"known backward stable algorithms. As a rule of thumb, if the condition number formula_2, then you may lose up to formula_3 digits of accuracy on top of what would be lost to the numerical method due to loss of precision from arithmetic methods. However, the condition number does not give the exact value of the maximum inaccuracy that may occur in the algorithm. It generally just bounds it with an estimate (whose computed value depends on the choice of the norm to measure the inaccuracy). For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation ""Ax"" = ""b"" gives a"
"Polydactyly Polydactyly or polydactylism (), also known as hyperdactyly, is a congenital physical anomaly in humans and animals resulting in supernumerary fingers and/or toes. Polydactyly is the opposite of oligodactyly (fewer fingers or toes). In humans/animals this condition can present itself on one or both hands. The extra digit is usually a small piece of soft tissue that can be removed. Occasionally it contains bone without joints; rarely it may be a complete functioning digit. The extra digit is most common on the ulnar (little finger) side of the hand, less common on the radial (thumb) side, and very rarely"
"early tetrapods). Polydactyly also occurs in modern extant reptiles and amphibians. Polydactyly Polydactyly or polydactylism (), also known as hyperdactyly, is a congenital physical anomaly in humans and animals resulting in supernumerary fingers and/or toes. Polydactyly is the opposite of oligodactyly (fewer fingers or toes). In humans/animals this condition can present itself on one or both hands. The extra digit is usually a small piece of soft tissue that can be removed. Occasionally it contains bone without joints; rarely it may be a complete functioning digit. The extra digit is most common on the ulnar (little finger) side of the"
"Polydactyl cat A polydactyl cat is a cat with a congenital physical anomaly called polydactyly (or polydactylism, also known as hyperdactyly), which causes the cat to be born with more than the usual number of toes on one or more of its paws. Cats with this genetically inherited trait are most commonly found along the East Coast of North America (in the United States and Canada) and in South West England and Wales. True polydactyly is a congenital abnormality, genetically inherited as an autosomal dominant trait of the ZRS cis element of the Pd gene with incomplete penetrance. Normal cats"
"humans. Polydactyly (from Greek πολυ- = ""many"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") is when a limb has more than the usual number of digits. This can be: Oligodactyly (from Greek ὀλιγο- = ""few"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") is having too few digits when not caused by an amputation. It is sometimes incorrectly called hypodactyly or confused with aphalangia, the absence of the phalanx bone on one or (commonly) more digits. When ""all"" the digits on a hand or foot are absent, it is referred to as ""adactyly"". Ectrodactyly, also known as ""split-hand malformation"", is the congenital absence of one or more"
"Polydactyly in early tetrapods Polydactyly in early tetrapods should here be understood as having more than five digits to the finger or foot, a condition that was the natural state of affairs in the very first tetrapods. The polydactyly in these largely aquatic animals is not to be confused with polydactyly in the medical sense, i.e. it was not an anomaly in the sense it was not a congenital condition of having more than the typical number of digits for a given taxon. Rather, it appears to be a result of the early evolution from a limb with a fin"
"from Jefferson County, Alabama, United States and Uppsala County, Sweden. This study showed incidence of all types of polydactyly to be 2.3 per 1000 in Caucasian males, 0.6 per 1000 in Caucasian females, 13.5 per 1000 in African males, and 11.1 per 1000 in African females. Polydactyly occurs in numerous types of animals. The defect is sporadically seen in livestock, where it affects cattle, sheep, pigs, and occasionally horses. Conversely, it is a common trait in several heritage chicken breeds. Chickens normally have 4 toes on each foot. The chicken breeds known for being polydactyl are the Dorking, Faverolle, Houdan,"
"mutant Maine Coon cats were variable (polyphenism) and second, the number of extra toes followed a discontinuous statistical distribution. They were not equally distributed as one might expect of an identical single point mutation. The example demonstrates that the variation is not explained completely by the mutation alone. Polydactyl cat A polydactyl cat is a cat with a congenital physical anomaly called polydactyly (or polydactylism, also known as hyperdactyly), which causes the cat to be born with more than the usual number of toes on one or more of its paws. Cats with this genetically inherited trait are most commonly"
"genetic mutations. More specific loci and genetic mechanisms responsible for disorders of duplications will be defined with time, as molecular research continues. Polydactyly can be divided into three major types, which are discussed below. This is the most common situation, in which the extra digit is on the ulnar side of the hand, thus the side of the little finger. This can also be called postaxial polydactyly. It can manifest itself very subtly, for instance only as a nubbin on the ulnar side of the little finger, or very distinctly, as a fully developed finger. Most commonly, the extra finger"
