"on the type genus, with a standard termination. The terminations used in forming these names depend on the kingdom (and sometimes the phylum and class) as set out in the table below. Pronunciations given are the most Anglicized. More Latinate pronunciations are also common, particularly rather than for stressed ""a"". There is an indeterminate number of ranks, as a taxonomist may invent a new rank at will, at any time, if they feel this is necessary. In doing so, there are some restrictions, which will vary with the nomenclature code which applies. The following is an artificial synthesis, solely for"
"Kingdom (biology) In biology, kingdom (Latin: regnum, plural regna) is the second highest taxonomic rank, just below domain. Kingdoms are divided into smaller groups called phyla. Traditionally, some textbooks from the United States used a system of six kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria) while textbooks in countries like Great Britain, India, Greece, Australia, Latin America and other countries used five kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera). Some recent classifications based on modern cladistics have explicitly abandoned the term ""kingdom"", noting that the traditional kingdoms are not monophyletic, i.e., do not consist of all the descendants of"
"these names, which are laid down in formal nomenclature codes. Species can be placed in a ranked hierarchy, starting with either ""domains"" or ""kingdoms"". Domains are divided into kingdoms. Kingdoms are divided into ""phyla"" (singular: ""phylum"") — for animals; the term ""division"", used for plants and fungi, is equivalent to the rank of phylum (and the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature allows the use of either term). Phyla (or divisions) are divided into ""classes"", and they, in turn, into ""orders"", ""families"", ""genera"" (singular: ""genus""), and ""species"" (singular: ""species""). There are ranks below species: in zoology, ""subspecies"" (but see ""form"""
"a common ancestor. When Carl Linnaeus introduced the rank-based system of nomenclature into biology in 1735, the highest rank was given the name ""kingdom"" and was followed by four other main or principal ranks: class, order, genus and species. Later two further main ranks were introduced, making the sequence kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus and species. In 1990, the rank of domain was introduced above kingdom. Prefixes can be added so ""subkingdom"" (""subregnum"") and ""infrakingdom"" (also known as ""infraregnum"") are the two ranks immediately below kingdom. Superkingdom may be considered as an equivalent of domain or empire"
"Division (biology) Division is a taxonomic rank in biological classification that is used differently in zoology and in botany. In botany and mycology, ""division"" refers to a rank equivalent to phylum. The use of either term is allowed under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and both are commonly used in scientific literature. The main Divisions of land plants, in the order in which they probably evolved, are the Marchantiophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), Bryophyta (mosses), Filicophyta (ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails), Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgo)s, Pinophyta (conifers), Gnetophyta (gnetophytes), and the Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms, flowering plants). The flowering plants now dominate terrestrial ecosystems,"
"constraints of the fossil record, recent clocks suggest a sustained period of diversification through the Ediacaran and Cambrian. A phylum is the highest level in the Linnaean system for classifying organisms. Phyla can be thought of as groupings of animals based on general body plan. Despite the seemingly different external appearances of organisms, they are classified into phyla based on their internal and developmental organizations. For example, despite their obvious differences, spiders and barnacles both belong to the phylum Arthropoda, but earthworms and tapeworms, although similar in shape, belong to different phyla. As chemical and genetic testing becomes more accurate,"
"(6), ""Nyssorhynchus"" (34) and ""Stethomyia"" (5). Taxonomic units between subgenus and species are not currently recognised as official zoological names. In practice, a number of taxonomic levels have been introduced. The larger subgenera (""Anopheles"", ""Cellia"" and ""Nyssorhynchus"") have been subdivided into sections and series which in turn have been divided into groups and subgroups. Below subgroup but above species level is the species complex. Taxonomic levels above species complex can be distinguished on morphological grounds. Species within a species complex are either morphologically identical or extremely similar and can only be reliably separated by microscopic examination of the chromosomes or"
