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Schrödinger's cat
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This article is about the thought experiment. For the novel, see Schrödinger's Cat Trilogy. For the Fedora version code-named Schrödinger's Cat, see Fedora (operating system).
Schrödinger's cat: a cat, a flask of poison, and a radioactive source are placed in a sealed box. If an internal monitor (e.g. Geiger counter) detects radioactivity (i.e. a single atom decaying), the flask is shattered, releasing the poison, which kills the cat. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics implies that after a while, the cat is simultaneously alive and dead. Yet, when one looks in the box, one sees the cat either alive or dead not both alive and dead. This poses the question of when exactly quantum superposition ends and reality collapses into one possibility or the other.
Quantum mechanics
H ^ | ψ ( t ) ⟩ = i ℏ ∂ ∂ t | ψ ( t ) ⟩ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi (t)\rangle }
Schrödinger equation
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Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment, sometimes described as a paradox, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935.[1] It illustrates what he saw as the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics applied to everyday objects. The scenario presents a cat that may be simultaneously both alive and dead,[2][3][4][5][6][7][8] a state known as a quantum superposition, as a result of being linked to a random subatomic event that may or may not occur. The thought experiment is also often featured in theoretical discussions of the interpretations of quantum mechanics. Schrödinger coined the term Verschränkung (entanglement) in the course of developing the thought experiment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and motivation
2 Thought experiment
3 Interpretations of the experiment
3.1 Copenhagen interpretation
3.2 Many-worlds interpretation and consistent histories
3.3 Ensemble interpretation
3.4 Relational interpretation
3.5 Transactional interpretation
3.6 Zeno effects
3.7 Objective collapse theories
4 Applications and tests
5 Extensions
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Origin and motivation[edit]
Life-size cat figure in the garden of Huttenstrasse 9, Zurich, where Erwin Schrödinger lived 1921–1926. Depending on the light conditions, the cat appears either alive or dead.
Schrödinger intended his thought experiment as a discussion of the EPR article—named after its authors Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen—in 1935.[9] The EPR article highlighted the bizarre nature of quantum superpositions, in which a quantum system such as an atom or photon can exist as a combination of multiple states corresponding to different possible outcomes. The prevailing theory, called the Copenhagen interpretation, said that a quantum system remained in this superposition until it interacted with, or was observed by, the external world, at which time the superposition collapses into one or another of the possible definite states. The EPR experiment showed that a system with multiple particles separated by large distances could be in such a superposition. Schrödinger and Einstein exchanged letters about Einstein's EPR article, in the course of which Einstein pointed out that the state of an unstable keg of gunpowder will, after a while, contain a superposition of both exploded and unexploded states.
To further illustrate, Schrödinger described how one could, in principle, create a superposition in a large-scale system by making it dependent on a quantum particle that was in a superposition. He proposed a scenario with a cat in a locked steel chamber, wherein the cat's life or death depended on the state of a radioactive atom, whether it had decayed and emitted radiation or not. According to Schrödinger, the Copenhagen interpretation implies that the cat remains both alive and dead until the state has been observed. Schrödinger did not wish to promote the idea of dead-and-alive cats as a serious possibility; on the contrary, he intended the example to illustrate the absurdity of the existing view of quantum mechanics.[1] However, since Schrödinger's time, other interpretations of the mathematics of quantum mechanics have been advanced by physicists, some of which regard the "alive and dead" cat superposition as quite real.[8][5] Intended as a critique of the Copenhagen interpretation (the prevailing orthodoxy in 1935), the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment remains a defining touchstone for modern interpretations of quantum mechanics. Physicists often use the way each interpretation deals with Schrödinger's cat as a way of illustrating and comparing the particular features, strengths, and weaknesses of each interpretation.
Thought experiment[edit]
Schrödinger wrote:[1][10]
One can even set up quite ridiculous cases. A cat is penned up in a steel chamber, along with the following device (which must be secured against direct interference by the cat): in a Geiger counter, there is a tiny bit of radioactive substance, so small, that perhaps in the course of the hour one of the atoms decays, but also, with equal probability, perhaps none; if it happens, the counter tube discharges and through a relay releases a hammer that shatters a small flask of hydrocyanic acid. If one has left this entire system to itself for an hour, one would say that the cat still lives if meanwhile no atom has decayed. The first atomic decay would have poisoned it. The psi-function of the entire system would express this by having in it the living and dead cat (pardon the expression) mixed or smeared out in equal parts.
It is typical of these cases that an indeterminacy originally restricted to the atomic domain becomes transformed into macroscopic indeterminacy, which can then be resolved by direct observation. That prevents us from so naively accepting as valid a "blurred model" for representing reality. In itself, it would not embody anything unclear or contradictory. There is a difference between a shaky or out-of-focus photograph and a snapshot of clouds and fog banks.
Schrödinger's famous thought experiment poses the question, "when does a quantum system stop existing as a superposition of states and become one or the other?" (More technically, when does the actual quantum state stop being a linear combination of states, each of which resembles different classical states, and instead begin to have a unique classical description?) If the cat survives, it remembers only being alive. But explanations of the EPR experiments that are consistent with standard microscopic quantum mechanics require that macroscopic objects, such as cats and notebooks, do not always have unique classical descriptions. The thought experiment illustrates this apparent paradox. Our intuition says that no observer can be in a mixture of states—yet the cat, it seems from the thought experiment, can be such a mixture. Is the cat required to be an observer, or does its existence in a single well-defined classical state require another external observer? Each alternative seemed absurd to Einstein, who was impressed by the ability of the thought experiment to highlight these issues. In a letter to Schrödinger dated 1950, he wrote:
You are the only contemporary physicist, besides Laue, who sees that one cannot get around the assumption of reality, if only one is honest. Most of them simply do not see what sort of risky game they are playing with reality—reality as something independent of what is experimentally established. Their interpretation is, however, refuted most elegantly by your system of radioactive atom + amplifier + charge of gun powder + cat in a box, in which the psi-function of the system contains both the cat alive and blown to bits. Nobody really doubts that the presence or absence of the cat is something independent of the act of observation.[11]
Note that the charge of gunpowder is not mentioned in Schrödinger's setup, which uses a Geiger counter as an amplifier and hydrocyanic poison instead of gunpowder. The gunpowder had been mentioned in Einstein's original suggestion to Schrödinger 15 years before, and Einstein carried it forward to the present discussion.
