text:
American literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see American literature (disambiguation).
This article is part of a series on the
Culture of the
United States of America
Society
History
Language
People
Race and ethnicity
Religion
Arts and literature
Architecture
Art
Dance
Fashion
Literature
Comics
Poetry
Music
Sculpture
Theater
Other
Cuisine
Festivals
Folklore
Media
Newspapers
Radio
Cinema
TV
Mythology
Sport
Symbols
Flag
Great Seal
Monuments
Motto
Anthem
Bird
World Heritage Sites

United States portal
v
t
e
American literature is literature written or produced in the United States and its preceding colonies (for specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United States). Before the founding of the United States, the British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United States were heavily influenced by English literature. The American literary tradition thus began as part of the broader tradition of English literature.
The revolutionary period is notable for the political writings of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Thomas Jefferson's United States Declaration of Independence solidified his status as a key American writer. It was in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the nation's first novels were published. An early example is William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Brown's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fall in love without knowing they are related.
With an increasing desire to produce uniquely American literature and culture, a number of key new literary figures emerged, perhaps most prominently Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe. In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson started an influential movement known as Transcendentalism. Inspired by that movement, Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden, which celebrates individualism and nature and urges resistance to the dictates of organized society. The political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her famous novel Uncle Tom's Cabin. These efforts were supported by the continuation of the slave narratives such as Frederick Douglass's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Nathaniel Hawthorne published his masterpiece The Scarlet Letter, a novel about adultery. Hawthorne influenced Herman Melville, who is notable for the books Moby-Dick and Billy Budd. America's greatest poets of the nineteenth century were Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson. Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens) was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast. Henry James put American literature on the international map with novels like The Portrait of a Lady. At the turn of the twentieth century a strong naturalist movement emerged that comprised writers such as Edith Wharton, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Jack London.
American writers expressed disillusionment following WW I. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald capture the mood of the 1920s, and John Dos Passos wrote too about the war. Ernest Hemingway became famous with The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms; in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner became one of the greatest American writers with novels like The Sound and the Fury. American poetry reached a peak after World War I with such writers as Wallace Stevens, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, and E. E. Cummings. American drama attained international status at the time with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the mid-twentieth century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical.
Depression era writers included John Steinbeck, notable for his novel The Grapes of Wrath. Henry Miller assumed a distinct place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels were banned from the US. From the end of World War II until the early 1970s many popular works in modern American literature were produced, like Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird. America's involvement in World War II influenced works such as Norman Mailer's The Naked and the Dead (1948), Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s Slaughterhouse-Five (1969). The main literary movement since the 1970s has been postmodernism, and since the late twentieth century ethnic and minority literature has sharply increased.
Contents
[hide]
1 Colonial literature
1.1 Topics of early writing
1.2 Revolutionary period
2 Post-independence
2.1 The First American Novel
3 Unique American style
4 Early American poetry
5 Realism, Twain and James
6 Beginning of the 20th century
6.1 1920s
7 The rise of American drama
8 Depression-era literature
9 Post–World War II
9.1 The postwar novel
9.2 Short fiction and poetry
10 Contemporary American literature
11 Minority literatures
12 Nobel Prize in Literature winners (American authors)
13 American literary awards
14 Literary theory and criticism
15 See also
15.1 Additional genres
15.2 Regional and minority focuses in American literature
16 Notes and references
17 Bibliography
18 External links
Colonial literature[edit]
Because of the large immigration to Boston in the 1630s, the articulation of Puritan ideals, and the early establishment of a college and a printing press in Cambridge, the New England colonies have often been regarded as the center of early American literature. However, the first European settlements in North America had been founded elsewhere many years earlier. Towns older than Boston include the Spanish settlements at Saint Augustine and Santa Fe, the Dutch settlements at Albany and New Amsterdam, as well as the English colony of Jamestown in present-day Virginia. During the colonial period, the printing press was active in many areas, from Cambridge and Boston to New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis.
The dominance of the English language was not inevitable.[1] The first item printed in Pennsylvania was in German and was the largest book printed in any of the colonies before the American Revolution.[1] Spanish and French had two of the strongest colonial literary traditions in the areas that now comprise the United States, and discussions of early American literature commonly include texts by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Samuel de Champlain alongside English language texts by Thomas Harriot and John Smith. Moreover, we are now aware of the wealth of oral literary traditions already existing on the continent among the numerous different Native American groups. Political events, however, would eventually make English the lingua franca for the colonies at large as well as the literary language of choice. For instance, when the English conquered New Amsterdam in 1664, they renamed it New York and changed the administrative language from Dutch to English.
From 1696 to 1700, only about 250 separate items were issued from the major printing presses in the American colonies. This is a small number compared to the output of the printers in London at the time. London printers published materials written by New England authors, so the body of American literature was larger than what was published in North America. However, printing was established in the American colonies before it was allowed in most of England. In England, restrictive laws had long confined printing to four locations, where the government could monitor what was published: London, York, Oxford, and Cambridge. Because of this, the colonies ventured into the modern world earlier than their provincial English counterparts.[1]
Back then, some of the American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist audience. Captain John Smith could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginia... (1608) and The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ash, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson.
Topics of early writing[edit]
The religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were important topics of early American literature. A journal written by John Winthrop, The History of New England, discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower's arrival. "A modell of Christian Charity" by John Winthrop, the first governor of Massachusetts, was a Sermon preached on the Arbella (the flagship of the Winthrop Fleet) in 1630. This work outlined the ideal society that he and the other Separatists would build in an attempt to realize a "Puritan utopia". Other religious writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620–47. Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church separation. And still others, like Thomas Morton, cared little for the church; Morton's The New English Canaan mocked the religious settlers and declared that the Native Americans were actually better people than the British.[2]
Puritan poetry was highly religious, and one of the earliest books of poetry published was the Bay Psalm Book, a set of translations of the biblical Psalms; however, the translators' intention was not to create literature, but to create hymns that could be used in worship.[2] Among lyric poets, the most important figures are Anne Bradstreet, who wrote personal poems about her family and homelife; pastor Edward Taylor, whose best poems, the Preparatory Meditations, were written to help him prepare for leading worship; and Michael Wigglesworth, whose best-selling poem, The Day of Doom (1660), describes the time of judgment. It was published in the same year that anti-Puritan Charles II was restored to the British throne. He followed it two years later with God's Controversy With New England. Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel verse.
Other late writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary Rowlandson. John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin language.
Of the second generation of New England settlers, Cotton Mather stands out as a theologian and historian, who wrote the history of the colonies with a view to God's activity in their midst and to connecting the Puritan leaders with the great heroes of the Christian faith. His best-known works include the Magnalia Christi Americana, the Wonders of the Invisible World and The Biblia Americana.
Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that emphasized Calvinism. Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, John Wise, and Samuel Willard. Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall (who wrote a diary revealing the daily life of the late 17th century),[2] and Sarah Kemble Knight.
New England was not the only area in the colonies with a literature: southern literature was also growing at this time. The diary of William Byrd and The History of the Dividing Line described the expedition to survey the swamp between Virginia and North Carolina but also comments on the differences between American Indians and the white settlers in the area.[2] In a similar book, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West, William Bartram described the Southern landscape and the Indian tribes he encountered; Bartram's book was popular in Europe, being translated into German, French and Dutch.[2]
As the colonies moved toward independence from Britain, an important discussion of American culture and identity came from the French immigrant J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur, whose Letters from an American Farmer addresses the question "What is an American?" by moving between praise for the opportunities and peace offered in the new society and recognition that the solid life of the farmer must rest uneasily between the oppressive aspects of the urban life and the lawless aspects of the frontier, where the lack of social structures leads to the loss of civilized living.[2]
This same period saw the beginning of black literature, through the poet Phillis Wheatley and the slave narrative of Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. At this time American Indian literature also began to flourish. Samson Occom published his A Sermon Preached at the Execution of Moses Paul and a popular hymnbook, Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs, "the first Indian best-seller".[3]
Revolutionary period[edit]
The Revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, the last being a loyalist to the crown. Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American identity. Paine's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the time.
During the Revolutionary War, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle" and "Nathan Hale" were popular. Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis Hopkinson. Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the War.
