"leaves and progresses to younger leaves until the entire plant dies. Gros Michel was the only type of banana eaten in the United States from the late 19th century until after World War II. From the beginning, however, a serious disease was present in the banana plantations of Central America. The problem was first diagnosed in Panama after which it was named. Over several decades, the fungus spread from Panama to neighboring countries, moving north through Costa Rica to Guatemala and south into Colombia and Ecuador. The banana industry was in a serious crisis, so a new banana thought to"
"Agriculture in Panama Agriculture in Panama is an important sector of the Panamanian economy. Major agricultural products include bananas, cocoa beans, coffee, coconuts, timber, beef, chicken, shrimp, corn, potatoes, rice, soybeans, and sugar cane. In 2009 agriculture and fisheries made up 7.4% of Panama's GDP. Panama is a net food importer and the U.S. is its main supplier. Agriculture employs a large number of Panamanians (in relation to agriculture's percentage of Panamanian GDP) because many farmers are engaged in subsistence farming. Major agricultural products in Panama include bananas and other fruit, corn, sugar, rice, coffee, shrimp, timber, vegetables, livestock. As"
"an outbreak of Panama disease, a fungus that kills the plant's underground stem, wiped out most of the banana plantations in the early 20th century. New plants of the Valery and Giant Cavendish variety were planted, with constant use of fungicides was required to control black sigatoka disease. Although Cavendish bananas yield three times the harvest of the older Gros Michel type, Cavendish bananas are more difficult to harvest and transport. Cavendish bananas, for example, bruise easily and must be picked at an earlier stage and crated in the fields for transport. Most banana production is in the Pacific lowlands,"
"large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming. Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a ""typical banana"" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives. Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the"
"the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus ""Fusarium oxysporum"" which attacks the roots of the banana plant. Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the black sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable. Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of"
"disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times. It is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia and was first reported in Australia in 1876. By 1950 it had spread to all the banana-producing regions of the world with the exception of some islands in the South Pacific, the Mediterranean, Melanesia and Somalia. Panama disease affects a wide range of banana cultivars; however, it is best known for the damage it caused to a single cultivar in the early export plantations. Before 1960, a total reliance was put on the cultivar 'Gros Michel', and it supplied"
"is exported there is a high incidence of ship-ripe fruit which arrive at their destination in poor condition. Panama disease (Fusarium oxysporum) is caused by tiny worms which feed on the roots of the plants, block the water vessels and reduce production. Production is also affected by pests which scar the banana peel. The placing of sleeves over the bunches and the removal of the buds are two controlling measures. Banana production in the Caribbean Banana production in the Caribbean is widespread. Bananas are cultivated by both small farmers and large land holders. The plant is perennial and is planted"
"Mitch caused extensive damage to crops. In 1998, agricultural exports were valued at US$409.3 million (out of Panama's total exports of $640 million), while imports totaled US$397.7 million. That same year bananas accounted for 33 percent of Panama's exports, shrimp 11 percent, sugar 4 percent, and coffee 2 percent. In 1999, sugar cane production was at 2.05 million metric tons, bananas at 650,000 metric tons, rice at 232,370 metric tons and corn at 89,806 metric tons. The main export crop was bananas with exports worth US$182 million in 2000. There has been a steady increase in tropical fruit exports which"
"single monoculture: The Cavendish banana. The ravages of Panama Disease in that particular cultivar may cause a shift in variety selection, subsequently causing a major change in the physical plant structure of banana plantations. Banana growing is a significant economic engine in many banana-exporting countries because it is labor-intensive, delivers a relatively quick return on effort and investment, provides a weekly income year round, and the crop recovers quickly from hurricanes and other natural disasters. Banana industry exports worldwide total over 100 million tons in a market which generates over US$5 billion per year and employs millions of workers. Banana"
