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Thirteen Days (film)
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Thirteen Days
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Roger Donaldson
Produced by
Armyan Bernstein
Peter Almond
Kevin Costner
Written by
David Self
Based on
The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis
by Ernest May
and Philip Zelikow
Starring
Kevin Costner
Bruce Greenwood
Steven Culp
Dylan Baker
Music by
Trevor Jones
Cinematography
Roger Deakins
Edited by
Conrad Buff
Production
company
Beacon Pictures
Distributed by
New Line Cinema
Release date
December 25, 2000 (2000-12-25) (United States)
Running time
145 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$80 million
Box office
$66.6 million[2]
Thirteen Days is a 2000 American historical political thriller film directed by Roger Donaldson, dramatizing the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, seen from the perspective of the US political leadership. Kevin Costner stars as political consultant Kenneth P. O'Donnell, with Bruce Greenwood featured as President John F. Kennedy, Steven Culp as Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and Dylan Baker as Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara.
While the film carries the same title as the book Thirteen Days by former Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, it is in fact based on a different book, The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis, by Ernest May and Philip Zelikow. It is the second docudrama made about the crisis, the first being 1974's The Missiles of October, which was based on Kennedy's book. The 2000 film contains some newly declassified information not available to the earlier production, but takes greater dramatic license, particularly in its choice of O'Donnell as protagonist.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Release and reception
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
In October 1962, U-2 aerial surveillance photos reveal that the Soviet Union is in the process of placing intermediate-range ballistic missiles carrying nuclear weapons in Cuba. President John F. Kennedy (Bruce Greenwood) and his advisers must come up with a plan of action to prevent their activation. Kennedy is determined to show that the United States will not allow a missile threat. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advise immediate U.S. military strikes against the missile sites followed by an invasion of Cuba. However, Kennedy is reluctant to attack and invade because it would very likely cause the Soviets to invade Berlin, which could lead to an all-out war. Citing The Guns of August, Kennedy sees an analogy to the events that started World War I, where the tactics of both sides' commanders had not evolved since the previous war and were obsolete, only this time nuclear weapons are involved. War appears to be almost inevitable.
The Kennedy administration tries to find a solution that will remove the missiles but avoid an act of war. They settle on a step less than a blockade, which is formally regarded as an act of war. They settle on what they publicly describe as a quarantine. They announce that the U.S. naval forces will stop all ships entering Cuban waters and inspect them to verify they are not carrying weapons destined for Cuba. The Soviet Union sends mixed messages in response. Off the shores of Cuba, the Soviet ships turn back from the quarantine lines. Secretary of State Dean Rusk (Henry Strozier) says, "We're eyeball to eyeball and I think the other fellow just blinked." The administration continues to order spy plane pictures, but one of Kennedy's advisers, Kenny O'Donnell (Kevin Costner), calls the pilots to ensure the pilots do not report that they were shot at or fired upon, because if they were, the country would be forced to retaliate under the rules of engagement.
John A. Scali, a reporter with ABC News, is contacted by Soviet "emissary" Aleksandr Fomin (Boris Lee Krutonog), and through this back-channel communication method the Soviets offer to remove the missiles in exchange for public assurances from the U.S. that it will never invade Cuba. A long message in the same tone as the informal communication from Fomin, apparently written personally by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, is received. This is followed by a second, more hard line cable in which the Soviets offer a deal involving U.S removal of its Jupiter missiles from Turkey. The Kennedy administration interprets the second as a response from the Politburo, and in a risky act, decides to ignore it and respond to the first message, assumed to be from Khrushchev. There are several mis-steps during the crisis: the defense readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) is raised to DEFCON 2 (one step shy of maximum readiness for imminent war), without informing the President; a nuclear weapon test proceeds (Bluegill Triple Prime) and a routine test launch of a U.S. offensive missile is also carried out without the President's knowledge.
