"seen: concave, convex, and flat. The finishing method determines this final appearance. With concave ""cloisonné"" the cloisons are not completely filled. Capillary action causes the enamel surface to curve up against the ""cloisonné"" wire when the enamel is molten, producing a concave appearance. Convex cloissoné is produced by overfilling each cloison, at the last firing. This gives each color area the appearance of slightly rounded mounds. Flat ""cloisonné"" is the most common. After all the cloisons are filled the enamel is ground down to a smooth surface with lapidary equipment, using the same techniques as are used for polishing cabochon"
"Vitreous enamel Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between . The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating. The word comes from the Latin ""vitreum"", meaning ""glassy"". Enamel can be used on metal, glass, ceramics, stone, or any material that will withstand the fusing temperature. In technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and another material (or more glass). The term ""enamel"" is most often restricted to work on metal, which is the subject of this article."
"Cloisonné Cloisonné () is an ancient technique for decorating metalwork objects. In recent centuries, vitreous enamel has been used, and inlays of cut gemstones, glass and other materials were also used during older periods. The resulting objects can also be called ""cloisonné"". The decoration is formed by first adding compartments (""cloisons"" in French) to the metal object by soldering or affixing silver or gold wires or thin strips placed on their edges. These remain visible in the finished piece, separating the different compartments of the enamel or inlays, which are often of several colors. ""Cloisonné"" enamel objects are worked on"
"stones. The top of the ""cloisonné"" wire is polished so it is flush with the enamel and has a bright lustre. Some ""cloisonné"" wire is electroplated with a thin film of gold, which will not tarnish as silver does. Cloisonné Cloisonné () is an ancient technique for decorating metalwork objects. In recent centuries, vitreous enamel has been used, and inlays of cut gemstones, glass and other materials were also used during older periods. The resulting objects can also be called ""cloisonné"". The decoration is formed by first adding compartments (""cloisons"" in French) to the metal object by soldering or affixing"
"Gilding Gilding is any decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold to solid surfaces such as metal (much the most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as ""gilt"". Where metal is gilded, it was traditionally silver in the West, to make silver-gilt (or ""vermeil"") objects, but gilt-bronze is commonly used in China, and also called ormolu if it is Western. Methods of gilding include hand application and gluing, typically of gold leaf, chemical gilding, and electroplating, the last also called gold plating. Parcel-gilt (partial gilt) objects are only gilded over part of"
"Sprigging (pottery) Sprigging or sprigged decoration is a technique for decorating pottery with low relief shapes made separately from the main body and applied to it before firing. Usually thin press moulded shapes are applied to greenware or bisque. The resulting pottery is termed sprigged ware, and the added piece is a ""sprig"". The technique may also be described by terms such as ""applied relief decoration"", especially in non-European pottery. The alternative way to achieve similar effects without sprigging is to mould the whole body, which is also common. Pâte-sur-pâte is a very labour-intensive, and so expensive, method of producing"
"the whole of a gold base plate is to be covered in enamel. The edges of the plate are turned up to form a reservoir, and gold wires are soldered in place to form the ""cloisons"". The enamel design therefore covers the whole plate. In the Senkschmelz (""sunk"" enamel, literally ""sunk melt"") technique the parts of the base plate to hold the design are hammered down, leaving a surrounding gold background, as also seen in contemporary Byzantine icons and mosaics with gold glass backgrounds, and the saint illustrated here. The wires and enamels are then added as before. The outline"
"Champlevé Champlevé is an enamelling technique in the decorative arts, or an object made by that process, in which troughs or cells are carved, etched, die struck, or cast into the surface of a metal object, and filled with vitreous enamel. The piece is then fired until the enamel fuses, and when cooled the surface of the object is polished. The uncarved portions of the original surface remain visible as a frame for the enamel designs; typically they are gilded in medieval work. The name comes from the French for ""raised field"", ""field"" meaning background, though the technique in practice"
