"leaves and progresses to younger leaves until the entire plant dies. Gros Michel was the only type of banana eaten in the United States from the late 19th century until after World War II. From the beginning, however, a serious disease was present in the banana plantations of Central America. The problem was first diagnosed in Panama after which it was named. Over several decades, the fungus spread from Panama to neighboring countries, moving north through Costa Rica to Guatemala and south into Colombia and Ecuador. The banana industry was in a serious crisis, so a new banana thought to"
"pathogen that causes Panama disease of banana (""Musa"" spp.), also known as fusarium wilt of banana. Panama disease affects a wide range of banana cultivars, which are propagated asexually from offshoots and therefore have very little genetic diversity. Panama disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times, and caused the commercial disappearance of the once dominant Gros Michel cultivar. A more recent strain also affects the Cavendish cultivars used as a substitute for Gros Michel. It is considered inevitable that this susceptibility will spread globally and commercially wipe out the Cavendish cultivar, for which there are"
"an outbreak of Panama disease, a fungus that kills the plant's underground stem, wiped out most of the banana plantations in the early 20th century. New plants of the Valery and Giant Cavendish variety were planted, with constant use of fungicides was required to control black sigatoka disease. Although Cavendish bananas yield three times the harvest of the older Gros Michel type, Cavendish bananas are more difficult to harvest and transport. Cavendish bananas, for example, bruise easily and must be picked at an earlier stage and crated in the fields for transport. Most banana production is in the Pacific lowlands,"
"disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times. It is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia and was first reported in Australia in 1876. By 1950 it had spread to all the banana-producing regions of the world with the exception of some islands in the South Pacific, the Mediterranean, Melanesia and Somalia. Panama disease affects a wide range of banana cultivars; however, it is best known for the damage it caused to a single cultivar in the early export plantations. Before 1960, a total reliance was put on the cultivar 'Gros Michel', and it supplied"
"large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming. Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a ""typical banana"" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives. Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the"
"drop in banana exports caused by the depression, the Honduran banana industry was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease (a debilitating fungus) and black sigatoka (leaf blight) in banana-producing areas. Within a year, most of the country's production was threatened. Large areas, including most of those around Trujillo, were abandoned, and thousands of Hondurans were thrown out of work. By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to"
"Mitch caused extensive damage to crops. In 1998, agricultural exports were valued at US$409.3 million (out of Panama's total exports of $640 million), while imports totaled US$397.7 million. That same year bananas accounted for 33 percent of Panama's exports, shrimp 11 percent, sugar 4 percent, and coffee 2 percent. In 1999, sugar cane production was at 2.05 million metric tons, bananas at 650,000 metric tons, rice at 232,370 metric tons and corn at 89,806 metric tons. The main export crop was bananas with exports worth US$182 million in 2000. There has been a steady increase in tropical fruit exports which"
"a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance. Tropical race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and has recently spread to Australia, India and Mozambique. It has yet to reach the Americas; however, the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and will be its most likely route"
"the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus ""Fusarium oxysporum"" which attacks the roots of the banana plant. Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the black sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable. Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of"
"single monoculture: The Cavendish banana. The ravages of Panama Disease in that particular cultivar may cause a shift in variety selection, subsequently causing a major change in the physical plant structure of banana plantations. Banana growing is a significant economic engine in many banana-exporting countries because it is labor-intensive, delivers a relatively quick return on effort and investment, provides a weekly income year round, and the crop recovers quickly from hurricanes and other natural disasters. Banana industry exports worldwide total over 100 million tons in a market which generates over US$5 billion per year and employs millions of workers. Banana"