In a bid for time while under intense pressure from the military for an immediate strike, President Kennedy authorizes attacks on the missile sites and an invasion of Cuba, to commence the following Monday. An Air Force U-2 reconnaissance plane is sent over Cuba to gather intelligence for the attack, but is shot down, killing the pilot. After much deliberation with the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, Kennedy makes a final attempt to avoid a war by sending his brother, Robert F. Kennedy (Steven Culp), to meet with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin on Friday night. Bobby reiterates the demand that the Soviets remove their missiles from Cuba, and in return promises not to invade or assist in the invasion of Cuba. Dobrynin insists that the U.S. must also remove all Jupiter missiles from Turkey, on the border of the Soviet Union. Bobby says that a quid pro quo is not possible, but in exchange for Khrushchev removing all the missiles from Cuba, there will be a secret understanding that the U.S. will remove all of its "obsolete" missiles from Turkey within six months as part of a pre-scheduled plan. The Soviets announce on Sunday that they will remove their missiles from Cuba, averting a war that could have escalated to the use of nuclear weapons. The film ends with President Kennedy dictating a letter of condolence to the family of the reconnaissance pilot, Rudolf Anderson, who was shot down over Cuba as part of the preparations for the invasion, and the Kennedy brothers and O'Donnell outside of the Oval Office as actual audio of President Kennedy's commencement speech at American University played in the background.
Cast[edit]
Bruce Greenwood as President John F. Kennedy
Steven Culp as Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy
Stephanie Romanov as First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy
Kevin Costner as Special Assistant to the President Kenneth O'Donnell
Dylan Baker as Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara
Michael Fairman as United States Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson II
Daniel Vergara as Secretary General of the Organization of American States José Antonio Mora
Bill Smitrovich as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Maxwell Taylor, USA
Jack Blessing as ABC News correspondent John A. Scali
Frank Wood as National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy
Ed Lauter as Deputy Director of the CIA Lieutenant General Marshall Carter, USA
Madison Mason as Chief of Naval Operations Admiral George Whelan Anderson Jr.
Kevin Conway as Chief of Staff of the USAF General Curtis LeMay, USAF
Pramod Kumar as United Nations Secretary General U Thant
Tim Kelleher as White House Counsel Ted Sorensen
Len Cariou as Former Secretary of State Dean Acheson
Chip Esten as U-2 pilot Major Rudolf Anderson, USAF
Olek Krupa as Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko
Lucinda Jenney as Helen O'Donnell, wife to Kenneth O'Donnell
Jack McGee as Richard J. Daley, Mayor of Chicago
Janet Coleman as Evelyn Lincoln President Kennedy's Secretary
Tom Everett as Walter Sheridan Special assistant to President Kennedy
Oleg Vidov as Valerian Zorin, Soviet Ambassador to the United Nations.
John Aylward as Orvil Dryfoos publisher of The New York Times
Elya Baskin as Anatoly Dobrynin Ambassador of the Soviet Union to the United States
Larry Strauss as Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon
Alex Veadov as Radio Room Operator #3
Henry Strozier as Secretary of State Dean Rusk
Walter Adrian as Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson
Christopher Lawford as RF-8 Crusader pilot, Commander William Ecker, USN.
Lawford, son of Patricia Kennedy Lawford, is nephew to President and Robert Kennedy
Kelly Connell as Press Secretary Pierre Salinger
Peter White as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency John McCone
Boris Lee Krutonog as Alexander Feklisov (a.k.a Alexander Fomin), KGB spy
Dakin Matthews as Arthur C. Lundahl
James Karen as George Ball
Dan Ziskie as General Commander of the Tactical Air Command Walter 'Cam' Sweeney (USAF)
Marya Kazakova as Soviet Woman
Production[edit]
The film was co-produced by several companies, including New Line Cinema, Costner's Tig Productions and Armyan Bernstein's Beacon Pictures.
