"Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine is a book written by Norbert Wiener and published in 1948. It is the first public usage of the term ""cybernetics"" to refer to self-regulating mechanisms. The book laid the theoretical foundation for servomechanisms (whether electrical, mechanical or hydraulic), automatic navigation, analog computing, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, and reliable communications. A second edition with minor changes and two additional chapters was published in 1961. The book aroused a considerable amount of public discussion and comment at the time of"
"of cybernetics is the concept of feedback: a portion of information produced by the system that is taken, total or partially, as input. Cybernetics is the science that studies control and regulation in systems in which there exists flow and feedback of information. Though first used by science fiction poet Bruce Boston, the term cybertext was brought to the literary world's attention by Espen Aarseth in 1997. Aarseth's concept of cybertext focuses on the organization of the text in order to analyze the influence of the medium as an integral part of the literary dynamic. According to Aarseth, cybertext is"
"or poisons; while ""cybernetics"" originates from the Greek word ""kubernetes"", which means ""the art of steering"". Norbert Wiener first defined cybernetics as the science or study of ""control and communication in the animal and the machine"". Since then, the American Society for Cybernetics has further described this field as ""the design or discovery and application of principles of regulation and communication"". Cybernetics has been applied to many fields, such as anthropology, sociology, systems theory, psychology, biology, computer science and engineering. The defining characteristic of a cybernetic system is its relationship between endogenous goals and the external environment. In the 1970s,"
"Cybernetics. Cyberneticist A cyberneticist or a cybernetician is a person who practices cybernetics. Heinz von Foerster once told Stuart Umpleby that Norbert Wiener preferred the term ""cybernetician"" rather than ""cyberneticist"", perhaps because Wiener was a mathematician rather than a physicist. The word cyberneticist was used by Nicolas Rashevsky who began as a theoretical physicist, Robert Rosen, who began his career as a mathematician, regarded Neuro cybernetics—and more generally Biocybernetics—as fields closely allied to Mathematical Biology and Mathematical Biophysics in which control theory and dynamical system theories also play significant roles. Today ""cybernetician"" is preferred by members of the American Society"
"Cyberneticist A cyberneticist or a cybernetician is a person who practices cybernetics. Heinz von Foerster once told Stuart Umpleby that Norbert Wiener preferred the term ""cybernetician"" rather than ""cyberneticist"", perhaps because Wiener was a mathematician rather than a physicist. The word cyberneticist was used by Nicolas Rashevsky who began as a theoretical physicist, Robert Rosen, who began his career as a mathematician, regarded Neuro cybernetics—and more generally Biocybernetics—as fields closely allied to Mathematical Biology and Mathematical Biophysics in which control theory and dynamical system theories also play significant roles. Today ""cybernetician"" is preferred by members of the American Society for"
"Management cybernetics Management cybernetics is the application of cybernetics to management and organizations. ""Management cybernetics"" was first introduced by Stafford Beer in the late 1950s. Beer developed the theory through a combination of practical applications and a series of influential books. The practical applications involved steel production, publishing and operations research in a large variety of different industries. As practiced by Beer, research into operations involved multidisciplinary teams seeking practical assistance for difficult managerial issues. It often involved the development of models borrowed from basic sciences and put into an isomorphic relationships with an organizational situation. Beer initially called this"
"the story, also varying each performance in response to multiple factors. Cybernetics was first developed in the 20th century; it investigates the functions and processes of systems. The goal in cybernetics is to identify and understand a system's closed signaling loop, in which an action by the system generates a change in the environment, which in turn triggers feedback to the system and initiates a new action. The field has expanded from a focus on mechanistic and biological systems to an expanded recognition that these theoretical constructs can also be applied to many cultural and societal systems, including folklore. Once"
"shape during the late 1960s and mid 1970s. The 1967 keynote address to the inaugural meeting of the American Society for Cybernetics (ASC), Margaret Mead, who had been a participant at the Macy Conferences, is a defining moment in its development. She characterised ""cybernetics as a way of looking at things and as a language for expressing what one sees"". This paper was social and ecological in focus, with Mead calling on cyberneticians to assume responsibility for how the social consequences of the language of cybernetics and the development of cybernetic systems. Mead's paper concluded with a proposal directed at"
"latter sector is emphasised). Management cybernetics Management cybernetics is the application of cybernetics to management and organizations. ""Management cybernetics"" was first introduced by Stafford Beer in the late 1950s. Beer developed the theory through a combination of practical applications and a series of influential books. The practical applications involved steel production, publishing and operations research in a large variety of different industries. As practiced by Beer, research into operations involved multidisciplinary teams seeking practical assistance for difficult managerial issues. It often involved the development of models borrowed from basic sciences and put into an isomorphic relationships with an organizational situation."
