"blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body. Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a"
"to comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline. Human body The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body. It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human"
"Philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology, nature, and relationship of the mind to the body. The mind–body problem is a paradigm issue in philosophy of mind, although other issues are addressed, such as the hard problem of consciousness, and the nature of particular mental states. Aspects of the mind that are studied include mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness, the ontology of the mind, the nature of thought, and the relationship of the mind to the body. Dualism and monism are the two central schools of thought on the mind–body"
"Mycology Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist. Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, and the two disciplines remain closely related because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. Historically, mycology was a branch of botany because, although fungi are evolutionarily more closely related to animals than"
"Human body The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body. It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis,"
"Midbrain The midbrain or mesencephalon (, ; from Greek ""mesos"" 'middle', and ""enkephalos"" 'brain') is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation. The principle regions of the midbrain are the tectum, the cerebral aqueduct, tegmentum, and the basis pedunculi. Rostrally the midbrain adjoins the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.), while Caudally it adjoins the metencephalon (hindbrain) (pons and cerebellum). In the rostral direction, the midbrain noticably splays laterally. Sectioning of the midbrain is usually performed axially, at one of two levels - that of the superior colliculi, or that"
"Mental spine A mental spine is a small projection of bone on the posterior aspect of the mandible (lower jaw bone) in the midline. The adjective ""mental"" in this instance is used in its ""chin-related"" sense (from Latin ""mentum"") rather than its more common ""mind-related"" sense (from Latin ""mens""). There are usually four mental spines: two superior and two inferior. Collectively they are also known as the ""genial tubercle"", ""genial apophysis"" and the Latin name ""spinae mentalis"". The inferior mental spines are the points of origin of the geniohyoid muscle, one of the suprahyoid muscles and the superior mental spines"
"essential inconstant, material nucleus—an integrated representational system distributed over changing patterns of synaptic connections—seems reasonable. Philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology, nature, and relationship of the mind to the body. The mind–body problem is a paradigm issue in philosophy of mind, although other issues are addressed, such as the hard problem of consciousness, and the nature of particular mental states. Aspects of the mind that are studied include mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness, the ontology of the mind, the nature of thought, and the relationship of the mind to"
"1 Thessalonians 5:23), said that individual human beings are a complex integration of three components: body, mind and spirit—soma, psyche and pneuma. The term “somatology” comes from Greek roots meaning “body” and “study,” so somatology is the study of the body. This term is used in a number of different ways to describe a variety of activities related to studying the body. Several colleges and universities have departments of somatology which may cover various aspects of this field. The confused uses of this term can sometimes be disorienting, but the meaning of the term is usually clear from the context"
"Craniometry Craniometry is measurement of the cranium (the main part of the skull), usually the human cranium. It is a subset of cephalometry, measurement of the head, which in humans is a subset of anthropometry, measurement of the human body. It is distinct from phrenology, the pseudoscience that tried to link personality and character to head shape, and physiognomy, which tried the same for facial features. However, these fields have all claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence. They were once intensively practised in anthropology, in particular in physical anthropology in the 19th and the first part of the"
"Phrenology Phrenology () is a pseudoscience which involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules. Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology extrapolated beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departed from science. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits is discredited by empirical research. Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796, the discipline was influential"
"Rumpology Rumpology, Asstrology or bottom reading is a pseudoscience akin to physiognomy, performed by examining crevices, dimples, warts, moles and folds of a person's buttocks in much the same way a chirologist would read the palm of the hand. The term ""rumpology"" is a neologism. The American astrologer Jackie Stallone claims that rumpology is known to have been practiced in ancient times by the Babylonians, the Indians, and the Ancient Greeks and Romans, although she provides no evidence for this claim. Stallone has been largely responsible for the supposed ""revival"" of rumpology in modern times. Rumpologists have a variety of"
