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History of the telephone
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Actor portraying Alexander Graham Bell in a 1926 silent film. Shows Bell's first telephone transmitter (microphone), invented 1876 and first displayed at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia.
This history of the telephone chronicles the development of the electrical telephone, and includes a brief review of its predecessors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Telephone prehistory
1.1 Mechanical devices
1.2 Electrical devices
2 Invention of the telephone
2.1 Telephone exchange
3 Early telephone developments
4 Early commercial instruments
5 20th century developments
6 Women's usage in the 20th century
7 21st century developments
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Telephone prehistory[edit]
Mechanical devices[edit]
A 19th century acoustic 'tin can', or 'lover's' telephone
Before the invention of electromagnetic telephones, mechanical acoustic devices existed for transmitting speech and music over a distance greater than that of normal direct speech. The earliest mechanical telephones were based on sound transmission through pipes or other physical media.[1] The acoustic tin can telephone, or lover's phone, has been known for centuries. It connects two diaphragms with a taut string or wire, which transmits sound by mechanical vibrations from one to the other along the wire (and not by a modulated electric current). The classic example is the children's toy made by connecting the bottoms of two paper cups, metal cans, or plastic bottles with tautly held string.[1][2]
Among the earliest known experiments were those conducted by the British physicist and polymath Robert Hooke from 1664 to 1685.[1][3] An acoustic string phone made in 1667 is attributed to him.[4]
For a short period of time, acoustic telephones were marketed commercially as a niche competitor to the electrical telephone. When Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patent expired and many new telephone manufacturers began competing, acoustic telephone makers quickly went out of business. Their maximum range was very limited.[2] An example of one such company was the Pulsion Telephone Supply Company created by Lemuel Mellett in Massachusetts, which designed its version in 1888 and deployed it on railroad right-of-ways.
Additionally, speaking tubes have long been common, especially within buildings and aboard ships, and are still in use today. [5]
Electrical devices[edit]
Main article: Electrical telegraph
The telephone emerged from the making and successive improvements of the electrical telegraph. In 1804, Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo constructed an electrochemical telegraph.[6] The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity.[7] An electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling in 1832. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber built another electromagnetic telegraph in 1833 in Göttingen.
Bell prototype telephone stamp Centennial Issue of 1976
The electrical telegraph was first commercialised by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway in England. It ran for 13 mi (21 km) from Paddington station to West Drayton and came into operation on April 9, 1839.
Another electrical telegraph was independently developed and patented in the United States in 1837 by Samuel Morse. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code signaling alphabet with Morse. America's first telegram was sent by Morse on January 6, 1838, across 2 miles (3 km) of wiring.
Invention of the telephone[edit]
Main article: Invention of the telephone
Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed, and new controversies over the issue have arisen from time to time. Charles Bourseul, Innocenzo Manzetti, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all been credited with the telephone's invention. The early history of the telephone became and still remains a confusing morass of claims and counterclaims, which were not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits to resolve the patent claims of many individuals and commercial competitors. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were commercially decisive, because they dominated telephone technology and were upheld by court decisions in the United States.
Antonio Meucci, 1854, constructed telephone-like devices.
Johann Philipp Reis, 1860, constructed prototype 'make-and-break' telephones, today called Reis telephone.
Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the invention of the telephone in 1876.
Elisha Gray, 1876, designed a telephone using a water microphone in Highland Park, Illinois.
Tivadar Puskás proposed the telephone switchboard exchange in 1876.
Thomas Edison invented the carbon microphone which produced a strong telephone signal.
The modern telephone is the result of work of many people.[8] Alexander Graham Bell was, however, the first to patent the telephone, as an "apparatus for transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically". Bell has most often been credited as the inventor of the first practical telephone. However, in Germany Johann Philipp Reis is seen as a leading telephone pioneer who stopped only just short of a successful device, and as well the Italian-American inventor and businessman Antonio Meucci has been recognized by the U.S. House of Representatives for his contributory work on the telephone.[9] Several other controversies also surround the question of priority of invention for the telephone.
The Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy considers the question of whether Bell and Gray invented the telephone independently and, if not, whether Bell stole the invention from Gray. This controversy is narrower than the broader question of who deserves credit for inventing the telephone, for which there are several claimants.
The Canadian Parliamentary Motion on Alexander Graham Bell article reviews the controversial June 2002 United States House of Representatives resolution recognizing Meucci's contributions 'in' the invention of the telephone (not 'for' the invention of the telephone). The same resolution was not passed in the U.S. Senate, thus labeling the House resolution as "political rhetoric". A subsequent counter-motion was unanimously passed in Canada's Parliament 10 days later which declared Bell its inventor. This webpage examines critical aspects of both the parliamentary motion and the congressional resolution.
Telephone exchange[edit]
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The main users of the electrical telegraph were post offices, railway stations, the more important governmental centers (ministries), stock exchanges, very few nationally distributed newspapers, the largest internationally important corporations, and wealthy individuals.[10] Telegraph exchanges worked mainly on a store and forward basis. Although telephones devices were in use before the invention of the telephone exchange, their success and economical operation would have been impossible with the schema and structure of the contemporary telegraph systems.
