"12). Once in Philadelphia, he used testimonials and public demonstrations to negate the stereotype of anthracite and convince Philadelphia society that the hard coal could be used as a replacement for bituminous coal (Adams, “Warming the Poor,” 81). Cist and other advocates including the Pennsylvania state legislature and government officials continued to promote the anthracite, and the War of 1812 was able to open the way for Pennsylvania anthracite coal to outdo Virginia’s bituminous’ share of the market (Day, 371). With the opening of the major canals Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Delaware & Hudson in addition to smaller ones such as"
"rocks, however, the modal percentage of bituminite type varies. Typically type I bituminite is found to be much larger than other types and exude a negative alteration when irradiated with blue light. Type II is determined by its yellowish or reddish-brown fluorescence and its occasional oil expulsions when irradiated. Type III, the rarest kind of bituminite, appears dark grey under a reflected white light, however, lacks fluorescence. It is also distinguished by the fine granular structure and its association with faunal relics. Bituminite was a general term given to rocks which are rich in bitumen. The term was also used"
"bitumens. It is described to have no definite shape or form when present in bedding and can be identified using different kinds of visible and fluorescent lights. There are three types of bituminite: type I, type II and type III, of which type I is the most common. The presence of bituminite in oil shales, other oil source rocks and some coals plays an important factor when determining potential petroleum-source rocks. The internal structure of bituminite varies from deposit to deposit. It may be homogeneous, streaky, fluidal or finely granular. These properties of internal structure, however, are only visible when"
"Bentonite Bentonite (/ˈbɛntənʌɪt/) is an absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite. It was named by Wilbur C. Knight in 1898 after the Cretaceous Benton Shale near Rock River, Wyoming. The different types of bentonite are each named after the respective dominant element, such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and aluminium (Al). Experts debate a number of nomenclatorial problems with the classification of bentonite clays. Bentonite usually forms from weathering of volcanic ash, most often in the presence of water. However, the term bentonite, as well as a similar clay called tonstein, has been used to describe"
"Bituminite Bituminite is an autochthonous maceral that is a part of the liptinite group in lignite, that occurs in petroleum source rocks originating from organic matter such as algae which has undergone alteration or degradation from natural processes such as burial . It occurs as fine-grained groundmass, laminae or elongated structures that appear as veinlets within horizontal sections of lignite and bituminous coals, and also occurs in sedimentary rocks . Its occurrence in sedimentary rocks is typically found surrounding alginite, and parallel along bedding planes . Bituminite is not considered to be bitumen because its properties are different from most"
"are surrounded by sandstone ridges, which help to “protect” the anthracite (Hornberger et al., 20-2). There are four different anthracite coalfields in Pennsylvania, all located on the eastern side of the state. The Northern field is located predominantly in the Luzerne, Lackawanna, Susquehanna and Wayne Counties; the Western Middle field in Northumberland, Columbia, and Schuylkill Counties; Eastern Middle field mainly in Luzerne County but extending into Schuylkill, Carbon, and Columbia Counties; the Southern field in Carbon, Schuylkill, Lebanon, and Dauphin Counties (Latzko, 8). Anthracite differs from bituminous in usage in that it has better heat quality and fewer disadvantageous by-products,"
"to anoxic lacustrine and marine environments commonly associated with other maceral minerals such as alginite and liptodetrinite. The organic material undergoes diagenesis, forming an amorphous matrix. Framboidal pyrite is a common feature associated with bituminite. This is caused by bacterial reworking of the digestible organic matter. Due to the reworking of organic matter the particles/grains of bituminite often appear diffuse and blurred. Though grains of bituminite are often too blurred to distinguish, it's optical properties widely vary, and are therefore used to determine the bituminite type. It is very common to have all three types of bituminite in organic-rich sedimentary"
"is solvated to form the aqua ion in strongly acidic conditions. At pH > 0 polynuclear species exist, the most important of which is believed to be the octahedral complex []. In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold. The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite and bismite. Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China. According to the United States Geological Survey, the world mining production of bismuth in 2014 was 13,600 tonnes, with the major contributions from China (7,600 tonnes), Vietnam (4,950 tonnes) and Mexico (948 tonnes). The refinery production in 2010"
"more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from americium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium and plutonium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse"
"Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH), is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three much rarer polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite, and nordstrandite. Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric in nature, i.e., it has both basic and acidic properties. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide or alumina (AlO), the latter of which is also amphoteric. These compounds together are the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. The naming for the different forms of aluminium hydroxide is ambiguous and there is no universal standard. All four polymorphs have a chemical composition of aluminium trihydroxide"