Interpretations of the experiment[edit]
Since Schrödinger's time, other interpretations of quantum mechanics have been proposed that give different answers to the questions posed by Schrödinger's cat of how long superpositions last and when (or whether) they collapse.
Copenhagen interpretation[edit]
Main article: Copenhagen interpretation
A commonly held interpretation of quantum mechanics is the Copenhagen interpretation.[12] In the Copenhagen interpretation, a system stops being a superposition of states and becomes either one or the other when an observation takes place. This thought experiment makes apparent the fact that the nature of measurement, or observation, is not well-defined in this interpretation. The experiment can be interpreted to mean that while the box is closed, the system simultaneously exists in a superposition of the states "decayed nucleus/dead cat" and "undecayed nucleus/living cat", and that only when the box is opened and an observation performed does the wave function collapse into one of the two states.
However, one of the main scientists associated with the Copenhagen interpretation, Niels Bohr, never had in mind the observer-induced collapse of the wave function, so that Schrödinger's cat did not pose any riddle to him. The cat would be either dead or alive long before the box is opened by a conscious observer.[13] Analysis of an actual experiment found that measurement alone (for example by a Geiger counter) is sufficient to collapse a quantum wave function before there is any conscious observation of the measurement,[14] although the validity of their design is disputed.[15] The view that the "observation" is taken when a particle from the nucleus hits the detector can be developed into objective collapse theories. The thought experiment requires an "unconscious observation" by the detector in order for waveform collapse to occur. In contrast, the many worlds approach denies that collapse ever occurs.
Many-worlds interpretation and consistent histories[edit]
The quantum-mechanical "Schrödinger's cat" paradox according to the many-worlds interpretation. In this interpretation, every event is a branch point. The cat is both alive and dead—regardless of whether the box is opened—but the "alive" and "dead" cats are in different branches of the universe that are equally real but cannot interact with each other.
Main article: Many-worlds interpretation
In 1957, Hugh Everett formulated the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, which does not single out observation as a special process. In the many-worlds interpretation, both alive and dead states of the cat persist after the box is opened, but are decoherent from each other. In other words, when the box is opened, the observer and the possibly-dead cat split into an observer looking at a box with a dead cat, and an observer looking at a box with a live cat. But since the dead and alive states are decoherent, there is no effective communication or interaction between them.
When opening the box, the observer becomes entangled with the cat, so "observer states" corresponding to the cat's being alive and dead are formed; each observer state is entangled or linked with the cat so that the "observation of the cat's state" and the "cat's state" correspond with each other. Quantum decoherence ensures that the different outcomes have no interaction with each other. The same mechanism of quantum decoherence is also important for the interpretation in terms of consistent histories. Only the "dead cat" or the "alive cat" can be a part of a consistent history in this interpretation.
Roger Penrose criticises this:
I wish to make it clear that, as it stands, this is far from a resolution of the cat paradox. For there is nothing in the formalism of quantum mechanics that demands that a state of consciousness cannot involve the simultaneous perception of a live and a dead cat.[16]
However, the mainstream view (without necessarily endorsing many-worlds) is that decoherence is the mechanism that forbids such simultaneous perception.[17][18]
A variant of the Schrödinger's cat experiment, known as the quantum suicide machine, has been proposed by cosmologist Max Tegmark. It examines the Schrödinger's cat experiment from the point of view of the cat, and argues that by using this approach, one may be able to distinguish between the Copenhagen interpretation and many-worlds.
Ensemble interpretation[edit]
The ensemble interpretation states that superpositions are nothing but subensembles of a larger statistical ensemble. The state vector would not apply to individual cat experiments, but only to the statistics of many similarly prepared cat experiments. Proponents of this interpretation state that this makes the Schrödinger's cat paradox a trivial matter, or a non-issue.
This interpretation serves to discard the idea that a single physical system in quantum mechanics has a mathematical description that corresponds to it in any way.
Relational interpretation[edit]
The relational interpretation makes no fundamental distinction between the human experimenter, the cat, or the apparatus, or between animate and inanimate systems; all are quantum systems governed by the same rules of wavefunction evolution, and all may be considered "observers". But the relational interpretation allows that different observers can give different accounts of the same series of events, depending on the information they have about the system.[19] The cat can be considered an observer of the apparatus; meanwhile, the experimenter can be considered another observer of the system in the box (the cat plus the apparatus). Before the box is opened, the cat, by nature of its being alive or dead, has information about the state of the apparatus (the atom has either decayed or not decayed); but the experimenter does not have information about the state of the box contents. In this way, the two observers simultaneously have different accounts of the situation: To the cat, the wavefunction of the apparatus has appeared to "collapse"; to the experimenter, the contents of the box appear to be in superposition. Not until the box is opened, and both observers have the same information about what happened, do both system states appear to "collapse" into the same definite result, a cat that is either alive or dead.
