"that they deliver the right amount of radiation to the cancer in a shorter amount of time than traditional treatments, which can often take 6 to 11 weeks. Plus treatments are given with extreme accuracy, which should limit the effect of the radiation on healthy tissues. One problem with stereotactic treatments is that they are only suitable for certain small tumors. Stereotactic treatments can be confusing because many hospitals call the treatments by the name of the manufacturer rather than calling it SRS or SBRT. Brand names for these treatments include Axesse, Cyberknife, Gamma Knife, Novalis, Primatom, Synergy, X-Knife, TomoTherapy,"
"Mössbauer spectroscopy Mössbauer spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on the Mössbauer effect. This effect, discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer (also Moessbauer, German: ""Mößbauer"") in 1958, consists in the nearly recoil-free, resonant absorption and emission of gamma rays in solids. Like nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy probes tiny changes in the energy levels of an atomic nucleus in response to its environment. Typically, three types of nuclear interactions may be observed: isomer shift, also called chemical shift in the older literature; quadrupole splitting; and magnetic hyperfine splitting (see also the Zeeman effect). Due to the high energy and extremely narrow"
"Mössbauer effect The Mössbauer effect, or recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence, is a physical phenomenon discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer in 1958. It involves the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid. Its main application is in Mössbauer spectroscopy. In the Mössbauer effect, a narrow resonance for nuclear gamma emission and absorption results from the momentum of recoil being delivered to a surrounding crystal lattice rather than to the emitting or absorbing nucleus alone. When this occurs, no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic energy of recoiling nuclei at either the emitting"
"Physics in 1961 together with Robert Hofstadter's research of electron scattering in atomic nuclei. The Mössbauer Effect is a process in which a nucleus emits or absorbs gamma rays without loss of energy to a nuclear recoil. It was discovered by the German physicist Rudolf L. Mössbauer in 1958 and has proved to be remarkably useful for basic research in physics and chemistry. It has been used, for instance, in precisely measuring small energy changes in nuclei, atoms, and crystals induced by electrical, magnetic, or gravitational fields. In a transition of a nucleus from a higher to a lower energy"
"Rudolf Mössbauer Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (German spelling: ""Mößbauer""; 31 January 1929 – 14 September 2011) was a German physicist best known for his 1957 discovery of ""recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence"" for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. This effect, called the Mössbauer effect, is the basis for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Mössbauer was born in Munich, where he also studied physics at the Technical University of Munich. He prepared his Diplom thesis in the Laboratory of Applied Physics of Heinz Maier-Leibnitz and graduated in 1955. He then went to the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg."
"between a nucleus and its electrons and those of its neighbors. This is the basis for Mössbauer spectroscopy, which combines the Mössbauer effect with the Doppler effect to monitor such interactions. Zero-phonon optical transitions, a process closely analogous to the Mössbauer effect, can be observed in lattice-bound chromophores at low temperatures. Mössbauer effect The Mössbauer effect, or recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence, is a physical phenomenon discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer in 1958. It involves the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid. Its main application is in Mössbauer spectroscopy. In the Mössbauer"
"and absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only Ir. This phenomenon, known as the Mössbauer effect (which has since been observed for other nuclei, such as Fe), and developed as Mössbauer spectroscopy, has made important contributions to research in physics, chemistry, biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy. Mössbauer received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, at the age 32, just three years after he published his discovery. In 1986 Rudolf Mössbauer was honored for his achievements with the Albert Einstein Medal and the Elliot Cresson Medal. Iridium is one of the nine least abundant stable"
"Since this institute, not being part of a university, had no right to award a doctorate, Mössbauer remained under the auspices of Maier-Leibnitz, who was his official thesis advisor when he passed his PhD exam in Munich in 1958. In his PhD work, he discovered ""recoilless nuclear fluorescence of gamma rays in 191 iridium,"" the Mössbauer effect. His fame grew immensely in 1960 when Robert Pound and Glen Rebka used this effect to prove the red shift of gamma radiation in the gravitational field of the Earth; this Pound–Rebka experiment was one of the first experimental precision tests of Albert"
"of solid iridium, which raised the question of why gamma-ray resonance was possible in solids, but not in gases. Mössbauer proposed that, for the case of atoms bound into a solid, under certain circumstances a fraction of the nuclear events could occur essentially without recoil. He attributed the observed resonance to this recoil-free fraction of nuclear events. The Mössbauer effect was one of the last major discoveries in physics to be originally reported in the German language. The first report in English was a letter describing a repetition of the experiment. The discovery was rewarded with the Nobel Prize in"
"or absorbing end of a gamma transition: emission and absorption occur at the same energy, resulting in strong, resonant absorption. The emission and absorption of X-rays by gases had been observed previously, and it was expected that a similar phenomenon would be found for gamma rays, which are created by nuclear transitions (as opposed to X-rays, which are typically produced by electronic transitions). However, attempts to observe nuclear resonance produced by gamma-rays in gases failed due to energy being lost to recoil, preventing resonance (the Doppler effect also broadens the gamma-ray spectrum). Mössbauer was able to observe resonance in nuclei"
"Among the drawbacks of the technique are the limited number of gamma ray sources and the requirement that samples be solid in order to eliminate the recoil of the nucleus. Mössbauer spectroscopy is unique in its sensitivity to subtle changes in the chemical environment of the nucleus including oxidation state changes, the effect of different ligands on a particular atom, and the magnetic environment of the sample. As an analytical tool Mössbauer spectroscopy has been especially useful in the field of geology for identifying the composition of iron-containing specimens including meteors and moon rocks. ""In situ"" data collection of Mössbauer"
"convenient half-life. Also, the gamma-ray energy should be relatively low, otherwise the system will have a low recoil-free fraction resulting in a poor signal-to-noise ratio and requiring long collection times. The periodic table below indicates those elements having an isotope suitable for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Of these, Fe is by far the most common element studied using the technique, although I, Sn, and Sb are also frequently studied. As described above, Mössbauer spectroscopy has an extremely fine energy resolution and can detect even subtle changes in the nuclear environment of the relevant atoms. Typically, there are three types of nuclear interactions"
"Mössbauer rotor experiments. From a source in the middle of a rotating disk, gamma rays are sent to an absorber at the rim (in some variations this scheme was reversed), and a stationary counter was placed beyond the absorber. According to relativity, the characteristic resonance absorption frequency of the moving absorber at the rim should decrease due to time dilation, so the transmission of gamma rays through the absorber increases, which is subsequently measured by the stationary counter beyond the absorber. This effect was actually observed using the Mössbauer effect. The maximal deviation from time dilation was 10, thus the"
"line widths of gamma rays, Mössbauer spectroscopy is a very sensitive technique in terms of energy (and hence frequency) resolution, capable of detecting changes in just a few parts per 10. Just as a gun recoils when a bullet is fired, conservation of momentum requires a nucleus (such as in a gas) to recoil during emission or absorption of a gamma ray. If a nucleus at rest ""emits"" a gamma ray, the energy of the gamma ray is slightly ""less"" than the natural energy of the transition, but in order for a nucleus at rest to ""absorb"" a gamma ray,"
"isomer and recoil from gamma-ray emission, in which the emission spectrum is both shifted and broadened. Isomers in solids can emit a sharp component superimposed on the Doppler-broadened background; this is called the Mössbauer effect. This recoilless radiation exhibits a sharp line on top of the Doppler-broadened background that is only slightly shifted from the center of the background. With the inhomogeneous background removed, and a sharp line, it would seem that we have the conditions for gain. But other difficulties that would degrade gain are unexcited states that would resonantly absorb the radiation, opaque impurities, and loss in propagation"
"Meissner effect The Meissner effect (or Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered this phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples. The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below their superconducting transition temperature, whereupon the samples cancelled nearly all interior magnetic fields. They detected this effect only indirectly because the magnetic flux is conserved by a superconductor: when the interior field decreases, the exterior field increases."
"state with accompanying emission of gamma rays, the emission generally causes the nucleus to recoil, and this takes energy from the emitted gamma rays. Thus the gamma rays do not have sufficient energy to excite a target nucleus to be examined. However, Mössbauer discovered that it is possible to have transitions in which the recoil is absorbed by a whole crystal in which the emitting nucleus is bound. Under these circumstances, the energy that goes into the recoil is a negligible portion of the energy of the transition. Therefore, the emitted gamma rays carry virtually all of the energy liberated"
"latter case, the atom is left in an ‘excited’ state with a hole in an inner shell; the energy excess is given away with emission of Auger electrons and/or X-rays. Thus, the electrons emitted from the sample as a consequence of the Mössbauer absorptions are: (a) primary (IC or Auger) electrons originated in the de-excitations of the nuclei excited by the incident beam, and (b) secondary electrons originated by conventional interactions of photons (or resonant absorption of gamma rays) emitted after resonant absorptions. Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy (CEMS) is a Mössbauer spectroscopy technique based on conversion"
"designing the ""Deutsches Atomprogramm"" (German Nuclear Program). From this position, he became the architect of the first full-scale nuclear program of the FRG. In 1961, became an ""ordentlicher Professor"" (professor ordinarius) of technical physics at the ""Technische Hochschule München"". Also in 1961, Rudolf L. Mößbauer, a former student of Maier-Leibnitz at ""Technische Hochschule München"", received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation in solids known as the Mößbauer Effect, which led to numerous applications in solid state physics, chemistry, biophysics, medicine and archeology. Maier-Leibnitz, along with his colleagues Wilhelm Brenig, Nikolaus"
"with the theoretical value of 1/2. Other direct tests of the TDE on rotating platforms were made possible by the discovery of the Mössbauer effect, which enables the production of exceedingly narrow resonance lines for nuclear gamma ray emission and absorption. Mössbauer effect experiments have proven themselves easily capable of detecting TDE using emitter-absorber relative velocities on the order of 2×10 cm/s. These experiments include ones performed by Hay ""et al."" (1960), Champeney ""et al."" (1965), and Kündig (1963). The transverse Doppler effect and the kinematic time dilation of special relativity are closely related. All validations of TDE represent validations"
"Mössbauer effect, the isomeric shift constitutes at present a unique tool in many other fields, besides physics. According to the nuclear shell model there exists a class of isomers for which, in a first approximation, it is sufficient to consider one single nucleon, called the ""optical"" nucleon, to get an estimate of the difference between the charge distributions of the two isomer states, the rest of the nucleons being ""filtered out"". This applies in particular for isomers in odd proton-even neutron nuclei, near closed shells. Indium In115, for which the effect was calculated in, is such an example. The result"
"Einstein's general theory of relativity. The long-term importance of the Mössbauer effect, however, is its use in Mössbauer spectroscopy. Along with Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Mössbauer was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. On the suggestion of Richard Feynman, Mössbauer was invited in 1960 to Caltech in USA, where he advanced rapidly from Research Fellow to Senior Research Fellow; he was appointed a full professor of physics in early 1962. In 1964, his alma mater, the Technical University of Munich (TUM), convinced him to go back as a full professor. He retained this position until he became professor emeritus in"
"quite precisely by its resonant frequency. Electron paramagnetic resonance, otherwise known as ""Electron Spin Resonance"" (ESR) is a spectroscopic technique similar to NMR, but uses unpaired electrons instead. Materials for which this can be applied are much more limited since the material needs to both have an unpaired spin and be paramagnetic. The Mössbauer effect is the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma ray photons by atoms bound in a solid form. Resonance in particle physics appears in similar circumstances to classical physics at the level of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. However, they can also be"
"is difficult to find clocks (to measure time dilation) or sources of electromagnetic radiation (to measure redshift) with a frequency that is known well enough that the effect can be accurately measured. It was confirmed experimentally for the first time in 1959 using measurements of the change in wavelength of gamma-ray photons generated with the Mössbauer effect, which generates radiation with a very narrow line width. The Pound–Rebka experiment measured the relative redshift of two sources situated at the top and bottom of Harvard University's Jefferson tower. The result was in excellent agreement with general relativity. This was one of"
"gamma ray spectra. Gamma spectroscopy is the study of the energetic transitions in atomic nuclei, which are generally associated with the absorption or emission of gamma rays. As in optical spectroscopy (see Franck–Condon effect) the absorption of gamma rays by a nucleus is especially likely (i.e., peaks in a ""resonance"") when the energy of the gamma ray is the same as that of an energy transition in the nucleus. In the case of gamma rays, such a resonance is seen in the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy. In the Mössbauer effect the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma absorption can be"
"the masses of the electroweak and gauge particles in high-energy physics. The length formula_4 is identical with the London penetration depth in the theory of superconductivity. Meissner effect The Meissner effect (or Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered this phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples. The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below their superconducting transition temperature, whereupon the samples cancelled nearly all interior"
"of postdoctoral work when she measured the products of nuclear reactions between lithium isotopes and those of beryllium and boron; research which laid foundations for future heavy ion investigation. Subsequently her work focused on Mössbauer spectroscopy; she was engaged in pioneering research on the Mössbauer effect and was part of the team which succeeded in verifying the Mössbauer effect. She later established Mössbauer-effect research facilities at Illinois Institute of Technology and at IIT Research Institute. Turning her focus to geological applications of the effect, Herzenberg concluded that it would be possible to analyze rocks and minerals retrieved from the Moon"
"be resonantly absorbed by a sample containing nuclei of the same isotope, and this absorption can be measured. The recoil fraction of the Mössbauer absorption is analyzed by nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy. In its most common form, Mössbauer absorption spectroscopy, a solid sample is exposed to a beam of gamma radiation, and a detector measures the intensity of the beam transmitted through the sample. The atoms in the source emitting the gamma rays must be of the same isotope as the atoms in the sample absorbing them. If the emitting and absorbing nuclei were in identical chemical environments, the nuclear"
"synchrotron-generated X-rays, centered at the Mössbauer absorbance frequency. Stokes and anti-Stokes peaks in the spectrum correspond to low frequency vibrations, many below 600 cm with some below 100 cm. A Mössbauer spectrometer is a device that performs Mössbauer spectroscopy, or a device that uses the Mössbauer effect to determine the chemical environment of Mössbauer nuclei present in the sample. It is formed by three main parts; a source that moves back and forth to generate a Doppler effect, a collimator that filters out non-parallel gamma rays and a detector. A miniature Mössbauer Spectrometer, named (MB) MIMOS II, was used by"
"Hans Mögel (1900-1944) in 1930. The fadeouts are characterized by sudden onset and a recovery that takes minutes or hours. When a solar flare occurs on the Sun a blast of intense ultraviolet (UV) and x-ray (sometimes even gamma ray) radiation hits the dayside of the Earth after a propagation time of about 8 minutes. This high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states and knocking electrons free in the process of photoionization. The low altitude ionospheric layers (D region and E region) immediately increase in density over the entire dayside. The ionospheric disturbance enhances"
"first nuclear experimentalist measuring very long lived radionuclides as well as extremely short lived nuclear states. In the early sixties his interests shifted to the newly discovered Mossbauer effect, and established a research group which turned Jerusalem into a world center in this field. Many graduates of the Racah Institute (and the physics departments which preceded it) became leading professors and scientists (including a Nobel Laureate) in Israel and all over the world. During its existence the Institute enjoyed visits of many important physicists from all over the world. Niels Bohr, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Robert Oppenheimer, John Wheeler and"
"above that the level increased considerably, with the radiation detected at 5 km being about twice that at sea level. His conclusion was that there was radiation penetrating the atmosphere from outer space, and his discovery was confirmed by Robert Andrews Millikan in 1925, who gave the radiation the name ""cosmic rays"". Hess's discovery opened the door to many new discoveries in particle and nuclear physics. In particular, both the positron and the muon were first discovered in cosmic rays by Carl David Anderson. Hess and Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics. Victor Francis Hess Victor Franz Hess"
"observed in two ways: Measuring the Zeeman splitting in an atom, or measuring the Zeeman splitting in the excited nuclear state of using the Mössbauer effect. Vernon W. Hughes ""et al."" (1960) and Ronald Drever (1961) independently conducted similar spectroscopic experiments to test Mach's principle. However, they didn't use the Mössbauer effect but made magnetic resonance measurements of the nucleus of lithium-7, whose ground state possesses a spin of . The ground state is split into four equally spaced magnetic energy levels when measured in a magnetic field in accordance with its allowed magnetic quantum number. The nuclear wave functions"