"banana production, most of which is planted with the susceptible Cavendish varieties. Bananas are a staple food in the diet of millions throughout the subtropics and tropics, and the spread of Panama disease could have devastating effects on both large scale production and subsistence farms. Members of ""F. oxysporum"" are present throughout the world's soils. However, before global transportation, many of the different varieties of the pathogen were isolated. Now, global trade has spread ""F. oxysporum"" inoculum with the crop. A recent example of this is the spread of ""Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense"" which may have originated in Asia and"
"Agriculture in Panama Agriculture in Panama is an important sector of the Panamanian economy. Major agricultural products include bananas, cocoa beans, coffee, coconuts, timber, beef, chicken, shrimp, corn, potatoes, rice, soybeans, and sugar cane. In 2009 agriculture and fisheries made up 7.4% of Panama's GDP. Panama is a net food importer and the U.S. is its main supplier. Agriculture employs a large number of Panamanians (in relation to agriculture's percentage of Panamanian GDP) because many farmers are engaged in subsistence farming. Major agricultural products in Panama include bananas and other fruit, corn, sugar, rice, coffee, shrimp, timber, vegetables, livestock. As"
"a soil-born fungus destroying its banana farms in Latin America, known as Panama disease (Fusarium Wilt). Wornick, who helped come up with a treatment for Panama Disease, was promoted to scientist and later a division president in charge of food processing. MIT awarded him a graduate degree shortly thereafter. In 1970, United Fruit Company merged with AMK-John Morrell to become United Brands. Wornick, by then director of corporate development, resigned from the company, acquiring its multimillion-dollar a year freeze-dried food division, Right Away Foods Corporation in San Carlos, Texas where he moved to oversee operations. Wornick then began the management"
"Chiriqui Land Company, which operates under the brand name Chiquita, is one of the largest landowners in Panama, as well as the main banana exporter. Other major foreign agricultural companies include Del Monte Corporation and Dole Foods. Agriculture in Panama Agriculture in Panama is an important sector of the Panamanian economy. Major agricultural products include bananas, cocoa beans, coffee, coconuts, timber, beef, chicken, shrimp, corn, potatoes, rice, soybeans, and sugar cane. In 2009 agriculture and fisheries made up 7.4% of Panama's GDP. Panama is a net food importer and the U.S. is its main supplier. Agriculture employs a large number"
"""canariensis"" causes wilt of Canary Island date palm and other propagated palms. The disease is spread through contaminated seed, soil and pruning tools. ""F. oxysporum"" f. sp. ""cubense"" causes Panama disease on banana. It is found everywhere bananas are grown in Africa, Asia, Central and South America. It attacks banana plants of all ages and spreads mainly through the soil. It causes wilting and yellowing of the leaves. ""F. oxysporum"" f. sp. ""lycopersici"" causes vascular wilt in tomato. The disease starts out as yellowing and drooping on one side of the plant. Leaf wilting, plant stunting, browning of the vascular"
"was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease (a debilitating fungus) and sigatoka (leaf blight) in the banana-producing areas. Within a year, most of the country's production was threatened. Large areas, including most of those around Trujillo, were abandoned, and thousands of Hondurans were thrown out of work. By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to other nations. Carías had made efforts to improve the military even before"
"Some areas on the south side of the island were left completely devoid of crops. Although the western areas of Jamaica were not as devastated as other portions of the island, some banana plantations there were partially destroyed and there was a loss to orange and coffee crops. Throughout Jamaica, devastation to the banana crop was ""complete"", forcing many growers into bankruptcy. It was estimated that the fruit trade would be paralyzed for as much as a year. Damage reached $10 million and there were at least 65 deaths, while other reports indicate as many as 90 fatalities. At the"
"this zone. Racial discrimination policies that were widespread in the United States at the time were transported to Central America. The companies never used as much land as they acquired. They learned early that the plants were vulnerable to hurricanes, and to Panama disease, which first appeared in the 1910s in Panama, and completely destroyed banana growth very rapidly in areas where it had taken hold. As a result, they both acquired far more land than they needed to support banana cultivation, and they left these lands vacant as a reserve. Such policies in countries like Guatemala where landlessness was"