During the 18th century, writing shifted from the Puritanism of Winthrop and Bradford to Enlightenment ideas of reason. The belief that human and natural occurrences were messages from God no longer fit with the new human-centered world. Many intellectuals believed that the human mind could comprehend the universe through the laws of physics as described by Isaac Newton. One of these was Cotton Mather. The first book published in North America that promoted Newton and natural theology was Mather's The Christian Philosopher (1721). The enormous scientific, economic, social, and philosophical, changes of the 18th century, called the Enlightenment, impacted the authority of clergyman and scripture, making way for democratic principles. The increase in population helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religious and political life as seen in the literature of this time. In 1670, the population of the colonies numbered approximately 111,000. Thirty years later it was more than 250,000. By 1760, it reached 1,600,000.[1] The growth of communities and therefore social life led people to become more interested in the progress of individuals and their shared experience in the colonies. These new ideas can be seen in the popularity of Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography.
Even earlier than Franklin was Cadwallader Colden (1689 - 1776), whose book The History of the Five Indian Nations, published in 1727 was one of the first texts critical of the treatment of the Iroquois in upstate New York by the English. Colden also wrote a book on botany, which attracted the attention of Linnaeus, and he maintained a long term correspondence with Benjamin Franklin.
Post-independence[edit]
In the post-war period, Thomas Jefferson established his place in American literature through his authorship of the United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the United States Constitution, his autobiography, his Notes on the State of Virginia, and his many letters. The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay presented a significant historical discussion of American government organization and republican values. Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and orations.
Early American literature struggled to find a unique voice in existing literary genre, and this tendency was reflected in novels. European styles were frequently imitated, but critics usually considered the imitations inferior.
The First American Novel[edit]
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the first American novels were published. These fictions were too lengthy to be printed as manuscript or public reading. Publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted. This scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges' "Adventures of Alonso", published in London in 1775 and William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Brown's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related.
In the next decade important women writers also published novels. Susanna Rowson is best known for her novel, Charlotte: A Tale of Truth, published in London in 1791.[4] In 1794 the novel was reissued in Philadelphia under the title, Charlotte Temple. Charlotte Temple is a seduction tale, written in the third person, which warns against listening to the voice of love and counsels resistance. She also wrote nine novels, six theatrical works, two collections of poetry, six textbooks, and countless songs.[4] Reaching more than a million and a half readers over a century and a half, Charlotte Temple was the biggest seller of the 19th century before Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Although Rowson was extremely popular in her time and is often acknowledged in accounts of the development of the early American novel, Charlotte Temple is often criticized as a sentimental novel of seduction.
Hannah Webster Foster's The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton was published in 1797 and was also extremely popular.[5] Told from Foster's point of view and based on the real life of Eliza Whitman, the novel is about a woman who is seduced and abandoned. Eliza is a "coquette" who is courted by two very different men: a clergyman who offers her a comfortable domestic life and a noted libertine. Unable to choose between them, she finds herself single when both men get married. She eventually yields to the artful libertine and gives birth to an illegitimate stillborn child at an inn. The Coquette is praised for its demonstration of the era's contradictory ideas of womanhood. [6] even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women's subordination.[7]
Washington Irving and his friends at Sunnyside
Both The Coquette and Charlotte Temple are novels that treat the right of women to live as equals as the new democratic experiment. These novels are of the Sentimental genre, characterized by overindulgence in emotion, an invitation to listen to the voice of reason against misleading passions, as well as an optimistic overemphasis on the essential goodness of humanity. Sentimentalism is often thought to be a reaction against the Calvinistic belief in the depravity of human nature.[8] While many of these novels were popular, the economic infrastructure of the time did not allow these writers to make a living through their writing alone.[9]
Charles Brockden Brown is the earliest American novelist whose works are still commonly read. He published Wieland in 1798, and in 1799 published Ormond, Edgar Huntly, and Arthur Mervyn. These novels are of the Gothic genre.
The first writer to be able to support himself through the income generated by his publications alone was Washington Irving. He completed his first major book in 1809 entitled A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty.[10]
Of the picaresque genre, Hugh Henry Brackenridge published Modern Chivalry in 1792-1815; Tabitha Gilman Tenney wrote Female Quixotism: Exhibited in the Romantic Opinions and Extravagant Adventure of Dorcasina Sheldon in 1801; Royall Tyler wrote The Algerine Captive in 1797.[8]
Other notable authors include William Gilmore Simms, who wrote Martin Faber in 1833, Guy Rivers in 1834, and The Yemassee in 1835. Lydia Maria Child wrote Hobomok in 1824 and The Rebels in 1825. John Neal wrote Logan, A Family History in 1822, Rachel Dyer in 1828, and The Down-Easters in 1833. Catherine Maria Sedgwick wrote A New England Tale in 1822, Redwood in 1824, Hope Leslie in 1827, and The Linwoods in 1835. James Kirke Paulding wrote The Lion of the West in 1830, The Dutchman's Fireside in 1831, and Westward Ho! in 1832. Robert Montgomery Bird wrote Calavar in 1834 and Nick of the Woods in 1837. James Fenimore Cooper was also a notable author best known for his novel, The Last of the Mohicans written in 1826.[8] George Tucker produced in 1824 the first fiction of Virginia colonial life with The Valley of Shenandoah. He followed in 1827 with one of the country's first science fictions, A Voyage to the Moon: With Some Account of the Manners and Customs, Science and Philosophy, of the People of Morosofia, and Other Lunarians.
Unique American style[edit]
Edgar Allan Poe
After the War of 1812, there was an increasing desire to produce a uniquely American literature and culture, and a number of literary figures emerged, among them Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, and James Fenimore Cooper. Irving wrote humorous works in Salmagundi and the satire A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809). Bryant wrote early romantic and nature-inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European origins.
Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales about Natty Bumppo (which includes The Last of the Mohicans) were popular both in the new country and abroad. In 1832, Edgar Allan Poe began writing short stories – including "The Masque of the Red Death", "The Pit and the Pendulum", "The Fall of the House of Usher", and "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" – that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction toward mystery and fantasy.
Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J. Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, and George Washington Harris writing about the American frontier.
The New England Brahmins were a group of writers connected to Harvard University and Cambridge, Massachusetts. They included James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson, a former minister, published his essay Nature, which argued that men should dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and interacting with the natural world. Emerson's work influenced the writers who formed the movement now known as Transcendentalism, while Emerson also influenced the public through his lectures.
Among the leaders of the Transcendental movement was Henry David Thoreau, a nonconformist and a close friend of Emerson. After living mostly by himself for two years in a cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote Walden, a memoir that urges resistance to the dictates of society. Thoreau's writings demonstrate a strong American tendency toward individualism. Other Transcendentalists included Amos Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones Very.[11]
As one of the great works of the Revolutionary period was written by a Frenchman, so too was a work about America from this generation. Alexis de Tocqueville's two-volume Democracy in America described his travels through the young nation, making observations about the relations between American politics, individualism, and community.
The political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper The Liberator, along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Tom's Cabin. These efforts were supported by the continuation of the slave narrative autobiography, of which the best known examples from this period include Frederick Douglass's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave and Harriet Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl.
At the same time, American Indian autobiography develops, most notably in William Apess's A Son of the Forest and George Copway's The Life, History and Travels of Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh. Moreover, minority authors were beginning to publish fiction, as in William Wells Brown's Clotel; or, The President's Daughter, Frank J. Webb's The Garies and Their Friends, Martin Delany's Blake; or, The Huts of America and Harriet E. Wilson's Our Nig as early African American novels, and John Rollin Ridge's The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta: The Celebrated California Bandit, which is considered the first Native American novel but which also is an early story about Mexican American issues.
Nathaniel Hawthorne
In 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864) collected some of his stories as Twice-Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult incidents. Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances", quasi-allegorical novels that explore the themes of guilt, pride, and emotional repression in New England. His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is a drama about a woman cast out of her community for committing adultery.
Hawthorne's fiction had a profound impact on his friend Herman Melville (1819–1891), who first made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic sea narrative novels. Inspired by Hawthorne's focus on allegories and psychology, Melville went on to write romances replete with philosophical speculation. In Moby-Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the elements.
In the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of war. His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his death. He was rediscovered in the early 20th century.
Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism sub-genre of popular literature at this time.
American dramatic literature, by contrast, remained dependent on European models, although many playwrights did attempt to apply these forms to American topics and themes, such as immigrants, westward expansion, temperance, etc. At the same time, American playwrights created several long-lasting American character types, especially the "Yankee", the "Negro" and the "Indian", exemplified by the characters of Jonathan, Sambo and Metamora. In addition, new dramatic forms were created in the Tom Shows, the showboat theater and the minstrel show. Among the best plays of the period are James Nelson Barker's Superstition; or, the Fanatic Father, Anna Cora Mowatt's Fashion; or, Life in New York, Nathaniel Bannister's Putnam, the Iron Son of '76, Dion Boucicault's The Octoroon; or, Life in Louisiana, and Cornelius Mathews's Witchcraft; or, the Martyrs of Salem.
History of
modern literature
By decade
List of years in literature
Early modern by century
16th
17th
Mid-modern by century
18th
19th
20th–21st century
Modernism
Structuralism
Deconstruction
Poststructuralism
Postmodernism
Post-colonialism
Hypertexts
By region
Africa
Nigerian
South African
Americas
American
Argentine
Brazilian
Canadian
Colombian
Cuban
Jamaican
Mexican
Peruvian
Asia
Bengali
Bangladeshi English
Chinese
Gujarati
Hindi
Indian
Indian English
Japanese
Kannada
Kashmiri
Korean
Malayalam
Marathi
Pakistani
Pakistani English
Pashto
Punjabi
Sindhi
Tamil
Telugu
Urdu
Vietnamese
Australasia
Australian
New Zealand
Europe
Related topics
History of science fiction
Literature by country
History of theater
History of ideas
Intellectual history
