text:
Ewood Park
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Ewood Park
Ewood Park
Location in Blackburn
Location
Blackburn, Lancashire, England, BB2 4JF
Coordinates
53°43′43″N 2°29′21″W / 53.72861°N 2.48917°W / 53.72861; -2.48917Coordinates: 53°43′43″N 2°29′21″W / 53.72861°N 2.48917°W / 53.72861; -2.48917
Capacity
31,367[1]
Field size
115 yd × 76 yd (105 m × 69 m)
Construction
Built
1882
Opened
April 1882
Tenants
Blackburn Rovers F.C. (1881, 1890–present)
Ewood Park is a football stadium in the English town of Blackburn, Lancashire, and is the home of Blackburn Rovers Football Club — one of the founder members of the Football League and Premier League. Rovers have played there since they moved from Leamington Street in the summer of 1890. The stadium opened in 1882 and is an all seater multi-sports facility with a capacity of 31,367.[1] It comprises four sections: The Bryan Douglas Darwen End, Riverside Stand (named as such because it stands practically on the banks of the River Darwen), Ronnie Clayton Blackburn End, and Jack Walker Stand, which is named after Blackburn industrialist and club supporter, Jack Walker. The football pitch within the stadium measures 115 by 76 yards (105 m × 69 m).
Contents
[hide]
1 The "old" Ewood
2 The "new" Ewood
2.1 The Jack Walker Stand
2.2 The Ronnie Clayton Blackburn End
2.3 The RFS Riverside Stand.
2.4 The Bryan Douglas Darwen End
3 Other uses
4 Records
5 References
6 External links
The "old" Ewood[edit]
Ewood Park Main Stand in 1985
Football had been played on the site since at least 1881; Rovers played four matches there when it was known as Ewood Bridge and was most likely little more than a field. Their first match was against Sheffield Wednesday on 9 April 1881.[2]
Ewood Park was officially opened in April 1882 and during the 1880s staged football, athletics and some form of greyhound racing (not oval). Rovers moved back in in 1890, signing a ten-year lease at an initial annual rent of £60.[3] Their first match at the ground was against Accrington in September. In 1893, Blackburn Rovers bought the freehold of the ground for £2500,[3] but came close to disaster soon after when part of a stand collapsed under the weight of a 20,000 strong crowd for the visit of Everton.[citation needed]
In 1903, a roof was built on the Darwen End of the ground, at a cost of £1680. The stand now held 12,000 spectators.[4]
In 1904, the Nuttall Street Stand was built,[4] based on designs by the architect, Archibald Leitch at a cost of £24,000. The stand was first used by supporters on New Year's Day 1907 for a match against Preston North End.In 1905, the textile baron Laurence Cotton became chairman and set about overhauling both team and ground. In 1906, construction started on a new main stand seating 4,112 on its upper tier with a paddock for 9,320 in front with changing rooms and offices underneath, cranked at one end to follow the angle of Nuttall Street.[5]
The Nuttall Street stand changed very little until a fire in 1984 in the Blackburn End corner of the Stand. The club took the opportunity to redevelop this section of the stand with executive boxes and glass-fronted lounge overlooking the ground. The development cost £250,000 and was named the John Lewis Complex, after the clubs founder.[6]
The Blackburn End is so named as the town of Blackburn lies behind the stand and is for home supporters. The Blackburn End was terraced in 1928, but did not acquire its concrete cantilever roof until 1960, which was financed after an FA Cup run to the 1960 FA Cup Final.[7]
A double tiered Riverside Stand was built in 1913, bringing the capacity of Ewood Park up to 70,886 with 7000 seats. In 1928 the Riverside Stand roof was re-roofed for a total outlay of £1,550.
Ewood Park saw its largest crowd – 62,522 for the visit of Bolton Wanderers in 1929.[8] Floodlights were installed in 1958 and were first used in a friendly against Werder Bremen.
The "new" Ewood[edit]
After selling Walkersteel to British Steel Corporation for £330 million, Jack Walker decided to buy Blackburn Rovers and set about changing Ewood Park to one of the most advanced grounds in the country.[9] In June 1992 the local council approved plans to develop Ewood Park into a 31,000 all-seater stadium. By February 1994, the new two-tiered Blackburn and Darwen End stands were opened with car parks situated behind both stands.