Prior to the invention of the telephone switchboard, pairs of telephones were connected directly with each other, which was primarily useful for connecting a home to the owner's business.[11] A telephone exchange provides telephone service for a small area. Either manually by operators, or automatically by machine switching equipment, it interconnects individual subscriber lines for calls made between them. This made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for many purposes, and it gave the impetus for the creation of a new industrial sector.
The telephone exchange was an idea of the Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás (1844 - 1893) in 1876, while he was working for Thomas Edison on a telegraph exchange.[12][13][14][15][16] The first commercial telephone exchange was opened at New Haven, Connecticut with 21 subscribers on 28 January 1878,[17] in a storefront of the Boardman Building in New Haven, Connecticut. George W. Coy designed and built the world's first switchboard for commercial use. Coy was inspired by Alexander Graham Bell's lecture at the Skiff Opera House in New Haven on 27 April 1877.[17]
In Bell's lecture, during which a three-way telephone connection with Hartford and Middletown, Connecticut was demonstrated, he first discussed the idea of a telephone exchange for the conduct of business and trade. On 3 November 1877, Coy applied for and received a franchise from the Bell Telephone Company for New Haven and Middlesex Counties. Coy, along with Herrick P. Frost and Walter Lewis, who provided the capital, established the District Telephone Company of New Haven on 15 January 1878.[17]
The switchboard built by Coy was, according to one source, constructed of "carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire." According to the company records, all the furnishings of the office, including the switchboard, were worth less than forty dollars. While the switchboard could connect as many as sixty-four customers, only two conversations could be handled simultaneously and six connections had to be made for each call.[17]
The District Telephone Company of New Haven went into operation with only twenty-one subscribers, who paid $1.50 per month. By 21 February 1878, however, when the first telephone directory was published by the company, fifty subscribers were listed. Most of these were businesses and listings such as physicians, the police, and the post office; only eleven residences were listed, four of which were for persons associated with the company.[17]
The New Haven District Telephone Company grew quickly and was reorganized several times in its first years. By 1880, the company had the right from the Bell Telephone Company to service all of Connecticut and western Massachusetts. As it expanded, the company was first renamed Connecticut Telephone, and then Southern New England Telephone in 1882.[17] The site of the first telephone exchange was granted a designation as a National Historic Landmark on 23 April 1965. However it was withdrawn in 1973 in order to demolish the building and construct a parking garage.[17]
Further information: Telephone switchboard
Early telephone developments[edit]
Main article: Timeline of the telephone
See also: History of telecommunication
The following is a brief summary of the history of the development of the telephone:
A French Gower telephone of 1912 at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris
1667: Robert Hooke invented a string telephone that conveyed sounds over an extended wire by mechanical vibrations. It was to be termed an 'acoustic' or 'mechanical' (non-electrical) telephone.
1753: Charles Morrison proposes the idea that electricity can be used to transmit messages, by using different wires for each letter.[18]
1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first mooted the idea of a "speaking telegraph" (telephone).
1854: Charles Bourseul writes a memorandum on the principles of the telephone. (See the article: "Transmission électrique de la parole", L'Illustration, Paris, 26 August 1854.)
1854: Antonio Meucci demonstrates an electric voice-operated device in New York; it is not clear what kind of device he demonstrated.
1861: Philipp Reis constructs the first speech-transmitting telephone
28 December 1871: Antonio Meucci files a patent caveat (No. 3353, a notice of intent to invent, but not a formal patent application) at the U.S. Patent Office for a device he named "Sound Telegraph".[19]
1872: Elisha Gray establishes Western Electric Manufacturing Company.
1 July 1875: Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "voicelike sounds", but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments.
1875: Thomas Edison experiments with acoustic telegraphy and in November builds an electro-dynamic receiver, but does not exploit it.
1875: Hungarian Tivadar Puskas (the inventor of telephone exchange) arrived in the USA.
6 April 1875: Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-break circuits, and the concept of multiplexed frequencies.
20 January 1876: Bell signs and notarizes his patent application for the telephone.
11 February 1876: Elisha Gray designs a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but does not build one.
7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. patent No. 174,465 for the telephone is granted.
10 March 1876: Bell transmits the sentence: "Mr. Watson, come here! I want to see you!" using a liquid transmitter and an electromagnetic receiver.
30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. patent No. 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.
27 April 1877: Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. Patent No. 474,230 was granted on 3 May 1892, after a 15-year delay because of litigation. Edison was granted patent No. 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.
6 October 1877: the Scientific American publishes the invention from Bell - at that time still without a ringer.
25 October 1877: the article in the Scientific American is discussed at the Telegraphenamt in Berlin
12 November 1877: The first commercial telephone company enters telephone business in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin[20] using the Siemens pipe as ringer and telephone devices built by Siemens.
1877: The first experimental Telephone Exchange in Boston.