Literature portal
v
t
e
Early American poetry[edit]
See also: American poetry
Walt Whitman, 1856
The Fireside Poets (also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets) were some of America's first major poets domestically and internationally. They were known for their poems being easy to memorize due to their general adherence to poetic form (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) and were often recited in the home (hence the name) as well as in school (such as "Paul Revere's Ride"), as well as working with distinctly American themes, including some political issues such as abolition. They included Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.. Longfellow achieved the highest level of acclaim and is often considered the first internationally acclaimed American poet, being the first American poet given a bust in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner.[12]
Walt Whitman(1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886), two of America's greatest 19th-century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style. Walt Whitman was a working man, a traveler, a self-appointed nurse during the American Civil War (1861–1865), and a poetic innovator. His magnum opus was Leaves of Grass, in which he uses a free-flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all-inclusiveness of American democracy. Taking that motif one step further, the poet equates the vast range of American experience with himself without being egotistical. For example, in Song of Myself, the long, central poem in Leaves of Grass, Whitman writes: "These are really the thoughts of all men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me ..."
In his words Whitman was a poet of "the body electric". In Studies in Classic American Literature, the English novelist D. H. Lawrence wrote that Whitman "was the first to smash the old moral conception that the soul of man is something 'superior' and 'above' the flesh."
By contrast, Emily Dickinson lived the sheltered life of a genteel unmarried woman in small-town Amherst, Massachusetts. Her poetry is ingenious, witty, and penetrating. Her work was unconventional for its day, and little of it was published during her lifetime. Many of her poems dwell on the topic of death, often with a mischievous twist. One, "Because I could not stop for Death", begins, "He kindly stopped for me." The opening of another Dickinson poem toys with her position as a woman in a male-dominated society and an unrecognized poet: "I'm nobody! Who are you? / Are you nobody too?" [13]
American poetry arguably reached its peak in the early-to-mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens and his Harmonium (1923) and The Auroras of Autumn (1950), T. S. Eliot and his The Waste Land (1922), Robert Frost and his North of Boston (1914) and New Hampshire (1923), Hart Crane and his White Buildings (1926) and the epic cycle, The Bridge (1930), Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams and his epic poem about his New Jersey hometown, Paterson, Marianne Moore, E. E. Cummings, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Langston Hughes, in addition to many others.
Realism, Twain and James[edit]
Mark Twain, 1907
Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910) was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast – in the border state of Missouri. His regional masterpieces were the memoir Life on the Mississippi and the novels Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain's style – influenced by journalism, wedded to the vernacular, direct and unadorned but also highly evocative and irreverently humorous – changed the way Americans write their language. His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American, using local dialects, newly invented words, and regional accents.
Other writers interested in regional differences and dialect were George W. Cable, Thomas Nelson Page, Joel Chandler Harris, Mary Noailles Murfree (Charles Egbert Craddock), Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Henry Cuyler Bunner, and William Sydney Porter (O. Henry). A version of local color regionalism that focused on minority experiences can be seen in the works of Charles W. Chesnutt (African American), of María Ruiz de Burton, one of the earliest Mexican American novelists to write in English, and in the Yiddish-inflected works of Abraham Cahan.
William Dean Howells also represented the realist tradition through his novels, including The Rise of Silas Lapham and his work as editor of The Atlantic Monthly.
Henry James (1843–1916) confronted the Old World-New World dilemma by writing directly about it. Although he was born in New York City, James spent most of his adult life in England. Many of his novels center on Americans who live in or travel to Europe. With its intricate, highly qualified sentences and dissection of emotional and psychological nuance, James's fiction can be daunting. Among his more accessible works are the novellas Daisy Miller, about an American girl in Europe, and The Turn of the Screw, a ghost story.
Realism began to influence American drama, partly through Howells, but also through Europeans such as Ibsen and Zola. Although realism was most influential in set design and staging—audiences loved the special effects offered up by the popular melodramas—and in the growth of local color plays, it also showed up in the more subdued, less romantic tone that reflected the effects of the Civil War and continued social turmoil on the American psyche.
The most ambitious attempt at bringing modern realism into the drama was James Herne's Margaret Fleming, which addressed issues of social determinism through realistic dialogue, psychological insight, and symbolism. The play was not successful, and both critics and audiences thought it dwelt too much on unseemly topics and included improper scenes, such as the main character nursing her husband's illegitimate child onstage.
Beginning of the 20th century[edit]
Ernest Hemingway in World War I uniform
At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists were expanding fiction to encompass both high and low life and sometimes connected to the naturalist school of realism. In her stories and novels, Edith Wharton (1862–1937) scrutinized the upper-class, Eastern-seaboard society in which she had grown up. One of her finest books, The Age of Innocence, centers on a man who chooses to marry a conventional, socially acceptable woman rather than a fascinating outsider.
At about the same time, Stephen Crane (1871–1900), best known for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage, depicted the life of New York City prostitutes in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. And in Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945) portrayed a country girl who moves to Chicago and becomes a kept woman. Hamlin Garland and Frank Norris wrote about the problems of American farmers and other social issues from a naturalist perspective.
Political writings discussed social issues and the power of corporations. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward outlined other possible political and social orders, and Upton Sinclair, most famous for his muck-raking novel The Jungle, advocated socialism. Other political writers of the period included Edwin Markham and William Vaughn Moody. Journalistic critics, including Ida M. Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens, were labeled "The Muckrakers". Henry Brooks Adams's literate autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams also depicted a stinging description of the education system and modern life.
Race was a common issue as well, as seen in the work of Pauline Hopkins, who published five influential works from 1900 to 1903. Similarly, Sui Sin Far wrote about Chinese-American experiences, and Maria Cristina Mena wrote about Mexican-American experiences.
1920s[edit]
F. Scott Fitzgerald, photographed by Carl van Vechten, 1937
The 1920s brought sharp changes to American literature. Many writers had direct experience of the First World War, and they used it to frame their writings.[14]
Experimentation in style and form soon joined the new freedom in subject matter. In 1909, Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), by then an expatriate in Paris, published Three Lives, an innovative work of fiction influenced by her familiarity with cubism, jazz, and other movements in contemporary art and music. Stein labeled a group of American literary notables who lived in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s the "Lost Generation".
The poet Ezra Pound (1885–1972) was born in Idaho but spent much of his adult life in Europe. His work is complex, sometimes obscure, with multiple references to other art forms and to a vast range of literature, both Western and Eastern.[15] He influenced many other poets, notably T. S. Eliot (1888–1965), another expatriate. Eliot wrote spare, cerebral poetry, carried by a dense structure of symbols. In The Waste Land, he embodied a jaundiced vision of post–World War I society in fragmented, haunted images. Like Pound's, Eliot's poetry could be highly allusive, and some editions of The Waste Land come with footnotes supplied by the poet. In 1948, Eliot won the Nobel Prize in Literature.[16]
Henry James, Stein, Pound, and Eliot demonstrate the growth of an international perspective in American literature. American writers had long looked to European models for inspiration, but whereas the literary breakthroughs of the mid-19th century came from finding distinctly American styles and themes, writers from this period were finding ways of contributing to a flourishing international literary scene, not as imitators but as equals. Something similar was happening back in the States, as Jewish writers (such as Abraham Cahan) used the English language to reach an international Jewish audience.
William Faulkner in 1954
American writers also expressed the disillusionment following upon the war. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940) capture the restless, pleasure-hungry, defiant mood of the 1920s. Fitzgerald's characteristic theme, expressed poignantly in The Great Gatsby, is the tendency of youth's golden dreams to dissolve in failure and disappointment. Fitzgerald also elucidates the collapse of some key American Ideals, such as liberty, social unity, good governance and peace, features which were severely threatened by the pressures of modern early 20th century society.[17] Sinclair Lewis and Sherwood Anderson also wrote novels with critical depictions of American life. John Dos Passos wrote about the war and also the U.S.A. trilogy which extended into the Depression.[18]
Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) saw violence and death first-hand as an ambulance driver in World War I, and the carnage persuaded him that abstract language was mostly empty and misleading. He cut out unnecessary words from his writing, simplified the sentence structure, and concentrated on concrete objects and actions. He adhered to a moral code that emphasized grace under pressure, and his protagonists were strong, silent men who often dealt awkwardly with women. The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms are generally considered his best novels; in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.[19]
William Faulkner (1897–1962) won the Nobel Prize in 1949: Faulkner encompassed an enormous range of humanity in Yoknapatawpha County, a Mississippian region of his own invention. He recorded his characters' seemingly unedited ramblings in order to represent their inner states, a technique called "stream of consciousness". (In fact, these passages are carefully crafted, and their seemingly chaotic structure conceals multiple layers of meaning.) He also jumbled time sequences to show how the past – especially the slave-holding era of the Deep South – endures in the present. Among his great works are Absalom, Absalom!, As I Lay Dying, The Sound and the Fury, and Light in August.[20]
The rise of American drama[edit]
See also: Theater of the United States
Although the American theatrical tradition can be traced back to the arrival of Lewis Hallam's troupe in the mid-18th century and was very active in the 19th century, as seen by the popularity of minstrel shows and of adaptations of Uncle Tom's Cabin, American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize.
In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical, which had found a way to integrate script, music and dance in such works as Oklahoma! and West Side Story. Later American playwrights of importance include Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, David Mamet, August Wilson and Tony Kushner.
Depression-era literature[edit]
Further information: List of writers of the Lost Generation
Depression era literature was blunt and direct in its social criticism. John Steinbeck (1902–1968) was born in Salinas, California, where he set many of his stories. His style was simple and evocative, winning him the favor of the readers but not of the critics. Steinbeck often wrote about poor, working-class people and their struggle to lead a decent and honest life. The Grapes of Wrath, considered his masterpiece, is a strong, socially-oriented novel that tells the story of the Joads, a poor family from Oklahoma and their journey to California in search of a better life.
