"bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA. Two organizations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee"
"trial. John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in physics for their work. Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for their new invention: ""Semiconductor Triode"", ""Solid Triode"", ""Surface States Triode"", ""Crystal Triode"" and ""Iotatron"" were all considered, but ""transistor"", coined by John R. Pierce, won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda (May 28, 1948) [26] calling for votes: Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words ""transconductance"" or ""transfer"", and ""varistor"". The device logically belongs in the"
"John Bardeen John Bardeen (; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and electrical engineer. He is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon N Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory. The transistor revolutionized the electronics industry and ushered the birth of the Information Age. The semiconductor device also made possible the development of almost every modern electronic device,"
"a CERN preprint. Israeli physicist Yuval Ne'eman published the classification of hadrons through their SU(3) flavor symmetry independently of Gell-Mann in 1962, and also felt that he had been unjustly deprived of the prize for the quark model. The 1956 prize went to John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain and William Bradford Shockley ""for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"". However, the committee did not recognize numerous preceding patent applications. As early as 1928, Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented several modern transistor types. In 1934, Oskar Heil patented a field-effect transistor. It is unclear whether Lilienfeld or"
"transistor that used an electric field as a ""grid"" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor. In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics ""for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"". In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the ""Compagnie des Freins et Signaux"", a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in"
"John Bardeen (1908–1991) shared the Nobel Prize in Physics twice — in 1956, as co-inventor of the transistor and in 1972, for the explanation of superconductivity. The transistor paved the way for all modern electronics, from computers to microchips. Diverse applications of superconductivity include infrared sensors and medical imaging systems."" The other scientists on the ""American Scientists"" sheet include biochemist Gerty Cori, chemist Linus Pauling and astronomer Edwin Hubble. John Bardeen John Bardeen (; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and electrical engineer. He is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in"
"transistor. Hence, in recognition of his work, the transistor is widely, yet not universally acknowledged as the most important invention of the entire 20th century since it forms today's building blocks of processors found and used in almost every modern computing and electronics device. In recognition of their invention of the transistor, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. 1947 Defibrillator Defibrillation is the definitive treatment for the life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Defibrillation consists of delivering a therapeutic dose of electrical energy to the affected heart. Dr. Claude Beck invented"
"enabler of modern electronics"". The three men received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 ""for research on semiconductors and the discovery of the transistor effect."" Convinced by the 1947 demonstration that a major breakthrough was being made, Bell Laboratories focused intensively on what it now called the ""Surface States Project"". Initially, strict secrecy was observed. Carefully restricted internal conferences within Bell Labs shared information about the work of Brattain, Bardeen, Shockley and others who were engaged in related research. Patents were registered, recording the invention of the point-contact transistor by Bardeen and Brattain. There was considerable anxiety over whether"
"and 1956. Representatives from international as well as domestic companies attended. Shockley believed (and stated) that he should have received all the credit for the discovery of the transistor. He actively excluded Bardeen and Brattain from new areas of research, in particular the junction transistor, which Shockley patented. Shockley's theory of the junction transistor was an ""impressive achievement"", pointing the way to future solid-state electronics, but it would be several years before its construction would become practically possible. Brattain transferred to another research group within Bell Laboratories, working with C. G. B. Garrett, and P. J. Boddy. He continued to"
"of scientists in the organization, one of whom was Dr. Walter Brattain (one of the trio who invented the germanium bipolar transistor in 1947, and who would be awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956). Ohl, in 1939, discovered the PN barrier (or as it became known, the “P–N junction”). At the time hardly anyone knew anything about the impurities within these crystals, but Russell Ohl discovered the mechanism by which it worked. It was the impurities which made some sections more resistant to electrical flow than others, and thus it was the ""barrier"" between these areas of different"
"junction transistor, which became the basis of the electronics revolution. He excluded Brattain and Bardeen from the proceeds of this process, even though the idea may have been theirs. Another controversy associated with Shockley was his support of eugenics. He regarded his published works on this topic as the most important work of his career. The 1950 prize went to Cecil Powell for ""his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method"". However, Brazilian physicist César Lattes was the main researcher and the first author of the historical ""Nature"" journal"