1877: First long-distance telephone line
1877:Emile Berliner invented the telephone transmitter.
28 January 1878: The first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut.
1887: Tivadar Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard.
1915: First U.S. coast-to-coast long-distance telephone call, ceremonially inaugurated by A.G. Bell in New York City and his former assistant Thomas Augustus Watson in San Francisco, California.
Early commercial instruments[edit]
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1917 wall telephone, open to show magneto and local battery
Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used liquid transmitters which soon went out of use. Some were dynamic: their diaphragms vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet or vice versa. Such sound-powered telephones survived in small numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications where the ability to create its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however, used Edison/Berliner carbon transmitters, which were much louder than the other kinds, even though they required induction coils, actually acting as impedance matching transformers to make it compatible to the line impedance. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which time telephone networks were more important than the instrument.
Early telephones were locally powered, using a dynamic transmitter or else powering the transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit each telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, "common battery" operation came to dominate, powered by "talk battery" from the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals. Late in the century, wireless handsets brought a revival of local battery power.
The earliest telephones had only one wire for both transmitting and receiving of audio, and used a ground return path, as was found in telegraph systems. The earliest dynamic telephones also had only one opening for sound, and the user alternately listened and spoke (rather, shouted) into the same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in pairs at each end, making conversation more convenient but also more expensive.
Historical marker commemorating the first telephone central office in New York State (1878)
At first, the benefits of a switchboard exchange were not exploited. Instead, telephones were leased in pairs to the subscriber, for example one for his home and one for his shop, and the subscriber had to arrange with telegraph contractors to construct a line between them. Users who wanted the ability to speak to three or four different shops, suppliers etc. would obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union, already using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the principle to its telephones in New York City and San Francisco, and Bell was not slow in appreciating the potential.
Signaling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the other end, or the exchange operator, by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell, first operated over a second wire and later with the same wire using a condenser. Telephones connected to the earliest Strowger automatic exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife switch, one for each telegraph key, one for the bell, one for the push button and two for speaking.
Rural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had hand cranked "magneto" generators to produce an alternating current to ring the bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the exchange operator.
In 1877 and 1878, Edison invented and developed the carbon microphone used in all telephones along with the Bell receiver until the 1980s. After protracted patent litigation, a federal court ruled in 1892 that Edison and not Emile Berliner was the inventor of the carbon microphone. The carbon microphone was also used in radio broadcasting and public address work through the 1920s.
1896 Telephone (Sweden)
In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, the candlestick telephone, packaged in three parts. The transmitter stood on a stand, known as a "candlestick" for its shape, hence the name. When not in use, the receiver hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a "switchhook." Previous telephones required the user to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user was less likely to leave the phone "off the hook". In phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery, and magneto were in a separate bell box called a "ringer box." In phones connected to common battery exchanges, the ringer box was installed under a desk, or other out of the way place, since it did not need a battery or magneto.
Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter attached, separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and other parts. They were larger than the "candlestick" and more popular.
Disadvantages of single wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from nearby AC power wires had already led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long distance telephones, four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment to use a special sound proofed long distance telephone booth furnished with the latest technology.
Around 1893, the country leading the world in telephones per 100 persons (teledensity) was Sweden with 0.55 in the whole country but 4 in Stockholm (10,000 out of a total of 27,658 subscribers).[21] This compares with 0.4 in USA for that year.[22] Telephone service in Sweden developed through a variety of institutional forms: the International Bell Telephone Company (a U.S. multinational), town and village co-operatives, the General Telephone Company of Stockholm (a Swedish private company), and the Swedish Telegraph Department (part of the Swedish government). Since Stockholm consists of islands, telephone service offered relatively large advantages, but had to use submarine cables extensively. Competition between Bell Telephone and General Telephone, and later between General Telephone and the Swedish Telegraph Dept., was intense.
In 1893, the U.S. was considerably behind Sweden, New Zealand, Switzerland, and Norway in teledensity. The U.S. became the world leadership in teledensity with the rise of many independent telephone companies after the Bell patents expired in 1893 and 1894.
20th century developments[edit]
Old Receiver schematic, c.1906
A German rotary dial telephone, the W48
Top of cellular telephone tower
By 1904 over three million phones in the U.S.[23] were connected by manual switchboard exchanges. By 1914, the U.S. was the world leader in telephone density and had more than twice the teledensity of Sweden, New Zealand, Switzerland, and Norway. The relatively good performance of the U.S. occurred despite competing telephone networks not interconnecting.[24]
What turned out to be the most popular and longest lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the early 20th century, including Bell's model 102 telephone. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use were placed in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram[25] of the model 102 shows the direct connection of the receiver to the line, while the transmitter was induction coupled, with energy supplied by a local battery. The coupling transformer, battery, and ringer were in a separate enclosure from the desk set. The rotary dial in the base interrupted the line current by repeatedly but very briefly disconnecting the line 1 to 10 times for each digit, and the hook switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) permanently disconnected the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was on the cradle.
Starting in the 1930s, the base of the telephone also enclosed its bell and induction coil, obviating a separate ringer box. Power was supplied to each subscriber line by central office batteries instead of the user's local battery which required periodic service. For the next half century, the network behind the telephone grew progressively larger and much more efficient, and after the rotary dial was added the instrument itself changed little until Touch-Tone signaling started replacing the rotary dial in the 1960s.
The history of mobile phones can be traced back to two-way radios permanently installed in vehicles such as taxicabs, police cruisers, railroad trains, and the like. Later versions such as the so-called transportables or "bag phones" were equipped with a cigarette lighter plug so that they could also be carried, and thus could be used as either mobile two-way radios or as portable phones by being patched into the telephone network.
In December 1947, Bell Labs engineers Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young proposed hexagonal cell transmissions for mobile phones.[26] Philip T. Porter, also of Bell Labs, proposed that the cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas that would transmit/receive in 3 directions (see picture at right) into 3 adjacent hexagon cells.[27][28] The technology did not exist then and the radio frequencies had not yet been allocated. Cellular technology was undeveloped until the 1960s, when Richard H. Frenkiel and Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs developed the electronics.
On 3 April 1973 Motorola manager Martin Cooper placed a cellular phone call (in front of reporters) to Dr. Joel S. Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs. This began the era of the handheld cellular mobile phone.
Meanwhile, the 1956 inauguration of the TAT-1 cable and later international direct dialing were important steps in putting together the various continental telephone networks into a global network.
Cable television companies began to use their fast-developing cable networks, with ducting under the streets of the United Kingdom, in the late 1980s, to provide telephony services in association with major telephone companies. One of the early cable operators in the UK, Cable London, connected its first cable telephone customer in about 1990.
Women's usage in the 20th century[edit]
Private conversation, 1910
The telephone was instrumental to modernization. It aided in the development of suburbs and the separation of homes and businesses, but also became a reason for the separation between women occupying the private sphere and men in the public sphere.[29] This would continue to isolate women and the home.
Women were regarded as the most frequent users of the telephone. It enabled women to work in the telecommunications sector as receptionists and operators. Their autonomy was celebrated as women were able to develop new relationships and nurture pre-existing ones in their private lives. Social relations are essential in the access and usage of telephone networks.
Both historically and currently, women are predominantly responsible for the phone calls that bridge the public and private sphere, such as calls regarding doctor’s appointments and meetings.[30] This emphasizes the telephone’s impact on the social lives of women in the domestic sphere, reducing both isolation and insecurity.
21st century developments[edit]
See also: IP telephony
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, also known as Internet telephony or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a disruptive technology that is rapidly gaining ground against traditional telephone network technologies. In Japan and South Korea up to 10% of subscribers switched to this type of telephone service as of January 2005.
IP telephony uses a broadband Internet service to transmit conversations as data packets. In addition to replacing the traditional plain old telephone service (POTS) systems, IP telephony also competes with mobile phone networks by offering free or lower cost service via WiFi hotspots. VoIP is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network.
See also[edit]
Bell Telephone Memorial, a major monument dedicated to the invention of the telephone
Canadian Parliamentary Motion on Alexander Graham Bell
Carbon microphone
Charles Bourseul - claimed inventor of the telephone
Elisha Gray
Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy
History of mobile phones
History of telecommunication
History of videotelephony
Innocenzo Manzetti
Invention of the telephone
Johann Philipp Reis - claimed inventor of the telephone
Antonio Meucci - claimed inventor of the telephone
Private branch exchange
Push-button telephone
Telephone exchange
The Telephone Cases, a series of court decisions in the U.S. on the telephone's invention
Thomas Edison's carbon telephone transmitter - greatly improved the telephone's sound quality
Timeline of the telephone
References[edit]
This article includes text from Withdrawal of National Historic Landmark Designation: Site of the First Telephone Exchange, New Haven, New Haven County, Connecticut, by the United States National Park Service, a work in the public domain.
^ Jump up to: a b c McVeigh, Daniel P. An Early History of the Telephone: 1664-1866: Robert Hooke's Acoustic Experiments and Silent Inventions Archived 24 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine., Columbia University website. Retrieved 15 January 2013. This work in turn cites:
Richard Waller and edited by R.T. Gunther. "The Postthumous Works of Robert Hooke, M.D., S.R.S. 1705." Reprinted in R.T. Gunther's "Early Science In Oxford", Vol. 6, p. 185, 25 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, Bill. Acoustic Telephones, TelefoonMuseum.com website. Retrieved 15 January 2013. This article in turn cites:
Kolger, Jon. "Mechanical or String Telephones", ATCA Newsletter, June 1986; and
"Lancaster, Pennsylvania Agricultural Almanac for the Year 1879: How to Construct a Farmer's Telephone", John Bater's Sons.; and
"Telephone Experiences of Harry J. Curl as told by him to E. T. Mahood, During the summer of 1933 at Kansas City, Missouri: First Telephone Experience."
Jump up ^ Grigonis, Richard. A Telephone in 1665?, TMCNet Technews website, 29 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Giles, Arthur (editor). County Directory of Scotland (for 1901-1904): Twelfth Issue: Telephone (Scottish Post Office Directories), Edinburgh: R. Grant & Son, 1902, p. 28.
Jump up ^ "Voicepipes and Speaking-Tubes". The Museum of Retro-Technology. 15 March 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Jones, R. Victor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's "Space Multiplexed" Electrochemical Telegraph (1808-10), Harvard University website. Attributed to "Semaphore to Satellite", International Telecommunication Union, Geneva 1965. Retrieved 2009-05-01
Jump up ^ Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
Jump up ^ Lewis Coe (1995), "The Telephone and Its Several Inventors"
Jump up ^ "H.Res.269 - Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives to honor the life and achievements of 19th-century Italian-American inventor Antonio Meucci, and his work in the invention of the telephone. 107th Congress (2001-2002)". U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Private Telegraphs, The Sydney Morning Herald, credited to The Times, 19 April 1878, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Bo Leuf (2002). Peer to Peer: Collaboration and Sharing Over the Internet. Addison-Wesley. p. 15. ISBN 9780201767322.
Jump up ^ Alvin K. Benson (2010). Inventors and inventions Great lives from history Volume 4 of Great Lives from History: Inventors & Inventions. Salem Press. p. 1298. ISBN 9781587655227.
Jump up ^ Puskás Tivadar (1844 - 1893) (short biography), Hungarian History website. Retrieved from Archive.org, February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Puskás Tivadar (1844 - 1893)". Mszh.hu. Archived from the original on 8 October 2010. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
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Jump up ^ "Welcome hunreal.com - BlueHost.com". Hunreal.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Withdrawal of National Historic Landmark Designation: Site of the First Telephone Exchange, New Haven, New Haven County, Connecticut, United States National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, 13 April 2006. Archived 15 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "History Of The Invention Of Telephone". The Reverse Phone. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Antonio Meucci - Questions and Answers". Chezbasilio.org. Retrieved 2012-08-30.
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Jump up ^ Bennett, Alfred Roslin (1895). Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe. p. 337. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data". Retrieved 15 June 2012.
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Jump up ^ "1947 memo by Douglas H. Ring proposing hexagonal cells" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Farley, Tom; van der Hoek, Mark (1 January 2006). "Cellular Telephone Basics". PrivateLine. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
Jump up ^ interview of Joel S. Engel, page 17 (image 18) Archived 16 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kramarae, edited by Cheris; Lana F. Rakow (1988). Technology and women's voices : keeping in touch (1. publ. ed.). New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 209. ISBN 0710206798. Retrieved 9 February 2014. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
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Further reading[edit]
Baker, Burton H. (2000), The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone, Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X
Bruce, Robert V. (1990), Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1990.
Casson, Herbert N. (March 1910). "The Birth Of The Telephone: Its Invention Not An Accident But The Working Out Of A Scientific Theory". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XIX: 12669–12683. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
Casson, Herbert N. (May 1910). "The Future Of The Telephone: The Dawn Of A New Era Of Expansion". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XX: 12903–12918. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
Coe, Lewis (1995), The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History, McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9
Evenson, A. Edward (2000), The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy, McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9
Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003), The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0-471-20505-2
John, Richard R (2010), Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications, Harvard University Press, 2010; traces the evolution of the country's telegraph and telephone networks.
Josephson, Matthew (1992), Edison: A Biography, Wiley, 1992. ISBN 0-471-54806-5
Wheen, Andrew (2011), DOT-DASH TO DOT.COM: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet (Springer, 2011). ISBN 978-1-4419-6759-6
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of telephony.
Kempe, Harry Robert; Garcke, Emile (1911). "Telephone". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 547–557.
"Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)". Scottish Science Hall of Fame. National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
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Miracle (2004 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other films with this title, see Miracle (disambiguation).
Miracle
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Gavin O'Connor
Produced by
Mark Ciardi
Gordon Gray
Ross Greenburg
Justis Greene
Jon Mone
Greg O'Connor
Written by
Eric Guggenheim
Starring
Kurt Russell
Patricia Clarkson
Noah Emmerich
Music by
Mark Isham
Cinematography
Dan Stoloff
Edited by
John Gilroy
Daric Loo
Production
company
Walt Disney Pictures
Distributed by
Buena Vista Pictures
Release date
February 6, 2004 (2004-02-06)
Running time
135 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$28 million[1]
Box office
$64.5 million[1]
Miracle is a 2004 American sports docudrama about the United States men's hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the Miracle on Ice. Miracle was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich.[2][3] It was released on February 6, 2004.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Historical inaccuracy
4 Soundtrack
5 Release
6 Reception
6.1 Awards and honors
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The University of Minnesota ice hockey head coach Herb Brooks (Kurt Russell) interviews with the United States Olympic Committee for the national team coach's job, discussing his philosophy on how to beat the Soviet team, calling for changes to the practice schedule and strategy. There is the added context that these Olympic games are occurring during the Cold War, adding a political dynamic to the USOC's efforts to beat the Russians.
Brooks meets his assistant coach Craig Patrick (Noah Emmerich) at the tryouts in Colorado Springs. Brooks selects a preliminary roster of 26, indifferent to the preferences of senior USOC hockey officials. He convinces Walter Bush (Sean McCann), the executive director of the committee, that he has their best interests at heart. Bush reluctantly agrees to take the heat from the committee for Brooks' decisions.
During the initial practice, tempers flare as forward Rob McClanahan and defenseman Jack O'Callahan get into a fight based on an old college rivalry. Brooks bluntly tells the players that they are to let go of old rivalries and start becoming a team. As practices continue, Brooks uses unorthodox methods to winnow the roster down to 20 players. The players themselves worry about being cut at any time, knowing that Brooks himself was the last player cut from the 1960 Olympic hockey team that won the gold medal, so he will do anything to win.
During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3–3 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted by girls in the stands and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice to skate "Herbies", which they do for an extended period of time even after the rink manager turns off the power. Exhausted, forward Mike Eruzione interrupts Brooks and cries out whom he plays for: The United States of America. Getting the answer he wanted all along, Brooks finally tells the players they are done. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States.
The team plays the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10–3. During the game, O'Callahan receives an injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics, and starting goaltender Jim Craig is told he may be benched in favor of back-up goalie Steve Janaszak. Craig ends up retaining his starting job when the coach brings him to realize that he hasn't been giving his very best.
As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2–1 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during the break by overturning a table in his way and accusing injured McClanahan of quitting. (Doc had said his injury wouldn't get worse if he played on it.) McClanahan ends up playing despite his pain, which inspires the team and Bill Baker scores a goal with less than a minute remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2–2 tie. They follow that up with a 7–3 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia.
As the Olympics continue, the Americans defeat Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider. The Soviets score again to retake the lead but in the final seconds the Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian, but Mark Johnson gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period.
During the first intermission the Soviet coach replaces Tretiak with backup Vladimir Myshkin. In the second period the Soviets score a goal to go up 3–2. Early in the final period the Soviet team is called for a penalty, giving the Americans a man advantage. Johnson scores his second goal of the game just as the penalty is about to expire. Later, Eruzione puts them ahead 4–3 with 10 minutes left. The Americans hold off the Russians to win the game, completing one of the biggest upsets in sports history.
Two days later the team would go on to defeat Finland 4–2 to win the gold medal. The movie ends with Brooks staring out over his team with pride as the entire team crowds together on the gold medal platform.
Cast[edit]
Actor
Role
Notes
Kurt Russell Herb Brooks U.S. Olympic hockey coach who leads the team to an Olympic gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics.
Patricia Clarkson Patti Brooks Wife of Brooks.
Noah Emmerich Craig Patrick Assistant General Manager and Assistant Coach under Brooks.
Sean McCann Walter Bush General Manager of the U.S. Olympic hockey team.
Kenneth Welsh Doc Nagobads U.S Olympic team physician and long-time friend of Brooks.
Eddie Cahill Jim Craig U.S. Olympic team’s starting goaltender. Plays in every minute of every game.
Patrick O'Brien Demsey Mike Eruzione Forward and captain of the U.S. Olympic team. Scores the game-winning goal against the Soviets.
Michael Mantenuto Jack O'Callahan Defenseman on the U.S. Olympic team. Injures his knee in an exhibition game but returns against the Soviets and makes a key shot that leads to a U.S. goal.
Nathan West Rob McClanahan Forward on the U.S. Olympic team. Gets into a fight with O’Callahan in the first practice.
Kenneth Mitchell Ralph Cox Last player cut from the team during tryouts because Brooks can only take twenty players.
Eric Peter-Kaiser Mark Johnson Forward on the U.S. Olympic team. Scores two out of the four goals in the victory over the Soviets. Known as the most skilled player on the team. MVP of the team.
Bobby Hanson Dave Silk Forward on the U.S. Olympic team who receives a pair of silky underwear from the guys at Christmas.
Joseph Cure Mike Ramsey Defenseman and youngest player on the U.S. Olympic team.
Billy Schneider Buzz Schneider Forward on the U.S. Olympic team and part of the Conehead line. Billy is Buzz's son.
Nate Miller John Harrington Forward on the U.S. Olympic team and part of the Conehead line.
Chris Koch Mark Pavelich Forward on the U.S. Olympic team and part of the Conehead line. Assists Baker on the tying goal against Sweden and Eruzione on the game-winning goal against the Soviets.
Kris Wilson Phil Verchota Forward on the U.S. Olympic team.
Stephen Kovalcik Dave Christian Forward and defenseman on the U.S. Olympic team. Shoots the puck at Tretiak with very little time left during the first period against the Soviets. Johnson scores on the rebound.
Sam Skoryna Steve Janaszak Expected to be the top goaltender of the U.S. Olympic team after winning a national championship in 1979 and taking home the tournament MVP, but is placed behind goaltender Craig and never plays during the Olympics.
Pete Duffy Bob Suter Defenseman on the U.S. Olympic team.
Nick Postle Bill Baker Defenseman on the U.S. Olympic team who scores the game-tying goal against Sweden in the opening game of the Olympics.
Casey Burnette Ken Morrow Defenseman on the U.S. Olympic team.
Scott Johnson Steve Christoff Forward on the U.S. Olympic team.
Trevor Alto Neal Broten Forward on the U.S. Olympic team.
Robbie MacGregor Eric Strobel Forward on the U.S. Olympic team.
Joe Hemsworth Mark Wells Forward on the U.S. Olympic team.
Zinaid Memišević Viktor Tikhonov Hockey coach for the Soviet team.
Adam Knight Tim Harrer Forward brought in late to try out for the U.S. Olympic team, eventually cut.
Production[edit]
Gavin O'Connor directed and Mark Ciardi produced the movie. Both are drawn to inspirational stories and they decided to take on the "Greatest Sports Moment of the 20th Century".[4] They chose to focus on the determination and focus of coach Herb Brooks. O'Connor knew from the beginning that he wanted to cast Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks because he needed someone with an athletic background and a fiery passion for sports. The casting of the team consisted of real hockey players to give the film a raw and accurate feel. O'Connor figured it would be easier to teach hockey players to act than to teach actors to play hockey. On-ice tryouts were held in New York, Boston, Minneapolis, Los Angeles, Toronto, and Vancouver. Another tryout was held in Vancouver for the Soviet and European teams.
There are a total of 133 different hockey plays in the film. To accomplish this, the directors turned to ReelSports Solutions, who had helped with the producers on a previous movie, The Rookie. The ReelSports team referred to coach Herb Brooks for information on practices, plays, equipment, and uniform styles. Each fight and stunt scene was choreographed to ensure the actors' safety. Players went through a six-week training camp to relearn the game in older equipment.[5]
Coach Brooks died in a car accident shortly after the film's principal photography was completed. The movie is dedicated to Brooks's memory. The dedication states at the end of the film, "He never saw it. He lived it."
Historical inaccuracy[edit]
The film states that Vladislav Tretiak was Viktor Tikhonov's bread and butter after being pulled from the net at the start of the second period of the game in the Olympics. The fact is that Tikhonov was not named head coach until 1977 and Tretiak was one from the old guard.
Soundtrack[edit]
"Mr. Boogie"
"You Can Suit Yourself" by Bobby Charles
"Time and Time Again"
"Don't Fear the Reaper" by Blue Öyster Cult
"Musta Got Lost" by The J. Geils Band
"Thunder Island" by Jay Ferguson
"Rockford Files Theme" by Mike Post
"Universal Logo"
"Nightly News Theme '82"
"White Christmas" by Louis Armstrong
"Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" by Brenda Lee
"Bugler's Dream" by John Williams and the Boston Pops Orchestra
"Star-Spangled Banner" by Lauren Hart
"Dream On" by Aerosmith
"Brandenburg Concerto No. 4 in G, 1st movement – Allegro" by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra[6]
Release[edit]
The movie grossed $19,377,577 on its opening weekend, February 8, on 2,605 screens. It closed with a worldwide gross of $64,445,708.[7]
The movie was released with a rating of PG, meaning that Parental Guidance is suggested.[8]
Reception[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 80% based on 158 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kurt Russell's performance guides this cliche-ridden tale into the realm of inspirational, nostalgic goodness."[9] On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[10] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[11]
Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times stated that the movie "does a yeoman's job of recycling the day-old dough that passes for its story."[12] Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times referred to the movie as "a classically well-made studio entertainment that, like The Rookie of a few years back, has the knack of being moving without shamelessly overdoing a sure thing."[2] O'Callahan said in an interview that while the fight between him and McClanahan was fictional the film accurately portrayed the "pretty intense" rivalry between Boston University and Minnesota players, and was overall "pretty darn close" to actual events.[13]
As of January 2017 Miracle was rated the number two sports movie of all time with a rating of 8.85 out of 10 in the ongoing poll at Sports In Movies, after maintaining the number one spot for several years.[14]
Awards and honors[edit]
Miracle won the Best Sports Movie ESPY Award for 2004.[15]
In 2006, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers.[16] And In 2008, AFI nominated this film for its Top 10 Sports Films list.[17]
See also[edit]
List of sports films
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Miracle – Box Office Data, Movie News, Cast Information". The Numbers. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Turan, Kenneth (February 6, 2004). "Do you believe?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Vattiat, Drew (February 21, 2015). "Miracle on Ice 35 years later". The Oregonian. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Fitzgerald, Brian (January 7, 2000). "1980 Miracle on Ice named Greatest Sports Moment of the Century". B.U. Bridge, vol. 3 no. 18. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Miracle (2004) – About the Production". (January 30, 2004). HollywoodJesus.com. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Soundtracks for Miracle". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Box office / business for Miracle". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Parents Guide for Miracle". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Miracle". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Miracle". Metacritic. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Miracle". CinemaScore. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Elvis (February 6, 2004). "Miracle: A Hollywood Ending From Real Life". The New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Jack O'Callahan interview". USA Hockey. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved February 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Sports Movies". SportsInMovies.com. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The 2004 ESPY Awards winners". ESPN. Retrieved August 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers Nominees" (PDF). American Film Institute. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 10 Top 10" (PDF). American Film Institute. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2016. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Miracle
Official website
Miracle on IMDb
Miracle at the TCM Movie Database
Miracle at Rotten Tomatoes
Miracle at Box Office Mojo
Text, Audio, Video of Coach Brooks' Address to Players During Olympic Match with Sweden from AmericanRhetoric.com
Text, Audio, Video of Coach Brooks' Address to Players Before Olympic Match with the Soviet Union from AmericanRhetoric.com
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Comfortably Numb (1995)
Tumbleweeds (1999)
Miracle (2004)
Pride and Glory (2008)
Warrior (2011)
Jane Got a Gun (2016)
The Accountant (2016)
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Rainbow Bridge (pets)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Rainbow Bridge is a meadow where animals wait for their humans to join them, and the bridge that takes them all to Heaven, together.
The Rainbow Bridge is the theme of several works of poetry written in the 1980s and 1990s that speak of an other-worldly place where pets go upon death, eventually to be reunited with their owners. One is a prose poem whose original creator is uncertain. The other is a six-stanza poem of rhyming pentameter couplets, created by a couple to help ease the pain of friends who lost pets. Each has gained popularity around the world among animal lovers who have lost a pet. The belief has many antecedents, including similarities to the Bifröst bridge of Norse mythology.[1]
Contents
1 Story
2 Authorship
3 Background
4 See also
5 References
Story[edit]
The story tells of a lush green meadow just "this side of Heaven" (i.e. before one enters into it). Rainbow Bridge is the name of both the meadow and the adjoining pan-prismatic conveyance connecting it to Heaven.
According to the story, when a pet dies, it goes to the meadow, restored to perfect health and free of any injuries. The pet runs and plays all day with the others; there is always fresh food and water, and the sun is always shining. However, it is said that while the pet is at peace and happy, they also miss their owner whom they left behind on Earth.
When their owner dies, they too arrive at the meadow, and that is when the pet stops playing, turns, sniffs at the air and looks into the distance where they see their beloved owner. Excited, they run as fast as they can until they are one jump away from their owner's arms. The pet licks its owners in joy while the human looks into the soft eyes of their pet—who might have been absent on Earth, but never absent in their heart. Then side by side, they cross the Rainbow Bridge together into Heaven, never again to be separated.
Authorship[edit]
Having been circulated widely around the world, the prose poem's original authorship is uncertain. About.com suggests three presently known contenders to the development of the prose poem:
Paul C. Dahm, a grief counselor in Oregon, US, said to have written the poem in 1981 and published it in a 1998 book of the same name (1981, ISBN 0-9663022-0-6).
William N. Britton, author of Legend of Rainbow Bridge (1994, ISBN 0-9645018-0-5)
Wallace Sife, head of the Association for Pet Loss and Bereavement, whose poem All Pets Go to Heaven appears on the association's website as well as in his book The Loss of a Pet.[2]
The genesis of the rhyming poem is straightforward: spouses Diane and Steve Bodofsky operated a ferret rescue[3] that specialized in gravely ill animals and had many friends whose loss of pets were acutely painful; they wrote the poem for them. But when a local veterinarian asked if they could make it the basis of sympathy cards he might send to his patients, the poem gained popularity. The internet widened the restorative power of the poem internationally.
Background[edit]
The concept of a paradise where pets wait for their human owners appeared much earlier, in the little-known sequel to Beautiful Joe, the Margaret Marshall Saunders' book, Beautiful Joe's Paradise. In this green land, the animals do not simply await their owners, but also help each other learn and grow and recover from mistreatment they may have endured in life. But the animals come to this land, and continue to true heaven, not by a bridge but by balloon.
The first mention of the "Rainbow Bridge" story on the internet is a post on the newsgroup rec.pets.dogs, dated 7 January 1993, quoting the poem from a 1992 (or earlier) issue of "Mid-Atlantic Great Dane Rescue League Newsletter", which in turn is stated to have quoted it from the Akita Rescue Society of America.[4] Other posts from 1993 suggest it was already well established and being circulated on the Internet at that time, enough for the quotation of even a single line to be expected to be recognized by other newsgroup readers.[5]
See also[edit]
Animal loss
Affectional bond
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rohrer, Finlo (13 January 2010). "How much can you mourn a pet?". BBC News. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
Jump up ^ cats.about.com, Rainbow Bridge
Jump up ^ The Last Chance Ferret Rescue
Jump up ^ "Rainbow Bridge (Was: Pets passing away". Retrieved 9 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Breeder – Lifelong Responsibility". Retrieved 9 September 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow_Bridge_(pets)&oldid=846175845"
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