Other popular novels include Tortilla Flat, Of Mice and Men, Cannery Row, and East of Eden. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962. Steinbeck's contemporary, Nathanael West's two most famous short novels, Miss Lonelyhearts, which plumbs the life of its eponymous antihero, a reluctant (and, to comic effect, male) advice columnist, and the effects the tragic letters exert on it, and The Day of the Locust, which introduces a cast of Hollywood stereotypes and explores the ironies of the movies, have come to be avowed classics of American literature.
In non-fiction, James Agee's Let Us Now Praise Famous Men observes and depicts the lives of three struggling tenant-farming families in Alabama in 1936. Combining factual reporting with poetic beauty, Agee presented an accurate and detailed report of what he had seen coupled with insight into his feelings about the experience and the difficulties of capturing it for a broad audience. In doing so, he created an enduring portrait of a nearly invisible segment of the American population.
Henry Miller assumed a unique place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels, written and published in Paris, were banned from the US. Although his major works, including Tropic of Cancer and Black Spring, would not be free of the label of obscenity until 1962, their themes and stylistic innovations had already exerted a major influence on succeeding generations of American writers, and paved the way for sexually frank 1960s novels by John Updike, Philip Roth, Gore Vidal, John Rechy and William Styron.
Post–World War II[edit]
The postwar novel[edit]
Norman Mailer, photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1948
The period in time from the end of World War II up until, roughly, the late 1960s and early 1970s saw the publication of some of the most popular works in American history such as To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. The last few of the more realistic modernists along with the wildly Romantic beatniks largely dominated the period, while the direct respondents to America's involvement in World War II contributed in their notable influence.
Though born in Canada, Chicago-raised Saul Bellow would become one of the most influential novelists in America in the decades directly following World War II. In works like The Adventures of Augie March and Herzog, Bellow painted vivid portraits of the American city and the distinctive characters that peopled it. Bellow went on to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1976.
From J.D. Salinger's Nine Stories and The Catcher in the Rye to Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, the perceived madness of the state of affairs in America was brought to the forefront of the nation's literary expression. Immigrant authors such as Vladimir Nabokov, with Lolita, forged on with the theme, and, at almost the same time, the beatniks took a concerted step away from their Lost Generation predecessors, developing a style and tone of their own by drawing on Eastern theology and experimenting with recreational drugs.
The poetry and fiction of the "Beat Generation", largely born of a circle of intellects formed in New York City around Columbia University and established more officially some time later in San Francisco, came of age. The term Beat referred, all at the same time, to the countercultural rhythm of the Jazz scene, to a sense of rebellion regarding the conservative stress of post-war society, and to an interest in new forms of spiritual experience through drugs, alcohol, philosophy, and religion, and specifically through Zen Buddhism.
Allen Ginsberg set the tone of the movement in his poem Howl, a Whitmanesque work that began: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness..." Among the most representative achievements of the Beats in the novel are Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957), the chronicle of a soul-searching travel through the continent, and William S. Burroughs's Naked Lunch (1959), a more experimental work structured as a series of vignettes relating, among other things, the narrator's travels and experiments with hard drugs.
Regarding the war novel specifically, there was a literary explosion in America during the post–World War II era. Some of the best known of the works produced included Norman Mailer's The Naked and the Dead (1948), Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s Slaughterhouse-Five (1969). The Moviegoer (1962), by Southern author Walker Percy, winner of the National Book Award, was his attempt at exploring "the dislocation of man in the modern age."[21]
John Updike
In contrast, John Updike approached American life from a more reflective but no less subversive perspective. His 1960 novel Rabbit, Run, the first of four chronicling the rising and falling fortunes of Harry "Rabbit" Angstrom over the course of four decades against the backdrop of the major events of the second half of the 20th century, broke new ground on its release in its characterization and detail of the American middle class and frank discussion of taboo topics such as adultery. Notable among Updike's characteristic innovations was his use of present-tense narration, his rich, stylized language, and his attention to sensual detail. His work is also deeply imbued with Christian themes. The two final installments of the Rabbit series, Rabbit is Rich (1981) and Rabbit at Rest (1990), were both awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Other notable works include the Henry Bech novels (1970–98), The Witches of Eastwick (1984), Roger's Version (1986) and In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996), which literary critic Michiko Kakutani called "arguably his finest."[22]
Frequently linked with Updike is the novelist Philip Roth. Roth vigorously explores Jewish identity in American society, especially in the postwar era and the early 21st century. Frequently set in Newark, New Jersey, Roth's work is known to be highly autobiographical, and many of Roth's main characters, most famously the Jewish novelist Nathan Zuckerman, are thought to be alter egos of Roth. With these techniques, and armed with his articulate and fast-paced style, Roth explores the distinction between reality and fiction in literature while provocatively examining American culture. His most famous work includes the Zuckerman novels, the controversial Portnoy's Complaint (1969), and Goodbye, Columbus (1959). Among the most decorated American writers of his generation, he has won every major American literary award, including the Pulitzer Prize for his major novel American Pastoral (1997).
In the realm of African-American literature, Ralph Ellison's 1952 novel Invisible Man was instantly recognized as among the most powerful and important works of the immediate post-war years. The story of a black Underground Man in the urban north, the novel laid bare the often repressed racial tension that still prevailed while also succeeding as an existential character study. Richard Wright was catapulted to fame by the publication in subsequent years of his now widely studied short story, "The Man Who Was Almost a Man" (1939), and his controversial second novel, Native Son (1940), and his legacy was cemented by the 1945 publication of Black Boy, a work in which Wright drew on his childhood and mostly autodidactic education in the segregated South, fictionalizing and exaggerating some elements as he saw fit. Because of its polemical themes and Wright's involvement with the Communist Party, the novel's final part, "American Hunger," was not published until 1977.
Perhaps the most ambitious and challenging post-war American novelist was William Gaddis, whose uncompromising, satiric, and large novels, such as The Recognitions (1955) and J R (1975) are presented largely in terms of unattributed dialog that requires almost unexampled reader participation. Gaddis's primary themes include forgery, capitalism, religious zealotry, and the legal system, constituting a sustained polyphonic critique of modern American life. Gaddis's work, though largely ignored for years, anticipated and influenced the development of such ambitious "postmodern" fiction writers as Thomas Pynchon, Joseph McElroy, and Don DeLillo. Another neglected and challenging postwar American novelist, albeit one who wrote much shorter works, was John Hawkes, whose surreal visionary fiction addresses themes of violence and eroticism and experiments audaciously with narrative voice and style. Among his most important works is the short nightmarish novel The Lime Twig (1961).
Short fiction and poetry[edit]
In the postwar period, the art of the short story again flourished. Among its most respected practitioners was Flannery O'Connor, who developed a distinctive Southern gothic esthetic in which characters acted at one level as people and at another as symbols. A devout Catholic, O'Connor often imbued her stories, among them the widely studied "A Good Man is Hard to Find" and "Everything That Rises Must Converge", and two novels, Wise Blood (1952); The Violent Bear It Away (1960), with deeply religious themes, focusing particularly on the search for truth and religious skepticism against the backdrop of the nuclear age. Other important practitioners of the form include Katherine Anne Porter, Eudora Welty, John Cheever, Raymond Carver, Tobias Wolff, and the more experimental Donald Barthelme.
Among the most respected of the postwar American poets are John Ashbery, the key figure of the surrealistic New York School of poetry, and his celebrated Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1976); Elizabeth Bishop and her North & South (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1956) and "Geography III" (National Book Award, 1970); Richard Wilbur and his Things of This World, winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award for Poetry in 1957; John Berryman and his The Dream Songs, (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1964, National Book Award, 1968); A.R. Ammons, whose Collected Poems 1951-1971 won a National Book Award in 1973 and whose long poem Garbage earned him another in 1993; Theodore Roethke and his The Waking (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1954); James Merrill and his epic poem of communication with the dead, The Changing Light at Sandover (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1977); Louise Glück for her The Wild Iris (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1993); W.S. Merwin for his The Carrier of Ladders (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1971) and The Shadow of Sirius (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 2009); Mark Strand for Blizzard of One (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1999); Robert Hass for his Time and Materials, which won both the Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award for Poetry in 2008 and 2007 respectively; and Rita Dove for her Thomas and Beulah (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1987).
In addition, in this same period the confessional, whose origin is often traced to the publication in 1959 of Robert Lowell's Life Studies,[23] and beat schools of poetry enjoyed popular and academic success, producing such widely anthologized voices as Allen Ginsberg, Charles Bukowski, Gary Snyder, Anne Sexton, and Sylvia Plath, among many others.
Contemporary American literature[edit]
Though its exact parameters remain debatable, from the early 1970s to the present day the most salient literary movement has been postmodernism. Thomas Pynchon, a seminal practitioner of the form, drew in his work on modernist fixtures such as temporal distortion, unreliable narrators, and internal monologue and coupled them with distinctly postmodern techniques such as metafiction, ideogrammatic characterization, unrealistic names (Oedipa Maas, Benny Profane, etc.), absurdist plot elements and hyperbolic humor, deliberate use of anachronisms and archaisms, a strong focus on postcolonial themes, and a subversive commingling of high and low culture. In 1973, he published Gravity's Rainbow, a leading work in this genre, which won the National Book Award and was unanimously nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction that year. His other major works include his debut, V. (1963), The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), Mason & Dixon (1997), and Against the Day (2006).