"modes upwards of 10% of the total organic matter, is indicative of a potential petroleum-source rock. Bituminite Bituminite is an autochthonous maceral that is a part of the liptinite group in lignite, that occurs in petroleum source rocks originating from organic matter such as algae which has undergone alteration or degradation from natural processes such as burial . It occurs as fine-grained groundmass, laminae or elongated structures that appear as veinlets within horizontal sections of lignite and bituminous coals, and also occurs in sedimentary rocks . Its occurrence in sedimentary rocks is typically found surrounding alginite, and parallel along bedding"
"Bauxite Bauxite is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium. Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite (Al(OH)), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with the two iron oxides goethite and haematite, the aluminium clay mineral kaolinite and small amounts of anatase (TiO) and ilmenite (FeTiO or FeO.TiO). In 1821 the French geologist Pierre Berthier discovered bauxite near the village of Les Baux in Provence, southern France. Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but, , there was no consensus. Vadász (1951) distinguished lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) from"
"(and not for the German geologist Johannes Böhm (1857–1938) as often stated). Boehmite Boehmite or böhmite is an aluminium oxide hydroxide (γ-AlO(OH)) mineral, a component of the aluminium ore bauxite. It is dimorphous with diaspore. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic dipyramidal system and is typically massive in habit. It is white with tints of yellow, green, brown or red due to impurities. It has a vitreous to pearly luster, a Mohs hardness of 3 to 3.5 and a specific gravity of 3.00 to 3.07. It is colorless in thin section, optically biaxial positive with refractive indices of nα = 1.644"
"anhydrite, free lime, periclase, calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals anorthite, gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to those found in Portland cement can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes. The mercury content can reach , but is generally included in the range 0.01 - 1 ppm for bituminous coal. The concentrations of other trace elements vary as well according to the kind of coal combusted to form it. In fact, in the case of bituminous coal, with the notable exception of boron, trace element concentrations are generally similar to trace element"
"to coniferous or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally gwitu-men (pertaining to pitch), and by others, pixtumens (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to bitumen. Hunt defines bitumen as native substance of variable color, viscosity, and volatility composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. He further defines petroleum as a form of bitumen that is gaseous or liquid in the reservoir and can be produced through a pipe. Other bitumens range from very viscous (e.g., Athabasca and Venezuelan heavy oils, La Brea tar pits) to solid (e.g. gilsonite, ozocerite, grahamite, impsonite). Pyrobitumen is"
"Bismuthine Bismuthine (IUPAC name: bismuthane) is the chemical compound with the formula BiH. As the heaviest analogue of ammonia (a pnictogen hydride), BiH is unstable, decomposing to bismuth metal well below 0 °C. This compound adopts the expected pyramidal structure with H-Bi-H angles of around 90°. The term ""bismuthine"" may also refer to a member of the family of organobismuth(III) species having the general formula , where R is an organic substituent. For example, Bi(CH) is ""trimethylbismuthine"". BiH is prepared by the redistribution of methylbismuthine (BiHMe): The required BiHMe, which is also thermally unstable, is generated by reduction of methylbismuth"
"Boehmite Boehmite or böhmite is an aluminium oxide hydroxide (γ-AlO(OH)) mineral, a component of the aluminium ore bauxite. It is dimorphous with diaspore. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic dipyramidal system and is typically massive in habit. It is white with tints of yellow, green, brown or red due to impurities. It has a vitreous to pearly luster, a Mohs hardness of 3 to 3.5 and a specific gravity of 3.00 to 3.07. It is colorless in thin section, optically biaxial positive with refractive indices of nα = 1.644 - 1.648, nβ = 1.654 - 1.657 and nγ = 1.661 -"
"clay beds of uncertain origin. For industrial purposes, two main classes of bentonite exist: sodium and calcium bentonite. In stratigraphy and tephrochronology, completely devitrified (weathered volcanic glass) ash-fall beds are commonly referred to as K-bentonites when the dominant clay species is illite. In addition to montmorillonite and illite another common clay species that is sometimes dominant is kaolinite. Kaolinite-dominated clays are commonly referred to as tonsteins and are typically associated with coal. Sodium bentonite expands when wet, absorbing as much as several times its dry mass in water. Because of its excellent colloidal properties, it is often used in drilling"
"Apatite, magnetite, and zircon, all in small but frequently perfect crystals, are almost universal minerals of the quartz-porphyries. The ground-mass is finely crystalline and to the unaided eye has usually a dull aspect resembling common earthenware; it is grey, green, reddish or white. Often it is streaked or banded by flow during cooling, but as a rule these rocks are not vesicular. Two main types may be recognized by means of the microscope; the felsitic and the microcrystalline. In the former the ingredients are so fine-grained that in the thinnest slices they cannot be determined by means of the microscope."