"drop in banana exports caused by the depression, the Honduran banana industry was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease (a debilitating fungus) and black sigatoka (leaf blight) in banana-producing areas. Within a year, most of the country's production was threatened. Large areas, including most of those around Trujillo, were abandoned, and thousands of Hondurans were thrown out of work. By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to"
"timber, beef, chickens, shrimp, corn, potatoes, rice, soybeans, and sugar cane. In 2009 agriculture and fisheries made up 7.4% of Panama's GDP Panama is a net food importer and the United States is its main supplier. Agriculture employs a large number of Panamanians (in relation to agriculture's percentage of Panamanian GDP) with many farmers being engaged in subsistence farming. Taxation in Panama, which is governed by the Fiscal Code, is on a territorial basis; this is to say, that taxes apply only to income or gains derived through business carried on in Panama itself. The existence of a sales or"
"a soil-born fungus destroying its banana farms in Latin America, known as Panama disease (Fusarium Wilt). Wornick, who helped come up with a treatment for Panama Disease, was promoted to scientist and later a division president in charge of food processing. MIT awarded him a graduate degree shortly thereafter. In 1970, United Fruit Company merged with AMK-John Morrell to become United Brands. Wornick, by then director of corporate development, resigned from the company, acquiring its multimillion-dollar a year freeze-dried food division, Right Away Foods Corporation in San Carlos, Texas where he moved to oversee operations. Wornick then began the management"
"throughout the year prevents cultivation of most crops on the Atlantic side of the continental divide. The Pacific side has a dry season (December to April) and accounts for most of the cultivated land. The mountainous terrain also restricts cropping. In addition, Panama does not have high quality soils. Most of the areas classified as cultivable are so considered on the assumption that farmers will practice conservation measures, but many do not. The topsoil is thin in most areas, and erosion is a serious problem. Most of the nearly level areas conducive to cultivation are in the provinces of Los"
"""canariensis"" causes wilt of Canary Island date palm and other propagated palms. The disease is spread through contaminated seed, soil and pruning tools. ""F. oxysporum"" f. sp. ""cubense"" causes Panama disease on banana. It is found everywhere bananas are grown in Africa, Asia, Central and South America. It attacks banana plants of all ages and spreads mainly through the soil. It causes wilting and yellowing of the leaves. ""F. oxysporum"" f. sp. ""lycopersici"" causes vascular wilt in tomato. The disease starts out as yellowing and drooping on one side of the plant. Leaf wilting, plant stunting, browning of the vascular"
"a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance. Tropical race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and has recently spread to Australia, India and Mozambique. It has yet to reach the Americas; however, the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and will be its most likely route"
"this zone. Racial discrimination policies that were widespread in the United States at the time were transported to Central America. The companies never used as much land as they acquired. They learned early that the plants were vulnerable to hurricanes, and to Panama disease, which first appeared in the 1910s in Panama, and completely destroyed banana growth very rapidly in areas where it had taken hold. As a result, they both acquired far more land than they needed to support banana cultivation, and they left these lands vacant as a reserve. Such policies in countries like Guatemala where landlessness was"
"called Panama disease caused huge losses to the banana crop. During the 1960s agrarian reform caused fragmentation of land holdings and multinational companies closed down due to labour trouble. Large landholders lost the advantage and as a result very large numbers of smaller non union plantations came to be established under local producers. During this period Central American countries introduced a new variety known as Cavendish bananas, which was a setback to Ecuador as its banana production was affected. However, Dole ensured that Ecuador's export share in the world market did not fall below 15%. In 1974, Ecuador became a"
"it has a large variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking. Typical Panamanian foods are mildly flavored, without the pungency of some of Panama's Latin American and Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients are corn, rice, wheat flour, plantains, ""yuca"" (cassava), beef, chicken, pork and seafood.(in Panama they call this example tortilla,because the arepas are from Colombia) Panamanian historian and essayist Rodrigo Miró (1912-1996) cites Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés as the author of the first Panamanian literary work, the story of a character named Andrea de la Roca, which was published as part of"
