"record-breaking temperatures March 2016 that bleached reefs, modeling analysis showed. Winds in the Coral Sea can be classified by season, longitude and latitude. Southeasterly trade winds dominate through all sea areas and all seasons, especially between 20°S and 25°S, west of the meridian of 155°E. However, between September and December they change to northerly and northwesterly winds in this region, and the direction is mostly southwestern in May–August. West of 155°E, gales are common between January and August and are less frequent in September–December. In January, the northwest monsoon may occur between the parallels of 15°S and 20°S, west of"
"and a supply of carbon dioxide for the zooxanthellae. Under conditions of stress, usually high water temperature or excessive solar radiation, the coral expels some or all of these symbionts, a condition known as coral bleaching. In Thailand in 1995, in a reef flat dominated by ""C. aspera"", there was a mass bleaching event caused by high water temperatures. Researchers found that the east side of each coral was bleached while the west side was unaffected. They hypothesized that the corals ""remembered"" a previous bleaching event caused by solar radiation and had built in some defences on the affected side."
"then be too low. Warming seawater may also encourage an emerging problem: coral disease. Weakened by warm water, coral is much more prone to diseases including black band disease, white band disease and skeletal eroding band. If global temperatures increase by 2 °C during the twenty-first century, coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough. Warming seawater is also expected to cause migrations in fish populations to compensate for the change. This puts coral reefs and their associated species at risk of invasion and may cause their extinction if they are unable to compete with the invading populations. A"
"many reefs. Bleaching may be caused by different triggers, including High sea surface temperature (SST), pollution, or other diseases. SST coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of zooxanthellae, a symbiotic single cell algae that gives the coral its color and the coral's dinoflagellate pigmentation, which turns the coral white when it is expelled, which can kill the coral. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their hosts' energy supply. Healthy reefs can often recover from bleaching if water temperatures cool. However, recovery may not be possible if levels rise to 500 ppm because concentrations of carbonate ions may"
"marine biologist Andrew Baker from the Wildlife Conservation Society study bleaching and why it occurs. Their explanations can be put in their simplest terms as such: the algae's membrane melts from the rise in temperature and, as a result, spits out an ""oxygen species"" directly into the reef. The animal, in turn, views this process as a threat and ejects the algae as a defense mechanism. Once the zooxanthellae are expelled the coral have nothing to feed off and die. Bleaching has been shown to cause up to 90% mortality rate of the affected corals. However, there is a catch."
"the corals' tissues. Symbiodinium trenchi Symbiodinium trenchi is an endosymbiotic dinoflagellate, a unicellular alga which commonly resides in the tissues of tropical corals. It has a greater tolerance to fluctuations in water temperatures than do other species in the genus. It was named for the marine biologist R. K. Trench. Many shallow water corals rely on photosynthetic symbiont protists, commonly known as zooxanthellae, to provide them with a large proportion of their nutrient requirements. If sea water temperatures rise, conditions may becomes stressful for the corals, and they may expel their zooxanthallae. This process is known as coral bleaching as,"
"polyps. This algae is called zooxanthellae. It is vital to the reef's life because it provides the coral with nutrients; it is also responsible for the color. The process is called bleaching because when the algae is ejected from the coral reef the animal loses its pigment. Zooxanthellae densities are continually changing; bleaching is really an extreme of what naturally happens. The detrimental exaggeration of the natural occurrence can be explained by the increasing temperature of the oceans which is accused to be a result of the ""Greenhouse Effect,"" or global warming (Blackman and Hughes). Biological oceanographer Paul Falkowski and"
"late 2005, the water was, for three or four months, about 2 °C (4 °F) above the normal temperature for the time of year. This was stressful for corals and researchers found that ""S. trenchi"", a symbiont not normally present in the area, took up residence in many corals in which it had not previously been observed. As a result, the corals did not bleach, but whether this is to the ultimate benefit of the corals remains to be seen. In subsequent years, ""S. trenchi"" has become less common in the Caribbean, and the normal symbionts have replaced it in"
"along with other coral species. ""Acropora"" is especially susceptible to bleaching when stressed. Bleaching is due to the loss of the coral's zooxanthellae, which are a golden-brown color. Bleached corals are stark white and may die if new ""Symbiodinium"" cells cannot be assimilated. Common causes of bleaching and coral death include pollution, abnormally warm water temperatures, increased ocean acidification, sedimentation, and eutrophication. In 2014 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has listed 10 ""Acropora"" species as Threatened. The species are distributed in the Indo-Pacific (8 species) and Caribbean (2 species). Most ""Acropora"" species are brown or green, but a few"
"The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching ""hot spots"", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The ""hot spots"" are the location in which thermal stress is measured and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing the rise of sea temperatures. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening"
"live inside its soft tissues. These photosynthetic organisms provide the coral with organic carbon and nitrogen, sometimes providing up to 90% of their host's energy needs for metabolism and growth. Its remaining needs are met by the planktonic organisms caught by the tentacles of the polyps. Like other reef corals, ""Montipora aequituberculata"" is threatened by habitat destruction. Rising sea temperatures can cause ""bleaching"" because the symbiotic zooxanthellae are expelled from the coral's tissues, leaving the coral colorless. The bleaching event results in very high coral mortality soon after. Stressed corals are more susceptible to disease. Other threats are posed by"