The ground's transformation was complete when in August 1994, the Jack Walker Stand was opened on the site of the old Nuttall Street Stand. The new stadium was officially opened in November 1995 and Blackburn Rovers marked the occasion with a 7-0 win over Nottingham Forest.[10]
The Jack Walker Stand[edit]
The Jack Walker Stand view from the Darwen End
The biggest stand at Ewood is named after former club owner Jack Walker. It has 11,000 seats and is one of three stands that were built during Ewood Park's ground redevelopment in the 1990s. This stand contains the home and away dressing rooms and media/conferencing facilities. Furthermore, the stand is home to the Premier Suite and Jack's Kitchen which form part of the club's hospitality packages. Executive catering is provided by Northcote which is owned by Walker's daughter Lynda Matthewman and her husband Richard, a former Vice Chairman of the football club. Due to the unpopularity of club owners Venkys, many fans have criticised this business partnership out of loyalty to Walker.
The Ronnie Clayton Blackburn End[edit]
The modern Blackburn End Stand has 8,000 seats and was constructed in the early 1990s. The boardroom in the Nuttall Street Stand was dismantled piece by piece and, when rebuilding was finished, reassembled in the Blackburn End. The lower tier houses some of the more vocal Rovers supporters.[citation needed] The rear of the stand is also home to a memorial garden and a statue of Jack Walker entitled "Rovers' Greatest Supporter". Outside the stand is the Blackburn Rovers club shop "Roverstore" which was revamped in 2008. The home supporters ticket office and "Blues" cafe bar is situated in the lower reaches of the stand. From here ground tours were led by former Rovers player, Ronnie Clayton until his death in October 2010. The stand is home to the "Strikers Lounge" where members of the club's junior membership scheme "Team Rovers" congregate before and after matches. The Bob Crompton suite and Executive Boxes are also located in the stand.
On 13 August 2011, as a sign of respect to the late and long-serving Rover Ronnie Clayton, it was announced at half-time during the first game of the 2011/12 Premier League season that The Blackburn End was to be renamed The Ronnie Clayton End.
The RFS Riverside Stand.[edit]
The RFS Riverside Stand
It was not until 1988 that the old Riverside Stand was replaced by a new stand. The old stand had failed a safety check in 1985 that came in the aftermath of the Bradford City stadium fire;[11] a new, single-tier stand housing over 4,300 (700 seated approx.). The material for the new roof and terracing was provided by local steel firm, Walkersteel, owned by the man who was soon to buy the club, Jack Walker. Further development of the Riverside Stand took place in the 1990s with further seats being added. The stand is currently sponsored by Regulatory Finance Solutions (RFS).
The Riverside Stand is now the oldest part of the modern Ewood Park. It is the only single tiered stand in the ground, the seating spells out the word "ROVERS" – the club's nickname. The stand holds approximately 4,000 spectators. At the corner of the stand is a giant TV screen showing features, teamsheets and other live games on a match day. There are long-term plans to redevelop the stand, which would raise Ewood Park's capacity by around 9,000 to 40,000.[1] Any development in the foreseeable future depends on an increase of attendance.
The Bryan Douglas Darwen End[edit]
The Darwen End is so named after the town of Darwen which lies behind the stand about 1 mile up the road.
The modern Darwen End was constructed in the early 1990s. The stand houses both home and away supporters in a two tier stand mirroring the Blackburn End in both appearance and capacity. The stand houses the club's education department which attracts youngsters from the surrounding areas for football-based activities in the classroom. The stand is home to the "Legend's Lounge" and International hospitality suites. Behind the stand is the Blackburn Rovers Indoor Centre which provides facilities for community coaching, football leagues and soccer schools.