"decreases the area of leaf available for photosynthesis, spoils the appearance of the plant and reduces the marketability of fruit. It is especially damaging to young trees after transplanting. This scale is believed to be of Brazilian or African origin but is now widely distributed throughout the tropics. The host range includes vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops as well as many native plants. Economically important crops include ""Anthurium"", atemoya, avocado, cacao, celery, cherimoya, coffee, custard apple, flowering ginger, guava, lime, ""Macadamia"", orange, orchid, ""Plumeria"" and sugar apple. It is a serious pest of coffee in many countries causing so much"
"and North America, grown in Central America, but in the 1950s, Panama disease, a wilt caused by the fungus ""Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense"", wiped out vast tracts of Gros Michel plantations in Central America, though it is still grown on non-infected land throughout the region. The Gros Michel was replaced on Central American plantations and in U.S. grocery stores by the Cavendish. By the 1960s, the exporters of Gros Michel bananas were unable to keep trading such a susceptible cultivar, and started growing resistant cultivars belonging to the Cavendish subgroup (another ""Musa acuminata"" AAA). The original Gros Michel variety is"
"Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense Fusarium oxysporum"" f.sp. ""cubense is a fungal plant pathogen that causes Panama disease of banana (""Musa"" spp.), also known as fusarium wilt of banana. Although fruit of the wild bananas (""Musa"" spp.) have large, hard seeds, most edible bananas are seedless. Banana plants are therefore propagated asexually from offshoots. Because these rhizomes are usually free of symptoms even when the plant is infected by ""F. oxysporum ""f. sp."" cubense"", they are a common means by which this pathogen is disseminated. It can also be spread in soil and running water, on farm implements or machinery. Panama"
"is primarily agriculturally based with a majority of families with at least one member of the household working in some form of agriculture. The primary crops are rice, corn, sunflowers (for cooking oil), peanuts, a variety of beans, mangos, and bananas. In areas near water sources is where the most diversity in crops can be found. Cattle and goats are the primary animal husbandry products. Many residents also use local reeds and wood in craft trades, such as expert woodworkers and Panama hat weavers. The streets are lined with merchants selling a wide variety of products, from fruits and vegetables,"
"was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease (a debilitating fungus) and sigatoka (leaf blight) in the banana-producing areas. Within a year, most of the country's production was threatened. Large areas, including most of those around Trujillo, were abandoned, and thousands of Hondurans were thrown out of work. By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to other nations. Carías had made efforts to improve the military even before"
"By 1929, the United Fruit Company operated in over of the country and controlled the major ports. Initially, Honduran producers focused on growing the Gros Michel type of bananas, which had important characteristics that made them easy to store and ship and appealed to consumers in North American markets. However in the early 1920s banana-producing areas began suffering from a blight known as the ""Panama Disease"" which, combined with soil exhaustion from monocrop agriculture, led to a production decline in many parts of northern Honduras. The companies sought to restore production by rerouting railroads and renegotiating concessions so to bring"
"or oat production in Panama, due to unfavorable climatic conditions. Panama normally produces an average of 2,000 tons of sorghum per year, which is sold to industries that process animal foodstuffs. This supplies about 90% of total demand. Farmers use only a low level of technology and expect that industries will acquire the grain immediately after harvest. Since farmers do not have sufficient storage capacity for the entire harvest, they are at a disadvantage when marketing their product in a hurry. Moreover, with international prices usually lower than local prices, industries prefer to import the grain. For centuries, agriculture was"