"in winter and up to 34 °C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9% infected by ""Thalassomonas loyana"", the 'white plague' agent. ""Favia favus"" coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills ""T. loyana"". Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere. The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because"
"pike, perch, sea bass, carp and cod. The symptoms include anaemia, bleeding, lethargy and a mortality rate that is affected by the temperature of the water. In hatcheries the diseases are often controlled by increasing the temperature to 15–18 °C. Like all vertebrates, fish suffer from herpes viruses. These ancient viruses have co-evolved with their hosts and are highly species-specific. In fish, they cause cancerous tumours and non-cancerous growths called hyperplasia. Invertebrates do not produce antibodies by the lymphocyte-based adaptive immune system that is central to vertebrate immunity, but they are capable of effective immune responses. Phagocytosis was first observed"
"than at any time over this period. There are concerns that increasing acidification could have a particularly detrimental effect on [[coral]]s (16% of the world's coral reefs have died from bleaching caused by warm water in 1998, which coincidentally was, at the time, the warmest year ever recorded) and other marine organisms with [[calcium carbonate]] shells. In November 2009 an article in ""[[Science (journal)|Science]]"" by scientists at [[Canada]]'s [[Department of Fisheries and Oceans]] reported they had found very low levels of the building blocks for the calcium chloride that forms [[plankton]] shells in the [[Beaufort Sea]]. [[Fiona McLaughlin]], one of"
"an increase in coral growth rates by 7%. Ocean acidification can also lead to increased sea surface temperature. An increase of about 1 or 2 °C can cause the collapse of the relationship between coral and zooxanthellae, possibly leading to bleaching. Average sea surface temperature in the Great Barrier Reef is predicted to increase between 1 and 3 °C by 2100. This breakdown of the relationship between the coral and the zooxanthellae occurs when Photosystem II is damaged, either due to a reaction with the D1 protein or a lack of carbon dioxide fixation; these result in a lack of"
"and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas (MPAs). Many corals rely on a symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae for nutrient uptake through photosynthesis. Corals obtain about 60-85% of their total nutrition from symbiotic zooxanthellae. Slight increases in sea surface temperature can cause zooxanthellae to die. Coral hosts become bleached when they lose their zooxanthellae. Difference in symbionts, determined by genetic groupings (clades A-H), may explain thermal tolerance in corals. Research has shown that some corals contain thermally-resistant clades of zooxanthellae. Corals housing primarily clade D symbionts, and certain types of thermally-resistant clade C symbionts, allow corals to avoid bleaching"
"they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve. In addition, the increase in CO allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems. A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years. Infectious bacteria of the species ""Vibrio shiloi"" are the bleaching agent of ""Oculina patagonica"" in the Mediterranean Sea, causing"
"stress following a temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching. Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history. In the 2012–2040 period, coral reefs are expected to experience more frequent bleaching events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sees this as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems. Coral reefs worldwide were lost by 19%, and 60% of the remaining reefs"
"recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016 surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-self reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay. The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13) forecast that corals on the"
"make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures. After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state. Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae, or they experience a regime shift, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae. This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then"
"surface waters since the carbonate ion is at supersaturating concentrations. However, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration of this ion, and when carbonate becomes undersaturated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Corals, coccolithophore algae, coralline algae, foraminifera, shellfish and pteropods experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated . Gas solubility decreases as the temperature of water increases (except when both pressure exceeds 300 bar and temperature exceeds 393 K, only found near deep geothermal vents) and therefore the rate of uptake from the atmosphere decreases as ocean temperatures rise. Most of the"
"to the sea mink until its extinction in the late 1800s. Due to rapid warming of the Gulf of Maine, the water has become too hot for cod. This, along with past overfishing, has helped pushed stocks towards collapse and hampered its recovery despite deep reductions in the number of fish caught, according to a study conducted by the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. Traditional calculations ""consistently over-estimated the abundance of cod."" From 2004, temperatures rose by more than 0.4 degrees F (0.1 degrees C) per year, culminating in an ocean heat wave in the northwest Atlantic in 2012-13. The"
"to live in a low-light environment. It has long captivated the imagination of scientist, artists and writers; deep sea creatures are prominent in popular culture, particularly as horror movie villains. The mesopelagic zone includes the region of sharp changes in temperature, salinity and density called the thermocline, halocline, and pycnocline. The temperature variations are large; from over 20 °C (68 °F) at the upper layers to around 4 °C (39 °F) at the boundary with the bathyal zone. The variation in salinity is smaller, typically between 34.5 and 35 psu. The density ranges from 1023 to 1027 g/kg of seawater."
