"The Net (substance) The Net, in alchemy, is an alloy of copper and iron, whose crystal structure induces a network pattern on its surface. It was described in the 17th century by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton produced the substance by following what he regarded as a recipe, encoded in classical mythology, for part of the process of achieving the philosopher's stone. The relevant myth involved the god Vulcan finding his wife Venus (alchemical symbol for copper) in bed with the god Mars (alchemical symbol for iron) Newton's interpretation rested on typical alchemical associations, construing Vulcan as a stand-in for fire,"
"""Eolian Sediment, Coarse-Textured (Sand Dunes)"". Lithology The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as colour, texture, grain size, or composition. It may be either a detailed description of these characteristics or be a summary of the gross physical character of a rock. It is the basis of subdividing rock sequences into individual lithostratigraphic units for the purposes of mapping and correlation between areas. In certain applications, such as site investigations, lithology is described using a standard terminology such as in"
"Lithology The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as colour, texture, grain size, or composition. It may be either a detailed description of these characteristics or be a summary of the gross physical character of a rock. It is the basis of subdividing rock sequences into individual lithostratigraphic units for the purposes of mapping and correlation between areas. In certain applications, such as site investigations, lithology is described using a standard terminology such as in the European geotechnical standard Eurocode"
"geologically because of Classical Laws of Geology and how they relate to the accumulation of sediments and the formation of sedimentary environments. Lithology is a study of bedrock that occurs at a specific location. The strata may contain fossils which aid in determining how old they are and geologist’s understanding of sequence and timing. Geologists group together similar lithologies, and call these larger sedimentary sequence formations. There are rules on how formations are named, related to where they are located and what rock type(s) are present. All sedimentary formations shall receive distinctive designations. The most desirable names are binomial, the"
"Petrology Petrology (from the Greek πέτρος, ""pétros"", ""rock"" and λόγος, ""lógos"", ""subject matter"", see -logy) is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is, on the other hand, commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale"
"description of rocks while petrography is the speciality that deals with microscopic details. In the petroleum industry, lithology, or more specifically mud logging, is the graphic representation of geological formations being drilled through, and drawn on a log called a mud log. As the cuttings are circulated out of the borehole they are sampled, examined (typically under a 10× microscope) and tested chemically when needed. Petrology utilizes the fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical mineralogy, and chemical analysis to describe the composition and texture of rocks. Petrologists also include the principles of geochemistry and geophysics through the study of geochemical trends"
"Limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ""limne"", ""lake"" and λόγος, ""logos"", ""knowledge""), is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics and functions of inland waters (running and standing waters, fresh and saline, natural or man-made). This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater. A more recent sub-discipline of limnology, termed landscape limnology, studies, manages, and seeks to conserve these ecosystems using a landscape perspective, by explicitly examining connections between an aquatic ecosystem and its watershed. Recently, the need to understand"
"Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, the geological science associated with the study of strata or rock layers. Major focuses include geochronology, comparative geology, and petrology. In general a stratum will be primarily igneous or sedimentary relating to how the rock was formed. Sedimentary layers are laid down by deposition of sediment associated with weathering processes, decaying organic matters (biogenic) or through chemical precipitation. These layers are distinguishable as having many fossils and are important for the study of biostratigraphy. Igneous layers are either plutonic or volcanic in character depending upon the cooling rate of the rock. These layers"
"Rheology Rheology (; from Greek ῥέω ""rhéō"", ""flow"" and -λoγία, -""logia"", ""study of"") is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as ""soft solids"" or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force. It is a branch of physics which deals with the deformation and flow of materials, both solids and liquids. The term ""rheology"" was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner. The term was inspired by"
"Litmus Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity. Litmus was used for the first time about 1300 AD by Spanish physician Arnaldus de Villa Nova. From the 16th century on, the blue dye was extracted from some lichens, especially in the Netherlands. Litmus can be found in different species of lichens. The dyes are extracted from such species as ""Roccella tinctoria"" (South America), ""Roccella fuciformis"" (Angola and Madagascar), ""Roccella pygmaea"" (Algeria), ""Roccella phycopsis"","
"Lichenology Lichenology is the branch of mycology that studies the lichens, symbiotic organisms made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a microscopic alga (or a cyanobacterium) with a filamentous fungus. Study of lichens draws knowledge from several disciplines: mycology, phycology, microbiology and botany. Scholars of lichenology are known as lichenologists. The taxonomy of lichens was first intensively investigated by the Swedish botanist Erik Acharius (1757–1819), who is therefore sometimes named the ""father of lichenology"". Acharius was a student of Carl Linnaeus. Some of his more important works on the subject, which marked the beginning of lichenology as a discipline,"
"other related studies. Most petrophysicists are employed (SS) to compute what are commonly called conventional (or reservoir) petrophysical properties. These are: ""Lithology:"" A description of the rock's physical characteristics, such as grain size, composition and texture. By studying the lithology of local geological outcrops and core samples, geoscientists can use a combination of log measurements, such as natural gamma, neutron, density and resistivity, to determine the lithology down the well. ""Porosity:"" formula_1 (Anti=tattilization)The percentage of a given volume of rock that is pore space and can therefore contain fluids. This is typically calculated using data from an instrument that measures"
"stratigraphy, lithology, and geological formations and deposits. The stratigraphy relates the age and geometry of the many formations that compose the aquifer. The lithology refers to the physical components of an aquifer, such as the mineral composition and grain size. The structural features are the elements that arise due to deformations after deposition, such as fractures and folds. Understanding these aspects is paramount to understanding of how an aquifer is formed and how professionals can utilize it for groundwater engineering. Differences in hydraulic head (""h"") cause water to move from one place to another; water flows from locations of high"
"may once more crystallize. To study all three types of rock, geologists evaluate the minerals of which they are composed. Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. The specimens can be tested for: Geologists also study unlithified materials (referred to as ""drift""), which typically come from more recent deposits. These materials are superficial deposits that lie above the bedrock. This study is often known as Quaternary geology, after the Quaternary period of geologic history. In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and rigid uppermost"
"Ethnolichenology Ethnolichenology is the study of the relationship between lichens and people. Lichens have and are being used for many different purposes by human cultures across the world. The most common human use of lichens is for dye, but they have also been used for medicine, food and other purposes. Lichens are a common source of natural dyes. The lichen dye is usually extracted by either boiling water or ammonia fermentation. Although usually called ammonia fermentation, this method is not actually a fermentation and involves letting the lichen steep in ammonia (traditionally urine) for at least two to three weeks."
"Lipidology Lipidology is the scientific study of lipids. Compared to other biomedical fields, lipidology was originally less popular since the constant handling of oils, smears, and greases was unappealing and separation was difficult. The field became more popular following the advent of chromatography which allowed lipids to be isolated and analyzed. The field was further popularized following the cytologic application of the electron microscope which found that many metabolic pathways take place on the cell membrane, whose properties are strongly influenced by its lipid composition. The Framingham Heart Study and other epidemiological studies have found a correlation between lipoproteins and"
"alkaline material the name """"lithion""/""lithina"""", from the Greek word ""λιθoς"" (transliterated as ""lithos"", meaning ""stone""), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material ""lithium"". Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite. In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame. However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the"
"""Lecanora tartarea"" (Norway, Sweden), ""Variolaria dealbata"", ""Ochrolechia parella"", ""Parmotrema tinctorum"", and ""Parmelia"". Currently, the main sources are ""Roccella montagnei"" (Mozambique) and ""Dendrographa leucophoea"" (California). The main use of litmus is to test whether a solution is acidic or basic. Wet litmus paper can also be used to test for water-soluble gases that affect acidity or alkalinity; the gas dissolves in the water and the resulting solution colors the litmus paper. For instance, ammonia gas, which is alkaline, turn the red litmus paper blue. Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and red litmus paper turns blue under basic or"
"Lepidolite Lepidolite is a lilac-gray or rose-colored member of the mica group of minerals with formula K(Li,Al,Rb)(Al,Si)O(F,OH). It is the most abundant lithium-bearing mineral and is a secondary source of this metal. It is a phyllosilicate mineral and a member of the polylithionite-trilithionite series. It is associated with other lithium-bearing minerals like spodumene in pegmatite bodies. It is one of the major sources of the rare alkali metals rubidium and caesium. In 1861, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff extracted of lepidolite and yielded a few grams of rubidium salts for analysis, and therefore discovered the new element rubidium. It occurs"
"Lime (material) Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic mineral in which oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict sense of the term, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word ""lime"" originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of ""sticking or adhering"". These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials (including limestone products, cement, concrete, and mortar), as chemical feedstocks, and"
"cabbage, to form a crude pH indicator is a popular introductory chemistry demonstration. Litmus, used by alchemists in the Middle Ages and still readily available, is a naturally occurring pH indicator made from a mixture of lichen species, particularly ""Roccella tinctoria"". The word ""litmus"" is literally from 'colored moss' in Old Norse (see Litr). The color changes between red in acid solutions and blue in alkalis. The term 'litmus test' has become a widely used metaphor for any test that purports to distinguish authoritatively between alternatives. ""Hydrangea macrophylla"" flowers can change color depending on soil acidity. In acid soils, chemical"
"mortar and volcanic tuff were packed into wooden forms. The seawater instantly triggered an exothermic chemical reaction. The lime was hydrated – incorporating water molecules into its structure – and reacted with the ash to cement the whole mixture together. Lime (material) Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic mineral in which oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict sense of the term, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word ""lime"""
"Lithosphere A lithosphere ( [""lithos""] for ""rocky"", and [""sphaira""] for ""sphere"") is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet, or natural satellite, that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy. The study of past and current formations of landscapes is called geomorphology. Earth's lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute"
"dissolution in hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acids"". It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores, orbicules, dinocysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments. Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with siliceous or calcareous exoskeletons. Palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science (geology or geological science) and biological science (biology), particularly plant science (botany). Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene. The earliest reported observations"
"Lithium oxide Lithium oxide (O) or lithia is an inorganic chemical compound. It is a white solid. Although not specifically important, many materials are assessed on the basis of their LiO content. For example, the LiO content of the principal lithium mineral spodumene (LiAlSiO) is 8.03%. Lithium oxide is produced by thermal dehydration of lithium hydroxide. Lithium oxide forms along with small amounts of lithium peroxide when lithium metal is burned in the air and combines with oxygen: Pure can be produced by the thermal decomposition of lithium peroxide, , at 450 °C In the solid state lithium oxide adopts"
"Paleolimnology Paleolimnology (=old, ""limne""=lake, ""logos""=study) is a scientific subdiscipline closely related to both limnology and paleoecology. Palaeolimnological studies are concerned with reconstructing the paleoenvironments of inland waters (lakes and streams; freshwater, brackish, or saline) – and especially changes associated with such events as climatic change, human impacts (e.g., eutrophication, or acidification), and internal ontogenic processes. Paleolimnological studies are commonly based on meticulous analyses of sediment cores, including the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of sediments, and diverse biological records (e.g., fossil diatoms, cladocera, ostracodes, molluscs, pollen, pigments, or chironomids). One of the primary sources for recent paleolimnological research is the"
"sorts them into several energy windows. The number of high-energy gamma rays is controlled by compton scattering, hence by formation density. The number of low-energy gamma rays is controlled by photoelectric absorption, which is directly related to the average atomic number, Z, of the formation, hence to lithology. Modern density logging tools include two or three detectors, which allow compensation for some borehole effects, in particular for the presence of mud cake between the tool and the formation. Since there is a large contrast between the density of the minerals in the formation and the density of pore fluids, porosity"
"Lithic analysis In archaeology, lithic analysis is the analysis of stone tools and other chipped stone artifacts using basic scientific techniques. At its most basic level, lithic analyses involve an analysis of the artifact’s morphology, the measurement of various physical attributes, and examining other visible features (such as noting the presence or absence of cortex, for example). The term 'lithic analysis' can technically refer to the study of any anthropogenic (human-created) stone, but in its usual sense it is applied to archaeological material that was produced through lithic reduction (knapping) or ground stone. A thorough understanding of the lithic reduction"
"Bryology Bryology (from Greek , a moss, a liverwort) is the branch of botany concerned with the scientific study of bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts). Bryologists are people who have an active interest in observing, recording, classifying or researching bryophytes. The field is often studied along with lichenology due to the similar appearance and ecological niche of the two organisms, even though bryophytes and lichens are not classified in the same kingdom. Bryophytes were first studied in detail in the 18th century. The German botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius (1687–1747) was a professor at Oxford and in 1717 produced the work"
"Garden. Bryology Bryology (from Greek , a moss, a liverwort) is the branch of botany concerned with the scientific study of bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts). Bryologists are people who have an active interest in observing, recording, classifying or researching bryophytes. The field is often studied along with lichenology due to the similar appearance and ecological niche of the two organisms, even though bryophytes and lichens are not classified in the same kingdom. Bryophytes were first studied in detail in the 18th century. The German botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius (1687–1747) was a professor at Oxford and in 1717 produced the"
"the lithification of these buried smaller fragments (clastic sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living organisms (biogenic sedimentary rock - fossils), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to evaporation (precipitate sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as erosion or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types. In 1967, J. Tuzo Wilson published an article in Nature describing the"
"of rock strata. Formations were at first described as the essential geologic time markers, based on their relative ages and the law of superposition. The divisions of the geological time scale were described and put in chronological order by the geologists and stratigraphers of the 18th and 19th centuries. The lithology of a rock is a description of its readily visible physical characteristics. Modern geology prefers to use lithology, that it an examination of the visible features of the component rocks, to identify discrete formations. Geologic formations are divided into the broad categories of: sedimentary rock layers; metamorphic rocks; and"
"Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ""pedon"", ""soil""; and λόγος, ""logos"", ""study"") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification, while edaphology studies the way soils influence plants, fungi, and other living things. Soil is not only a support for vegetation, but it is also the pedosphere, the locus of numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals) and its residues, the mineral material of the original and added rock, and its position"