"as neurons to respond independently to stimuli such as damage to be what he considers ""intrinsic intentionality"" in cells, explaining that ""[w]hile at a vastly simpler level than intentionality at the human cognitive level, I propose that this basic capacity of living things [response to stimuli] provides the necessary building blocks for cognition, and higher-order intentionality"". Fitch describes the value of his research to specific areas of computer science such as artificial intelligence, and computer architecture. He states that ""[I]f a researcher aims to make a conscious machine, doing it with rigid switches (whether vacuum tubes or static silicon chips)"
"options offered by Apple coming in for criticism. Manufacturers often counter with safety concerns resulting from unauthorised repairs and modifications. Some computer components can be reused in assembling new computer products, while others are reduced to metals that can be reused in applications as varied as construction, flatware, and jewellery. Substances found in large quantities include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminium. Elements found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium. Elements found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium,"
"are made of organic materials, as well. Such FETs are manufactured using a variety of materials such as silicon carbide (SiC), gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), and indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs). In June 2011, IBM announced that it had successfully used graphene-based FETs in an integrated circuit. These transistors are capable of about 2.23 GHz cutoff frequency, much higher than standard silicon FETs. The channel of a FET is doped to produce either an n-type semiconductor or a p-type semiconductor. The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the channel, in the case of enhancement mode"
"chip traps liquid while in use, meaning that they cannot be re-used in laboratory setups. They also don't work well under vacuum; if a solution is boiling under vacuum, it's best to constantly stir it instead. Boiling chips are typically made of a porous material, such as alumina, silicon carbide, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, porcelain or carbon, and often have a nonreactive coating of PTFE. This ensures that the boiling chips will provide effective nucleation sites, yet are chemically inert. In less demanding situations, like school laboratories, pieces of broken porcelainware or glassware are often used. Boiling chip A boiling"
"Integrated Circuits are constructed from multiple layers of material, typically silicon, silicon dioxide (glass), and aluminum. The composition and thickness of these layers give them their distinctive color and appearance. These elements created an irresistible palette for IC design and layout engineers. The creative process involved in the design of these chips, a strong sense of pride in their work, and an artistic temperament combined compels people to want to mark their work as their own. It is very common to find initials, or groups of initials on chips. This is the design engineer's way of ""signing"" his or her"
"blue, and yellow, but they could be made in almost any color desired. The vast majority of authentic casino chips are ""clay"" chips but can be more accurately described as compression molded chips. Contrary to popular belief, no gaming chip going as far back as the 1950s has been 100% clay. Modern clay chips are a composition of materials more durable than clay alone. At least some percentage of the chips is of an earthen material such as sand, chalk, and clay similar to that found in cat litter. The process used to make these chips is a trade secret,"
"the electronics industry, other compound III-V or II-VI materials have also been employed. Gallium arsenide (GaAs), a III-V semiconductor produced via the Czochralski process, is also a common wafer material. Wafer (electronics) A wafer, also called a slice or substrate, is a thin slice of semiconductor material, such as a crystalline silicon, used in electronics for the fabrication of integrated circuits and in photovoltaics for conventional, wafer-based solar cells. The wafer serves as the substrate for microelectronic devices built in and over the wafer and undergoes many microfabrication process steps such as doping or ion implantation, etching, deposition of various"
"materials include Viton, polyethylene, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), butyl rubber, nitrile rubber, and Neoprene. PCBs are derived from biphenyl, which has the formula CH, sometimes written (CH). In PCBs, some of the hydrogen atoms in biphenyl are replaced by chlorine atoms. There are 209 different chemical compounds in which one to ten chlorine atoms can replace hydrogen atoms. PCBs are typically used as mixtures of compounds and are given the single identifying CAS number . About 130 different individual PCBs are found in commercial PCB products. Toxic effects vary depending on the specific PCB. In terms of their structure"
"the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were ""vitamins."" A 2004 study supported by NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts took this idea further. Some experts are beginning to consider self-replicating machines for asteroid mining. Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in lunar regolith. The element that most limited the growth rate was chlorine, needed to process"
"outside of the board, with its core composed of coarser, cheaper chips. This type of board is known as three-layer particleboard. More recently, graded-density particleboard has also evolved. It contains particles that gradually become smaller as they get closer to the surface Particleboard or chipboard is manufactured by mixing wood particles or flakes together with a resin and forming the mixture into a sheet. The raw material is fed into a disc chipper with between four and sixteen radially arranged blades. The chips from disk chippers are more uniform in shape and size than from other types of wood chippers."
