"experiment with bird houses for the great tit has been carried out since 2016. It has been observed that the great tit likes to eat the young, not yet hairy caterpillars in the month of April. In serious cases of contamination, the use of relatively mild chemical pest killers has been allowed by local authorities. Because chemicals may be harmful to other insects, an alternative is the use of vacuuming equipment to remove the caterpillars, followed by incinerating the caught specimens. Oak processionary The oak processionary ""(Thaumetopoea processionea)"" is a moth whose caterpillars can be found in oak forests. They"
"in the UK since 2006. The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees, and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems. In California, oaks are affected by the fungal disease Foamy bark canker. The leaves and acorns of the oak tree are poisonous to cattle, horses, sheep, and goats in large amounts due to the toxin tannic acid, and cause kidney damage and gastroenteritis. Symptoms of poisoning include lack of appetite, depression, constipation, diarrhea (which may contain blood), blood in urine, and colic. The exception to livestock and"
"human deaths and $1.1 billion in property damage annually. In Scotland, several roads including the A82, the A87 and the A835 have had significant enough problems with ""deer vehicle collisions"" (DVCs) that sets of vehicle activated automatic warning signs have been installed along these roads. In some areas of the UK, deer (especially fallow deer due to their gregarious behaviour), have been implicated as a possible reservoir for transmission of bovine tuberculosis, a disease which in the UK in 2005 cost £90 million in attempts to eradicate. In New Zealand, deer are thought to be important as vectors picking up"
"Poland. In addition, limited opportunities for dispersal have become costly for the northern red oak in Europe. European animals known for dispersing tendencies, such as the European jay and wood mouse, have been found to be more attracted to local oak species. Northern red oak kernels have highly concentrated amounts of tannin, a biochemical known as a predator deterrent and produce a bitter taste, which has limited appeal for consumption among animal species. Quercus rubra Quercus rubra (syn. ""Quercus borealis""), commonly called northern red oak or champion oak, is an oak in the red oak group (""Quercus"" section ""Lobatae""). It"
"as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north. Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator"
"Botryosphaeria corticola Bot canker of oak is a disease on stems, branches and twigs of oak trees in Europe and North America. The casual agent of Bot canker of oak is the fungus Botryosphaeria corticola. Bot canker of oak causes lesions and cankers on a wide range of oaks in Europe and most recently live oaks in North America. Some infections were formerly attributed to Botryosphaeria stevensii, but most likely represent infections by Botryosphaeria corticola. Botryosphaeria corticola is distinguishable from Botryosphaeria stevensii via ITS rDNA sequencing. Botryosphaeria corticola has caused infection of oak trees in Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Italy, Greece,"
"""Lymantria dispar"", which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America. A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall. A number of species of fungus cause powdery mildew on oak species. In Europe the species ""Erysiphe alphitoides"" is the most common cause. A new and yet little understood disease of mature oaks, acute oak decline, has been reported in parts of the UK since 2009. Oak processionary moth (""Thaumetopoea processionea"") has become a serious threat"
"woodland reserves in Europe, where light availability, tannin concentration, and animal dispersal are the most necessary component for the species' longevity and survival. The high influx of the species in Europe is primarily based on its economic productivity as a fast-growing source of timber; however, it has been linked to lower percentages of trace elements and minerals found in the surrounding soil and reduced richness among native oak species such as ""Quercus robur"". Over the last few decades, the northern red oak has dealt with several environmental factors, mainly disease, predation by insects, and limited opportunities for dispersal. These stresses"
"oak toxicity is the domestic pig, which may be fed entirely on acorns in the right conditions, and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish ""dehesa"" and the English system of pannage) for hundreds of years. Acorns are also edible to humans, after leaching of the tannins. The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of many countries. Already an ancient Germanic symbol (in the form of the Donar Oak, for instance), certainly since the early nineteenth century, it stands for the nation of Germany and"
"is a more pathological, harmful stage triggered by oral contamination. High prevalences are reported among many places with poorer than average water hygiene or even mildly contaminated water especially with a pork-eating heritage such as Mexico, Latin America, West Africa, Russia, India, Pakistan, Manchuria, and Southeast Asia. In Europe it remains most endemic in pockets of Slavic countries and among global travellers taking inadequate precautions in eating pork especially. The secondary host form, human cysticercosis, predominates in areas where poor hygiene allows for mild faecal contamination of food, soil, or water supplies. Prevalence rates in the United States have shown"
"affecting the mycotoxin map in Europe, producing ""tropical toxins"" within Europe's borders. In Serbia the contamination turned into a political scandal after the government raised the internal milk contamination standards to tenfold of those from the EU. This higher limit however is the one practiced in the United States and two-thirds of the world. On February 22, The Iowa Department of Agriculture found elevated Aflatoxin concentrations in dog food manufactured at a Pro-Pet facility in Kansas City, KS. The corn component of the dog food was reportedly contaminated with aflatoxins, though the contributing corn load passed screening at the facility."
