"and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes ""pseudo"" (false, spurious) and ""anti"" (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. A word like ""anti-aircraft"" (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to ""anti-anti-aircraft"" (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from there be prefixed with an endless stream of ""anti-""s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. More familiarly, the addition of numerous ""great""s to a relative, e.g. great-great-great-grandfather, can produce words of arbitrary length."
"years. In his 2008 book ""Copyright's Paradox"", discussing the conflict between protecting copyright and protecting free speech, Neil Netanel says, ""Yeats [borrowed] from Shelley; Kafka from Kleist and Dickens; Joyce from Homer; and T.S. Eliot from Shakespeare, Whitman and Baudelaire, all in ways that would infringe today's bloated copyright."" Paraphrase may apply to music as well as to writing. It was commonplace for Baroque, Classical and Romantic composers to create variations on each other's work without permission. This would not be allowed today. Copyright protection in Britain dates back to the 1556 Charter of the Worshipful Company of Stationers and"
"cannot be copyrighted. “There is no literary merit in a mere system of condensing written words into less than the number of letters usually used to spell them out. Copyrightable material is found, if at all, in the explanation of how to do it.” Speedwriting Speedwriting is the trademark under which three versions of a shorthand system were marketed during the 20th century. The original version was designed so that it could be written with a pen or typed on a typewriter. At the peak of its popularity, Speedwriting was taught in more than 400 vocational schools and its advertisements"
"Perpetual copyright Perpetual copyright can refer to a copyright without a finite term, or to a copyright whose finite term is perpetually extended. Perpetual copyright in the former sense is highly uncommon, as the current laws of all countries with copyright statutes set a standard limit on the duration, based either on the date of creation/publication, or on the date of the creator's death. (See List of countries' copyright lengths.) Exceptions have sometimes been made, however, for unpublished works. Usually, special legislation is required, granting a perpetual copyright to a specific work. In many countries, moral rights, which may be"
"death. This legislation does not apply to other works which feature Peter Pan such as ""The Little White Bird"" or ""Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens"", which are also in the public domain. In the United States, perpetual copyright is prohibited by its Constitution, which provides that copyright is ""for limited times"". However, it neither specifies how long that term can be, nor does it impose any restriction on the number of times the term may be extended. Indeed, since the enactment of the Copyright Act of 1790, copyright term has been successively extended by Congress on four occasions, retroactively extending"
"(effective as of the Copyright Act of 1831) to 28 years, for a maximum of 56 years (in place of the former 42 years). Before the 1909 Act, the last major revision to United States copyright law was the 1790 Act. Methods of reproducing and duplicating works subject to copyright had significantly increased since the 1790 Act. President Theodore Roosevelt expressed the need for a complete revision of copyright law as opposed to amendments, saying in a message to Congress in December 1905, ""Our copyright laws urgently need revision. They are imperfect in definition, confused and inconsistent in expression; they"
"law for the first time made explicit that no formalities were required for a work to be copyrighted. Anonymous or pseudonymous works were copyrighted for 50 years since their initial publication, unless the real identity of the author became known during that time and thus 50 years ""p.m.a."" applied. The moral rights to authorship, name, and integrity of the work were perpetual; and authors could only transfer usage rights on a work (but not their right to remuneration for such uses, which always remained a personal right of the author). The list of free uses was reduced considerably, and the"
"remain unpublished. Pursuant to Section 197 of the Copyright Act, unpublished governmental literary, dramatic and musical works are under perpetual copyright, but once published, they are copyrighted for 70 years following publication. Perpetual copyright Perpetual copyright can refer to a copyright without a finite term, or to a copyright whose finite term is perpetually extended. Perpetual copyright in the former sense is highly uncommon, as the current laws of all countries with copyright statutes set a standard limit on the duration, based either on the date of creation/publication, or on the date of the creator's death. (See List of countries'"
"arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word ""right"" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in ""Eldred v. Ashcroft"" (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may"
"work. The Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 removed the renewal requirement, so that all copyrights would last the same term. Now, creators must explicitly remove copyright if they do not desire it. Working from the case law of ""Eldred v. Ashcroft"", which unsuccessfully challenged the extension of copyright, Lawrence Lessig argued that a change in copyright law as drastic as the change from opt-in to opt-out required a review in regard to freedom of speech. The plaintiffs argued that the limitations placed on speech and expression by copyright were drastically expanded and possibly too limiting. The Ninth Circuit Court of"
"rights, however, are inalienable and stay with the artist their entire lives. As with copyrights, moral rights are inheritable. Section 12 of the ""Copyright Act"" reserves copyright for all works that are ""prepared or published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or any government department."" Normally, such copyright lasts for a period of 50 years following the end of the calendar year when the work was performed or created. However, Crown copyright applies ""without prejudice to any rights or privileges of the Crown"". In this way it is ""said to be perpetual...and not to lapse through"