"is observed. Germanane Germanane is a single-layer crystal composed of germanium with one hydrogen bonded in the z-direction for each atom. In material science, great interest is shown in related single layered materials, such as graphene, composed of carbon, and silicene, composed of silicon. Such materials represent a new generation of semiconductors with potential applications in computer chips and solar cells. Germanane’s structure is similar to graphane, and therefore graphene. Bulk germanium does not adopt this structure. Germanane has been produced in a two-step route starting with calcium germanide. From this material, the calcium is removed by de-intercalation with HCl"
"The chips were built in two layers with ""via-first"" tungsten TSVs for vertical interconnection. Two wafers were stacked face-to-face and bonded with a copper process. The top wafer was thinned and the two-wafer stack was then diced into chips. The first chip tested was a simple memory register, but the most notable of the set was an 8051 processor/memory stack that exhibited much higher speed and lower power consumption than an analogous 2D assembly. In 2004, Intel presented a 3D version of the Pentium 4 CPU. The chip was manufactured with two dies using face-to-face stacking, which allowed a dense"
"heating elements. Chromel C is an alloy containing 60% nickel, 16% chromium, and 24% iron. It is also commonly called Nichrome 60 and is used for heating elements, resistance windings, and hot wire cutters. Chromel R has a composition of Cr 20%, Ni 80%. Chromel-R was also produced as a woven fabric of chromel wires. It was developed by Litton Industries for use by NASA in the Apollo program. Patches of Chromel-R formed an outer layer of the spacesuit where abrasion resistance was needed. These patches can be seen as silver-grey areas over the white Beta cloth of the main"
"unaffected by this change. The Processor Unit chip (PU chip) has an area of 678 mm and contains 3.99 billion transistors. It is fabricated using IBM's 22 nm CMOS silicon on insulator fabrication process, using 17 metal layers and supporting speeds of 5.0 GHz, which is less than its predecessor, the zEC12. The PU chip can have six, seven or eight cores (or ""processor units"" in IBM's parlance) enabled depending on configuration. The PU chip is packaged in a single-chip module, a departure from IBM's previous mainframe processors, which were mounted on large multi-chip modules. A computer drawer consists of"
"and digital-to-analog converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or 802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros and other companies. Modern often further sub-categorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now available: The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a ""solid-state"
"is the basis of the ubiquitous synthetic silicon-based polymers called silicones. Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Although most free silicon is used in the steel refining, aluminum-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make fumed silica), the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon that is used in semiconductor electronics (< 10%) is perhaps even more critical. Because of wide use of silicon in integrated circuits, the basis of most computers, a great deal of modern technology depends on it. ""Phosphorus"" (symbol P) is a multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus"
"as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and well known by engineers over the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming. The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high-performance versions now employ the ""compound semiconductor"" material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the ""semiconductor alloy"" silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as ""elemental"". Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the adjacent table; these parameters will vary with increase"
"CPU shim A CPU shim (also called CPU spacer) is a shim used between the CPU and the heat sink in a computer. Shims make it easier and less risky to mount a heatsink on the processor because it stabilizes the heatsink, preventing accidental damaging of the fragile CPU packaging. They help distribute weight evenly over the surface. CPU shims are usually made of thin and very flat aluminium or copper. Copper has good heat dissipation capacity but is electrically conductive. CPU shims should be non-conductive to prevent any accidental short circuiting. Aluminium shims are often anodized, which makes them"
"gas emissions. Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive, the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and other similar removable parts can be reused. The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semi-conductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium. When these types of materials, and chemicals"
"as the shaft of the weapon and gives it its initial shape. Cores made out of PVC, graphite, fiberglass, carbon fiber, bamboo or aluminium are used, with standards varying between groups and countries. Graphite golf club shafts and PVC tubes are presently the cores most commonly used in the United States, whereas solid fiberglass or carbon fibre rods are the cores most commonly used in Europe. Some core materials can be bent into a number of shapes to give variety and uniqueness to a weapon. A common way to bend a PVC core is with a blow torch or kitchen"
"used as a ceramic or example in car brakes and bulletproof vests. It is also used in semiconductor electronics. It is manufactured from silicon dioxide and carbon in an Acheson furnace between 1600 and 2500 °C. There are 250 known crystalline forms with alpha silicon carbide the most common. Silicon itself is an important semiconductor material used in microchips. It is produced commercially from silica and carbon at 1900 °C and crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure. Germanium silicide forms a solid solution and is again a commercially used semiconductor material. The tin–silicon phase diagram is a eutectic and"