Transactional interpretation[edit]
In the transactional interpretation the apparatus emits an advanced wave backward in time, which combined with the wave that the source emits forward in time, forms a standing wave. The waves are seen as physically real, and the apparatus is considered an "observer". In the transactional interpretation, the collapse of the wavefunction is "atemporal" and occurs along the whole transaction between the source and the apparatus. The cat is never in superposition. Rather the cat is only in one state at any particular time, regardless of when the human experimenter looks in the box. The transactional interpretation resolves this quantum paradox.
Zeno effects[edit]
The Zeno effect is known to cause delays to any changes from the initial state.
On the other hand, the anti-Zeno effect accelerates the changes. For example, if you peek a look into the cat box frequently you may either cause delays to the fateful choice or, conversely, accelerate it. Both the Zeno effect and the anti-Zeno effect are real and known to happen to real atoms. The quantum system being measured must be strongly coupled to the surrounding environment (in this case to the apparatus, the experiment room ... etc) in order to obtain more accurate information. But while there are no information passed to the outside world it is considered to be a quasi-measurement, but as soon as the information about the cat's well-being is passed on to the outside world (by peeking into the box) quasi-measurement turns into measurement. Quasimeasurements, like measurements, cause the Zeno effects.[20] Zeno effects teach us that even without peeking into the box, the death of the cat would have been delayed or accelerated anyway due to its environment.
Objective collapse theories[edit]
According to objective collapse theories, superpositions are destroyed spontaneously (irrespective of external observation) when some objective physical threshold (of time, mass, temperature, irreversibility, etc.) is reached. Thus, the cat would be expected to have settled into a definite state long before the box is opened. This could loosely be phrased as "the cat observes itself", or "the environment observes the cat".
Objective collapse theories require a modification of standard quantum mechanics to allow superpositions to be destroyed by the process of time evolution.
Applications and tests[edit]
Play media
Schrödinger's cat quantum superposition of states and effect of the environment through decoherence
The experiment as described is a purely theoretical one, and the machine proposed is not known to have been constructed. However, successful experiments involving similar principles, e.g. superpositions of relatively large (by the standards of quantum physics) objects have been performed.[21] These experiments do not show that a cat-sized object can be superposed, but the known upper limit on "cat states" has been pushed upwards by them. In many cases the state is short-lived, even when cooled to near absolute zero.
A "cat state" has been achieved with photons.[22]
A beryllium ion has been trapped in a superposed state.[23]
An experiment involving a superconducting quantum interference device ("SQUID") has been linked to the theme of the thought experiment: "The superposition state does not correspond to a billion electrons flowing one way and a billion others flowing the other way. Superconducting electrons move en masse. All the superconducting electrons in the SQUID flow both ways around the loop at once when they are in the Schrödinger's cat state."[24]
A piezoelectric "tuning fork" has been constructed, which can be placed into a superposition of vibrating and non vibrating states. The resonator comprises about 10 trillion atoms.[25]
An experiment involving a flu virus has been proposed.[26]
An experiment involving a bacterium and an electromechanical oscillator has been proposed.[27]
In quantum computing the phrase "cat state" often refers to the special entanglement of qubits wherein the qubits are in an equal superposition of all being 0 and all being 1; e.g.,
| ψ ⟩ = 1 2 ( | 00 … 0 ⟩ + | 11 … 1 ⟩ ) . {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bigg (}|00\ldots 0\rangle +|11\ldots 1\rangle {\bigg )}.}
Researchers at the Stanford PULSE Institute and the Department of Energy’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory have exploited this Schrödinger's cat behavior to create X-ray movies of atomic motion with much more detail than ever before.[28][29]
Extensions[edit]
Wigner's friend is a variant on the experiment with two human observers: the first makes an observation on whether a flash of light is seen and then communicates his observation to a second observer. The issue here is, does the wave function "collapse" when the first observer looks at the experiment, or only when the second observer is informed of the first observer's observations?
In another extension, prominent physicists have gone so far as to suggest that astronomers observing dark energy in the universe in 1998 may have "reduced its life expectancy" through a pseudo-Schrödinger's cat scenario, although this is a controversial viewpoint.[30][31]
See also[edit]
Physics portal
Basis function
Complementarity (physics)
Consensus reality
Double-slit experiment
Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester
Half-life
Heisenberg cut
Leggett–Garg inequality
Maxwell's Demon
Measurement problem
Micro black hole
Modal realism
Observer (quantum physics)
Observer effect (physics)
Schroedinbug
Schrödinger equation
Schrödinger's cat in popular culture
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Schrödinger, Erwin (November 1935). "Die gegenwärtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik (The present situation in quantum mechanics)". Naturwissenschaften. 23 (48): 807–812. Bibcode:1935NW.....23..807S. doi:10.1007/BF01491891.
Jump up ^ Moring, Gary (2001). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Theories of the Universe. Penguin. pp. 192–193. ISBN 1440695725.
Jump up ^ Gribbin, John (2011). In Search of Schrodinger's Cat: Quantum Physics And Reality. Random House Publishing Group. p. 234. ISBN 0307790444.
Jump up ^ Greenstein, George; Zajonc, Arthur (2006). The Quantum Challenge: Modern Research on the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 186. ISBN 076372470X.
^ Jump up to: a b Tetlow, Philip (2012). Understanding Information and Computation: From Einstein to Web Science. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p. 321. ISBN 1409440400.
Jump up ^ Herbert, Nick (2011). Quantum Reality: Beyond the New Physics. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 150. ISBN 030780674X.
Jump up ^ Charap, John M. (2002). Explaining The Universe. Universities Press. p. 99. ISBN 8173714673.
^ Jump up to: a b Polkinghorne, J. C. (1985). The Quantum World. Princeton University Press. p. 67. ISBN 0691023883.
