"a constant 65% humidity, while the temperature only varied from a low of 4 degrees Celsius (40 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter to 8 degrees Celsius (47 degrees in the summer). Mining operations continued as the artwork was loaded into the mines, with the miners occasionally dragooned into helping to unload. According to James S. Plaut, who from November 1944 to April 1946 was Director of the Art Looting Investigation Unit of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the salt mines held: 6755 old master paintings, of which 5350 were destined for Linz, 230 drawings, 1039 prints, 95 tapestries, 68"
"joint BBC/OED production ""Balderdash & Piffle"", in May 2005. The earliest printed evidence of use of ""gas mark"" (with no other terms between the two words) appears to date from 1958. However, the manufacturers of the ""New World"" gas ranges in the mid-1930s gave away recipe books for use with their cooker, and the ""Regulo"" was the gas regulator. The book has no reference to degrees, either in Fahrenheit or (as then) Centigrade. All dishes to be cooked are noted to be at ""Regulo Mark X"". Gas mark 1 is 275 °Fahrenheit (135 °Celsius). Oven temperatures increase by 25 °F"
"increasing by 25 °C for each subsequent step, up to Stufe 7 at 300 °C. Gas Mark The Gas Mark is a temperature scale used on gas ovens and cookers in Great Britain, Ireland and some Commonwealth of Nations countries. The draft 2003 edition of the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" lists the earliest known usage of the concept as being in L. Chatterton's book ""Modern Cookery"" published in 1943: ""Afternoon tea scones… Time: 20 minutes. Temperature: Gas, Regulo Mark 7"". ""Regulo"" was a type of gas regulator used by a manufacturer of cookers; however, the scale has now become universal, and"
"(13.9 °C) each time the gas mark increases by 1. Below Gas Mark 1 the scale markings halve at each step, each representing a decrease of 25 °F. To convert gas mark to degrees Celsius (formula_1), multiply the gas mark number (formula_2) by 14, then add 121: formula_3 For the reverse conversion: formula_4 However it is usual to round the result of this calculation to a round number of degrees Celsius. Note that tables of temperature equivalents for kitchen use usually offer Celsius values rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, with steps of either 10 or 20 degrees between Gas"
"Gas Mark The Gas Mark is a temperature scale used on gas ovens and cookers in Great Britain, Ireland and some Commonwealth of Nations countries. The draft 2003 edition of the ""Oxford English Dictionary"" lists the earliest known usage of the concept as being in L. Chatterton's book ""Modern Cookery"" published in 1943: ""Afternoon tea scones… Time: 20 minutes. Temperature: Gas, Regulo Mark 7"". ""Regulo"" was a type of gas regulator used by a manufacturer of cookers; however, the scale has now become universal, and the word ""Regulo"" is rarely used. The term ""gas mark"" was a subject of the"
"are a family of hydrocarbons that are typical components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C (260 °F). One member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition. The octane rating of gasoline is measured in a test engine and is defined by comparison with the mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (iso-octane) and heptane that would have the same anti-knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in that mixture is the octane number of the fuel. For"
"have weaker inter-molecular forces and thus lower melting points. Lithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and other fatty acids are important constituents of lubricating greases. In lithium-based greases, lithium carboxylates are thickeners. ""Complex soaps"" are also common, these being combinations of metallic soaps, such as lithium and calcium soaps. Fires involving cooking fats and oils (classified as class K (US) or F (Australia/Europe/Asia)) burn hotter than most flammable liquids, rendering a standard class B extinguisher ineffective. Flammable liquids have flash points under 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 Fahrenheit). Cooking oil is a combustible liquid, since it has a flash point over 37 degrees"
"Ligroin Ligroin is the petroleum fraction consisting mostly of C and C hydrocarbons and boiling in the range 90‒140 ℃ (194–284 °F); commonly used as a laboratory solvent. The name ""ligroin"" (or ""ligroine"" or ""ligroïne"") appeared as early as 1866. Products under the name ligroin can have boiling ranges as low as 60‒80 ℃ and may be practically indistinguishable from a petroleum ether with the same boiling range. Ligroin is assigned the CAS Registry Number 8032-32-4, which is also applied to many other products, particularly the lower boiling ones, called petroleum spirit, petroleum ether and petroleum benzine. Ligroin was used"