The Department of Defense cooperated to some extent, allowing the producers to film on several bases. In order to keep the film "in period" filming took place on ships from the time of the crisis that still existed in the active fleet (USS Enterprise), and ships preserved as museums (USS Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.). Aircraft (both a preserved F-8 Crusader and Lockheed U-2 spyplane were featured) that still exist from the period were refurbished to appear operational as well. The RF-8 Crusader (and an F-5) plus the scenes of Cuba were shot in the Philippines. The air base scene was taken at Clark Air Base, Philippines a former American facility, which substituted for NAS Key West, Florida, where the actual RF-8As of Light Photographic Squadron SIX TWO (VFP-62) launched from on their Cuban overflight missions. At the time of the shooting, the F-8 was still in the inventory of the Philippine Air Force, but no longer operational. The F-5s were retired in 2005.
Release and reception[edit]
The film was given a limited theatrical release on Christmas Day 2000, and a wide release on January 12, 2001, with a staggered release to various countries throughout most of the year. The film grossed $66,579,890 worldwide against an $80 million budget.
Rotten Tomatoes reports that 83% of 117 critics have given the film positive reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10, and the consensus: "Thirteen Days offers a compelling look at the Cuban Missile Crisis, and its talented cast deftly portrays the real-life people who were involved."[3] Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream film critics, gives Thirteen Days a score of 67, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[4]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave Thirteen Days a rating of 3 stars out of 4, and said "The movie's taut, flat style is appropriate for a story that is more about facts and speculation than about action. Kennedy and his advisers study high-altitude photos and intelligence reports, and wonder if Khrushchev's word can be trusted. Everything depends on what they decide. The movie shows men in unknotted ties and shirt-sleeves, grasping coffee cups or whiskey glasses and trying to sound rational while they are at some level terrified...[T]hings might not have happened exactly like this, but it sure did feel like they did."[5]
However, some former Kennedy administration officials and contemporary historians, including Arthur Schlesinger Jr., Special Counsel Ted Sorensen, and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, have criticized the film for the depiction of Special Assistant Kenneth O'Donnell as chief motivator of Kennedy and others during the crisis.[6] Prior to seeing the movie, McNamara reacted to the premise in a PBS NewsHour interview:
"For God's sakes, Kenny O'Donnell didn't have any role whatsoever in the missile crisis; he was a political appointment secretary to the President; that's absurd."[7]
According to McNamara, the duties performed by O'Donnell in the film were closer to the role Sorensen played during the actual crisis: "It was not Kenny O'Donnell who pulled us all together—it was Ted Sorensen." However, after seeing the movie McNamara remarked that while he still thought the filmmakers took some creative liberties with certain characters, he ultimately thought that it was a reasonable historical portrayal of the crisis:
"I think it’s an absolutely fascinating portrayal and a very constructive and responsible portrayal of a very, very serious crisis not only in the history of this nation but in the history of the world."[7]
See also[edit]
Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Thirteen Days (12)". British Board of Film Classification. December 13, 2001. Retrieved October 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Thirteen Days". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Thirteen Days".
Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/movie/thirteen-days Thirteen Days Reviews - Metacritic
Jump up ^ http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/thirteen-days-2001 Thirteen Days Movie Review & Film Summary - Roger Ebert
Jump up ^ Nelson, Michael (February 2, 2001). "'Thirteen Days' Doesn't Add Up". The Chronicle Review. Chronicle of Higher Education: B15. Retrieved December 1, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b McNamara, Robert (March 2001). https://web.archive.org/web/20010905114944/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/february01/thirteendays3.html "Online NewsHour Forum: Thirteen Days". PBS NewsHour. PBS. Retrieved December 1, 2013.

