"Pennine Coal Measures Group The Pennine Coal Measures Group is a lithostratigraphical term referring to the coal-bearing succession of rock strata which occur in the United Kingdom within the Westphalian Stage of the Carboniferous Period. In formal use, the term replaces the Coal Measures Group as applied to the succession of coal-bearing strata within the Pennine Basin which includes all of the coalfields of northern England and the English Midlands. It includes the largely concealed Canonbie Coalfield of southern Scotland and the coalfields of northeast Wales and the minor Anglesey coalfield. The term 'Productive Coal Measures was formerly used for"
"Permian or later in age. In some parts of Britain, however, the Coal Measures grade up into mainly coal-barren red beds of late Westphalian and possibly Stephanian age. Within the Pennine Basin these barren measures are now referred to as the Warwickshire Group, from the district where they achieve their thickest development. The coal measures formed during Westphalian and earliest Stephanian times in the European ('Heerlen') chronostratigraphical scheme (which is approximately equivalent to the Middle Pennsylvanian Series of the IUGS global chronostratigraphical scheme). In the eastern United States the term coal measures has been applied to the Pennsylvanian coal fields."
"this age occur. In the official geologic timescale of the ICS, the Stephanian is placed within the Pennsylvanian epoch (318-299 Ma). The (regionally defined) Stephanian stage corresponds to the (internationally used) Gzhelian. References appear in scientific literature to a Stephanian epoch or Stephanian series reflecting the stage's earlier status. Stephanian (stage) The Stephanian is a stage in the regional stratigraphy of northwest Europe with an age between roughly 304 and 299 Ma (million years ago). It is a subdivision of the Carboniferous system or period and the regional Silesian series. The uppermost units of the Coal Measures of England and"
"of which retain water better than their amphibian counterparts. Carboniferous The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Permian Period, Mya. The name ""Carboniferous"" means ""coal-bearing"" and derives from the Latin words ""carbō"" (""coal"") and ""ferō"" (""I bear, I carry""), and was coined by geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822. Based on a study of the British rock succession, it was the first of the modern 'system' names to be employed, and reflects the fact that many"
"species who did not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Reptiles, however prospered due to specific key adaptations and underwent a major evolutionary radiation, in response to the drier climate that proceeded the rainforest collapse. Westphalian (stage) The Westphalian is a stage in the regional stratigraphy of northwest Europe with an age between roughly 313 and 304 Ma (million years ago). It is a subdivision of the Carboniferous system or period and the regional Silesian series. The Westphalian is named for the region of Westphalia in western Germany where strata of this age occur. The Coal Measures of"
"coal, was the discovery of ""Mesosaurus"" fossils within Permian black shales (Irati Formation), and the ""Glossopteris"" flora within the Permian coals. White was one of the first to propose the equivalence between the South American Permian strata and similar rocks of the Karoo Basin in South Africa. The basin developed during the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic with a sedimentary record comprising rocks from the Ordovician right up to the Cretaceous, thus spanning the time interval between 460 and 66 million years. The maximum thickness of the infill reaches in its central area and is composed of sedimentary and igneous rocks."