"°F - 356 °F) Oven baking: Average of 180 °C (356 °F) Smoke point decreases at different pace in different oils. Considerably above the temperature of the smoke point is the flash point, the point at which the vapours from the oil can ignite in air, given an ignition source. Hydrolysis and oxidation are the two primary degradation processes that occur in an oil during cooking. Oxidative stability is how resistant an oil is to reacting with oxygen, breaking down and potentially producing harmful compounds while exposed to continuous heat. Oxidative stability is the best predictor of how an oil"
"knock-offs of the Svea 123 include the Fire-Lite and Trav-ler 77, and the Pak-Cook 235 marketed in the United States under the Stansport and Texsport names. Svea 123 The Swedish-made Svea 123 is a small liquid-fuel (naphtha, commonly referred to as ""white gas"" or ""Coleman fuel"") pressurized-burner camping stove that traces its origins to designs first pioneered in the late 19th century. Svea stoves were first made by C.R. Nybergs Lödlampfabrik, which also manufactured blowtorches as well as other machinery and equipment. Founded by Carl Nyberg, the firm later became one of the largest industries in Sundbyberg, Sweden. In 1922,"
"the gas pressure at each instant will have practically the same value (""p"" = 1 atm) throughout. For a thermally perfect diatomic gas, the molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (""c"") is / or 29.1006 J mol deg. The molar heat capacity at constant volume (""c"") is / or 20.7862 J mol deg. The ratio formula_15 of the two heat capacities is 1.4. The heat ""Q"" required to bring the gas from 300 to 600 K is The increase in internal energy is Therefore, formula_18 Also formula_19, which of course is identical to the difference between Δ""H"" and Δ""U""."
"1,1,1-Trifluoroethane 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane, or R-143a or simply trifluoroethane, is a hydrofluorocarbon compound that is a clear, colorless gas. It should not be confused with the much more commonly used gas R-134a or the isomeric compound 1,1,2-trifluoroethane. It has a critical temperature of 73 °C. It is used as a refrigerant either by itself or more commonly as a component of blended mixtures. Unlike CFCs used as refrigerants, trifluoroethane has no chlorine atoms and is therefore not an ozone-depleting chemical, though its high chemical stability and infra-red absorbency make it a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 4300, higher"
"safely stored at room temperature, as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability. Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids. For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable. High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower. The smoke point is marked by ""a continuous wisp of smoke."" It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of"
"removed for cleaning. Temperature of cooking elements was regulated by adjusting a bimetal thermostat control switch, which switched power on and off to control the average heating effect of the elements. A high-end gas stove called the AGA cooker was invented in 1922 by Swedish Nobel prize winner Gustaf Dalén. As a heat storage stove, it worked on the principle that a heavy frame made from cast iron components can absorb heat from a relatively low-intensity but continuously-burning source, and the accumulated heat can then be used when needed for cooking. Dalén took his design to Britain in 1929, where"
"dish or flask at 37 °C together with a nutrient medium and plasma, serum or serum substitutes. A special feature of the incubation is the special gas mixture of mostly nitrogen (93% nitrogen, 4% carbon dioxide, 3% oxygen) allowing the parasites to grow at 37 °C in a cell incubator. An alternative to gasing the cultures with the exact gas mixture, is the use of a candlejar. The candlejar is an airtight container in which the cultures and a lit candle are placed. The burning candle consumes some of the oxygen and produces carbon dioxide (), which acts as a"
"world, natural gas is sold in gigajoules. The calorie equals the amount of thermal energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius degree, from a temperature of 14.5 degrees Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm. For thermochemistry a calorie of 4.184 J is used, but other calories have also been defined, such as the International Steam Table calorie of 4.1868 J. Food energy is measured in large calories or kilocalories, often simply written capitalized as ""Calories"" (= 10 calories). In physics and chemistry, it is still common to measure energy on the atomic"