"part of this method inspires the informal term ""dead bug style"" for the method. The body (housing) of a DIP containing an IC chip is usually made from molded plastic or ceramic. The hermetic nature of a ceramic housing is preferred for extremely high reliability devices. However, the vast majority of DIPs are manufactured via a thermoset molding process in which an epoxy mold compound is heated and transferred under pressure to encapsulate the device. Typical cure cycles for the resins are less than 2 minutes and a single cycle may produce hundreds of devices. The leads emerge from the"
"generally used in thin film structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage. Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being the integrated circuit (IC), which are found in laptops, scanners, cell-phones, etc. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used. A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required,"
"usually copper or aluminum. This is the so-called ""ball bond"" that gives the process its name. (All-aluminum systems in semiconductor fabrication eliminate the ""purple plague""—a brittle gold-aluminum intermetallic compound—sometimes associated with pure gold bonding wire. This property makes aluminum ideal for ultrasonic bonding.) Next the wire is passed out through the capillary and the machine moves over a few millimeters to the location that the chip needs to be wired up to (usually called the ""leadframe""). The machine again descends to the surface, this time without making a ball so that the wire is crushed between the leadframe and the"
"to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal. Under laboratory conditions a sample"
"Germanane Germanane is a single-layer crystal composed of germanium with one hydrogen bonded in the z-direction for each atom. In material science, great interest is shown in related single layered materials, such as graphene, composed of carbon, and silicene, composed of silicon. Such materials represent a new generation of semiconductors with potential applications in computer chips and solar cells. Germanane’s structure is similar to graphane, and therefore graphene. Bulk germanium does not adopt this structure. Germanane has been produced in a two-step route starting with calcium germanide. From this material, the calcium is removed by de-intercalation with HCl to give"
"valuable materials suitable for reclamation. Computer components contain many toxic substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. A typical computer monitor may contain more than 6% lead by weight, much of which is in the lead glass of the cathode ray tube (CRT). A typical 15 inch (38 cm) computer monitor may contain of lead but other monitors have been estimated to have up to of lead. Circuit boards contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or create air pollution due to incineration. In US landfills, about 40%"
"panels. Hafnium oxide, an insulator, is used as a voltage controller in microchips; tantalum oxide, another insulator, is used in capacitors in mobile phones. Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800. Promethium, lanthanum, and mercury are further examples found in, respectively, atomic, nickel-metal hydride, and button cell batteries. Magnets are made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium. Neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of,"
"or discarded. Today, 15% of electronic devices and equipment are recycled in the United States. Most electronic waste is sent to landfills or incinerated, which releases materials such as lead, mercury, or cadmium into the soil, groundwater, and atmosphere, thus having a negative impact on the environment. Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components frequently contain lead, copper, gold and other"
"contain mostly the minerals orthopyroxene (magnesium-iron silicate), feldspars (aluminum silicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium), quartz (silicon dioxide), with smaller amounts of magnetite, ilmenite, iron sulfide, and calcium phosphate. The embedded computer on board the ""Sojourner"" rover was based around the 2 MHz Intel 80C85 CPU with 512 KB of RAM and 176 KB of flash memory solid-state storage, running a cyclic executive. The computer of the ""Pathfinder"" lander was a Radiation Hardened IBM Risc 6000 Single Chip (Rad6000 SC) CPU with 128 MB of RAM and 6 MB of EEPROM and its operating system was VxWorks. The mission was"
"to print lettering and graphics on the entire surface of the chip, instead of just the inlay, made them popular. Ceramic chips are sometimes also referred to as clay or clay composite, but they are in fact an injection-molded chip made with a special plastic or resin formula that approximates the feel and sound of ceramic or porcelain. There are less expensive chips for the home market, made from various forms of plastic and plastic covered metal slugs as well. The chips used in North American casinos typically weigh about 10 grams, but are usually between 8 and 10.5 g."
"Chip pan A chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their traditional use in frying chips (called ""French fries"" in the United States). Today, they are made from either aluminium or stainless steel, although in the past were commonly made from cast iron. A basket is placed inside the pan, to lower the chips into the hot cooking oil, and to raise them once cooked. Chip pans are commonly used in the United Kingdom, although are slowly being outmoded by deep fryers. Chip pans are commonly manufactured through a spinning process, as"
"temperature, and computer chips are generally hot) and because of CMOS-compatibility issues. One such device is the hybrid silicon laser, in which the silicon is bonded to a different semiconductor (such as indium phosphide) as the lasing medium. Another possibility is the all-silicon Raman laser, in which silicon is the lasing medium. In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into conventional chips. In September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable approximately five"