"Ametrine Ametrine, also known as trystine or by its trade name as bolivianite, is a naturally occurring variety of quartz. It is a mixture of amethyst and citrine with zones of purple and yellow or orange. Almost all commercially available ametrine is mined only in Bolivia. The colour of the zones visible within ametrine are due to differing oxidation states of iron within the crystal. The different oxidation states occur due to there being a temperature gradient across the crystal during its formation. Artificial ametrine can be created by differential heat treatment of amethyst. Legend has it that ametrine was"
"Bismuth Bismuth is a chemical element with symbol Bi and atomic number 83. It is a pentavalent post-transition metal and one of the pnictogens with chemical properties resembling its lighter homologs arsenic and antimony. Elemental bismuth may occur naturally, although its sulfide and oxide form important commercial ores. The free element is 86% as dense as lead. It is a brittle metal with a silvery white color when freshly produced, but surface oxidation can give it a pink tinge. Bismuth is marginally radioactive, and the most naturally diamagnetic element, and has one of the lowest values of thermal conductivity among"
"Bituminous limestone Bituminous limestone is limestone impregnated and sometimes deeply colored with bituminous matter derived from the decomposition of animal and plant remains entombed within the mass or in its vicinity. The amount of bituminous matter or asphalt in the pores of the rock is sometimes sufficient to permit the material being used for asphalt pavements after simply powdering and heating it. Still better results are obtained by mixing it with bituminous sandstone. In the United States, bituminous limestone has been found in Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah. Much bituminous limestone was also mined in Germany, Switzerland, and France, from where"
"bicchulite is considered a sodalite-type structure since it has tetrahedrons consisting of Al, Si, and O. The Al and Si atoms are distributed on the tetrahedral sites while calcium ions and empty (OH)-tetrahedra occupy the cavities. Additionally, because of bicchulite’s sodalite-type framework it contains beta cages, which are known to have a high degree of flexibility, and as a result, the structure can collapse by various mechanisms to accommodate different cations and anions in the beta cage. Since the Al:Si ratio in bicchulite is 2:1, this causes disorder of the Al and Si. Consequently, Al-O-Al linkages with the tetrahedral units"
"technical applications, except as an intermediary product. Bismuthine Bismuthine (IUPAC name: bismuthane) is the chemical compound with the formula BiH. As the heaviest analogue of ammonia (a pnictogen hydride), BiH is unstable, decomposing to bismuth metal well below 0 °C. This compound adopts the expected pyramidal structure with H-Bi-H angles of around 90°. The term ""bismuthine"" may also refer to a member of the family of organobismuth(III) species having the general formula , where R is an organic substituent. For example, Bi(CH) is ""trimethylbismuthine"". BiH is prepared by the redistribution of methylbismuthine (BiHMe): The required BiHMe, which is also thermally"
"such as americium from nitric acid solutions containing large amounts of lanthanides. Already one of the BTBPs has been shown to be able to selectively extract the americium and curium from a genuine mixture formed from used MOX fuel. The MOX fuel was dissolved in nitric acid, the bulk of the uranium and plutonium were removed by means of a PUREX type extraction using tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon, the lanthanides and the remaining actinides were then separated from the aqueous residue (raffinate) by a diamide based extraction to give, after stripping, a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides. BTBP"
"Piumogna Valley, Leventina, Ticino (Tessin), Switzerland. One of the six recognized types of asbestos. Approximately 40,200 tons of tremolite asbestos is mined annually in India. It is otherwise found as a contaminant. Tremolite Tremolite is a member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals with composition: ☐Ca(MgFe)SiO(OH). Tremolite forms by metamorphism of sediments rich in dolomite and quartz. Tremolite forms a series with actinolite and ferro-actinolite. Pure magnesium tremolite is creamy white, but the color grades to dark green with increasing iron content. It has a hardness on Mohs scale of 5 to 6. Nephrite, one of the two minerals"