"the largest unregulated and uncontrolled domain in the history of mankind, and is also unique because it is a domain created by people vice the traditional physical domains. The parent term of cyberspace is ""cybernetics"", derived from the Ancient Greek ""κυβερνήτης"" (""kybernētēs"", steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder), a word introduced by Norbert Wiener for his pioneering work in electronic communication and control science. This word cyberspace first appeared in the art installation of the same name by danish artist Susanne Ussing, 1968).<ref name=""http://www.kunstkritikk.dk"">Kunstkritikk, """"The (Re)invention of Cyberspace""""</ref> As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social"
"cybernetician be treated as a craftsperson in and with time, merging art, science and design. Since its inception in 1992, Richards was a guest at the School for Designing a Society in Urbana, Illinois. A premise of the school was that social change can be realized in a transformation from the current to a new society (a change of system), not only in improvements to the current society (changes in a system). Richards saw in the cybernetic concept of conversation a particular dialogic with special relevance to processes of design and participation; from this, he created an idea for a"
"Engineering cybernetics Engineering cybernetics or technical cybernetics, established by H.S. Tsien, is a field of cybernetics, which deals with the question of control engineering of mechatronic systems as well as chemical or biological systems. It is used to control and predict the behaviour of such a system; see control theory. An example of engineering cybernetics is a device designed in the mid-1960s by General Electric Company. Referred to as a CAM (cybernetic anthropomorphous machine), this machine was designed for use by the US Army ground troops. Operated by one man in a ""cockpit"" at the front end, the machine's ""legs"""
"in his book """", to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. The word ""cybernetics"" was first used in the context of ""the study of self-governance"" by Plato in ""The Alcibiades"" to signify the governance of people. The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. The first artificial automatic regulatory system was a water clock, invented by the mechanician Ktesibios; based on a tank which poured water into a reservoir before using it to run"
"κυβερνάω (""kybernáō""), the latter meaning ""to steer, navigate or govern"", hence κυβέρνησις (""kybérnēsis""), meaning ""government"", is the government while κυβερνήτης (""kybernḗtēs"") is the governor or ""helmperson"" of the ""ship"". Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, anthropology, and psychology in the 1940s, often attributed to the Macy Conferences. During the second half of the 20th century cybernetics evolved in ways that distinguish first-order cybernetics (about observed systems) from second-order cybernetics (about observing systems). More recently there is talk about a third-order cybernetics (doing in"
"Second-order cybernetics Second-order cybernetics, also known as the cybernetics of cybernetics, is the recursive application of cybernetics to itself. It was developed between approximately 1968 and 1975 by Margaret Mead, Heinz von Foerster and others. Von Foerster referred to it as the cybernetics of ""observing systems"" whereas first order cybernetics is that of ""observed systems"". It is sometimes referred to as the ""new cybernetics"", the term preferred by Gordon Pask, and is closely allied to radical constructivism, which was developed around the same time by Ernst von Glasersfeld. While it is sometimes considered a radical break from the earlier concerns"
"precision, which is limited anyway, since (using common floating-point arithmetic) only a finite amount of values can be represented exactly. The discrepancy between the exact mathematical value and the stored/computed value is called the approximation error. The word ""cybernetics"" stems from the Greek Κυβερνήτης (""kybernētēs"", steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder — the same root as government). In applying corrections to the trajectory or course being steered cybernetics can be seen as the most general approach to error and its correction for the achievement of any goal. The term was suggested by Norbert Wiener to describe a new science of control"
"Michael Gosney of ""Verbum Magazine,"" who later co-produced a series of Digital Be-Ins with Robert Gelman from 1993 to 1998. The term cyberarts is a portmanteau combining the root word of cybernetics, dealing with the study of control systems in machines and human nervous systems, and the word for the broad creative fields dealing with the creation of objects of form, beauty, and expression. Inspiration for the CyberArts International conferences revolved around the artistic implications of the rapidly changing technologies related to computers, input devices, digital storage, networking, and reproduction — parallel technologies that were revolutionizing the traditional visual and"
