"are examples of how large volumes of debris may cause a rapid displacement of water when they suddenly enter a body of water in a restricted area. Because the surges were only able to dissipate by moving down the Bay or over the dam they do not serve as examples of mega-tsunami generation. In 1883 the Indonesian volcano Krakatau exploded in a cataclysmic explosive eruption. Most of the island vanished as the volcano exploded and this generated a tsunami which devastated local areas. It carried a Dutch naval vessel, ""Barouw"", inland for over 5 km and left it stranded about"
"which were among the most violent volcanic events in recorded history. With an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6, the eruption was equivalent to —about 13,000 times the nuclear yield of the Little Boy bomb (13 to 16 kt) that devastated Hiroshima, Japan, during World War II, and four times the yield of Tsar Bomba (50 Mt), the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated. The 1883 eruption ejected approximately of rock. The cataclysmic explosion was heard away in Alice Springs, as well as on the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, to the west. According to the official records of"
"places, and his investigation proved important in judging the geological impact of the 1883 eruption. While seismic activity around the volcano was intense in the years preceding the cataclysmic 1883 eruption, a series of lesser eruptions began on 20 May 1883. The volcano released huge plumes of steam and ash lasting until late August. On 27 August a series of four huge explosions almost entirely destroyed the island. The explosions were so violent that they were heard away in Perth, Western Australia, and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, away. The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on"
"1883 eruption of Krakatoa The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) began in the afternoon of Sunday, 26 August 1883 (with origins as early as May of that year), and peaked in the late morning of Monday, 27 August when over 70% of the island and its surrounding archipelago were destroyed as it collapsed into a caldera. Additional seismic activity was reported to have continued until February 1884, though reports of seismic activity after October 1883 were later dismissed by Rogier Verbeek's investigation into the eruption. The 1883 eruption was one of the deadliest and"
"they were thought to be cannon fire from a nearby ship. The third explosion has been reported as the loudest sound heard in historic times. The loudness of the blast heard from the volcano has been calculated to have been 180 dB. Each explosion was accompanied by tsunamis estimated to have been over high in places. A large area of the Sunda Strait and a number of places on the Sumatran coast were affected by pyroclastic flows from the volcano. The energy released from the explosion has been estimated to be equal to about 200 megatons of TNT, roughly four"
"of 1883 produced an eruption column which rose to more than 50 km. An ash flow from this explosion was recognised 2,500 km west of the volcano. The total area of recognisable pyroclastic fall was greater than 800,000 km². The pyroclastic ash encircled the globe in 13.5 days and at altitudes of between 30 and 50 km the average velocity was 12 km/h. The ash remained in the upper atmosphere and produced brilliant sunsets for many years, lowered the global temperature by 0.5 °C for at least five years. The 1912 eruption in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (Alaska)"
"renewed activity had actually been a major landslide (possibly the one which formed the second arc to Rakata's cliff). Examinations after 1930 of bathymetric charts made in 1919 show evidence of a bulge indicative of magma near the surface at the site that became Anak Krakatau. Source: Oppenheimer (2003), and Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program for VEI. 1883 eruption of Krakatoa The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) began in the afternoon of Sunday, 26 August 1883 (with origins as early as May of that year), and peaked in the late morning of Monday, 27 August"
"also the site of one of the largest known eruptions of the Cenozoic, the VEI 8 Toba supereruption on Sumatra, which expelled 2,800 km³ of magma c. 74,000 BP. The resulting caldera has become Lake Toba. The loudest noise in recorded history occurred during the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa and was heard away. Hundreds of thousands of people have been killed by these eruptions and by episodes of activity at other volcanoes, including Papandayan, Galunggung, Merapi, Kelud, and Agung. While there are 35 and 45 active volcanoes on Sumatra and Java respectively, and ~30 in the Lesser Sunda Islands, a"