"of exposure. Ozone exposure has been linked to a number of health effects and is thought to be the cause of the premature deaths of thousands of people in Europe each year. Some people are more vulnerable than others. Children and people with asthma or other respiratory illnesses are particularly high-risk groups. Ground-level ozone can damage all types of green vegetation, including the foliage of trees. Ozone is absorbed by leaves and impedes plant growth. Ozone is recognised as the most serious regional air pollution problem for the agricultural sector in Europe. It reduces crop yields by hindering plant growth."
"in nurseries. The principal symptoms were leaf and twig blight. By 2007, it had spread throughout nurseries and retail centers in 16 European countries, and had been detected in gardens, parks, and woodlands in at least eight countries. It has not caused significant harm to European oak species. In 2009, the pathogen was found to be infecting and killing large numbers of Japanese larch trees (""Larix kaempferi"") in the United Kingdom at sites in the English counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. It was the first time in the world that ""Phytophthora ramorum"" had been found infecting this species. Since"
"promoting disease and for declining beech (""Fagus sylvatica"") trees in European forests, raising attention of main authorities in the area. The number of declining trees is rising over last years. It is still unclear how to effectively manage or control this aggressive pathogen in forest ecosystems. Phytophthora plurivora Phytophthora plurivora is a very aggressive soil-borne plant pathogen, with worldwide distribution and a wide variety of hosts. It belongs to the class of oomycetes and is often described as a ‘fungal-like’ organism since they form a heterotrophic mycelium as the ‘true fungi’, but in contrast, their cell wall lacks chitin and"
"other animals. Neosporosis is an infectious disease for many different canids and cattle. Neuromuscular degeneration was first observed in canines in Norway, which led to hind limb paralysis. Abortion in dairy cattle was also observed as a major cause of disease by neosporosis. Although this disease is worldwide, it is of major concern in the United States, Netherlands, and New Zealand. ""N. caninum"" infections have been reported from most parts of the world with studies in the United States, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Germany, and Portugal. 12-45% of aborted fetuses from dairy cattle are infected with the organism. Exposure is"
"It has been found that the European strain can spread via the import of Christmas trees. Regulating such imports can limit the spread of the disease. Scleroderris canker Scleroderris canker (American name), or Brunchorstia disease (European name), ""Gremmeniella abietina"", is a species of fungal diseases infecting coniferous forests. The main symptom is the death of the needles, leading to the death of the tree. In the forest industry, fighting off an infection of Scleroderris canker is usually not cost-effective. Clearing is often preferred over fungicidal methods, as the latter is harmful to other living organisms. The European strain is present"
"Republic, Finland, Hungary, France, and Bulgaria. Currently, the largest threat in Europe and North America is habitat destruction for development projects, as well as the draining of bogs for agricultural uses and peat harvesting. In many regions, this has led to the extirpation of some species from parts of their former range. Reintroduction of plants into such habitats is usually difficult or impossible, as the ecological needs of certain populations is closely tied to their geographical location. Through increased legal protection of bogs and moors, as well as a concentrated effort to renaturalize such habitats, the threat to these plants'"
"Hungary, and the United States. Bot canker of oak kills trees in natural forests as well as in cork plantations. The cork industry in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and Morocco has been dealing with declining oaks for several years from biotic and abiotic factors. This disease has been seen in many cork plantations and is the most important contributor to the decline in the cork industry. When cork is harvested from the trees, the cork cambium is exposed creating a wound for the fungus to enter the trunk, and cause disease. Infection of other oaks is most likely through wounds"
"to enter either the human food or animal feed supply. In Europe all cattle over 30 month must be tested if they will become human food. In North America tissue of concern, known as specified risk material, may not be added to animal feed or pet food. About 4.4 million cows were killed during the eradication program in the UK. Four cases were reported globally in 2017 and the condition has been deemed to be nearly eradicated. In the United Kingdom, from 1986 to 2015, more than 184,000 cattle were diagnosed with the peak of new cases occurring in 1993."