"million to 299 million years ago. During this time, average global temperatures were exceedingly high; the early Carboniferous averaged at about 20 degrees Celsius (but cooled to 10 °C during the Middle Carboniferous). Tropical swamps dominated the Earth, and the lignin stiffened trees grew to greater heights and number. As the bacteria and fungi capable of eating the lignin had not yet evolved, their remains were left buried, which created much of the carbon that became the coal deposits of today (hence the name ""Carboniferous""). Perhaps the most important evolutionary development of the time was the evolution of amniotic eggs,"
"in Europe and North America, the two subperiods were long thought to have been more or less equal in duration. In Europe the Lower Carboniferous sub-system is known as the Dinantian, comprising the Tournaisian and Visean Series, dated at 362.5-332.9 Ma, and the Upper Carboniferous sub-system is known as the Silesian, comprising the Namurian, Westphalian, and Stephanian Series, dated at 332.9-298.9 Ma. The Silesian is roughly contemporaneous with the late Mississippian Serpukhovian plus the Pennsylvanian. In Britain the Dinantian is traditionally known as the Carboniferous Limestone, the Namurian as the Millstone Grit, and the Westphalian as the Coal Measures and"
"3700 million years ago (Mya). The end of the Hesperian Period is much more uncertain and could range anywhere from 3200 to 2000 Mya, with 3000 Mya being frequently cited. The Hesperian Period is roughly coincident with the Earth’s early Archean Eon. With the decline of heavy impacts at the end of the Noachian, volcanism became the primary geologic process on Mars, producing vast plains of flood basalts and broad volcanic constructs (highland paterae). By Hesperian times, all of the large shield volcanoes on Mars, including Olympus Mons, had begun to form. Volcanic outgassing released large amounts of sulfur dioxide"
"Stephanian (stage) The Stephanian is a stage in the regional stratigraphy of northwest Europe with an age between roughly 304 and 299 Ma (million years ago). It is a subdivision of the Carboniferous system or period and the regional Silesian series. The uppermost units of the Coal Measures of England and Wales are probably of Stephanian age, though the larger part of this formation is referred to the earlier Westphalian. The stage derives its name from the city of Saint-Étienne for its coal mining basin in eastern central France (which itself derives from associations with Saint Stephen) where strata of"
"whose name is used worldwide as a geological time period. Devon's second major rock system is the Culm Measures, a geological formation of the Carboniferous period that occurs principally in Devon and Cornwall. The measures are so called either from the occasional presence of a soft, sooty coal, which is known in Devon as ""culm"", or from the contortions commonly found in the beds. This formation stretches from Bideford to Bude in Cornwall, and contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape. It is also found on the western, north and eastern borders of Dartmoor. The sedimentary rocks in more"
"coal for power production. Llewellyn Formation The Llewellyn Formation is a mapped bedrock unit in eastern Pennsylvania. It was previously known as the ""coal measures"" and the post-Pottsville rocks. The formation is named for the community of Llewellyn in Schuylkill County. The Llewellyn is defined as a gray, fine- to coarse-grained sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and anthracite coal in repetitive sequences. Although gray (light to dark) is the dominant color, other colors described include: buff, dark to light brown, and black. The Llewellyn was deposited upon a broad flat plain with sediment-choked rivers delivering detritus from the eroding uplands that"
"occurred in three Miocene coal-bearing formations, which are the Upper, the Middle and the Lower Coal Measures. The Middle Coal Measures was the most important with its wide distribution, great number of coal beds and extensive potential reserves. Taiwan has coal reserves estimated to be 100-180 Mt. However, coal output had been small, amounting to 6,948 metric tonnes per month from 4 pits before it ceased production effectively in 2000. The abandoned coal mine in Pingxi District, New Taipei has now turned into the Taiwan Coal Mine Museum. In 2012 coal production in Ukraine amounted to 85.946 million tonnes, up"
"heavily altered and the dates thus uncertain. Potassium-argon dating has yielded ages of 107-125 million years ago while argon-argon dating has yielded ages of 120-129 million years ago. Magnetization data indicate that Resolution Guyot was located in the Southern Hemisphere when it formed. Eruptions at Resolution Guyot formed a pile of volcanic rocks, from which a thick sequence has been drilled. It consists of stacks of lava flows, each of which is about thick, but there are also breccias, intrusions and sills. The lava flows appear to have been emplaced years apart from each other. Resolution Guyot was also hydrothermally"
"argon dating in the region provides an age of 1095 - 1155 Ma for the Muskox intrusion, 1100 - 1200 Ma for the Mackenzie dike swarm and 740 - 1200 Ma for the Coppermine basalt flows (younger dates are interpreted as having been reset by later intrusion of gabbro sills at 604 - 718 Ma). Further stratigraphic and structural evidence provides further support that the Muskox, the MacKenzie dikes and the Coppermine flows are of the same magmatic event that formed the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province and the Muskox is interpreted as occupying the magma chamber which fed the volcanism."