"amount of neutral hydrogen (HI) gas with the mass of about 2.8 solar masses, which is three times more than the mass of the stars in this galaxy. The gas includes two main components: cool gas in the center of the galaxy with a temperature of about 500 K and warm gas distributed throughout Leo T with a temperature of 6,000 K. The density of this gas is, however, not enough on average for star formation, which indicates that local processes have a role. Still the presence of hydrogen gas implies that in the future the galaxy will begin forming"
"°C) when adhering ""strictly"" to the two-point definition of thermodynamic temperature. When calibrated to ITS–90, where one must interpolate between the defining points of gallium and indium, the boiling point of VSMOW water is about 10 mK less, about 99.974 °C. The virtue of ITS–90 is that another lab in another part of the world will measure the very same temperature with ease due to the advantages of a comprehensive international calibration standard featuring many conveniently spaced, reproducible, defining points spanning a wide range of temperatures. Celsius (known until 1948 as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after"
"down and start smoking. The higher in quality and the lower in FFA, the higher the smoke point. It is important to consider, however, that the FFA only represents typically less than 1% of the total oil and consequently renders smoke point a poor indicator of the capacity of a fat or oil to withstand heat. The smoke point of an oil correlates with its level of refinement. Many cooking oils have smoke points above standard home cooking temperatures: Standard Cooking Temperatures Pan frying (sauté) on stove top heat: 120 °C (248 °F) Deep frying: 160 - 180 °C (320"
"in the analysis of samples from hydrocarbon exploration wells. Significant colour changes (FCI 2 to 6) occur through a temperature range of ~60 °C to ~110 °C. The FCI is therefore an indicator of temperatures required to initiate petroleum generation (oil window). The onset of oil generation correlates approximately to FCI 5-6. Raman spectroscopy (an analytical tool for fingerprinting molecules) has confirmed that organic cement is present in fossil agglutinated foraminifera. Raman spectroscopy and the FCI can be used to estimate thermal maturity and, therefore, assess thermal conditions necessary for hydrocarbon generation. The FCI methodology is similar to the Conodont"
"in degrees Rankine are converted to kelvins by ""dividing"" by 1.8 (""T"" = ""T"" ÷ 1.8). Although the kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. ITS-90 is then designed to represent the thermodynamic temperature as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known"
"Wobbe index The Wobbe Index (WI) or Wobbe number is an indicator of the interchangeability of fuel gases such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and town gas and is frequently defined in the specifications of gas supply and transport utilities. If formula_1 is the higher heating value, or higher calorific value, and formula_2 is the specific gravity, the Wobbe Index, formula_3, is defined as: The Wobbe Index is used to compare the combustion energy output of different composition fuel gases in an appliance (fire, cooker etc.). If two fuels have identical Wobbe Indices then for given pressure and"
"the margarine does not melt in warm rooms, yet it needs to be completely liquid at 37 °C (98 °F), so that it doesn't leave a ""lardy"" taste in the mouth. Hardening vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a catalyst in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons, each carbon forming a new single-bond with a hydrogen atom. Adding these hydrogen atoms to the oil makes it more solid, raises the smoke point, and makes the oil more stable."
"Cashmeran Cashmeran (trade name; also known as musk indanone or indomuscone; chemical name 6,7-dihydro-1,1,2,3,3-pentamethyl-4(5""H"")-indanone or DPMI) is a chemical compound used in fragrances. Cashmeran is an alicyclic ketone with the molecular formula CHO and a molecular weight of 206 g/mol. At room temperature it occurs as a white solid but its melting point is 27 °C. Boiling point has been reported to be 256 °C, however in some tests decomposition of the material was noted at 220 °C. Cashmeran was discovered by International Flavors and Fragrances in the 1970s by John Hall. Its invention came about researching inexpensive chemical transformations"
"gas grills are difficult to maintain at the low temperatures required (~225-250 °F), especially for extended periods. Infrared grills work by igniting a gas fuel to heat a ceramic tile, causing it to emit infrared radiation by which the food is cooked. The thermal radiation is generated when heat from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation in the infrared heat frequency range. Infrared grills allow users to more easily adjust cooking temperature than charcoal grills, and are usually able to reach higher temperatures than standard gas grills, making them popular for searing items quickly."
"metres, ""n"" is measured in moles, and ""T"" in kelvins (the Kelvin scale is a shifted Celsius scale, where 0.00 K = −273.15 °C, the lowest possible temperature). ""R"" has the value 8.314 J/(K·mol) ≈ 2 cal/(K·mol), or 0.08206 L·atm/(mol·K). How much gas is present could be specified by giving the mass instead of the chemical amount of gas. Therefore, an alternative form of the ideal gas law may be useful. The chemical amount (""n"") (in moles) is equal to total mass of the gas (""m"") (in grams) divided by the molar mass (""M"") (in grams per mole): By replacing"
"phthalate), DBP (Dibutyl phthalate), BBP (Benzyl butyl phthalate), DINP (Di-isononyl phthalate), DIDP (Di-isodecyl phthalate), and DnOP (Di-n-octyl phthalate, according to the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA). If the instructions on the package are followed (i.e. low temperatures and brief baking times) one will not burn the clay. If the clay does burn because of a mistake or if the oven malfunctions, a small amount of hydrogen chloride gas could be released, which may cause odor and some eye or nose irritation. The amount of hydrogen chloride gas released from the clay could cause a health problem. Due to the"
"°C (100 and 150 °F), and its autoignition temperature is . The pour point of kerosene depends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized at . 1-K grade kerosene freezes around −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K). Heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel fuel; its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg (around 18,500 Btu/lb), and its higher heating value is . In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS 2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in some vintage combustion"
"is assigned the CAS Registry Number 8032-32-4, which is also applied to many other products, particularly the lower boiling ones, called petroleum spirit, petroleum ether, and petroleum benzine. ""Naphtha"" has the CAS Registry Number 8030-30-6, which also covers petroleum benzine and petroleum ether: that is, the lower boiling point non-aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. DIN 51630 provides for petroleum spirit (also called spezialbenzine or petrolether) which is described as ""a special boiling-point spirit commonly used in laboratory applications, having high volatility and low aromatics content."" Its initial boiling point is above 25 °C, its final boiling point up to 80 °C. Petroleum"
"from the specific heat – temperature plot which has the shape of the Greek letter λ. See figure 2, which shows a peak at 2.172 K, the so-called λ-point of He. Below the lambda line the liquid can be described by the so-called two-fluid model. It behaves as if it consists of two components: a normal component, which behaves like a normal fluid, and a superfluid component with zero viscosity and zero entropy. The ratios of the respective densities ρ/ρ and ρ/ρ, with ρ (ρ) the density of the normal (superfluid) component, and ρ (the total density), depends on temperature"
"to FCC is usually that portion of the crude oil that has an initial boiling point of 340 °C or higher at atmospheric pressure and an average molecular weight ranging from about 200 to 600 or higher. This portion of crude oil is often referred to as heavy gas oil or vacuum gas oil (HVGO). In the FCC process, the feedstock is heated to a high temperature and moderate pressure, and brought into contact with a hot, powdered catalyst. The catalyst breaks the long-chain molecules of the high-boiling hydrocarbon liquids into much shorter molecules, which are collected as a vapor."
"to form stable products in their standard states: hydrogen is converted to water (in its liquid state), carbon is converted to carbon dioxide gas, and nitrogen is converted to nitrogen gas. That is, the heat of combustion, Δ""H°"", is the heat of reaction of the following process: Chlorine and sulfur are not quite standardized; they are usually assumed to convert to hydrogen chloride gas and SO or SO gas, respectively, or to dilute aqueous hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, respectively, when the combustion is conducted in a bomb containing some water quantity of water. The quantity known as higher heating value"
"such as gas control breaker. Because of this many manufactureres supply stoves without electricity plug. Gas stove In cooking, a gas stove is a cooker/stove which uses syngas, natural gas, propane, butane, liquefied petroleum gas or other flammable gas as a fuel source. Prior to the advent of gas, cooking stoves relied on solid fuel such as coal or wood. The first gas stoves were developed in the 1820s, and a gas stove factory was established in England in 1836. This new cooking technology had the advantage that it was easily adjustable and could be turned off when not in"