Jump up ^ Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, Phys. Rev. 47, 777 (1935)
Jump up ^ "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics: A Translation of Schrödinger's 'Cat Paradox' Paper" by John D. Trimmer, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 124:5 (Oct. 10, 1980), 323-338, 328. [1], reproduced with some inaccuracies here: Schroedinger: "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics." 5. Are the Variables Really Blurred?
Jump up ^ Maxwell, Nicholas (1 January 1993). "Induction and Scientific Realism: Einstein versus van Fraassen Part Three: Einstein, Aim-Oriented Empiricism and the Discovery of Special and General Relativity". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 44 (2): 275–305. JSTOR 687649. doi:10.1093/bjps/44.2.275 – via JSTOR.
Jump up ^ Wimmel, Hermann (1992). Quantum physics & observed reality: a critical interpretation of quantum mechanics. World Scientific. p. 2. ISBN 978-981-02-1010-6. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Faye, J (2008-01-24). "Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
Jump up ^ Carpenter RHS, Anderson AJ (2006). "The death of Schroedinger's cat and of consciousness-based wave-function collapse" (PDF). Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie. 31 (1): 45–52. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-11-30. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Okón E, Sebastián MA (2016). "How to Back up or Refute Quantum Theories of Consciousness". Mind and Matter. 14 (1): 25–49.
Jump up ^ Penrose, R. The Road to Reality, p 807.
Jump up ^ Zurek, Wojciech H. (2003). "Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical". Reviews of Modern Physics. 75: 715. Bibcode:2003RvMP...75..715Z. arXiv:quant-ph/0105127  . doi:10.1103/revmodphys.75.715.
Jump up ^ Wojciech H. Zurek, "Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical", Physics Today, 44, pp. 36–44 (1991)
Jump up ^ Rovelli, Carlo (1996). "Relational Quantum Mechanics". International Journal of Theoretical Physics. 35 (8): 1637–1678. Bibcode:1996IJTP...35.1637R. arXiv:quant-ph/9609002  . doi:10.1007/BF02302261.
Jump up ^ "How the quantum Zeno effect impacts Schrodinger's cat". Retrieved 18 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "What is the world's biggest Schrodinger cat?".
Jump up ^ "Schrödinger's Cat Now Made Of Light". 27 August 2014.
Jump up ^ C. Monroe, et al. A "Schrödinger Cat" Superposition State of an Atom
Jump up ^ Physics World: Schrödinger's cat comes into view
Jump up ^ Scientific American : Macro-Weirdness: "Quantum Microphone" Puts Naked-Eye Object in 2 Places at Once: A new device tests the limits of Schrödinger's cat
Jump up ^ arXiv, Emerging Technology from the. "How to Create Quantum Superpositions of Living Things".
Jump up ^ "Could 'Schrödinger's bacterium' be placed in a quantum superposition? - physicsworld.com".
Jump up ^ Glownia, J.M; Natan, A; Cryan, J.P; Hartsock, R (October 2016). "Self-Referenced Coherent Diffraction X-Ray Movie of Ångstrom- and Femtosecond-Scale Atomic Motion". Physical Review Letters. 117: 153003. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.117o3003G. PMID 27768351. arXiv:1608.03039  . doi:10.1103/physrevlett.117.153003.
Jump up ^ 'Schroedinger's Cat' Molecules Give Rise to Exquisitely Detailed Movies
Jump up ^ Chown, Marcus (2007-11-22). "Has observing the universe hastened its end?". New Scientist. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
Jump up ^ Krauss, Lawrence M.; James Dent (April 30, 2008). "Late Time Behavior of False Vacuum Decay: Possible Implications for Cosmology and Metastable Inflating States". Phys. Rev. Lett. US: APS. 100 (17). Bibcode:2008PhRvL.100q1301K. arXiv:0711.1821  . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.171301.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Schrödinger's cat.
Italic Pig (2014) released the platform game Schrodinger's Cat and the Raiders of the Lost Quark on Xbox, PS4, and Steam.
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Erwin Schrödinger (1935) The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics (translation of 3-part Schrödinger, Erwin (November 1935). "Die gegenwärtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik (The present situation in quantum mechanics)". Naturwissenschaften. 23 (48): 823807–828812. Bibcode:1935NW.....23..807S. doi:10.1007/BF014918914. and pp. 823–828, 844–849) Schrödinger's cat paper
A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, N. Rosen (1935) Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?, Physical Review, Vol. 47, p. 777. The EPR paper
Phillip Yam (October 10, 2012) Bringing Schrödinger's Cat to Life, Scientific American. Describes investigations of quantum "cat states" and wavefunction collapse by Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland for which they won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics
Tony Leggett (August 2000) New Life for Schrödinger's Cat, Physics World, p. 23-24. Article on experiments with "cat state" superpositions in superconducting rings, in which the electrons go around the ring in two directions simultaneously.
Information Philosopher on Schrödinger's cat More diagrams and an information creation explanation.
Poliakoff, Martyn (2009). "Schrödinger's Cat". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Schrödinger's cat in audio produced by Sift
J.Foukzon, A.A.Potapov, S.A.Podosenov SCHRODINGER'S CAT PARADOX RESOLUTION USING GRW COLLAPSE MODEL, International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.3, No.3, August 2014.