"colours of body and sprig. Sprigging (pottery) Sprigging or sprigged decoration is a technique for decorating pottery with low relief shapes made separately from the main body and applied to it before firing. Usually thin press moulded shapes are applied to greenware or bisque. The resulting pottery is termed sprigged ware, and the added piece is a ""sprig"". The technique may also be described by terms such as ""applied relief decoration"", especially in non-European pottery. The alternative way to achieve similar effects without sprigging is to mould the whole body, which is also common. Pâte-sur-pâte is a very labour-intensive, and"
"decoration was added by either engraving or punching which would show through the translucent enamel, or to facet the background so the reflections change as the viewing angle changes slightly. In these last-mentioned areas cutting tools were used. Most of the background outside the enamelled areas was decorated in the same way. After the enamel was added and fired the surfaces were cleaned up, made good and polished, including removing by scraping any bumps showing through on the reverse of the metal. The enamel lies flush with the gold surfaces; it was a preparation of finely ground glass paste applied"
"or silver and their surfaces lightly roughened to provide a key for the enamel, which is applied as a paste and fired. In places the framework may only be wire. The term derives from the French term ""émail en ronde bosse"" (""enamel in the round""); however in French ""en ronde bosse"" merely means ""in the round"" and is used of any sculpture; in English ""ronde bosse"" or ""en ronde bosse"", though usually treated as foreign terms and italicised, are specifically used of the enamel technique, and in recent decades have largely replaced the older English term ""encrusted enamel"". The technique"
"is fired again to fuse the ""cloisonné"" wire to the clear enamel. The gum burns off, leaving no residue. Vitreous enamels in the different colors are ground to fine powders in an agate or porcelain mortar and pestle, then washed to remove the impurities that would discolor the fired enamel. The enamel is made from silica, niter, and lead oxide to which metallic oxides are added for coloring. These ingredients are melted together, forming a glassy frit which is ground again before application. Each color of enamel is prepared this way before it is used and then mixed with a"
"with enamel powder made into a paste, which then needs to be fired in a kiln. In antiquity, the ""cloisonné"" technique was mostly used for jewellery and small fittings for clothes, weapons or similar small objects decorated with geometric or schematic designs, with thick cloison walls. In the Byzantine Empire techniques using thinner wires were developed to allow more pictorial images to be produced, mostly used for religious images and jewellery, and by then always using enamel. By the 14th century this enamel technique had spread to China, where it was soon used for much larger vessels such as bowls"
"Enamelled glass is also called ""painted"", and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry and decorative art. Since the 19th century, enamels have also been applied to many consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, steel sinks, enamel bathtubs, and stone countertops. It has also been used on some appliances, such as dishwashers, laundry machines, and refrigerators, and on marker boards and signage. The term ""enamel"" has also sometimes been applied to industrial materials other than vitreous enamel, such as ""enamel"" paint"
"Industrial porcelain enamel Industrial porcelain enamel (also known as glass lining, glass-lined steel, or glass fused to steel) is the use of porcelain enamel (also known as vitreous enamel) for industrial, rather than artistic, applications. Porcelain enamel, a thin layer of ceramic or glass applied to a substrate of metal, is used to protect surfaces from chemical attack and physical damage, modify the structural characteristics of the substrate, and improve the appearance of the product. Enamel has been used for art and decoration since the period of Ancient Egypt, and for industry since the Industrial Revolution. It is most commonly"
"together. Enamels are ground and applied to each ""cell"" created by the metal wirework. The piece is fired in a kiln. This process of placing and firing the enamels is repeated until all cells are completely filled. Usually it takes up to 15-20 repeats. 2. Pierced plique-a-jour (""Western plique-a-jour""): A sheet of gold or silver is pierced and sawed, cutting out a desired design. This leaves empty spaces or ""cells"" to fill with enamel powders (ground glass). 3. Shotai shippo (""Japanese plique-a-jour""): A layer of flux (clear enamel) is fired over a copper form. Wires are fired onto the flux"
"set into larger objects, such as the Pala d'Oro, the altarpiece in Saint Mark's Cathedral, Venice. Some objects combined thick and thin cloisons for varied effect. The designs often (as at right) contained a generous background of plain gold, as in contemporary Byzantine mosaics. The area to be enamelled was stamped to create the main depression, pricked to help the enamel adhere, and the cloisons added. Two different techniques in Byzantine and European ""cloisonné"" enamel are distinguished, for which the German names are still typically used in English. The earliest is the Vollschmelz (""full"" enamel, literally ""full melt"") technique where"