"combined explosive yield of approximately 13,000 megatons. By comparison, when the volcano Mount Tambora erupted in 1815—turning 1816 into the Year Without A Summer due to the levels of global dimming sulfate aerosols and ash expelled—it exploded with a force of roughly 800 to 1,000 megatons, and ejected of mostly rock/tephra, that included 120 million tonnes of sulfur dioxide as an upper estimate. A larger eruption, approximately 74,000 years ago, in Mount Toba produced of tephra, forming lake Toba, and produced an estimated of sulfur dioxide. The explosive energy of the eruption may have been as high as equivalent to"
"have triggered activity in both Leuser Mountain and Mount Talang, volcanoes in Aceh province along the same range of peaks, while the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra. The energy released on the Earth's surface (""M"", which is the ""seismic potential for damage"") by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at 1.1×10 joules, or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1,500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated; however, the total physical work done"
"strong (VEI=3) eruption. Samuel Kneeland, a naturalist, professor and geologist, personally observed the volcanic activity on Christmas Day, 1881, about five months after the start of the activity: At the date of my visit, the volcano had poured out, for five months continuously, a stream of lava on the Legaspi side from the very summit. The viscid mass bubbled quietly but grandly, and overran the border of the crater, descending several hundred feet in a glowing wave, like red-hot iron. Gradually, fading as the upper surface cooled, it changed to a thousand sparkling rills among the crevices, and, as it"
"as West Java and South Sulawesi, while a ""nitrous odor"" was noticeable in Batavia. The heavy tephra-tinged rain did not finally recede until 17 April. Analysis of various sites on Mount Tambora using ground-penetrating radar has revealed alternations of pumice and ash deposits covered by the pyroclastic surge and flow sediments that vary in thickness regionally. The eruption is estimated to have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7. It had roughly four times the energy of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption. An estimated of pyroclastic trachyandesite was ejected, weighing approximately 1.4×10 kg. This has left a caldera measuring across and"
"as much as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The erupted magma of rhyolite, dacite, and andesite resulted in more than of air fall tuff and approximately of pyroclastic ash-flow tuff. During the 20th century, only the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines and the 1902 eruption of Santa María in Guatemala were of comparable magnitude; Pinatubo ejected of tephra., and Santa María just slightly less. At least two larger eruptions occurred in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) during the 19th century: the 1815 eruption of Tambora ( of tephra) and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa"
"eruption. The effects of the eruption were felt worldwide. It ejected roughly or of magma, and of , bringing vast quantities of minerals and toxic metals to the surface environment. It injected more particulate into the stratosphere than any eruption since Krakatoa in 1883. Over the following months, the aerosols formed a global layer of sulfuric acid haze. Global temperatures dropped by about in the years 1991–93, and ozone depletion temporarily increased substantially. The volcano is northwest of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Near Mount Pinatubo, the United States maintained two large military bases in the region. The U.S."
"as they were unaware that dangerous chemicals were stored on the site, thereby setting in motion a series of more violent chemical reactions. At around 23:30 (15:30 UTC), the 1st explosion occurred and registered as a magnitude 2.3 earthquake, generating seismic shock-waves energetically equivalent to 2.9 tonnes of TNT. After 30 seconds, a 2nd more powerful explosion occurred, causing most of the damage and injuries with shock-waves felt many kilometres away. The second explosion registered as a magnitude 2.9 earthquake and generated seismic shock-waves with energy equivalent to 21.9 tonnes of TNT. The resulting fireballs reached hundreds of meters in"
"a result of the eruption combined with the collapse of the caldera. About 90,000 people were killed as a result of Mt. Tambora's 1815 eruption, about 10,000 directly from the eruption and about 80,000 from crop loss and famine. In 1883, the catastrophic eruption of Krakatoa, a volcanic island in Lampung, which registered as a 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), and the tsunamis that ensued killed about 36,000 people, and approximately two-thirds of the original island was destroyed as well. The 2010 the eruption of Mount Merapi, a stratovolcano, began in late October and continued into November. This"
