"for the Nobel Prize in Physics require that the significance of achievements being recognized has been ""tested by time"". In practice, it means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be much longer. For example, half of the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar for his work on stellar structure and evolution that was done during the 1930s. As a downside of this approach, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for"
"techniques, which the Russians claimed to have carried out more than a decade before. The 1983 prize went to William Alfred Fowler ""for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"". Fowler acknowledged Fred Hoyle as the pioneer of the concept of stellar nucleosynthesis but that was not enough for Hoyle to receive a share. Hoyle's obituary in ""Physics Today"" notes that ""Many of us felt that Hoyle should have shared Fowler's 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics, but the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences later made partial"
"in seminal works by Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle, and by Cameron. Fowler is largely credited with initiating collaboration between astronomers, astrophysicists, and experimental nuclear physicists that we now know as nuclear astrophysics (for which he won the 1983 Nobel Prize). The basic tenets of nuclear astrophysics are that only isotopes of hydrogen and helium (and traces of lithium, beryllium, and boron) can be formed in a homogeneous big bang model (see big bang nucleosynthesis), while all other elements are formed in stars. Conversion of nuclear mass to radiative energy (per Einstein's famous mass-energy relation) is what allows stars to"
"to the slow capture of free neutrons (the s process) by more abundant lighter elements in stars. Clayton and his wife Mary Lou played a small role in producing the celebrated Feynman Lectures on Physics by converting the taped audio of Richard Feynman's lectures to prose. Caltech afforded Clayton the chance to meet and later become a lifelong friend of Fred Hoyle, British cosmologist and creator of the theory of nucleosynthesis in stars. Hoyle exerted strong lifetime influence on Clayton. Clayton's published collaborations with Fowler (1983 Nobel Laureate in Physics) as Fowler's research student (1957–60) and subsequently as Fowler's post-doctoral"
"misunderstood and by British libel laws, Hoyle carefully composed a letter of explanation to ""The Times"". The second controversy came when the 1983 prize went in part to William Alfred Fowler ""for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe."" The controversy arose because Hoyle had been the inventor of the theory of nucleosynthesis in the stars with two research papers published shortly after WWII. So some suspicion arose that Hoyle was denied the third share of this prize because of his earlier public disagreement with the"
"William Alfred Fowler William Alfred ""Willy"" Fowler (August 9, 1911 – March 14, 1995) was an American nuclear physicist, later astrophysicist, who, with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Fowler moved with his family to Lima, Ohio, a steam railroad town, at the age of two. He graduated from the Ohio State University, where he was a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and received a Ph.D. in nuclear physics at the California Institute of Technology. Although an experimental nuclear physicist, Fowler's most famous paper was ""Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"","
"His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as was his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded"
"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar FRS (; ; 19 October 1910 – 21 August 1995) was an Indian American astrophysicist who spent his professional life in the United States. He was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize for Physics with William A. Fowler for ""...theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars"". His mathematical treatment of stellar evolution yielded many of the best current theoretical models of the later evolutionary stages of massive stars and black holes. The Chandrasekhar limit is named after him. Chandrasekhar worked on a wide variety of physical problems in"
"Nobel Prize Winner in Physics and Shing-Tung Yau, Fields Medal Winner. Kwok's research is mainly on the interstellar chemistry and stellar evolution. He is widely recognized for his theory on the origin of planetary nebulae, which has transformed our understanding of the death of Sun-like stars. His more recent accomplishments include the discovery of proto-planetary nebulae, the missing link in our understanding of the late stages of stellar evolution, and the discovery of the unidentified emission feature at 21 micrometres which is believed to be an unusual carbonaceous compound . Using space-based infrared telescopes, he has found that organic compounds"
"who later refined it in 1954. Further advances were made, especially to nucleosynthesis by neutron capture of the elements heavier than iron, by Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Alfred Fowler and Hoyle in their famous 1957 BFH paper, which became one of the most heavily cited papers in astrophysics history. Stars evolve because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by burning hydrogen (main sequence star), then helium (red giant star), and progressively burning higher elements. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as"
"Kip Thorne Kip Stephen Thorne (born June 1, 1940) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate, known for his contributions in gravitational physics and astrophysics. A longtime friend and colleague of Stephen Hawking and Carl Sagan, he was the Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) until 2009 and is one of the world's leading experts on the astrophysical implications of Einstein's general theory of relativity. He continues to do scientific research and scientific consulting, most notably for the Christopher Nolan film ""Interstellar"". In 2017, Thorne was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics along"
"working models of various sizes, one pictured here. He died in Pasadena, California. William Alfred Fowler William Alfred ""Willy"" Fowler (August 9, 1911 – March 14, 1995) was an American nuclear physicist, later astrophysicist, who, with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Fowler moved with his family to Lima, Ohio, a steam railroad town, at the age of two. He graduated from the Ohio State University, where he was a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and received a Ph.D. in nuclear physics at the California Institute of Technology. Although an experimental"
