"Cogers The Society of Cogers (pronounced KOE-jers) is a free speech society, established in 1755 in the City of London. It is the oldest debating society in the world and one of the oldest speaking gatherings of any kind. The name ""Cogers"" comes from Descartes' famous assertion, ""Cogito ergo sum"" (I think, therefore I am). As a ""Society of Thinkers"", the Cogers is dedicated to the philosophy of letting everyone express their thoughts. The aims of the Cogers were the promotion of the liberty of the subject and the freedom of the Press, the maintenance of loyalty to the laws,"
"Translation needs a larger context to determine aspect. Following John Lyons (1982), Vladimir Žegarac notes, ""The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of ""cogito"" as habitual or generic."" (Cf. gnomic aspect.) Ann Banfield writes (also following Lyons), ""In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge, … its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive, … not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of"
"perception. is the equivalent of modern English ""common sense"" or ""good sense"". As the Aristotelian meaning of the Latin term began to be forgotten after Descartes, his discussion of gave a new way of defining in various European languages (including Latin, even though Descartes himself did not translate as , but treated them as two separate things). The idea that now became influential, developed in both the Latin and French works of Descartes, though coming from different directions, is that common good sense (and indeed sense perception) is not reliable enough for the new Cartesian method of skeptical reasoning. The"
"+ ""verbum""; ""magnanimus"", from Greek μεγάθυμος, literally 'great spirit'. Greek phrases were also calqued in Latin, then borrowed or translated into English. A ""commonplace"" is an English calque of the Latin ""locus communis"", itself a calque of Greek κοινός τόπος. The Latin phrase ""deus ex machina"" (‘god out of the machine’) was calqued from the Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (""apò mēkhanês theós""). ""Materia medica"" is a short form of ""Dioscorides""<nowiki>'</nowiki> ""De Materia Medica"", the Latin translation of Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς. Q.E.D. (""quod erat demonstrandum"") is a calque of ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι. Subject matter is a calque of Latin ""subiecta māteria"","
"at the beginning of the eighteenth century that this old philosophical term first acquired its modern English meaning: ""Those plain, self-evident truths or conventional wisdom that one needed no sophistication to grasp and no proof to accept precisely because they accorded so well with the basic (common sense) intellectual capacities and experiences of the whole social body"" This began with Descartes' criticism of it, and what came to be known as the dispute between ""rationalism"" and ""empiricism"". In the opening line of one of his most famous books, ""Discourse on Method"", Descartes established the most common modern meaning, and its"
"Latin, ""sacer"" has the double meaning ""sacred, holy"" and ""accursed, infamous"". Greek δημιουργός gave Latin its ""demiurgus"", from which English got its ""demiurge"", which can refer either to God as the creator or to the devil, depending on philosophical context. In many languages, a word stem associated with a single event may treat the action of that event as unitary, so it can refer to any of the doings or persons on either side of the transaction, that is, to the action of either the subject or the object, or to either the person who does something or the person"
"the nature of the proposition itself. For illustration, consider Descartes': ""I think, therefore I exist"" - Stated in incorrigible form, this could be: ""That I believe that I exist implies that my belief is true"". Harrison argues that a belief being true is really only incidental to the matter, that really what the cogito proves is that ""belief"" implies ""existence"". One could equally well say, ""That I believe God exists implies that I exist."" or ""That I believe I do not exist implies that my belief is false.""—and these would have the same essential meaning as the cogito. Charles Raff"
"to and following Galileo's death, including Evangelista Torricelli and the participants in the Accademia del Cimento in Italy; Marin Mersenne and Blaise Pascal in France; Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands; and Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle in England. The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was well-connected to, and influential within, the experimental philosophy networks of the day. Descartes had a more ambitious agenda, however, which was geared toward replacing the Scholastic philosophical tradition altogether. Questioning the reality interpreted through the senses, Descartes sought to re-establish philosophical explanatory schemes by reducing all perceived phenomena to being attributable to the motion of"