"is derived from ""cybernetics"", a word originally coined by a group of scientists led by Norbert Wiener and made popular by Wiener's book of 1948, ""Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine"". Cyberspace typically refers to the vast and growing logical domain composed of public and private networks; independently managed networks linked together through the lingua franca of the Internet, the Internet Protocol (IP). The definition of Cyberspace has been extended to include all network-space which at some point, through some path, may have eventual access to the public internet. Under this definition, cyberspace becomes virtually"
"choosing to fill in gaps in the history of the Cybermen or depict new encounters between them and the Doctor. The species also appeared in the ""Doctor Who"" TV spin-off ""Torchwood"", appearing in the fourth episode, ""Cyberwoman"" (2006). The name ""Cyberman"" comes from cybernetics, a term used in Norbert Wiener's book ""Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine"" (MIT Press, 1948). Wiener used the term in reference to the control of complex systems in the animal world and in mechanical networks, in particular self-regulating control systems. By 1960, doctors were performing research into surgically or mechanically"
"not formalized until the twentieth century, it is thought that the work of Hero, his automated devices in particular, represents some of the first formal research into cybernetics. Hero described the construction of the ""aeolipile"" (a version of which is known as ""Hero's engine"") which was a rocket-like reaction engine and the first-recorded steam engine (although Vitruvius mentioned the aeolipile in De Architectura some 100 years earlier than Hero). It was created almost two millennia before the industrial revolution. Another engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel; the"
"behind cybernetics – his work ""The Consonantist Psychology"" (Paris, 1938) was the main source of inspiration for N. Wiener's ""Cybernetics"" (Paris, 1948). Lazăr Edeleanu was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine and also invented the modern method of refining crude oil. In the arts and culture, prominent figures were George Enescu (music composer, violinist, professor of Sir Yehudi Menuhin), Constantin Brâncuși (sculptor), Eugène Ionesco (playwright), Mircea Eliade (historian of religion and novelist), Emil Cioran (essayist, Prix de l'Institut Francais for stylism) and Angela Gheorghiu (soprano). More recently, filmmakers such as Cristi Puiu and Cristian Mungiu have attracted international acclaim, as"
"Wiener, Alan Turing (though his work has a wholly different origin and theoretical framework), William Ross Ashby, Claude Shannon, Warren Weaver, and many other scientists working on computing and information theory back in the early 1950s. See the main article on Cybernetics. Some important work on information and communication was done by Gregory Bateson and his colleagues. Later contributions to the field were made by Fred Dretske, Jon Barwise, Brian Cantwell Smith, and others. The Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) was founded at Stanford University in 1983 by philosophers, computer scientists, linguists, and psychologists, under the"
"professor of Mathematics and Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was the first person to set the basis for a new type of Ethics in the mid 1940s. He noticed that the innovations and advances in science and technology, along with the fast-growing computer industry, were leading to the appearance of this type of Ethics that he named “cybernetics” (from the Greek word for the pilot of a ship). The emerging use of computers and other technologies were bringing up new ethical issues that needed to be analyzed carefully using new ethical guidelines. Wiener wrote three books that lay down"
"Cyberkinetics Cyberkinetics is an American company with roots tied to the University of Utah. It was co-founded by John Donoghue, Mijail Serruya, Gerhard Friehs of Brown University, and Nicho Hatsopoulos of the University of Chicago. The Braingate technology and related Cyberkinetic’s assets were acquired by BrainGate in 2008. BrainGate, Inc. is a privately held company that holds technology that can help transform thoughts into action. Scientists behind the project used $9.3 million in first round funding led by Oxford Bioscience Partners. A 2002 merger with Bionic Technologies, co-founded by Brian Hatt and Richard A. Normann (the inventor of the Utah"
"cybernetics was applied in healthcare as a means of setting positive outcome goals for patients who were not satisfied with their plastic surgeries. The emergence of ""new cybernetics"" or ""second-order cybernetics"" further expanded this concept to include the interactions between cybernetic systems and the people interacting with them, as well as to society as a whole. Cybernetics also includes the concept of ""cyberspace"", which is described by the science fiction author William Gibson as a virtual representation of information in varying states of accessibility that is linked to various people and organizations in his book Neuromancer. This concept is also"
