"gastric acid, verifying that acid played a crucial role in digestion. Gastric acid Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in"
"weak acid (its pKa value is 5.0). The gastric juice has a pH of 2.0. It is a three-fold difference (due to log scale) between its pH and its pKa; therefore there is a 1000× difference between the charged and uncharged concentrations. So, in this case, for every one molecule of charged Naproxen, there are 1000 molecules of uncharged Naproxen at a pH of 2. This is why weak acids are better absorbed from the stomach and weak bases from intestine where the pH is alkaline. When pH of a solution is equal to pKa of dissolved drug, then 50%"
"Glucuronic acid Glucuronic acid (from Greek γλυκύς ""sweet"" and οὖρον ""urine"") is a uronic acid that was first isolated from urine (hence the name). It is found in many gums such as gum arabic (c. 18%) and xanthan, and is important for the metabolism of microorganisms, plants and animals. Glucuronic acid is a sugar acid derived from glucose, with its sixth carbon atom oxidized to a carboxylic acid. In living beings, this primary oxidation occurs with UDP-α--glucose (UDPG), not with the free sugar. Glucuronic acid, like its precursor glucose, can exist as a linear (carboxo-)aldohexose (<1%), or as a cyclic"
"reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H/K ATPase antiporter pumps. At the same time, sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K and Na ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland. The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but"
"Glutaric acid Glutaric acid is the organic compound with the formula CH(COOH) . Although the related ""linear"" dicarboxylic acids adipic and succinic acids are water-soluble only to a few percent at room temperature, the water-solubility of glutaric acid is over 50% (w/w). Glutaric acid is naturally produced in the body during the metabolism of some amino acids, including lysine and tryptophan. Defects in this metabolic pathway can lead to a disorder called glutaric aciduria, where toxic byproducts build up and can cause severe encephalopathy. Glutaric acid can be prepared by the ring-opening of butyrolactone with potassium cyanide to give the"
"is responsible for umami, one of the five basic tastes of the human sense of taste. Glutamic acid is often used as a food additive and flavor enhancer in the form of its sodium salt, known as monosodium glutamate (MSG). All meats, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, and kombu are excellent sources of glutamic acid. Some protein-rich plant foods also serve as sources. 30% to 35% of gluten (much of the protein in wheat) is glutamic acid. Ninety-five percent of the dietary glutamate is metabolized by intestinal cells in a first pass. Auxigro is a plant growth preparation that contains"
"Tartaric acid Tartaric acid is a white, crystalline organic acid that occurs naturally in many fruits, most notably in grapes, but also in bananas, tamarinds, and citrus. Its salt, potassium bitartrate, commonly known as cream of tartar, develops naturally in the process of winemaking. It is commonly mixed with sodium bicarbonate and is sold as baking powder used as a leavening agent in food preparation. The acid itself is added to foods as an antioxidant E334 and to impart its distinctive sour taste. Tartaric is an alpha-hydroxy-carboxylic acid, is diprotic and aldaric in acid characteristics, and is a dihydroxyl derivative"
"Caprylic acid Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. Its compounds are found naturally in the milk of various mammals, and as a minor constituent of coconut oil and palm kernel oil. It is an oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste. Two other acids are named after goats via the Latin word ""capra"": caproic acid (C6) and capric acid (C10). Along with caprylic acid (C8) these total 15% in goat milk fat. Caprylic acid is used commercially in"
"Gastric lipase Gastric lipase, also known as LIPF, is an enzymatic protein that, in humans, is encoded by the ""LIPF"" gene. Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases. These lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric lipase contributing the most of"
"the esophagus and stomach. Doses of 10 mL of undiluted 5% solution have been reported to cause gastric lesions when used in endoscopy. The LD50 for 5% Iodine is 14,000 mg/kg (14 g/kg) [Rat] and 22,000 mg/kg (22 g/kg) [Mouse]. The World Health Organization classifies substances taken orally with an LD50 of 5–50 mg/kg as the second highest toxicity class, Class Ib (Highly Hazardous). The Global Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals categorizes this as Category 2 with a hazard statement “Fatal if swallowed”. Potassium Iodide is not considered hazardous. These uses are possible since the solution is"
"Acetic acid Acetic acid , systematically named ethanoic acid , is a colourless liquid organic compound with the chemical formula CHCOOH (also written as CHCOH or CHO). When undiluted, it is sometimes called ""glacial acetic acid"". Vinegar is no less than 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water. Acetic acid has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. In addition to household vinegar, it is mainly produced as a precursor to polyvinyl acetate and cellulose acetate. It is classified as a weak acid since it only partially dissociates in solution, but"