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text:
Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends"
Single by Ronnie Milsap
from the album Pure Love
B-side
"Streets of Gold"
Released
July 1974
Format
7"
Recorded
May 1971 (original Warner Bros. Records version)
January 1974 (RCA Records version)
Genre
Country
Length
2:41
Label
RCA APBO-0313
Songwriter(s)
Kris Kristofferson
Producer(s)
Tom Collins, Jack D. Johnson
Ronnie Milsap singles chronology
"Pure Love"
(1974) "Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends"
(1974) "(I'd Be) A Legend in My Time"
(1974)
"Pure Love"
(1974) "Please Don't Tell How the Story Ends"
(1974) "(I'd Be) A Legend in My Time"
(1974)
"Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends" is a song written by Kris Kristofferson, and recorded by American country music artist Ronnie Milsap. It was released in July 1974 as the second single from the album Pure Love. The song was his fourth country hit and second number one on the country chart. The single stayed at number one for two weeks and spent a total of nine weeks on the country chart.[1] Kristofferson recorded the song with Rita Coolidge for their final duet album, Natural Act, and later with Mark Knopfler for The Austin Sessions. The song has been recorded by many artists including Bobby Bare, Sammy Davis, Jr., Joan Osborne, Dee Reilly and Willie Nelson.
Milsap himself recorded an earlier version of the song, released on his 1971 self-titled album while recording for Warner Bros. Records.
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1974)
Peak
position
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[2] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[3] 95
Canadian RPM Country Tracks 1
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book Of Top 40 Country Hits: 1944-2006, Second edition. Record Research. p. 232.
Jump up ^ "Ronnie Milsap Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Ronnie Milsap Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
hide
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Ronnie Milsap
Studio albums
Ronnie Milsap
Where My Heart Is
Pure Love
Legend in My Time
A Rose By Any Other Name
Night Things
20/20 Vision
It Was Almost Like a Song
Only One Love in My Life
Images
Milsap Magic
Out Where the Bright Lights Are Glowing
There's No Gettin' Over Me
Inside
Keyed Up
One More Try for Love
Lost in the Fifties Tonight
Christmas with Ronnie Milsap
Heart & Soul
Stranger Things Have Happened
Back to the Grindstone
True Believer
Sings His Best for Capitol Records
Just for a Thrill
My Life
Then Sings My Soul
Compilation albums
Greatest Hits
Greatest Hits, Vol. 2
Greatest Hits, Vol. 3
40 #1 Hits
16 Biggest Hits
#1 singles
"Pure Love"
"Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends"
"(I'd Be) A Legend in My Time"
"Daydreams About Night Things"
"What Goes On When the Sun Goes Down"
"(I'm A) Stand by My Woman Man"
"Let My Love Be Your Pillow"
"It Was Almost Like a Song"
"What a Difference You've Made in My Life"
"Only One Love in My Life"
"Let's Take the Long Way Around the World"
"Back on My Mind Again"
"Nobody Likes Sad Songs"
"Why Don't You Spend the Night"
"My Heart"
"Cowboys and Clowns"
"Smoky Mountain Rain"
"Am I Losing You"
"(There's) No Gettin' Over Me"
"I Wouldn't Have Missed It for the World"
"Any Day Now"
"He Got You"
"Inside"
"Stranger in My House"
"Don't You Know How Much I Love You"
"Show Her"
"Still Losing You"
"She Keeps the Home Fires Burning"
"Lost in the Fifties Tonight (In the Still of the Night)"
"Happy, Happy Birthday Baby"
"In Love"
"How Do I Turn You On"
"Snap Your Fingers"
"Make No Mistake, She's Mine" (with Kenny Rogers)
"Where Do the Nights Go"
"Don't You Ever Get Tired (Of Hurting Me)"
"A Woman in Love"
"Stranger Things Have Happened"
Other songs
"Too Late to Worry, Too Blue to Cry"
"Just in Case"
"In No Time at All"
"Prisoner of the Highway"
"Old Folks" (with Mike Reid)
"Button Off My Shirt"
"Houston Solution"
"Are You Lovin' Me Like I'm Lovin' You"
"Since I Don't Have You"
"Turn That Radio On"
"All Is Fair in Love and War"
"True Believer"
Related articles
Discography
Book:Ronnie Milsap
This 1970s country song–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Please_Don%27t_Tell_Me_How_the_Story_Ends&oldid=847323934"
Categories:
1974 singles
Ronnie Milsap songs
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Kris Kristofferson songs
Songs written by Kris Kristofferson
Song recordings produced by Tom Collins (record producer)
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text:
Fielding (cricket)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Third Man" redirects here. For other uses, see Third Man (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A wicket-keeper (bending down) and three slips wait for the next ball. The batsman – out of shot – is a left-hander.
Fielding in the sport of cricket is the action of fielders in collecting the ball after it is struck by the batsman, to limit the number of runs that the batsman scores and/or to get the batsman out by catching the ball in flight or by running the batsman out. There are a number of recognised fielding positions, and they can be categorised into the offside and leg side of the field.
A fielder or fieldsman may field the ball with any part of his body. However, if while the ball is in play he wilfully fields it otherwise (e.g. by using his hat), the ball becomes dead and five penalty runs are awarded to the batting side, unless the ball previously struck a batsman not attempting to hit or avoid the ball. Most of the rules covering fielders are in Law 28 of the Laws of cricket.
In the early days of Test cricket, fielding was not a priority and many players were sloppy when it came to fielding.[citation needed] Fielding later became more professional, and much later, with the advent of limited overs cricket matches, saving runs became even more important.
Fake fielding is the action caused by a fielder when he makes movements of some of his body parts as if he is fielding only to confuse batsmen into making mistakes.It is now a punishable offence under the new ICC rules.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fielding position names and locations
1.1 Catching positions
1.2 Other positions
1.3 Modifiers
2 Restrictions on field placement
3 Tactics of field placement
3.1 Attacking and defending
3.2 Off- and leg-side fields
4 Protective equipment
5 Fielding skills
5.1 Fielding specialities
5.2 Throwing a cricket ball
5.3 Specialist fielding coaches
6 See also
7 Notes and references
7.1 Notes
7.2 References
8 External links
Fielding position names and locations[edit]
Fielding positions for a right-handed batsman. The outfield is shown in light green, the infield in mid green, and the close catching positions in dark green.
There are 11 players in a team: one of them is the bowler and another is the wicket-keeper, so only nine other fielding positions can be occupied at any time. Where fielders are positioned is a tactical decision made by the captain of the fielding team. The captain (usually in consultation with the bowler and sometimes other members of the team) may move players between fielding positions at any time except when a bowler is in the act of bowling to a batsman.
There are a number of named basic fielding positions, some of which are employed very commonly and others that are used less often. However, these positions are neither fixed nor precisely defined, and fielders can be placed in positions that differ from the basic positions. The nomenclature of the positions is somewhat esoteric, but roughly follow a system of polar coordinates – one word (leg, cover, mid-wicket) specifies the angle from the batsman, and is sometimes preceded by an adjective describing the distance from the batsman (silly, short, deep or long). Words such as "backward", "forward", or "square" can further indicate the angle.
The image shows the location of most of the named fielding positions based on a right-handed batsman. The area to the left of a right-handed batsman (from the batsman's point of view – facing the bowler) is called the leg side or on side, while that to the right is the off side. If the batsman is left-handed, the leg and off sides are reversed and the fielding positions are a mirror image of those shown.
Catching positions[edit]
Some fielding positions are used offensively. That is, players are put there with the main aim being to catch out the batsman rather than to stop or slow down the scoring of runs. These positions include Slip (often there are multiple slips next to each other, designated First slip, Second slip, Third slip, etc., numbered outwards from the wicket-keeper—collectively known as the slips cordon) meant to catch balls that just edge off the bat; Gully; Fly slip; Leg slip; Leg gully; the short and silly positions. Short leg, also known as bat pad, is a position specifically intended to catch balls that unintentionally strike the bat and leg pad, and thus end up only a metre or two to the leg side.
Other positions[edit]
Other positions worth noting include:
Wicket-keeper
Long stop, who stands behind the wicket-keeper towards the boundary (usually when a wicket-keeper is believed to be inept and almost never seen in professional cricket). This position is sometimes euphemistically referred to as very fine leg.[1]
Sweeper, an alternative name for deep cover, deep extra cover or deep midwicket (that is, near the boundary on the off side or the on side), usually defensive and intended to prevent a four being scored.
Cow corner, an informal jocular term for the position on the boundary between deep midwicket and long on.
on the 45. A position on the leg side 45° behind square, defending the single. An alternative description for backward short leg or short fine leg.
Also the bowler, after delivering the ball, must avoid running on the pitch so usually ends up fielding near silly mid on or silly mid off, but somewhat closer to the pitch.
Modifiers[edit]
Example of two close fielders: a short leg and a silly point stand close to the batsmen on either side of the pitch. They are both wearing protective equipment (helmets and leg pads). The wicket keeper is 'standing up' to the stumps, and the square leg umpire is also visible.
Saving one or On the single
As close as the fielder needs to be to prevent the batsmen from running a quick single, normally about 15–20 yards (14–18 m) from the wicket.
Saving two
As close as the fielder needs to be to prevent the batsmen from running two runs, normally about 50–60 yards (46–55 m) from the wicket.
Right on
Literally, right on the boundary.
Deep, long
Farther away from the batsman.
Short
Closer to the batsman.
Silly
Very close to the batsman, so-called because of the perceived danger of doing so.[2]
Square
Somewhere along an imaginary extension of the popping crease.
Fine
Closer to an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps, when describing a fielder behind square.
Straight
Closer to an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps, when describing a fielder in front of square.
Wide
Further from an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps.
Forward
In front of square; further towards the end occupied by the bowler and further away from the end occupied by the batsman on strike.
Backward
Behind square; further towards the end occupied by the batsman on strike and further away from the end occupied by the bowler.
Additionally, commentators or spectators discussing the details of field placement will often use the terms for descriptive phrases such as "gully is a bit wider than normal" (meaning he is more to the side than normal) or "mid off is standing too deep, he should come in shorter" (meaning he is too far away and should be positioned closer to the batsman).
Restrictions on field placement[edit]
Main article: Fielding restrictions (cricket)
Fielders may be placed anywhere on the field, subject to the following rules. At the time the ball is bowled:
No fielder may be standing on or with any part of his body over the pitch (the central strip of the playing area between the wickets). If his body casts a shadow over the pitch the shadow must not move until after the batsman has played (or had the opportunity to play) at the ball.
There may be no more than two fielders, other than the wicket-keeper, standing in the quadrant of the field behind square leg. See Bodyline for details on one reason this rule exists.
In some one-day matches:
During designated overs of an innings (see Powerplay), there may be no more than two fielders standing outside an oval line marked on the field, being semicircles centred on the middle stump of each wicket of radius 30 yards, joined by straight lines parallel to the pitch. This is known as the fielding circle.
For overs no. 11-40(powerplay 2), no more than four fielders should be outside 30 yard circle.
For overs no. 41-50(powerplay 3) maximum of five fielders could be outside 30 yard circle.
The restriction for one-day cricket is designed to prevent the fielding team from setting extremely defensive fields and concentrating solely on preventing the batting team from scoring runs.
If any of these rules is violated, an umpire will call the delivery a no ball. Additionally a player may not make any significant movement after the ball comes into play and before the ball reaches the striker. If this happens, an umpire will call and signal 'dead ball'. For close fielders anything other than minor adjustments to stance or position in relation to the striker is significant. In the outfield, fielders may move in towards the striker or striker's wicket; indeed, they usually do. However, anything other than slight movement off line or away from the striker is to be considered significant.
