"for example, English speakers pronounced the English /p t k/ sounds, as well as English vowels, differently after they began to learn Korean. These effects of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea of multi-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind. ""Learner language"" is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research. Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in"
"E E (named ""e"" , plural ""ees"") is the fifth letter and the second vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish. The Latin letter 'E' differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon, 'Ε'. This in turn comes from the Semitic letter ""hê"", which has been suggested to have started as a praying or calling human figure (""hillul"" 'jubilation'), and was probably based on a similar Egyptian hieroglyph that indicated"
"better works. In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'e' is signed by extending the index finger of the right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand, with all fingers of left hand open. E E (named ""e"" , plural ""ees"") is the fifth letter and the second vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish. The Latin letter 'E' differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon,"
"especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. Spelling alphabets such as the ICAO spelling alphabet, used by aircraft pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other. The letter most commonly used in English is E. The least used letter is Z. The frequencies shown in the table may differ in practice according to the type of text. The & has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011. Historically, the figure"
"T T (named ""tee"" ) is the 20th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second most common letter in English-language texts. ""Taw"" was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. The sound value of Semitic ""Taw"", Greek alphabet Tαυ (""Tau""), Old Italic and Latin T has remained fairly constant, representing in each of these; and it has also kept its original basic shape in most of these alphabets. In English, usually denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive ( and X-SAMPA: ), as in"
"has been derived from frequency of use (FoU) statistics, plus additional considerations, such as the most frequent two- and three-letter combinations found in words. As much as possible, such combinations need to be placed as non-blocking sequences. Whilst the letter E is normally regarded as the most common letter in the English language, one should not ignore the Space character, as it is nearly twice as frequent; additionally, in punctuation, the comma and full-stop are more frequent than the letters KVJZXQ. Directional or cursor keys have also been subject to changes in design approach. Whilst the earlier PC-XT compatible Model"
"""the dog's name"". The reference is also found in Ben Jonson's ""English Grammar"". The letter is the eighth most common letter in English and the fourth-most common consonant (after , , and ). The letter is used to form the ending ""-re"", which is used in certain words such as ""centre"" in some varieties of English spelling, such as British English. Canadian English also uses the ""-re"" ending, unlike American English, where the ending is usually replaced by ""-er"" (""center""). This does not affect pronunciation. represents a rhotic consonant in many languages, as shown in the table below. Other languages"
"a short vowel, the way for example P is doubled to indicate the difference between 'super' and 'supper'. However, that is changing with newly coined words, such as 'divvy up' and 'skivvies'. Like J, K, Q, X, and Z, V is not used very frequently in English. It is the sixth least frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 1.03% in words. V is the only letter that cannot be used to form an English two-letter word in the Australian version of the game of Scrabble. C also cannot be used in the American version."
"ER IN ON AT ND ST ES EN OF TE ED OR TI HI AS TO"", and the most common doubled letters as ""LL EE SS OO TT FF RR NN PP CC"". Also, to note that different dialects of a language will also affect a letter's frequency. For example, an author in the United States would produce something in which the letter 'z' is more common than an author in the United Kingdom writing on the same topic: words like ""analyze"", ""apologize"", and ""recognize"" contain the letter in American English, whereas the same words are spelled ""analyse"", ""apologise"", and"
"the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent. The ""haitch"" pronunciation of ""h"" has spread in England, being used by approximately 24% of English people born since 1982 and polls continue to show this pronunciation becoming more common among younger native speakers. Despite this increasing number, the pronunciation without the sound is still considered to be standard in England, although the pronunciation with is also attested as a legitimate variant. Authorities disagree about the history of the letter's name. The ""Oxford English Dictionary"" says the original name of the letter was in Latin; this became in Vulgar Latin,"
"the alphabet appear more often than others; in English, ""E"" is likely to be the most common letter in any sample of plaintext. Similarly, the digraph ""TH"" is the most likely pair of letters in English, and so on. Frequency analysis relies on a cipher failing to hide these statistics. For example, in a simple substitution cipher (where each letter is simply replaced with another), the most frequent letter in the ciphertext would be a likely candidate for ""E"". Frequency analysis of such a cipher is therefore relatively easy, provided that the ciphertext is long enough to give a reasonably"
