"Richard Watson (philosopher) Richard A. Watson (born 1931) is an American philosopher, speleologist and author. Watson taught philosophy at Washington University in St. Louis for forty years. He is considered one of the foremost living authorities on Descartes. He is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy for Washington University in St. Louis. He has a degree in geology specializing in ""paleoclimatology of 10,000 years ago."" This involved the development of agrarian societies in the Fertile Crescent. From July 1965 to July 1967, he was president of the Cave Research Foundation. His book, ""Cogito, Ergo Sum: a life of René Descartes"" was"
"Translation needs a larger context to determine aspect. Following John Lyons (1982), Vladimir Žegarac notes, ""The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of ""cogito"" as habitual or generic."" (Cf. gnomic aspect.) Ann Banfield writes (also following Lyons), ""In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge, … its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive, … not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of"
"at the beginning of the eighteenth century that this old philosophical term first acquired its modern English meaning: ""Those plain, self-evident truths or conventional wisdom that one needed no sophistication to grasp and no proof to accept precisely because they accorded so well with the basic (common sense) intellectual capacities and experiences of the whole social body"" This began with Descartes' criticism of it, and what came to be known as the dispute between ""rationalism"" and ""empiricism"". In the opening line of one of his most famous books, ""Discourse on Method"", Descartes established the most common modern meaning, and its"
"definite ""operatio"" with the body, although the peculiar act of blessedness (in other words, the vision of God) has nothing to do with the body. Early partial editions were printed still in the 15th century, as early as 1463; an edition of the first section of part 2 was printed by Peter Schöffer of Mainz in 1471. A full edition was printed by Michael Wenssler of Basel in 1485. From the 16th century, numerous commentaries on the ""Summa"" were published, notably by Peter Crockaert (d. 1514), Francisco de Vitoria and by Thomas Cajetan (1570). The most accessible English translation of"
"resulted in several mistranslations. For example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of ""mathematici"", meaning astrologers, is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians. The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form (and the less commonly used singular derivative ), goes back to the Latin neuter plural (Cicero), based on the Greek plural (""ta mathēmatiká""), used by Aristotle (384–322 BC), and meaning roughly ""all things mathematical""; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective ""mathematic(al)"" and formed the noun ""mathematics"" anew, after the pattern of ""physics"" and ""metaphysics"", which were inherited from Greek. In"
"+ ""verbum""; ""magnanimus"", from Greek μεγάθυμος, literally 'great spirit'. Greek phrases were also calqued in Latin, then borrowed or translated into English. A ""commonplace"" is an English calque of the Latin ""locus communis"", itself a calque of Greek κοινός τόπος. The Latin phrase ""deus ex machina"" (‘god out of the machine’) was calqued from the Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (""apò mēkhanês theós""). ""Materia medica"" is a short form of ""Dioscorides""<nowiki>'</nowiki> ""De Materia Medica"", the Latin translation of Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς. Q.E.D. (""quod erat demonstrandum"") is a calque of ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι. Subject matter is a calque of Latin ""subiecta māteria"","
"perception. is the equivalent of modern English ""common sense"" or ""good sense"". As the Aristotelian meaning of the Latin term began to be forgotten after Descartes, his discussion of gave a new way of defining in various European languages (including Latin, even though Descartes himself did not translate as , but treated them as two separate things). The idea that now became influential, developed in both the Latin and French works of Descartes, though coming from different directions, is that common good sense (and indeed sense perception) is not reliable enough for the new Cartesian method of skeptical reasoning. The"
"have attempted to formulate philosophical arguments in an axiomatic manner, whereby mathematical proof standards could be applied to argumentation in general philosophy. Other mathematician-philosophers have tried to use standards of mathematical proof and reason, without empiricism, to arrive at statements outside of mathematics, but having the certainty of propositions deduced in a mathematical proof, such as Descartes' ""cogito"" argument. Sometimes, the abbreviation """"Q.E.D."""" is written to indicate the end of a proof. This abbreviation stands for """"Quod Erat Demonstrandum"""", which is Latin for """"that which was to be demonstrated"""". A more common alternative is to use a square or a"