Toni Morrison, recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature, writing in a distinctive lyrical prose style, published her controversial debut novel, The Bluest Eye, to critical acclaim in 1970. Coming on the heels of the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1965, the novel, widely studied in American schools, includes an elaborate description of incestuous rape and explores the conventions of beauty established by a historically racist society, painting a portrait of a self-immolating black family in search of beauty in whiteness. Since then, Morrison has experimented with lyric fantasy, as in her two best-known later works, Song of Solomon (1977) and Beloved (1987), for which she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction; along these lines, critic Harold Bloom has drawn favorable comparisons to Virginia Woolf,[24] and the Nobel committee to "Faulkner and to the Latin American tradition [of magical realism]."[25] Beloved was chosen in a 2006 survey conducted by The New York Times as the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years.[26]
Writing in a lyrical, flowing style that eschews excessive use of the comma and semicolon, recalling William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway in equal measure, Cormac McCarthy seizes on the literary traditions of several regions of the United States and includes multiple genres. He writes in the Southern Gothic aesthetic in his Faulknerian 1965 debut, The Orchard Keeper, and Suttree (1979); in the Epic Western tradition, with grotesquely drawn characters and symbolic narrative turns reminiscent of Melville, in Blood Meridian (1985), which Harold Bloom styled "the greatest single book since Faulkner's As I Lay Dying," calling the character of Judge Holden "short of Moby Dick, the most monstrous apparition in all of American literature";[27] in a much more pastoral tone in his celebrated Border Trilogy (1992–98) of bildungsromans, including All the Pretty Horses (1992), winner of the National Book Award; and in the post-apocalyptic genre in the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Road (2007). His novels are noted for achieving both commercial and critical success, several of his works having been adapted to film.
Don DeLillo, who rose to literary prominence with the publication of his 1985 novel, White Noise, a work broaching the subjects of death and consumerism and doubling as a piece of comic social criticism, began his writing career in 1971 with Americana. He is listed by Harold Bloom as being among the preeminent contemporary American writers, in the company of such figures as Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, and Thomas Pynchon.[28] His 1997 novel Underworld chronicles American life through and immediately after the Cold War and is usually considered his masterpiece. It was also the runner-up in a survey that asked writers to identify the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years.[26] Among his other important novels are Libra (1988), Mao II (1991) and Falling Man (2007).
Jonathan Franzen at the 2008 Brooklyn Book Festival
Seizing on the distinctly postmodern techniques of digression, narrative fragmentation and elaborate symbolism, and strongly influenced by the works of Thomas Pynchon, David Foster Wallace began his writing career with The Broom of the System, published to moderate acclaim in 1987. His second novel, Infinite Jest (1997), a futuristic portrait of America and a playful critique of the media-saturated nature of American life, has been consistently ranked among the most important works of the 20th century,[29] and his final novel, unfinished at the time of his death, The Pale King (2011), has garnered much praise and attention. In addition to his novels, he also authored three acclaimed short story collections: Girl with Curious Hair (1989), Brief Interviews with Hideous Men (1999) and Oblivion: Stories (2004).
Jonathan Franzen, Wallace's friend and contemporary, rose to prominence after the 2001 publication of his National Book Award-winning third novel, The Corrections. He began his writing career in 1988 with the well-received The Twenty-Seventh City, a novel centering on his native St. Louis, but did not gain national attention until the publication of his essay, "Perchance to Dream," in Harper's Magazine, discussing the cultural role of the writer in the new millennium through the prism of his own frustrations. The Corrections, a tragicomedy about the disintegrating Lambert family, has been called "the literary phenomenon of [its] decade"[30] and was ranked as one of the greatest novels of the past century.[29] In 2010, he published Freedom to great critical acclaim.[30][31][32]
Other notable writers at the turn of the century include Michael Chabon, whose Pulitzer Prize-winning The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay (2000) tells the story of two friends, Joe Kavalier and Sam Clay, as they rise through the ranks of the comics industry in its heyday; Denis Johnson, whose 2007 novel Tree of Smoke about falsified intelligence during Vietnam both won the National Book Award and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and was called by critic Michiko Kakutani "one of the classic works of literature produced by [the Vietnam War]";[33] and Louise Erdrich, whose 2008 novel The Plague of Doves, a distinctly Faulknerian, polyphonic examination of the tribal experience set against the backdrop of murder in the fictional town of Pluto, North Dakota, was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize, and her 2012 novel The Round House, which builds on the same themes, was awarded the 2012 National Book Award.[34]
Minority literatures[edit]
Sandra Cisneros best known for her first novel The House on Mango Street (1984) and her subsequent short story collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991). She is the recipient of numerous awards including a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship, and is regarded as a key figure in Chicana literature.[35]
One of the developments in late-20th-century American literature was the increase of literature written by and about ethnic minorities beyond African Americans and Jewish Americans. This development came alongside the growth of the Civil Rights movements and its corollary, the Ethnic Pride movement, which led to the creation of Ethnic Studies programs in most major universities. These programs helped establish the new ethnic literature as worthy objects of academic study, alongside such other new areas of literary study as women's literature, gay and lesbian literature, working-class literature, postcolonial literature, and the rise of literary theory as a key component of academic literary study.
After being relegated to cookbooks and autobiographies for most of the 20th century, Asian American literature achieved widespread notice through Maxine Hong Kingston's fictional memoir, The Woman Warrior (1976), and her novels China Men (1980) and Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book. Chinese-American author Ha Jin in 1999 won the National Book Award for his second novel, Waiting, about a Chinese soldier in the Revolutionary Army who has to wait 18 years to divorce his wife for another woman, all the while having to worry about persecution for his protracted affair, and twice won the PEN/Faulkner Award, in 2000 for Waiting and in 2005 for War Trash.
Indian-American author Jhumpa Lahiri won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her debut collection of short stories, Interpreter of Maladies (1999), and went on to write a well-received novel, The Namesake (2003), which was shortly adapted to film in 2007. In her second collection of stories, Unaccustomed Earth, released to widespread commercial and critical success, Lahiri shifts focus and treats the experiences of the second and third generation.
Other notable Asian-American novelists include Amy Tan, best known for her novel, The Joy Luck Club (1989), tracing the lives of four immigrant families brought together by the game of Mahjong, and Korean American novelist Chang-Rae Lee, who has published Native Speaker, A Gesture Life, and Aloft. Such poets as Marilyn Chin and Li-Young Lee, Kimiko Hahn and Janice Mirikitani have also achieved prominence, as has playwright David Henry Hwang. Equally important has been the effort to recover earlier Asian American authors, started by Frank Chin and his colleagues; this effort has brought Sui Sin Far, Toshio Mori, Carlos Bulosan, John Okada, Hisaye Yamamoto and others to prominence.
Hispanic literature also became important during this period, starting with acclaimed novels by Tomás Rivera (...y no se lo tragó la tierra) and Rudolfo Anaya (Bless Me, Ultima), and the emergence of Chicano theater with Luis Valdez and Teatro Campesino. Latina writing became important thanks to authors such as Sandra Cisneros, an icon of an emerging Chicano literature whose 1984 bildungsroman The House on Mango Street is taught in schools across the United States, Denise Chavez's The Last of the Menu Girls and Gloria Anzaldúa's Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza.
Dominican-American author Junot Díaz, received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his 2007 novel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, which tells the story of an overweight Dominican boy growing up as a social outcast in Paterson, New Jersey. Another Dominican author, Julia Alvarez, is well known for How the García Girls Lost Their Accents and In the Time of the Butterflies. Cuban American author Oscar Hijuelos won a Pulitzer for The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, and Cristina García received acclaim for Dreaming in Cuban.
Celebrated Puerto Rican novelists who write in English and Spanish include Giannina Braschi, author of the Spanglish classic Yo-Yo Boing! and Rosario Ferré, best known for "Eccentric Neighborhoods"[36][37] Puerto Rico has also produced important playwrights such as René Marqués, Luis Rafael Sánchez, and José Rivera and New York based poets such as Julia de Burgos, Giannina Braschi and Pedro Pietri, as well as various members of the Nuyorican Poets Café.[37]
Spurred by the success of N. Scott Momaday's Pulitzer Prize–winning House Made of Dawn, Native American literature showed explosive growth during this period, known as the Native American Renaissance, through such novelists as Leslie Marmon Silko (e.g., Ceremony), Gerald Vizenor (e.g., Bearheart: The Heirship Chronicles and numerous essays on Native American literature), Louise Erdrich (Love Medicine and several other novels that use a recurring set of characters and locations in the manner of William Faulkner), James Welch (e.g., Winter in the Blood), Sherman Alexie (e.g., The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven), and poets Simon Ortiz and Joy Harjo. The success of these authors has brought renewed attention to earlier generations, including Zitkala-Sa, John Joseph Mathews, D'Arcy McNickle and Mourning Dove.
More recently, Arab American literature, largely unnoticed since the New York Pen League of the 1920s, has become more prominent through the work of Diana Abu-Jaber, whose novels include Arabian Jazz and Crescent and the memoir The Language of Baklava.
Nobel Prize in Literature winners (American authors)[edit]
Further information: Nobel Prize in Literature
1930: Sinclair Lewis (novelist)
1936: Eugene O'Neill (playwright)
1938: Pearl S. Buck (biographer and novelist)
1948: T. S. Eliot (poet and playwright)
1949: William Faulkner (novelist)
1954: Ernest Hemingway (novelist)
1962: John Steinbeck (novelist)
1976: Saul Bellow (novelist)
1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer (novelist, wrote in Yiddish)
1987: Joseph Brodsky (poet and essayist, wrote in English and Russian)
1993: Toni Morrison (novelist)
2016: Bob Dylan (songwriter)
American literary awards[edit]
See also: Category:American literary awards
American Academy of Arts and Letters
Pulitzer Prize (Fiction, Drama and Poetry, as well as various non-fiction and journalist categories)
National Book Award (Fiction, Non-Fiction, Poetry and Young-Adult Fiction)
American Book Awards
PEN literary awards (multiple awards)
United States Poet Laureate
Bollingen Prize
Pushcart Prize
O. Henry Award
Literary theory and criticism[edit]
See also: Category:American literary critics
Edgar Allan Poe: Dark Romanticism, Short-Story Theory
T. S. Eliot: Modernism
Harold Bloom: Aestheticism
Susan Sontag: Against Interpretation, On Photography
John Updike: Literary realism/modernism and aestheticist critic
M. H. Abrams: The Mirror and the Lamp (study of Romanticism)
F. O. Matthiessen: originated the concept "American Renaissance"
Perry Miller: Puritan studies
Henry Nash Smith: founder of the "Myth and Symbol School" of American criticism
Leo Marx: The Machine in the Garden (study of technology and culture)
Leslie Fiedler: Love and Death in the American Novel
Stanley Fish: Pragmatism
Henry Louis Gates: African American literary theory
Gerald Vizenor: Native American literary theory
William Dean Howells: Literary realism
Stephen Greenblatt: New Historicism
Geoffrey Hartman: Yale school of deconstruction
John Crowe Ransom: New Criticism
Cleanth Brooks: New Criticism
Kenneth Burke: Rhetoric studies
Elaine Showalter: Feminist criticism
Sandra M. Gilbert: Feminist criticism
Susan Gubar: Feminist criticism
J. Hillis Miller: Deconstruction
Edward Said: Postcolonial criticism
Jonathan Culler: Critical theory, deconstruction
Judith Butler: Post-structuralist feminism
Gloria E. Anzaldúa: Latina literary theory
