"Antibiotic misuse Antibiotic misuse, sometimes called antibiotic abuse or antibiotic overuse, refers to the misuse or overuse of antibiotics, with potentially serious effects on health. It is a contributing factor to the development of antibiotic resistance, including the creation of multidrug-resistant bacteria, informally called ""super bugs"": relatively harmless bacteria (such as staphylococcus, enterococcus and acinetobacter) can develop resistance to multiple antibiotics and cause life-threatening infections. Antibiotics have been around since 1928 when penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming. In the 1980s, antibiotics that were determined medically important for treatment of animals could be approved under veterinary oversight. In 1996, the"
"Edward Abraham Sir Edward Penley Abraham, (10 June 1913 – 8 May 1999) was an English biochemist instrumental in the development of the first antibiotics penicillin and cephalosporin. From 1924 Abraham attended King Edward VI School, Southampton, before achieving a First in Chemistry at The Queen's College, Oxford. Abraham completed his DPhil at the University of Oxford under the supervision of Sir Robert Robinson, during which he was the first to crystallise lysozyme, an enzyme discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming and shown to have antibacterial properties, and was later the first enzyme to have its structure solved using X-ray crystallography,"
"Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of the war continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients. At St Mary's Hospital Fleming continued his investigations into antibacterial substances. Testing the nasal secretions from a patient with a heavy cold, he found that nasal mucus had an inhibitory effect on bacterial growth. This was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme, an enzyme present in many secretions including tears, saliva, skin, hair and nails as well as mucus. Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of"
"was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. People began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria; these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins and the antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived from ""Penicillium"" fungi. The term ""penicillin"" is often used generically to refer to benzylpenicillin (penicillin G, the original penicillin found in 1928), procaine benzylpenicillin (procaine penicillin), benzathine benzylpenicillin (benzathine penicillin), and phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V). Procaine penicillin and benzathine penicillin have the same antibacterial activity as benzylpenicillin but act for a longer period of time. Phenoxymethylpenicillin is less"
"and the Oxford-EPA Cephalosporin Graduate Scholarship). Abraham was the recipient of many awards over his lifetime: Edward Abraham Sir Edward Penley Abraham, (10 June 1913 – 8 May 1999) was an English biochemist instrumental in the development of the first antibiotics penicillin and cephalosporin. From 1924 Abraham attended King Edward VI School, Southampton, before achieving a First in Chemistry at The Queen's College, Oxford. Abraham completed his DPhil at the University of Oxford under the supervision of Sir Robert Robinson, during which he was the first to crystallise lysozyme, an enzyme discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming and shown to have"
"a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking ""That's funny"". Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Price, who reminded him, ""That's how you discovered lysozyme."" Fleming grew the mould in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. He identified the mould as being from the genus ""Penicillium"", and, after some months of calling it ""mould juice"", named the substance it released ""penicillin"" on 7 March 1929. The laboratory in"
"years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist who had enough skill to make penicillin. But Sir Henry Harris said in 1998: ""Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin."" Fleming's accidental discovery and isolation of penicillin in September 1928 marks the start of modern antibiotics. Before that, several scientists had published or pointed out that mould or ""Penicillium sp."" were able to inhibit bacterial growth, and even to cure bacterial infections in animals. Ernest Duchesne in 1897 in his thesis ""Contribution to the study of vital"
"and remained there until his retirement in 1946. Among the many bacteriologists who followed in Wright's footsteps at St Mary's was Sir Alexander Fleming, who in turn later discovered lysozyme and penicillin. Wright was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1906. Leonard Colebrook became his assistant from 1907 and continued working with him until 1929. Wright warned early on that antibiotics would create resistant bacteria, something that has proven an increasing danger. He made his thoughts on preventive medicine influential, stressing preventive measures. Wright's ideas have been re-asserted recently—70 years after his death—by modern researchers in articles"
"lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, and therefore had little therapeutic potential. By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well-known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher, but his laboratory was often untidy. On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent August on holiday with his family. Before leaving, he had stacked all his cultures of staphylococci on a bench in a corner of his laboratory. On returning, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with"
"bacteria when he noticed the spores of a green mold, ""Penicillium chrysogenum"", in one of his culture plates. He observed that the presence of the mold killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria. Fleming postulated that the mold must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. Ernst Chain, Howard Florey and"
"and ""Streptococci"" (bacteria that cause a series of infections). In 1927, he demonstrated the inhibitory action of the bacillus genus ""Penicillium"" on the proliferation of the bacteria ""Staphylococcus"" and ""Streptococcus"". Although, the discovery of penicillin has been attributed to Alexander Fleming, Picados' old laboratory notebooks from 1923 show records of the antibiosis of ""Penicillium sp"". For this reason he is renowned as one of the precursors of the penicillin antibiotic. The report with the results of the treatments performed with penicillin by Dr. Picado were published by the Biology Society of Paris in 1927. In memory of Dr. Picado's outstanding"
"by scientists and physicians on the antibacterial properties of the different types of moulds including the mould penicillium but they were unable to discern what process was causing the effect. The effects of penicillium mould would finally be isolated in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming, in work that seems to have been independent of those earlier observations. Fleming recounted that the date of his discovery of penicillin was on the morning of Friday 28 September 1928. The traditional version of this story describes the discovery as a serendipitous accident: in his laboratory in the basement of St Mary's Hospital"
"History of penicillin The history of penicillin follows a number of observations and discoveries of apparent evidence of antibiotic activity in molds before the modern isolation of the chemical penicillin in 1928. There are anecdotes about ancient societies using molds to treat infections, and in the following centuries many people observed the inhibition of bacterial growth by various molds. However, it is unknown if the species involved were ""Penicillium"" species or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. The Scottish physician Alexander Fleming was the first to suggest that a ""Penicillium"" mold must secrete an antibacterial substance, and the first"
"antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine. In 1928, Alexander Fleming became the first to discover a natural antimicrobial fungus known as ""Penicillium rubens"" and named the extracted substance penicillin which in 1942 was successfully used to treat a ""Streptococcus"" infection. Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections. The drug toxicity to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally considered low.(depends) Prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of gut flora, which may have a negative impact on health. Consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating can help to replace destroyed"
"of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Since that time, many additional antibiotics have been discovered and the potential for fungi to synthesize biologically active molecules, useful in a wide range of clinical therapies, has been extensively exploited. Pharmacological research has now isolated antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoan, isolates from fungi. The fungus with probably the longest record of medicinal use, ""Ganoderma lucidum"", is known in Chinese as líng zhī (""spirit plant""), and in Japanese as mannentake (""10,000-year mushroom""). In ancient Japan, ""Grifola frondosa"" was worth its weight in silver, although no significant therapeutic benefits have been demonstrated in humans. Studies"
"Alexander Fleming discovered a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. In 1929, he named the new substance ""penicillin"". His publications were largely ignored at first, but it became a significant antibiotic in the 1930s. In 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at Sheffield Royal Infirmary, used penicillin to treat sycosis barbae, eruptions in beard follicles, but was unsuccessful. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in infants, he achieved the first recorded cure with penicillin, on November 25, 1930. He then cured four additional patients (one adult and three infants) of eye infections, but failed to cure"