"is made of this difficult technique. A similar technique was known as ""shippou-zogan"" in Japan, where it was considered a form of damascening. Champlevé Champlevé is an enamelling technique in the decorative arts, or an object made by that process, in which troughs or cells are carved, etched, die struck, or cast into the surface of a metal object, and filled with vitreous enamel. The piece is then fired until the enamel fuses, and when cooled the surface of the object is polished. The uncarved portions of the original surface remain visible as a frame for the enamel designs; typically"
"Overglaze decoration Overglaze decoration, overglaze enamelling or on-glaze decoration is a method of decorating pottery, most often porcelain, where the coloured decoration is applied on top of the already fired and glazed surface, and then fixed in a second firing at a relatively low temperature. It is often described as producing ""enamelled"" decoration. The colours fuse on to the glaze, so the decoration becomes durable. This decorative firing is usually done at a lower temperature which allows for a more varied and vidid palette of colours, using pigments which will not colour correctly at the high temperature necessary to fire"
"Planishing Planishing (from the Latin ""planus"", ""flat"") is a metalworking technique that involves finishing the surface by finely shaping and smoothing sheet metal. This is done by hammering with a planishing panel hammer or slapper file against a shaped surface called a ""planishing stake"" that is held in a vice or a mounting hole in a blacksmith's beak anvil, or against hand-held, shaped, metal tools that are known as ""Dollies"" or ""Anvils"". The shape of the stake or dolly has to match the desired work piece contour, and so they come in a variety of complex shapes. Alternatively, planishing may"
"or acrylics, or gold- or silver-plated. Depending on the opacity level of the font's powders the color or reflection of light from gold leafing can add an interesting inner glow. Powder painting Powder painting is the art of using ground glass in powdered form to create kilnformed glass art. The process differs from enameling in many respects. Firstly, the powder is actually ground glass typically from a single manufacturer who supplies an extensive color palette. Large jars can be purchased which are fairly inexpensive compared to enamels, making large scale paintings possible This technique is one variation of many ways"
"a matte finish. It is to be distinguished from ""sandwiched"" gold glass where gold leaf is glued to a piece of glass, and often then scraped off to form a design, and a further layer of hot glass is then applied on top and fused to seal the gold inside. In recent years the term Verre Églomisé has also been used to describe gilded and distressed mirrors which have no actual design or pattern applied, but this is taking it a further step away from its source. A better term for these would be the less exotic sounding ‘Distressed Hand-Gilded"
"steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria and Germany in about 1850. Industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased. The wet application process started with the discovery of the use of clay to suspend frit in water. Developments that followed during the 20th century include enamelling-grade steel, cleaned-only surface preparation, automation, and ongoing improvements in efficiency, performance, and quality. Vitreous enamel can be applied to most metals. Most modern industrial enamel is applied to steel in which the carbon content is controlled to prevent unwanted reactions at the"
"is finely ground glass called frit. Frit for enamelling steel is typically an alkali borosilicate glass with a thermal expansion and glass temperature suitable for coating steel. Raw materials are smelted together between into a liquid glass that is directed out of the furnace and thermal shocked with either water or steel rollers into frit. Colour in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often metal oxides cobalt, praseodymium, iron, or neodymium. The latter creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm grey. Enamel can be transparent, opaque or opalescent (translucent). Different enamel colours can"
"not the glass. The art of vitreous enameling is an ancient practice with origins that are hard to pinpoint. There are a few places that Byzantine craftsmen could have picked up the technique. Enameling is thought to have existed in an early form in ancient Egypt, where examples of gold ornaments containing glass paste separated by strips of gold have been found in tombs. However, there are questions about whether the Egyptians were using actual enameling techniques; it is possible that instead they were casting glass stones which were then enclosed, set into metal frames, and then sanded to a"