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick: Queer theory
Fredric Jameson: Marxist criticism
See also[edit]
American Literature (academic discipline)
List of 20th-century American writers by birth year
Additional genres[edit]
Short story
Detective fiction
Horror fiction
Nature writing
Romance novel
Science fiction and fantasy
Western fiction
Regional and minority focuses in American literature[edit]
Literature of New England
Chicago literature
Southern literature
Literature of Southern states: Alabama; Arkansas; Florida; Georgia; Kentucky; Louisiana; Maryland; Mississippi, North Carolina; South Carolina; Tennessee; Texas; Virginia; West Virginia
Literature in Hawaii
LGBT literature
Deaf American literature
American Catholic literature
American literature in Spanish
Ethnic minority literature
articles and lists
Armenian American literature
African American literature
List of African American writers
Jewish American literature
List of Jewish American writers
List of Arab American writers
List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
Native American Renaissance
Asian American literature
Chinese American literature
Korean American writers
List of Asian American writers
Hispanic American writers
Chicano literature
Chicano poetry
Puerto Rican literature
List of Puerto Rican writers
List of Cuban American writers
List of Mexican American writers
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Baym, Nina, ed. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2007. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Skipp, Francis E. American Literature, Barron's Educational, 1992.
Jump up ^ Gray, Richard. A History of American Literature. Blackwell, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Parker, Patricia L. "Charlotte Temple by Susanna Rowson." The English Journal. 65.1: (1976) 59-60. JSTOR. Web. 1 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Schweitzer, Ivy. "Review." Early American Literature. 23.2: (1988) 221-225. JSTOR. Web. 1 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Kristie. "An Assault on the Will: Republican Virtue and the City in Hannah Webster Foster's 'The Coquette'." Early American Literature. 24.2: (1989) 135-151. JSTOR. Web. 1 March 2010
Jump up ^ Joudrey, Thomas J. "Maintaining Stability: Fancy and Passion in 'The Coquette'." New England Quarterly. 86.1 (2013): 60-88.
^ Jump up to: a b c Campbell, Donna M. "The Early American Novel: Introductory Notes." Literary Movements. 14 July 2008. 1 March 2010. http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/earamnov.htm
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Mildred. American Authors. Atlanta: The Franklin Printing and Publishing Co., 1902.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Guy. "The Winning of the West: Washington Irving's 'A Tour on the Prairies'." The Yearbook of English Studies. 34: (2004) 88-99. JSTOR. Web. 1 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Gura, Philip F. American Transcendentalism: A History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2007: 7–8. ISBN 978-0-8090-3477-2
Jump up ^ "A Brief Guide to the Fireside Poets" at Poets.org. Accessed 10-07-2015
Jump up ^ "Emily Dickinson Archive". 2018-01-24. Retrieved 2018-01-24.
Jump up ^ Hazel Hutchison, The War That Used Up Words: American Writers and the First World War (Yale University Press, 2015)
Jump up ^ Noel Stock, The Life of Ezra Pound (1970)
Jump up ^ Hugh Kenner, The invisible poet: TS Eliot (1965).
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Meyers, Scott Fitzgerald: A Biography (HarperCollins, 1994).
Jump up ^ Maxwell Geismar, American moderns, from rebellion to conformity (1958)
Jump up ^ Keith Ferrell, Ernest Hemingway: The Search for Courage (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
Jump up ^ John T. Matthews, William Faulkner: seeing through the South (Wiley, 2011).
Jump up ^ Kimball, Roger Existentialism, Semiotics and Iced Tea, Review of Conversations with Walker Percy New York Times, August 4, 1985, Accessed September 24, 2006
Jump up ^ Kakutani, Michiko (January 12, 1996). "Seeking Salvation On the Silver Screen". The New York Times Books. Retrieved December 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Groundbreaking Book: Life Studies by Robert Lowell (1959) Accessed May 5, 2010
Jump up ^ Bloom, Harold: How to Read and Why, page 269. Touchstone Press, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize Nobel Prize Award Ceremony Speech". Nobelprize.org. 19 Aug 2010 [1]
^ Jump up to: a b "What Is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?". The New York Times. May 21, 2006. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Harold (June 15, 2009). "Harold Bloom on Blood Meridian". A.V. Club. Retrieved March 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Harold (September 24, 2003). "Dumbing down American readers". The Boston Globe. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "All-Time 100 Novels: The Complete List". Time Magazine. October 16, 2005. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Grossman, Lev (August 12, 2010). "Jonathan Franzen: Great American Novelist". Time Magazine. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ Kakutani, Michiko (August 15, 2010). "A Family Full of Unhappiness, Hoping for Transcendence". The New York Times. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ Tanenhaus, Sam (August 19, 2010). "Peace and War". The New York Times. Retrieved August 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ Kakutani, Michiko (2007-08-31). "In Vietnam: Stars and Stripes, and Innocence Undone". The New York Times. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ "2012 National Book Awards". National Book Foundation. November 14, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Madsen 2000, p. 107
Jump up ^ "Giannina Braschi". National Book Festival. Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2015. 'Braschi: one of the most revolutionary voices in Latin America today'
^ Jump up to: a b Ilan Stavans (2011). "Norton Anthology of Latino Literature". Norton. Retrieved February 17, 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Bercovitch, Sacvan (1994–2005). The Cambridge History of American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "American Literature". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Gray, Richard (2011). A History of American Literature. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
Müller, Timo (2017). Handbook of the American Novel of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries. Boston: de Gruyter.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: American literature
19th Century American Fiction and Poetry The Ohio State University Libraries Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection
Audio lectures on American Literature in TheEnglishCollection.com (clickable timeline)
Electronic Texts in American Studies
[show]
v
t
e
North American literature
Sovereign states
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Dependencies and
other territories
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Bonaire
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Curaçao
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Saba
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
Turks and Caicos Islands
United States Virgin Islands
[show]
v
t
e
English literature
Historical
Old English
Middle English
Early English Jewish
Elizabethan
Restoration
Augustan
Victorian
Regional
American
African American
Chicago
Jewish American
New England
Southern
Bangladeshi
British
Scottish
Welsh
Canadian
Caribbean
Filipino
Indian
Irish
Oceanic
Australian
New Zealand
Pakistani
South African
Related topics
Anglo-Norman literature
Celtic literature
English drama
English poetry
English studies
European literature
Jèrriais literature
Postcolonial literature
Women's writing in English
[show]
v
t
e
United States articles
History
By event
Timeline of U.S. history
Pre-Columbian era
Colonial era
Thirteen Colonies
military history
Continental Congress
American Revolution
War
American frontier
Confederation Period
Drafting and ratification of Constitution
Federalist Era
War of 1812
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Mexican–American War
Civil War
Reconstruction Era
Indian Wars
Gilded Age
Progressive Era
African-American civil rights movement 1865–1896 / 1896–1954 / 1954–1968
Spanish–American War
Imperialism
World War I
Roaring Twenties
Great Depression
World War II
home front
Nazism in the United States
American Century
Cold War
Korean War
Space Race
Feminist Movement
Vietnam War
Post-Cold War (1991–2008)
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan
Iraq War
Recent events (2008–present)
By topic
Outline of U.S. history
Demographic
Discoveries
Economic
debt ceiling
Inventions
before 1890
1890–1945
1946–91
after 1991
Military
Postal
Technological and industrial
Geography
Territory
counties
federal district
federal enclaves
Indian reservations
insular zones
minor outlying islands
populated places
states
Earthquakes
Extreme points
Islands
Mountains
peaks
ranges
Appalachian
Rocky
National Park Service
National Parks
Regions
East Coast
West Coast
Great Plains
Gulf
Mid-Atlantic
Midwestern
New England
Pacific
Central
Eastern
Northern
Northeastern
Northwestern
Southern
Southeastern
Southwestern
Western
Rivers
Colorado
Columbia
Mississippi
Missouri
Ohio
Rio Grande
Yukon
Time
Water supply and sanitation
Politics
Federal
Executive
Cabinet
Civil service
Executive departments
Executive Office
Independent agencies
Law enforcement
President of the United States
Public policy
Legislative
House of Representatives
current members
Speaker
Senate
current members
President pro tempore
Vice President
Judicial
Courts of appeals
District courts
Supreme Court
Law
Bill of Rights
civil liberties
Code of Federal Regulations
Constitution
federalism
preemption
separation of powers
Federal Reporter
United States Code
United States Reports
Intelligence
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
National Reconnaissance Office
National Security Agency
Office of the Director of National Intelligence
Uniformed
Armed Forces
Army
Marine Corps
Navy
Air Force
Coast Guard
National Guard
NOAA Corps
Public Health Service Corps
51st state
political status of Puerto Rico
District of Columbia statehood movement
Elections
Electoral College
Foreign relations
Foreign policy
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Ideologies
anti-Americanism
exceptionalism
nationalism
Local government
Parties
Democratic
Republican
Third parties
Red states and blue states
Purple America
Scandals
State government
governor
state legislature
state court
Uncle Sam
Economy
By sector
Agriculture
Banking
Communications
Energy
Insurance
Manufacturing
Mining
Tourism
Trade
Transportation
Companies
by state
Currency
Exports
Federal budget
Federal Reserve System
Financial position
Labor unions
Public debt
Social welfare programs
Taxation
Unemployment
Wall Street
Society
Culture
Americana
Architecture
Cinema
Cuisine
Dance
Demography
Education
Family structure
Fashion
Flag
Folklore
Languages
American English
Indigenous languages
ASL
Black American Sign Language
HSL
Plains Sign Talk
Arabic
Chinese
French
German
Italian
Russian
Spanish
Literature
Media
Journalism
Internet
Newspapers
Radio
Television
Music
Names
People
Philosophy
Public holidays
Religion
Sexuality
Sports
Theater
Visual art
Social class
Affluence
American Dream
Educational attainment
Homelessness
Home-ownership
Household income
Income inequality
Middle class
Personal income
Poverty
Professional and working class conflict
Standard of living
Wealth
Issues
Ages of consent
Capital punishment
Crime
incarceration
Criticism of government
Discrimination
affirmative action
antisemitism
intersex rights
islamophobia
LGBT rights
racism
same-sex marriage
Drug policy
Energy policy
Environmental movement
Gun politics
Health care
abortion
health insurance
hunger
obesity
smoking
Human rights
Immigration
illegal
International rankings
National security
Mass surveillance
Terrorism
Separation of church and state
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
Literature portal
United States portal
Authority control
NDL: 00560164
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_literature&oldid=831356643"
Categories:
American literature
North American literature
English-language literature
American culture
Hidden categories:
Use American English from May 2015
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
Use mdy dates from May 2015
Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters
CS1 maint: Date format
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference
Region topic template using suffix
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikiquote
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Français
한국어
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
ქართული
Latina
Magyar
മലയാളം
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Русский
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
中文
34 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 March 2018, at 04:53.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: span

attrs: href title

value: b

value: td

value: tr

value: small

value: th

attrs: class style

values: padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;background:#3C3B6E; border:1px double #8C959A;

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg

attrs: href class

values: padding:0.1em;background:#B22234; color:#FFFFFF; border:1px double #8C959A;

values:
/wiki/Theater_of_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Theater of the United States

values: Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas

values:
/wiki/In_God_we_trust
mw-redirect
In God we trust

values: List of World Heritage Sites in the United States

values: Template talk:Culture of the United States

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border:1px double #D69D36; background:#FFFFFF;

values:
/wiki/Poetry_of_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Poetry of the United States

values: United States Declaration of Independence

values:
/wiki/Billy_Budd_(novel)
mw-redirect
Billy Budd (novel)

values:
/wiki/Kurt_Vonnegut_Jr.
mw-redirect
Kurt Vonnegut Jr.

values:
/wiki/New_England_colonies
mw-redirect
New England colonies

values:
/wiki/Saint_Augustine,_Florida
mw-redirect
Saint Augustine, Florida

values:
/wiki/Captain_John_Smith
mw-redirect
Captain John Smith

values: Thomas Ash (writer) (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/William_Bradford_(1590-1657)
mw-redirect
William Bradford (1590-1657)

values:
/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)
mw-redirect
Roger Williams (theologian)

values:
/wiki/John_Mason_(c.1600-1672)
mw-redirect
John Mason (c.1600-1672)

values:
/wiki/American_Indians_(U.S.)
mw-redirect
American Indians (U.S.)

values: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

values:
/wiki/John_Dickinson_(delegate)
mw-redirect
John Dickinson (delegate)

values:
/wiki/Poor_Richard%27s_Almanac
mw-redirect
Poor Richard's Almanac

values:
/wiki/Common_Sense_(Book)
mw-redirect
Common Sense (Book)

values:
/wiki/Philip_Morin_Freneau
mw-redirect
Philip Morin Freneau

values:
/wiki/The_Federalist
mw-redirect
The Federalist

values:
/wiki/James_Otis,_Jr.
mw-redirect
James Otis, Jr.

values: Thomas Attwood Digges (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Catherine_Maria_Sedgwick
mw-redirect
Catherine Maria Sedgwick

values:
/wiki/A_History_of_New_York
mw-redirect
A History of New York

values:
/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes,_Sr.
mw-redirect
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.

values:
/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs
mw-redirect
Harriet Jacobs

values:
/wiki/Joaquin_Murieta
mw-redirect
Joaquin Murieta

values:
/wiki/Mexican_American
mw-redirect
Mexican American

values: Metamora; or, The Last of the Wampanoags

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0 0.7em;

values:
/wiki/Modernist_literature
mw-redirect
Modernist literature

values:
/wiki/Kashmiri_literature
mw-redirect
Kashmiri literature

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

values:
/wiki/History_of_theater
mw-redirect
History of theater

values: Template talk:History of modern literature

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:18.0em;