"Panamanian cuisine Panamanian cuisine is a mix of African, Spanish, and Native American techniques, dishes, and ingredients, reflecting its diverse population. Since Panama is a land bridge between two continents, it has a large variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking. Typical Panamanian foods are mildly flavored, without the pungency of some of Panama's Latin American and Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients are maize, rice, wheat flour, plantains, ""yuca"" (cassava), beef, chicken, pork and seafood. Corn-based dishes come from the kernel, cooked in water and then ground in order to obtain a dough (as opposed"
"and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees. Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease, lethal yellowing. One recently selected cultivar, the 'Maypan', has been bred for resistance to this disease. Yellowing diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and the Pacific Region. The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including the African armyworm (""Spodoptera exempta"") and ""Batrachedra"" spp.: ""B. arenosella"", ""B. atriloqua"" (feeds exclusively on ""C. nucifera""), ""B. mathesoni"" (feeds exclusively on ""C. nucifera""), and ""B. nuciferae"". ""Brontispa longissima"" (coconut leaf beetle) feeds"
"of Solanaceae. Agriculturally important crops that it infects include several species of ""Capsicum"" (i.e. ""C. annuum"", ""C. frutescens""), tomato (""Lycopersicon esculentum""), and tobacco (""Nicotiana spp.""). It also infects many perennial weed species that can act as virus reservoirs for susceptible agricultural crops. These weed species include ""Solanum nigrum"" (nightshade), ""S. aculeatissimum"" (soda apple), ""Chenopodium album"" (pigweed), ""Datura stramonium"" (jimson weed), ""Linaria canadensis"" (blue toadflax), and ""Physalis spp."" (ground cherry). Thus, recommendations for the control of this virus include the control of weeds in and around susceptible solanaceous crops. Symptoms seen on plants infected with this virus can vary depending on"
"but did not gain prominence until later when Panama disease attacked the dominant Gros Michel (""Big Mike"") variety in the 1950s. Because they were successfully grown in the same soils as previously affected Gros Michel plants, many assumed the Cavendish cultivars were more resistant to Panama disease. Contrary to this notion, in mid-2008, reports from Sumatra and Malaysia suggested that Panama disease had started attacking Cavendish cultivars. Cavendish bananas are a subgroup of the triploid (AAA) group cultivars of ""Musa acuminata"". Cavendish cultivars are distinguished by the height of the plant and features of the fruits, and different cultivars may"
"year, as Panama has gradually shifted its trade policies to more open markets, local importers have started bringing in increasing quantities of produce, particularly from the United States. Panama has been a traditional importer of lentils, dry beans and kidney beans. There is some domestic kidney bean production that supplies much of the market when international prices climb and compete for the market the rest of the time. There is no lentil production in Panama and no demand for black beans. Panama has significant stocks of timber, mainly mahogany. There are also 61,000 hectares of planted forests, mainly teak and"
"amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. alone. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees infected by the invasive varroa mite. Introduced rats (""Rattus rattus"" and ""R. norvegicus"") have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can also suppress agricultural yields and nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (ACP). Because of the impacts of this disease on citrus crops, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where ACP has"
"well as Fabaceae. Under field conditions, ""P. capsici"" has been found to affect a wide range of hosts in the Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae families, including: cantaloupe, cucumber, watermelon, bell pepper, tomato, snap beans, and lima beans. Although beans, lima beans, and soybeans were previously thought to be immune to ""P. capsici"", in 2000 and 2001, """"Phytophthora capsici"" was isolated from five commercial cultivars of lima bean in Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey. It was also recently isolated from commercial snap beans in northern Michigan."" General symptoms on the solanaceous crops and cucurbits include seed rot and seedling blight which"
"groups known as Ngäbe and Buglé, who reside in the Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro provinces, are dependent on coffee production for their sustenance. The Panamanian government ensures protection to coffee plants and crops from the effect of pests as it is one of the prime crops of export. In 2013, the pests that severely affected coffee plantations in an area of were Coffee Rust (""Hemilieia vastatrix""), Ojo de Gallo (""Mycena citricolor"") and Coffee Borer Beetle (""Hypothenemus hampei""). Coffee production in Panama Coffee production in Panama was occurring in the Boquete Valley by the early 20th century, although coffee was"