"ore of titanium; other examples include cassiterite (SnO; ore of tin), and pyrolusite (MnO; ore of manganese). In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the hydroxyl ion, OH. Bauxites are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the hydroxide minerals diaspore, gibbsite, and bohmite; they form in areas with a very high rate of chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions). Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of two metals with oxygen. A major group within this class are the spinels, with a general formula of XYO. Examples of species include spinel (MgAlO), chromite (FeCrO), and magnetite (FeO). The latter is"
"Gibbsite Gibbsite, Al(OH), is one of the mineral forms of aluminium hydroxide. It is often designated as γ-Al(OH) (but sometimes as α-Al(OH).). It is also sometimes called hydrargillite (or hydrargyllite). Gibbsite is an important ore of aluminium in that it is one of three main phases that make up the rock bauxite. Gibbsite has three named structural polymorphs or polytypes: bayerite (designated often as α-Al(OH), but sometimes as β-Al(OH)), doyleite, and nordstrandite. Gibbsite and bayerite are monoclinic, whereas doyleite and nordstrandite are triclinic forms. The structure of gibbsite is interesting and analogous to the basic structure of the micas. The"
"large quantities of it were exported to the United States. Bituminous limestone Bituminous limestone is limestone impregnated and sometimes deeply colored with bituminous matter derived from the decomposition of animal and plant remains entombed within the mass or in its vicinity. The amount of bituminous matter or asphalt in the pores of the rock is sometimes sufficient to permit the material being used for asphalt pavements after simply powdering and heating it. Still better results are obtained by mixing it with bituminous sandstone. In the United States, bituminous limestone has been found in Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah. Much bituminous limestone"
"some minerals are described with various morphological terms. For example, natrolite is often described as slender prismatic and millerite is often described as filiform or capillary. Minerals with an acicular habit include mesolite, natrolite, malachite, gypsum, rutile, brochantite and bultfonteinite. Crystals of dimethyltryptamine have an acicular habit, but this substance is not regarded as a mineral by the International Mineralogical Association. Some minerals like creedite form prismatic crystals that appear to be acicular, but are instead prismatic in a bladelike form; these can be told apart by the fact that all prismatic crystals are less sharp, sometimes are tipped with"
"for the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony. They can be prepared by reacting either curium(III) hydride (CmH) or metallic curium with these elements at elevated temperatures. Organometallic complexes analogous to uranocene are known also for other actinides, such as thorium, protactinium, neptunium, plutonium and americium. Molecular orbital theory predicts a stable ""curocene"" complex (η-CH)Cm, but it has not been reported experimentally yet. Formation of the complexes of the type Cm(n-CH-BTP), where BTP stands for 2,6-di(1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)pyridine, in solutions containing n-CH-BTP and Cm ions has been confirmed by EXAFS. Some of these BTP-type complexes selectively interact with curium and therefore are"
"informally to describe irregularly shaped macerals until 1975 when the ICCP clearly defined the term. Bituminite is the main source for low-temperature coal tar, which is used in industry, medicine and construction . The value of bituminite increases with grade. At high grade, ""i.e."" high maturity, bituminite has high hydrogen to carbon content . A high hydrogen/carbon ratio bituminite indicates a good hydrocarbon source. However, low grades of bituminite vary depending on type, meaning that there is variable hydrogen/carbon ratios. Bituminite can also be used as potential indicators in the petroleum industry. Research has shown that type I bituminite in"
"products. It is a group of metamorphic minerals - sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite. These are polymorphs of alumino-silicate. These are formed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The three minerals are calcined to form mullite. Mainly used as refractory materials. As of 2010, India had 66 million tonnes of sillimanite, 100 million tonnes of Kyanite and 18 million tonnes of Andalusite as a resource. Most of the resources are found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Assam. A minor amount of resources are found in Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and West Bengal. Granular sillimanite"