"second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century (surpassed only by the 1912 eruption of Novarupta), and the largest eruption in living memory. The eruption produced high-speed pyroclastic flows, giant lahars, and a cloud of volcanic ash hundreds of miles across. 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide and roughly of tephra are estimated to have been ejected in total, which corresponds to a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6. By contrast, roughly 4 km of material was ejected in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens; this corresponds to a VEI of 5. Very few of the estimated 20,000 who"
"device itself is ""no bigger than a standard can of coke."" It is named after the famous 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, which resulted in the loudest sound ever heard and was the second deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history. This explosive device was designed to play a role in covert operations, as a small but extremely powerful device that can disable tanks, vehicles, or even a warship. The device can be used underwater, at high altitudes, and in snow, hail, sleet, or any form of weather. The device has copper cone with a driving charge of very fast high explosive"
"was equivalent to the Hiroshima nuclear explosion, scientific analysis places the force of the blast at anywhere from 100–500 tonnes TNT equivalent, around three percent of Hiroshima's yield. On 15 September 2007, a chondritic meteor crashed near the village of Carancas in southeastern Peru near Lake Titicaca, leaving a water-filled hole and spewing gases across the surrounding area. Many residents became ill, apparently from the noxious gases shortly after the impact. On 7 October 2008, an approximately 4 meter asteroid labeled was tracked for 20 hours as it approached Earth and as it fell through the atmosphere and impacted in"
"Mount Tarawera Mount Tarawera is the volcano responsible for one of New Zealand's largest historic eruptions. Located 24 kilometres southeast of Rotorua in the North Island, it consists of a series of rhyolitic lava domes that were fissured down the middle by an explosive basaltic eruption in 1886, which killed an estimated 120 people. These fissures run for about 17 kilometres northeast-southwest. The volcano's component domes include Ruawahia Dome (the highest at 1,111 metres), Tarawera Dome and Wahanga Dome. It is surrounded by several lakes, most of which were created or drastically altered by the 1886 eruption. These lakes include"
"Krakatoa: The Last Days Krakatoa: The Last Days (also titled Krakatoa: Volcano of Destruction in the U.S. on the Discovery Channel) is a BBC Television docudrama that premiered on 7 May 2006 on BBC One. The program is based upon four eyewitness accounts of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, an active stratovolcano between the islands of Sumatra and Java, present day Indonesia. The series was produced by the BBC in co-production with Discovery Channel, RTL Television, and France 2. The film was broadcast on BBC One on 7 May 2006 and drew 6.4 million viewers (27% audience share) The 1883"
"not suffer the serious damage implied by the condition of the mission school in the film. The violent and continuous explosions on Krakatoa as the ""Batavia Queen"" steams from Krakatoa to Palembang and then to the vicinity of Anjer late in the movie appear to depict the final, cataclysmic eruption of the volcano on 26–27 August 1883. The huge tsunami that engulfs Anjer and its lighthouse in the films climactic sequence is consistent with the wave that struck the west coast of Java on the morning of 27 August 1883, rising to a height of 40 meters (135 feet) at"
"Krakatoa Krakatoa, or Krakatau (), is a volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in the Indonesian province of Lampung. The name is also used for the surrounding island group comprising the remnants of a much larger island of three volcanic peaks which was obliterated in a cataclysmic 1883 eruption. In 1927, a new island, Anak Krakatau, or ""Child of Krakatoa"", emerged from the caldera formed in 1883 and is the current location of eruptive activity. The most notable eruptions of Krakatoa culminated in a series of massive explosions over 26–27 August 1883,"
"March 20, at 3:45 p.m. Pacific Standard Time (all times will be in PST or PDT), a shallow magnitude 4.2 earthquake centered below the volcano's north flank, signaled the volcano's violent return from 123 years of hibernation. A gradually building earthquake swarm saturated area seismographs and started to climax at about noon on March 25, reaching peak levels in the next two days, including an earthquake registering 5.1 on the Richter scale. A total of 174 shocks of magnitude 2.6 or greater were recorded during those two days. Shocks of magnitude 3.2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate"
"Oruanui eruption of the Taupo Volcano was the world's largest known eruption in the past 70,000 years, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8. It occurred around 26,500 years ago and generated approximately 430 km³ of pyroclastic fall deposits, 320 km³ of pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits (mostly ignimbrite) and 420 km³ of primary intracaldera material, equivalent to 530 km³ of magma. Modern Lake Taupo partly fills the caldera generated during this eruption. Tephra from the eruption covered much of the central North Island with ignimbrite up to 200 metres deep. Most of New Zealand was affected by ash fall,"
