"stressful situation, or when it has been socially isolated or confined. Researchers now generally agree that cribbing and wind-sucking occur most often in stabled horses, although once established in an individual horse, the horse may exhibit these behaviors in other places. Recent studies indicate cribbing occurs more frequently in horses that were stable-weaned as foals than in those that were pasture-weaned. In the same study, feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a fourfold increase in the rate of development of cribbing. The most popular cases of crib-biting come from racetracks, and it is believed to have derived from husbandry"
"and found no evidence that cribbing generally impairs the health of affected horses, but later studies reported that cribbing and wind-sucking were related to a history of colic or the subsequent development of colic. A study found that horses would perform the cribbing behaviour in attempt to decrease the cortisol levels that can be brought on by stressful situations. According to this study, the long-term release of stress hormones can be harmful and can cause cardiovascular diseases, depression and immunosuppression. Boredom, stress, habit and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study"
"is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe but does so without grasping an object. Wind-sucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior or stereotypy seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability . Cribbing was mentioned in the literature as early as 1578 and occurs in 2.4-8.3% of horses depending on breed and"
"prevented. Cribbing and wind-sucking may cause a sensation of pleasure by releasing endorphins in the horse's brain. It has also been suggested that the increase in saliva produced during wind-sucking could be a mechanism for neutralizing stomach conditions in stable-kept, grain-fed horses. Stereotypies have been defined as ""repetitive, invariant behaviour patterns with no obvious goal or function"", therefore, if cribbing and wind-sucking have one of the above possible functions, it may be inappropriate to label them as a stereotypy. However, as the causes and resulting reinforcement for these behaviors are probably multifactorial and they remain abnormal behaviors, this indicates that"
"more abnormal stereotypical behaviour that lead back to animal welfare and husbandry systems. Wind-sucking occurs in 3.8% of non-racing horses in the US. One study shows that stereotypes in general, including cribbing, are more prevalent in dressage horses compared to several other uses. Geldings and stallions are more likely to exhibit cribbing than mares and the behavior has been reported as occurring in horses on pasture. There is evidence that stomach ulcers may lead to a horse becoming a cribber, and that cribbing may be a coping mechanism in response to stress. A 1998 study found that cribbing increased endorphins"
"the effects of providing a feeder that delivered small amounts of concentrate feed when activated by the animal. The feeder increased the feeding time of both cribbers and non-cribbers, however, although the feeder decreased cribbing, it increased again once the feeder was removed. There are a number of traditional devices used to minimize or prevent cribbing and wind-sucking. However, the effectiveness of these methods is arguable since they do not address the underlying causal factors. If the behaviour is stress related, the use of a cribbing collar may be counterproductive because it would not allow the animal to release the"
"wood board and sucks in air; not all wood-chewing is cribbing and though cribbing may also result in chewing on the wood surface, the two vices are not identical. Colic can be a consequence of wood chewing due to the ingestion of wood splinters. Both cribbing and wood chewing can cause excessive wearing and deterioration of the teeth in severe cases. Horses displaying these behaviors may be less desirable to potential buyers and may be devalued as a consequence. Wood chewing also is destructive to barns and fences, sometimes requiring costly repairs and ongoing maintenance. Wood chewing has been linked"
"not swallowed but returns to the pharynx. It is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior or stereotypy, and often labelled as a stable vice. Wind-sucking is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe but does so without grasping an object. Wind-sucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. A similar, but unrelated behavior, wood-chewing (lignophagia), is another undesirable behavior sometimes observed in horses. The horse gnaws on wood rails or boards as if they were food, but it does"
"for larval development is within wet soil and bogs. Hosts of biting midges are wide variety of mammals and birds. Severe biting stress to cattle, sheep and horses is caused. Horses suffer from a cutaneous hypersensitivity reaction called sweet-itch, or Queensland-itch that is caused by antigenic components of saliva of biting midges. Poultry may be severely afflicted with biting stress. Species such as ""Culicoides imicola"" and ""Culicoides variipennis"" transmit bluetongue virus between sheep and cattle (see diagram and photograph above), and they transmit African horse sickness virus between horses and other equids. ""Culicoides"" midges transmit ""Leucocytozoon"" protozoa to poultry birds."
"as by clapping or yelling, reduces the risk of surprising an animal. Some people use bear bells as noisemakers, but these are usually too quiet to be heard from far away. Any mammal infected with rabies may behave unexpectedly, even aggressively, and could infect a human with rabies by biting. Venomous animals, including snakes, scorpions, spiders and bees, may cause harm either directly or through anaphylactic shock. Overall, the greatest danger is often from insects, such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas, which carry communicable diseases. When combined with lack of proper physical conditioning, cumbersome backpacks increase the risk of missteps"
"Feather-plucking Feather-plucking, sometimes termed feather-picking, feather damaging behaviour or pterotillomania, is a maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds which chew, bite or pluck their own feathers with their beak, resulting in damage to the feathers and occasionally the skin. It is especially common among Psittaciformes, with an estimated 10% of captive parrots exhibiting the disorder. The areas of the body that are mainly pecked or plucked are the more accessible regions such as the neck, chest, flank, inner thigh and ventral wing area. Contour and down feathers are generally identified as the main target, although in some cases,"
"children. Non-sexual transmissions may occur among family and roommates through the use of shared towels, clothing, beds or closets. They can only survive a short time away from the warmth and humidity of the human body. It has been suggested that an increasing percentage of humans removing their pubic hair has led to reduced crab louse populations in some parts of the world. Other lice that infest humans are the body louse and the head louse. The claws of these three species are adapted to attachment to specific hair diameters. Pubic lice are not known to transmit disease. Adult pubic"
"to their fine hair. At least three species or subspecies of Anoplura are parasites of humans; the human condition of being infested with sucking lice is called pediculosis. ""Pediculus humanus"" is divided into two subspecies, ""Pediculus humanus humanus"", or the body louse, sometimes nicknamed ""the seam squirrel"" for its habit of laying of eggs in the seams of clothing, and ""Pediculus humanus capitis"", or the head louse. ""Pthirus pubis"" (the crab louse) is the cause of the condition known as crabs. These 15 families are generally recognized in the Anoplura: Sucking louse Sucking lice (Anoplura, formerly known as Siphunculata) have"
"with breathing. Tabanid bites can make life outdoors unpleasant for humans, and can reduce milk output in cattle. They are attracted by reflections from water which are polarized, making them a particular nuisance near swimming pools. Since tabanids prefer to be in sunshine, they normally avoid shaded places such as barns, and are inactive at night. Attack patterns vary with species; clegs fly silently and prefer to bite humans on the wrist or bare leg; large species of ""Tabanus"" buzz loudly, fly low, and bite ankles, legs, or backs of knees; ""Chrysops"" flies somewhat higher, bites the back of the"
"mud or dust. Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load (ticks and lice), and thermoregulation. In the process of wallowing, bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax, which may occur naturally in the soil. Bison temperament is often unpredictable. They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, even lazy, yet they may attack anything, often without warning or apparent reason. They can move at speeds up to and cover long distances at"
"the horse are in the category of ""curb"" bits. Any bit with shanks that works off of leverage is a ""curb"" bit, regardless of whether the mouthpiece is solid or jointed. Some combination or hybrid bits combine direct pressure and leverage, such as the Kimblewick or Kimberwicke, which adds slight leverage to a two-rein design that resembles a snaffle; and the four rein designs such as the single mouthpiece Pelham bit and the double bridle, which places a curb and a snaffle bit simultaneously in the horse's mouth. In the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse."
"bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling, chills, fever, and weakness, it is unlikely to be fatal. Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings. The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce anaphylactic shock in such people. Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin. Even nonvenomous centipedes are considered frightening by humans due to their dozens of legs moving at the same time and their tendency to dart swiftly out of the darkness towards one's feet. A 19th-century Tibetan poet warned his fellow Buddhists,"
"diseases. However, there is some evidence that arboviruses may be transmissible. Bed bug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent blisters. Effects include skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. ""Cimex lectularius"" goes through five immature life stages that each require a blood meal to develop and move on to the next stage. Blood meals are necessary for each life stage in order to reproduce. They tend to feed exclusively on humans. ""C. lectularius"" are obligate blood feeders. ""C. lectularius"" typically feed on hosts when they are asleep. Haematophagous insects"
"to offspring before eggs are laid in a process called transovarial transmission. Symptoms of scrub typhus in humans include fever, headache, muscle pain, cough, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Trombiculidae Trombiculidae (; also called berry bugs, harvest mites, red bugs, scrub-itch mites and aoutas) are a family of mites. The best known of the Trombiculidae are the chiggers. The two widely recognized definitions of ""chigger"" are the scientific (or taxonomic) and the common, the latter of which can be found in English and medical dictionaries. According to most dictionaries, the several species of Trombiculidae that bite their host in their larval stage"
"returns by to . Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the food from being blown away. Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators, such as toads, to survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind, and help them survive half of their attacks. Elk have a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a distance of . Increases in wind above signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick-billed murres. Wind causes"
"horses. (Trombiculid mites also leave intensely pruritic spots on dogs and humans after feeding and such infestation is closely associated with the grassland and scrub habitats of the nonparasitic stages of the lifecycle.) Dense infestations of a poultry house by ""Dermanyssus gallinae"" lead to biting stress and loss of production of the birds (also humans working in the poultry houses are bitten). Originally a parasite centered on the nests of its wild bird hosts, this species has become a major pest in commercial poultry houses. ""Ornithonyssus bursa"" and ""O. sylvarium"" cause similar problems to poultry production. Parasitic mites are less"
"Trombiculosis Trombiculosis, trombiculiasis, or trombiculidiasis is a rash caused by trombiculid mites which is often referred to as a chigger bite. Chiggers are commonly found on the tip of blades of grasses to catch a host, so keeping grass short, and removing brush and wood debris where potential mite hosts may live, can limit their impact on an area. Sunlight that penetrates the grass will make the lawn drier and make it less favorable for chigger survival. Chiggers seem to affect warm covered areas of the body more than drier areas. Thus, the bites are often clustered behind the knees,"
"Insect bites and stings Insect bites and stings occur when an insect is agitated and seeks to defend itself through its natural defense mechanisms, or when an insect seeks to feed off the bitten person. Some insects inject formic acid, which can cause an immediate skin reaction often resulting in redness and swelling in the injured area. Stings from fire ants, bees, wasps and hornets are usually painful, and may stimulate a dangerous allergic reaction called anaphylaxis for at-risk patients, and some wasps can also have a powerful bite along with a sting. Bites from mosquitoes and fleas are more"
"damaged stems. After a period of four weeks the growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred. Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures, when winds exceed , rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective. Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest climates such as Antarctica, emperor penguins use huddling behavior to"
"Frequently, little or no pain occurs from a krait bite, and this can provide false reassurance to the victim. Typically, victims complain of severe abdominal cramps, accompanied by progressive paralysis. If death occurs, it takes place about four to eight hours after the krait bite. Cause of death is general respiratory failure, i.e. suffocation. Often during the rainy season, the snakes come out of their hiding places and find refuge inside dry houses. If bitten by a krait while sleeping, a victim may not realize he has been bitten, as the bite feels like that of an ant or mosquito."
"are not life-threatening to humans and present the greatest risk to children and those who develop allergic reactions. The history of a centipede bite is fairly straightforward; the victim typically sees and recognizes the centipede before or soon after being bitten. Symptoms which are most likely to develop include: The wound left by the bite may be accompanied by swelling, redness, and small puncture wounds which may form a circular pattern. This wound may be susceptible to local ulcerations and necrosis. A severe bite from a large centipede on a child, senior or person with a weakened heart can cause"
"disease caused by two types of bacteria, ""Streptobacillus moniliformis"", which is predominant in North America and ""Spirillum minus"", predominantly in Asia. Rat-bite fever is contacted by bites or scratches from an infected rodent, contaminated food or beverages with either bacteria, or by handling rodents with the disease, without necessarily being bitten or scratched by the rodent. Colorado Tick Fever virus causes high fevers, chills, headache, fatigue and sometimes vomiting, skin rash, and abdominal pain. The virus is caused by a Rock Mountain wood tick (""Dermacentro Andersoni""). It is an arbovirus, but rodents serve as the reservoir. The tick is carried"
"cases are self-treated or treated discreetly by personal physicians, which further adds to the difficulty of producing accurate statistics. Although any part of the body may be colonized, crab lice favor the hairs of the genital and peri-anal region. Especially in male patients, pubic lice and eggs can also be found in hair on the abdomen and under the armpits, as well as on the beard and mustache, while in children they are usually found in eyelashes. It has recently been suggested that an increasing percentage of humans removing their pubic hair has led to reduced crab louse populations in"
"with window-sills, ventilation and air-conditioning intakes, roofs and eaves, which serve as shelters for nesting birds. Humans bitten by these mites experience a non-specific dermatitis with intense itching. The most common symptoms are ""itching and punctiform, erythematous papules"" with a ""central punctum"", the itching and irritation are reactions to the saliva the mites secrete when feeding. Bites are normally located in groups around the neck and body areas covered by clothes (waist, trunk, upper extremities and abdomen), but can also be found on the legs, finger webs, axillae, the groin, and buttocks. ""D. gallinae"" is capable of infesting the ear"
"Biting Biting is a common behavior which involves the opening and closing of the jaw found in many animals. This behavior is found in reptiles, mammals, fish and amphibians. Arthropods can also bite. Biting is a physical action in an attack but it is also a normal activity or response in an animal as it eats, carries objects, softens and prepares food for its young, removes ectoparasites from its body surface, removes plant seeds attached to its fur or hair, scratches itself, and grooms other animals and for defense. Animal bites often result in serious infections and death. Dog bites"
"impact because in the absence of a mother, juvenile monkeys cling to each other for contact comfort. Autogrooming is any grooming behaviour performed by an animal on its own body. This behaviour typically includes licking, chewing, clawing, and rubbing. This comfort behaviour is typically performed for hygienic purposes as seen in the red squirrel. The red squirrel removes parasites and dirt from its fur by licking and chewing its body (tail, belly and genitals), scratching harder to reach areas (such as under the legs) with its claws, brushing and rubbing facial areas with its front paws, or shaking its body"
"in horses, bats, or birds. Horses panic easily, and once caught in barbed wire, large patches of skin may be torn off. At best, such injuries may heal, but they may cause disability or death (particularly due to infection). Birds or bats may not be able to perceive thin strands of barbed wire and suffer injuries. For this reason horse fences may have rubber bands nailed parallel to the wires. More than 60 different species of wildlife have been reported in Australia as victims of entanglement on barbed wire fences, and the wildlife friendly fencing project is beginning to address"
"and in other locations they can produce economic setbacks in regards to grains and orchards because of large consumption of these products. These chipmunks are also known for preying upon low-nesting birds, and Siberian chipmunks often compete with other small native animals, such as the red squirrel, wood mouse, and bank vole. However the most concerning aspect of this species' influence revolves around its ability to carry diseases, like Lyme disease, that have the potential to create danger for humans and domestic animals. Lyme disease, also known as ""Borrelia burgdorferi"", is a vector-borne disease that can be transmitted through ticks."