"Steven Weinberg Steven Weinberg (; born May 3, 1933) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow to the unification of the weak force and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles. He holds the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the University of Texas at Austin, where he is a member of the Physics and Astronomy Departments. His research on elementary particles and physical cosmology has been honored with numerous prizes and awards, including in 1979 the Nobel Prize in Physics and in 1991 the National Medal of Science. In"
"in the name of Peter Higgs. On 8 October 2013, it was announced that Peter Higgs and François Englert would share the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics ""for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles"", and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider"". Higgs admits he had gone out to avoid the media attention so he was informed he had been awarded the prize by an ex-neighbour on his way home, since"
"Arno Allan Penzias Arno Allan Penzias (; born 26 April 1933) is an American physicist, radio astronomer and Nobel laureate in physics who is co-discoverer of the cosmic microwave background radiation along with Robert Woodrow Wilson, which helped establish the Big Bang theory of cosmology. Penzias was born in Munich, Germany, the son of Justine (née Eisenreich) and Karl Penzias, who ran a leather business. His grandparents had come to Munich from Poland and were among the leaders of the Reichenbach Strasse Shul. At age six, he and his brother Gunther were among the Jewish children evacuated to Britain as"
"Kai Siegbahn Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn (20 April 1918 – 20 July 2007) was a Swedish physicist. Siegbahn was born in Lund, Sweden, son of Manne Siegbahn the 1924 physics Nobel Prize winner. Siegbahn earned his doctorate at the University of Stockholm in 1944. He was professor at the Royal Institute of Technology 1951–1954, and then professor of experimental physics at Uppsala University 1954–1984, which was the same chair his father had held. He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Schawlow for their work in laser spectroscopy. Siegbahn obtained the Nobel Prize for developing"
"Jochen Heisenberg Jochen Heisenberg (born 16 May 1939) is a German physicist specializing in nuclear physics, and Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of New Hampshire. He is the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Werner Heisenberg, who is best known for the uncertainty principle. He is the brother of German neurobiologist and geneticist Martin Heisenberg and the uncle of film director Benjamin Heisenberg. Heisenberg studied physics with Willibald Jentschke at the University of Hamburg and received his PhD in 1968. He then spent a two-year postdoctoral fellowship at Stanford University. From 1970-1978 he was a member of the faculty"
"with Edwin Gerhard Krebs won the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine in 1992. Horst Meyer (physicist), the son of Meyer's second son Arthur, was adopted by Kurt after Arthur's death. He grew up in Geneva, where he studied Physics at the University and in 1959 joined the Physics faculty of Duke University, in Durham, NC, where he became Emeritus professor in 2005. Meyer is best remembered for three discoveries. With Schmiedeberg, he discovered glucuronic acid as the most important reaction partner of drugs (in his case, a metabolite of camphor). He also discovered a relationship between the lipophilicity of"
"British astronomer Fred Hoyle, he and his wife were co-authors of ""Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"", a fundamental paper on stellar nucleosynthesis published in 1957. It is commonly referred to as the BFH paper after the initials of the surnames of the four authors. This paper describes the process of stars burning lighter elements into successively heavier atoms which then are expelled to form other structures in the universe, including other stars and planets. In recent years Burbidge was known mostly for his alternative cosmology ""quasi-steady state theory"", which contradicts the Big Bang theory. According to Burbidge, the universe"
"a student at an Australian university. Lawrence Bragg Sir William Lawrence Bragg, (31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian-born British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, discoverer (1912) of Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination of crystal structure. He was joint winner (with his father, William Henry Bragg) of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915: """"For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-ray"""", an important step in the development of X-ray crystallography. Bragg was knighted in 1941. As of 2018, he is the youngest ever Nobel laureate in"
"Canada. Among them, Kroto and Herzberg have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, furthermore, the Nobel laureate Robert Curl was also Oka's colleague. From 1960 to 1963, Oka appointed a fellow at JSPS, the University of Tokyo. Afterward, he was successively worked at Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics (1963-1981), and the University of Chicago (1981-). In 1980, Oka discovered the infrared spectrum of , and revealed that ""molecular clouds"" are the birthplace of stars and that the chemical evolution of the clouds is a crucial step in star formation. Currently, Oka group's studies specializing in the field of the quantum mechanics"
"Aage Bohr Aage Niels Bohr (; 19 June 1922 – 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater ""for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"". Starting from Rainwater's concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments. Since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the"
"Nicolaas Bloembergen Nicolaas ""Nico"" Bloembergen (March 11, 1920 – September 5, 2017) was a Dutch-American physicist and Nobel laureate, recognized for his work in developing driving principles behind nonlinear optics for laser spectroscopy. During his career, he was a professor at both Harvard University and later at the University of Arizona. Bloembergen shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Arthur Schawlow, along with Kai Siegbahn for his laser spectroscopy work. Bloembergen was born in Dordrecht on March 11, 1920, where his father was a chemical engineer and executive. He had five siblings, with his brother Auke later becoming a"