"the ""ICNafp"". In zoology, the only rank below species is subspecies and the name is written simply as three parts (a trinomen). Thus one of the subspecies of the olive-backed pipit is ""Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii"". In botany, there are many ranks below species and although the name itself is written in three parts, a ""connecting term"" (not part of the name) is needed to show the rank. Thus the American black elder is ""Sambucus nigra"" subsp. ""canadensis""; the white-flowered form of the ivy-leaved cyclamen is ""Cyclamen hederifolium"" f. ""albiflorum"". Binomial nomenclature Binomial nomenclature (""two-term naming system"") also called nomenclature (""two-name"
"can't be supplied with names. This problem is dissolved in cladoendesis, where the specially elaborated rank-free nomenclatures are used. There are no rules for how many species should make a genus, a family, or any other higher taxon (that is, a taxon in a category above the species level). It should be a natural group (that is, non-artificial, non-polyphyletic), as judged by a biologist, using all the information available to them. Equally ranked higher taxa in different phyla are not necessarily equivalent (e.g., it is incorrect to assume that families of insects are in some way evolutionarily comparable to families"
"or ""morph""); in botany, ""variety"" (varietas) and ""form"" (forma), etc. Groups of organisms at any of these ranks are called ""taxa"" (singular: ""taxon"") or ""taxonomic groups"". The Linnaean system has proven robust and it remains the only extant working classification system at present that enjoys universal scientific acceptance. However, although the number of ranks is unlimited, in practice any classification becomes more cumbersome the more ranks are added. Among the later subdivisions that have arisen are such entities as phyla, families, and tribes, as well as any number of ranks with prefixes (superfamilies, subfamilies, etc.). The use of newer taxonomic"
"and immediately proceeded to translate it into a classification. This classification was rank-based, as was usual at the time, but did not contain taxa that Haeckel considered polyphyletic. In it, Haeckel introduced the rank of phylum which carries a connotation of monophyly in its name (literally meaning ""stem""). Ever since, it has been debated in which ways and to what extent the phylogeny of life should be used as a basis for its classification, with views ranging from ""numerical taxonomy"" (phenetics) over ""evolutionary taxonomy"" (gradistics) to ""phylogenetic systematics"". From the 1960s onwards, rankless classifications were occasionally proposed, but in general"
"and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others. In botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order. Any number of further ranks can be used as long as they are clearly defined. The superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajan's publications from 1966 onwards. The order as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name (and not just called a ""higher genus"" ""(genus summum))"" was first introduced by the German botanist Augustus"
"term ""taxon"" was first used in 1926 by for animal groups, as a backformation from the word Taxonomy; the word ""Taxonomy"" had been coined a century before from the Greek components ""τάξις"" (taxis, meaning arrangement) and ""-νομία"" (-nomia meaning method). For plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the ""International Code of Zoological Nomenclature"" (1999) defines a A taxon can be assigned a taxonomic rank, usually (but not necessarily) when it is given a formal name. ""Phylum"" applies formally to any"
"widely adopted. In botany, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, responsible for the currently most widely used classification of flowering plants, chose a different approach. They retained the traditional ranks of family and order, considering them to be of value in teaching and in studying relationships between taxa, but also introduced named clades without formal ranks. The current codes also have rules stating that names must have certain endings depending on the rank of the taxa to which they are applied. When a group has a different rank in different classifications, its name must have a different suffix. Ereshefsky (1997:512) gave an"
"Bacterial phyla The bacterial phyla are the major lineages, known as phyla or divisions, of the domain ""Bacteria"". In the scientific classification established by Carl von Linné, each bacterial strain has to be assigned to a species (binary nomenclature), which is a lower level of a hierarchy of ranks. Currently, the most accepted mega-classification system is under the three-domain system, which is based on molecular phylogeny. In that system, bacteria are members of the domain ""Bacteria"" and ""phylum"" is the rank below domain, since the rank ""kingdom"" is disused at present in bacterial taxonomy. When bacterial nomenclature was controlled under"
"or as an independent rank between kingdom and domain or subdomain. In some classification systems the additional rank ""branch"" (Latin: ""ramus"") can be inserted between subkingdom and infrakingdom, e.g., Protostomia and Deuterostomia in the classification of Cavalier-Smith. From around the mid-1970s onwards, there was an increasing emphasis on comparisons of genes at the molecular level (initially ribosomal RNA genes) as the primary factor in classification; genetic similarity was stressed over outward appearances and behavior. Taxonomic ranks, including kingdoms, were to be groups of organisms with a common ancestor, whether monophyletic (""all"" descendants of a common ancestor) or paraphyletic (""only some"""