"Westphalian (stage) The Westphalian is a stage in the regional stratigraphy of northwest Europe with an age between roughly 313 and 304 Ma (million years ago). It is a subdivision of the Carboniferous system or period and the regional Silesian series. The Westphalian is named for the region of Westphalia in western Germany where strata of this age occur. The Coal Measures of England and Wales are also largely of Westphalian age though they also extend into the succeeding Stephanian. The Westphalian age is preceded by the Namurian stage/age (which corresponds to the Millstone Grit Series of Great Britain) and"
"coal measures are shallow and represent the lowest layers in the Pennine coal measures sequence. The earliest coal mining occurred along the River Greta where Four Foot and Six Foot seams outcrop. Most deep mining was at New Ingleton Pit sunk in 1913. Its sinking led to the discovery of the Ten Foot seam (house and steam coal) at 127 yards, and the Nine Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 134 yards. Beneath them are the Four Foot seam (house, gas and coking coal) at 233 yards, the Three Foot or Yard seam (house and gas coal) at 236"
"Late, which strictly should be Lower, Middle and Upper for the Holocene. If this terminology were to be used the preboreal would be replaced by Lower Holocene which would be dated 11.7 - 8.2 ka B2K. In July 2018 the International Commission on Stratigraphy ratified Greenlandian as the globally recognised first age of the Holocene, much overlapping with the North European regional term Preboreal. Preboreal The Preboreal is a stage of the Holocene epoch. It is preceded by the Tarantian and succeeded by the Boreal. It lasted from 10,300 to 9,000BP in radiocarbon years or 8350BC to 7050BC in Gregorian"
"It is bracketed at the earliest by the dates of the first Solar System material at 4.567 Ga (or 4.567 billion years ago) and the formation of the Earth at 4.54 Ga (4.54 billion years), which is the beginning of the informally recognized Hadean eona division of geologic time. At the later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the Holocene epoch). Methods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science. Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geologic history and the timing"
"about 9,000 years ago for samples from the western United States using overlapping tree-ring series from living and dead wood. The Earth's orbital motions (inclination of the earth's axis on its orbit with respect to the sun, gyroscopic precession of the earth's axis every 26,000 years; free precession every 440 days, precession of earth orbit and orbital variations such as perihelion precession every 19,000 and 23,000 years) leave traces visible in the geological record. These changes provide a long-term sequence of climatic events, recorded as changes in the thickness of sediment layers (known as ""varve analysis""—the term ""varve"" means a"
"Permian The Permian is a geologic period and system which spans 47 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic period 251.902 Mya. It is the last period of the Paleozoic era; the following Triassic period belongs to the Mesozoic era. The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison, who named it after the city of Perm. The Permian witnessed the diversification of the early amniotes into the ancestral groups of the mammals, turtles, lepidosaurs, and archosaurs. The world at the time was"
"shales, mudstones and thin coals of Coal Measures upon which the towns of Oldham, Rochdale, Bolton and Wigan are located. An outcrop of Coal Measures extends southwards down through Tameside and into Hazel Grove. Starting in October 2002, a relatively large number of earthquakes were recorded in Greater Manchester, some of which were among notable tremours in the British Isles. By the end of November 2002 more than 100 earthquakes had been recorded by the British Geological Survey. The first quake, of magnitude 3.2 on the Richter Scale, struck on Monday 21 October 2002, with an epicentre about east of"
"Socotá Formation The Socotá Formation (, Kis) is a geological formation of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. The formation consisting of a lower unit of calcareous sandstones and an upper sequence of shales dates to the Early Cretaceous period; Late Aptian epoch and in Quipile has a measured thickness of with large regional variations. The formation hosts ammonite fossils. The formation was defined as a thicker sequence and named in 1969 by Cáceres and Etayo after Socotá, a vereda of Apulo, Cundinamarca. The name Socotá in Muysccubun, the language of the native Muisca, means either ""Land"
"succeeded by the Stephanian stage/age (which corresponds to the uppermost part of the Coal Measures of Great Britain). In the official geologic timescale of the ICS, the Westphalian is placed within the Pennsylvanian epoch (318-299 Ma). The (regionally defined) Westphalian stage corresponds to the upper part of the (internationally used) Bashkirian stage together with the whole of the Moscovian and Kasimovian stages. Frequent references appear in scientific literature to a Westphalian epoch or Westphalian series reflecting the stage's earlier status. Amphibians were diverse and dominated communities. The collapse of the rainforest ecology between the Moscovian and Kasimovian removed many amphibian"