External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thirteen Days (film)
Thirteen Days on IMDb
Thirteen Days at Rotten Tomatoes
Thirteen Days at Box Office Mojo
Thirteen Days in 145 minutes – commentary by Ernest R. May, Harvard professor who wrote the book on which it was based, on the accuracy of the movie
White House Museum - How accurate was the movie recreation of the architecture and floor plan of the actual White House (review)
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List of current Indian chief ministers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Indian states according to party of their chief minister
Bharatiya Janata Party
Indian National Congress
Other parties
Governor's rule
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty-nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state-level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly's confidence, the chief minister's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he/she can serve.[1]
Since June 2018, the office of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir has been vacant; Governor's rule is in force there. Of the thirty incumbents, two are women—Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 23 years, 244 days), Sikkim's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest.[2] Fifteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party and three to the Indian National Congress; no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
Current Indian chief ministers[edit]
Colour key for parties
Aam Aadmi Party
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
All India Trinamool Congress
Bharatiya Janata Party
Biju Janata Dal
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Indian National Congress
Janata Dal (Secular)
Janata Dal (United)
Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party
National People's Party
Sikkim Democratic Front
Telangana Rashtra Samithi
Telugu Desam Party
N/A (Governor's rule)
State
(past chief ministers)
Name[3]
Portrait
Took office
(tenure length)
Party[a]
Ref
Andhra Pradesh
(list) N. Chandrababu Naidu 8 June 2014
(7003152700000000000♠4 years, 66 days) Telugu Desam Party [4]
Arunachal Pradesh
(list) Pema Khandu 17 July 2016
(7002757000000000000♠2 years, 27 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [5][6]
Assam
(list) Sarbananda Sonowal 24 May 2016
(7002811000000000000♠2 years, 81 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [7]
Bihar
(list) Nitish Kumar 22 February 2015
(7003126800000000000♠3 years, 172 days) Janata Dal (United) [8]
Chhattisgarh
(list) Raman Singh 7 December 2003
(7003536300000000000♠14 years, 249 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [9]
Delhi[b]
(list) Arvind Kejriwal 14 February 2015
(7003127600000000000♠3 years, 180 days) Aam Aadmi Party [10]
Goa
(list) Manohar Parrikar 14 March 2017
(7002517000000000000♠1 year, 152 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [11]
Gujarat
(list) Vijay Rupani 7 August 2016
(7002736000000000000♠2 years, 6 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [12]
Haryana
(list) Manohar Lal Khattar 26 October 2014
(7003138700000000000♠3 years, 291 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [13]
Himachal Pradesh
(list) Jai Ram Thakur 27 December 2017
(7002229000000000000♠229 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [14]
Jammu and Kashmir
(list) Vacant[c]
(Governor's rule) 20 June 2018
(7001540000000000000♠54 days) N/A [16]
Jharkhand
(list) Raghubar Das 28 December 2014
(7003132400000000000♠3 years, 228 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [17]
Karnataka
(list) H. D. Kumaraswamy 23 May 2018
(7001820000000000000♠82 days) Janata Dal (Secular) [18]
Kerala
(list) Pinarayi Vijayan 25 May 2016
(7002810000000000000♠2 years, 80 days) Communist Party of India (Marxist) [19]
Madhya Pradesh
(list) Shivraj Singh Chouhan 29 November 2005
(7003464000000000000♠12 years, 257 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [20]
Maharashtra
(list) Devendra Fadnavis 31 October 2014
(7003138200000000000♠3 years, 286 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [21]
Manipur
(list) N. Biren Singh 15 March 2017
(7002516000000000000♠1 year, 151 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [22]
Meghalaya
(list) Conrad Sangma 6 March 2018
(7002160000000000000♠160 days) National People's Party [23]
Mizoram
(list) Lal Thanhawla 7 December 2008
(7003353600000000000♠9 years, 249 days) Indian National Congress [24]
Nagaland
(list) Neiphiu Rio 8 March 2018
(7002158000000000000♠158 days) Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party [25]
Odisha
(list) Naveen Patnaik 5 March 2000
(7003673500000000000♠18 years, 161 days) Biju Janata Dal [26]
Puducherry[b]
(list) V. Narayanasamy 6 June 2016
(7002798000000000000♠2 years, 68 days) Indian National Congress [27]
Punjab
(list) Amarinder Singh 16 March 2017
(7002515000000000000♠1 year, 150 days) Indian National Congress [28]
Rajasthan
(list) Vasundhara Raje 13 December 2013
(7003170400000000000♠4 years, 243 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [29]
Sikkim
(list) Pawan Kumar Chamling 12 December 1994
(7003864500000000000♠23 years, 244 days) Sikkim Democratic Front [30]
Tamil Nadu
(list) Edappadi K. Palaniswami 16 February 2017
(7002543000000000000♠1 year, 178 days) All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam [31]
Telangana
(list) K. Chandrashekhar Rao 2 June 2014
(7003153300000000000♠4 years, 72 days) Telangana Rashtra Samithi [32]
Tripura
(list) Biplab Kumar Deb 9 March 2018
(157 Days) Bharatiya Janata Party [33]
Uttar Pradesh
(list) Yogi Adityanath 19 March 2017
(7002512000000000000♠1 year, 147 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [34]
Uttarakhand
(list) Trivendra Singh Rawat 18 March 2017
(7002513000000000000♠1 year, 148 days) Bharatiya Janata Party [35]
West Bengal
(list) Mamata Banerjee 20 May 2011
(7003264200000000000♠7 years, 85 days) All India Trinamool Congress [36]
Jump up ^ This column names only the chief minister's party. The ministry he heads may be a complex coalition of several parties and independents; those are not listed here.
