"a single, short muscle contraction called a muscle twitch. If there is a problem at the neuromuscular junction, a very prolonged contraction may occur, such as the muscle contractions that result from tetanus. Also, a loss of function at the junction can produce paralysis. Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of motor units, each of which involves a motor neuron, attached by a series of thin finger-like structures called axon terminals. These attach to and control discrete bundles of muscle fibers. A coordinated and fine tuned response to a specific circumstance will involve controlling the precise number of motor units"
"affected by ""muscle length"", which determines the degree of stretch in a given eye position. Botulinum toxin paralysis reduces total muscle force by removing, or reducing, the contractile component. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin present in the cytoplasm of the anaerobic bacterium ""Clostridium botulinum"". It binds presynaptically with high affinity to sites on cholinergic nerve terminals, decreasing release of acetylcholine, thereby blocking neuromuscular transmission, and causing flaccid muscle paralysis. Crotoxin appears to act similarly. To weaken an eye muscle, 1 to 12 units (a few nanograms) of toxin are injected directly into it. The treated muscle weakens over 48–72 hours"
"infection or it forms abscesses. The forms of localized ""Salmonella"" infections are arthritis, urinary tract infection, infection of the central nervous system, bone infection, soft tissue infection, etc. Infection may remain as the latent form for a long time, and when the function of reticular endothelial cells is deteriorated, it may become activated and consequently, it may secondarily induce spreading infection in the bone several months or several years after acute salmonellosis. A 2018 London Imperial College study shows how salmonella knockout specific arms of the immune system (e.g. 3 of 5 NF-kappaB proteins) using a family of zinc metalloproteinase"
"the exocytosis of presynaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh). When this occurs, the muscles are unable to contract. Other symptoms associated with infection from this neurotoxin include double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness. Botulism prevents muscle contraction by blocking the release of acetylcholine, thereby halting postsynaptic activity of the neuromuscular junction. If its effects reach the respiratory muscles, then it can cause respiratory failure, leading to death. Curare is a plant poison derived from - among other species - ""Chondrodendron tomentosum"" and various species belonging to the genus ""Strychnos"", which are native"
"the muscle fibre. More intense infections can result in severe inflammation surrounding infected muscle fibres. Although apparently asymptomatic in all but heavy infections, they are associated with post-mortem degeneration of the tissue. This softening of flesh is most likely a result the release of proteolytic enzymes by the parasite. This causes losses to both aquaculture operations, for instance, where salmon are being reared in ""sea-pens"", and to capture fisheries. Losses are both direct, through the degradation of fish products, and indirectly, through the perception of the consumer that fish from a particular area are of a lower quality. The intensity"
"as successful as strabismus surgery for patients with binocular vision and that it is less successful than surgery for those who have no binocular vision. Botulinum toxin is the most acutely lethal toxin that is known. It is produced by the bacterium clostridium botulinum. It acts inside nerve terminals by decreasing the release of acetylcholine, blocking neuromuscular transmission and thereby causing flaccid muscular paralysis. As a result, the muscle is weakened for about 3 to 4 months. For treating strabismus, the toxin is used in much diluted form, and the injection is targeted to reach specific muscles that move the"
"cause and that a puncture from a rust-free nail is not a risk. Tetanus affects skeletal muscle, a type of striated muscle used in voluntary movement. The other type of striated muscle, cardiac, or heart muscle, cannot be tetanized because of its intrinsic electrical properties. The tetanus toxin initially binds to peripheral nerve terminals. It is transported within the axon and across synaptic junctions until it reaches the central nervous system. There it becomes rapidly fixed to gangliosides at the presynaptic inhibitory motor nerve endings, and is taken up into the axon by endocytosis. The effect of the toxin is"
"Toxic megacolon Toxic megacolon (""megacolon toxicum"") is an acute form of colonic distension. It is characterized by a very dilated colon (megacolon), accompanied by abdominal distension (bloating), and sometimes fever, abdominal pain, or shock. Toxic megacolon is usually a complication of inflammatory bowel disease, such as ulcerative colitis and, more rarely, Crohn's disease, and of some infections of the colon, including ""Clostridium difficile"" infections, which have led to pseudomembranous colitis. Other forms of megacolon exist and can be congenital (present since birth, such as Hirschsprung's disease). It can also be caused by ""Entamoeba histolytica"" and ""Shigella"". It may also be"
"Necrotizing fasciitis Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), commonly known as flesh-eating disease, is an infection that results in the death of the body's soft tissue. It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly. Symptoms include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting. The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum. Typically, the infection enters the body through a break in the skin such as a cut or burn. Risk factors include poor immune function such as from diabetes or cancer, obesity, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and peripheral vascular disease. It is"
"Infectious pancreatic necrosis Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a severe viral disease of salmonid fish. It is caused by infectious pancreatic necrosis virus, which is a member of the Birnaviridae family. This disease mainly affects young salmonids, such as trout or salmon, of less than six months, although adult fish may carry the virus without showing symptoms. Resistance to infection develops more rapidly in warmer water. It is highly contagious and found worldwide, but some regions have managed to eradicate or greatly reduce the incidence of disease. The disease is normally spread horizontally via infected water, but spread also occurs"
"to breathing problems. Prolonged muscular action causes sudden, powerful, and painful contractions of muscle groups, which is called ""tetany"". These episodes can cause fractures and muscle tears. Other symptoms include fever, headache, restlessness, irritability, feeding difficulties, breathing problems, burning sensation during urination, urinary retention and loss of stool control. Even with treatment, about 10% of people who contract tetanus die. The mortality rate is higher in unvaccinated people and people over 60 years of age. The incubation period of tetanus may be up to several months, but is usually about ten days. In general, the farther the injury site is"
"organ failure, followed by muscle necrosis, and ventricular tachycardia. The patient later went into circulatory and respiratory failure, before passing away less than 48 hours after being emitted into the hospital. Muscle biopsies determined ""S. zooepidemicus"", as well as evidence of an unidentified superantigen exotoxin, to be the cause of infection, and toxic-shock like syndrome to be the cause of death. It was always noteworthy that the patient had frequent contact with horses, pigs, and cattle. This case study specifically is interesting as it strongly suggests an unidentified novel exotoxin, possibly produced by ""S. zooepidemicus"". In 2008, a 59 year"
"Zenker's degeneration Zenker's degeneration is a severe glassy or waxy hyaline degeneration or necrosis of skeletal muscles in acute infectious diseases ;a prototype of coagulative necrosis. The condition was named by Friedrich Albert von Zenker. It is a hyaline degeneration of skeletal muscles such as rectus abdominis and diaphragm, and occurs in severe toxaemia as typhoid fever. It is also seen in electrical burns. Grossly the muscles appear pale and friable; microscopically, the muscle fibres are swollen, have a loss of cross striations, and show a hyaline appearance. Rupture and small hemorrhage may complicate the lesion. Coagulative necrosis occurs here."
"Zenker's degeneration Zenker's degeneration is a severe glassy or waxy hyaline degeneration or necrosis of skeletal muscles in acute infectious diseases ;a prototype of coagulative necrosis. The condition was named by Friedrich Albert von Zenker. It is a hyaline degeneration of skeletal muscles such as rectus abdominis and diaphragm, and occurs in severe toxaemia as typhoid fever. It is also seen in electrical burns. Grossly the muscles appear pale and friable; microscopically, the muscle fibres are swollen, have a loss of cross striations, and show a hyaline appearance. Rupture and small hemorrhage may complicate the lesion. Coagulative necrosis occurs here."
"not degraded by cholinesterase which normally performs this function. As a result, the muscle cells contract permanently, the communication between the brain and the muscles is disrupted and breathing stops. The toxin was called the Very Fast Death Factor because it induced tremors, paralysis and death within a few minutes when injected into the body cavity of mice. In 1977, the structure of VFDF was determined as a secondary, bicyclic amine alkaloid, and it was renamed anatoxin-""a"". Structurally, it is similar to cocaine. There is continued interest in anatoxin-""a"" because of the dangers it presents to recreational and drinking waters,"
"and 10. The way the protein work is it destroys the cell membrane structure of animals by binding to claudin family proteins. These are components of tight junctions of the epithelial cell membrane. Clostridium enterotoxin Clostridium enterotoxins are toxins produced by ""Clostridium"" species. Clostridial species are one of the major causes of food poisoning/gastrointestinal illnesses. They are anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rods that occur naturally in the soil. Among the family are: ""Clostridium botulinum"", which produces one of the most potent toxins in existence; ""Clostridium tetani"", causative agent of tetanus; and ""Clostridium perfringens"", commonly found in wound infections and diarrhea cases."
"at motor nerve endings. This blockade leads to the widespread activation of motor neurons and spasming of muscles throughout the body. These muscle spasms generally begin at the top of the body and move down, beginning approximately 8 days after infection with lockjaw, followed by spasms of the abdominal muscles, and the limbs. Muscle spasms continue for several weeks. The gene encoding tetanospasmin is found on a plasmid carried by many strains of ""C. tetani""; strains of bacteria lacking the plasmid are unable to produce toxin. The function of tetanospasmin in bacterial physiology is unknown. ""C. tetani"" is susceptible to"
"help in disabling prey. The venom of ""C. atrox"" is primarily hemotoxic, affecting mainly the blood vessels, blood cells and the heart. The venom contains hemorrhagic components called zinc metalloproteinases. The venom also contains cytotoxins and myotoxins which destroy cells and muscles that add to the failure of the cardiovascular system. In addition to hemorrhage, venom metalloproteinases induce myonecrosis (skeletal muscle damage), which seems to be secondary to the ischemia that ensues in muscle tissue as a consequence of bleeding and reduced perfusion. Microvascular disruption by metalloproteinases also impairs skeletal muscle regeneration, being therefore responsible for fibrosis and permanent tissue"
"redness, fever, and weakness. Onset may be sudden or gradual. In children, the long bones are usually affected. In adults, the vertebrae and the pelvis are most commonly affected. Acute osteomyelitis almost invariably occurs in children because of rich blood supply to the growing bones. When adults are affected, it may be because of compromised host resistance due to debilitation, intravenous drug abuse, infectious root-canaled teeth, or other disease or drugs (e.g., immunosuppressive therapy). Osteomyelitis is a secondary complication in 1–3% of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. In this case, the bacteria, in general, spread to the bone through the circulatory"
"in isolating them from a system. As calcium flux is necessary for proper excitability of a cell, any significant inhibition could prevent a large amount of functionality. Significantly, ω-CgTx is capable of long term binding to and inhibition of voltage-dependent calcium channels located in the membranes of neurons but not those of muscle cells. Botulinum Toxin (BTX) is a group of neurotoxins consisting of eight distinct compounds, referred to as BTX-A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H, which are produced by the bacterium ""Clostridium botulinum"" and lead to muscular paralysis. A notably unique feature of BTX is its relatively common therapeutic use in treating dystonia and"
"Tuberous sclerosis Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), is a rare multisystem genetic disease that causes non-cancerous tumours to grow in the brain and on other vital organs such as the kidneys, heart, liver, eyes, lungs, and skin. A combination of symptoms may include seizures, intellectual disability, developmental delay, behavioral problems, skin abnormalities, and lung and kidney disease. TSC is caused by a mutation of either of two genes, ""TSC1"" and ""TSC2"", which code for the proteins hamartin and tuberin, respectively. These proteins act as tumor growth suppressors, agents that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation. The disease is often abbreviated to tuberous"
"space between the two nerves (synapse). It moves across the synapse to the postsynaptic receptors. C) ACh binds to the receptors and transfers the signal to the target cell, after a short time it is destroyed by acetylcholinesterase. Fasciculins: These toxins attack cholinergic neurons (those that use ACh as a transmitter) by destroying acetylcholinesterase (AChE). ACh therefore cannot be broken down and stays in the receptor. This causes tetany (involuntary muscle contraction), which can lead to death. The toxins have been called fasciculins since after injection into mice, they cause severe, generalized and long-lasting (5-7 h) fasciculations (rapid muscle contractions)."
"diet to modulate systemic inflammation within the body. As stated chronic inflammation is linked to most chronic diseases including arthritis, many types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, and diabetes. Acute inflammation of the muscle cells, as understood in exercise physiology, can result after induced eccentric and concentric muscle training. Participation in eccentric training and conditioning, including resistance training and activities that emphasize eccentric lengthening of the muscle including downhill running on a moderate to high incline can result in considerable soreness within 24 to 48 hours, even though blood lactate levels, previously thought to cause muscle soreness, were"
"person may require rehabilitation therapy after leaving the hospital. ""Clostridium botulinum"" is an anaerobic, Gram positive, spore-forming rod. Botulinum toxin is one of the most powerful known toxins: about one microgram is lethal to humans when inhaled. It acts by blocking nerve function (neuromuscular blockade) through inhibition of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine's release from the presynaptic membrane of neuromuscular junctions in the somatic nervous system. This causes paralysis. Advanced botulism can cause respiratory failure by paralysing the muscles of the chest; this can progress to respiratory arrest. Furthermore, acetylcholine release from the presynaptic membranes of muscarinic nerve synapses is blocked."
"it is not degraded by cholinesterase which normally performs this function. As a result, the muscle cells contract permanently, the communication between the brain and the muscles is disrupted and breathing stops. When it was first discovered, the toxin was called the Very Fast Death Factor (VFDF) because when it was injected into the body cavity of mice it induced tremors, paralysis and death within a few minutes. In 1977, the structure of VFDF was determined as a secondary, bicyclic amine alkaloid, and it was renamed anatoxin-""a"". Structurally, it is similar to cocaine. There is continued interest in anatoxin-""a"" because"
"A knock out study in 2014 showed that the lack of syntaxin1B led to a significant decrease in RRP size. Many neurotoxins directly affect SNARE complexes. Such toxins as the botulinum and tetanus toxins work by targeting the SNARE components. These toxins prevent proper vesicle recycling and result in poor muscle control, spasms, paralysis, and even death. Botulinum Toxin (BoNT) is one of the most potent toxins to have ever been discovered. It is a proteolytic enzyme that cleaves SNARE proteins in neurons. Its protein structure is composed of two peptide subunits, a heavy chain (100kDas) and a light chain"
"half the cases are due to ""S. aureus"", and the other half are due to tuberculosis (spread hematogenously from the lungs). Tubercular osteomyelitis of the spine was so common before the initiation of effective antitubercular therapy, it acquired a special name, Pott's disease. The ""Burkholderia cepacia"" complex has been implicated in vertebral osteomyelitis in intravenous drug users. In general, microorganisms may infect bone through one or more of three basic methods The area usually affected when the infection is contracted through the bloodstream is the metaphysis of the bone. Once the bone is infected, leukocytes enter the infected area, and,"
"causes progressive, painful inflammation of skeletal muscle tissue. The first symptoms of the disease, which usually present between three and eight months of age, include a “bunny hopping” gait and rear leg stiffness, then, escalate to include muscle tremors, progressive weakness, and severe muscle atrophy. The Dutch Shepherd Dog Club of America financed genetic research to analyze and interpret molecular information to identify this disease, which was spearheaded by Dutch Shepherd Dog Club of America veterinary counsel Karen Wroblewski DVM. Dr. Wroblewski orchestrated a nationwide collaboration of veterinary professionals, breeders and Dutch Shepherd fanciers resulting in the description of this"
"Rhine may have caused convulsive ergotism, while ergot from the west caused epidemics of gangrenous ergotism. Ergotism Ergotism (pron. ) is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the ""Claviceps purpurea"" fungus that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning and Saint Anthony's Fire. The symptoms can be roughly divided into convulsive symptoms and gangrenous symptoms. Convulsive symptoms include painful seizures and spasms, diarrhea, paresthesias, itching, mental effects including mania or psychosis, headaches,"
"Pyomyositis Pyomyositis, also known as tropical pyomyositis or myositis tropicans, is a bacterial infection of the skeletal muscles which results in a pus-filled abscess. Pyomyositis is most common in tropical areas but can also occur in temperate zones. The abscesses within the muscle must be drained surgically (not all patient require surgery if there is no abscess). Antibiotics are given for a minimum of three weeks to clear the infection. Pyomyositis is most often caused by the bacterium ""Staphylococcus aureus"". The infection can affect any skeletal muscle, but most often infects the large muscle groups such as the quadriceps or"
"Infectious mononucleosis Infectious mononucleosis (IM, mono), also known as glandular fever, is an infection usually caused by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Most people are infected by the virus as children, when the disease produces few or no symptoms. In young adults, the disease often results in fever, sore throat, enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, and tiredness. Most people recover in two to four weeks; however, feeling tired may last for months. The liver or spleen may also become swollen, and in less than one percent of cases splenic rupture may occur. While usually caused by Epstein–Barr virus, also known"
"the ovaries or testes.Depression, severe headaches and dizziness are the symptoms for toxins affecting the spinal cord and brain. Visible reactions such as skin rashes, and swelling and eye redness are common. Exposure to asbestos can lead to Mesothelioma which is a cancer that can cause serious damage to the lining of the lungs. The symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, night sweats and fever. There are thousands of causes of toxic injuries. A toxic injury is caused when one comes in contact with any toxin. However, some causes are still unknown or extremely uncommon. Generally, there are two different"
"of the underlying nerves). Rapid progression to shock despite antibiotic therapy is another indication of necrotizing fasciitis. Necrotizing changes affecting the groin are known as Fournier gangrene. However, those who are immunocompromised (have cancer, use corticosteroid, on radiotherapy, chemotherapy, HIV/AIDS, or prior organ or bone marrow transplantation) may not show normal symptoms. Immunocompromised persons also have two-fold higher risk of death from necrotizing infections, so higher suspicion should be maintained in this group. More than 70% of cases are recorded in people with at least one of these clinical situations: immunosuppression, diabetes, alcoholism/drug abuse/smoking, malignancies, and chronic systemic diseases. For"