"study the surface properties of solids and the ""transistor effect"", so as to better understand the various factors underlying semiconductor behavior. Describing it as ""an intolerable situation"", Bardeen left Bell Laboratories in 1951 to go to the University of Illinois, where he eventually won a second Nobel Prize for his theory of superconductivity. Shockley left Bell Laboratories in 1953 and went on to form the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory at Beckman Instruments. In 1956, the three men were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics by King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden ""for research on semiconductors and the discovery of the"
"diode equation is also described. This seminal work became the reference text for other scientists working to develop and improve new variants of the transistor and other devices based on semiconductors. This resulted in his invention of the bipolar ""junction transistor"", which was announced at a press conference on July 4, 1951. In 1951, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). He was forty-one years old; this was rather young for such an election. Two years later, he was chosen as the recipient of the prestigious Comstock Prize for Physics by the NAS, and was the recipient"
"the Board at AT&T Corporation (1984-1986). From 1986 to 1988 he served as AT&T's Vice Chairman for Finance, and from 1988 to 1991, AT&T's Vice Chairman for Finance and Chief Financial Officer. When Morris Tanenbaum joined the chemistry department at Bell Laboratories in 1952, Bell was a hotbed for semiconductor research. The first transistor had been created there in December 1947 by William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain. Their point-contact transistor, built of germanium, was announced at a press conference in New York City on June 30, 1948. Finding better semiconductor materials to support the ""transistor effect"""
"(or tunnel diode). He received a doctorate degree from UTokyo due to this breakthrough invention in 1959. In 1973, Esaki was awarded the Nobel Prize for research conducted around 1958 regarding electron tunneling in solids. He became the first Nobel laureate to receive the prize from the hands of the King Carl XVI Gustaf. Esaki moved to the United States in 1960 and joined the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, where he became an IBM Fellow in 1967. He predicted that semiconductor superlattices will be formed to induce a differential negative-resistance effect via an artificially one-dimensional periodic structural changes"
"the co-inventor of the transistor who ultimately won Nobel Prizes for that work and for the theory of superconductivity. In 1954 he went to Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he worked on silicon-based electronic devices. From 1955–1957 Holonyak served with the U.S. Army Signal Corps. From 1957–1963 he was a scientist at the General Electric Company's Advanced Semiconductor Laboratory in Syracuse, New York. In 1963, he became a professor at the University of Illinois, from which he retired fifty years later in 2013. As of 2007, he is the John Bardeen Endowed Chair Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Physics"
"William Shockley William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. Shockley was the manager of a research group at Bell Labs that included John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The three scientists were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for ""their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect."" Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s led to California's ""Silicon Valley"" becoming a hotbed of electronics innovation. In his later life, Shockley was a professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University and"
"Prize winners. Notable current and former professors include winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1911 Tobias Asser, mathematician Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1901 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1910 Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1902 Pieter Zeeman, and winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1953 Frits Zernike. Alumni in the Science area include winner of the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1929 Christiaan Eijkman, inventor of DNA fingerprinting Alec Jeffreys, physician and one"
"William Shockley developed the first semiconductor-based transistor, heralding a revolution in electronics. In 1879, Edwin Herbert Hall working at the Johns Hopkins University discovered a voltage developing across conductors transverse to an electric current in the conductor and magnetic field perpendicular to the current. This phenomenon arising due to the nature of charge carriers in the conductor came to be termed the Hall effect, but it was not properly explained at the time, since the electron was experimentally discovered 18 years later. After the advent of quantum mechanics, Lev Landau in 1930 developed the theory of Landau quantization and laid"
"the Heinrich Welker Memorial Award to honor Welker’s pioneering work in III-V compound semiconductor development. Heinrich Welker Heinrich Johann Welker (September 9, 1912 in Ingolstadt – December 25, 1981 in Erlangen) was a German theoretical and applied physicist who invented the ""transistron"", a transistor made at Westinghouse independently of the first successful transistor made at Bell Laboratories. He did fundamental work in III-V compound semiconductors, and paved the way for microwave semiconductor elements and laser diodes. Starting in 1931, Welker studied at the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld, and was granted a Ph.D. in 1936. The book ""Electrodynamics -"
"Shockley received the Nobel Prize in Physics along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain ""for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"". Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory was the first establishment working on silicon semiconductor devices in what came to be known as Silicon Valley. Shockley, however, lacked experience in business and industrial management. Moreover, he decided that the lab would research an invention of his own, the four-layer diode, rather than developing the diffused silicon transistor that he and Beckman had agreed upon. Beckman was reassured by his engineers that the scientific ideas behind Shockley's project"