"language they use. One of the last notable philosophers to accept something like the Aristotelian ""common sense"" was Descartes in the 17th century, but he also undermined it. He described this inner faculty when writing in Latin in his ""Meditations on first philosophy"". The common sense is the link between the body and its senses, and the true human mind, which according to Descartes must be purely immaterial. Unlike Aristotle, who had placed it in the heart, by the time of Descartes this faculty was thought to be in the brain, and he located it in the pineal gland. Descartes'"
"resulted in several mistranslations. For example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of ""mathematici"", meaning astrologers, is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians. The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form (and the less commonly used singular derivative ), goes back to the Latin neuter plural (Cicero), based on the Greek plural (""ta mathēmatiká""), used by Aristotle (384–322 BC), and meaning roughly ""all things mathematical""; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective ""mathematic(al)"" and formed the noun ""mathematics"" anew, after the pattern of ""physics"" and ""metaphysics"", which were inherited from Greek. In"
"to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in the sense of their philosophical usage. The earliest major philosophers to publish in English, such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke also routinely wrote in Latin and French, and compared their terms to Greek, treating the words """"logos"""", """"ratio"""", """"raison"""" and ""reason"" as interchangeable. The meaning of the word ""reason"" in senses such as ""human reason"" also overlaps to a large extent with ""rationality"" and the adjective of ""reason"" in philosophical contexts is normally ""rational"", rather than ""reasoned"" or ""reasonable"". Some philosophers, Thomas Hobbes for example, also used the word"
"René Descartes René Descartes (, ; ; Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival form: ""Cartesian""; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. A native of the Kingdom of France, he spent about 20 years (1629–49) of his life in the Dutch Republic after serving for a while in the Dutch States Army of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange and the Stadtholder of the United Provinces. He is generally considered one of the most notable intellectual figures of the Dutch Golden Age. Descartes' ""Meditations on First Philosophy"" (1641) continues to be a standard text at"
"individually named. Descartes Prize The Descartes Prize is an annual award in science given by the European Union, named in honour of the French mathematician and philosopher, René Descartes. The prizes recognizes Outstanding Scientific and Technological Achievements Resulting from European Collaborative Research. The research prize was first awarded in 2000. The research prize is awarded to teams of researchers who have ""achieved outstanding scientific or technological results through collaborative research in any field of science, including the economic, social science and humanities."" . Submissions may be received by the research teams themselves or by suitable national bodies. A science communication"
"Roman Republic. Sometimes the phrase is used by Marx and Engels. It was also used by Friedrich Nietzsche in ""On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense"" (1873): Bellum omnium contra omnes , a Latin phrase meaning ""the war of all against all"", is the description that Thomas Hobbes gives to human existence in the state of nature thought experiment that he conducts in ""De Cive"" (1642) and ""Leviathan"" (1651). The common modern English usage is a war of ""each against all"" where war is rare and terms such as ""competition"" or ""struggle"" are more common. In ""Leviathan"" itself, Hobbes"
"itself a calque of Aristotle's phrase ἡ ὑποκειμένη ὕλη. Wisdom tooth came to English from Latin ""dentes sapientiae"", from Arabic ""aḍrāsu 'lḥikmi"", from Greek σωϕρονιστῆρες, used by Hippocrates. Political animal is from Greek πολιτικὸν ζῷον (in Aristotle's Politics). Quintessence is post-classical Latin ""quinta essentia"", from Greek πέμπτη οὐσία. The Greek word εὐαγγέλιον has come into English both in borrowed forms like ""evangelical"" and the form ""gospel"", an English calque (Old English ""gód spel"" 'good tidings') of Latin ""bona adnuntiatio"", itself a calque of the Greek. The contribution of Greek to the English vocabulary can be quantified in two ways, ""type"""
"he sought a metaphysical foundation or a mechanical explanation for his theories about matter and motion. Cartesian space was Euclidean in structure—infinite, uniform and flat. It was defined as that which contained matter; conversely, matter by definition had a spatial extension so that there was no such thing as empty space. The Cartesian notion of space is closely linked to his theories about the nature of the body, mind and matter. He is famously known for his ""cogito ergo sum"" (I think therefore I am), or the idea that we can only be certain of the fact that we can"
"distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the ""cogito"" — a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see — but on using the ""cogito"" as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by"