"Polyorchidism Polyorchidism is the incidence of more than two testicles. It is a very rare congenital disorder, with fewer than 201 cases reported in medical literature and 6 cases (two horses, two dogs and two cats) in veterinary literature. Polyorchidism is generally diagnosed via an ultrasound examination of the testicles. However, the diagnosis of polyorchidism should include histological confirmation. The most common form is triorchidism, or tritestes, where three testicles are present. The condition is usually asymptomatic. A man who has polyorchidism is known as a polyorchid. Polyorchidism occurs in two primary forms: Type A and Type B. Type A3"
"Oligodactyly Oligodactyly (from the Ancient Greek ""oligos"" meaning ""few"" and δάκτυλος ""daktylos"" meaning ""finger"") is the presence of fewer than five fingers or toes on a hand or foot. It is quite often incorrectly called ""hypodactyly"", but the Greek prefixes hypo- and hyper- are used for continuous scales (e.g. in hypoglycaemia and hyperthermia). This as opposed to discrete or countable scales, where oligo- and poly- should be used (e.g. in oligarchy and polygamy). Oligodactyly is therefore the opposite of polydactyly. Very rare, this medical condition usually has a genetic or familial cause. Oligodactyly is sometimes a sign or symptom of"
"Polymelia Polymelia (from Greek πολυ- ""many"", μέλεα ""limbs""), also known as ""hydra syndrome"", is a birth defect involving limbs (a type of dysmelia), in which the affected individual has more than the usual number of limbs. In humans and most land-dwelling animals, this means having five or more limbs. The extra limb is most commonly shrunken and/or deformed. Sometimes an embryo started as conjoined twins, but one twin degenerated completely except for one or more limbs, which end up attached to the other twin. Sometimes small extra legs between the normal legs are caused by the body axis forking in"
"Supernumerary nipple A supernumerary nipple (also known as a third nipple, triple nipple, accessory nipple, polythelia or the related condition: polymastia) is an additional nipple occurring in mammals, including humans. Often mistaken for moles, supernumerary nipples are diagnosed in humans at a rate of approximately 1 in 18 people. The nipples appear along the two vertical ""milk lines,"" which start in the armpit on each side, run down through the typical nipples and end at the groin. They are classified into eight levels of completeness from a simple patch of hair to a milk-bearing breast in miniature. ""Polythelia"" refers to"
"polydactyly of all four paws is even less common. Feline radial hypoplasia ""(see squitten)"" is a mimic of polydactyly and is considered a severe condition. Radial hypoplasia may cause the formation of extra jointed toes, but it is not a result of the gene normally associated with polydactyls. It thus does not cause the ""mitten cat"" or ""thumb cat"" condition where the extra toes occur separated from the normal ones just like a dewclaw, usually associated with an additional pad which makes them look like an underdeveloped foot sticking out near the base of the normal toes. Rather, radial hypoplasia-related"
"advances in ultrasound technology, it was common practice to remove the supernumerary testicle. Several cases have been described where routine follow-up examinations conducted over a period of years showed that the supernumerary testicle was stable. A meta-analysis in 2009 suggested removing non-scrotal supernumerary testicles because of the increased risk of cancer, and regular follow-up in the remaining cases to ensure that the supernumerary testicle remains stable. Polyorchidism Polyorchidism is the incidence of more than two testicles. It is a very rare congenital disorder, with fewer than 201 cases reported in medical literature and 6 cases (two horses, two dogs and"
"Polysomy Polysomy is a condition found in many species, including fungi, plants, insects, and mammals, in which an organism has at least one more chromosome than normal, i.e., there may be three or more copies of the chromosome rather than the expected two copies. Most eukaryotic species are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, whereas prokaryotes are haploid, containing a single chromosome in each cell. Aneuploids possess chromosome numbers that are not exact multiples of the haploid number and polysomy is a type of aneuploidy. A karyotype is the set of chromosomes in an organism and the suffix"
"Polycephaly Polycephaly is the condition of having more than one head. The term is derived from the Greek stems ""poly"" (Greek: ""πολύ"") meaning ""many"" and ""kephalē"" (Greek: ""κεφάλη"") meaning ""head"". A polycephalic organism may be thought of as one being with a supernumerary body part, or as two or more beings with a shared body. Two-headed animals (called bicephalic or dicephalic) and three-headed (tricephalic) animals are the only type of multi-headed creatures seen in the real world, and form by the same process as conjoined twins from monozygotic twin embryos. In humans, there are two forms of twinning that can"
