"stressful situation, or when it has been socially isolated or confined. Researchers now generally agree that cribbing and wind-sucking occur most often in stabled horses, although once established in an individual horse, the horse may exhibit these behaviors in other places. Recent studies indicate cribbing occurs more frequently in horses that were stable-weaned as foals than in those that were pasture-weaned. In the same study, feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a fourfold increase in the rate of development of cribbing. The most popular cases of crib-biting come from racetracks, and it is believed to have derived from husbandry"
"and found no evidence that cribbing generally impairs the health of affected horses, but later studies reported that cribbing and wind-sucking were related to a history of colic or the subsequent development of colic. A study found that horses would perform the cribbing behaviour in attempt to decrease the cortisol levels that can be brought on by stressful situations. According to this study, the long-term release of stress hormones can be harmful and can cause cardiovascular diseases, depression and immunosuppression. Boredom, stress, habit and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study"
"wood board and sucks in air; not all wood-chewing is cribbing and though cribbing may also result in chewing on the wood surface, the two vices are not identical. Colic can be a consequence of wood chewing due to the ingestion of wood splinters. Both cribbing and wood chewing can cause excessive wearing and deterioration of the teeth in severe cases. Horses displaying these behaviors may be less desirable to potential buyers and may be devalued as a consequence. Wood chewing also is destructive to barns and fences, sometimes requiring costly repairs and ongoing maintenance. Wood chewing has been linked"
"the effects of providing a feeder that delivered small amounts of concentrate feed when activated by the animal. The feeder increased the feeding time of both cribbers and non-cribbers, however, although the feeder decreased cribbing, it increased again once the feeder was removed. There are a number of traditional devices used to minimize or prevent cribbing and wind-sucking. However, the effectiveness of these methods is arguable since they do not address the underlying causal factors. If the behaviour is stress related, the use of a cribbing collar may be counterproductive because it would not allow the animal to release the"
"prevented. Cribbing and wind-sucking may cause a sensation of pleasure by releasing endorphins in the horse's brain. It has also been suggested that the increase in saliva produced during wind-sucking could be a mechanism for neutralizing stomach conditions in stable-kept, grain-fed horses. Stereotypies have been defined as ""repetitive, invariant behaviour patterns with no obvious goal or function"", therefore, if cribbing and wind-sucking have one of the above possible functions, it may be inappropriate to label them as a stereotypy. However, as the causes and resulting reinforcement for these behaviors are probably multifactorial and they remain abnormal behaviors, this indicates that"
"more abnormal stereotypical behaviour that lead back to animal welfare and husbandry systems. Wind-sucking occurs in 3.8% of non-racing horses in the US. One study shows that stereotypes in general, including cribbing, are more prevalent in dressage horses compared to several other uses. Geldings and stallions are more likely to exhibit cribbing than mares and the behavior has been reported as occurring in horses on pasture. There is evidence that stomach ulcers may lead to a horse becoming a cribber, and that cribbing may be a coping mechanism in response to stress. A 1998 study found that cribbing increased endorphins"
"is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe but does so without grasping an object. Wind-sucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior or stereotypy seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability . Cribbing was mentioned in the literature as early as 1578 and occurs in 2.4-8.3% of horses depending on breed and"
"not swallowed but returns to the pharynx. It is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior or stereotypy, and often labelled as a stable vice. Wind-sucking is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe but does so without grasping an object. Wind-sucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. A similar, but unrelated behavior, wood-chewing (lignophagia), is another undesirable behavior sometimes observed in horses. The horse gnaws on wood rails or boards as if they were food, but it does"
"for larval development is within wet soil and bogs. Hosts of biting midges are wide variety of mammals and birds. Severe biting stress to cattle, sheep and horses is caused. Horses suffer from a cutaneous hypersensitivity reaction called sweet-itch, or Queensland-itch that is caused by antigenic components of saliva of biting midges. Poultry may be severely afflicted with biting stress. Species such as ""Culicoides imicola"" and ""Culicoides variipennis"" transmit bluetongue virus between sheep and cattle (see diagram and photograph above), and they transmit African horse sickness virus between horses and other equids. ""Culicoides"" midges transmit ""Leucocytozoon"" protozoa to poultry birds."