"Long distance dispersal is possible when infested soil is moved on equipment or clothing or when an infected plant is transplanted. ""Phytophthora quercina"" has a host range restricted to European oak tree species (""Quercus spp"".). The host species affected are: These oak tree species are located within the known distribution range of ""P. quercina,"" which is currently reported only in Europe (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Serbia, Sweden, United Kingdom) and one country in Asia (Turkey). It’s likely that ""P. quercina"" would be pathogenic to ""Quercus"" species in other countries with favorable conditions if it were introduced."
"damaging biodiversity in the United Kingdom and is listed as an alien invader. Normally the tree is unable to withstand severe frost, which would prevent it from spreading north, but with climate change, it has successfully penetrated these areas. The largest population of Holm oak in Northern Europe is present on and around St. Boniface Down on the Isle of Wight and into the neighbouring town of Ventnor, and has shown to tolerate the high winds on the downs. It is thought that this population's propagation (which was established in the late 1800's after being planted by Victorian residents) has"
"Ochratoxin A Ochratoxin A—a toxin produced by different ""Aspergillus"" and ""Penicillium"" species — is one of the most-abundant food-contaminating mycotoxins. It is also a frequent contaminant of water-damaged houses and of heating ducts. Human exposure can occur through consumption of contaminated food products, particularly contaminated grain and pork products, as well as coffee, wine grapes, and dried grapes. The toxin has been found in the tissues and organs of animals, including human blood and breast milk. Ochratoxin A, like most toxic substances, has large species- and sex-specific toxicological differences. Ochratoxin A is potentially carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B), and has"
"grain quality. During the 1950s, reports of kidney disease with high rates of mortality were occurring in geographically close areas, such as Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Romania. This occurrence was called the Balkan Endemic Nephropathy that was being caused by the consumption of contaminated pig meat in those areas. When pigs consumed feed contaminated by OTA, it collected in their fatty tissue rather than being excreted due to its solubility in fat. Humans then consumed contaminated pig meat, allowing this mycotoxin to enter the human system. OTA is mainly found in blood samples in Europe, but its presence in healthy human"
"as shoes, vehicles, and pets—of foliage and mud before leaving the infested area. The demands of implementing these practices become more complex when large numbers of people are working in infested areas, as in construction, timber harvesting, or wildfire suppression. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and USDA Forest Service have implemented guidelines and mitigation requirements for the latter two situations; basic information about cleanliness in ""P. ramorum""-infested areas can be found at the California Oak Mortality Task Force web site (www.suddenoakdeath.org) under the “Treatment and Management” section (subsection “Sanitation and Reducing Spread”). In England in 2009, the"
"unfertile lands, many pastoralists have resorted to bush meat as a way of subsistence and trade. This is a direct threat to the declining population of apes and the spread of infectious diseases like AIDS. This is a sensitive and difficult situation for not only cultural anthropologists but for biological anthropologists and primatologists. How does one protect an endangered species while limiting the spread of the most infectious disease to mankind when conservationists limit land use for the natives? To an anthropologist, the very thing that conservationists are trying to protect is the very thing they are destroying. The Ogiek"
"resulting from livestock infection. Other methods include using molluscicides to decrease the number of snails that act as vectors, but it is not practical. Educational methods to decrease consumption of wild watercress and other waterplants has been shown to work in areas with a high disease burden. Fascioliasis occurs in Europe, Africa, the Americas as well as Oceania. Recently, worldwide losses in animal productivity due to fasciolosis were conservatively estimated at over US$3.2 billion per annum. Fasciolosis is now recognized as an emerging human disease: the World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that 2.4 million people are infected with ""Fasciola"","
