco Guicciardini initiated a new realistic style of writing. Machiavelli in particular was scornful of writers on politics who"
"done by his younger contemporary Thomas Henry Huxley, who wrote widely on the subject. A number of other non-fiction works of the era made their mark on the literature of the period. The philosophical writings of John Stuart Mill covered logic, economics, liberty and utilitarianism. The large and influential histories of Thomas Carlyle: ""The French Revolution, A History"" and ""On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History"" permeated political thought at the time. The writings of Thomas Babington Macaulay on English history helped codify the Whig narrative that dominated the historiography for many years. John Ruskin wrote a number of"
"life and career of Niccolò Machiavelli resulted in a widely praised translation of ""The Prince"" (2005, rev. 2d ed. 2016) and several important essays. In 2013 Connell solved a longstanding philological problem, previously considered a puzzle ""awaiting its Rosetta Stone,"" by showing that Machiavelli completed ""The Prince"" in its final version in the spring of 1515. His essays were collected in the Italian volume ""Machiavelli nel Rinascimento italiano"" (2015). In 2016, on the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the publication of ""Utopia"" by Thomas More, he demonstrated connections between Machiavelli and the circle around More and Erasmus. Connell has"
"as in the works of Niccolò Machiavelli (often described as the first modern political thinker, or a key turning point towards modern political thinking), Thomas More, Erasmus, Justus Lipsius, Jean Bodin, and Hugo Grotius. Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with Newtonian mechanics appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the newer scientific ideas of evolution or relativity. Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a ""struggle for existence."" These ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal patterns of biological cooperation. According to John Habgood, all man really knows here is that the universe seems"
"an influence for other major philosophers, such as Montaigne, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu. Although Jean-Jacques Rousseau is associated with very different political ideas, it is important to view Machiavelli's work from different points of view rather than just the traditional notion. For example, Rousseau viewed Machiavelli's work as a satirical piece in which Machiavelli exposes the faults of a one-man rule rather than exalting amorality. In the seventeenth century it was in England that Machiavelli's ideas were most substantially developed and adapted, and that republicanism came once more to life; and out of seventeenth-century English republicanism there were to"
"Erasmus. One of the major innovations Gilbert noted was that Machiavelli focused upon the ""deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom"". Normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. (Xenophon is also an exception in this regard.) 2. Classical republicanism. Commentators such as Quentin Skinner and J.G.A. Pocock, in the so-called ""Cambridge School"" of interpretation, have been able to show that some of the republican themes in Machiavelli's political works, particularly the ""Discourses on Livy"", can be found in medieval Italian literature which was influenced by"
"and never diminishes as time goes by. For a political theorist to do this in public was one of Machiavelli's clearest breaks not just with medieval scholasticism, but with the classical tradition of political philosophy, especially the favorite philosopher of Catholicism at the time, Aristotle. This is one of Machiavelli's most lasting influences upon modernity. Nevertheless, Machiavelli was heavily influenced by classical pre-Christian political philosophy. According to Machiavelli refers to Xenophon more than Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero put together. Xenophon wrote one of the classic mirrors of princes, the ""Education of Cyrus"". wrote: ""The Cyrus of Xenophon was a hero"
"and class unity over socialism and the ""cash nexus"" of ""laissez-faire"" capitalism. According to Carlyle, the ""cash nexus"" was when social relationships were merely reduced to economic gain. A champion of the poor, Carlyle believed that the fabric of British society was being threatened by mobs, plutocrats, socialists and others who wanted to exploit them and perpetuate class resentment. A devotee of Germanic culture and Romanticism, Carlyle is most known for his writings ""Sartor Resartus"" (1833–1834) and ""Past and Present"" (1843). In the mid-19th century, the Church of England experienced a ""catholic revival"" in the form of the Oxford Movement,"
"particular culture's ""Volksgeist"", and thus of the general ""Zeitgeist"". Thomas Carlyle's 1841 ""On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History"" also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the biography of a few central individuals such as Oliver Cromwell or Frederick the Great. His heroes were political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men included geniuses good and, perhaps for the first time in historical study, evil. Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most in"
"Machiavellianism Machiavellianism is defined as the political theory of Niccolò Machiavelli, especially the view that any means can be used if it is necessary to maintain power. The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469, who wrote ""Il Principe"" (""The Prince""), among other works. In modern psychology, Machiavellianism is also the name of one of the dark triad personalities, characterized by a duplicitous interpersonal style, a cynical disregard for morality, a lack of empathy, and a focus on self-interest and personal gain. After his exile from political life in 1512, Machiavelli took to"
"Christopher Lynch (political scientist) Christopher Lynch (born 1963) is a political scientist and theorist who focuses his research on Machiavelli. Lynch has published one book and numerous articles in academic journals. Lynch translated, edited, and provided an introduction of Niccolò Machiavelli's ""Art of War"". While staying true to the original text, Lynch was also able to translate it into modern English to allow the audience to respect Machiavelli's writings on the relationship between war and politics. Additionally, the introduction that Lynch wrote provides political and historical context and its current relevance. Furthermore, the book includes an interpretive essay that explores"
"Niccolo's Smile Niccolo's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli is a translation of Machiavelli's diaries and memoirs by Maurizio Viroli, a scholar from the University of Bologna, Italy, and Princeton University. Published in 1998 using Machiavelli's original source materials, the author recreates his biography. ""Machiavellian"" is a pejorative term suggesting serpentine scheming and use of immoral, ruthless means to achieve desired ends. Those ends usually include the maintenance of power at all costs. Inevitably, it is often assumed that Machiavelli must have reflected and practiced these methods in his personal and public life. He was cursed to live in interesting but"