"xylose) is between 0.5 and 1.7 grams per litre. Sugars exercise a control over the taste – they balance the spiciness of the acidity and the burning of the alcohol. The organic acids are mainly malic and tartaric acids. Tartaric acid is a characteristic of grapes; in its leaves its content ranges from 5 to 7 grams per litre. Malic acid is present in green grapes and its ratio decreases with maturation to give between 2 and 7 grams per litre at harvest. The range is very wide depending on the variety and soil with hot climates giving lower rates"
"acids. Usually, one is a saturated fatty acid (in the given figure, this can be palmitic or hexadecanoic acid, HC-(CH)-COOH; margaric acid identified by Gobley in egg yolk, or heptadecanoic acid HC-(CH)-COOH, also belong to that class); and the other is an unsaturated fatty acid (here oleic acid, or 9Z-octadecenoic acid, as in Gobley's original egg yolk lecithin). However, there are also examples of disaturated species. Animal lung phosphatidylcholine, for example, contains a high proportion of Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. Phospholipase D catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine to form phosphatidic acid (PA), releasing the soluble choline headgroup into the cytosol. Phosphatidylcholine is a"
"as an antacid. Aluminium hydroxide is preferred over other alternatives such as sodium bicarbonate because Al(OH), being insoluble, does not increase the pH of stomach above 7 and hence, does not trigger secretion of excess stomach acid. Brand names include Alu-Cap, Aludrox, Gaviscon, and Pepsamar. In 2016 Gaviscon was one of the biggest selling branded over-the-counter medications sold in Great Britain, with sales of £62 million. It reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing the acidity of the stomach content, which may relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminum ions"
"Fatty acid In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 28. Fatty acids are usually not found in organisms, but instead as three main classes of esters: triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol esters. In any of these forms, fatty acids are both important dietary sources of fuel for animals and they are important structural components for cells. The concept of fatty acid (""acide gras"") was introduced by"
"0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine. The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes. Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food"
"Glycolic acid Glycolic acid (hydroacetic acid or hydroxyacetic acid); chemical formula CHO (also written as HOCHCOH), is the smallest α-hydroxy acid (AHA). This colorless, odorless, and hygroscopic crystalline solid is highly soluble in water. It is used in various skin-care products. Glycolic acid is found in some sugar-crops. A glycolate or glycollate is a salt or ester of glycolic acid. The name ""glycolic acid"" was coined in 1848 by French chemist Auguste Laurent (1807–1853). He proposed that the amino acid glycine — which was then called ""glycocolle"" — might be the amine of a hypothetical acid, which he called ""glycolic"
"Agaric acid Agaric acid, also known as agaricin or 2-hydroxynonadecane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid, is an organic tricarboxylic acid (fatty acid) found in fungi, e.g. ""Laricifomes officinalis"". Its molecular formula is CHO. Agaric acid, as any other fatty acid, has an amphipathic character. It means that it has both polar (hydroxyl groups) and apolar (hydrocarbon chain) sections, and therefore, it is not completely water-soluble. It is a tribasic acid, and therefore, it can donate up to 3 hydrogen ions to other bases in an acid-base reaction. Another example of tribasic acids is phosphoric acid or citric acid. It is an odorless and tasteless"
"than 2. It has no negative consequences unless other conditions are also present such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Hyperchlorhydria Hyperchlorhydria, sometimes called chlorhydria, sour stomach or acid stomach, refers to the state in the stomach where gastric acid levels are higher than the reference range. The combining forms of the name (""chlor-"" + ""hydr-""), referring to chlorine and hydrogen, are the same as those in the name of hydrochloric acid, which is the active constituent of gastric acid. In humans, the normal pH is around 1 to 3, which varies throughout the day. The highest basal secretion levels are"
"Adipic acid Adipic acid or hexanedioic acid is the organic compound with the formula (CH)(COOH). From an industrial perspective, it is the most important dicarboxylic acid: about 2.5 billion kilograms of this white crystalline powder are produced annually, mainly as a precursor for the production of nylon. Adipic acid otherwise rarely occurs in nature, but it is known as manufactured E number food additive E355. Adipic acid is produced from a mixture of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone called ""KA oil"", the abbreviation of ketone-alcohol oil. The KA oil is oxidized with nitric acid to give adipic acid, via a multistep pathway."