"to concentrate the active substance involved, which he named penicillin, in 1928. Penicillin was the first modern antibiotic. During the next twelve years Fleming grew, distributed, and studied the original mold, which was determined to be a rare variant of ""Penicillium notatum"" (now ""Penicillium chrysogenum""). Many later scientists were involved in the stabilization and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of ""Penicillium"". Important contributors include Ernst Chain, Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, and Edward Abraham. Shortly after the discovery of penicillin, scientists found that some disease-causing pathogens display antibiotic resistance to penicillin. Research that aims"
"prominent members of the club since its foundation, and gave numerous communications over the years. In 1946 the club sent a congratulatory letter to Sir Almroth Wright on occasion of his 85th birthday and of the 50th anniversary of the publication of his method for prophylactic inoculation against typhoid fever. Two of the most notable communications to the club were given by Alexander Fleming. In December 1921, Fleming first presented his discovery of lysozyme; then on 13 February 1929 he presented a paper entitled ""A medium for the isolation of Pfeiffer's bacillus"", in which he described his discovery of penicillin,"
"mode of action were key scientific objectives. David Phillips solved the structure of lysozyme and also explained the mechanism of its action in destroying certain bacteria by a brilliant application of the technique of X-ray crystallography, a technique to which he had been introduced as a PhD student at the University in Cardiff, and to which he later made major instrumental contributions. David was the son of Charles Harry Phillips, a master tailor and Methodist preacher, and his wife, Edith Harriet Finney. He was born in Ellesmere, Shropshire which gave rise to his title Baron Phillips of Ellesmere. He was"
"wife of pharmacologist and medic Dr Howard Walter Florey, and Dr Charles Fletcher brought Constable Alexander's case to Florey's attention. The ability of penicillin to slow or counteract bacterial infection had first been noticed by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928. Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley, at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford were working on the medical applications of penicillin, as produced by the mould ""Penicillium notatum"", and attempting to isolate quantities of penicillin from the mould large enough for a human trial. Having tried the extracted penicillin only on mice, Florey and colleagues"
"James Young Simpson Sir James Young Simpson, 1st Baronet, FRCPE (7 June 1811 – 6 May 1870) was a Scottish obstetrician and a significant figure in the history of medicine. He was the first physician to demonstrate the anaesthetic properties of chloroform on humans and helped to popularise the drug's use in medicine. Simpson's intellectual interests ranged from archaeology to an almost taboo subject at the time: hermaphroditism. He was an early advocate of the use of midwives in the hospital environment. Many prominent women also consulted him for their gynaecological problems. Simpson wrote ""Homœopathy, its Tenets and Tendencies"" refuting"
"Elizabeth Lee Hazen Elizabeth Lee Hazen (August 24, 1885 in Mississippi – June 24, 1975) is most known for her contribution to the development of nystatin. Her education focused on science and research where she developed a passion for microbiology. Her peers and teachers knew her as a quick learner and a bright student. In 1948, she teamed up with Rachel Fuller Brown to develop nystatin, the first non-toxic drug treatment for fungal infections in humans. Her research had multiple applications ranging from saving infected trees to restoring paintings and artwork damaged due to mold. Elizabeth Lee Hazen was born"
"was already synthesised in 1854.) Gosio discovered a novel antibiotic agent in 1893 from a fungus. He collected the fungus from spoiled corn and named it ""Penicillium glaucum"". (But the species was later renamed ""P. brevicompactum"".) In 1896 he could isolate the crystals of the compound, which he successfully demonstrated as the active antibacterial compound against the anthrax bacterium. This was the first antibiotic that was isolated in pure and crystallised form. But the discovery was forgotten. It was rediscovered by two American scientists C.L. Alsberg and O.M. Black in 1912, and gave the name mycophenolic acid. The compound was"
"earnest in the 1870s, in the United Kingdom. Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson, who started out at St. Mary's Hospital (1852–1858) and later worked there as a lecturer (1854–1862), observed that culture fluid covered with mold would produce no bacterial growth. Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted Joseph Lister, an English surgeon and the father of modern antisepsis, to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mold also did not permit the growth of bacteria. Lister also described the antibacterial action on human tissue of a species of mold he called ""Penicillium glaucum"". A nurse at King's College Hospital whose wounds did not"