^ Jump up to: a b Although Delhi and Puducherry each have an elected legislature and a council of ministers (headed by the chief minister), they are officially union territories.
Jump up ^ Similar to President's rule, Governor's rule is imposed as per Section 92 of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.[15]
See also[edit]
List of current Indian governors
List of current Indian opposition leaders
List of female Indian chief ministers
List of chief ministers from the Bharatiya Janata Party
List of chief ministers from the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Durga Das Basu. Introduction to the Constitution of India. 1960. 20th edition, 2011 reprint. pp. 241, 245. LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur. ISBN 978-81-8038-559-9.
Jump up ^ "Meet Pema Khandu: India’s youngest Chief Minister". The Hindu. 17 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Chief Ministers. India.gov.in. Retrieved on 3 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Naidu takes oath as Andhra Pradesh CM". The Hindu. 8 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pema Khandu sworn in as Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh". The Hindu. 17 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "BJP forms govt in Arunachal Pradesh". The Hindu. 31 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sarbananda Sonowal sworn in as first BJP CM of Assam". The Hindu. 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Kumar, Arun (27 July 2017). "Grand Alliance to NDA: Nitish Kumar changes partner, continues as Bihar CM". Hindustan Times. Patna. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Aarti Dhar. "Raman Singh takes oath". The Hindu. 8 December 2003.
Jump up ^ Smriti Kak Ramachandran, Shubhomoy Sikdar. "Kejriwal promises to make Delhi graft-free in 5 years". The Hindu. 14 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Nistula Hebbar, Prakash Kamat. "Parrikar takes oath in Goa as SC declines Cong. plea". The Hindu. 14 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Mahesh Langa. "Vijay Rupani sworn in; Gujarat Cabinet bears Shah’s stamp". The Hindu. 7 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Sarabjit Pandher. "Khattar sworn in". The Hindu. 26 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Jai Ram Thakur sworn in as Himachal Chief Minister". The Indian Express. 27 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Bharti Jain. "Governor's rule imposed in Jammu & Kashmir". The Times of India. 9 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Governor’s rule imposed in Jammu and Kashmir". The Hindu. 20 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Amarnath Tewary. "Raghuvar Das assumes office as CM". The Hindu. 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Kumaraswamy sworn in; floor test tomorrow". The Hindu. 23 May 2018.
Jump up ^ C. Gouridasan Nair. "Pinarayi takes charge as Kerala Chief Minister". The Hindu. 25 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Shivraj Chauhan sworn in Chief Minister". The Hindu. 30 November 2005.
Jump up ^ Priyanka Kakodkar. "Uddhav attends Fadnavis swearing-in". The Hindu. 31 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Isha Gupta. "BJP leader Biren Singh sworn in as Manipur Chief Minister". India Today. 15 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Shiv Sahay Singh. "Conrad Sangma sworn-in as Meghalaya CM". The Hindu. 6 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lal Thanhawla sworn in as Mizoram chief minister". The Times of India. 11 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Rahul Karmakar. "Neiphiu Rio takes charge as Nagaland Chief Minister again". The Hindu. 8 March 2018.