"devices (see SQUID and Aharonov–Bohm effect), lending credence to the idea that collective CDW electron transport is fundamentally quantum in nature. (See quantum mechanics.) Bardeen continued his research throughout the 1980s, and published articles in ""Physical Review Letters"" and ""Physics Today"" less than a year before he died. In 1956, John Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with William Shockley of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories """"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"""". At the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm, Brattain and Shockley received their awards that"
"on January 26, 1954 by Morris Tanenbaum. The first commercial silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs. The first MOSFET actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell Labs in 1960. The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor"
"the transistor, first demonstrated in 1947 (leading to the displacement of vacuum tube electronics in the marketplace). Although the laser had already been invented by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, separately by Gordon Gould, and separately in the Soviet Union by Aleksandr Prokhorov, there was no practical laser ""chip"" which would make the laser a commodity, one that today is displacing more inefficient lasers (those based on gas discharge or flashlamp designs) in the consumer, industrial, medical, and government marketplaces. Shortly after the accomplishments attributed to Townes and Schawlow, the possibility of lasing in a semiconductor device was"
"Rudolf Mössbauer Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (German spelling: ""Mößbauer""; 31 January 1929 – 14 September 2011) was a German physicist best known for his 1957 discovery of ""recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence"" for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. This effect, called the Mössbauer effect, is the basis for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Mössbauer was born in Munich, where he also studied physics at the Technical University of Munich. He prepared his Diplom thesis in the Laboratory of Applied Physics of Heinz Maier-Leibnitz and graduated in 1955. He then went to the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg."
"Lanning (1913–2007). His children reportedly learned of his death by reading newspapers. Shockley is interred at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto, California. Shockley was granted over ninety US patents. Some notable ones are: William Shockley William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. Shockley was the manager of a research group at Bell Labs that included John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The three scientists were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for ""their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect."" Shockley's attempts to commercialize"
"MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in digital circuits, as billions may be included in a memory chip or microprocessor. Since MOSFETs can be made with either p-type or n-type semiconductors, complementary pairs of MOS transistors can be used to make switching circuits with very low power consumption, in the form of CMOS logic. The basic principle of this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In 1959, Dawon Kahng and Martin M. (John) Atalla at Bell Labs invented the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) as an offshoot to the patented FET design. Operationally"
"Carver Mead and reported in 1966. History of the transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. The vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, was the transistor's precursor, introduced in 1907. The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were"
"went to Enrico Fermi in part for ""his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation"". However, in this case, the award later appeared to be premature: Fermi thought he had created transuranic elements (specifically, hesperium), but had in fact unwittingly demonstrated nuclear fission (and had actually created only fission products—isotopes of much lighter elements than uranium). The fact that Fermi's interpretation was incorrect was discovered shortly after he had received his prize. The 1936 prize went to Carl D. Anderson for the discovery of the positron. While a graduate student at Caltech in 1930, Chung-Yao"
"History of the transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. The vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, was the transistor's precursor, introduced in 1907. The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the"
"Heinrich Welker Heinrich Johann Welker (September 9, 1912 in Ingolstadt – December 25, 1981 in Erlangen) was a German theoretical and applied physicist who invented the ""transistron"", a transistor made at Westinghouse independently of the first successful transistor made at Bell Laboratories. He did fundamental work in III-V compound semiconductors, and paved the way for microwave semiconductor elements and laser diodes. Starting in 1931, Welker studied at the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld, and was granted a Ph.D. in 1936. The book ""Electrodynamics - Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume III"" by Sommerfeld was based on lecture notes prepared by"
"Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has received multiple honorary doctorates. In 2013, Tanenbaum received a lifetime achievement award, the Science and Technology Medal, at the 34th Edison Patent Awards which are given by the Research & Development Council of New Jersey. Morris Tanenbaum Morris Tanenbaum (born November 10, 1928) is an American physical chemist and executive who has worked at Bell Laboratories and AT&T Corporation. Tanenbaum made significant contributions in the fields of transistor development and semiconductor manufacturing. Although it was not made public at the time, he developed the first silicon transistor, demonstrating it on January 26, 1954 at"
"physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented the transistor, which encouraged Esaki to change fields from vacuum tube to heavily-doped germanium and silicon research in Sony. One year later, he recognized that when the PN junction width of germanium is thinned, the current-voltage characteristic is dominated by the influence of the tunnel effect and, as a result, he discovered that as the voltage is increased, the current decreases inversely, indicating negative resistance. This discovery was the first demonstration of solid tunneling effects in physics, and it was the birth of new electronic devices in electronics called Esaki diode"