"foliage consisted of fern-like fronds, although they were not closely related to ferns. The oldest fossil evidence of seed plants is of Late Devonian age, and they appear to have evolved out of an earlier group known as the progymnosperms. These early seed plants ranged from trees to small, rambling shrubs; like most early progymnosperms, they were woody plants with fern-like foliage. They all bore ovules, but no cones, fruit or similar. While it is difficult to track the early evolution of seeds, the lineage of the seed ferns may be traced from the simple trimerophytes through homosporous Aneurophytes. This"
"based on Schuettpelz & Pryer (2008). Mostly terrestrial or epipetric (growing on rock). Pteridaceae Pteridaceae is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales., including some 1150 known species in ca 45 genera (depending on taxonomic opinions), divided over five subfamilies. The family includes four groups of genera that are sometimes recognized as separate families: the adiantoid, cheilanthoid, pteroid, and hemionitidoid ferns. Relationships among these groups remain unclear, and although some recent genetic analyses of the Pteridales suggest that neither the family Pteridaceae nor the major groups within it are all monophyletic, as yet these analyses are insufficiently comprehensive and"
"Pteridaceae Pteridaceae is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales., including some 1150 known species in ca 45 genera (depending on taxonomic opinions), divided over five subfamilies. The family includes four groups of genera that are sometimes recognized as separate families: the adiantoid, cheilanthoid, pteroid, and hemionitidoid ferns. Relationships among these groups remain unclear, and although some recent genetic analyses of the Pteridales suggest that neither the family Pteridaceae nor the major groups within it are all monophyletic, as yet these analyses are insufficiently comprehensive and robust to provide good support for a revision of the order at the"
"Agrostology Agrostology (from Greek , ""agrōstis"", ""type of grass""; and , ""-logia""), sometimes graminology, is the scientific study of the grasses (the family Poaceae, or Gramineae). The grasslike species of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), the rush family (Juncaceae), and the bulrush or cattail family (Typhaceae) are often included with the true grasses in the category of graminoid, although strictly speaking these are not included within the study of agrostology. In contrast to the word graminoid, the words gramineous and graminaceous are normally used to mean ""of, or relating to, the true grasses (Poaceae)"". Agrostology has importance in the maintenance of"
"Pteridaceae is the sole family in suborder Pteridiineae, with 52 genera. The suborder has the same circumscription as Smith et al. used for the family. The phylogenetic relationship between these six suborders is shown in this cladogram: As traditionally defined, the groups within Pteridaceae are as follows: Based on phylogenetic research, Christenhusz ""et al."" (2011) divided the Pteridaceae genera into the following subfamilies. These roughly correspond with the groups listed above, with the main difference being that ""adiantoid"" and ""vittarioid"" ferns are combined under the ""Vittarioideae"" subfamily name. The following phylogram, showing the relationships between the subfamilies listed above, is"
"Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ""pedon"", ""soil""; and λόγος, ""logos"", ""study"") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification, while edaphology studies the way soils influence plants, fungi, and other living things. Soil is not only a support for vegetation, but it is also the pedosphere, the locus of numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals) and its residues, the mineral material of the original and added rock, and its position"
"family level. Members of Pteridaceae have creeping or erect rhizomes. The leaves are almost always compound and have linear sori that are typically on the margins of the leaves and lack a true indusium, typically being protected by a false indusium formed from the reflexed margin of the leaf. Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era. Smith referred to the ferns as monilophytes, dividing them into four groups. The vast majority of ferns were placed in the Polypodiopsida. In 2016, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group divided order Polypodiales into six suborders."
"correspond to Smith's four classes, with Ophioglossidae corresponding to Psilotopsida. The two major groups previously included in Pteridophyta are phylogenetically related as follows: Pteridophytes consist of two separate but related classes, whose nomenclature has varied. The terminology used by the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (2016) (with some synonyms) is used here: In addition to these living groups, several groups of pteridophytes are now extinct and known only from fossils. These groups include the Rhyniopsida, Zosterophyllopsida, Trimerophytopsida, the Lepidodendrales and the Progymnospermopsida. Modern studies of the land plants agree that all pteridophytes share a common ancestor with seed plants. Therefore, pteridophytes do"
"Pteridales The Pteridales are ferns that have their sori in linear strips under the edge of the leaf tissue, usually with the edge of the lamina reflexed over. This order is considered a family under the Smith classification. However, this group, a natural clade, is clearly the most basal offshoot of the entire polypodioid line, and if any portion of that clade is segregated as a separate order, this would be the obvious one. For this reason, and because this is a large and complex group, it is being considered an order for this page. Most members of this order"
"Pterostylis Pterostylis is a genus of about 300 species of plants in the orchid family, Orchidaceae. Commonly called greenhood orchids, they are terrestrial, deciduous, perennial, tuberous, herbs found in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia and one Indonesian island. The flowers are mostly green, sometimes with brown, reddish or white stripes, and are distinguished from other orchids by their unusual flower structures and pollination mechanism. Greenhood orchids are all terrestrial herbs with an underground tuber like many other genera of orchids but are distinguished by a hood-like ""galea"" formed by the fusing of the dorsal sepal and two lateral"
"Dendrology Dendrology (, ""dendron"", ""tree""; and , ""-logia"", ""science of"" or ""study of"") or xylology (, ""ksulon"", ""wood"") is the science and study of wooded plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; however, woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic"
"should include five distinct families, although their final names are yet to be determined: Pteridales The Pteridales are ferns that have their sori in linear strips under the edge of the leaf tissue, usually with the edge of the lamina reflexed over. This order is considered a family under the Smith classification. However, this group, a natural clade, is clearly the most basal offshoot of the entire polypodioid line, and if any portion of that clade is segregated as a separate order, this would be the obvious one. For this reason, and because this is a large and complex group,"
"Arthropodology Arthropodology (from Greek - ""arthron"", ""joint"", and , ""gen"".: - ""pous"", ""podos"", ""foot"", which together mean ""jointed feet"") is a biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs. This field is very important in medicine, studied together with parasitology. Medical arthropodology is the study of the parasitic effect of arthropods, not only as parasites but also as vectors. The first annual "" Conference on Medical Arthropodology"" was held in Madurai (Tamil Nadu) in 2007. Subfields of arthropodology are"
"Arthropodology Arthropodology (from Greek - ""arthron"", ""joint"", and , ""gen"".: - ""pous"", ""podos"", ""foot"", which together mean ""jointed feet"") is a biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs. This field is very important in medicine, studied together with parasitology. Medical arthropodology is the study of the parasitic effect of arthropods, not only as parasites but also as vectors. The first annual "" Conference on Medical Arthropodology"" was held in Madurai (Tamil Nadu) in 2007. Subfields of arthropodology are"
"Pteridophyte A pteridophyte is a vascular plant (with xylem and phloem) that disperses spores. Because pteridophytes produce neither flowers nor seeds, they are also referred to as ""cryptogams"", meaning that their means of reproduction is hidden. The pteridophytes include the ferns, horsetails, and the lycophytes (clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts). These are not a monophyletic group because ferns and horsetails are more closely related to seed plants than to the lycophytes. Therefore, ""Pteridophyta"" is no longer a widely accepted taxon, although the term ""pteridophyte"" remains in common parlance, as do ""pteridology"" and ""pteridologist"" as a science and its practitioner, to indicate"
"offer a major in herpetology at the undergraduate or even the graduate level. Instead, persons interested in herpetology select a major in the biological sciences. The knowledge learned about all aspects of the biology of animals is then applied to an individual study of herpetology. Herpetology Herpetology (from Greek ἑρπετόν ""herpetón"", meaning ""reptile"" or ""creeping animal"") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians (gymnophiona)) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Birds, which are cladistically included within Reptilia, are traditionally excluded here; the"
"Herpetology Herpetology (from Greek ἑρπετόν ""herpetón"", meaning ""reptile"" or ""creeping animal"") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians (gymnophiona)) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Birds, which are cladistically included within Reptilia, are traditionally excluded here; the scientific study of birds is the subject of ornithology. Thus, the definition of herpetology can be more precisely stated as the study of ectothermic (cold-blooded) tetrapods. Under this definition ""herps"" (or sometimes ""herptiles"" or ""herpetofauna"") exclude fish, but it is not uncommon for herpetological and"
"the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015 with plant taxon authors from Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007 showing the relationship of extinct clades. Pteridospermatophyta The term Pteridospermatophyta (or ""seed ferns"" or ""Pteridospermatopsida"") refers to several distinct polyphyletic groups of extinct seed-bearing plants (spermatophytes). The earliest fossil evidence for plants of this type is the genus ""Elkinsia"" of the late Devonian age. They flourished particularly during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Pteridosperms declined during the Mesozoic Era and had mostly disappeared by the end of the Cretaceous Period, though some pteridosperm-like plants seem to have survived into Eocene times, based on"
"be studied in the organism Arabidopsis thaliana. Feronia (FER) has a taxonomic lineage as follows: Eukaryota > Viridiplantae > Streptophyta > Embryophyta > Tracheophyta > Spermatophyta > Magnoliophyta > Eudicotyledons > Gunneridae > Pentapetalae > Rosids > Malvids > Brassicales > Brassicaceae > Camelineae > Arabidopsis. ""Arabidopsis thaliana"" is a weed commonly found alongside roads and is frequently used in experiments which examine plant genetics or biology. It can be studied due to its small number of megabase pairs (Mbp) which makes it easily synthesized. It is used often to observe and understand plant immunity and it can be used"
"Edaphology Edaphology (from Greek , ""edaphos"", ""ground"", and , ""-logia"") is one of two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, particularly plants. Edaphology includes the study of how soil influences humankind's use of land for plant growth as well as man's overall use of the land. General subfields within edaphology are agricultural soil science (known by the term agrology in some regions) and environmental soil science. (Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification.) In Russia, edaphology is considered equivalent to pedology, but is recognized"
"species. The Peridiscaceae are small trees or erect shrubs of wet tropical forests. It was not until 2009 that all four of the genera were united into a single family. ""Peridiscus"" and ""Whittonia"" are clearly close relatives. This pair, and the other two genera have long been considered anomalous, being variously classified by different authors. The following description was created by combining descriptions of ""Medusandra"" and ""Peridiscus"" by John Hutchinson with descriptions of ""Soyauxia"", ""Peridiscus"", and ""Whittonia"" by Clemens Bayer. Peridiscaceae are small trees or erect shrubs. The leaves are stipulate, alternate, and simple, with margins that are entire or"
"Plant genetics Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in Plants. It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas. The discoverer of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied ""trait inheritance"", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit"
"Plant morphology Plant morphology or phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is useful in the visual identification of plants. Plant morphology ""represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants, and, by implication, an attempt to interpret these on the basis of similarity of plan and origin."" There are four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of the biological"
"Pteridospermatophyta The term Pteridospermatophyta (or ""seed ferns"" or ""Pteridospermatopsida"") refers to several distinct polyphyletic groups of extinct seed-bearing plants (spermatophytes). The earliest fossil evidence for plants of this type is the genus ""Elkinsia"" of the late Devonian age. They flourished particularly during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Pteridosperms declined during the Mesozoic Era and had mostly disappeared by the end of the Cretaceous Period, though some pteridosperm-like plants seem to have survived into Eocene times, based on fossil finds in Tasmania. The concept of pteridosperms goes back to the late 19th century when palaeobotanists came to realise that many Carboniferous"
"pedology, the study of soil in its natural environment. Other branches of pedology are the study of soil morphology, and soil classification. The study of pedogenesis is important to understanding soil distribution patterns in current (soil geography) and past (paleopedology) geologic periods. Soil develops through a series of changes. The starting point is weathering of freshly accumulated parent material. Primitive microbes feed on simple compounds (nutrients) released by weathering, and produce acids which contribute to weathering. They also leave behind organic residues. New soils increase in depth by a combination of weathering, and further deposition. Gradually soil is able to"
"Utricularia Utricularia, commonly and collectively called the bladderworts, is a genus of carnivorous plants consisting of approximately 233 species (precise counts differ based on classification opinions; a 2001 publication lists 215 species). They occur in fresh water and wet soil as terrestrial or aquatic species across every continent except Antarctica. ""Utricularia"" are cultivated for their flowers, which are often compared with those of snapdragons and orchids, especially amongst carnivorous plant enthusiasts. All ""Utricularia"" are carnivorous and capture small organisms by means of bladder-like traps. Terrestrial species tend to have tiny traps that feed on minute prey such as protozoa and"
"Pityrodia Pityrodia is a genus of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae and is endemic to Australia, most species occurring in Western Australia, a few in the Northern Territory and one in Queensland. Plants in this genus are shrubs with five petals joined to form a tube-shaped flower with four stamens of unequal lengths. Plants in the genus ""Pityrodia"" are evergreen shrubs with erect, usually cylindrical branches. The leaves are simple, net-veined and their bases partly wrap around the stem (decurrent). The flowers may occur singly or in groups and exhibit left-right symmetry. There are 5 sepals which are"
"Viridiplantae Viridiplantae (literally ""green plants"") are a clade of eukaryotic organisms made up of the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged within them. Green algae traditionally excludes the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. They have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. More than 350,000 species of Viridiplantae exist. In some classification systems, the group"
"Pterostylis pedoglossa Pterostylis pedoglossa, commonly known as the prawn greenhood, is a species of orchid endemic to south-eastern Australia. There is a rosette of leaves at the base and flowering plants have a single white flower with green stripes, sometimes with a brownish tinge on the tip, and a long, thread-like labellum. ""Pterostylis pedoglossa"" is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber and a rosette of egg-shaped, greyish-green leaves, each leaf 5–25 mm long and 4–20 mm wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 15–20 mm long and 5–6 mm wide borne on a spike 60–150 mm high."
"not only morphological data, but also extensive genetic data. The cladogram at left is based on their data. Line length in this diagram is not meaningful. ""Cheilanthes"", ""Pellaea"", ""Doryopteris"", ""Jamesonia"", ""Anogramma"", and ""Pteris"" have all been shown to be seriously paraphyletic genera. ""Jamesonia"" and ""Eriosorus"" were found to be a highly paraphyletic mixture, although in their own clade. More surprisingly, they found that the vittarioid ferns nest within the genus ""Adiantum"". And they have established that ""Acrostichum"" and ""Ceratopteris"" are allied within their own isolated clade. Deriving from the results of this important study, it is clear that the Pteridales"
"Chloridoideae Chloridoideae is one of the largest subfamilies of grasses, with roughly 130 genera and 1,600 species, mainly found in arid tropical or subtropical grasslands. Within the PACMAD clade, their sister group are the Danthonioideae. The subfamily includes widespread weeds such as Bermuda grass (""Cynodon dactylon"") or goosegrass (""Eleusine indica""), but also millet species grown in some tropical regions, namely finger millet (""Eleusine coracana"") and teff (""Eragrostis tef""). With the exception of some species in ""Ellisochloa"" and Eleusine indica, most of the subfamily's species use the C photosynthetic pathway. The first evolutionary transition from C to C photosynthesis in the"
"to include ""Medusandra"" and ""Soyauxia"". John Brenan, 57 years before, had been prescient in his perception of a relationship between ""Medusandra"" and ""Soyauxia"". The phylogeny is diagrammed as a phylogenetic tree below. The relationships shown are from Wurdack and Davis (2009) except for the position of ""Whittonia"", for which no DNA sequences are known. ""Peridiscus"" and ""Whittonia"" are undoubtedly sister taxa due to their many shared morphological characters. Peridiscaceae Peridiscaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Saxifragales. Four genera comprise this family: ""Medusandra, Soyauxia, Peridiscus"", and ""Whittonia""., with a total of 12 known species. It has a"
"grouping in an informal sense to refer to the seed plants that are not angiosperms, coniferoids (conifers or cordaites), ginkgophytes or cycadophytes (cycads or bennettites). This is particularly useful for extinct seed plant groups whose systematic relationships remain speculative, as they can be classified as pteridosperms with no valid implications being made as to their systematic affinities. Also, from a purely curatorial perspective the term pteridosperms is a useful shorthand for describing the fern-like fronds that were probably produced by seed plants, which are commonly found in many Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossil floras. An alternative phylogeny of spermatophytes based on"