"the emergence of a series of debates about the spiritual and material foundations of England and it had a great effect on a number of writers of fiction in the Victorian era and after. Carlyle was concerned with the ""two nations theme"", the rich and the poor. Likewise, a number of Victorian condition-of England novelists, particularly Benjamin Disraeli, Elizabeth Gaskell, Charles Dickens, and Charles Kingsley, attempted with varying effect, to persuade the reading public to look for ways of reducing the gap between the ""two nations"". Carlyle contributed to the awakening of social conscience among the reading public and understood"
"nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of ""one's own"" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale. Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, ""The History of England from the Accession of James the Second"", in 1848. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a"
"of writing to his superiors generally, there was very likely some animosity to Machiavelli even before the return of the Medici. Christopher Marlowe's play ""The Jew of Malta"" (ca. 1589) contains a prologue by a character called Machiavel, a Senecan ghost based on Machiavelli. Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying ""I count religion but a childish toy,/And hold there is no sin but ignorance."" Niccolò Machiavelli plays a vital role in the young adult book series ""The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel"". He is an immortal working in national security for the French government. Niccolò"
"of Socrates more known as an historian, rhetorician and soldier, was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli, sometimes not in line with Aristotle. While interest in Plato was increasing in Florence during Machiavelli's lifetime, Machiavelli does not show particular interest in him, but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as Polybius, Plutarch and Cicero. The major difference between Machiavelli and the Socratics, according to Strauss, is Machiavelli's materialism, and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. With their teleological understanding of things,"
"of the main characters in ""The Enchantress of Florence"" (2008) by Salman Rushdie, mostly referred to as ""Niccolò 'il Macchia"", and the central protagonist in the 2012 novel ""The Malice of Fortune"" by Michael Ennis. Television dramas centering on the early Renaissance have also made use of Machiavelli to underscore his influence in early modern political philosophy. Machiavelli has been featured as a supporting character in ""The Tudors"" (2007–2010), Borgia (2011–2014) and ""The Borgias"" (2011–2013). Machiavelli appears in the popular historical video games ""Assassin's Creed II"" (2009) and """" (2010), in which he is portrayed as a member of the"
"to the middle of the 16th century was the product of the political and social conditions of an earlier age. Machiavelli and Guicciardini were the chief originators of the science of history. Machiavelli's principal works are the ""Istorie fiorentine"", the ""Discorsi sulla prima deca di Tito Livio"", the ""Arte della guerra"" and the ""Principe"". His merit consists in having emphasized the experimental side of the study of political action in having observed facts, studied histories and drawn principles from them. His history is sometimes inexact in facts; it is rather a political than an historical work. The peculiarity of Machiavelli's"
"W. F. Skene's (1809–92) three part study of ""Celtic Scotland"" (1886–91) was the first serious investigation of the region and helped spawn the Scottish Celtic Revival. Issues of race became important, with Pinkerton, James Sibbald (1745–1803) and John Jamieson (1758–1839) subscribing to a theory of Picto-Gothicism, which postulated a Germanic origin for the Picts and the Scots language. Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), born in Scotland and later a resident of London. He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as Schiller and Goethe to the attention of"
"of the chapters. Jean-Jacques Rousseau considered the ""Discourses"" (as well as the ""Florentine Histories"") to be more representative of Machiavelli's true philosophy: Discourses on Livy The Discourses on Livy (, literally ""Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy"") is a work of political history and philosophy written in the early 16th century (c. 1517) by the Italian writer and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli, best known as the author of ""The Prince"". The ""Discourses"" were published posthumously with papal privilege in 1531. The title identifies the work's subject as the first ten books of Livy's ""Ab urbe condita"", which relate"
"that science should seek to control nature for the sake of humanity, and not seek to understand it just for the sake of understanding. In both these things he was influenced by Machiavelli's earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism, and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their own fortune (). Influenced both by Galileo's new physics and Bacon, René Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and geometry provided a model of how scientific knowledge could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly that human beings themselves could be understood as complex machines (). Isaac Newton, influenced"
"to achieve the required objectives. Oliver James identifies Machiavellianism as one of the dark triadic personality traits in the workplace, the others being narcissism and psychopathy. A new model of Machiavellianism based in organizational settings consists of three factors: The presence of Machiavellianism in an organisation has been positively correlated with counterproductive workplace behaviour and workplace deviance. Machiavellianism Machiavellianism is defined as the political theory of Niccolò Machiavelli, especially the view that any means can be used if it is necessary to maintain power. The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469, who"
"like structuralism, an ambiguous term in some respect. It is first important to understand the nature of the schools of thought - as often it seems they aren't truly separate 'schools' at all. Much like Sartre's interest in art, both of these movements are important to a wide range of academic disciplines. E.g., English literature, cultural studies, media studies/film studies, anthropology, etc. etc. Michel Foucault (1926–1984), although sometimes considered close to structuralism, quickly drew apart from this movement, developing a specific approach to semiology and history which he dubbed ""archeology."" His influence is broad-ranging, and his work includes books such"
"as Niccolò Machiavelli, Vilfredo Pareto, Georges Sorel and Benedetto Croce. His notebooks cover a wide range of topics, including Italian history and nationalism, the French Revolution, Fascism, Fordism, civil society, folklore, religion and high and popular culture. The notebooks were smuggled out of prison in the 1930s. They were not published until the 1950s and were first translated into English in the 1970s, by the Scottish poet and folklorist Hamish Henderson. Some ideas in Marxist theory, critical theory and educational theory that are associated with Gramsci's name: Hegemony was a concept previously used by Marxists such as Vladimir Ilyich Lenin"