"drag, and muscles with a raised myoglobin content, which gives these a reddish colour and makes for a more efficient use of oxygen. In polar regions and in the deep ocean, where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point, some large fish, such as the swordfish, marlin and tuna, have a heating mechanism which raises the temperature of the brain and eye, allowing them significantly better vision than their cold-blooded prey. The body of a teleost is denser than water, so fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many teleosts have a swim bladder that"
"with an increase in sea temperatures, particularly affecting shallow-water corals in the tropics. One of the consequences of heat stress is that the coral expels its zooxanthellae and becomes bleached. The rise in sea temperature is also expected to increase the frequency and severity of tropical storms; these adversely affect corals through mechanical damage to reefs, through increased wave action, and through the stirring up and re-deposition of sediment. Other stress factors include increased pollution, increased ultraviolet radiation, and a reduction in the aragonite saturation of surface seawater that is connected with ocean acidification. Although stressed corals are more susceptible"
"as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −1.9 °C at atmospheric pressure. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is the case"
"damage tissue. Starfish are vulnerable to high temperatures. Experiments have shown that the feeding and growth rates of ""P. ochraceus"" reduce greatly when their body temperatures rise above and that they die when their temperature rises to . This species has a unique ability to absorb seawater to keep itself cool when it is exposed to sunlight by a receding tide. It also appears to rely on its arms to absorb heat, so as to protect the central disc and vital organs like the stomach. Starfish and other echinoderms are sensitive to marine pollution. The common starfish is considered to"
"decreases in global warming. Increase of water temperature will also have a devastating effect on different oceanic ecosystems like coral reefs. The direct effect is the coral bleaching of these reefs, which live within a narrow temperature margin, so a small increase in temperature would have a drastic effects in these environments. When corals bleach it is because the coral loses 60–90% of their zooxanthellae due to various stressors, ocean temperature being one of them. If the bleaching is prolonged, the coral host would die. Although uncertain, another effect of climate change may be the growth, toxicity, and distribution of"
"of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The draft decision also warned Australia that it will not meet the targets of the Reef 2050 report without considerable work to improve water quality. Climate change has implications for other forms of reef life—some fish's preferred temperature range leads them to seek new habitat, thus increasing chick mortality in predatory seabirds. Climate change will also affect the population and sea turtle's available habitat. Bleaching events in benthic coral communities (deeper than ) in the Great Barrier reef are not as well documented as those at shallower depths, but recent research has"
"coral populations have occurred. Climate change, water pollution and over-fishing are three stress factors that have been described as leading to disease susceptibility. Over twenty different coral diseases have been described, but of these, only a handful have had their causative agents isolated and characterized. Coral bleaching is the most serious of these diseases. In the Mediterranean Sea, the bleaching of ""Oculina patagonica"" was first described in 1994 and shortly determined to be due to infection by Vibrio shiloi. From 1994 to 2002, bacterial bleaching of ""O. patagonica"" occurred every summer in the eastern Mediterranean. Surprisingly, however, after 2003, ""O."
"common and severe as temperatures worldwide continue to rise. The physiology of a resident ""Symbiodinium"" species often regulates the bleaching susceptibility of a coral. Therefore, a significant amount of research has focused on characterizing the physiological basis of thermal tolerance and in identifying the ecology and distribution of thermally tolerant symbiont species. ""Symbiodinium trenchi"" is a stress-tolerant species and is able to form mutualistic relationships with many species of coral. It is present in small numbers in coral globally and is common in the Andaman Sea, where the water is about 4 °C (7 °F) warmer than in other parts"
"ocean temperature. In the 19th century researchers of the life histories of this genus at one point came to the firm conclusion that these animals lived and died in the ooze in which they were found, many hundreds of feet below sea level. This has now proved to have been an incorrect assumption, despite the thoroughness of those investigations. Globigerina bulloides Globigerina bulloides is a species of heterotrophic planktonic foraminifer with a wide distribution in the photic zone of the world's oceans. It is able to tolerate a range of sea surface temperatures, salinities and water densities, and is most"
"a large range of temperatures. While they are underwater, temperatures may only vary by a few degrees over the year. However, at low tide, temperatures may dip to below freezing or may become scaldingly hot, leading to a temperature range that may approach 30 °C (86 °F) during a period of a few hours. Many mobile organisms, such as snails and crabs, avoid temperature fluctuations by crawling around and searching for food at high tide and hiding in cool, moist refuges (crevices or burrows) at low tide. Besides simply living at lower tide heights, non-motile organisms may be more dependent"