"as by clapping or yelling, reduces the risk of surprising an animal. Some people use bear bells as noisemakers, but these are usually too quiet to be heard from far away. Any mammal infected with rabies may behave unexpectedly, even aggressively, and could infect a human with rabies by biting. Venomous animals, including snakes, scorpions, spiders and bees, may cause harm either directly or through anaphylactic shock. Overall, the greatest danger is often from insects, such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas, which carry communicable diseases. When combined with lack of proper physical conditioning, cumbersome backpacks increase the risk of missteps"
"children. Non-sexual transmissions may occur among family and roommates through the use of shared towels, clothing, beds or closets. They can only survive a short time away from the warmth and humidity of the human body. It has been suggested that an increasing percentage of humans removing their pubic hair has led to reduced crab louse populations in some parts of the world. Other lice that infest humans are the body louse and the head louse. The claws of these three species are adapted to attachment to specific hair diameters. Pubic lice are not known to transmit disease. Adult pubic"
"bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling, chills, fever, and weakness, it is unlikely to be fatal. Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings. The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce anaphylactic shock in such people. Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin. Even nonvenomous centipedes are considered frightening by humans due to their dozens of legs moving at the same time and their tendency to dart swiftly out of the darkness towards one's feet. A 19th-century Tibetan poet warned his fellow Buddhists,"
"returns by to . Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the food from being blown away. Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators, such as toads, to survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind, and help them survive half of their attacks. Elk have a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a distance of . Increases in wind above signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick-billed murres. Wind causes"
"with breathing. Tabanid bites can make life outdoors unpleasant for humans, and can reduce milk output in cattle. They are attracted by reflections from water which are polarized, making them a particular nuisance near swimming pools. Since tabanids prefer to be in sunshine, they normally avoid shaded places such as barns, and are inactive at night. Attack patterns vary with species; clegs fly silently and prefer to bite humans on the wrist or bare leg; large species of ""Tabanus"" buzz loudly, fly low, and bite ankles, legs, or backs of knees; ""Chrysops"" flies somewhat higher, bites the back of the"
"horses. (Trombiculid mites also leave intensely pruritic spots on dogs and humans after feeding and such infestation is closely associated with the grassland and scrub habitats of the nonparasitic stages of the lifecycle.) Dense infestations of a poultry house by ""Dermanyssus gallinae"" lead to biting stress and loss of production of the birds (also humans working in the poultry houses are bitten). Originally a parasite centered on the nests of its wild bird hosts, this species has become a major pest in commercial poultry houses. ""Ornithonyssus bursa"" and ""O. sylvarium"" cause similar problems to poultry production. Parasitic mites are less"
"to their fine hair. At least three species or subspecies of Anoplura are parasites of humans; the human condition of being infested with sucking lice is called pediculosis. ""Pediculus humanus"" is divided into two subspecies, ""Pediculus humanus humanus"", or the body louse, sometimes nicknamed ""the seam squirrel"" for its habit of laying of eggs in the seams of clothing, and ""Pediculus humanus capitis"", or the head louse. ""Pthirus pubis"" (the crab louse) is the cause of the condition known as crabs. These 15 families are generally recognized in the Anoplura: Sucking louse Sucking lice (Anoplura, formerly known as Siphunculata) have"
"Feather-plucking Feather-plucking, sometimes termed feather-picking, feather damaging behaviour or pterotillomania, is a maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds which chew, bite or pluck their own feathers with their beak, resulting in damage to the feathers and occasionally the skin. It is especially common among Psittaciformes, with an estimated 10% of captive parrots exhibiting the disorder. The areas of the body that are mainly pecked or plucked are the more accessible regions such as the neck, chest, flank, inner thigh and ventral wing area. Contour and down feathers are generally identified as the main target, although in some cases,"
"damaged stems. After a period of four weeks the growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred. Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures, when winds exceed , rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective. Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest climates such as Antarctica, emperor penguins use huddling behavior to"
"insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Pintail nests and chicks are vulnerable to predation by mammals, such as foxes and badgers, and birds like gulls, crows and magpies. The adults can take flight to escape terrestrial predators, but nesting females in particular may be surprised by large carnivores such as bobcats. Large birds of prey, such as northern goshawks, will take ducks from the ground, and some falcons, including the gyrfalcon, have the speed and power to catch flying birds. It is susceptible to a range of parasites including ""Cryptosporidium"", ""Giardia"", tapeworms, blood parasites and external feather lice, and is also affected"
"in horses, bats, or birds. Horses panic easily, and once caught in barbed wire, large patches of skin may be torn off. At best, such injuries may heal, but they may cause disability or death (particularly due to infection). Birds or bats may not be able to perceive thin strands of barbed wire and suffer injuries. For this reason horse fences may have rubber bands nailed parallel to the wires. More than 60 different species of wildlife have been reported in Australia as victims of entanglement on barbed wire fences, and the wildlife friendly fencing project is beginning to address"
"causing bald spots. It is not uncommon at all for a larger or smaller bird to maim the cockatiel, creating lifelong disabilities and potentially life-threatening injuries. Cockatiels don't necessarily make good pets for very young children because they startle easily, and may bite if frightened by sudden hand movements; they can make good pets for well-behaved older children. Once bonded with their owners, they will often cuddle and play, pushing their head against hands or faces, tossing small items about for the owner to retrieve as a form of ""reverse fetch"", or whistling a favourite tune. Cockatiels, like almost all"
"mud or dust. Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load (ticks and lice), and thermoregulation. In the process of wallowing, bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax, which may occur naturally in the soil. Bison temperament is often unpredictable. They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, even lazy, yet they may attack anything, often without warning or apparent reason. They can move at speeds up to and cover long distances at"
"and in other locations they can produce economic setbacks in regards to grains and orchards because of large consumption of these products. These chipmunks are also known for preying upon low-nesting birds, and Siberian chipmunks often compete with other small native animals, such as the red squirrel, wood mouse, and bank vole. However the most concerning aspect of this species' influence revolves around its ability to carry diseases, like Lyme disease, that have the potential to create danger for humans and domestic animals. Lyme disease, also known as ""Borrelia burgdorferi"", is a vector-borne disease that can be transmitted through ticks."