"is exported there is a high incidence of ship-ripe fruit which arrive at their destination in poor condition. Panama disease (Fusarium oxysporum) is caused by tiny worms which feed on the roots of the plants, block the water vessels and reduce production. Production is also affected by pests which scar the banana peel. The placing of sleeves over the bunches and the removal of the buds are two controlling measures. Banana production in the Caribbean Banana production in the Caribbean is widespread. Bananas are cultivated by both small farmers and large land holders. The plant is perennial and is planted"
"Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense Fusarium oxysporum"" f.sp. ""cubense is a fungal plant pathogen that causes Panama disease of banana (""Musa"" spp.), also known as fusarium wilt of banana. Although fruit of the wild bananas (""Musa"" spp.) have large, hard seeds, most edible bananas are seedless. Banana plants are therefore propagated asexually from offshoots. Because these rhizomes are usually free of symptoms even when the plant is infected by ""F. oxysporum ""f. sp."" cubense"", they are a common means by which this pathogen is disseminated. It can also be spread in soil and running water, on farm implements or machinery. Panama"
"called Panama disease caused huge losses to the banana crop. During the 1960s agrarian reform caused fragmentation of land holdings and multinational companies closed down due to labour trouble. Large landholders lost the advantage and as a result very large numbers of smaller non union plantations came to be established under local producers. During this period Central American countries introduced a new variety known as Cavendish bananas, which was a setback to Ecuador as its banana production was affected. However, Dole ensured that Ecuador's export share in the world market did not fall below 15%. In 1974, Ecuador became a"
"reliable production of food, and it provides significant reductions in agricultural use of land, water, fuel and other inputs. Plants in both natural and cultivated populations carry inherent disease resistance, but this has not always protected them. The late blight Irish potato famine of the 1840s was caused by the oomycete Phytophthora infestans. The world’s first mass-cultivated banana cultivar Gros Michel was lost in the 1920s to Panama disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. The current wheat stem rust, leaf rust and yellow stripe rust epidemics spreading from East Africa into the Indian subcontinent are caused by rust fungi"
"owned company production to smaller-scale localised indigenous farming primarily targeted at the European market. The Banana trade began between British Honduras and New Orleans. Commerce was wiped out in the 1920s by an outbreak of the Panama disease. Plantations were destroyed again by hurricanes in 1975 and 1978. The subsequent takeover of banana cultivation by the Banana Control Board, a public enterprise, had the effect of further inhibiting production. By mid-1985, the Banana Control Board had accumulated debts of US$9 million. The government reacted to the plight of the board by selling the 880 hectares under cultivation to the private"
"and North America, grown in Central America, but in the 1950s, Panama disease, a wilt caused by the fungus ""Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense"", wiped out vast tracts of Gros Michel plantations in Central America, though it is still grown on non-infected land throughout the region. The Gros Michel was replaced on Central American plantations and in U.S. grocery stores by the Cavendish. By the 1960s, the exporters of Gros Michel bananas were unable to keep trading such a susceptible cultivar, and started growing resistant cultivars belonging to the Cavendish subgroup (another ""Musa acuminata"" AAA). The original Gros Michel variety is"
"decreases the area of leaf available for photosynthesis, spoils the appearance of the plant and reduces the marketability of fruit. It is especially damaging to young trees after transplanting. This scale is believed to be of Brazilian or African origin but is now widely distributed throughout the tropics. The host range includes vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops as well as many native plants. Economically important crops include ""Anthurium"", atemoya, avocado, cacao, celery, cherimoya, coffee, custard apple, flowering ginger, guava, lime, ""Macadamia"", orange, orchid, ""Plumeria"" and sugar apple. It is a serious pest of coffee in many countries causing so much"
"wind and the tree loses it leaves. The seeds are eaten by agoutis and by bruchid beetle larvae. The majority of seedlings are killed by damping off fungi in the first few months of growth, with seedlings that grow nearer the parent trees being more likely to die. The seedlings are relatively unable to survive in deep shade compared to other species in the same habitat. Various epiphytes are known to grow on ""P. elegans"" with the cactus ""Epiphyllum phyllanthus"" being the most abundant in Panama. Despite having holes in its trunk which should encourage debris and seeds to collect,"
"crops, particularly coffee, cocoa, and sugar. Several villages were also destroyed, rendering approximately 10,000 people homeless. Damage reached $1 million and there were at least 200 deaths. The only impact in Cuba was downed banana trees. In Florida, the storm left minor wind damage along the coast. A Seaboard Air Line Railroad station was destroyed in Boca Grande, while signs, trees, and telephone poles were knocked down in Sarasota. Several streets in St. Petersburg were closed due to flooding or debris. Between Cedar Key and the Florida Panhandle, several vessels capsized. Water washed up along the side of roads and"
"exports caused by the Great Depression, the fruit industry was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease and Sigatoka in the banana-producing areas. Within a year, most of the country's production was threatened. Large areas, including most of those around Trujillo, Honduras were abandoned, and thousands of Hondurans were thrown out of work. By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to other nations. Carías had made efforts to"
"100 per cent. In Ghana between 1936 and 1977, the mealybug-transmitted cacao swollen-shoot virus caused the loss of 162 million cacao trees, and additional trees were lost at the rate of 15 million each year. In 1948, in Kansas, US, seven per cent of the wheat crop was destroyed by wheat streak mosaic virus, spread by the wheat curl mite ""(Aceria tulipae)"". In the 1950s papaya ringspot virus – a potyvirus – caused a devastating loss of solo papaya crops on Oahu, Hawaii. Solo papaya had been introduced to the island in the previous century but the disease had not"
"amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. alone. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees infected by the invasive varroa mite. Introduced rats (""Rattus rattus"" and ""R. norvegicus"") have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can also suppress agricultural yields and nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (ACP). Because of the impacts of this disease on citrus crops, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where ACP has"
"50–60%. Begomoviruses infecting pepper (""Capsicum spp."") such as ""Pepper leaf curl virus"" and ""Chilli leaf curl virus"" also cause significant losses worldwide. Disease is typically manifested in the infected plant as chlorosis, leaf distortion, flower bud absicion and crinkling and stunting. In countries where these viruses have become widespread across Southeast Asia including Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India, these diseases in pepper and other crops including tomato, cucumber, pumpkin, melon, and eggplant, can cause an estimated yield loss of 40–70%. ""Bean golden yellow mosaic virus"" (BGYMV) causes a serious disease in bean species within Central America, the Caribbean"
"By 1929, the United Fruit Company operated in over of the country and controlled the major ports. Initially, Honduran producers focused on growing the Gros Michel type of bananas, which had important characteristics that made them easy to store and ship and appealed to consumers in North American markets. However in the early 1920s banana-producing areas began suffering from a blight known as the ""Panama Disease"" which, combined with soil exhaustion from monocrop agriculture, led to a production decline in many parts of northern Honduras. The companies sought to restore production by rerouting railroads and renegotiating concessions so to bring"
"""Xanthomonas citri"" subsp. ""citri"" is an economically important disease of many citrus species (lime, orange, lemon, pamelo, etc.) Bacterial leaf spot has caused significant crop losses over the years. Causes of this disease include ""Xanthomonas euvesicatoria"" and ""Xanthomonas perforans"" = [""Xanthomonas axonopodis"" (syn. ""campestris"") pv. ""vesicatoria""], ""Xanthomonas vesicatoria"", and ""Xanthomonas gardneri"". In some areas where infection begins soon after transplanting, the total crop can be lost as a result of this disease. ""Xanthomonas campestris"" pv. ""punicae"" cause bacterial blight of pomogranate. Bacterial blight of rice, caused by ""Xanthomonas oryzae"" pv. ""oryzae"", is a disease found worldwide and particularly destructive in"