"copyrights and patents are prohibited—the language specifies ""limited times""—the Supreme Court has ruled in ""Eldred v. Ashcroft"" (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute a perpetual copyright. In that case, the United States Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, also known pejoratively as the ""Mickey Mouse Protection Act."" Petitioners in that case argued that successive retroactive extensions of copyright were functionally unlimited and hence violated the ""limited times"" language of the clause. Justice Ginsburg, writing for the Court, rejected this argument, reasoning that the terms provided by the"
"extension, he is not arguing against copyright. This point is well made by Macaulay himself: Liebowitz describes use of the term monopoly in relation to copyright as misleading, but ""rhetorically effective"". While Towse writes that a more appropriate term is 'monopolistic competition'. In 2009, a paper by Rufus Pollock of University of Cambridge scientifically quantified the optimal copyright term length at 15 years, significantly shorter than any currently existing copyright term, via an economical model with empirically-estimable parameters. In 2013 scholar Petra Moser concluded in a paper on the impact of the copyright extension on the British Copyright Act of"
"sequence. Copyright symbol The copyright symbol, or copyright sign, © (a circled capital letter ""C"" for copyright), is the symbol used in copyright notices for works other than sound recordings (which are indicated with the ℗ symbol). The use of the symbol is described in United States copyright law, and, internationally, by the Universal Copyright Convention. The symbol is widely recognized, but under the Berne Convention is no longer required to obtain a new copyright in most nations. For instance, the United States eliminated the copyright symbol requirement as of March 1, 1989, but its presence or absence is legally"
"Copyright term Copyright term is the length of time copyright subsists in a work before it passes into the public domain. Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition or novel), whether the work has been published or not, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for"
"definition of pictorial, graphic or sculptural works."" According to section 906.4 of the ""Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices"", typography and calligraphy are also not copyrightable in themselves. Typefaces may be protected by a design patent in many countries (either automatically, by registration, or by some combination thereof). A design patent is the strongest system of protection, but the most uncommon. It is the only US legal precedent that protects the actual design (the design of the individual shapes of the letters) of the font. A prominent example is the European Union, where the automatic protection (without registration) expires after"
"without authorization. After a dispute about the topic, the first copyright law was enacted in 1913. It was the 9.141 law. A new and more detailed copyright law would be enacted in 1933, the 11.723 law, which is still in force. For most works, copyright lasts for the lifetime of the author, plus 70 years after the January 1 following his or her death (Art. 5). (Pseudo-)Anonymous works belonging to institutions, corporations, or legal entities are protected for 50 years after publication (Art. 8). Photographs are protected for 20 years after creation ""and"" 25 years after publication, and cinematographic works"
"criterion for copyrightability. An ""objective form"" is any realization of a work such that it can be perceived by others in any way. Mere ideas are not copyrightable. Copyright is vested in an author automatically upon the creation of a work (§9(1)). Both disclosed and undisclosed works are covered by copyright. ""Disclosure"" is a concept newly introduced in the copyright law of 1993 to put an end to the ambiguities surrounding the term ""publication"" in the old Soviet copyright law. In Soviet copyright, publication included ephemerally making available a work, such as through a performance, a speech, or a broadcast."
"that was influential in the United States's copyright history. That statute, from which the United States borrowed for the Copyright Act of 1790, provided for a maximum of two fourteen year terms of the author controlling a work's copyright monopoly before it entered the public domain. Under that British scheme, an author could sign away their copyright during the first term and it would automatically return to them at the beginning of the second term. Paige v. Banks Paige v. Banks, 80 U.S. 608 (1872), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held an agreement that"
"copyright law. As originally proposed in the draft of the bill, copyright protection required putting the word ""copyright"" or a sanctioned abbreviation on the work of art itself. This included paintings, the argument being that the frame was detachable. In conference sessions among copyright stakeholders on the proposed bill, conducted in 1905 and 1906, representatives of artist organizations objected to this requirement, wishing to put no more on the work itself than the artist's name. As a compromise, the possibility was created to add a relatively unintrusive mark, the capital letter C within a circle, to appear on the work"
"three years and can be extended (by registration) up to 25 years. In 1981, Germany passed a special extension (""Schriftzeichengesetz"") to the design patent law (""Geschmacksmustergesetz"") for protecting typeface designs. This also permits typefaces to be registered as designs. The names of particular fonts may be protected by a trademark. This is the weakest form of protection because only the font name itself is being protected. For example, the letters that make up the trademarked font Palatino can be copied but the name must be changed. URW++ was involved in a 1995 lawsuit with Monotype Corporation for cloning their fonts"
"Congress. The first criminal provision in U.S. copyright law was added in 1897, which established a misdemeanor penalty for “unlawful performances and representations of copyrighted dramatic and musical compositions” if the violation had been “willful and for profit.” The length of protection has been increasing since the Copyright Act of 1909, which extended the term of copyright to 28 years with an optional 28-year extension. At present, copyright protection lasts for the author’s life plus 70 years or, in the case of anonymous works and works-for-hire, for 95 years from the date of publication or 120 from the year of"