"involves its urease enzymes which metabolize urea (which is normally secreted into the stomach) to ammonia and carbon dioxide which neutralises gastric acid and thus prevents its digestion. In recent years, it has been discovered that other ""Helicobacter"" bacteria are also capable of colonising the stomach and have been associated with gastritis. Having too little or no gastric acid is known as hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria respectively and are conditions which can have negative health impacts. Having high levels of gastric acid is called hyperchlorhydria. Many people believe that hyperchlorhydria can cause stomach ulcers. However, recent research indicates that the gastric"
"rats of 2500 mg/kg. Glyoxylic acid Glyoxylic acid or oxoacetic acid is an organic compound. Together with acetic acid, glycolic acid, and oxalic acid, glyoxylic acid is one of the C carboxylic acids. It is a colourless solid that occurs naturally and is useful industrially. Glyoxylic acid is usually described with the chemical formula OCHCOH, i.e. containing an aldehyde functional group (see image in upper right). The aldehyde in fact is not observed in solution or as a solid. As seen for many other aldehydes, it exists most commonly as the hydrate. Thus, the formula for glyoxylic acid is really"
"Uric acid Uric acid is a heterocyclic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen with the formula CHNO. It forms ions and salts known as urates and acid urates, such as ammonium acid urate. Uric acid is a product of the metabolic breakdown of purine nucleotides, and it is a normal component of urine. High blood concentrations of uric acid can lead to gout and are associated with other medical conditions including diabetes and the formation of ammonium acid urate kidney stones. Uric acid was first isolated from kidney stones in 1776 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In"
"diatomic molecule can be regenerated only with difficulty, but not by normal distillation. Commonly the names of the acid and the molecules are not clearly distinguished such that in lab jargon, ""HCl"" often means hydrochloric acid, not the gaseous hydrogen chloride. Hydrogen chloride, in the form of hydrochloric acid, is a major component of gastric acid. Hydrogen fluoride, chloride and bromide are also volcanic gases. The direct reaction of hydrogen with fluorine and chlorine gives hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride, respectively. Industrially these gases are, however, produced by treatment of halide salts with sulfuric acid. Hydrogen bromide arises when hydrogen"
"Lactose Lactose is a disaccharide. It is a sugar composed of galactose and glucose and has the formula CHO. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk (by weight). The name comes from ' (gen. '), the Latin word for milk, plus the suffix ""-ose"" used to name sugars. The compound is a white, water-soluble, non-hygroscopic solid with a mildly sweet taste. It is used in the food industry. Lactose is a disaccharide derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose, which form a β-1→4 glycosidic linkage. Its systematic name is β--galactopyranosyl-(1→4)--glucose. The glucose can be in either the α-pyranose form"
"not be restricted by those with lactose intolerance. In general, lactates such as sodium, calcium, and potassium lactate are salts derived from the neutralization of lactic acid and most commercially used lactic acids are fermented from dairy-free products such as cornstarch, potatoes, or molasses. Sugar or tapioca additionally may be used. In some rare instances, some lactic acid is fermented from dairy products such as whey and lactose. Whey is made of up 6.5% solids of which 4.8% is solid lactose. Waste whey is infrequently used to produce lactic acid when the whey itself is produced as waste during the"