"Mietzsch, based on works by Paul Ehrlich, to use dyes, at that time a major product of IG Farben, as antibiotics. He found the sulfonamide Prontosil to be effective against streptococcus, and treated his own daughter with it, saving her the amputation of an arm. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery, the first drug effective against bacterial infections. He was forced by the Nazi regime to refuse the prize and was arrested by the Gestapo and detained for a week. (This was because the Nazi-critical Carl von Ossietzky had won the Nobel Peace Prize"
"daughters, four step-daughters and seven grandchildren. He had a keen interest in archeology, and was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Richard Ambler Richard Penry Ambler (26 May 1933 – 27 December 2013) was an English molecular biologist who conducted groundbreaking research into the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Ambler was the first scientist to publish an amino acid sequence of a bacterial protein, and had a long academic career at the University of Edinburgh. Ambler was born in 1933 to Henry Ambler, a state-employed chemist, and Anne Evans, a civil servant, in Bexleyheath, London. In 1940, the"
"Ernest Duchesne Ernest Duchesne (30 May 1874 – 12 April 1912) was a French physician who noted that certain molds kill bacteria. He made this discovery 32 years before Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin, a substance derived from those molds, but his research went unnoticed. Duchesne entered ""l'Ecole du Service de Santé Militaire de Lyon"" (the Military Health Service School of Lyons) in 1894. Duchesne's thesis, ""Contribution à l’étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes"" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes),"
"Ephraim Anderson Ephraim Saul ""Andy"" Anderson, CBE, FRS (28 October 1911 – 14 March 2006) was a British bacteriologist, best known for his work highlighting the human health dangers of drug-resistant bacteria created by antibiotics, in particular by low-dose antibiotic use in animal feeding. Anderson was born of Estonian-Jewish immigrants in a working-class area of Newcastle upon Tyne, and educated at Rutherford College before winning a scholarship to attend Durham University's Medical School. He served in the Royal Army Medical Corps during the Second World War. Anderson won worldwide recognition for his work on the plasmids that render the bacteria"
"Rachel Fuller Brown Rachel Fuller Brown (November 23, 1898 – January 14, 1980) was a chemist best known for her long-distance collaboration with microbiologist Elizabeth Lee Hazen in developing the first useful antifungal antibiotic, nystatin, while doing research for the Division of Laboratories and Research of the New York State Department of Health. Brown received her B.A. from Mount Holyoke College and her Ph.D from the University of Chicago. She was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1994. Nystatin, still produced today under various trade names, not only cures a variety of potentially devastating fungal infections, but"
"an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail. The term ""metabolism"" is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – Metabolismos for ""change"", or ""overthrow"". The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans 800 years. The earliest of all metabolic studies began during the early thirteenth century (1213-1288) by"
"statement published in the Chemist the month of her death, Brown said she hoped for a future of “equal opportunities and accomplishments for all scientists regardless of sex.” Rachel Fuller Brown Rachel Fuller Brown (November 23, 1898 – January 14, 1980) was a chemist best known for her long-distance collaboration with microbiologist Elizabeth Lee Hazen in developing the first useful antifungal antibiotic, nystatin, while doing research for the Division of Laboratories and Research of the New York State Department of Health. Brown received her B.A. from Mount Holyoke College and her Ph.D from the University of Chicago. She was inducted"
"Young Simpson from 1845 to 1870. The Quartermile development, which consists of the Old Royal Infirmary in Edinburgh, named its main residential street Simpson Loan in his honour. James Young Simpson Sir James Young Simpson, 1st Baronet, FRCPE (7 June 1811 – 6 May 1870) was a Scottish obstetrician and a significant figure in the history of medicine. He was the first physician to demonstrate the anaesthetic properties of chloroform on humans and helped to popularise the drug's use in medicine. Simpson's intellectual interests ranged from archaeology to an almost taboo subject at the time: hermaphroditism. He was an early"
"develop a pneumonia vaccine still in use today. Additionally, she researched ways to improve the test for syphilis. However, the antibacterial and antifungal work that she is best known for did not begin until 1948. During this year, Brown embarked on a project with Elizabeth Lee Hazen, a leading authority on fungus and bacteria related research. The project would eventually bring the two scientists national recognition for discovering an antibiotic to fight fungal infections. Penicillin had been discovered in 1928, and in the years that followed, antibiotics were increasingly used to fight bacterial illness. However, one side effect was that"