"a century, though it did not become predominant until later, and the full possibilities were not realized until the 17th century. Some techniques use thin metal leaf as well as the more usual pigments, which are typically applied in a liquid or paste form, painted by brush, or using stencils or transfer printing. Today overglaze decoration is much less commonly used, other than in traditionalist wares, as the range of colours available in underglaze has greatly expanded. Overglaze decoration Overglaze decoration, overglaze enamelling or on-glaze decoration is a method of decorating pottery, most often porcelain, where the coloured decoration is"
"Enamelled glass Enamelled glass is glass which has been decorated with vitreous enamel (powdered glass, possibly mixed with a binder) and then fired to fuse the glasses. It can produce brilliant and long-lasting colours, and be transparent, translucent or opaque. Generally the desired colours only appear when the piece is fired, adding to the artist's difficulties. It is similar to vitreous enamel on metal surfaces, but the supporting surface is glass. It is also close to ""enamelled"" overglaze decoration on pottery, especially on porcelain, and it is thought likely that the technique passed from metal to glass (probably in the"
"that the use of zero carbon steel (steel with less than 0.005% carbon content) as a substrate was linked to allowing lighter-colored enamels to adhere directly to the substrate. Bibliography Industrial porcelain enamel Industrial porcelain enamel (also known as glass lining, glass-lined steel, or glass fused to steel) is the use of porcelain enamel (also known as vitreous enamel) for industrial, rather than artistic, applications. Porcelain enamel, a thin layer of ceramic or glass applied to a substrate of metal, is used to protect surfaces from chemical attack and physical damage, modify the structural characteristics of the substrate, and improve"
"a glaze to coat the inside surface of salt-glazed ware. While decorated ware was usually adorned using cobalt oxide, decorative techniques such as incising were also used. Flowering plants, birds, or other decoration were cut into the leather-hard clay using a stylus to produce detailed recessed images on the vessels; these were usually also highlighted in cobalt. Stamped or coggled designs were sometimes impressed into the leather-hard clay, as well. Potters occasionally substituted manganese or iron oxide for cobalt oxide to produce brown, instead of blue, decorations on the pottery. In the last half of the 19th century, potters in"
"and structural elements made of enamelled steel. One of the most widespread modern uses of enamel is in the production of quality chalk-boards and marker-boards (typically called 'blackboards' or 'whiteboards') where the resistance of enamel to wear and chemicals ensures that 'ghosting', or unerasable marks, do not occur, as happens with polymer boards. Since standard enamelling steel is magnetically attractive, it may also be used for magnet boards. Some new developments in the last ten years include enamel/non-stick hybrid coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for enamels, enamels with a metallic appearance, and new easy-to-clean enamels. The key ingredient of vitreous enamel"
"however, the result is similar. Enamelled glass Enamelled glass is glass which has been decorated with vitreous enamel (powdered glass, possibly mixed with a binder) and then fired to fuse the glasses. It can produce brilliant and long-lasting colours, and be transparent, translucent or opaque. Generally the desired colours only appear when the piece is fired, adding to the artist's difficulties. It is similar to vitreous enamel on metal surfaces, but the supporting surface is glass. It is also close to ""enamelled"" overglaze decoration on pottery, especially on porcelain, and it is thought likely that the technique passed from metal"
"and ""vermiculated"" gilded backgrounds ""incised in a pattern of densely interwoven vine scrolls and tendrils"". Often, as in the examples illustrated, the heads alone were modelled in relief, but sometimes whole figures, usually by hammering from behind into a mould. After several decades they were being produced by workshops in large numbers, using standard patterns, and could be afforded by relatively small parish churches. The shape was used for other purposes, and secular designs were made, although far fewer of these have survived. The enamel workshops modified their style slightly to reflect the coming of the Gothic, and were still"
"ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel was also used to decorate glass vessels during the Roman period, and there is evidence of this as early as the late Republican and early Imperial periods in the Levant, Egypt, Britain and around the Black Sea. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide. Designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels"