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Old Kingdom of Egypt
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"Old Kingdom" redirects here. For other uses, see Old Kingdom (disambiguation).
Old Kingdom of Egypt
c. 2686 BC–c. 2181 BC
During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa 2686 BC – circa 2181 BC), Egypt consisted of the Nile River region south to Elephantine, as well as Sinai and the oases in the western desert.
Capital Memphis
Languages Ancient Egyptian
Religion Ancient Egyptian religion
Government Divine, Absolute Monarchy
Pharaoh
• c. 2686–c. 2649 BC Djoser (first)
• c. 2184–c. 2181 BC Last king depends on the scholar, Neitiqerty Siptah (6th Dynasty) or Neferirkare (7th/8th Dynasty)
History
• Established c. 2686 BC
• Disestablished c. 2181 BC
Preceded by Succeeded by
Early Dynastic Period of Egypt
First Intermediate Period
Part of a series on the
History of Egypt
Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC
Ancient Egypt
Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC
Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC
1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC
Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC
New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC
Late Period 664–332 BC
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The Old Kingdom is the period in the third millennium (c. 2686–2181 BC) also known as the 'Age of the Pyramids' or 'Age of the Pyramid Builders' as it includes the great 4th Dynasty when King Sneferu perfected the art of pyramid building and the pyramids of Giza were constructed under the kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.[1] Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization – the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods (followed by the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom) which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley.
The term itself was coined by eighteenth-century historians and the distinction between the Old Kingdom and the Early Dynastic Period is not one which would have been recognized by Ancient Egyptians. Not only was the last king of the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the 'capital', the royal residence, remained at Ineb-Hedg, the Ancient Egyptian name for Memphis. The basic justification for a separation between the two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and economy of large-scale building projects.[2]
The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC). The 4th–6th Dynasties of Egypt, are scarce and historians regard the history of the era as literally 'written in stone' and largely architectural in that it is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history.[1] Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period.[3] During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects.[4]
Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, Imhotep is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form—the Step Pyramid.[4] The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the large number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids."
Contents
[hide]
1 Third Dynasty
2 Fourth Dynasty
3 Fifth Dynasty
4 Sixth Dynasty
5 Culture
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Third Dynasty[edit]
The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara.
The first Pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the third dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier, Imhotep.
Temple of Djoser at Saqqara
Head of a King, ca. 2650-2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum; The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. From the 3rd dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-size; this head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt even surpasses human scale.[5]
It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the Pharaoh. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era worshipped their Pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people.[6]
Fourth Dynasty[edit]
The Great Sphinx of Giza in front of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC), which began with Sneferu (2613–2589 BC). After Djoser, Pharaoh Snefru was the next great pyramid builder. Snefru commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Snefru abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber.[7][7] Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of 'The Great Pyramids' at Giza.[8]
Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who built the Great Pyramid of Giza. After Khufu's death, his sons Djedefra (2566–2558 BC) and Khafra (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the Sphinx in Giza. Recent reexamination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father Khufu.[9] Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafra and Khufu himself.
There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today the Sudan.[10] The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC) and, perhaps, Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC).
Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza.
Fifth Dynasty[edit]
Late Period statue of Imhotep, Musée du Louvre.
The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra. Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the 4th dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir. Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC) who commanded an expedition to Punt. Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC) who was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare, the latter of uncertain parentage.[11] Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long lived pharaoh who built extensively in Abusir and re-started royal activity in Giza.
The last Pharaohs of the dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421–2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC) and Unas (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the pyramid texts inscribed in his pyramid.
Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled the length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt—possibly modern day Somalia—for ebony, ivory and aromatic resins. Ship builders of that era did not use pegs (treenails) or metal fasteners, but relied on rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together.
Sixth Dynasty[edit]
During the sixth dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries earlier.
Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign.
The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile.[12]
Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi, a nomarch during the early First Intermediate Period, describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land.
Culture[edit]
Egypt's Old Kingdom (Dynasties 3–6, ca. 2649–2150 BC) was one of the most dynamic periods in the development of Egyptian art. During this period, artists learned to express their culture's worldview, creating for the first time images and forms that endured for generations. Architects and masons mastered the techniques necessary to build monumental structures in stone.[13]
Sculptors created the earliest portraits of individuals and the first lifesize statues in wood, copper, and stone. They perfected the art of carving intricate relief decoration and, through keen observation of the natural world, produced detailed images of animals, plants, and even landscapes, recording the essential elements of their world for eternity in scenes painted and carved on the walls of temples and tombs.[13]
These images and structures had two principal functions: to ensure an ordered existence and to defeat death by preserving life into the next world. To these ends, over a period of time, Egyptian artists adopted a limited repertoire of standard types and established a formal artistic canon that would define Egyptian art for more than 3,000 years, while remaining flexible enough to allow for subtle variation and innovation. Although much of their artistic effort was centered on preserving life after death, Egyptians also surrounded themselves with objects to enhance their lives in this world, producing elegant jewelry, finely carved and inlaid furniture, and cosmetic vessels and implements made from a wide range of materials.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Old Kingdom of Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
Jump up ^ Malek, Jaromir. 2003. "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BCE)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192804587, p.83
Jump up ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, pp. 55 & 60.
^ Jump up to: a b Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 56.
Jump up ^ Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 22. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Herlin, Susan J. (2003). "Ancient African Civilizations to ca. 1500: Pharaonic Egypt to Ca. 800 BC". p. 27. Archived from the original on August 23, 2003. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ancient Egypt - the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom". www.penfield.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
Jump up ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 57.
Jump up ^ Vassil Dobrev, French Institute, Cairo, link 1, link 2
Jump up ^ p.5, 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History' (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy.
Jump up ^ Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv Orientální, Volume 69: 2001
Jump up ^ Jean-Daniel Stanley; et al. (2003). "Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence". Geoarchaeology. 18 (3): 395–402. doi:10.1002/gea.10065.
^ Jump up to: a b "Select Egypt". selectegypt.com.
Library resources about
Old Kingdom of Egypt
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Further reading[edit]
Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005.
Callender, Gae. Egypt In the Old Kingdom: An Introduction. South Melbourne: Longman, 1998.
Kanawati, Naguib. Governmental Reforms In Old Kingdom Egypt. Warminster: Aris & Phillips,, 1980.
Kanawati, Naguib., and Alexandra Woods. Artists of the Old Kingdom: Techniques and Achievements. 1st English ed. Egypt: Supreme Council of Antiquities Press, 2009.
Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Málek, Jaromír., and Werner Forman. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Ancient Egypt During the Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
McFarlane, A., and Anna-Latifa Mourad. Behind the Scenes: Daily Life In Old Kingdom Egypt. North Ryde, N.S.W.: Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2012.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.
Papazian, Hratch. Domain of Pharaoh: The Structure and Components of the Economy of Old Kingdom Egypt. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 2012.
Ryholt, Kim S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1997.
Sowada, K., and Peter Grave. Egypt In the Eastern Mediterranean During the Old Kingdom: An Archaeological Perspective. Fribourg: Academic Press, 2009.
Strudwick, Nigel. The Administration of Egypt In the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders. London: KPI, 1985.
Warden, Leslie Anne. Pottery and Economy In Old Kingdom Egypt. Boston: Brill, 2013.
Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001.
External links[edit]
The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom from BBC History
Middle East on The Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom – Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan
Preceded by
Early Dynastic Period Time Periods of Egypt
2686–2181 BCE Succeeded by
Middle Kingdom
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Age of marriage in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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General age of marriage (without parental or court approval or other exceptions taken into account)
18
19
21
Unlike most Western countries, 21 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. Individuals aged 18 have the ability to marry in U.S. states except Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all states, except Delaware, allow minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone. In most states, children under 16 can be married too. In the 29 states [1] which have an absolute minimum age set by statute, this age varies between 13 and 18, while in 21 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met. Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute, the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states.[2] Over the past 15 years, more than 200,000 minors married in US, and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001.[3]
State
Minimum age
Notes
Statutory age when all exceptions are taken into account[2]
General age
Alabama[4] 16 18
Alaska[5] 14 18
Arizona[6][7] 16 18 Since 2018, the minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent is 16.[6][7]
Arkansas[5] none 18
California[8] none 18 No minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent.
Colorado[5][9][10] none 18 No minimum age with judicial approval and parental consent.
Connecticut[11] 16 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 16 with parental and judicial consent.[11]
Delaware[5] 18 18 Since May 2018, the Delaware child marriage ban bill was signed into law and went into effect immediately to implement a clear minimum age of 18 with no exceptions.[12][13][14]
District of Columbia[5] 16 18
Florida 17 18 From July 1, 2018 17-year-olds need both parental and judicial approval and may not marry anyone more than 2 years older.[15][16]
Georgia[5] 16 18
Hawaii[5] 15 18 15 with parental or judicial consent.
Idaho[5] none 18
Illinois[5] 16 18
Indiana[17] 15 18 15 in the case of pregnancy with both parental and judicial consent.
Iowa[5] 16 18
Kansas[5] 15 18
Kentucky[18] 17 18 Since 2018, 17-year-olds need judicial approval.[19]
Louisiana[5] none 18
Maine[5] none 18
Maryland[5] 15 18
Massachusetts[5] none[20] 18 Consent can be just judicial, but is normally both parental and judicial. In the absence of any statutory minimum age, one opinion is that the traditional minimum common law marriageable age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys may still be in effect.[21][22]
Michigan[citation needed][23] none 18 16 with parental consent
Minnesota[5] 16 18
Mississippi none 21 females 15–21 and males 17–21 can marry with parental consent alone[24]
Missouri[5] none 18 Parental consent required for ages 15–17. Judicial consent required below age 15. Missouri is considered to have the least restrictions on child marriage within the United States. In May 2018, a bill is pending on the Governor of Missouri desk to implement an absolute minimum age of 16 and to ban people over 21 years old marrying people under the age of 18.[25][26]
Montana[5] 16 18
Nebraska[5] 17 19
Nevada[5] none 18
New Hampshire[27] 13 for heterosexual females, 14 for heterosexual males 18 In May 2018, a bill is pending on the Governor of New Hampshire desk to implement immediately a clear minimum age of 16 with no exceptions. Also this bill allows same-sex couples to get married at 16, currently you have to be 18. Originally the bill had a minimum age of 18, but was watered-down due to other concerns within conference committee.[28][29]
New Jersey[citation needed] none 18 16 with parental consent and in case of pregnancy.
New Mexico[5] none 18
New York[30] 17 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 17 with parental and judicial consent.
North Carolina 14 18
North Dakota[5] 16 18 16 with parental consent [31].
Ohio[32] none 18 18 for males regardless of parental consent. 16 for females with parental consent, 18 for females without parental consent.[32]
Oklahoma[5] none 18
Oregon[5] 17 18 Consenting parent or guardian must accompany the applicant when applying for the marriage license.
Pennsylvania[citation needed] none 18 Under 16 years of age if a Judge of the Orphans Court "decides that it is to the best interest of the applicant and authorizes the issuance of the license."[33]
Rhode Island[5] none 18
South Carolina[5] 16 18
South Dakota[5] 16 18
Tennessee[5] none 18
Texas[34] 16 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 18, however emancipated minors aged 16–17 have an exemption to legally marry.[35][36][37]
Utah[38] 15 18 15 with court approval and parental consent.
Vermont[5] 16 18
Virginia 16 18 In 2016, VA made 18 the minimum age; and 16 with court approval in special cases[39][40]
Washington[5] none 18 May be waived by superior court judge.[41]
West Virginia[5] none 18 No minimum with both parental and judicial consent
Wisconsin[5] 16 18
Wyoming[5] none 18
See also[edit]
Child marriage in the United States
Marriageable age
Minor (law)
Parental consent
References[edit]
Jump up ^ in 2017, Connecticut and Texas became the 24th and 25th states to set a minimum age [1] [2], and in 2018, Florida, Kentucky, Arizona and Delaware became the 26th, 27th, 28th and 29th state to set a minimum age [3] [4][5][6]
^ Jump up to: a b "Understanding State Statutes on Minimum Marriage Age and Exceptions". Tahirih Justice Center. November 2016. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/200000-children-married-us-15-years-child-marriage-child-brides-new-jersey-chris-christie-a7830266.html
Jump up ^ "Section 30-1-4: Minimum age for contracting marriage". Code of Alabama. Alabama Legislature. 1975. Retrieved 2017-06-03. A person under the age of 16 years is incapable of contracting marriage.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag "Marriage Laws of the Fifty States, District of Columbia and Puerto Rico". Legal Information Institute. 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
^ Jump up to: a b [7]
^ Jump up to: a b Renick, Christie (April 13, 2018). "Arizona Sets Minimum Age for Marriage of Minors". Chronicle of Social Change. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ "California Marriage Age Requirements Laws". findlaw.com. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Office of the Clerk and Recorder: Marriage & Recording / License Information / Marriage of Minors". City and County of Denver. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ C.R.S. Colorado Revised Statutes 14-2-106
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.cga.ct.gov/asp/cgabillstatus/cgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB05442&which_year=2017
Jump up ^ [8]
Jump up ^ [9]
Jump up ^ [10]
Jump up ^ [11]
Jump up ^ [12]
Jump up ^ "IC 31-11-1: ARTICLE 11. FAMILY LAW: MARRIAGE". Indiana Code 2016. Indiana General Assembly. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ [13]
Jump up ^ [14]
Jump up ^ "Nonage minors; authorization of marriage", General Laws: Chapter 207, Section 25, Massachusetts General Court, retrieved 2017-06-03
Jump up ^ Richards, Victoria (2016-03-09). "Child marriage chart reveals girls can wed at 12 in some parts of the US - as lawmakers battle to raise age to 16". The Independent. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Hayden, Meg (2007-01-08). "Child Brides". Massachusetts Trial Court Law Libraries. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Section 551.103: MARRIAGE LICENSE (EXCERPT), Act 128 of 1887". Michigan Legislature. 2015. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Title 93 - DOMESTIC RELATIONS, Chapter 1 - MARRIAGE § 93-1-5 - Conditions precedent to issuance of license; penalty for noncompliance". 2013 Mississippi Code. Retrieved 2017-06-03. Every male who is at least seventeen (17) years old and every female who is at least fifteen (15) years old shall be capable in law of contracting marriage.
Jump up ^ [15]
Jump up ^ [16]
Jump up ^ "TITLE XLIII: DOMESTIC RELATIONS, CHAPTER 457: MARRIAGES, Age: Section 457:4". New Hampshire General Court. Archived from the original on 2008-02-02. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ [17]
Jump up ^ [18]
Jump up ^ https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/06/20/us-new-york-governor-signs-anti-child-marriage-law "Human Rights Watch: NY State Marriage Laws Update 2016/2017". Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. June 2017. Retrieved 2017-06-21.
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.nd.gov/cencode/t14c03.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "Ohio's Marriage Laws". Ohio State Bar Association. 2015-08-21. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Title 23: CHAPTER 13, MARRIAGE LICENSE". Pennsylvania General Assembly. Retrieved 2017-06-03. |
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.state.tx.us/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess=85R&Bill=SB1705
Jump up ^ [19]
Jump up ^ [20]
Jump up ^ [21]
Jump up ^ "Marriage Licenses". Courts of Utah. 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Portnoy, Jenna (2016-07-03). "Why 13-year-olds can no longer marry in Virginia". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Tsui, Anjali (2016-07-08). "America's child marriage crisis: Virginia law tackles continuing issue". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "RCW 26.04.010 Marriage contract — Void marriages". Revised Code of Washington. Washington State Legislature. 2016-12-23. Retrieved 2017-06-03. Every marriage entered into in which either person has not attained the age of seventeen years is void except where this section has been waived by a superior court judge of the county in which one of the parties resides on a showing of necessity.
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United States district court
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by ErieSwiftByrd (talk | contribs) at 21:43, 1 August 2017 (→Attorneys). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.
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This article is about district courts of the U.S. federal judicial system. For district courts of various U.S. states' judicial systems, see Courts of the United States § Courts by state of the United States.
See also: List of United States district and territorial courts
Map of the boundaries of the United States Courts of Appeals (by color) and United States District Courts. All District Courts lie within the boundary of a single jurisdiction usually in a state (heavier lines); some states have more than one District Court (lighter lines denote those jurisdictions)
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The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of law, equity, and admiralty. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States district court. Each federal judicial district has at least one courthouse, and many districts have more than one. The formal name of a district court is "the United States District Court for" the name of the district—for example, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress.[note 1] There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. Indeed, after the ratification of the Constitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary urged that the federal court system be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals from state courts. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place today.
There is at least one judicial district for each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. District courts in three insular areas—the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands—exercise the same jurisdiction as Article III U.S. district courts.[1][2][3] Despite their name, these courts are technically not "District Courts of the United States". Judges on these Article IV territorial courts do not enjoy the protections of Article Three of the Constitution, and serve terms of ten years rather than for life.
There are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Other federal trial courts
2 United States district judges
3 Jurisdiction
4 Attorneys
5 Appeals
6 Busiest district courts
7 Extinct district courts
7.1 Subdivided district courts
7.2 Other abolished district courts
8 See also
9 Notes
9.1 Footnotes
9.2 Citations
10 External links
Other federal trial courts[edit]
There are other federal trial courts that have nationwide jurisdiction over certain types of cases, but the district court also has concurrent jurisdiction over many of those cases, and the district court is the only one with jurisdiction over civilian criminal cases. The United States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs issues. The United States Court of Federal Claims has exclusive jurisdiction over most claims for money damages against the United States, including disputes over federal contracts, unlawful takings of private property by the federal government, and suits for injury on federal property or by a federal employee. The United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations of taxes.
United States district judges[edit]
Main article: United States federal judge
A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a "United States District Judge". Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.
With the exception of the territorial courts (Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands), federal district judges are Article III judges appointed for life, and can be removed involuntarily only when they violate the standard of "good behavior". The sole method of involuntary removal of a judge is through impeachment by the United States House of Representatives followed by a trial in the United States Senate and a conviction by a two-thirds vote. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of a felony criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, only twelve judges have been impeached by the House, and only seven have been removed following conviction in the Senate. (For a table that includes the twelve impeached judges, see Impeachment in the United States.)
A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called "chambers") and staff, and many of them work full-time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as "The Honorable John/Jane Doe" or "Hon. John/Jane Doe" and in speech as "Judge" or "Judge Doe" or, when presiding in court, "Your Honor".
District judges usually concentrate on managing their court's overall caseload, supervising trials, and writing opinions in response to important motions like the motion for summary judgment. Since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judge's discretion, be referred to magistrate judges. Magistrate judges can also be requested to prepare reports and recommendations on contested matters for the district judge's consideration or, with the consent of all parties, to assume complete jurisdiction over a case including conducting the trial.
Federal magistrate judges are appointed by each district court pursuant to statute. They are appointed for an eight-year term and may be reappointed for additional eight-year terms. A magistrate judge may be removed "for incompetency, misconduct, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability".[5] A magistrate judgeship may be a stepping stone to a district judgeship nomination.
As of 2010, there were 678 authorized district court judgeships.[6] A study put forth by Brennan Center for Justice at New York University of Law found that under the Obama administration and especially in the year 2009 there have been a "uniquely high" number of vacancies in Federal Court, averaging 60 or more from the years 2009 to 2013. The Obama administration has blamed Senate Republicans for opposing (and therefore, not confirming) presidential nominations, while the Republicans say Obama has been slow to nominate.[7]
Jurisdiction[edit]
Civil procedure
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Unlike some state courts, the power of federal courts to hear cases and controversies is strictly limited. Federal courts may not decide every case that happens to come before them. In order for a district court to entertain a lawsuit, Congress must first grant the court subject matter jurisdiction over the type of dispute in question.
The district courts exercise original jurisdiction over—that is, they are empowered to conduct trials in—the following types of cases:
Civil actions arising under the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States;[8]
Certain civil actions between citizens of different states;[9]
Civil actions within the admiralty or maritime jurisdiction of the United States;[10]
Criminal prosecutions brought by the United States;[11]
Civil actions in which the United States is a party;[12] and
Many other types of cases and controversies[13]
For most of these cases, the jurisdiction of the federal district courts is concurrent with that of the state courts. In other words, a plaintiff can choose to bring these cases in either a federal district court or a state court. Congress has established a procedure whereby a party, typically the defendant, can "remove" a case from state court to federal court, provided that the federal court also has original jurisdiction over the matter (meaning that the case could have been filed in federal court initially).[14] If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand" the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases.[note 2]
In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees.[15]
Attorneys[edit]
United States District Court Attorney Admissions Reciprocity Map
In order to represent a party in a case in a district court, a person must be an attorney at law and generally must be admitted to the bar of that particular court. The United States usually does not have a separate bar examination for federal practice (except with respect to patent practice before the United States Patent and Trademark Office). Admission to the bar of a district court is generally granted as a matter of course to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in the state where the district court sits.[note 3] Many district courts also allow an attorney who has been admitted and remains an active member in good standing of any state, territory or the District of Columbia bar to become a member.[16] The attorney submits his application with a fee and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the district.
Several district courts require attorneys seeking admission to their bars to take an additional bar examination on federal law, including the following: the Southern District of Ohio,[17] the Northern District of Florida,[18] and the District of Puerto Rico.[19]
Appeals[edit]
Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.
Busiest district courts[edit]
Eastern District of New York
The Central District of California is the largest federal district by population;[20] it includes all five counties that make up the Greater Los Angeles Area. By contrast, New York City and the surrounding metropolitan area are divided between the Southern District of New York (which includes Manhattan, The Bronx and Westchester County) and the Eastern District of New York (which includes Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, Nassau County and Suffolk County). New York suburbs in Connecticut and New Jersey are covered by the District of Connecticut and District of New Jersey, respectively.
The Southern District of New York and the Central District of California are the largest federal districts by number of judges, with 28 and 27, respectively.[21]
In 2007, the busiest district courts in terms of criminal federal felony filings were the District of New Mexico, Western District of Texas, Southern District of Texas, and the District of Arizona. These four districts all share the border with Mexico.[22] A crackdown on illegal immigration resulted in 75 percent of the criminal cases filed in the 94 district courts in 2007 being filed in these four districts and the other district that borders Mexico, the Southern District of California.[23] The busiest patent litigation court is the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, with the most patent lawsuits filed there nearly every year.[24]
Extinct district courts[edit]
Subdivided district courts[edit]
Main article: Former United States district courts
Most extinct district courts have disappeared by being divided into smaller districts. The following courts were subdivided out of existence: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin.
Other abolished district courts[edit]
On rare occasions, an extinct district court was extinguished by merging it with other district courts. In every case except one, this has restored a district court that had been subdivided:
Between 1794 and 1797, the United States District Court for the District of North Carolina was divided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of Edenton, New Bern, and Wilmington.
Between 1801 and 1802, the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey was divided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of East Jersey and West Jersey.
When California was admitted as a state in 1850, it was initially divided into two districts, the Northern and the Southern.[25] The Southern District of California was abolished on July 27, 1866, and the State made to constitute one district, the statute providing that the Judge of the Northern District exercise the powers of the United States District Court for the District of California, and that all records of the Southern District Court be delivered to the Clerk of the Northern District Court.[25] Twenty years later, on August 5, 1886, Congress re-created the Southern District of California.[25]
Between 1911 and 1961, the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina was divided into the United States District Courts for the Eastern and Western District of South Carolina.
The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Illinois was eliminated and a new United States District Court for the Central District of Illinois was created in its place on October 2, 1978.
There are a few additional extinct district courts that fall into neither of the above two patterns.
From 1801 to 1802, the District of Columbia and pieces of Maryland and Virginia formed the United States District Court for the District of Potomac, which was the first United States district court to cross state lines. During the same period, the United States District Court for the District of Norfolk was carved out of another piece of Virginia. The United States District Courts for the Districts of Maryland and Virginia remained during this brief period.
From 1801 to 1802, and again from 1802 to 1872, the state of North Carolina was subdivided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of Albemarle, Cape Fear, and Pamptico. These courts were extinguished when the state was reorganized into the United States District Courts for the Eastern and Western Districts of North Carolina.
United States District Court for the District of Orleans. This court was renamed the United States District Court for the District of Louisiana when the Territory of Orleans became the State of Louisiana.
United States District Court for the Canal Zone. This court was abolished, effective March 31, 1982, as part of the process of returning the Canal Zone to Panama. Cases then pending in the Canal Zone court were transferred to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana in New Orleans.
United States Court for China. This court functioned as a district court between 1906 and 1943. It had jurisdiction over American citizens in China.
See also[edit]
Courts of the United States
Federal tribunals in the United States
United States Marshals Service
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Article III of the Constitution provides that the "judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in . . . such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."
Jump up ^ In some situations, federal law provides both for the exclusive jurisdiction of federal courts and for the immunity of the defendant from the power of those courts. One example of this is patent-infringement claims against a state government: only the federal courts may hear patent cases, but the states have sovereign immunity from such suits under the Eleventh Amendment. Although a state may choose to waive its immunity in such a case and allow it to proceed to trial, if it does not do so, the plaintiff has no recourse. This doctrine was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States in Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank, 527 U.S. 627 (1999).
Jump up ^ Nearly all district courts have a Local Rule 11.1 or 83.1 that describes the appropriate state judicial institution which admits attorneys to practice (either the state bar association or an office or committee of the state supreme court).
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ United States District Courts
Jump up ^ United States District Court for the Northern Mariana Islands
Jump up ^ 48 U.S.C. § 1424 (District Court of Guam; local courts; jurisdiction)
Jump up ^ U. S. Courts | Frequently Asked Questions
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 631
Jump up ^ Federal Judgeships, United States Courts.
Jump up ^ http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/07/08/study-exposes-obamas-federal-district-vacancies-as-uniquely-high/ June, Daniel "Study Exposes Obama's Federal District Vacancies as 'Uniquely High'"
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1331
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1332
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1333
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3231
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1345 (United States as plaintiff); 28 U.S.C. § 1346 (United States as defendant)
Jump up ^ Title 28, United States Code, Chapter 85.
Jump up ^ "28 USC 1441".
Jump up ^ See, e.g., 28 U.S.C. § 158(a)(1) (U.S. district courts are authorized to hear appeals from final judgments, orders, and decrees of U.S. bankruptcy judges).
Jump up ^ Okray, John (2010). U.S. Federal Courts: Attorney Admission Requirements. Fort Worth, TX: Lawyerup Press
Jump up ^ Local Rule 83.3, Local Rules of the Southern District of Ohio.
Jump up ^ Local Rule 11.1, Local Rules of the Northern District of Florida,
Jump up ^ Local Rule 83.1, Local Rules of the District of Puerto Rico.
Jump up ^ Our District - USAO-CDCA
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 133
Jump up ^ Border Crackdown Jams US Federal Courts (May 7, 2007).
Jump up ^ Goldman, Russell (July 23, 2008). "What's Clogging the Courts? Ask America's Busiest Judge". ABC News.
Jump up ^ Lex Machina, 2016 Third Quarter Trends, https://lexmachina.com/2016-third-quarter-litigation-trends/
^ Jump up to: a b c Willoughby Rodman, History of the Bench and Bar of Southern California (1909), p. 46.
External links[edit]
United States District Courts Official Website
United States District Courts by State
Federal Court Concepts, Georgia Tech
Links to researching court records and also National Archives: Records of District Courts of the United States (Record Group 21) 1685-1993.
Territorial Courts at Federal Judicial Center
United States District Courts at Federal Judicial Center
United States District Court Civil Case Filings
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