"""recognise"" in British English. This would highly affect the frequency of the letter 'z' as it is a rarely used letter elsewhere in the English language. The ""top twelve"" letters constitute about 80% of the total usage. The ""top eight"" letters constitute about 65% of the total usage. Letter frequency as a function of rank can be fitted well by several rank functions, with the two-parameter Cocho/Beta rank function being the best. Another rank function with no adjustable free parameter also fits the letter frequency distribution reasonably well (the same function has been used to fit the amino acid frequency"
"is the fifth most common letter in the English language. The English first-person singular nominative pronoun is ""I"", pronounced and always written with a capital letter. This pattern arose for basically the same reason that lowercase acquired a dot: so it wouldn't get lost in manuscripts before the age of printing: In many languages' orthographies, is used to represent the sound or, more rarely, . The Roman numeral Ⅰ represents the number 1. In mathematics, the lowercase """" represents the unit imaginary number. In some sans serif typefaces, the uppercase letter I, 'I' may be difficult to distinguish from the"
"sounds. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive. T T (named ""tee"" ) is the 20th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second most common letter in English-language texts. ""Taw"" was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. The sound value of Semitic ""Taw"", Greek alphabet Tαυ (""Tau""), Old Italic and Latin T has remained fairly constant, representing in each of these; and it has also kept its original basic shape in most of these alphabets. In English, usually"
"Z, Q and X are rare. Likewise, TH, ER, ON, and AN are the most common pairs of letters (termed ""bigrams"" or ""digraphs""), and SS, EE, TT, and FF are the most common repeats. The nonsense phrase ""ETAOIN SHRDLU"" represents the 12 most frequent letters in typical English language text. In some ciphers, such properties of the natural language plaintext are preserved in the ciphertext, and these patterns have the potential to be exploited in a ciphertext-only attack. In a simple substitution cipher, each letter of the plaintext is replaced with another, and any particular letter in the plaintext will"
"of just 0.1% in words. Only is used less often. is the 24th letter in relative frequency as the first letter of an English word. In most European languages written in the Latin script, such as in Romance and Germanic languages, appears almost exclusively in the digraph . In French, Occitan, Catalan and Portuguese, represents or ; in Spanish, it represents . replaces for before front vowels and , since in those languages represents a fricative or affricate before front vowels. In Italian represents (where is the semivowel allophone of ). It is not considered to be part of the"
"""The"" is the most commonly used word in the English language, accounting for 7% of all words. ""The"" can be used with both singular and plural nouns, with nouns of any gender, and with nouns that start with any letter. This is different from many other languages which have different articles for different genders and/or numbers. Since ""the"" is one of the most frequently used words in English, at various times short abbreviations for it have been found: Occasional proposals have been made by individuals for an abbreviation. In 1916, Legros & Grant included in their classic printers' handbook ""Typographical"
"in the words ""knight,"" ""knife,"" ""knot,"" ""know,"" and ""knee"". Like J, X, Q, and Z, K is not used very frequently in English. It is the fifth least frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 0.8% in words. The SI prefix for a thousand is kilo-, officially abbreviated as k—for instance, prefixed to ""metre"" or its abbreviation ""m"", ""kilometre"" or ""km"" signifies a thousand metres. As such, people occasionally represent numbers in a non-standard notation by replacing the last three zeros of the general numeral with ""K"": for instance, 30K for 30,000. In most languages"
"a sample or test case or as random, meaningless nonsense. It is also a common learning tool for keyboard classes, since all four keys are located on Home row. ETAOIN SHRDLU is the approximate order of frequency of the twelve most commonly used letters in the English language, best known as a nonsense phrase that sometimes appeared in print in the days of ""hot type"" publishing due to a custom of Linotype machine operators. ""Lorem ipsum..."" is one of the most common filler texts, popular with typesetters and graphic designers. ""Li Europan lingues..."" is another similar example. ""Now is the"
"example, the creators of the Afaka and Ol Chiki scripts, each invented in different parts of the world in the last century, both attributed their vowels for 'O' to the shape of the mouth when making this sound. The letter is the fourth most common letter in the English alphabet. Like the other English vowel letters, it has associated ""long"" and ""short"" pronunciations. The ""long"" as in ""boat"" is actually most often a diphthong (realized dialectically anywhere from to ). In English there is also a ""short"" as in ""fox"", , which sounds slightly different in different dialects. In most"
"most common bigram, and the is the most common trigram. This strongly suggests that X~t, L~h and I~e. The second most common letter in the cryptogram is E; since the first and second most frequent letters in the English language, e and t are accounted for, Eve guesses that E~a, the third most frequent letter. Tentatively making these assumptions, the following partial decrypted message is obtained. Using these initial guesses, Eve can spot patterns that confirm her choices, such as ""that"". Moreover, other patterns suggest further guesses. ""Rtate"" might be ""state"", which would mean R~s. Similarly ""atthattMZe"" could be guessed"
"presses. An analysis of entries in the Concise Oxford dictionary, ignoring frequency of word use, gives an order of ""EARIOTNSLCUDPMHGBFYWKVXZJQ"". The letter-frequency table below is taken from Pavel Mička's website, which cites Robert Lewand's ""Cryptological Mathematics"". According to Lewand, arranged from most to least common in appearance, the letters are: etaoinshrdlcumwfgypbvkjxqz. Lewand's ordering differs slightly from others, such as Cornell University Math Explorer's Project, which produced a table after measuring 40,000 words. In English, the space is slightly more frequent than the top letter (e) and the non-alphabetic characters (digits, punctuation, etc.) collectively occupy the fourth position (having already included"
"the last edition to use the long ""s"". In German orthography, long ""s"" was retained in Fraktur (Schwabacher) type as well as in standard cursive (Sütterlin) well into the 20th century, and was officially abolished in 1941. The ligature of ""ſs"" (or ""ſz"") was retained, however, giving rise to the ""Eszett"", ""ß"" in contemporary German orthography. The letter is the seventh most common letter in English and the third-most common consonant after and . It is the most common letter in starting and ending position. In English and several other languages, primarily Western Romance ones like Spanish and French, final"
"Etaoin shrdlu Etaoin shrdlu (, ) is a nonsense phrase that sometimes appeared in print in the days of ""hot type"" publishing because of a custom of type-casting machine operators. It appeared often enough to become part of newspaper lore, and ""etaoin shrdlu"" is listed in the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" and in the ""Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary"". It is the approximate order of frequency of the 12 most commonly used letters in the English language. The letters on type-casting machine keyboards (such as Linotype and Intertype) were arranged by letter frequency, so e-t-a-o-i-n s-h-r-d-l-u were the lowercase keys in"
"B B or b (pronounced ) is the second letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It represents the voiced bilabial stop in many languages, including English. In some other languages, it is used to represent other bilabial consonants. Old English was originally written in runes, whose equivalent letter was beorc , meaning ""birch"". Beorc dates to at least the 2nd-century Elder Futhark, which is now thought to have derived from the Old Italic alphabets' either directly or via Latin . The uncial and half-uncial introduced by the Gregorian and Irish missions gradually developed into the Insular scripts' . These"
"of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer () while North American speakers more typically use (), but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered ""by some"" to be more up to date and more ""correct"". The Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress"
"A A (named , plural ""As"", ""A's"", ""a""s, ""a's"" or ""aes"") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is"
"encrypted using a simple substitution cipher as follows: For this example, uppercase letters are used to denote ciphertext, lowercase letters are used to denote plaintext (or guesses at such), and X~t is used to express a guess that ciphertext letter X represents the plaintext letter t. Eve could use frequency analysis to help solve the message along the following lines: counts of the letters in the cryptogram show that I is the most common single letter, XL most common bigram, and XLI is the most common trigram. e is the most common letter in the English language, th is the"
"Unicode assigns codepoints and in the Letterlike Symbols and Mathematical alphanumeric symbols ranges respectively. There is also a variant with a stroke. In modern English orthography, the letter usually represents the sound . It represents in words like ""seizure"". More often, this sound appears as or in words such as ""measure"", ""decision"", etc. In all these words, developed from earlier by ""yod""-coalescence. Few words in the Basic English vocabulary begin with , though it occurs in words beginning with other letters. It is the least frequently used letter in written English. It is more common in American English than in"
"the words that start with are of Greek origin, or standardized trademarks (""Xerox"") or acronyms (""XC""). In abbreviations, it can represent ""trans-"" (e.g. ""XMIT"" for transmit, ""XFER"" for transfer), ""cross-"" (e.g. ""X-ing"" for crossing, ""XREF"" for cross-reference), ""Christ-"" as shorthand for the labarum (e.g. ""Xmas"" for Christmas, ""Xian"" for Christian), the ""crys-"" in crystal (""XTAL""), or various words starting with ""ex-"" (e.g. ""XL"" for extra large, ""XOR"" for exclusive-or). X is the third least frequently used letter in English (after and ), with a frequency of about 0.15% in words. In Latin, stood for . In some languages, as a"
"was the 19th letter and was pronounced ""wah""; there was an equivalent letter in the old Baybayin script of the Philippines. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the voiced labial-velar approximant. W is the symbol for the chemical element tungsten, after its German (and alternative English) name, ""Wolfram"". It is also the SI symbol for the watt, the standard unit of power. Double-u, whose name reflects stages in the letter's evolution when it was considered two of the same letter, a double U, is the only modern English letter whose name has more than one syllable. It is"
"size in a brassiere. A A (named , plural ""As"", ""A's"", ""a""s, ""a's"" or ""aes"") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read"
"had been spelled out as ""MacKinley""). Since the advent of computer-sorted lists, this type of alphabetization is less frequently encountered, though it is still used in British telephone directories. Ligatures (two or more letters merged into one symbol) which are not considered distinct letters, such as Æ and Œ in English, are typically collated as if the letters were separate- ""æther"" and ""aether"" would be ordered the same relative to all other words. This is true even when the ligature is not purely stylistic, such as in loanwords and brand names. Special rules may need to be adopted to sort"