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Meter_(poetry)
mw-redirect
Meter (poetry)

values:
/wiki/Paul_Revere%27s_Ride_(poem)
mw-redirect
Paul Revere's Ride (poem)

values:
/wiki/Adventures_of_Tom_Sawyer
mw-redirect
Adventures of Tom Sawyer

values:
/wiki/George_W._Cable
mw-redirect
George W. Cable

values:
/wiki/Charles_Egbert_Craddock
mw-redirect
Charles Egbert Craddock

values:
/wiki/Mary_E._Wilkins_Freeman
mw-redirect
Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

values:
/wiki/The_Atlantic_Monthly
mw-redirect
The Atlantic Monthly

values:
/wiki/James_Herne
mw-redirect
James Herne

values: Edit section: Beginning of the 20th century

values:
/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois
mw-redirect
Chicago, Illinois

values:
/wiki/Ida_M._Tarbell
mw-redirect
Ida M. Tarbell

values:
/wiki/Henry_Brooks_Adams
mw-redirect
Henry Brooks Adams

values:
/wiki/Carl_van_Vechten
mw-redirect
Carl van Vechten

values:
/wiki/U.S.A._trilogy
mw-redirect
U.S.A. trilogy

values:
/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_writing
mw-redirect
Stream of consciousness writing

values:
/wiki/As_I_Lay_Dying_(novel)
mw-redirect
As I Lay Dying (novel)

values: Edit section: The rise of American drama

values:
/wiki/Advice_columnist
mw-redirect
Advice columnist

values:
/wiki/J.D._Salinger
mw-redirect
J.D. Salinger

values:
/wiki/Zen_Buddhism
mw-redirect
Zen Buddhism

values:
/wiki/Rabbit_Angstrom
mw-redirect
Rabbit Angstrom

values:
/wiki/Rabbit_is_Rich
mw-redirect
Rabbit is Rich

values:
/wiki/Communist_Party
mw-redirect
Communist Party

values:
/wiki/Southern_gothic
mw-redirect
Southern gothic

values:
/wiki/A_Good_Man_is_Hard_to_Find
mw-redirect
A Good Man is Hard to Find

values:
/wiki/A.R._Ammons
mw-redirect
A.R. Ammons

values:
/wiki/W.S._Merwin
mw-redirect
W.S. Merwin

values:
/wiki/Beat_poetry
mw-redirect
Beat poetry

values: Edit section: Contemporary American literature

values:
/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1965
mw-redirect
Civil Rights Act of 1965

values:
/wiki/Magical_realism
mw-redirect
Magical realism

values:
/wiki/Epic_Western
mw-redirect
Epic Western

values:
/wiki/The_Border_Trilogy
mw-redirect
The Border Trilogy

values: Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction

values:
/wiki/St._Louis,_MO
mw-redirect
St. Louis, MO

values: The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay

values:
/wiki/Ethnic_Studies
mw-redirect
Ethnic Studies

values:
/wiki/Women%27s_literature
mw-redirect
Women's literature

values:
/wiki/Gay_and_lesbian_literature
mw-redirect
Gay and lesbian literature

values:
/wiki/PEN/Faulkner_Award
mw-redirect
PEN/Faulkner Award

values:
/wiki/The_Last_of_the_Menu_Girls
mw-redirect
The Last of the Menu Girls

values:
/wiki/Gloria_Anzald%C3%BAa
mw-redirect
Gloria Anzaldúa

values: Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza

values:
/wiki/Social_outcast
mw-redirect
Social outcast

values:
/wiki/Cuban_American
mw-redirect
Cuban American

values: The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven

values:
/wiki/Simon_Ortiz
mw-redirect
Simon Ortiz

values:
/wiki/New_York_Pen_League
mw-redirect
New York Pen League

values:
/wiki/Arabian_Jazz
mw-redirect
Arabian Jazz

values: Edit section: Nobel Prize in Literature winners (American authors)

values: Category:International PEN literary awards

values: Edit section: Literary theory and criticism

values:
/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates
mw-redirect
Henry Louis Gates

values:
/wiki/Sandra_M._Gilbert
mw-redirect
Sandra M. Gilbert

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: American Literature (academic discipline)

values: List of 20th-century American writers by birth year

values:
/wiki/Fantasy_fiction
mw-redirect
Fantasy fiction

values: Edit section: Regional and minority focuses in American literature

values:
/wiki/Southern_literature
mw-redirect
Southern literature

values:
/wiki/Tennessee_literature
mw-redirect
Tennessee literature

values:
/wiki/Literature_in_Hawaii
mw-redirect
Literature in Hawaii

values:
/wiki/Deaf_American_literature
mw-redirect
Deaf American literature

values:
/wiki/Armenian_American_literature
mw-redirect
Armenian American literature

values:
/wiki/African_American_literature
mw-redirect
African American literature

values:
/wiki/List_of_African_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of African American writers

values:
/wiki/List_of_Jewish_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of Jewish American writers

values:
/wiki/List_of_Arab_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of Arab American writers

values: List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas

values:
/wiki/Korean_American_writers
mw-redirect
Korean American writers

values:
/wiki/List_of_Asian_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of Asian American writers

values: Category:Hispanic and Latino American writers

values:
/wiki/List_of_Cuban_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of Cuban American writers

values:
/wiki/List_of_Mexican_American_writers
mw-redirect
List of Mexican American writers

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.Poets.org

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/American Literature

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values:
nofollow
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/
external text

values: Antigua and Barbuda literature (page does not exist)

values: Barbadian literature (page does not exist)

values: Belizean literature (page does not exist)

values: Dominica literature (page does not exist)

values: Grenadian literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Kitts and Nevis literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Lucian literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines literature (page does not exist)

values: Anguillan literature (page does not exist)

values: Bermudian literature (page does not exist)

values: Bonairean literature (page does not exist)

values: British Virgin Island literature (page does not exist)

values: Caymanian literature (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Cura%C3%A7aoan_literature
mw-redirect
Curaçaoan literature

values: Greenlandic literature (page does not exist)

values: Guadeloupean literature (page does not exist)

values: Martinican literature (page does not exist)

values: Montserratian literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Barthélemy literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Martiner literature (page does not exist)

values: Saint Pierre and Miquelon literature (page does not exist)

values: Sint Eustatius literature (page does not exist)

values: Sint Maartener literature (page does not exist)

values: Turks and Caicos Islander literature (page does not exist)

values: United States Virgin Island literature (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Oceanic_literature
mw-redirect
Oceanic literature

values:
/wiki/Literature_of_South_Africa
mw-redirect
Literature of South Africa

values:
/wiki/European_literature
mw-redirect
European literature

values:
/wiki/Women%27s_writing_in_English
mw-redirect
Women's writing in English

values: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

values: Territorial evolution of the United States

values:
/wiki/Reconstruction_Era
mw-redirect
Reconstruction Era

values: African-American civil rights movement (1865–1896)

values: African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954)

values: History of the United States (1865–1918)

values: Military history of the United States during World War II

values: United States home front during World War II

values: History of the United States (1991–2008)

values: History of the United States (2008–present)

values: Demographic history of the United States

values: Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–91)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)

values: Postage stamps and postal history of the United States

values: Technological and industrial history of the United States

values: Lists of populated places in the United States

values: List of earthquakes in the United States

values: List of extreme points of the United States

values: List of mountain peaks of the United States

values: List of areas in the United States National Park System

values:
/wiki/Pacific_States
mw-redirect
Pacific States

values: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States

values: United States federal executive departments

values: Executive Office of the President of the United States

values: Independent agencies of the United States government

values: Federal law enforcement in the United States

values: Current members of the United States House of Representatives

values: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

values: Current members of the United States Senate

values: President pro tempore of the United States Senate

values: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

values: United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps

values: Political ideologies in the United States

values: List of federal political scandals in the United States

values: List of companies of the United States by state

values: Chinese language and varieties in the United States

values: Educational attainment in the United States

values: Professional and working class conflict in the United States

values: Criticism of the United States government

values: Federal drug policy of the United States

values: Environmental movement in the United States

values: Illegal immigration to the United States

values: International rankings of the United States

values: Separation of church and state in the United States

values:
/wiki/Book:United_States
mw-redirect
Book:United States

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: Category:Use American English from May 2015

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference

values: Category:Region topic template using suffix

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/American_literature
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: أدب أمريكي – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: মার্কিন সাহিত্য – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Амерыканская літаратура – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Американска литература – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values: Literatura dels Estats Units d'Amèrica – Catalan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: Ameerika Ühendriikide kirjandus – Estonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: अमेरिकी साहित्य – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: ამერიკული ლიტერატურა – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok irodalma – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: അമേരിക്കൻ സാഹിത്യം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Literatura dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese

values: Литература США – Russian

values: අමෙරිකා එක්සත් ජනපද සාහිත්‍යය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Література США – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-American_literature rootpage-American_literature skin-vector action-view