"it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases. Similar treatments had been prevalent in India from just before AD 1000. A transitional period began in the late 1850s with the work of Louis Pasteur. This work was later extended by Robert Koch in the 1880s. By the end of the 1880s the miasma theory was struggling to compete with the germ theory of disease. Eventually, a ""golden era"" of bacteriology ensued, during which the theory quickly led to the identification of the actual organisms that cause many diseases. Viruses were discovered in the 1890s. The miasma theory"
"the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most"
"is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He worked chiefly in Paris and in 1887 founded the"
"this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C. This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them. Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on April 20, 1862. Pasteur patented the process, to fight the ""diseases"" of wine, in 1865. The method became known as pasteurization, and was soon applied to beer and milk. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph"
"Koch–Pasteur rivalry The French Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) and German Robert Koch (1843–1910) are the two greatest figures in medical microbiology and in establishing acceptance of the germ theory of disease (germ theory). In 1882, fueled by national rivalry and a language barrier, the tension between Pasteur and the younger Koch erupted into an acute conflict. Pasteur had already discovered molecular chirality, investigated fermentation, refuted spontaneous generation, inspired Lister's introduction of antisepsis to surgery, introduced pasteurization to France's wine industry, answered the silkworm diseases blighting France's silkworm industry, attenuated a ""Pasteurella"" species of bacteria to develop vaccine to chicken cholera (1879),"
"Pasteur and others established the germ theory of disease. In particular, it led to the nearly universal practice of chlorination of tap water to prevent the spread of diseases like typhoid fever and cholera. In 1915, British chemist Henry Dakin, working at a field hospital in France during World War I, did an extensive study of compounds that could be used to disinfect wounds and prevent sepsis. He found that chloramine was optimal, but settled for a dilute sodium hypochlorite solution—still used today with the name of ""Dakin's solution""—for reasons of cost and availability. Chlorine-releasing compounds Chlorine-releasing compounds, also known"
"Themistocles Zammit Sir Themistocles ""Temi"" Zammit, CMG (or Żammit; 30 September 1864 – 2 November 1935) was a Maltese archaeologist and historian, professor of chemistry, medical doctor, researcher and writer, serving as Rector (1920–26) of the Royal University of Malta and first Director of the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. After graduating in medicine from the University of Malta, Zammit specialised in bacteriology in London and Paris. His 1905 discovery of contaminated milk as the vector for transmission to humans of ""Brucellosis melitensis"" present in the blood of the goat greatly contributed to the elimination from the islands of"
"recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel"
"is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a potential host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen. The germ theory was proposed by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, and expanded upon by Marcus von Plenciz in 1762. Such views were held in disdain, however, and Galen's miasma theory remained dominant among scientists and doctors. The nature of this doctrine prevented them from understanding how diseases actually progressed, with predictable consequences. By the early nineteenth century, smallpox vaccination was commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how"
"Contemporary reaction to Ignaz Semmelweis Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis discovered in 1847 that hand-washing with a solution of chlorinated lime reduced the incidence of fatal childbed fever tenfold in maternity institutions. However, the reaction of his contemporaries was not positive; his subsequent mental disintegration led to him being confined to an insane asylum, where he died in 1865. Semmelweis's critics claimed his findings lacked scientific reasoning. The failure of the nineteenth-century scientific community to recognize Semmelweis's findings, and the nature of the flawed critiques outlined below, helped advance a positivist epistemology, leading to the emergence of evidence-based medicine. To a modern"
"not until Louis Pasteur spread his theory about germs, and the need for washing hands and maintaining sanitation (particularly in medical practice), that anyone listened. Many people were quite skeptical, but on May 22, 1881 Pasteur persuasively demonstrated the validity of his germ theory of disease with an early example of vaccination. The anthrax vaccine was administered to 25 sheep while another 25 were used as a control. On May 31, 1881 all of the sheep were exposed to anthrax. While every sheep in the control group died, each of the vaccinated sheep survived. Pasteur’s experiment would become a milestone"
"Ignaz Semmelweis Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (; ; 1 July 1818 – 13 August 1865) was a Hungarian physician of ethnic-German ancestry, now known as an early pioneer of antiseptic procedures. Described as the ""saviour of mothers"", Semmelweis discovered that the incidence of puerperal fever (also known as ""childbed fever"") could be drastically cut by the use of hand disinfection in obstetrical clinics. Puerperal fever was common in mid-19th-century hospitals and often fatal. Semmelweis proposed the practice of washing hands with chlorinated lime solutions in 1847 while working in Vienna General Hospital's First Obstetrical Clinic, where doctors' wards had three times"
"on 5 February 1899. In 1904 Horrocks was appointed as a member of the Royal Society's Mediterranean Fever Commission, to investigate the highly contagious disease Malta fever which was prevalent in the British colony of Malta. Identified by Sir David Bruce in 1887, Malta fever was characterised by a low mortality rate but was of indefinite duration. It was accompanied by profuse perspiration, pain and occasional swelling of the joints. In 1905 Sir Themistocles Zammit infected a goat with the bacteria ""Micrococcus Melitanensis"" which then caught Malta fever. Horrocks was the first person to find the bacteria in goat's milk,"
"gentlemen was inconsistent with the idea that their hands could be unclean. Semmelweis's results lacked scientific explanation at the time. That became possible only some decades later, when Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister, and others developed the germ theory of disease. During 1848, Semmelweis widened the scope of his washing protocol, to include all instruments coming in contact with patients in labour, and used mortality rates time series to document his success in virtually eliminating puerperal fever from the hospital ward. Toward the end of 1847, accounts of Semmelweis's work began to spread around Europe. Semmelweis and his students wrote letters"
"germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late-1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged by John Snow, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig: ""materies morbi"") in the water. He suggested this before and in response to an epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854. Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year by Filippo Pacini of the bacillus that caused the disease was completely ignored. It was"
"Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his discoveries have saved many lives ever since. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the general public for his invention"
"Marcus Beck Marcus Beck (14 October 1843 – 21 May 1893) was a British professor of surgery at University College Hospital. He was an early proponent of the germ theory of disease and promoted the discoveries of Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and Joseph Lister in surgical literature of the time. He gave his name to the Marcus Beck Library (previously Laboratory) at the Royal Society of Medicine (RSM). Beck was born on 14 October 1843 in Isleworth, Middlesex, to Quakers Edward Beck and his second wife Susanna Lucas. They had eight children, of which Roger was the first son; Roger"
"not bacteria, but rather fungi.) Along with his contemporary Robert Koch, Pasteur was an early advocate of the germ theory of disease. Robert Koch, a pioneer in medical microbiology, worked on cholera, anthrax and tuberculosis. In his research into tuberculosis Koch finally proved the germ theory, for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1905. In ""Koch's postulates"", he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a disease, and these postulates are still used today. Ferdinand Cohn is said to be a founder of bacteriology, studying bacteria from 1870. Cohn was the first to classify"
"however, European discovery of the germ theory of disease proved decisive for the medical community, although popular belief never shook the old ""bad air"" theory. Medical attention shifted from curing the sick patient to stopping the spread of the disease in the first place. It indicated a system of quarantines, hospitalization, clean water, and proper sewage disposal. Dr Charles V. Chapin (1856-1941), head of public health in Providence Rhode Island, was a tireless campaigner for the germ theory of disease, which he repeatedly validated with his laboratory studies. Chapin emphatically told popular audiences germs were the true culprit, not filth;"
"Lore Alford Rogers Lore Alford Rogers (7 February 1875 - 21 March 1975) was an American bacteriologist and dairy scientist. He is credited with discovering that butter made from pasteurized sweet cream over sour ripened cream remained fresher, while suggesting that surplus milk could be sold as concentrated sour milk products. He refined the steps for the manufacture of high quality Swiss cheese and, new to the United States, production of Roquefort cheese. He was instrumental in finding ways to discourage fungal growth in sweetened condensed milk and preventing losses in evaporated milk from heat coagulation. His pioneering work on"
"Koch and Pasteur. The ""German Problem"", as Germany increasingly gained scientific, technological, and industrial dominance, fed tensions among European nations. Germ theory's applications were embedded in the heightening quest by France, Germany, Britain, and Italy to colonize Africa and Asia with the aid of tropical medicine, a new variant of colonial medicine, while medical scientists in respective nations vied to lead advances. In 1863, influenced by Pasteur's research on fermentation, fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine mostly explained the cause of anthrax, but Davaine's explanation was opposed by those who opposed the idea that infection with a microorganism could explain it. In"
"for ensuring adequate destruction of common pathogenic, heat-resistant organisms. However, the microbiological techniques used until the 1960s did not allow for the actual reduction of bacteria to be enumerated. Demonstration of the extent of inactivation of pathogenic bacteria by milk pasteurization came from a study of surviving bacteria in milk that was heat-treated after being deliberately spiked with high levels of the most heat-resistant strains of the most significant milk-borne pathogens. The mean log reductions and temperatures of inactivation of the major milk-borne pathogens during a 15-second treatment are: The Codex Alimentarius ""Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk"" notes that"
"systematic review of the food safety of unpasteurized milk concluded that science-based data to substantiate claims of health benefits ""are lacking or do not exist"" and the risks associated with disease outbreaks as a result of raw milk consumption are ""considerably higher"". Pasteurization was first used in the United States in the 1890s after the discovery of germ theory to control the hazards of highly contagious bacterial diseases, including bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, that could be easily transmitted to humans through the drinking of raw milk. Initially after the scientific discovery of bacteria, no product testing was available to determine"
"John Snow, ""et al."", as to contaminated drinking water being the likely source of the disease, relatively quickly identified the East London Water Company as the source of the contaminated water. Quick action prevented further deaths. During the fifth cholera pandemic, Robert Koch isolated ""Vibrio cholerae"" and proposed postulates to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the germ theory of disease. Prior to this time, many physicians believed that microorganisms were spontaneously generated, and disease was caused by direct exposure to filth and decay. Koch helped establish that the disease was more specifically contagious and was"
"Fermentation theory The fermentation theory was studied in depth and brought to light first by Louis Pasteur. This theory states that it is the idea or concept of how fermentation is brought on by microbes and put to the concept of spontaneous generation to rest. Even though this theory is now outdated and has been replaced by the germ theory of disease, for a long time it held true, and Louis was on the forefront of explaining why it seemed organisms appeared out of nothing instead of claiming it was just a spontaneous act of God. Fermentation was a process"
"in 1917 and published her work in the ""Journal of Infectious Diseases"" in 1918. She was met with skepticism, particularly because she was a woman and did not have a Ph.D. She warned that raw milk should be pasteurized to protect people from various diseases. During the 1920s, scientists around the world made the same findings, and eventually, ""Brucella"" was confirmed as the disease that caused what was then known as undulant fever and Malta fever. Her findings led to the pasteurization of milk in 1930. As a result, the incidence of brucellosis in the United States was significantly reduced."
"publication, the scientific community expressed serious interest in Dr. Grigorov's vaccine. Through his scientific experiments “in-vitro” and “in-vivo” on lab animals and later on human patients, Dr. Grigorov clearly demonstrated and described the healing effect of penicillin fungi in the treatment of tuberculosis. Grigorov Glacier on Brabant Island in Palmer Archipelago, Antarctica is named after Stamen Grigorov. Stamen Grigorov Stamen Grigorov () (October 27, 1878 - October 27, 1945) was a prominent Bulgarian physician and microbiologist. He discovered the Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacillus, which is the true cause for the existence of natural yogurt. Stamen Grigorov was born in the village"
"surgery safer for patients. In the years between 1876 and 1884 Robert Koch provided much insight into infectious diseases. He was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture. This gave rise to the germ theory, a certain microorganism being responsible for a certain disease. He developed a series of criteria around this that have become known as the Koch's postulates. A major milestone in medical microbiology is the Gram stain. In 1884 Hans Christian Gram developed the method of staining bacteria to make them more visible and differentiable under a microscope. This"
"several times until 1924. From 1882 to 1885 he worked as an assistant at the institute for pathology and anatomy. He also resided with the mycologist Oscar Brefeld in Münster. He graduated from the medical studies in 1888, and worked some years as a physician in Kristiania. In 1893 he delivered his doctoral thesis, ""Om sop paa levende jordbund"". From 1887 to 1890 he managed the physiological laboratories at the brewer Ringnes in Oslo. He also managed a factory at Toten, which produced condensed milk. In 1888 he discovered a method to produce condensed milk without sugar. He designed the"
"Gerber method The Gerber Method is a primary and historic chemical test to determine the fat content of substances, most commonly milk and cream. The Gerber Method is the primary testing method in Europe and much of the world. The fairly similar Babcock test is used primarily in the United States, although the Gerber Method also enjoys significant use in the U.S. as well. The Gerber Method was developed and patented by Dr. Niklaus Gerber of Switzerland in 1891. Milk fat is separated from proteins by adding sulfuric acid. The separation is facilitated by using amyl alcohol and centrifugation. The"
"the first practical applications of the germ theory of disease in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil water advisory. Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay ""On the Mode of Communication of Cholera"", in which he correctly suggested that the fecal-oral route was the mode of communication, and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines. Snow later went so far as to accurately propose in his 1855 edition of the work that the structure of cholera was that"
"a PhD in 1929 from the University of Illinois. He was the United States Government delegate to the International Dairy Congress in Berlin, Germany in 1937. In 1943 he was appointed Professor of Dairy Science at Cornell University, a post he held until his retirement in 1963. His work at Cornell helped to improve the safety and shelf life of milk, and together with fellow professor Frank V. Kosikowski he developed the hot-pack process of making cream cheese, which stabilizes cream cheese to keep it from spoiling. During his career he authored, or co-authored, 179 papers, monographs, and books and"
"measures that he proposed, but virtually everyone rejected his basic and ground-breaking theoretical innovation — that the disease had only one cause, lack of cleanliness. Professor Gustav Adolf Michaelis from a maternity institution in Kiel replied positively to Semmelweis' suggestions — eventually he committed suicide, however, because he felt responsible for the death of his own cousin, whom he had examined after she gave birth. Only belatedly did his observational evidence gain wide acceptance; more than twenty years later, Louis Pasteur's work offered a ""theoretical"" explanation for Semmelweis' observations — the germ theory of disease. As such, the Semmelweis story"