"the horse are in the category of ""curb"" bits. Any bit with shanks that works off of leverage is a ""curb"" bit, regardless of whether the mouthpiece is solid or jointed. Some combination or hybrid bits combine direct pressure and leverage, such as the Kimblewick or Kimberwicke, which adds slight leverage to a two-rein design that resembles a snaffle; and the four rein designs such as the single mouthpiece Pelham bit and the double bridle, which places a curb and a snaffle bit simultaneously in the horse's mouth. In the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse."
"used to scrape the hosts' skin to feed. ""Trichodectes canis"" may cause the host to become stressed, resulting in an increased risk of contracting infectious diseases. ""T. canis"" causes stress by creating wounds on the surface of the hosts’ skin. The host also experiences hair loss as a result of increased host grooming in response to the itching feelings of the lice feeding. These problems may be magnified by colder environments. ""T. canis"" is also a known intermediate host for ""Dipylidium caninum"", or canine tapeworm. ""Dipylidium caninum"" is spread by the consumption of ""T. canis"". Should a human accidentally consume"
"Insect bites and stings Insect bites and stings occur when an insect is agitated and seeks to defend itself through its natural defense mechanisms, or when an insect seeks to feed off the bitten person. Some insects inject formic acid, which can cause an immediate skin reaction often resulting in redness and swelling in the injured area. Stings from fire ants, bees, wasps and hornets are usually painful, and may stimulate a dangerous allergic reaction called anaphylaxis for at-risk patients, and some wasps can also have a powerful bite along with a sting. Bites from mosquitoes and fleas are more"
"is particularly severe. While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms, it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually starve the host to death. Avian pox is a common, insect-vectored disease. The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. During nesting, corvids, grackles, housecats, or rat snakes will prey on their eggs. Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the mourning dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds. Like other columbids,"
"appearance. Stress caused by the pruritus can be severe, and will result in lost productivity of most species of livestock animals. Camels are prone to severe infestation and wild animals such as foxes may die from sarcoptes infestation. One genus of mites, ""Demodex"", has adapted to infesting the hair follicles of its hosts. Most species of mammal, including humans, are readily infested with these minute mites, but typically the infestation level is very low. The individual mites remain external to the epidermis within the follicle, but appear to be within the skin because they are below the general outer surface"
"diseases. However, there is some evidence that arboviruses may be transmissible. Bed bug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent blisters. Effects include skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. ""Cimex lectularius"" goes through five immature life stages that each require a blood meal to develop and move on to the next stage. Blood meals are necessary for each life stage in order to reproduce. They tend to feed exclusively on humans. ""C. lectularius"" are obligate blood feeders. ""C. lectularius"" typically feed on hosts when they are asleep. Haematophagous insects"
"Aggression is easily aroused in lovebirds, however, and they may bite unless humans establish a bond with gentle handling. Provided with adequate space, a stimulating environment, and appropriate nutrition, lovebirds can become cherished companion parrots. They love to snuggle and will often preen their favorite people. It is preferable to obtain birds bred in captivity, rather than birds caught in the wild. Wild birds may harbor diseases such as avian polyomavirus. Captured wild lovebirds also may mourn the loss of association with a mate or a flock. Their age is likely to be unknown, and they may have an unsuitable"
"outcomes may still occur. The bites of arthropods have some of the most serious health consequences known. Mosquito bites transmit serious disease and result in millions of deaths and illnesses in the world. Ticks also transmit many diseases such as Lyme disease. One of the first consequences of a bite is the trauma inflicted upon tissue. Some animals involved in inflicting bites are also receiving them during the confrontation. Trauma includes scratching of the skin surface, tooth loss, puncture wounds, superficial and deep lacerations, amputations, and the ripping off of skin and hair. If major blood vessels are damaged, severe"
"deal of attention. Furthermore, their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to tinker with, chew, dismantle and destroy. Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom, which can lead to stereotypic behaviour patterns, such as feather-plucking. Feather plucking is likely to stem from psychological rather than physical causes. Other major drawbacks include their painful bites, and their piercing screeches. The salmon-crested and white cockatoo species are particular offenders. All cockatoos have a fine powder on their feathers, which may induce allergies in certain people. In general, the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin's and quieter"
"impact because in the absence of a mother, juvenile monkeys cling to each other for contact comfort. Autogrooming is any grooming behaviour performed by an animal on its own body. This behaviour typically includes licking, chewing, clawing, and rubbing. This comfort behaviour is typically performed for hygienic purposes as seen in the red squirrel. The red squirrel removes parasites and dirt from its fur by licking and chewing its body (tail, belly and genitals), scratching harder to reach areas (such as under the legs) with its claws, brushing and rubbing facial areas with its front paws, or shaking its body"