"Somatology Somatology is defined as the study or science of the human body as a branch of anthropology. This also includes the study of material substances, as in physics, chemistry, biology, botany which are under the general heading of physicalism. It is also defined as the study of material bodies or substances, as in physics, chemistry, biology, botany which are under the general heading of physicalism.[Soma is from the New Latin, somatologia, from the Greek somatos + logia, -logy, the study of]. In ancient times, Greek was the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean. Ancient writers, including St.Paul (see"
"neck, shoulders, arms, hands, breasts, waist, hips, belly, back, pubic hair, genitals, buttocks, legs, and feet. The Naked Woman The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body (2004) is a book by zoologist Desmond Morris. It describes the female body from an evolutionary point of view. It is divided in several chapters, each dedicated to a part of the body, from ""hair"" to ""foot"". For each, Morris explains the structure and function of the part, discusses its evolution, the social importance throughout human history, and the artificial modifications and decorations employed by different cultures. After a chapter on evolution,"
"are the origin of the genioglossus muscle, one of the muscles of the tongue. Mental spine A mental spine is a small projection of bone on the posterior aspect of the mandible (lower jaw bone) in the midline. The adjective ""mental"" in this instance is used in its ""chin-related"" sense (from Latin ""mentum"") rather than its more common ""mind-related"" sense (from Latin ""mens""). There are usually four mental spines: two superior and two inferior. Collectively they are also known as the ""genial tubercle"", ""genial apophysis"" and the Latin name ""spinae mentalis"". The inferior mental spines are the points of origin"
"realities of which humans are not ordinarily aware. The scientific study of mysticism today focuses on two topics: identifying the neurological bases and triggers of mystical experiences, and demonstrating the purported benefits of meditation. Correlates between mystical experiences and neurological activity have been established, pointing to the temporal lobe as the main locus for these experiences, while Andrew B. Newberg and Eugene G. d'Aquili have also pointed to the parietal lobe. The temporal lobe generates the feeling of ""I"", and gives a feeling of familiarity or strangeness to the perceptions of the senses. It seems to be involved in mystical"
"Gelotology Gelotology (from the Greek ""gelos"" ""laughter"") is the study of laughter and its effects on the body, from a psychological and physiological perspective. Its proponents often advocate induction of laughter on therapeutic grounds in alternative medicine. The field of study was pioneered by William F. Fry of Stanford University. Gelotology was first studied by psychiatrists, although some doctors in antiquity recommended laughter as a form of medicine. It was initially deprecated by most other physicians, who doubted that laughter possessed analgesic qualities. One early study that demonstrated the effectiveness of laughter in a clinical setting showed that laughter could"
"occur in animal diseases, including humans. According to the type of investigated organisms, the field can be divided into, animal physiology (including that of humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology and microbial physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal"
"zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as ""windows"" into the body's state of health. Iridology is not supported by quality research studies and is considered pseudoscience by the majority of medical practitioners and eye care professionals. The word ""iris"" is derived from the Greek goddess of the rainbow, because of the many colours of the iris. Iris (anatomy) In humans and most mammals and birds, the iris (plural: irides or irises) is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount"
"Myelencephalon The myelencephalon or afterbrain is the most posterior region of the embryonic hindbrain, from which the medulla oblongata develops. During fetal development, divisions of the neural tube that give rise to the hindbrain (rhombencephalon) and the other primary vesicles (forebrain and midbrain) occur at just 28 days after conception. With the exception of the midbrain, these primary vesicles undergo further differentiation at 5 weeks after conception to form the myelencephalon and the other secondary vesicles. Final shape differentiation of the myelencephalon into the medulla oblongata can be observed at 20 weeks gestation. The medulla oblongata is part of the"
"Physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, the focus of physiology is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system. Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is the investigation of the fundamental biophysical and biochemical phenomena, the coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and the continuous communication between cells. The physiologic state is the condition occurring from normal body function, while the pathological state is centered on the abnormalities that"
"Mind–body problem The mind–body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind and the brain as part of the physical body. It is distinct from the question of how mind and body function chemically and physiologically since that question presupposes an interactionist account of mind-body relations. This question arises when mind and body are considered as distinct, based on the premise that the mind and the body are fundamentally different in nature. The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers, in"