"gardens were established, notably by the physician Leonhart Fuchs, one of the founders of botany. The first published work devoted to the concept of method is Jodocus Willichius, ""De methodo omnium artium et disciplinarum informanda opusculum"" (1550). In 1562 ""Outlines of Pyrrhonism"" by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160-210 AD) appeared in print and in Latin, quickly placing the arguments of classical skepticism in the European mainstream. Skepticism either denies or strongly doubts (depending on the school) the possibility of certain knowledge. Descartes' famous ""Cogito"" argument is an attempt to overcome skepticism and reestablish a foundation for certainty but other thinkers responded"
"eidos, sociology, economics, cultural structure, social structure, and all the rest of these words refer only to scientists' ways of putting the jigsaw puzzle."" The tracing rather than projecting mental images bring in sight material reality that has been obscured under the universalizing concepts. Since the European Enlightenment, the Western philosophy has placed the individual, as an indispensable category, at the center of the universe. René Descartes' famous aphorism, 'I think therefore I am' proves that a person is a rational subject whose feature of thinking brings the human into existence. The Cartesian subject, therefore, is a scientific individual who"
"quality in his 1936 painting ""Perspicacity"". The picture shows an artist at work who studies his subject intently: it is an egg. But the painting which he is creating is not of an egg; it is an adult bird in flight. Perspicacity Perspicacity (also called perspicaciousness) is a penetrating discernment (from the Latin perspicācitās, meaning sharpsightedness, discrimination)—a clarity of vision or intellect which provides a deep understanding and insight. In 17th-century Europe, René Descartes devised systematic rules for clear thinking in his work ""Regulæ ad directionem ingenii"" (Rules for the direction of natural intelligence). In Descartes' scheme, intelligence consisted of"
"Latin, Greek, regional and dialectal terms, creative calquing, gloss, neologism and mis-translation was the fruit of the printing press having been invented less than a hundred years earlier. A doctor by trade, Rabelais was a prolific reader, and wrote a great deal about bodies and all they excrete or ingest. His works are filled with multilingual, often sexual, puns, absurd creatures, bawdy songs and lists. Words and metaphors from Rabelais abound in modern French and some words, as mentioned above, have even found their way into English, through Thomas Urquhart's 1693 translation. Most scholars today agree that the French author"
"speech-act theory for political purposes. Episteme ""Episteme"" is a philosophical term derived from the Ancient Greek word ἐπιστήμη ""epistēmē"", which can refer to knowledge, science or understanding, and which comes from the verb , meaning ""to know, to understand, or to be acquainted with"". Plato contrasts episteme with ""doxa"": common belief or opinion. Episteme is also distinguished from ""techne"": a craft or applied practice. The word ""epistemology"" is derived from episteme. The French philosopher Michel Foucault used the term ""épistémè"" in a specialized sense in his work ""The Order of Things"" to mean the historical, but non-temporal, ""a priori"" which"
"in the evolution of the Latin ""causa"" (""judicial lawsuit"") to modern French ""chose"", Spanish/Italian/Catalan ""cosa"", and Portuguese ""coisa"" (all meaning ""object"" or ""thing""). A word with similar meaning, the cognate to English ""sake"" (purpose), ""sak"" in Norwegian and Swedish, ""sag"" in Danish, ""zaak"" in Dutch, and ""Sache"" in German, still retains the meaning ""affair, matter"" alongside ""thing, object"". In English the term is attested from 685 to 686 CE in the older meaning ""assembly""; later it referred to a being, entity or matter (sometime before 899), and then also an act, deed, or event (from about 1000). The early sense"
"English (via L'Ecluse) in 1578 by Henry Lyte (""A new herbal, or historie of plants""), and later into Latin in 1583 (""Stirpium historiae pemptades sex""). The English version became a standard work in that language. In his times, it was the most translated book after the Bible. It became a work of worldwide renown, used as a reference book for two centuries. His Latin translation of 1583, the ""Stirpium"" or ""Pemtdades"", was also a considerable revision, adding new families, enlarging the number of groups from 6 to 26 and including many new illustrations, both original and borrowed. It was used"
"its application to the motivations of non-human animals. Diogenes Laertius, for example, specifically denied the application of the term to plants. Before the Renaissance, Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274 CE), Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308 CE) and Dante Alighieri (1265–1321 CE) expressed similar sentiments using the Latin words ""vult"", ""velle"" or ""appetit"" as synonyms of ""conatus""; indeed, all four terms may be used to translate the original Greek . Later, Telesius and Campanella extended the ancient Greek notions and applied them to all objects, animate and inanimate. First Aristotle, then Cicero and Laertius each alluded to a connection between the ""conatus"" and"