"20,000,000 megatons (Mt) of TNT, while the asteroid created Chicxulub impact, that is connected with the extinction of the dinosaurs corresponds to at least 70,000,000 Mt of energy, which is roughly 7000 times the maximum arsenal of the US and Soviet Union. However, comparisons with supervolcanoes are more misleading than helpful due to the different aerosols released, the likely air burst fuzing height of nuclear weapons and the globally scattered location of these potential nuclear detonations all being in contrast to the singular and subterranean nature of a supervolcanic eruption. Moreover, assuming the entire world stockpile of weapons were grouped"
"BP; two pyroclastic eruptions occurred later and formed the Black Sands and Brown Tuff formations, the last of which was emplaced between about 3890 BC and 800 AD. In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its maximum eruptive intensity occurring in April 1815. The magnitude was 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) scale, with a total tephra ejecta volume of 1.6 × 10 cubic metres. Its eruptive characteristics included central vent and explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and caldera collapse. This eruption had a long-term effect on global climate. Volcanic activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Activity resumed"
"changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation. The effects of volcanic eruptions on recent winters are modest in scale, but historically have been significant. 1991: Most recently, the 1991 explosion of Mount Pinatubo, a stratovolcano in the Philippines, cooled global temperatures for about 2–3 years. 1883: The explosion of Krakatoa (Krakatau) created volcanic winter-like conditions. The four years following the explosion were unusually cold, and the winter of 1887–1888 included powerful blizzards. Record snowfalls were recorded worldwide. 1815: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, a stratovolcano in Indonesia, occasioned mid-summer frosts in New York State and June snowfalls in New England"
"the original estimate of of dense-rock equivalent (DRE, i.e. total volume of material erupted from the volcano) that was published in 1991. With an estimated DRE in excess of , the volume of ejecta was approximately . If so, the eruption's Volcanic Explosivity Index was 7. The volcano ejected up to four times as much as the well-recorded eruption by Krakatoa in 1883. The Thera volcanic events and subsequent ashfall probably sterilized the island, i.e. destroyed all indigenous life, as occurred on Krakatoa. Only the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815, Lake Taupo's Hatepe eruption around 180 CE, and perhaps"
"times as powerful as the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever detonated. At 10:41am, a landslide tore off half of Rakata volcano, causing the final explosion. The pressure wave generated by the colossal fourth and final explosion radiated out from Krakatoa at . The eruption is estimated to have reached 310 dB, loud enough to be heard clearly away. It was so powerful that it ruptured the eardrums of sailors away on ships in the Sunda Strait, and caused a spike of more than in pressure gauges away, attached to gasometers in the Batavia gasworks, sending them off"
"1918. Further smaller eruptions continued throughout the 20th century, with the most recent one in May 1981 in the Raupo Pond Crater destroying the Mud Rift created there in 1906. The stretch of the Waimangu Volcanic Rift Valley running from Southern Crater to the shores of Lake Rotomahana has been a hotspot of geothermal and hydrothermal activity since the 1886 Mount Tarawera eruption, and contains the three lake-filled craters Southern Crater, Echo Crater, and Inferno Crater, as well as the bush-clad Raupo Pond Crater, Fairy Crater and Black Crater. The deep Southern Crater was formed by the 1886 Mount Tarawera"
"both eruptions came from the Bendal volcano. Lou island is the largest eruptive centre of the volcano, with 6 volcanic vents. Also the Pam islands (Pam Lin and Pam Mandian) also contain fresh deposits. Historic eruptions have come from the Tuluman Islands. A small submarine eruption came from the Tulaman islands on March 28, 1880. The vent that the eruption came from was probably one of the vents that formed Tuluman island in its 1953-1957 eruption. This was a small VEI 2 explosive eruption. An eruption began June 27, 1953. The eruption began with submarine eruptions that formed a new"
"the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami. The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is felt only weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast, something which was observed on the eastern side of the rupture zone of the earthquake such as"