Jump up ^ N. Ramdas. "Naveen Govt. installed". The Hindu. 6 March 2000.
Jump up ^ "Puducherry: V Narayanasamy sworn in as Chief Minister". The Indian Express. 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Amarinder Singh sworn in as Punjab CM". The Hindu. 17 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Vasundhara swearing-in, a show of strength". The Hindu. 13 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pawan Chamling to be longest serving Chief Minister". The Hindu. 17 May 2014.
Jump up ^ T. Ramakrishnan. "Edappadi Palaniswami sworn in as Tamil Nadu Chief Minister". The Hindu. 17 February 2017.
Jump up ^ K. Srinivas Reddy. "KCR sworn in; heads cabinet of 11 ministers". The Hindu. 2 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Rahul Karmakar. "Biplab Kumar Deb sworn in as Tripura CM". The Hindu. 9 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Yogi Adityanath takes oath as Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister". The Hindu. 19 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Kavita Upadhyay. "Trivendra Singh Rawat takes oath as Uttarakhand Chief Minister". The Hindu. 18 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mamata, 37 Ministers sworn in". The Hindu. 21 May 2011.
hide
v
t
e
Lists of chief ministers of Indian states (and current incumbents)
Andhra Pradesh
N. Chandrababu Naidu
Arunachal Pradesh
Pema Khandu
Assam
Sarbananda Sonowal
Bihar
Nitish Kumar
Chhattisgarh
Raman Singh
Delhi
Arvind Kejriwal
Goa
Manohar Parrikar
Gujarat
Vijay Rupani
Haryana
Manohar Lal Khattar
Himachal Pradesh
Jai Ram Thakur
Jammu and Kashmir
Vacant
Jharkhand
Raghubar Das
Karnataka
H. D. Kumaraswamy
Kerala
Pinarayi Vijayan
Madhya Pradesh
Shivraj Singh Chouhan
Maharashtra
Devendra Fadnavis
Manipur
N. Biren Singh
Meghalaya
Conrad Sangma
Mizoram
Lal Thanhawla
Nagaland
Neiphiu Rio
Odisha
Naveen Patnaik
Puducherry
V. Narayanasamy
Punjab
Amarinder Singh
Rajasthan
Vasundhara Raje
Sikkim
Pawan Kumar Chamling
Tamil Nadu
Edappadi K. Palaniswami
Telangana
K. Chandrashekhar Rao
Tripura
Biplab Kumar Deb
Uttar Pradesh
Yogi Adityanath
Uttarakhand
Trivendra Singh Rawat
West Bengal
Mamata Banerjee
Women chief ministers
From the Bharatiya Janata Party
From the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_current_Indian_chief_ministers&oldid=852361697"
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Celtic Britons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Great Britain and adjacent islands in the 5th century AD, before the invasion and subsequent founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Mainly Brittonic areas
Mainly Pictish areas
Mainly Goidelic areas
The Britons, also known as Celtic Britons or Ancient Britons, were Celtic people who inhabited Great Britain from the British Iron Age into the Middle Ages, at which point their culture and language diverged. They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor to the modern Brittonic languages.[1]
The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age.[2] After the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, a Romano-British culture emerged, and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic.[3] During and after the Roman era, the Britons lived throughout Britain. Their relationship with the Picts, who lived north of the Firth of Forth, has been the subject of much discussion, though most scholars now accept that the Pictish language was related to Common Brittonic, rather than a separate Celtic language.[4]
With the beginning of Anglo-Saxon settlement and Gaelic Scots in the 5th century, the culture and language of the Britons fragmented and much of their territory was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons and Scots Gaels. The extent to which this cultural and linguistic change was accompanied by wholesale changes in the population is still a matter of discussion. During this period some Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant settlements in Brittany (now part of France) as well as Britonia in modern Galicia, Spain.[2] By the 11th century, remaining Brittonic Celtic-speaking populations had split into distinct groups: the Welsh in Wales, the Cornish in Cornwall, the Bretons in Brittany, and the people of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North") in southern Scotland and northern England. Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages: Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish and Breton.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Language
3 Archaeology and art
4 Territory
5 Notable representatives
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Name[edit]
Main article: Britain (placename)
Further information: Brittia
Gritstone bas-relief of Romano-British woman