"forfeited. In most countries the term of protection of copyright lasts until January first, 70 years after the death of the latest living author. The longest copyright term is in Mexico, which has life plus 100 years for all deaths since July 1928. A notable exception is the United States, where every book and tale written prior to 1923 is in the public domain; American copyrights last for 95 years for books written between 1923 and 1978. For example: the works of Jane Austen, Lewis Carroll, and Edgar Allan Poe are in the public domain worldwide as they all died"
"Donaldson v Beckett Donaldson v Becket (1774) 2 Brown's Parl. Cases (2d ed.) 129, 1 Eng. Rep. 837; 4 Burr. 2408, 98 Eng. Rep. 257; 17 Cobbett's Parl. Hist. 953 is the ruling by the United Kingdom House of Lords that held that copyright in published works was not perpetual and was instead subject to statutory limits. Some scholars disagree on the reasoning behind the decision. The spelling of the chief respondent in the case, Thomas Becket, sometimes appears as Beckett. For those looking to choose one spelling over the other, it would be more correct to use Becket. First,"
"twenty-eight years to forty-seven years, giving a total term of seventy-five years. The Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 amended the 1976 Copyright Act, and affected works copyrighted between January 1, 1964 and December 31, 1977. Renewal registration for these works was made optional, and a second term was automatically secured. In 1998 the Copyright Term Extension Act further extended copyright protection to the duration of the author's life plus seventy years for general copyrights and to ninety-five years from date of publication or 120 years from date of creation, whichever comes first, for works made for hire. The 1909 Copyright"
"the public ""right to know."" In 1992 the Copyright Act was amended as a result of the ""Salinger"" case to include a sentence at the end of §107 saying that the fact that a work is unpublished ""shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration"" of all four fair-use factors. A paraphrase is a restatement of the meaning of a text or passage using other words. Equivalent concepts apply to images or music. In most countries, copyright applies to the original expression in a work rather than to the meanings or ideas"
"one years, with no right of renewal. Prior to the passage of the United States Constitution, several states passed their own copyright laws between 1783 and 1787, the first being Connecticut. Contemporary scholars and patriots such as Noah Webster, John Trumbull (poet), and Joel Barlow were instrumental in securing the passage of these statutes. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787 both James Madison of Virginia and Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina submitted proposals that would allow Congress the power to grant copyright for a limited time. These proposals are the origin of the Copyright Clause in the United States"
"Act frequently misunderstand this point. Congress first revised the copyright laws with the Copyright Act of 1831. This act extended the original copyright term from 14 years to 28 years (with an option to renew), and changed the copyright formality requirements. In 1834 the Supreme Court ruled in ""Wheaton v. Peters"" (a case similar to the British Donaldson v Beckett of 1774) that although the author of an unpublished work had a common law right to control the first publication of that work, the author did not have a common law right to control reproduction following the first publication of"
"standard term would be unlimited, which is unconstitutional. Works published prior to 1978 have no differentiation in copyright term between works made for hire and works with recognized individual creators. In the European Union, even if a Member State provides for the possibility of a legal person to be the original rightholder (such as is possible in the UK), then the duration of protection is in general the same as the copyright term for a personal copyright: i.e., for a literary or artistic work, 70 years from the death of the human author, or in the case of works of"
"copyright protection. U.S. law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be ""perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration."" Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be ""expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance."" Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation ""Copr."", or the word ""Copyright"", followed by the year of the first publication of the"
"a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some ""skill, labour, and judgment"" that has gone into it. In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead. Copyright"
"introduce such regulation without associated compensation for copyright owners. Copyright law of the United Kingdom Under the law of United Kingdom, a copyright is an intangible property right subsisting in certain qualifying subject-matter. Copyright law is governed by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (the 1988 Act), as amended from time to time. As a result of increasing legal integration and harmonisation throughout the European Union a complete picture of the law can only be acquired through recourse to EU jurisprudence, although this is likely to change if the UK leaves the European Union. Controversial new copyright rules which"
"without debate, and this language was incorporated into the Constitution. The clause actually confers two distinct powers: the power to secure for limited times to authors the exclusive right to their writings is the basis for U.S. copyright law, and the power to secure for limited times to inventors the exclusive rights to their discoveries is the basis for U.S. patent law. Because the clause contains no language under which Congress may protect trademarks, those are instead protected under the Commerce Clause. Some terms in the clause are used in archaic meanings, potentially confusing modern readers. For example, ""useful Arts"""