"11.23% magnesium by weight. Compared to trimagnesium citrate, it is much more water-soluble, less alkaline, and contains less magnesium. As a food additive, magnesium citrate is used to regulate acidity and is known as E number E345. Magnesium citrate works by attracting water through the tissues by a process known as osmosis. Once in the intestine, it can attract enough water into the intestine to induce defecation. The additional water stimulates bowel motility. This means it can also be used to treat rectal and colon problems. Magnesium citrate functions best on an empty stomach, and should always be followed with"
"and acidifies the stomach content to a pH of 1 to 2. Chloride (Cl) and hydrogen (H) ions are secreted separately in the stomach fundus region at the top of the stomach by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa into a secretory network called canaliculi before it enters the stomach lumen. Gastric acid acts as a barrier against microorganisms to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food. Its low pH denatures proteins and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by digestive enzymes such as pepsin. The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor pepsinogen into the active"
"fungi the proportion of the fatty acids, 16:1ω5 and 18:1ω7, in the phospholipid portion account for approximately 58% of total fatty acid composition. The fatty acid, 16:1ω5 is the most commonly used acid to characterize AM fungi in soils and can be used as a strong indicator of mycelial biomass in soil sample. Neutral lipid fatty acid analysis of AM fungi is typically looked upon as a method to indicate energy storage, but most importantly, the ratio of NLFA (16:1ω5) to PLFA (16:1ω5) can potentially be used to indicate nutritional status of AM fungi in soils. Energy is mainly stored"
"the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end. Gastric acid (informally ""gastric juice""), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride. A peptide hormone, gastrin, produced by G cells in the gastric glands, stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. Pepsinogen is a precursor enzyme (zymogen) produced by the gastric chief cells, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme pepsin which begins the digestion of proteins. As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is"
"fat), cow's milk (2.9%), and goat's milk (3.1%). Although 95% of medium-chain triglycerides are absorbed through the portal vein, only 25-30% of lauric acid is absorbed through it. Like many other fatty acids, lauric acid is inexpensive, has a long shelf-life, is nontoxic, and is safe to handle. It is used mainly for the production of soaps and cosmetics. For these purposes, lauric acid is reacted with sodium hydroxide to give sodium laurate, which is a soap. Most commonly, sodium laurate is obtained by saponification of various oils, such as coconut oil. These precursors give mixtures of sodium laurate and"
"family of carbohydrates and is very closely related in structure to heparin. Both consist of a variably sulfated repeating disaccharide unit. The main disaccharide units that occur in heparan sulfate and heparin are shown below. The most common disaccharide unit within heparan sulfate is composed of a glucuronic acid (GlcA) linked to ""N""-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) typically making up around 50% of the total disaccharide units. Compare this to heparin where IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) makes up 85% of heparins from beef lung and about 75% of those from porcine intestinal mucosa. Problems arise when defining hybrid GAGs that contain both 'heparin-like' and 'HS-like' structures."
"Meconic acid Meconic acid, also known as acidum meconicum and poppy acid, is a chemical substance found in certain plants of the Papaveraceae family (poppy) such as ""Papaver somniferum"" (opium poppy) and ""Papaver bracteatum"". Meconic acid constitutes about 5% of opium and can be used as an analytical marker for the presence of opium. Meconic acid has erroneously been described as a mild narcotic, but it has little or no physiological activity, and is not used medicinally. Meconic acid forms salts with alkaloids and metals. These salts as well as meconic acid esters are called meconates. Meconic acid was first"