On 1 November 2012 the Darwen End was renamed as a tribute to club legend Bryan Douglas. He said of the honour: “The first person to congratulate me was Ronnie’s wife Val. He is at one end of the ground and I’m at the other end and long may that continue. We were great friends. They have put me at the right end as well. I was born just 400 yards away from the Darwen End. It is a really proud moment.” [12]
Other uses[edit]
Though primarily the home ground for Blackburn Rovers, Ewood Park has seen other usage, including hosting the 1941 Football League War Cup Final Replay. The ground was given the honour of hosting an international – England v Scotland in 1891 and England v Wales in 1924. Six FA Cup semi finals were played at the venue between 1893 and 1947. On 9 November 2002 Ewood Park hosted Great Britain’s rugby league test match against New Zealand, which was part of their tour of Great Britain and France. The tourists won 30 - 16 with 16,654 in attendance. The ground has also hosted numerous England U21 internationals including England v Wales in 2004. The stadium hosted three matches during the Women's Euro 2005 competition — two England matches in group play, and the final. In 2014, the official supporters trust of the club, Rovers Trust, successfully applied to register the stadium as a Asset of Community Value, In June 2017 the ground hosted a pop concert by Elton John.[13]
Records[edit]
Record Attendance:
61,783 v Bolton Wanderers, 2 March 1929 – FA Cup 6th Round[14]
Record League Attendance:
52,656 v Preston North End, 26 December 1921 – Football League Division One[14]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Adams, Duncan (4 March 2013). "Ewood Park, Blackburn Rovers FC, Ground Description". Football Ground Guide. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Twydell, Dave (1991). Football League Grounds For A Change. p. 32. ISBN 0-9513321-4-7.
^ Jump up to: a b "1885–1894: Blackburn's cup over-floweth". Blackburn Rovers FC. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "1895–1904: End of century blues". Blackburn Rovers FC. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ewood Park". PastScape. Archived from the original on 25 October 2009. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Dean (1993). Blackburn Rovers, An A-Z. pp. 50–51. ISBN 1-874181-10-1.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Dean (1993). Blackburn Rovers, An A-Z. p. 50. ISBN 1-874181-10-1.
Jump up ^ "Club Records". Blackburn Rovers FC. Archived from the original on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ewood Park re development plans". Youtube.com & Lancashire News. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Blackburn Rovers 7 Nottingham Forest 0". Lancashire Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Dean (1993). Blackburn Rovers, An A-Z. p. 51. ISBN 1-874181-10-1.
Jump up ^ Douglas full of pride after being handed Blackburn Rovers honour Lancashire Telegraph, 3 November 2012
Jump up ^ http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/15340882.REVIEW__Elton_John_delights_Blackburn_crowd/
^ Jump up to: a b Hayes, Dean (1993). Blackburn Rovers, An A-Z. pp. 8–9. ISBN 1-874181-10-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ewood Park.
Ewood Park on Pastscape (English Heritage)
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Inquilab Zindabad
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Inquilab Zindabad (Urdu: اِنقلاب زِنده باد; Hindi: इंक़लाब ज़िन्दाबाद) is an Urdu phrase[1] which translates to "Long live the revolution!"
This slogan was coined by the Urdu poet and Indian freedom fighter Maulana Hasrat Mohani in 1921. [2][3][4] It was popularized by Bhagat Singh (1907 - 1931) during the late 1920s through his speeches and writings.[5] It was also the official slogan of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.[6][5] In April 1929, this slogan was raised by Bhagat Singh and his accomplice B. K. Dutt who had shouted this after bombing the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi.[7] Later, for the first time in an open court, this slogan was raised in June 1929 as part of their joint statement at the High Court in Delhi.[8][5] Since then, it became one of the rallying cries of the Indian independence movement. In Indian political novels chronicling the independence movement, a pro-independence sentiment is often characterized by characters shouting this slogan.[9]
The slogan is now used more frequently by socialists and communists, especially by those in the CPI (M), CPI and leftist political parties.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "inquilab | Definition of inquilab in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
Jump up ^ Pandya, Prashant H. (2014-03-01). Indian Philately Digest. Indian Philatelists' Forum.
Jump up ^ "LITERACY NOTES: Hasrat Mohani – a unique poet & politician". Business Recorder. June 18, 2005. Archived from the original on April 6, 2018. Retrieved April 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "India remembers Maulana Hasrat Mohani who gave the revolutionary slogan 'Inquilab Zindabad'". Zee News. 2017-01-02. Retrieved 2018-04-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bhagat Singh: Select Speeches And Writings, Edited by D. N. Gupta". archive.org. Retrieved 2018-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Inquilab Zindabad: A War Cry for Change". Retrieved 2018-04-06.
Jump up ^ Habib, S. Irfan (2007). "Shaheed Bhagat Singh and his Revolutionary Inheritance". Indian Historical Review. 34.2: 79–94 – via sagepub.
Jump up ^ Singh, Bhagat. "Full Text of Statement of S. Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt in the Assembly Bomb Case". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2018-04-06.
Jump up ^ Bhatnagar, O.P. (2007). Indian Political Novel in English. Delhi: Saruk and Sons. p. 42. ISBN 9788176257992.
This Indian history-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Auditory system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Auditory system
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The auditory system is the sensory system for the sense of hearing. It includes both the sensory organs (the ears) and the auditory parts of the sensory system.
Contents
[hide]
1 System overview
2 Structure
2.1 Outer ear
2.2 Middle ear
2.3 Inner ear
2.3.1 Organ of Corti
2.3.2 Hair cell
2.3.3 Neurons
3 Neuronal structure
3.1 Cochlear nucleus
3.2 Trapezoid body
3.3 Superior olivary complex
3.4 Lateral lemniscus
3.5 Inferior colliculi
3.6 Medial geniculate nucleus
3.7 Primary auditory cortex
4 Clinical significance
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
System overview[edit]
The outer ear funnels sound vibrations to the eardrum, increasing the sound pressure in the middle frequency range. The middle-ear ossicles further amplify the vibration pressure roughly 20 times. The base of the stapes couples vibrations into the cochlea via the oval window, which vibrates the perilymph liquid (present throughout the inner ear) and causes the round window to bulb out as the oval window bulges in. Vestibular and tympanic ducts are filled with perilymph, and the smaller cochlear duct between them is filled with endolymph, a fluid with a very different ion concentrations and voltage.[1][2][3][4] Vestibular duct perilymph vibrations bend organ of Corti outer cells (4 lines) causing prestin to be released in cell tips. This causes the cells to be chemically elongated and shrunk (somatic motor), and hair bundles to shift which, in turn, electrically effects the basilar membrane’s movement (hair-bundle motor). These motors (outer cells) amplify the perilymph vibrations that initially incited them over 40-fold. Since both motors are chemically driven they are unaffected by the newly amplified vibrations due to recuperation time.[5] The outer hair cells (OHC) are minimally innervated by spiral ganglion in slow (unmyelinated) reciprocal communicative bundles (30+ hairs per nerve fiber); this contrasts inner hair cells (IHC) that have only afferent innervation (30+ nerve fibers per one hair) but are heavily connected. There are 4x more OHC than IHC. The basilar membrane is a wall where the majority of the IHC and OHC sit. Basilar membrane width and stiffness corresponds to the frequencies best sensed by the IHC. At the cochlea base the Basilar is at its narrowest and most stiff (high-frequencies), at the cochlea apex it is at its widest and least stiff (low-frequencies). The tectorial membrane supports the remaining IHC and OHC. Tectorial membrane helps facilitate cochlear amplification by stimulating OHC (direct) and IHC (via endolymph vibrations). Tectorial's width and stiffness parallels Basilar's and similarly aids in frequency differentiation.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]
The superior olivary complex (SOC), in pons, is the first convergence of the left and right cochlear pulses. SOC has 14 described nuclei; their abbreviation are used here (see Superior olivary complex for their full names). MSO determines the angle the sound came from by measuring time differences in left and right info. LSO normalizes sound levels between the ears; it uses the sound intensities to help determine sound angle. LSO innervates the IHC. VNTB innervate OHC. MNTB inhibit LSO via glycine. LNTB are glycine-immune, used for fast signalling. DPO are high-frequency and tonotopical. DLPO are low-frequency and tonotopical. VLPO have the same function as DPO, but act in a different area. PVO, CPO, RPO, VMPO, ALPO and SPON (inhibited by glycine) are various signalling and inhibiting nuclei.[15][16][17][18]
The trapezoid body is where most of the cochlear nucleus (CN) fibers decussate (cross left to right and vice versa); this cross aids in sound localization.[19] The CN breaks into ventral (VCN) and dorsal (DCN) regions. The VCN has three nuclei.[clarification needed] Bushy cells transmit timing info, their shape averages timing jitters. Stellate (chopper) cells encode sound spectra (peaks and valleys) by spatial neural firing rates based on auditory input strength (rather than frequency). Octopus cells have close to the best temporal precision while firing, they decode the auditory timing code. The DCN has 2 nuclei. DCN also receives info from VCN. Fusiform cells integrate information to determine spectral cues to locations (for example, whether a sound originated from in front or behind). Cochlear nerve fibers (30,000+) each have a most sensitive frequency and respond over a wide range of levels.[20][21]
Simplified, nerve fibers’ signals are transported by bushy cells to the binaural areas in the olivary complex, while signal peaks and valleys are noted by stellate cells, and signal timing is extracted by octopus cells. The lateral lemniscus has three nuclei: dorsal nuclei respond best to bilateral input and have complexity tuned responses; intermediate nuclei have broad tuning responses; and ventral nuclei have broad and moderately complex tuning curves. Ventral nuclei of lateral lemniscus help the inferior colliculus (IC) decode amplitude modulated sounds by giving both phasic and tonic responses (short and long notes, respectively). IC receives inputs not shown, including visual (pretectal area: moves eyes to sound. superior colliculus: orientation and behavior toward objects, as well as eye movements (saccade)) areas, Pons (superior cerebellar peduncle: thalamus to cerebellum connection/hear sound and learn behavioral response), spinal cord (periaqueductal grey: hear sound and instinctually move), and thalamus. The above are what implicate IC in the ‘startle response’ and ocular reflexes. Beyond multi-sensory integration IC responds to specific amplitude modulation frequencies, allowing for the detection of pitch. IC also determines time differences in binaural hearing.[22] The medial geniculate nucleus divides into ventral (relay and relay-inhibitory cells: frequency, intensity, and binaural info topographically relayed), dorsal (broad and complex tuned nuclei: connection to somatosensory info), and medial (broad, complex, and narrow tuned nuclei: relay intensity and sound duration). The auditory cortex (AC) brings sound into awareness/perception. AC identifies sounds (sound-name recognition) and also identifies the sound’s origin location. AC is a topographical frequency map with bundles reacting to different harmonies, timing and pitch. Right-hand-side AC is more sensitive to tonality, left-hand-side AC is more sensitive to minute sequential differences in sound.[23][24] Rostromedial and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices are involved in activation during tonal space and storing short-term memories, respectively.[25] The Heschl’s gyrus/transverse temporal gyrus includes Wernicke’s area and functionality, it is heavily involved in emotion-sound, emotion-facial-expression, and sound-memory processes. The entorhinal cortex is the part of the ‘hippocampus system’ that aids and stores visual and auditory memories.[26][27] The supramarginal gyrus (SMG) aids in language comprehension and is responsible for compassionate responses. SMG links sounds to words with the angular gyrus and aids in word choice. SMG integrates tactile, visual, and auditory info.[28][29]
Structure[edit]
Anatomy of the human ear (The length of the auditory canal is exaggerated in this image.)
Outer ear[edit]
Main article: Outer ear
The folds of cartilage surrounding the ear canal are called the pinna. Sound waves are reflected and attenuated when they hit the pinna, and these changes provide additional information that will help the brain determine the direction from which the sounds came.
The sound waves enter the auditory canal, a deceptively simple tube. The ear canal amplifies sounds that are between 3 and 12 kHz. At the far end of the ear canal is the tympanic membrane, which marks the beginning of the middle ear.
Middle ear[edit]
Main article: Middle ear
Auditory ossicles from a deep dissection of the tympanic cavity
Sound waves travel through the ear canal and hit the tympanic membrane, or eardrum. This wave information travels across the air-filled middle ear cavity via a series of delicate bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). These ossicles act as a lever, converting the lower-pressure eardrum sound vibrations into higher-pressure sound vibrations at another, smaller membrane called the oval window or vestibular window. The manubrium (handle) of the malleus articulates with the tympanic membrane, while the footplate (base) of the stapes articulates with the oval window. Higher pressure is necessary at the oval window than at the typanic membrane because the inner ear beyond the oval window contains liquid rather than air. The stapedius reflex of the middle ear muscles helps protect the inner ear from damage by reducing the transmission of sound energy when the stapedius muscle is activated in response to sound. The middle ear still contains the sound information in wave form; it is converted to nerve impulses in the cochlea.
Inner ear[edit]
Cochlea
Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the cochlea. The cochlear duct, or scala media, is labeled as ductus cochlearis at right.
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Main article: Inner ear
The inner ear consists of the cochlea and several non-auditory structures. The cochlea has three fluid-filled sections, and supports a fluid wave driven by pressure across the basilar membrane separating two of the sections. Strikingly, one section, called the cochlear duct or scala media, contains endolymph, a fluid similar in composition to the intracellular fluid found inside cells. The organ of Corti is located in this duct on the basilar membrane, and transforms mechanical waves to electric signals in neurons. The other two sections are known as the scala tympani and the scala vestibuli; these are located within the bony labyrinth, which is filled with fluid called perilymph, similar in composition to cerebrospinal fluid. The chemical difference between the fluids endolymph and perilymph fluids is important for the function of the inner ear due to electrical potential differences between potassium and calcium ions.
The plan view of the human cochlea (typical of all mammalian and most vertebrates) shows where specific frequencies occur along its length. The frequency is an approximately exponential function of the length of the cochlea within the Organ of Corti. In some species, such as bats and dolphins, the relationship is expanded in specific areas to support their active sonar capability.
Organ of Corti[edit]
Main article: Organ of Corti
The organ of Corti located at the scala media
The organ of Corti forms a ribbon of sensory epithelium which runs lengthwise down the cochlea's entire scala media. Its hair cells transform the fluid waves into nerve signals. The journey of countless nerves begins with this first step; from here, further processing leads to a panoply of auditory reactions and sensations.
Hair cell[edit]
Main article: Hair cell
Hair cells are columnar cells, each with a bundle of 100–200 specialized cilia at the top, for which they are named. There are two types of hair cells. Inner hair cells are the mechanoreceptors for hearing: they transduce the vibration of sound into electrical activity in nerve fibers, which is transmitted to the brain. Outer hair cells are a motor structure. Sound energy causes changes in the shape of these cells, which serves to amplify sound vibrations in a frequency specific manner. Lightly resting atop the longest cilia of the inner hair cells is the tectorial membrane, which moves back and forth with each cycle of sound, tilting the cilia, which is what elicits the hair cells' electrical responses.
Inner hair cells, like the photoreceptor cells of the eye, show a graded response, instead of the spikes typical of other neurons. These graded potentials are not bound by the "all or none" properties of an action potential.
At this point, one may ask how such a wiggle of a hair bundle triggers a difference in membrane potential. The current model is that cilia are attached to one another by "tip links", structures which link the tips of one cilium to another. Stretching and compressing, the tip links may open an ion channel and produce the receptor potential in the hair cell. Recently it has been shown that cadherin-23 CDH23 and protocadherin-15 PCDH15 are the adhesion molecules associated with these tip links.[30] It is thought that a calcium driven motor causes a shortening of these links to regenerate tensions. This regeneration of tension allows for apprehension of prolonged auditory stimulation.[31]
Neurons[edit]
Main article: Hair cell neural connection
Afferent neurons innervate cochlear inner hair cells, at synapses where the neurotransmitter glutamate communicates signals from the hair cells to the dendrites of the primary auditory neurons.
There are far fewer inner hair cells in the cochlea than afferent nerve fibers – many auditory nerve fibers innervate each hair cell. The neural dendrites belong to neurons of the auditory nerve, which in turn joins the vestibular nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve, or cranial nerve number VIII.[32] The region of the basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its receptive field.
Efferent projections from the brain to the cochlea also play a role in the perception of sound, although this is not well understood. Efferent synapses occur on outer hair cells and on afferent (towards the brain) dendrites under inner hair cells
Neuronal structure[edit]
Cochlear nucleus[edit]
Main article: Cochlear nucleus
The cochlear nucleus is the first site of the neuronal processing of the newly converted “digital” data from the inner ear (see also binaural fusion). In mammals, this region is anatomically and physiologically split into two regions, the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), and ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN). The VCN is further divided by the nerve root into the posteroventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) and the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN).[33]
Trapezoid body[edit]
Main article: Trapezoid body
The trapezoid body is a bundle of decussating fibers in the ventral pons that carry information used for binaural computations in the brainstem. Some of these axons come from the cochlear nucleus and cross over to the other side before traveling on to the superior olivary nucleus. This is believed to help with localization of sound.[34]
Superior olivary complex[edit]
Main article: Superior olivary complex
The superior olivary complex is located in the pons, and receives projections predominantly from the ventral cochlear nucleus, although the dorsal cochlear nucleus projects there as well, via the ventral acoustic stria. Within the superior olivary complex lies the lateral superior olive (LSO) and the medial superior olive (MSO). The former is important in detecting interaural level differences while the latter is important in distinguishing interaural time difference.[35]
Lateral lemniscus in red, as it connects the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary nucleus and the inferior colliculus, seen from behind
Lateral lemniscus[edit]
Main article: Lateral lemniscus
The lateral lemniscus is a tract of axons in the brainstem that carries information about sound from the cochlear nucleus to various brainstem nuclei and ultimately the contralateral inferior colliculus of the midbrain.
Inferior colliculi[edit]
Main article: Inferior colliculus
The inferior colliculi (IC) are located just below the visual processing centers known as the superior colliculi. The central nucleus of the IC is a nearly obligatory relay in the ascending auditory system, and most likely acts to integrate information (specifically regarding sound source localization from the superior olivary complex[36] and dorsal cochlear nucleus) before sending it to the thalamus and cortex.[37]
Medial geniculate nucleus[edit]
Main article: Medial geniculate nucleus
The medial geniculate nucleus is part of the thalamic relay system.
Primary auditory cortex[edit]
Main article: Primary auditory cortex
The primary auditory cortex is the first region of cerebral cortex to receive auditory input.
Perception of sound is associated with the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (STG). The superior temporal gyrus contains several important structures of the brain, including Brodmann areas 41 and 42, marking the location of the primary auditory cortex, the cortical region responsible for the sensation of basic characteristics of sound such as pitch and rhythm. We know from work in nonhuman primates that primary auditory cortex can probably itself be divided further into functionally differentiable subregions.[38][39][40][41] [42][43][44] The neurons of the primary auditory cortex can be considered to have receptive fields covering a range of auditory frequencies and have selective responses to harmonic pitches.[45] Neurons integrating information from the two ears have receptive fields covering a particular region of auditory space.
The primary auditory cortex is surrounded by secondary auditory cortex, and interconnects with it. These secondary areas interconnect with further processing areas in the superior temporal gyrus, in the dorsal bank of the superior temporal sulcus, and in the frontal lobe. In humans, connections of these regions with the middle temporal gyrus are probably important for speech perception. The frontotemporal system underlying auditory perception allows us to distinguish sounds as speech, music, or noise.
Clinical significance[edit]
Proper function of the auditory system is required to able to sense, process and understand sound from the surroundings. Difficulty in sensing, processing and understanding sound input has the potential to adversely impact an individual's ability to communicate, learn and effectively complete routine tasks on a daily basis [46].
In children, early diagnosis and treatment of impaired auditory system function is an important factor in ensuring that key social, academic and speech/language developmental milestones are met [47].
Impairment of the auditory system can include any of the following:
Auditory brainstem response and ABR audiometry test for newborn hearing
Auditory processing disorder
Noise health effects
Tinnitus
Endaural phenomena
See also[edit]
Cognitive neuroscience of music
Selective auditory attention
Sound
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Kandel, Eric R. (2012). Principles of Neural Science. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-139011-8. OCLC 795553723.
External links[edit]
Promenade 'round the cochlea
Auditory system – Washington University Neuroscience Tutorial
Lincoln Gray. "Chapter 13: Auditory System: Pathways and Reflexes". Neuroscience Online, the Open-Access Neuroscience Electronic Textbook. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth). Retrieved 27 April 2014.
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Anatomy of hearing and balance
Outer ear
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Eardrum
umbo
pars flaccida
Middle ear
Tympanic cavity
Medial structures
oval window
round window
secondary tympanic membrane
prominence of facial canal
promontory of tympanic cavity
Posterior structures
mastoid cells
aditus to mastoid antrum
pyramidal eminence
Ossicles
Malleus
superior ligament
lateral ligament
anterior ligament
Incus
superior ligament
posterior ligament
Stapes
annular ligament
Muscles
stapedius
tensor tympani
Auditory tube /
Eustachian tube
Torus tubarius
Inner ear/
(membranous labyrinth,
bony labyrinth)
Auditory system/
Cochlear labyrinth
General cochlea
Vestibular duct
Helicotrema
Tympanic duct
Modiolus
Cochlear cupula
Perilymphatic space
Perilymph
Cochlear aqueduct
Cochlear duct /
scala media
Reissner's/vestibular membrane
Basilar membrane
Reticular membrane
Endolymph
Stria vascularis
Spiral ligament
Organ of Corti
stereocilia
tip links
Tectorial membrane
Sulcus spiralis
externus
internus
Spiral limbus
Cells
Claudius cell
Boettcher cell
Vestibular system/
Vestibular labyrinth
Vestibule
Utricle
macula
Saccule
macula
Kinocilium
Otolith
Vestibular aqueduct
endolymphatic duct
endolymphatic sac
Ductus reuniens
Semicircular canals
Superior semicircular canal
Posterior semicircular canal
Horizontal semicircular canal
Ampullary cupula
Ampullae
crista ampullaris
[show]
v
t
e
Physiology of balance and hearing
Hearing
General
Auditory system
Bone conduction
Otoacoustic emission
Tullio phenomenon
Pathway
inner ear: Hair cells → Spiral ganglion → Cochlear nerve VIII →
pons: Cochlear nucleus (Anterior, Dorsal) → Trapezoid body → Superior olivary nuclei →
midbrain: Lateral lemniscus → Inferior colliculi →
thalamus: Medial geniculate nuclei →
cerebrum: Acoustic radiation → Primary auditory cortex
Balance
General
Vestibular system
Pathway
inner ear: Vestibular nerve VIII →
pons: Vestibular nuclei (Medial vestibular nucleus, Lateral vestibular nucleus)
cerebellum: Flocculonodular lobe
spinal cord: Vestibulospinal tract (Medial vestibulospinal tract, Lateral vestibulospinal tract)
thalamus: Ventral posterolateral nucleus
cerebrum: Vestibular cortex
Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
[show]
v
t
e
Symptoms and signs: Speech and voice / Symptoms involving head and neck (R47–R49, 784)
Aphasias
Acute Aphasias
Expressive aphasia
Receptive aphasia
Conduction aphasia
Anomic aphasia
Global aphasia
Transcortical sensory aphasia
Transcortical motor aphasia
Mixed transcortical aphasia
Progressive Aphasias
Progressive nonfluent aphasia
Semantic dementia
Logopenic progressive aphasia
Speech disturbances
Speech disorder
Developmental verbal dyspraxia/Apraxia of speech
Auditory verbal agnosia
Dysarthria
Schizophasia
Aprosodia/Dysprosody
Specific language impairment
Thought disorder
Pressure of speech
Derailment
Clanging
Circumstantiality
Communication disorders
Developmental dyslexia/Alexia
Agnosia
Astereognosis
Prosopagnosia
Visual agnosia
Gerstmann syndrome
Developmental coordination disorder/Apraxia
Ideomotor apraxia
Dyscalculia/Acalculia
Agraphia
Voice disturbances
Dysphonia/Aphonia
Bogart–Bacall syndrome
Nose
Post-nasal drip
Epistaxis
Mouth
Orofacial pain
Toothache
Galvanic pain
Barodontalgia
Fremitus
Tooth mobility
Bruxism
Trismus
Ageusia
Hypogeusia
Dysgeusia
Parageusia
Hypergeusia
Xerostomia
Halitosis
Drooling
Hypersalivation
Neck
Neck mass
Cervical lymphadenopathy
Other
Headache
Auditory processing disorder
Otalgia
Velopharyngeal inadequacy
Velopharyngeal insufficiency
Hypersensitive gag reflex
Jaw claudication
Hypomimia
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Auditory_system&oldid=835115018"
Categories:
Auditory system
Audiology
Neurology
Hearing
Hidden categories:
Pages with unresolved properties
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
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Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2016
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