"Trinomial nomenclature In biology, trinomial nomenclature refers to names for taxa below the rank of species. These names have three parts. The usage is different in zoology and botany. For animals, scientific names are governed by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Only one rank is allowed below the rank of species: subspecies. For example, ""Buteo jamaicensis borealis"" is one of the subspecies of the red-tailed hawk species, ""Buteo jamaicensis"". For algae, fungi, plants, and their fossils, there is an indeterminate number of infraspecific ranks allowed below the level of species. The secondary ranks below the species rank are variety"
"(Greek: 'bastard'), with nothogenus as the highest permitted rank. If a different term for the rank was used in an old publication, but the intention is clear, botanical nomenclature specifies certain substitutions: Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly familiar in genetics laboratories (""Drosophila melanogaster""), humans (""Homo sapiens""), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (""Pisum sativum""), the ""fly agaric"" mushroom ""Amanita muscaria"", and the bacterium ""Escherichia coli"". The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well. Taxa above the genus level are often given names based"
"phylum was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek (, ""race, stock""), related to (, ""tribe, clan""). In plant taxonomy, August W. Eichler (1883) classified plants into five groups named divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi. The definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the six Linnaean classes and the four ' of Georges Cuvier. Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan. At its most basic, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a"
"nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress. Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukarya and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Kingdom; Phylum (or Division); Class; Order; Family; Genus (plural ""genera""); Species. The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism. For example, the tiger lily is ""Lilium columbianum"". ""Lilium"" is the genus, and ""columbianum"" the specific epithet. The combination is"
"all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them (e.g. dinosaurs, with birds as offspring group) are termed paraphyletic, while groups representing more than one branch from the tree of life are called polyphyletic. The ""International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature"" or ""PhyloCode"" is intended to regulate the formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks will be optional under the ""PhyloCode"", which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the plant, animal"
"""Thermotogae"" and ""Aquificae"" appear as the most basal phyla, whereas in several phylogenomic studies, ""Firmicutes"" are the most basal. Bacterial phyla The bacterial phyla are the major lineages, known as phyla or divisions, of the domain ""Bacteria"". In the scientific classification established by Carl von Linné, each bacterial strain has to be assigned to a species (binary nomenclature), which is a lower level of a hierarchy of ranks. Currently, the most accepted mega-classification system is under the three-domain system, which is based on molecular phylogeny. In that system, bacteria are members of the domain ""Bacteria"" and ""phylum"" is the rank"
"Genus A genus (, genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, as well as viruses, in biology. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist. The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a"
"as official zoological names. In practice, a number of taxonomic levels have been introduced. The larger subgenera (""Anopheles"", ""Cellia"", and ""Nyssorhynchus"") have been subdivided into sections and series, which in turn have been divided into groups and subgroups. Below subgroup but above species level is the species complex. Taxonomic levels above species complex can be distinguished on morphological grounds. Species within a species complex are either morphologically identical or extremely similar and can only be reliably separated by microscopic examination of the chromosomes or DNA sequencing. The classification continues to be revised. The first species complex was described in 1926"
"biological domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas ""Division"" was traditionally often used for plants, fungi, etc. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance. The prefix ""super-"" indicates a rank above, the prefix ""sub-"" indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix ""infra-"" indicates a rank below ""sub-"". For instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema. For example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division (phylum). The use of"