"English (via L'Ecluse) in 1578 by Henry Lyte (""A new herbal, or historie of plants""), and later into Latin in 1583 (""Stirpium historiae pemptades sex""). The English version became a standard work in that language. In his times, it was the most translated book after the Bible. It became a work of worldwide renown, used as a reference book for two centuries. His Latin translation of 1583, the ""Stirpium"" or ""Pemtdades"", was also a considerable revision, adding new families, enlarging the number of groups from 6 to 26 and including many new illustrations, both original and borrowed. It was used"
"of English axiom, Chinese , and Chinglish (literal translation) ""universal-principle""; median, , and ""centre-number""; or trapezoid, , and ""ladder-figure"". The study involved three groups of mathematics teachers who rated the clarity of 71 common mathematical terms. Group 1 with native speakers of Chinese judged 61% of the Chinese terms as clear; Group 2 with native speakers of English judged 45% of the English terms as clear. Group 3 with English-speaking teachers (both native and nonnative speakers) judged the comparative clarity of English and Chinglish word pairs: more clear for 42.3% of the Chinglish and 5.6% of the English, equally clear"
"the ""decimal number system"" that is still the meaning of modern English algorism. During the 17th century, the French form for the word –but not its meaning– was changed to ""algorithm"", following the model of the word ""logarithm"", this form alluding to the ancient Greek . English adopted the French very soon afterwards, but it wasn't until the late 19th century that ""algorithm"" took on the meaning that it has in modern English. In English, it was first used about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled"
"(or ""jitomates"") (), (""plump with navel"" or ""fat water with navel""). The scientific species epithet ""lycopersicum"" is interpreted literally from Latin in the 1753 book, ""Species Plantarum"", as ""wolfpeach"", where wolf is from ""lyco"" and peach is from ""persicum"". The usual pronunciations of ""tomato"" are (usual in American English) and (usual in British English). The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song ""Let's Call the Whole Thing Off"" (""You like and I like / You like and I like "") and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has even"
"here is, obviously, the bait). In Latin the instrumental case has merged with the ablative, thus the ablative case has the same functions. For example, ""ipso facto"" can be translated as ""by the fact itself"", while ""oculīs vidēre"" means ""to see with one's eyes"". In Modern English, the word ""why"" is one instance of an etymologically instrumental declension. Though not commonly known to be of pronominal origin, it was, in fact, inherited from Old English ""hwȳ"", which was the declension of ""hwæt"" (now ""what"") in the Old English instrumental casea grammatical feature rare even in Old English. The modern instrumental"
"The full text in Latin is: The current Roman Catholic English translation, as contained in the Third Edition of the ""Roman Missal"", reads as follows: Another contemporary English translation, that of the Church of England's ""Common Worship"" liturgy, translates the first and third responses more idiomatically: In traditional English translations, such as the Book of Common Prayer, the dialogue may be translated as follows: Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, United Methodist, Presbyterian, and other denominations use the Sursum Corda in their Eucharistic celebrations. The ""Sursum Corda"" is also found in the ""Exultet"" during the Easter Vigil, where the dialogue is led"
"etc. 15. Serendipity serendipity, volcano, Asian characters, English logograms, atom, water idioms, Anatomy, Avocado, Mark Twain 16. Nature earth, geo, nat, aaron, navidad, terr, eco (oiko), bio, Copernicus, Galileo 17. Leading duc, agog, pedagogy, crat, cracy, reg, pop 18. Transportation I mov (mob), pilgrim, itinerary, taxi, mot, canoe, sail, sale, Ms. Hyperbole, horse-hippodrome again.-dromedary 19. Transportation II peregrination, port, it, auto, ski, sport, fug, 20. Position sta, pos, sed, couch, davenport, sofa, chesterfield, divan, side, Ms. Hyperbole, 21. Form lic (ly), morph, form, gon, platypus, metamorphosis, egg, Ms. Hyperbole, Mr. Redundant, 22. Size min, equ, equilibrium, mega, magn, Mr. Alliteration,"
"itself a calque of Aristotle's phrase ἡ ὑποκειμένη ὕλη. Wisdom tooth came to English from Latin ""dentes sapientiae"", from Arabic ""aḍrāsu 'lḥikmi"", from Greek σωϕρονιστῆρες, used by Hippocrates. Political animal is from Greek πολιτικὸν ζῷον (in Aristotle's Politics). Quintessence is post-classical Latin ""quinta essentia"", from Greek πέμπτη οὐσία. The Greek word εὐαγγέλιον has come into English both in borrowed forms like ""evangelical"" and the form ""gospel"", an English calque (Old English ""gód spel"" 'good tidings') of Latin ""bona adnuntiatio"", itself a calque of the Greek. The contribution of Greek to the English vocabulary can be quantified in two ways, ""type"""
"to translate the words ""pro multis"" ""more faithfully"". The official English translation of the 2002 edition of the Roman Missal has been issued, but work continues for several other languages. The new Spanish version has already been approved, with ""por muchos"" (for many) replacing the previous ""por todos los hombres"" (for all men), and as early as Pentecost 2009 the change was effected in Hungary from ""mindenkiért"" (for all) to ""sokakért"" (for many); but reluctance in some quarters to abandon the use of ""for all"" to represent ""pro multis"" has caused delay in relation to German and Italian. In view"
"Roman Republic. Sometimes the phrase is used by Marx and Engels. It was also used by Friedrich Nietzsche in ""On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense"" (1873): Bellum omnium contra omnes , a Latin phrase meaning ""the war of all against all"", is the description that Thomas Hobbes gives to human existence in the state of nature thought experiment that he conducts in ""De Cive"" (1642) and ""Leviathan"" (1651). The common modern English usage is a war of ""each against all"" where war is rare and terms such as ""competition"" or ""struggle"" are more common. In ""Leviathan"" itself, Hobbes"
"in James I's Authorised Version of the Bible in Ephesians 3:21 and Isaiah 45:17. Similarly, ""et semper"" is often rendered ""and ever shall be"", thus giving the more metrical English version, A common version of the Liturgy of the Hours, as approved by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, uses a newer, different translation for the Latin: The most commonly encountered Orthodox English version: The modern Anglican version found in ""Common Worship"" is slightly different, and is rooted in the aforementioned translations found in the Authorised Version: Another doxology in widespread use in English, in some Protestant traditions commonly referred"
"published about it, as well as the many translations and paraphrased editions that aim to reproduce its content in an accessible manner. The Greek text has undergone transmission into Arabic, Latin and many modern languages. The first English translation did not appear until the 18th century, but by the end of the 19th century the American astrologer Luke Broughton reported he had at least half a dozen different English translations in his possession. The commonly known Greek and Latin titles (""Tetrabiblos"" and ""Quadripartitum"" respectively), meaning 'four books', are traditional nicknames for a work which in some Greek manuscripts is entitled"
"to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as ""adaequalitas"". Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermat’s Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words ""adéquation"" and ""adégaler"". Fermat used ""adequality"" first to find maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find tangent lines to curves. To find the maximum of a term formula_1, Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) formula_1 and formula_3 and after doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of formula_4 and then discard any remaining terms involving formula_5 To illustrate the method by Fermat's own"
"provides a moving framework towards appreciation towards life. Kenko’s work predominantly reveals these themes, providing his thoughts set out in short essays of work. Although his concept of impermanence is based upon his personal beliefs, these themes provide a basic concept relatable among many, making it an important classical literature resonating throughout Japanese high school curriculum today. The definitive English translation is by Donald Keene (1967). In his preface Keene states that, of the six or so earlier translations into English and German, that by G. B. Sansom is the most distinguished. It was published by the Asiatic Society of"
"álla gàr elpìs éphē kaká""). Read in the French manner, it macaronically becomes ""Où qu'est la bonne Pauline? A la gare. Elle pisse et fait caca."" (""Where is Pauline the maid? At the station. She's pissing and taking a shit."") In English literature, the untranslated line makes an appearance in James Joyce's ""Finnegans Wake"". Ancient Greek in Italy is always taught in the Erasmian pronunciation. However, Italian speakers find it hard to reproduce the pitch-based Ancient Greek accent accurately so the circumflex and acute accents are not distinguished. Poetry is read using metric conventions that stress the long syllables. The"
"language they use. One of the last notable philosophers to accept something like the Aristotelian ""common sense"" was Descartes in the 17th century, but he also undermined it. He described this inner faculty when writing in Latin in his ""Meditations on first philosophy"". The common sense is the link between the body and its senses, and the true human mind, which according to Descartes must be purely immaterial. Unlike Aristotle, who had placed it in the heart, by the time of Descartes this faculty was thought to be in the brain, and he located it in the pineal gland. Descartes'"
"-"" ""of the same kinds, class, or nature,"""" "" (2) Expressio unius est exclusio alterius - """"the express mention of one thing excludes all others,"" (3) Noscitur a sociis -"" ""a word is known by the company it keeps,""(4) ""In pari materia - ""upon the same matter or subject,"" and (5) Common, technical, legal, or trade definition. The French philosopher Montesquieu (1689-1755) believed that courts should act as ""the mouth of the law"", but soon it was found that some interpretation is inevitable. Following the German scholar Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779-1861) the four main interpretation methods are: It is"
"valid. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the general theory of relativity works in non-inertial reference frames as well). The term ""assumption"" is actually broader than its standard use, etymologically speaking. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as ""assumere"" (""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""), which is a conjunction of ""ad-"" (""to, towards, at"") and ""sumere"" (to take). The root survives, with shifted meanings, in the Italian ""assumere"" and Spanish ""sumir"". The first sense of ""assume"" in the OED is ""to take unto (oneself),"
"""translation"". Instead, they simply adapted the second of the two alternative Latin words, traductio. Thus, Aragonese: ; Catalan: ; French: ; Italian: ; Portuguese: ; Romanian: ; and Spanish: . The English verb ""to translate"" similarly derives from the Latin ""translatio"", itself derived from ""transferre"", ""to transfer"": in this case, ""transferred"" (""translatus"") from one language to another. Were the English verb ""translate"" calqued, it would be ""overset"", akin to the calques in other Germanic languages. Following are the Germanic- and Slavic-language calques for ""translation"": The computer mouse was named in English for its resemblance to the animal. Many other languages"
"Latin, ""sacer"" has the double meaning ""sacred, holy"" and ""accursed, infamous"". Greek δημιουργός gave Latin its ""demiurgus"", from which English got its ""demiurge"", which can refer either to God as the creator or to the devil, depending on philosophical context. In many languages, a word stem associated with a single event may treat the action of that event as unitary, so it can refer to any of the doings or persons on either side of the transaction, that is, to the action of either the subject or the object, or to either the person who does something or the person"
"Adagia Adagia (singular ""adagium"") is the title of an annotated collection of Greek and Latin proverbs, compiled during the Renaissance by Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus. Erasmus' collection of proverbs is ""one of the most monumental ... ever assembled"" (Speroni, 1964, p. 1). The first edition, titled ""Collectanea Adagiorum"", was published in Paris in 1500, in a slim quarto of around eight hundred entries. By 1508, after his stay in Italy, Erasmus had expanded the collection (now called ""Adagiorum chiliades"" or ""Thousands of proverbs"") to over 3,000 items, many accompanied by richly annotated commentaries, some of which were brief essays"
"Rite version became almost universal throughout the West. The similarity between this version used in the then extreme west of the church and the Syriac version used in the extreme east is noteworthy. The following traditional form is the most common in Anglican usage and in older Lutheran liturgical books: The translations of ""semper"" as ""ever shall be"", and ""in sæcula sæculorum"" as ""world without end"" date at least from Cranmer's ""Book of Common Prayer"". The Catholic Church uses the same English form, but today replaces ""Holy Ghost"" with ""Holy Spirit"", as in ""The Divine Office"" the edition of the"
"distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the ""cogito"" — a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see — but on using the ""cogito"" as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by"
"full: The popularity of his ""Epigrammata"" means that this adage is at times attributed to him, and Joseph Haydn likely nicknamed his Symphony No. 64 ""Tempora mutantur"" based on ""Epigrammata"". There are editions of the ""Epigrammata"" by Elzevir and by Didot; the best is that edited by Renouard (2 vols., Paris, 1795). Translations into English, either in whole or in part, were made by John Vicars in ""Epigrams of that most wittie and worthie epigrammatist Mr. Iohn Owen, Gentleman"" (1619); by Thomas Pecke, in his ""Parnassi Puerperium"" (1659); and by Thomas Harvey in ""The Latine epigrams of John Owen"" (1677),"
"the nature of the proposition itself. For illustration, consider Descartes': ""I think, therefore I exist"" - Stated in incorrigible form, this could be: ""That I believe that I exist implies that my belief is true"". Harrison argues that a belief being true is really only incidental to the matter, that really what the cogito proves is that ""belief"" implies ""existence"". One could equally well say, ""That I believe God exists implies that I exist."" or ""That I believe I do not exist implies that my belief is false.""—and these would have the same essential meaning as the cogito. Charles Raff"