"Labor omnia vincit Labor omnia vincit is a Latin phrase meaning ""Work conquers all"". The phrase is adapted from Virgil's ""Georgics"", Book I, line 145–6: ""...Labor omnia vicit / improbus"" (""Steady work overcame all things""). The poem was written in support of Augustus Caesar's ""Back to the land"" policy, aimed at encouraging more Romans to become farmers. . The actual meaning of the phrase can be obtained as the following: ""anything can be achieved if proper work is applied"". A frequent motto within the U.S labor movement, the phrase is a historically significant slogan. Used by the earliest U.S labor"
"the Latin ""socius"" meaning companions, colleagues, or associates; and c""ratia"" which refers to the ruling class, as in the aristocracy, plutocracy, democracy, and sociocracy. It was coined in 1851 by French philosopher Auguste Comte, as a parallel to sociology, the science that studies how people organize themselves into social systems. Comte believed that a government led by sociologists would use scientific methods to meet the needs of all the people, not just the ruling class. American sociologist Lester Frank Ward in an 1881 paper for the ""Penn Monthly"" was an active advocate of a sociocracy to replace the political competition"
"many occurrences in Latin writings of the phrase ""conscius sibi"", which translates literally as ""knowing with oneself"", or in other words ""sharing knowledge with oneself about something"". This phrase had the figurative meaning of ""knowing that one knows"", as the modern English word ""conscious"" does. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word ""conscious"" retained the meaning of the Latin ""conscius"". For example, Thomas Hobbes in ""Leviathan"" wrote: ""Where two, or more men, know of one and the same fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another."" The Latin phrase ""conscius sibi"", whose meaning"
"copyist; the library of St Augustine's contained two copies of the French work at this time (Gradon 1979). Since the work was intended for the use of Kentish commoners, its language has a number of unusual features. Firstly, the vocabulary shows a marked preference for translating technical terms into compounds of English words, rather than borrowing French or Latin terminology. The title itself is a common example: it uses ""ayenbite"", ""again-bite"", for modern English ""remorse"", and ""inwyt"", ""in-wit"", or 'inward-knowledge', for modern English ""conscience"", both terms being literal translations (calques) of the Latin words. Even ""amen"" is often translated, into"
"a committee of twelve, including eight students, which was established to research the matter. The Latin motto, """"Rerum cognoscere causas"""", is taken from Virgil's Georgics. Its English translation is ""to Know the Causes of Things"" and it was suggested by Professor Edwin Cannan. The beaver mascot was selected for its associations with ""foresight, constructiveness and industrious behaviour"". LSE continues to have a wide impact within British society, through its relationships and influence in politics, business and law. ""The Guardian"" described such influence in 2005 when it stated: Once again the political clout of the school, which seems to be closely"
"the Descartes Prize, an annual European science award. European Social Survey The European Social Survey (ESS) is a social scientific endeavour to map the attitudes, beliefs and behaviour patterns of the various populations in Europe. ESS is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org. Prof Rory Fitzgerald is the Director of the ESS which in 2013 became a European Research Infrastructure Consortium. The headquarters are at City, University of London. The ESS was initiated by the European Science Foundation. One of the reasons to start this new time series of social scientific data was that existing cross-national attitude"
"theoretical basis for future experimentation in the natural sciences. William of Ockham helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; ""Ockham's Razor"" was one of his oft-cited conclusions. English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round, but Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century. Despite the limitations of medieval medicine, Gilbertus Anglicus published the ""Compendium Medicinae"", one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in"
"Aequitas Aequitas (genitive ""aequitatis"") is the Latin concept of justice, equality, conformity, symmetry, or fairness. It is the origin of the English word ""equity"". In ancient Rome, it could refer to either the legal concept of equity, or fairness between individuals. Cicero defined ""aequitas"" as ""tripartite"": the first, he said, pertained to the gods above ""(ad superos deos)"" and is equivalent to ""pietas"", religious obligation; the second, to the Manes, the underworld spirits or spirits of the dead, and was ""sanctitas"", that which is sacred; and the third pertaining to human beings ""(homines)"" was ""iustitia"", ""justice"". During the Roman Empire,"