"previously hypothesised phyla are often entirely reworked. A phylum is not a fundamental division of nature, such as the difference between electrons and protons. It is simply a very high-level grouping in a classification system created to describe all currently living organisms. This system is imperfect, even for modern animals: different books quote different numbers of phyla, mainly because they disagree about the classification of a huge number of worm-like species. As it is based on living organisms, it accommodates extinct organisms poorly, if at all. The concept of stem groups was introduced to cover evolutionary ""aunts"" and ""cousins"" of"
"a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. Consider a particular species, the red fox, ""Vulpes vulpes"": the next rank above, the genus ""Vulpes"", comprises all the ""true"" foxes. Their closest relatives are in the immediately higher rank, the family Canidae, which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, and all foxes; the next higher rank, the order Carnivora, includes caniforms (bears, seals, weasels, skunks, raccoons and all those mentioned above), and feliforms (cats, civets, hyenas, mongooses). Carnivorans are one group of the hairy, warm-blooded, nursing members of the class Mammalia, which are classified among"
"order Algae. For a long time thereafter sponges were assigned to a separate subkingdom, Parazoa (meaning ""beside the animals""). They are now classified as a paraphyletic phylum from which the higher animals have evolved. Cnidarians (Greek for ""nettle"") are distinguished by the presence of stinging cells, specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. Cnidarians include corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydrozoans. They form a phylum containing over 10,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic (mainly marine) environments. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell"
"assigned to subclasses and superorders. For some clades, a number of alternative classifications are used. The class as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name (and not just called a ""top-level genus"" ""(genus summum)"") was first introduced by the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in his classification of plants that appeared in his ""Eléments de botanique"", 1694. In the first edition of his ""Systema Naturae"" (1735). Carl Linnaeus divided all three of his kingdoms of Nature (minerals, plants, and animals) into classes. Only in the animal kingdom are Linnaeus's classes similar to the classes used"
"sampled and studied than other group. Of these many ranks, the most basic is species. However, this is not to say that a taxon at any other rank may not be sharply defined, or that any species is guaranteed to be sharply defined. It varies from case to case. Ideally, a taxon is intended to represent a clade, that is, the phylogeny of the organisms under discussion, but this is not a requirement. Classification, in which all taxa have formal ranks, cannot adequately reflect knowledge about phylogeny; at the same time, if taxon names are dependent on ranks, rank-free taxa"
"the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years. Thus some sources place horsetails in division Arthrophyta and ferns in division Pteridophyta, while others place them both in Pteridophyta, as shown below. The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below. Since the first publication of the APG system in 1998, which proposed a classification of angiosperms up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been"
"Bacterial taxonomy Bacterial taxonomy is the taxonomy, i.e. the rank-based classification, of bacteria. In the scientific classification established by Carl Linnaeus, each species has to be assigned to a genus (binary nomenclature), which in turn is a lower level of a hierarchy of ranks (family, suborder, order, subclass, class, division/phyla, kingdom and domain). In the currently accepted classification of life, there are three domains (Eukaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea), which, in terms of taxonomy, despite following the same principles have several different conventions between them and between their subdivisions as are studied by different disciplines (botany, zoology, mycology and microbiology), for"
"the Botanical Code, the term ""division"" was used, but now that bacterial nomenclature (with the exception of cyanobacteria) is controlled under the Bacteriological Code, the term ""phylum"" is preferred. In this classification scheme, ""Bacteria"" is (unofficially) subdivided into 30 phyla with representatives cultured in a lab. Many major clades of bacteria that cannot currently be cultured are known solely and somewhat indirectly through metagenomics, the analysis of bulk samples from the environment. If these possible clades, candidate phyla, are included, the number of phyla is 52 or higher. Therefore, the number of major phyla has increased from 12 identifiable lineages"