"one of the causal agents, along with ""P. ramorum,"" of sudden oak death. Although the main concentration of this pathogen is primarily in South West England, its reach has extended to South Wales, Cheshire, and even further north into Scotland. Recently, this pathogen has been found on the steams and foliage of ""Rhododendron"", most significantly on ""R. ponticum."" Furthermore, the aggressive nature of ""Phytophthora kernoviae"" makes it an even more significant concern considering that the mainland of the UK has diverse ecosystems that are susceptible to the impact of this plant pathogen. From the ""Rhododendron"" host, infection is able to"
"Europe, in developing countries. Fasciolosis occurs only in areas where suitable conditions for intermediate hosts exist. Studies carried out in recent years have shown human fasciolosis to be an important public health problem. Human fasciolosis has been reported from countries in Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Oceania. The incidence of human cases has been increasing in 51 countries of the five continents. A global analysis shows that the expected correlation between animal and human fasciolosis only appears at a basic level. High prevalences in humans are not necessarily found in areas where fasciolosis is a great veterinary problem. For instance,"
"in Europe, it has since been found to occur in a wide range of warm-blooded animals including birds, cattle, cats and primates and has been found in animals in Europe, Asia, Africa and North America. The virus name is derived from the town of Borna in Saxony, Germany, which suffered an epidemic of the disease in horses in 1885. Avian bornaviruses, a group of related viruses, have been reported, yet not proven, as the cause of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), a disease of pet parrots. The use of a 'positive' brain cell culture containing ABV to inoculate another psittacine (parrot)"
"the end of a severe winter season, when the animals are hungry, that extra care must be taken. In the summer, one might tread on a poisonous adder and in any season one might be bitten by a rabies infected mammal. The one really big danger, however, is the almost invisible tick as it may be infected with tick-borne diseases, especially Lyme disease and tick-borne meningoencephalitis. In a sense, E11 is the oldest European footpath among the ERA network. There is archeological evidence that messengers and traders followed the range of low hills in what is now Northern Germany, thousands"
"spread via the air to the bark of tree species, with the European beech tree (""Fagus sylvatica)"" being especially susceptible. As of 2005, it was confined to a relatively small area of Cornwall but has also been found in Wales and Cheshire suggesting that the pathogen may be being spread by the horticultural trade. Due to the national and international demand of these plant products, ""Phytophthora kernoviae"" has initiated recent concern after being found ""Vaccinium myrtillus"", commonly called Bilberry. This pathogen causes significant necrosis on leaves, bleeding stem lesions, and stem dieback as the primary symptoms, which occur at an"
"present a risk of injury to pets or wild animals as some types of cooked meat bone break into sharp fragments when chewed. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as ""mad cow disease"", is a fatal brain disease affecting cattle. It is believed by most scientists that the disease may be transmitted to human beings who eat the brain or spinal cord of infected carcasses.<ref name=""FDA/CFSAN""> </ref> In humans, it is known as ""new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease"" (vCJD or nvCJD), and is also fatal. The largest outbreak of BSE was in the United Kingdom, with several other countries affected to"
"the plants traditionally associated with open moorland and reducing easy access by humans. It is toxic to cattle, dogs, sheep, pigs and horses and is linked to cancers in humans. It can harbour high levels of sheep ticks, which can pass on Lyme Disease. Grazing provided some control by stock trampling but this has almost ceased since the 2007 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak reduced commercial livestock production. Global climatic changes have also suited bracken well and contributed to its rapid increase in land coverage. Bracken is a well-adapted pioneer plant which can colonise land quickly, with the potential to extend its"