"Tridactyly (from Greek tri- = ""three"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") is the condition of having three digits on a limb, as in the rhinoceros and ancestors of the horse such as ""Protohippus"" and ""Hipparion"". These all belong to the Perissodactyla. Some birds also have three toes, including emus, bustards, and quail. Didactyly (from Greek di-=""two"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") or bidactyly is the condition of having two digits on each limb, as in the Hypertragulidae and two-toed sloth, ""Choloepus didactylus"". In humans this name is used for an abnormality in which the middle digits are missing, leaving only the thumb"
"rare and have never been reported so far. This is a less common situation, in which the affectation is on the side of the hand towards the thumb. Radial polydactyly refers to the presence of an extra digit (or extra digits) on the radial side of the hand. It is most frequent in Indian populations and it is the second most common congenital hand disorder. The incidence of radial polydactyly is reported as 1 in every 3,000 live births. The clinical features of radial polydactyly will depend upon the extent of duplication. Radial polydactyly varies from a barely visible radial"
"Lincolnshire Buff, Meusienne, Sultan, and non-bearded Silkie Bantams. The breed standard of these varieties of chickens calls for 5 toes on each foot, although sometimes more than 5 toes will occur. The extra digit in these breeds presents as an extra ""thumb"" that does not touch the ground. Mixed-breed chickens may also have extra digits if the aforementioned breeds are part of their genetic makeup. Polydactyly also occurs in dogs, cats, and small mammals such as guinea pigs and mice. A number of mutations of the LMBR1 gene, in dogs, humans, and mice, can cause polydactyly. A 2014 report indicated"
"is also often part of a syndrome. In patients with African ancestry ulnar polydactyly mostly occurs isolated, whereas the presentation in Caucasians is often associated with a syndrome. Though in a retrospective review, only 4 of 37 cases of ulnar polydactyly in Caucasians were syndromic. In almost 14% of all patients, this type of polydactyly is hereditary. It usually passes on in an autosomal dominant manner with variable expression and incomplete penetrance. It is genetically heterogenic, meaning that mutations in different genes can be the cause. When the extra digit is pedicled it can be very movable; however, injuries are"
"Polydipsia Polydipsia is excessive thirst or excess drinking. The word derives from the Greek () ""very thirsty"", which is derived from (, ""much, many"") + (, ""thirst""). Polydipsia is a nonspecific symptom in various medical disorders. It also occurs as an abnormal behaviour in some non-human animals, such as in birds. This symptom is characteristically found in diabetics, often as one of the initial symptoms, and in those who fail to take their anti-diabetic medications or whose condition is poorly controlled. It can also be caused by a change in the osmolality of the extracellular fluids of the body, hypokalemia,"
"occurs by itself, it is associated with autosomal dominant mutations in single genes, i.e. it is not a multifactorial trait. But mutation in a variety of genes can give rise to polydactyly. Typically the mutated gene is involved in developmental patterning, and a syndrome of congenital anomalies results, of which polydactyly is one feature or two. Types include: 97 genetic syndromes have been associated with different kinds of polydactyly. Ulnar polydactyly is often bilateral and associated with syndactyly and polydactyly of the feet. This can be a simple or complex polydactyly. Ulnar polydactyly occurs as an isolated congenital condition, but"
"Syndactyly Syndactyly (from Greek σύν meaning ""together"" and δάκτυλος meaning ""finger"") is a condition wherein two or more digits are fused together. It occurs normally in some mammals, such as the siamang and diprotodontia, but is an unusual condition in humans. Syndactyly can be simple or complex. Syndactyly can be complete or incomplete. Complex syndactyly occurs as part of a syndrome (such as Apert syndrome) and typically involves more digits than simple syndactyly. Fenestrated syndactyly means the skin is joined for most of the digit but in a proximal area there is gap in the syndactyly with normal skin. This"
"Polysplenia Polysplenia or Chaudhrey's disease is a congenital disease manifested by multiple small accessory spleens, rather than a single, full-sized, normal spleen. Polysplenia sometimes occurs alone, but it is often accompanied by other developmental abnormalities. Conditions associated with polysplenia include gastrointestinal abnormalities, such as intestinal malrotation or biliary atresia, as well as cardiac abnormalities, such as dextrocardia. There are frequent associated congenital anomalies all related to deviations in the development of anatomical asymmetries in early embryonic stages. These conditions considered together are called ""polysplenia syndrome"". Associated conditions include heterotaxy syndrome, intestinal malrotation, situs inversus, biliary atresia, and several cardiac malformations."
"viewed together, suggested a recessive genetic cause, based on the repeated instances of holoprosencephaly polydactyly in the aforementioned five cases, which led to the suspicion of an anomaly in chromosome thirteen's genetic coding. Chromosome thirteen spans about 114 million base pairs (the building material of DNA) and represents between 3.5 and 4% of the total DNA in cells. Problems with this chromosome account for several conditions including nonsyndromic deafness, Waardenburg syndrome and Wilson's disease. The majority of the cases discussed in the journal were still born, with death occurring between twenty-six and thirty-four weeks of gestation. All suffered with the"
"parent. Other cases result from new mutations in the gene and occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family. Pallister–Hall syndrome Pallister–Hall syndrome is a disorder that affects the development of many parts of the body. It is named for Judith Hall and Philip Pallister. Most people with this condition have extra fingers and/or toes (polydactyly), and the skin between some fingers or toes may be fused (cutaneous syndactyly). An abnormal growth in the brain called a hypothalamic hamartoma is characteristic of this disorder. In many cases, these growths do not cause any medical problems; however,"
"atavism, or evolutionary ‘holdover’ – a sign of how humans evolved. Supernumerary nipple A supernumerary nipple (also known as a third nipple, triple nipple, accessory nipple, polythelia or the related condition: polymastia) is an additional nipple occurring in mammals, including humans. Often mistaken for moles, supernumerary nipples are diagnosed in humans at a rate of approximately 1 in 18 people. The nipples appear along the two vertical ""milk lines,"" which start in the armpit on each side, run down through the typical nipples and end at the groin. They are classified into eight levels of completeness from a simple patch"
"of formation of parts, failure of differentiation, duplication, overgrowth, undergrowth, congenital constriction band syndrome, and generalized skeletal abnormalities. Polydactyly belongs to the category of duplication. Because there is an association between polydactyly and several syndromes, children with a congenital upper extremity deformity should be examined by a geneticist for other congenital anomalies. This should also be done if a syndrome is suspected, or if more than two or three generations of the family are affected. Research has shown that the majority of congenital anomalies occur during the 4-week embryologic period of rapid limb development. Polydactyly has been associated with 39"
"Acropectoral syndrome Acropectoral syndrome is an autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasia syndrome affecting the hands, feet, sternum, and lumbosacral spine. A recently proposed candidate gene for preaxial polydactyly is LMBR1, encoding a novel transmembrane receptor, which may be an upstream regulator of SHH. The LMBR1 gene is on human chromosome 7q36. Some individuals have preaxial polydactyly in the feet (unilateral in one, bilateral in 13), consisting of a small extra biphalangeal toe, in most cases with an associated rudimentary extra metatarsal, lying in a soft tissue web between the hallux and second toe. In some cases, this was accompanied by hypoplasia"
"and fifth finger, or big and little toes. Cloven-hoofed mammals (such as deer, sheep and cattle - ""Artiodactyla"") have only two digits, as do ostriches. Monodactyly (from Greek monos- = ""one"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") is the condition of having a single digit on a limb, as in modern horses. These belong to the Perissodactyla. Syndactyly (from Greek συν- = ""together"" plus δακτυλος = ""finger"") is a condition where two or more digits are fused together. It occurs normally in some mammals, such as the siamang and most diprotodontid marsupials such as kangaroos. It occurs as an unusual condition in"
"Polyploidy Polyploidy is the state of a cell or organism having more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes—one set inherited from each parent. However, polyploidy is found in some organisms and is especially common in plants. In addition, polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human muscle tissues. This is known as endopolyploidy. Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is, prokaryotes, may be polyploid, as seen in the large bacterium ""Epulopiscium fishelsoni"". Hence ploidy is"
"and the Association of People of Genetic Disorders in Greece. Acropectoral syndrome Acropectoral syndrome is an autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasia syndrome affecting the hands, feet, sternum, and lumbosacral spine. A recently proposed candidate gene for preaxial polydactyly is LMBR1, encoding a novel transmembrane receptor, which may be an upstream regulator of SHH. The LMBR1 gene is on human chromosome 7q36. Some individuals have preaxial polydactyly in the feet (unilateral in one, bilateral in 13), consisting of a small extra biphalangeal toe, in most cases with an associated rudimentary extra metatarsal, lying in a soft tissue web between the hallux and"