Tactics of field placement[edit]
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With only nine fielders (apart from the bowler and wicket-keeper), the captain of the fielding team must decide which fielding positions to cover, and which to leave vacant. The placement of fielders is one of the major tactical considerations for the fielding captain.
Attacking and defending[edit]
Marcus Trescothick fields at slip during a Twenty20 match.
The main decision for a fielding captain is to strike a balance between setting an attacking field and a defensive field. An attacking field is one in which fielders are positioned in such a way that they are likely to take catches, and thus likely to get the batsman out. Such a field generally involves having many fielders close to the batsman, especially multiple slips (in what is termed a cordon) and a gully: common positions for catching mishit shots.
A defensive field is one in which most of the field is covered by a fielder; the batsman will therefore find it hard to score large numbers of runs. This generally involves having many fielders far from the batsman and in front of him, in the positions where he is most likely to hit the ball.
Many elements govern the decisions on field placements, including: the tactical situation in the match; which bowler is bowling; how long the batsman has been in; the wear on the ball; the state of the wicket; the light; or even how close you are to an interval in play.
Some general principles:
Attack…
… new batsmen
Lack of familiarity means a batsman early in his innings is more likely to make a miscalculated or rash shot, so it pays to have catching fielders ready.
… with the new ball
Fast bowlers get the most swing and bounce with a newer ball, factors that make it harder to bat without making an error.
… when returning from a break in play
Batsmen must settle into a batting rhythm again when resuming play after a break (new session, bad weather, injury etc.). While doing so, they are more likely to make mistakes.
… with quality bowlers
A team's best bowlers tend to deliver the most difficult balls to hit, so they get the most benefit from the support of an attacking field.
… when the pitch helps the bowler
A moist pitch helps fast bowlers get unpredictable seam-movement of the ball, while a dry, crumbling pitch helps spin bowlers get unpredictable spin and damp, overcast conditions help swing bowlers. All three situations can lead to catches flying to close attacking fielders.
… when the batting team is under pressure
If the batting team is doing poorly or has low morale, increase the pressure by attacking with the field.
… when the batting side are playing for a draw
when a team is a long way behind in a first-class game and there is not much time left to play, it becomes more important to bowl out the side and finish the game than to control runs.
Mark Turner executes a sliding stop at Taunton during a Twenty20 match.
Defend…
… when batsmen are settled in
It is difficult to get batsmen out when they have been batting for a long time and are comfortable with the bowling. The best tactic is often to defend and force the run scoring rate to slow down, which can frustrate the batsman into playing a rash shot.
… when the batting team needs to score runs quickly
In situations where the batting team must score quickly in order to win or press an advantage (e.g. the "death overs" at the end of a limited-over innings), slowing down the scoring becomes more important than trying to dismiss the batsmen.
… when the batting team is scoring quickly
If the batsmen are managing to score runs quickly, it is unlikely they are offering many chances to get them out, so reduce the run scoring rate.
… when the ball and pitch offer no help to the bowlers
If there is no movement of the ball and the batsmen can hit it comfortably every time, there is little point in having lots of close catching fielders.
… when using weak bowlers
If a relatively poor bowler must bowl for any reason, the best tactic is often to limit the potential damage by containing the free scoring of runs.
Off- and leg-side fields[edit]
Another consideration when setting a field is how many fielders to have on each side of the pitch. With nine fielders to place, the division must necessarily be unequal, but the degree of inequality varies.
When describing a field setting, the numbers of fielders on the off side and leg side are often abbreviated into a shortened form, with the off side number quoted first. For example, a 5–4 field means 5 fielders on the off side and 4 on the leg side.
Usually, most fielders are placed on the off side. This is because most bowlers tend to concentrate the line of their deliveries on or outside the off stump, so most shots are hit into the off side.
When attacking, there may be 3 or 4 slips and 1 or 2 gullies, potentially using up to six fielders in that region alone. This would typically be accompanied by a mid off, mid on, and fine leg, making it a 7–2 field. Although there are only two fielders on the leg side, they should get relatively little work as long as the bowlers maintain a line outside off stump. This type of field leaves large gaps in front of the wicket, and is used to entice the batsmen to attack there, with the hope that they make a misjudgment and edge the ball to the catchers waiting behind them.
As fields get progressively more defensive, fielders will move out of the slip and gully area to cover more of the field, leading to 6–3 and 5–4 fields.
If a bowler, usually a leg spin bowler, decides to attack the batsman's legs in an attempt to force a stumping, bowl him behind his legs, or induce a catch on the leg side, the field may stack 4–5 towards the leg side. It is unusual to see more than 5 fielders on the leg side, because of the restriction that there must be no more than two fielders placed behind square leg.
Main article: Leg theory
Sometimes a spinner will bowl leg theory and have seven fielders on the leg side, and will bowl significantly wide of the leg stump to prevent scoring. Often the ball is so wide that the batsman cannot hit the ball straight of mid-on while standing still, and cannot hit to the off side unless they try unorthodox and risky shots such as a reverse sweep or pull, or switch their handedness. The batsman can back away to the leg side to hit through the off side, but can expose their stumps in doing so.
Main article: Off theory
The reverse tactic can be used, by fast and slow bowlers alike, by placing seven or eight fielders on the off side and bowling far outside off stump. The batsman can safely allow the ball to pass without fear of it hitting the stumps, but will not score. If they want to score they will have to try and risk an edge to a wide ball and hit through the packed off side, or trying and drag the ball from far outside the stumps to the sparsely-populated leg side.