"1967, that of applying cybernetic ideas to the formation of the society itself. While the main legacy of Mead's remarks has been the development of the epistemological concerns of second-order cybernetics (the cybernetics of cybernetics) by von Foerster and others, Glanville addressed them more directly in the innovative conversational (cybernetic) formats of the society's conferences, interpreting second order cybernetics in terms of how cybernetics may be practised ""cybernetically"". He characterised cybernetics as “the art of balancing complementarities in circularities.” Glanville’s attitude to research was somewhat purist: that it should originate in the field being researched, itself—rather than as a series"
"William Gibson William Ford Gibson (born March 17, 1948) is an American-Canadian speculative fiction writer and essayist widely credited with pioneering the science fiction subgenre known as cyberpunk. Beginning his writing career in the late 1970s, his early works were noir, near-future stories that explored the effects of technology, cybernetics, and computer networks on humans—a ""combination of lowlife and high tech""—and helped to create an iconography for the information age before the ubiquity of the Internet in the 1990s. Gibson notably coined the term ""cyberspace"" in his short story ""Burning Chrome"" (1982) and later popularized the concept in his acclaimed"
"become cybernetics' prehistory, because of his involvement in the 1930s in an informal conversational network around neurophysiology and the work of Walter Cannon on homeostasis. A second initiative he organized in the 1940s was a meeting about ""physiological mechanisms underlying the phenomena of conditioned reflexes and hypnosis as related to the problem of cerebral inhibition."" This socalled ""Cerebral Inhibition Meeting"" was sponsored by the Josiah Macy Foundation attended by scientists like Gregory Bateson, and Margaret Mead, and five others. Together they would initiated the Cybernetics Group. Among its members this group was as called the ""Man-Machine Project"". Other participants were"
"Computational cybernetics Computational cybernetics is the integration of cybernetics and computational intelligence techniques. Though the term Cybernetics entered the technical lexicon in the 1940s and 1950s, it was first used informally as a popular noun in the 1960s, when it became associated with computers, robotics, Artificial Intelligence and Science fiction. While Cybernetics is primarily concerned with the study of control systems, computational cybernetics focuses on their automatic (complex, autonomic, flexible, adaptive) operation. Furthermore, computational cybernetics covers not only mechanical, but biological (living), social and economical systems. To achieve this goal, it uses research from the fields of communication theory, signal"
"steps were duplicates of the leg movements of the harnessed operator. Engineering cybernetics Engineering cybernetics or technical cybernetics, established by H.S. Tsien, is a field of cybernetics, which deals with the question of control engineering of mechatronic systems as well as chemical or biological systems. It is used to control and predict the behaviour of such a system; see control theory. An example of engineering cybernetics is a device designed in the mid-1960s by General Electric Company. Referred to as a CAM (cybernetic anthropomorphous machine), this machine was designed for use by the US Army ground troops. Operated by one"
"same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social memes, living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study. In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ""The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society"" (Houghton-Mifflin). In the Soviet Union ""bourgeois"" cybernetics was initially considered a ""pseudoscience"" and ""ideological weapon"" of ""imperialist reactionaries"" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics. In the mid to late 1950s Viktor Glushkov"
"is neither as clear nor as grounded as the prior decades of research and machine- and theory-building. This tends to skew the impression gleaned by researchers as to Pask's contribution or even his lucidity. Gordon Pask Andrew Gordon Speedie Pask (28 June 1928 – 29 March 1996) was an English author, inventor, educational theorist, cybernetician and psychologist who made significant contributions to cybernetics, instructional psychology, experimental epistemology and educational technology. Pask first learned about cybernetics in early 1950s when the originator of the subject, Norbert Wiener, spoke at Cambridge University, where Pask was an undergraduate student. Pask was asked to"
"functional cycle (""Funktionskreis"") in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general. Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology and neuroscience in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna"