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Qutb Minar
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Qutub Minar
Qutub Minar in Delhi, India
Coordinates
Coordinates: 28°31′28″N 77°11′07″E / 28.524355°N 77.185248°E / 28.524355; 77.185248
Height
73 metres (240 ft)
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type
Cultural
Criteria
4
Designated
1993 (17th session)
Reference no.
233
Country
India
Continent
Asia
Construction
Started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak / completed by his son-in-law Iltutmish
Location of Qutub Minar in India
The Qutub Minar, also spelled as Qutab Minar, or Qutb Minar, is the tallest minaret in the world made up of bricks. The minaret forms a part of the Qutab complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mehrauli area of Delhi, India.[1][2] Qutub Minar is a 73-metre (239.5 feet) tall tapering tower of five storeys, with a 14.3 metres (47 feet) base diameter, reducing to 2.7 metres (9 feet) at the top of the peak.[3] It contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps.[4] Its design is thought to have been based on the Minaret of Jam, in western Afghanistan.
Qutab-Ud-Din-Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, started construction of the Qutub Minar's first storey around 1192. In 1220, Aibak's successor and son-in-law Shamsuddin Iltutmish completed a further three storeys. In 1369, a lightning strike destroyed the top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the damaged storey, and added one more. Sher Shah Suri also added an entrance to this tower while he was ruling and Humayun was in exile.[5]
The Minar is surrounded by several historically significant monuments of the Qutab complex, including Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque, which was built at the same time as the Minar, and the much older Iron Pillar of Delhi.[1] The nearby pillared Cupola known as "Smith's Folly" is a remnant of the tower's 19th century restoration, which included an ill-advised attempt to add some more stories.
Contents
1 History
2 Architecture
3 Accident
4 In literature
5 In popular culture
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
Kuttull Minor, Delhi. The Qutab Minar, 1805
Qutab Minar in Mehrauli in Delhi. Clifton and Co., around 1890
Qutab Minar was established along with Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque around 1192 by Qutab-ud-din Aibak, first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.[4] The mosque complex is one of the earliest that survives in the Indian subcontinent.[6][7] The minaret is named after Qutab-ud-din Aibak, or Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, a Sufi saint.[8] Its ground storey was built over the ruins of the Lal Kot, the citadel of Dhillika.[9] Aibak's successor Iltutmish added three more storeys.[8] The minar's topmost storey was damaged by lightning in 1369 and was rebuilt by Firuz Shah Tughlaq, who added another storey. In 1505, an earthquake damaged Qutub Minar; it was repaired by Sikander Lodi. On 1 September 1803, a major earthquake caused serious damage. Major Robert Smith of the British Indian Army renovated the tower in 1828 and installed a pillared cupola over the fifth story, thus creating a sixth. The cupola was taken down in 1848, under instructions from The Viscount Hardinge, then Governor General of India. It was reinstalled at ground level to the east of Qutab Minar, where it remains. It is known as "Smith's Folly".[10]
Architecture[edit]
The tower's style is patterned on Afghanistan's Minaret of Jam, and adapted to local artistic conventions by the incorporation of "looped bells and garlands and lotus borders into the carving".[11] Numerous inscriptions in Parso-Arabic and Nagari characters in different sections of the Qutab Minar reveal the history of its construction, and the later restorations and repairs by Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351–89) and Sikandar Lodi[12] (1489–1517).
The tower has five superposed, tapering storeys. The lowest three comprise fluted cylindrical shafts or columns of pale red sandstone, separated by flanges and by storeyed balconies, carried on Muqarnas corbels. The fourth column is of marble, and is relatively plain. The fifth is of marble and sandstone. The flanges are a darker red sandstone throughout, and are engraved with Quranic texts and decorative elements. The whole tower contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps.[4] At the foot of the tower is the Quwat ul Islam Mosque. The minar tilts just over 65 cm from the vertical, which is considered to be within safe limits, although experts have stated that monitoring is needed in case rainwater seepage further weakens the foundation.[13]
Accident[edit]
Before 1974, the general public was allowed access to the top of the minaret, via the internal staircase. On 4 December 1981, the staircase lighting failed. Between 300 and 400 visitors stampeded towards the exit, and 47 were killed in the crush and some were injured. Most of these were school children.[14] Since then, the tower has been closed to the public.[15]
In literature[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
'The Cootub Minah, Delhi',
a poem by L. E. L.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem The Cootub Minah, Delhi is a reflection on an engraving in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1833.
In popular culture[edit]
Bollywood actor and director Dev Anand wanted to shoot the song "Dil Ka Bhanwar Kare Pukar" from his film Tere Ghar Ke Samne inside the Minar. However, the cameras in that era were too big to fit inside the tower's narrow passage, and therefore the song was shot inside a replica of the Qutub Minar[16] The site served as the pit stop of the second leg of the second series of The Amazing race Australia.
A picture of the minaret is featured on the travel cards issued by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. A recently launched start-up in collaboration with the Archaeological survey of India has made a 360o walkthrough of Qutab Minar available.[17]
Gallery[edit]
The Minar in context: Alai Darwaza (left), Imam Zamin's tomb (right), Qutb Minar (back)
Entrance to Minar
Calligraphy on upper-base section
Decorative motifs on upper levels
Close-up of balcony
Minar in dark views
Smith's cupola (foreground, right), with the Tomb of Imam Zamin, Alai Darwaza, and Qutb Minar in background
Plaque at Minar
See also[edit]
Red Fort
Agra Fort
Chand Minar
Taj Mahal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "WHC list". who.unesco.org. 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Singh (2010). Longman History & Civics ICSE 7. Pearson Education India. p. 42. ISBN 978-81-317-2887-1. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Qutb Minar Height". qutubminardelhi.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Qutub Minar
Jump up ^ "Qutub Minar". qutubminardelhi.com. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque". qutubminardelhi.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Ali Javid; ʻAlī Jāvīd; Tabassum Javeed (July 1, 2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Google Books. pp. 14, 105, 107, 130. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Qutub Minar Height". qutubminardelhi.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Ali Javid; ʻAlī Jāvīd; Tabassum Javeed (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Google Books. pp. 14, 105, 10T7, 130. ISBN 9780875864822. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Qutub Minar and Smiths Folly - an architectural disaster.", Wordpress.
Jump up ^ "Index 1200-1299: Qutb ud-Din Aibak and the Qubbat ul-Islam mosque.", Columbia University
Jump up ^ Plaque at Qutub Minar
Jump up ^ Verma, Richi (24 January 2009). "Qutb Minar tilting due to seepage: Experts". The Times of India. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Around the World; 45 Killed in Stampede At Monument in India". The New York Times. 5 December 1981. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Khandekar, Nivedita (4 December 2012). "31 yrs after tragedy, Qutub Minar's doors remain shut". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Mehul S Thakkar, Mumbai Mirror 22 Nov 2011, IST (22 November 2011). "30 years later, Qutub ready to face the camera — Times of India". Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 26 September 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Qutub Minar in MEHRAULI, Delhi - 360-degree view on WoNoBo.com". Places.wonobo.com. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
Further reading[edit]
Ali Javid (July 1, 2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India (Full Set Bound in 2 Volumes). Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0875864822.
External links[edit]
Media related to Qutb Minar at Wikimedia Commons
Qutub Minar
Archaeological Survey of India | Qutab Minar and its Monuments, Delhi
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text:
Seat belt legislation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Seat belt legislation requires the fitting of seat belts to motor vehicles and the wearing of seat belts by motor vehicle occupants. Laws requiring the fitting of seat belts to cars have in some cases been followed by laws mandating their use, with the effect that thousands of deaths on the road have been prevented. Different laws apply in different countries to the wearing of seat belts.
Contents
[hide]
1 National comparisons
1.1 Australia
1.2 Canada
1.3 United Kingdom
1.4 United States
1.5 Developing countries
2 Effects
3 Opposition
3.1 Risk compensation and other theories
3.2 Individual liberty
3.3 Side-effects of seat belts
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References and further reading
National comparisons[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, after the introduction of mandatory front outboard mounting points in 1964, the use of seat belts by all vehicle passengers was made compulsory in the states of Victoria and South Australia in 1970 and 1971, respectively.[1] By 1973, the use of fitted seat belts by vehicle occupants was made compulsory for the rest of Australia and some other countries during the 1970s and 1980s. The subsequent dramatic decline in road deaths is generally because of seat belt laws and subsequent road safety campaigns.[2][3][4] Seat belts are not required for bus occupants, reversing drivers, and those driving some slow moving vehicles. The laws for these differ depending on the state or territory with jurisdiction.
Canada[edit]
Main article: Seat belt legislation in Canada
All provinces in Canada have primary enforcement seat belt laws. In 1976, Ontario was the first province to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts.[5]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, seat belts must be worn at all times if they are fitted to a vehicle unless reversing. Passengers may be exempt from wearing a seat belt for different reasons. Since September 18, 2006, children travelling in the UK must also use an appropriate child seat in addition to the standard seat belt, unless they are 12 years old and/or have reached at least 135 centimetres (53 in) in height.[6]
In the UK, a requirement for anchorage points was introduced in 1965, followed by the requirement in 1968 to fit three-point belts in the front outboard positions on all new cars and all existing cars back to 1965.[citation needed] Successive UK Governments proposed, but failed to deliver, seat belt legislation throughout the 1970s. Front seat belts were compulsory equipment on all new cars registered in the UK from 1972, although it did not become compulsory for them to be worn until 1983. Rear seat belts were compulsory equipment from 1986. However, it has never been a legal requirement for cars registered before those dates to be fitted with seat belts.[7] In one such attempt in 1979 similar claims for potential lives and injuries saved were advanced. William Rodgers, then Secretary of State for Transport in the Callaghan Labour Government (1976–1979), stated: "On the best available evidence of accidents in this country - evidence which has not been seriously contested - compulsion could save up to 1000 lives and 10,000 injuries a year."[8]
United States[edit]
Main article: Seat belt legislation in the United States
Seat belt use by type of law in the US, 2008
In the United States, seat belt legislation varies by state. The state of Wisconsin introduced legislation in 1961 requiring seat belts to be fitted to the front outboard seat positions of cars.[9] Seat belts have been mandatory equipment since the 1968 model year per Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208.
New York State passed the first law in the US mandating the use of seat belts in 1984 under the leadership of John D. States, an orthopedic surgeon who dedicated his career to improving automotive safety.[10] Depending on which state a driver is in, not wearing a seat belt in the front seat is either a primary offense or a secondary offense, with the exception of New Hampshire, which does not have a law requiring people over age 18 to wear a seat belt. In the front seat, the driver and each passenger must wear a seat belt, one person per belt. In some states, such as New York, New Hampshire, and Michigan, belts in the rear seats are not mandatory for people over the age of 16, though it is extremely advised. The driver and front-seat passengers aged 16 or older can be fined up to $50 each for failure to buckle up. In California, you must be 15 years or older to accompany the driver in the front seat. Children 14 and younger must sit in the rear seat until they reach the age of 15.Template:DMV.org
Seat belt use by sex, age, and type of law in the US, 2008
A primary offense means that a police officer can pull a driver over for the seat belt law violation alone, and secondary offense indicates that one can be punished for a seat belt law violation only if they are already pulled over for another reason. By January 2007 25 states and the District of Columbia had primary seat belt laws, 24 had secondary seat belt laws, and New Hampshire had no laws.[11] In 2009, Public Health Law Research published several evidence briefs summarizing the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. One stated, "Safety belt laws work, but there is strong evidence to support that primary enforcement safety belt laws are more effective than secondary enforcement laws in increasing seat belt use and reducing crash injuries."[12]
Another found that "there is strong evidence that enhanced seat belt enforcement interventions can substantially increase seat belt use and its associated benefits."[13]
Developing countries[edit]
In many developing countries, pedestrians, cyclists, rickshaw operators and moped users represent the majority of road users.
In India, all cars manufactured after March 25, 1994 are equipped with front seat belts. The rule was extended for rear seats in 2002. The usage of seat belts is to be implemented by the respective states, with most states making seat belt usage for front seat passengers mandatory in 2002. Older vehicles that did not originally have seat belts were exempted. However, enforcement is weak in most parts of the country.
In Indonesia, belts are only mandatory for front seats. Many low entry car models are not equipped with rear seat belts.[14]
In Malaysia, the first stage of safety belt laws was implemented in 1979. This was expanded in January 2009 to include rear passengers. Passenger vehicles registered prior to January 1, 1995, and those weighing more than 3.5 tons are exempted from this rule. The third and fourth stages, which will deal with baby and child seats and the number of passengers in a vehicle, have not taken effect.[15]
In the Philippines, a seat belt law, Republic Act No. 8750, was approved in August 5, 1999. The law took effect in 2000 and requires all public and private vehicles, except motorcycles and tricycles, to have their front seats equipped with seat belts. Front seats as defined by the law includes the first row of seats behind the driver for public utility buses. Those below the age of six are prohibited to occupy the front seats of motor vehicles even if wearing a seat belt. Jeepneys are only required lap belts for the front seat passengers and the driver.[16][17]
The table below gives an overview of when seat belt legislation was first introduced in different countries. It includes both regional and national legislation.
Country
Compulsory wearing
Compulsory fitting
Source
Cars
Bus passengers
Cars
Buses
Driver
Front passengers
Rear passengers
Argentina 1994 1994 1994 (First row only, all in school buses) [18]
Australia 1970 (Victoria) 1971 (NSW) 1972 (national) 1986 (child restraints) 1969, 1970 (back seat, Victoria) 1971 (back seat) 1983 (≤3.5 tonnes) [19][20]
Canada 1976
Czech Republic 1966 (outside cities)
1990 (all) 1976
1990 2004 1968 [21]
European Union 1993 [22]
Finland 1975 1982 1987 2006
France 1973 (outside cities), 1975 (cities at night), 1979 (all) 1990 2003 1967, 1978 (back seat) 2003 [22]
[23]
Germany 1976 1984 1999 1970, 1979 (back seat) 1999 Angurtpflicht
Hungary 1976 1993 [19]
Hong Kong 1983 1983 1996 2004 (minibuses) 1996 (back seat) 2004 (minibuses)
[24]
India 1994 (front seats), 2002 (rear seats)
Ireland 1979 1992 1971 (front seats), 1992 (rear seats) [25]
Italy 1989 1990 (where available)‡ 2006‡ 1988 (new vehicles); 1989 (all*, front seats); 1990 (new vehicles, back seats); 2000 (all*, back seats) 2006 [26]
Japan 1971† (1985) 1971 (no fines), 1985 (fines on freeway), 1993 (all) 2008 2008 1969 [22]
Myanmar 2017 2017 2017 2016 (motorway buses enforced)
Netherlands 1976 1992 1975 (front) 1990 (rear)
New Zealand 1972 1972 (15 years and over), 1979 (8 years and over) 1989♣ 1972 (vehicles registered after 1965), 1975 (after 1955) [27]
Philippines 2000 (those below 6 years prohibited to occupy front seats) 2000 (first row beside the driver's seat only) 2000 [28]
Singapore 1973 1973 1993 2008 (small buses) 1973
Spain 1975
Sri Lanka 2011 2011
Sweden 1975 1986 1969 (front) 1970 (rear) 2004 [22][29]
Thailand 1996 2009
United Kingdom 1983 1991 2006 1967 (front) 1987 (rear) [30]
United States 1984 (New York; seat belt use law is jurisdiction of individual states) Wisconsin, 1961. Federally, front lap 1965 model year; front shoulder & rear lap 1968; 3-point front 1974 [22]
* - actually only vehicles registered after 15 June 1976; in previous registered vehicles fitting is optional
† - required by the law, but no penalty for violation at the time
‡ - required by the law, but low enforcement
♣ - definitely introduced by this date, possibly earlier
Effects[edit]
Lives saved by seat belts and airbags in the United States (1991–2001)
Studies by road safety authorities conclude that seat belt legislation has reduced the number of casualties in road accidents.
Experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers also indicated that wearing seat belts should lead to reduced risk of death and injury in car crashes.
Studies of accident outcomes suggest that fatality rates among car occupants are reduced by between 30 and 50 percent if seat belts are worn. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that death risks for a driver wearing a lap-shoulder seat belt are reduced by 48 percent. The same study indicated that in 2007, an estimated 15,147 lives were saved by seat belts in the United States and that if seat belt use were increased to 100 percent, an additional 5024 lives would have been saved.[31]
An earlier statistical analysis by the NHTSA claimed that seat belts save over 10,000 lives every year in the US.[32]
According to a more recent fact sheet produced by the NHTSA:
"In 2012, seat belts saved an estimated 12,174 lives among passenger vehicle occupants 5 and older. [...] Research has found that lap/shoulder seat belts, when used, reduce the risk of fatal injury to front-seat passenger car occupants by 45% and the risk of moderate-to-critical injury by 50%. [...] Research on the effectiveness of child safety seats has found them to reduce the risk of fatal injury by 71% for infants (younger than 1 year old) and by 54% for toddlers (1 to 4 years old) in passenger cars." [33]
By 2009, despite large increases in population and the number of vehicles, road deaths in Victoria had fallen below 300, less than a third of the 1970 level, the lowest since records were kept, and far below the per capita rate in jurisdictions such as the United States. This reduction was generally attributed to aggressive road safety campaigns beginning with the seat belt laws.[34][35]
A 2008 study in the Journal of Health Economics found that mandatory seat belt laws in the U.S. "significantly increased seatbelt use among high school age youths by 45-80%" and "significantly reduced traffic fatalities and serious injuries resulting from fatal crashes by 8 and 9%, respectively."[36] The authors note that these "results suggest that if all states had primary enforcement seatbelt laws then regular youth seatbelt use would be nearly universal and youth fatalities would fall by about 120 per year."[36]
Opposition[edit]
A number of groups and individuals are opposed to seat belt legislation. The most common grounds for opposition are:
The view that laws requiring the wearing of seat belts are an infringement of individual liberty.
Claims that official estimates of the number of lives saved by seat belts are overstated or fail to take into account additional risks for other road users.
Risk compensation and other theories[edit]
The most common basis for disputing estimates of the benefits of seat belts is risk compensation and risk homeostasis, advanced by researchers John Adams and Gerald Wilde. The idea of this theory is that, if the risk of death or injury from a car crash is reduced by the wearing of seat belts, drivers will respond by reducing the precautions they take against crashes.
Along with many others[who?], Adams accepts the hypothesis that wearing seat belts improves a vehicle occupant’s chances of surviving a crash.[37]
In order to explain the disparity between the agreed improvement in crash survival and the observed results, Adams and Wilde argue that protecting someone from the consequences of risky behaviour may tend to encourage greater risk taking. Wilde states, "to compel a person to use protection from the consequences of hazardous driving, as seat belt laws do, is to encourage hazardous driving. A fine for non-compliance will encourage seat belt use, but the fact that the law fails to increase people's desire to be safe encourages compensatory behaviour." [38]
Studies and experiments have been carried out to examine the risk compensation theory. In one experiment subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving belted did not drive any slower when subsequently unbelted, but those who started driving unbelted did drive consistently faster when subsequently belted.[39] A study of habitual non-seat belt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seat belt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.[40] In another study, taxi drivers who were habitual non-wearers were timed over a route with passengers who did, and others who did not, insist on the driver wearing a belt. They completed the route faster when belted.[41]
In addition to risk compensation, Adams has suggested other mechanisms that may lead to inaccurate or unsupportable predictions of positive benefits from seat belt legislation.
Case-control studies based on voluntary use of safety aids can attribute to the aid benefits that actually come from the risk-averse nature of those likely to use them voluntarily (confounding), particularly early adopters.
Fatality rates are subject to considerable stochastic noise, and comparison of single years or short periods can be misleading.
Individual liberty[edit]
Opponents have objected to the laws on libertarian principles.[42] Some do so on the grounds that seat belt laws infringe on their civil liberties. They argue[where?] that not wearing seat belts is a victimless crime as the only person harmed is the one making that decision for himself about his own life.
The counterpoint to the libertarian view toward seat belt laws is that mandatory usage may reduce injuries and deaths (while possibly increasing the number of accidents) but also reduces the economic cost to society.[citation needed] Another notable scenario is of rear-seated passengers being forced forward in a crash and thus inadvertently harming the driver or front passenger. A University of Wisconsin study demonstrated that car accident victims who had not worn seat belts cost the hospital (and the state, in the case of the uninsured) on average 25% more.[43]
Side-effects of seat belts[edit]
Neck injuries can be caused by the deceleration from a high speed. The passengers head continues to move forward while the body is restrained, potentially causing paralyzing injuries. A study of such injuries notes, "Seatbelts save lives. However, they may cause injury to adjacent structures and when they malfunction can cause injury to the abdominal viscera, bony skeleton and vascular structures. The motor industry has attempted to reduce these injuries by modification of vehicle design and safety equipment."[44]
See also[edit]
Car accident
Click It or Ticket
Clunk Click Every Trip
Road safety
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "A Potted Seat Belt History". Drivers Technology.
Jump up ^ Milne, P.W. "Fitting and Wearing of Seat Belts in Australia: The history of a successful countermeasureA" (PDF). February, 1985. Department of Transport; Federal Office of Road Safety, Australian Government Publishing Service. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Helena Webb (15 August 2006). "Loose belts lose lives". Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
Jump up ^ 2005 Regulatory Impact Statement - Seat belt legislation amendments
Jump up ^ "Seatbelts Saving Lives In Ontario For 35 Years" (Press release). Ministry of Transportation, Ontario. December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Wearing a seat belt and exemptions". Directgov.
Jump up ^ "RoSPA History - How Belting Up Became Law". RoSPA. Retrieved 2012-08-02.
Jump up ^ "RoSPA History - How Belting Up Became Law" (PDF). john adams.
Jump up ^ "The History of Seat Belt Development". School Transportation News. STN Media Group. Retrieved 2011-06-20.
Jump up ^ Click it or ticket
Jump up ^ "Most Wanted". National Transportation Safety Board.
Jump up ^ "Primary Enforcement of Safety Belt Laws". Public Health Law Research. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. December 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced Enforcement of Safety Belt Laws". Public Health Law Research. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. 2009.
Jump up ^ "Indonesia". US Department of State. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
Jump up ^ "All must belt up in MPVs". The Star. 29 December 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Republic Act No. 8750". LAWPHiL. Eleventh Congress of the Philippines. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Crisostomo, Sheila (1 May 2000). "Seat Belt Law takes effect today". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
Jump up ^ (in Spanish) National Law Nº26,687 - Article 30 A, Article 40 K and Article 55
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00022331.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1985/pdf/Belt_Analysis_4.pdf
Jump up ^ http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/sbirka/1966/sb35-66.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d e http://www.stnonline.com/stn/occupantrestraint/seatbelthistory/
Jump up ^ http://www.ladocfrancaise.gouv.fr/dossier_actualite/securite_routiere/chronologie.shtml
Jump up ^ http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199901/27/0127119.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/travel_and_recreation/roads_and_safety/seatbelts_when_motoring_in_ireland.html
Jump up ^ http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario;jsessionid=an4pS+wPCztq+ANf1oUxlw__.ntc-as2-guri2a?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1988-04-11&atto.codiceRedazionale=088G0149&elenco30giorni=false
Jump up ^ http://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/NewPDFs/Legislation-2006.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8750_1999.html
Jump up ^ http://www.umu.se/dsps/surgery/personal/personal_kirurgi/OAG%20rapport%20124.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.rospa.com/about/history/seatbelt-history.aspx RoSPA
Jump up ^ "Lives Saved Calculations for Seat Belts and Frontal Air Bags" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. December 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Glassbrenner, Donna. "Estimating The Lives Saved By Safety Belts and Air Bags" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Traffic Safety Facts - 2012 Data - Occupant Protection" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Sexton, Reid (27 December 2009). "Victoria's road toll at record low". theage.com.au. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Lucas, Clay (9 July 2010). "How low can we go?". theage.com.au. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Carpenter, Christopher S.; Stehr, Mark (2008-05-01). "The effects of mandatory seatbelt laws on seatbelt use, motor vehicle fatalities, and crash-related injuries among youths". Journal of Health Economics. 27 (3): 642–662. ISSN 0167-6296. PMID 18242744. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2007.09.010.
Jump up ^ John Adams (2006). "The Failure of Seat Belt Legislation" (PDF). John Adams. Retrieved 2010-03-04. (primary source)
Jump up ^ Wilde GJS (1994). Target Risk. Toronto: PDE Publications. ISBN 0-9699124-0-4.
Jump up ^ Streff FM; Geller ES (August 1988). "An experimental test of risk compensation: between-subject versus within-subject analyses". Accident Analysis and Prevention. 20 (4): 277–87. PMID 3415759. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(88)90055-3.
Jump up ^ Janssen W (April 1994). "Seat belt wearing and driving behaviour: An instrumented-vehicle study". Accident Analysis and Prevention. 26 (2): 249–2. PMID 8198694. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(94)90095-7.
Jump up ^ Wilde GJS (1994). Target Risk (1st ed.). ISBN 0-9699124-0-4.
Jump up ^ Jeff Jacoby (August 25, 1994). "Unbuckling the Voters" (Op-Ed). Boston Globe.
Jump up ^ Marion Ceraso; Keri Frisch; Stephen Hargarten; Timothy Corden (September 2006). "Primary Enforcement of Seatbelt Laws: A Means for Decreasing Injuries, Deaths and Crash-Related Costs in Wisconsin?" (PDF). University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health.
Jump up ^ Smith, J. E. (2005). Injuries caused by seatbelt - Trauma. tra.sagepub.com. pp. Vol. 7, No. 4, 211–215. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
References and further reading[edit]
John Adams (1995). Risk. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-068-7.
Wilde G.S. Target Risk PDE Publications, 1994
The Isles report "Seat belt savings: Implications of European Statistics", UK DoT, 1981, Sourced from Death on the Streets, Cars and the Mythology of Road Safety by Robert Davis, Leading Edge Press, North Yorkshire UK, 1992 and "Report questions whether seat belts save lives" by M. Hamer, New Scientist, 7 February 1985 p7
Evaluation of Automobile Safety Regulations: The case of Compulsory Seat Belt Legislation in Australia. by J.A.C. Coneybeare, Policy Sciences 12:27-39, 1980
Compulsory Seat Belt Use: Further Inferences, by P. Hurst Accident Analysis and Prevention., Vol 11: 27-33, 1979
Wilde G. S. Risk Homeostasis and Traffic Accidents Propositions, Deductions and Discussion of Dissension in Recent Reactions, Ergonomics 1988 Vol, 31, 4:439
Methodological Issues in Testing the Hypothesis of Risk Compensation by Brian Dulisse, Accident Analysis and Prevention Vol. 25 (5): 285-292, 1997
RS 255 The initial impact of seat belt legislation in Ireland by R. Hearne, An Foras Forbatha, Dublin, 1981
The efficacy of seat belt legislation: A comparative study of road accident fatality statistics from 18 countries, by J. Adams. Department of Geography University College, London 1981
Casualty Reductions, Whose Problem? By F. West-Oram, Traffic Engineering and Control, September 1990
The Puzzle of Seat Belts Explained, Press Release of the Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society, April 1999
Reconsidering the effects of seat belt Laws and Their Enforcement Status by T.S. Dee Accident Analysis and Prevention., Vol 30(1): 1-10, 1998

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The Last One (Friends)
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"The Last One"
Friends episode
Episode no.
Season 10
Episode 17 and 18
Directed by
Kevin S. Bright
Written by
David Crane
Marta Kauffman
Featured music
"Embryonic Journey" by Jefferson Airplane
"Yellow Ledbetter" by Pearl Jam
Production code
176266
176267
Original air date
May 6, 2004 (2004-05-06)
Running time
Part 1: 22 min
Part 2: 22 min
Guest appearance(s)
Anna Faris as Erica
James Michael Tyler as Gunther
Paul Rudd as Mike
Anthony Cistaro as Gate Attendant
Jason Kravits as Man in Cab
Brian Palermo as Airline Representative
Jim Rash as Nervous Passenger
John Rubinstein as The Doctor
Episode chronology
← Previous
"The One with Rachel's Going Away Party" Next →
—
Friends (season 10)
List of Friends episodes
"The Last One" is the series finale of the television sitcom Friends. The episode serves as the seventeenth and eighteenth episode of season ten; the episode's two parts were classified as two separate episodes. It was written by series creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman, and directed by executive producer Kevin S. Bright. The series finale first aired on NBC in the United States on May 6, 2004, when it was watched by 65.9 million viewers[1], making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years and the fourth most watched overall television series finale in U.S. history, as well as the most watched episode from any television series throughout the decade 2000s on U.S. television. In Canada, the finale aired simultaneously on May 6, 2004 on Global, and was viewed by 5.16 million viewers,[2] becoming the highest viewed episode of the series, and also becoming highest-viewed and highest-rated episode ever in Canada for a sitcom.
The series finale closes several long-running storylines. Ross Geller (David Schwimmer) confesses his love for Rachel Green (Jennifer Aniston), and they decide to resume their relationship; and Monica Geller (Courteney Cox) and Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry) adopt twins and move to the suburbs. The episode's final scene shows the group leaving their apartments for the final time and going to Central Perk for one last cup of coffee.
Prior to writing the episode, Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched finales from other sitcoms for inspiration. Kauffman found that she liked the ones that stayed true to the series. Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California; part one was taped on January 16, and part two on January 23. The finale was well received by critics and the cast members.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
1.1 Part 1
1.2 Part 2
2 Production
2.1 Writing and music
2.2 Filming
3 Reception
3.1 Promotion, ratings and awards
3.2 Critical reviews
3.3 Response from the staff
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Part 1[edit]
Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow) and Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc) pack the belongings of Monica and Chandler, who have accompanied Erica (Anna Faris) to the hospital. Rachel leaves Ross' bedroom after their apparent reunion in the previous episode. Erica gives birth to twins, much to the surprise of Monica and Chandler, who were expecting only one child. At his apartment, Joey shows Phoebe his house-warming gift for Monica and Chandler: a chick and duckling to replace the ones that died. Ross arrives and confesses to the pair that he slept with Rachel. Rachel emerges from her bedroom and, to his disappointment, tells Ross that their night together was "the perfect way to say goodbye".
Later at the Central Perk café, Phoebe convinces Ross to tell Rachel how he feels about her before she leaves for her new job in Paris. As he is about to tell her, Central Perk manager Gunther (James Michael Tyler) confesses his love for Rachel. Back at Monica and Chandler's apartment, Ross decides not to tell Rachel, for fear of rejection. She prepares to leave to catch her flight, but waits long enough for Monica and Chandler to return with the twins, named Erica (after their biological mother) and Jack (after Monica's father). After Rachel leaves, Ross has a change of heart, and Phoebe takes him in her taxi to follow Rachel to the airport.
Part 2[edit]
Joey returns to his apartment to fetch the chick and the duck he was hiding, but finds they have become trapped in the foosball table. Chandler and Joey decide to break it open when they cannot find any other way of getting the birds out. Phoebe's reckless driving gets her and Ross to JFK Airport and, after buying a ticket to get past security, they search the information boards for Rachel's flight number. When they cannot locate her flight on any of the information boards, Ross calls and checks the number with Monica but discovers they are at the wrong airport; Ross and Phoebe drove to JFK, while Rachel was flying out of nearby Newark Airport. Phoebe phones Rachel, who has already boarded her flight, to stall her for time. When a passenger (Jim Rash) overhears Phoebe saying there is a problem with the fictitious "left phalange" of the plane, he gets off the plane, prompting everyone else to leave. Chandler and Joey, who are emotionally attached to the foosball table, find they are unable to bear breaking it open, so Monica nonchalantly offers to do it for them. After they retrieve the birds, Chandler suggests Joey keeps them.
Phoebe and Ross arrive at the airport as Rachel boards the plane again. Ross tells her he loves her, but she is unable to deal with his confession and gets on the plane anyway. Ross returns home, dejected, and finds a message from Rachel on the phone. She explains her actions and decides to get off the plane, but the message cuts off. Ross panickingly tries fixing the answering machine, wondering to himself out loud if she got off the plane. From behind him, Rachel says she did. They kiss and get back together for good, both agreeing that this is where they want to be. The following morning, the friends gather in Monica and Chandler's empty apartment. With some time remaining before Monica and Chandler leave for their new house, the six all leave their keys to the apartment on the kitchen counter and decide to go for one last cup of coffee together, to which Chandler sarcastically quips, "Where?". The final scene is a shot of the apartment, panning round slowly from the living space to the front door.
Production[edit]
Writing and music[edit]
The series' creators completed the first draft of the hour-long finale in January 2004, four months prior to its airing on May 6. Before writing the episode, David Crane, Marta Kauffman and Kevin S. Bright decided to watch the series finales of other sitcoms, paying attention to what worked and what did not. Kauffman found that they liked the ones which stayed true to the series, and they found the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show to be the gold standard. The writers had difficulty writing the finale, and spent several days thinking about the final scene without being able to write a word. Crane said that they did not want to do "something high concept, or take the show out of the show".[3]
The music playing as the camera pans across the empty apartment at the end of the episode is "Embryonic Journey" by Jefferson Airplane. The song "Yellow Ledbetter" by the band Pearl Jam is also featured in the episode—after Rachel boards the plane for the first time—making it the first Pearl Jam song to be licensed for a television show. A spokesperson for the group said it was, "simply a matter of the show's producers asking permission".[4]
Filming[edit]
After filming on the finale concluded, Stage 24 at Warner Bros Studios, where Friends had been filmed since Season 2, was renamed "The Friends Stage".
The episode was filmed in Los Angeles, California on Stage 24 at Warner Bros. Studios, where Friends had been filmed since its second season.[5] The first part was taped on January 16,[6] and the second on January 23, 2004.[7][8] After the series finale, Stage 24 was renamed "The Friends Stage".[9]
A month before the filming of the final episode, Aniston said that with each episode it got "harder just to read the lines." She explained that the cast was "all just nerves and raw emotions [...] No one knows how to feel. We may need to be sedated on the last night."[10] The producers promised a tearful ending, and the cast admitted their crying was not faked when they filmed their scenes.[7] LeBlanc revealed it had been too much for him and the rest of the cast; he said Kudrow started crying first, and when he looked at Aniston and Cox they also appeared emotional.[11] Schwimmer, who LeBlanc thought was the "consummate professional", was also upset, so LeBlanc "just lost it."[11] Maggie Wheeler, who was Chandler's "on and off" girlfriend Janice, told People, "the entire cast had to go back and have their makeup redone before starting," and that Perry broke the tension by saying, "Somebody is gonna get fired."[8] Perry told the New York Daily News that he did not cry, "but I felt like I was about to for like seven hours."[12]
Although it was planned that some key scenes of the episode would be filmed without an audience in order to avoid leaks of plot spoilers,[13][14] the producers decided not to worry about the issue and filmed it all in front of the live studio audience.[15] The producers also instigated the rumor that multiple endings would be filmed; in fact, only one was planned and shot.[15]
At the start of each Friends episode filming, the cast would ordinarily be introduced to the studio audience one at a time, but this time the cast headed out for their pre-curtain bow together.[13] "That made me cry," said Diane Newman, who was the script supervisor of the show.[13] Among the specially invited audience of the taping were Hank Azaria, who played Phoebe's scientist boyfriend in several episodes over the years; David Arquette, who filmed his then-wife Cox and the others backstage with a video camera; and Wheeler. Missing was Brad Pitt, Aniston's then-husband; Pitt told the producers he wanted to be surprised when the finale aired on television.[8] Although some guests were invited, around 75% of the studio audience were 'ordinary' members of the public so that their reactions would be congruous with the rest of the series.[15] However, friends, family and colleagues of the cast and crew served as extras throughout the episode.[15]
Reception[edit]
Promotion, ratings and awards[edit]
"It may have been impossible for any one episode to live up to the hype and expectations built up around the Friends finale, but this hour probably came as close as fans could have reasonably hoped. Ultimately, the two-hour package did exactly what it was supposed to do. It wrapped up the story while reminding us why we liked the show and will miss it."
—Robert Bianco of USA Today on the series finale.[16]
NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of hype.[17] The top price for a 30-second commercial during the U.S. broadcast was approximately $1 million USD.[18] Viewing parties were organized by local NBC affiliates around the United States, including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen.[19] It was shown in New York City, where over 3,000 people watched it on big screens in parks.[20] The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC, one of which ran for two hours. Prior to the airing of the episode, a one-hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown. Following the finale, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends' Central Perk cafe, which featured the series' cast as guests.[21][22] The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time. This currently remains as the largest advertising rate ever for a sitcom, breaking the previous record held by the Seinfeld finale at $1.7 million.[19][20]
The finale was watched by 65.9 million American viewers[1] making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years, and the most watched episode of the decade 2000s on U.S. television.The Friends finale was the fourth most watched overall series finale in U.S. television history, behind the finales of M*A*S*H, Cheers and Seinfeld, which were watched by 105.9, 84.4 and 76.3 million viewers, respectively. The retrospective episode was watched by under 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most-watched television show of the year, behind the Super Bowl.[21]
The episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards at the 56th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Multi-Camera Sound Mixing for a Series or Special and Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing for a Series, but lost to the final season of Frasier in both categories.[23][24][25]
Critical reviews[edit]
Robert Bianco of USA Today described the finale as entertaining and satisfying, and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while showcasing each of the stars.[16] Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters' reunion "felt a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show's legions of fans wanted."[26] Newsday's Noel Holston called the episode "sweet and dumb and satisfying,"[27] while Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be "surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters."[28]
The finale was "exactly" what David Schwimmer had hoped for.
An editorial in USA Today highlighted the view of many critics who found problem with the aging cast, commenting, "Friends was getting creaky even as it remained popular."[29] Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com said that despite the "nauseating hype and the disappointing season and the lackluster finale, it's important to remember what a great show this was for such a very long time."[30] Ken Parish Perkins of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram gave the finale a B grade, calling it "more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee-slappingly funny."[31]
Response from the staff[edit]
The cast members reportedly got together in Los Angeles to watch the finale.[20] It was well received by the main cast, who were confident that the fans would have the same reaction. David Schwimmer said, "It's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters."[3] At the taping of the episode, the cast and crew passed around yearbooks, custom-made by the production staff, and signed them for each other. The cast gave the producers inscribed Cartier SA watches, while the producers gave the cast Neil Lane jewelry.[8] As the sets were broken down, the cast and crew each got a chunk of the street outside Central Perk in a glass box as a keepsake.[7]
There were 3 separate wrap parties - a dinner at the Aniston-Pitt residence on January 19, 2004, a sit down at cast hangout Il Sole in West Hollywood on January 22, and a big party for 1,000 guests on January 24 at Los Angeles' Park Plaza Hotel.[8] At the party at the Park Plaza Hotel, The Rembrandts performed the theme song of Friends, "I'll Be There for You", and the cast gave a re-enactment of the pilot episode's first scene.[8]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Top 10 Friends Seasons". Listverse. 2008-03-28. Retrieved 2017-07-17.
Jump up ^ http://www.broadcastermagazine.com/news/friends-finale-draws-over-5-million-in-canada/1000017927/?&er=NA
^ Jump up to: a b Hartlaub, Peter (January 15, 2004). "Friends challenge -- finding right words to say goodbye". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Jonathan (May 11, 2004). "Pearl Jam helps bid adieu to Friends", MSNBC. Retrieved on November 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ Tauber, Michelle (February 9, 2004). "Friends to the End". People. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
Jump up ^ Wild, David (2004). Friends ...'Til the End. London: Headline. p. 270. ISBN 0-7553-1321-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Oldenburg, Ann (May 5, 2004). "And now, the one where Friends says goodbye". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Susman, Gary (2004-02-04). "The Last Laugh". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
Jump up ^ "52 millon friends see off Friends". China Daily. 2004-05-08. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "I Wanna Be Sedated". Entertainment Weekly. 2003-12-17. Retrieved 2008-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fifty million watch final episode of Friends in US". The Times. May 7, 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
Jump up ^ Susman, Gary (2004-04-07). "Bings Sing". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
^ Jump up to: a b c Walker, Dave (May 6, 2004). "New Orleans script supervisor had front-row seat for the final Friends taping". The Times-Picayune. p. 1. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Friends Til the End". Entertainment Weekly. 2004-01-14. Retrieved 2008-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Last One", DVD audio commentary, Friends Season 10
^ Jump up to: a b Bianco, Robert (May 7, 2004). "Rachel stays, so Friends are able to leave together". USA Today. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Shales, Tom (May 7, 2004). "A Big Hug Goodbye to Friends and Maybe to the Sitcom". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Battaglio, Stephen. "2010: The Year in Numbers", "TV Insider", TV Guide, December 20, 2010, Page 9
^ Jump up to: a b "Friends heads for much-hyped farewell". The Indian Express. May 5, 2004. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Millions tune in to Friends' end". Newsround. May 7, 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
^ Jump up to: a b "Estimated 51.1M Tune in for Friends Finale". Fox News Channel. May 7, 2004. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Oldenburg, Ann (May 5, 2004). "And now, the one where Friends says goodbye". USA Today. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Outstanding Multi-Camera Sound Mixing For A Series Or Special". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing For A Series". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Complete list of primetime Emmy nominations". USA Today. July 15, 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
Jump up ^ Rodman, Sarah (May 7, 2004). "Six pals depart on a classy note". Boston Herald. p. 3. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Friends climax watched by 51m". BBC News. May 7, 2004. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Catlin, Roger (May 7, 2004). "The Long Farewell is Over; Lots of Fans, Little Fanfare for Mich-Anticipated Finale of Friends". The Hartford Courant. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Friends farewelled". The Age. May 7, 2004. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Havrilesky, Heather (May 7, 2004). "Never forget your Friends". Salon.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Perkins, Ken Parish (May 7, 2004). "Farewell to Friends: The finale to the 10-year series wraps up all the loose ends". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
External links[edit]
"The Last One: Part 1" on IMDb
"The Last One: Part 1" at TV.com
"The Last One: Part 2" on IMDb
"The Last One: Part 2" at TV.com
Friends portal
[hide]
v
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Friends
Characters
Chandler Bing
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Episodes
Season 1
"The Pilot" (1.01)
"The One with the Sonogram at the End" (1.02)
"The One with George Stephanopoulos" (1.04)
Season 2
"The One with the Lesbian Wedding" (2.11)
"The One After the Superbowl" (2.12–2.13)
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"The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies" (2.18)
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"The One with Ross's Wedding" (4.23–4.24)
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"The One Hundredth" (5.03)
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Season 6
"The One After Vegas" (6.01)
"The One with the Apothecary Table" (6.11)
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Season 8
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"The One with the Rumor" (8.09)
Season 9
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Season 10
"The Last One" (10.17–10.18)
Related articles
Music
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Joey
Mad About You
Awards and nominations
Friends ... 'Til the End
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