Another attacking placement on the leg side is the leg side trap, which involves placing fielders near the boundary at deep square and backward square leg and bowling bouncers to try to induce the batsman to hook the ball into the air. For slower bowlers, the leg trap fieldsmen tend to be placed within 10–15 m from the bat behind square, to catch leg glances and sweeps.
Protective equipment[edit]
A silly point (far) and a short leg (near) fielding for Nottinghamshire. Both are wearing helmets. The wicket-keeper's shin pads are on the outside of his trousers, but the fielders must fit their guards underneath their clothing.
No member of the fielding side other than the wicket-keeper may wear gloves or external leg guards, though fielders (in particular players fielding near to the bat) may also wear shin protectors, groin protectors ('boxes') and chest protectors beneath their clothing. Apart from the wicket-keeper, protection for the hand or fingers may be worn only with the consent of the umpires.[3]

Fielders are permitted to wear a helmet and face guard. This is usually employed in a position such as silly point or silly mid-wicket, where proximity to the batsman gives little time to avoid a shot directly at their head. Due to the discomfort and risk of being hit, the duty of fielding "under the helmet" or "under the lid" is often delegated to the most junior member of the team. If the helmet is only being used for overs from one end, it will be placed behind the wicketkeeper when not in use. Some grounds have purpose-built temporary storage in the form of a cavity beneath the pitch, approximately 1m x 1m x 1m in size, accessed through a hatch flush with the grass, which can be used for storing a helmet, shin pads or drinks for the fielding side. 5 penalty runs are awarded to the batting side should the ball touch a fielder's headgear whilst it is not being worn unless the ball previously struck a batsman not attempting to hit or avoid the ball. This rule was introduced in the 19th century to prevent the unfair practice of a fielder using a hat (often a top hat) to take a catch[3]
As cricket balls are hard and can travel at high speeds off the bat, protective equipment is recommended to prevent injury. There have been a few recorded deaths in cricket,[4] but they are extremely rare, and not always related to fielding.[5]
Fielding skills[edit]
Fielding in cricket requires a range of skills.
Close catchers require the ability to be able to take quick reaction catches with a high degree of consistency. This can require considerable efforts of concentration as a catcher may only be required to take one catch in an entire game, but his success in taking that catch may have a considerable effect on the outcome of the match.
Infielders field between 20 and 40 yards away from the batsman. The ball will often be hit at them extremely hard, and they require excellent athleticism as well as courage in stopping it from passing them. Infield catches range from simple, slow moving chances known as "dollies" to hard hit balls that require a spectacular diving catch. Finally, infielders are the main source of run outs in a game of cricket, and their ability to get to the ball quickly, throw it straight and hard and make a direct hit on the stumps is an important skill.
Outfielders field furthest from the bat, typically right on the boundary edge. Their main role is to prevent the ball from going over the boundary and scoring four or six runs. They need good footspeed to be able to get around the field quickly, and a strong arm to be able to make the 50–80-yard throw. Outfielders also often have to catch high hit balls that go over the infield.
Fielding specialities[edit]
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Many cricketers are particularly adept in one fielding position and will usually be found there:
Slips and bat pad require fast reactions, an ability to anticipate the trajectory of the ball as soon as it takes the edge, and intense concentration. Most top slip fielders tend to be top-order batsmen, as these are both skills that require excellent hand–eye coordination. Wicket-keepers and Bat-pad tend to be amongst the shortest players of the team.
Pace bowlers will often be found fielding in the third man, fine leg and deep backward square positions during the overs between those they are bowling. These positions mean that they are at the correct end for their bowling over. They should see relatively little fielding action with plenty of time to react, allowing them to rest between overs. They also usually have an ability to throw the ball long distances accurately.
Players noted for their agility, acceleration, ground diving and throwing accuracy will often field in the infield positions such as point, cover and mid-wicket.
However, players are rarely selected purely because of their fielding skills, and all players are expected to win their place in the team as either a specialist batsman or bowler (or both). This even applies to wicket keepers, who are generally expected to be competent middle-order batsmen, where more than one wicketkeeper can be selected to play as an on-field substitution. Some wicketkeepers may also be called on to bowl.
Throwing a cricket ball[edit]
Jonty Rhodes, who typically fielded at backward point, has been fielding coach for South Africa, Mumbai Indians and Kenya
There have been many competitions for throwing a cricket ball the furthest distance, particularly in the earlier years of the game. Wisden describes how the record was set around 1882, by one Robert Percival at Durham Sands Racecourse, at 140 yards and two feet (128.7 m). Former Essex all-rounder Ian Pont threw a ball 138 yards (126.19 m) in Cape Town in 1981. There are unconfirmed reports that Jānis Lūsis, the non-cricketer Soviet javelin thrower, who won the Olympic gold medal in 1968, once threw a ball 150 yards.[6]
Specialist fielding coaches[edit]
Julien Fountain, specialist fielding coach and designer of "Direct Hit", a fielding performance analysis software.
The use of specialist fielding coaches has become more prevalent in recent years, following the trend of specialist batting & bowling coaches within professional cricket.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Cricket terminology
Laws of cricket
Bowling
Batting
Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bluffer's Guide to Cricket
Jump up ^ 'silly, adj., n., and adv' (definition 5d), Oxford English Dictionary
^ Jump up to: a b "Law 28 – The fielder". MCC. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ On February 20, 1998, Raman Lamba fielding at forward short-leg without a helmet on, was struck on the forehead.
Jump up ^ On November 25, 2014, Phil Hughes batting with a helmet on, suffered a blow to the back of the neck.
Jump up ^ Wisden 2012, p. 1383.
External links[edit]
Fielding Tactics and Tips
A guide to fielding positions – BBC
cricket fielding positions – sportskeeda
Fielding Techniques videos – wisdomtalkies
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