"the Carboniferous period (360 to 300 Mya), erosion of the mountains resulted in the formation of sandstones and mudstones. A reinvasion of southern and northeastern parts of Wales by the sea resulted in depositions of limestone, and extensive swamps in South Wales gave rise to peat deposits and the eventual formation of coal measures. Southwestern Wales, in particular, was affected by the Variscan orogeny, a period when continental collisions further south caused complex folding and fracturing of the strata. During the Permian, Triassic and Jurassic (300 to 150 Mya), further episodes of desertification, subsidence and uplift occurred and Wales was"
"251 mya) to the Upper Carboniferous. Some coal balls from the US vary in age from the later end of the Westphalian (roughly 313 to 304 mya) to the later Stephanian (roughly 304 to 299 mya). European coal balls are generally from the early end of the Westphalian Stage. In coal seams, coal balls are completely surrounded by coal. They are often found randomly scattered throughout the seam in isolated groups, usually in the upper half of the seam. Their occurrence in coal seams can be either extremely sporadic or regular; many coal seams have been found to contain no"
"Coal Measures rocks on the eastern and western margins, Carboniferous Limestone at the core and with rocks of Millstone Grit outcropping between them. The southern edge of the dome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though they barely impinge on the National Park. The White Peak is the central and southern section where Carboniferous Limestone is found at or near the surface. The Dark Peak to the north, east and west is characterised by Millstone Grit outcrops and broad swathes of moorland. Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the"
"extend through the Surat Basin in Australia, formed in an intracratonic sag basin, and contain evidence of dinosaur activity in the numerous ash plies. These coals are exploited in Queensland from the Walloon Coal Measures, which are up to 15 m thick of sub-bituminous to bituminous coals suited for coking, steam-raising and oil cracking. Coals of Triassic age are known from the Clarence-Moreton and Ipswich Basins, near Ipswich, Australia and the Esk Trough. Coals of this era are rare, and many contain fossils of flowering plants. Some of the best coking coals are Australian Triassic coals, although most economic deposits"
"Llewellyn Formation The Llewellyn Formation is a mapped bedrock unit in eastern Pennsylvania. It was previously known as the ""coal measures"" and the post-Pottsville rocks. The formation is named for the community of Llewellyn in Schuylkill County. The Llewellyn is defined as a gray, fine- to coarse-grained sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and anthracite coal in repetitive sequences. Although gray (light to dark) is the dominant color, other colors described include: buff, dark to light brown, and black. The Llewellyn was deposited upon a broad flat plain with sediment-choked rivers delivering detritus from the eroding uplands that were located to the"
"Siderian The Siderian Period (; , meaning ""iron"") is the first geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Ma to Ma (million years ago). Instead of being based on stratigraphy, these dates are defined chronometrically. The laying down of the banded iron formations (BIFs) peaked early in this period. BIFs were formed as anaerobic cyanobacteria produced waste oxygen that combined with iron, forming magnetite (FeO, an iron oxide). This process removed iron from the Earth's oceans, presumably turning greenish seas clear. Eventually, with no remaining iron in the oceans to serve as an oxygen sink, the process allowed"
"Pennsylvanian (geology) The Pennsylvanian (also known as Upper Carboniferous or Late Carboniferous) is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the younger of two subperiods (or upper of two subsystems) of the Carboniferous Period. It lasted from roughly Ma (million years ago). As with most other geochronologic units, the rock beds that define the Pennsylvanian are well identified, but the exact date of the start and end are uncertain by a few hundred thousand years. The Pennsylvanian is named after the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, where the coal-productive beds of this age are widespread. The division between Pennsylvanian and Mississippian comes from"
"volcanism took place from 760,800 ± 22,800 years ago in Papoose Canyon (Papoose Canyon sequence) over 469,400 ± 9,200 years ago at Jalopy Cone, 90,500 ± 17,600 years ago at Quarry Cone, 61,600 ± 23,400 years ago at Volcanic Bomb Cone, 31,800 ± 12,100 years ago at Goodale Bee Cone (Aberdeen flow), 27,000 years ago at the Blackrock Springs lava to the about 17,000 years old Armstrong Canyon/Division Creek/Taboose Creek flows. These (Armstrong Canyon/Division Creek/Taboose Creek) flows were erupted during the same episode, which created Armstrong Canyon cone, a series of scoria cones and the three lava flows along a"
"The coal measures are shallow and represent the lowest layers in the Pennine coal measures sequence. The earliest coal mining occurred along the River Greta where Four Foot and Six Foot seams outcrop. Most deep mining was at New Ingleton Pit sunk in 1913. Its sinking led to the discovery of the Ten Foot seam (house and steam coal) at 127 yards, and the Nine Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 134 yards. Beneath them are the Four Foot seam (house, gas and coking coal) at 233 yards, the Three Foot seam (house and gas coal) at 236 yards"