"The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis. The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon. This structure detects light, maintains circadian rhythms, and controls color changes. The midbrain or mesencephalon contains the two optic lobes. These are very large in species that hunt by sight, such as rainbow trout and cichlids. The hindbrain or metencephalon is particularly involved in swimming and balance. The cerebellum is a single-lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain. Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebellae, while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense. The"
"Amygdala The amygdala (; plural: amygdalae; also ""corpus amygdaloideum""; Latin from Greek, , """", 'Almond', 'tonsil') is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making and emotional responses (including fear, anxiety, and aggression), the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system. The regions described as amygdala nuclei encompass several structures with distinct connectional and functional characteristics in humans and other animals. Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the cortical"
"of Brodmann's area 4), the second is the olfactory cortex and the third is part of the somatosensory cortex (BA 3,1,2). The last areas to myelinate are the anterior cingulate cortex (F#43), the inferior temporal cortex (F#44) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (F#45). Myelinogenesis Myelinogenesis is generally the proliferation of myelin sheaths in the nervous system, and specifically the progressive myelination of nerve axon fibers in the central nervous system. This is a non-simultaneous process that occurs primarily postnatally in mammalian species, beginning in the embryo during the midst of early development and finishing after birth. The myelination process allows"
"Histology Histology, also microanatomy, is the branch of biology which studies the tissues of animals and plants using microscopy. It is commonly studied using a light microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained, and mounted on a microscope slide. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where live animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of staining. Histology can also be applied in medicine. Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important"
"homunculus has a portion for the tongue most lateral while the sensory homunculus has an area for genitalia most medial and an area for visceral organs most lateral. Well known in the field of neurology, this is also commonly called ""the little man inside the brain."" This scientific model is known as the cortical homunculus. In medical science, the term homunculus is sometimes applied to certain fetus-like ovarian cystic teratomae. These will sometimes contain hair, sebaceous material and in some cases cartilagous or bony structures. Homunculi can be found in centuries worth of literature. These fictions are primarily centred around"
"Kinesiology Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, biomechanical, and psychological dynamic principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health (i.e., human kinesiology) include biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques. The word comes from the Greek ""kínēsis"", ""movement"" (itself from κινεῖν ""kineîn"", ""to move""),"
"can be divided into three functional parts, each having distinct connections with the brain and spinal cord. These regions are the vestibulocerebellum, which is responsible primarily for the control of eye movements; the spinocerebellum, involved in fine tune body and limb movement; and the cerebrocerebellum, which is associated with planning, initiation and timing of movements. The vermis is the unpaired, median portion of the cerebellum that connects the two hemispheres. Both the vermis and the hemispheres are composed of lobules formed by groups of folia. There are nine lobules of the vermis: lingula, central lobule, culmen, clivus, folium of the"
"related disciplines, and they are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the"
"greater conservatism was associated with increased volume of the right amygdala."" These findings suggest that the volume of the amygdala and anterior cingulate gyrus may be associated with an individual's ability to tolerate uncertainty and conflict. Amygdala The amygdala (; plural: amygdalae; also ""corpus amygdaloideum""; Latin from Greek, , """", 'Almond', 'tonsil') is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making and emotional responses (including fear, anxiety, and aggression), the amygdalae"
"Mammillary body The mammillary bodies are a pair of small round bodies, located on the undersurface of the brain that, as part of the diencephalon, form part of the limbic system. They are located at the ends of the anterior arches of the fornix. They consist of two groups of nuclei, the medial mammillary nuclei and the lateral mammillary nuclei. Neuroanatomists have often categorized the mammillary bodies as part of the hypothalamus. They are connected to other parts of the brain (as shown in the schematic, below left), and act as a relay for impulses coming from the amygdalae and"
"(or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope. Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working"