"remained active there until his death in 1970, in Bangalore, at the age of 82. He was married on 6 May 1907 to Lokasundari Ammal (1892–1980). They had two sons, Chandrasekhar and radio-astronomer Radhakrishnan. Raman was the paternal uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who later won the Nobel Prize in Physics (1983) for his discovery of the Chandrasekhar limit in 1931 and for his subsequent work on the nuclear reactions necessary for stellar evolution. Throughout his life, Raman developed an extensive personal collection of stones, minerals, and materials with interesting light-scattering properties, which he obtained from his world travels and as"
"indirect and later direct measurements of high-energy, massive, particles provided an additional window into the cosmos. Late in the 20th century, the detection of solar neutrinos founded the field of neutrino astronomy, giving an insight into previously inaccessible phenomena, such as the inner workings of the Sun. The observation of gravitational waves provides a further means of making astrophysical observations. Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics for showing that the orbital decay of a pair of neutron stars, one of them a pulsar, fits general relativity's predictions of gravitational radiation. Subsequently, many other"
"group SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1). The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. Electroweak theory was later confirmed experimentally (by observation of neutral weak currents), and distinguished by the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics. Since the 1970s, fundamental particle physics has provided insights into early universe cosmology, particularly the Big Bang theory proposed as a consequence of Einstein's general theory of relativity. However, starting in the 1990s, astronomical observations have also provided new challenges, such as the need for new explanations of galactic stability (""dark"
"Lawrence Bragg Sir William Lawrence Bragg, (31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian-born British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, discoverer (1912) of Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination of crystal structure. He was joint winner (with his father, William Henry Bragg) of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915: """"For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-ray"""", an important step in the development of X-ray crystallography. Bragg was knighted in 1941. As of 2018, he is the youngest ever Nobel laureate in physics, having received the award at"
"2013. He married a biochemist, Phyllis Liu-Osheroff, in 1970. Douglas Osheroff Douglas Dean Osheroff (born August 1, 1945) is a physicist known for his work in experimental condensed matter physics, in particular for his co-discovery of superfluidity in Helium-3. For his contributions he shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics along with David Lee and Robert C. Richardson. Osheroff is currently the J. G. Jackson and C. J. Wood Professor of Physics, Emeritus at Stanford University. Osheroff was born in Aberdeen, Washington. His father, William Osheroff, was the son of Jewish immigrants who left Russia. His mother, Bessie Anne (Ondov),"
"the Nobel Prize in physics in 1915 for their work in determining crystal structures beginning with NaCl, ZnS, and diamond. They are the only father-son team to jointly win. Lawrence Bragg was 25 years old, making him the youngest physics Nobel laureate. Bragg diffraction occurs when radiation, with a wavelength comparable to atomic spacings, is scattered in a specular fashion by the atoms of a crystalline system, and undergoes constructive interference. For a crystalline solid, the waves are scattered from lattice planes separated by the interplanar distance ""d"". When the scattered waves interfere constructively, they remain in phase since the"
"in New York City, the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter and Nancy Givan Hofstadter. He grew up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor, and he attended the International School of Geneva in 1958–1959. He graduated with Distinction in Mathematics from Stanford University in 1965, and received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Oregon in 1975, where his study of the energy levels of Bloch electrons in a magnetic field led to his discovery of the fractal known as the Hofstadter butterfly. Since 1988, Hofstadter has been the College of Arts"
"comment on Michael Frayn's well-known play ""Copenhagen"" and has published his perspectives on his father's activities. He currently maintains an informational website containing biographical information and reference material on Werner Heisenberg. Jochen Heisenberg Jochen Heisenberg (born 16 May 1939) is a German physicist specializing in nuclear physics, and Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of New Hampshire. He is the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Werner Heisenberg, who is best known for the uncertainty principle. He is the brother of German neurobiologist and geneticist Martin Heisenberg and the uncle of film director Benjamin Heisenberg. Heisenberg studied physics with Willibald"
"Vetlesen Prize in 1973, the Eddington Medal in 1978, the Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1979, and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe (shared with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar). Fowler was the doctoral advisor at Caltech for Donald D. Clayton, who became the leader of the next generation of nuclear astrophysics and who in 2000 was elected Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences. A lifelong fan of steam locomotives, Fowler owned several"
"than electrons. Two years later, Carl David Anderson discovered the positron, for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics. In the late 1930s, Oppenheimer became interested in astrophysics, most likely through his friendship with Richard Tolman, resulting in a series of papers. In the first of these, a 1938 paper co-written with Robert Serber entitled ""On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores"", Oppenheimer explored the properties of white dwarfs. This was followed by a paper co-written with one of his students, George Volkoff, ""On Massive Neutron Cores"", in which they demonstrated that there was a limit, the so-called"