The earliest known reference to the inhabitants of Britain seems to come from 4th century BC records of the voyage of Pytheas, a Greek geographer who made a voyage of exploration around the British Isles between 330 and 320 BC. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them. Pytheas called the islands collectively αἱ Βρεττανίαι (hai Brettaniai), which has been translated as the Brittanic Isles; he also used the term Pretannike. The peoples of these islands were called the Πρεττανοί (Prettanoi), Priteni, Pritani or Pretani. The group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne (Insula sacra "sacred island" as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of Hiberni" (gens hibernorum), and Britain as insula Albionum, "island of the Albions".[5][6] The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who possibly used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands.[6]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was originally compiled by the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately 890, and subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 12th century, starts with this sentence: "The island Britain is 800 miles long, and 200 miles broad, and there are in the island five nations: English, Welsh (or British, including the Cornish), Scottish, Pictish, and Latin. The first inhabitants were the Britons, who came from Armenia, and first peopled Britain southward." ("Armenia" is possibly a mistaken transcription of Armorica, an area in northwestern Gaul including modern Brittany.)[7]
The Latin name in the early Roman Empire period was Britanni or Brittanni, following the Roman conquest in AD 43.[8]
The Welsh word Brython was introduced into English usage by John Rhys in 1884 as a term unambiguously referring to the P-Celtic speakers of Great Britain, to complement Goidel; hence the adjective Brythonic referring to the group of languages.[9] "Brittonic languages" is a more recent coinage (first attested 1923 according to the Oxford English Dictionary) intended to refer to the ancient Britons specifically.
In English, the term "Briton" originally denoted the ancient Britons and their descendants, most particularly the Welsh, who were seen as heirs to the ancient British people.[10] After the Acts of Union 1707, the terms British and Briton came to be applied to all inhabitants of the Kingdom of Great Britain and its empire.[11]
Language[edit]
Main articles: Common Brittonic and Brittonic languages
The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan
A flying rowan tree, considered magical by the ancient Britons
Britons migrated westwards during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
The Britons spoke an Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic. Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain (in modern terms, England, Wales and Scotland), as well as offshore islands such as the Isle of Man, Scilly Isles, Orkneys, Hebrides and Shetlands.[2][12] According to early mediaeval historical tradition, such as The Dream of Macsen Wledig, the post-Roman Celtic-speakers of Armorica were colonists from Britain, resulting in the Breton language, a language related to Welsh and identical to Cornish in the early period and still used today. Thus the area today is called Brittany (Br. Breizh, Fr. Bretagne, derived from Britannia).
Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the Proto-Celtic language that developed in the British Isles after arriving from the continent in the 7th century BC. The language eventually began to diverge; some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as Western and Southwestern Brittonic languages. Western Brittonic developed into Welsh in Wales and the Cumbric language in the Hen Ogledd or "Old North" of Britain, while the Southwestern dialect became Cornish in Cornwall and South West England and Breton in Armorica. Pictish is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic, rather than being a separate Celtic language. Welsh and Breton survive today; Cumbric became extinct in the 12th century. Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of language revitalization since the 20th century.
Archaeology and art[edit]
Main article: Celtic art
Ideas about the development of British Iron Age culture changed greatly in the 20th century, and remain in development. Generally cultural exchange has tended to replace migration from the continent as the explanation for changes, although Aylesford-Swarling Pottery and the Arras culture of Yorkshire are examples of developments still thought to be linked to migration.
Although the La Tène style, which defines what is called Celtic art in the Iron Age, was late in arriving in Britain, after 300 BC the ancient British seem to have had generally similar cultural practices to the Celtic cultures nearest to them on the continent. There are significant differences in artistic styles, and the greatest period of what is known as the "Insular La Tène" style, surviving mostly in metalwork, was in the century or so before the Roman conquest, and perhaps the decades after it. By this time Celtic styles seem to have been in decline in continental Europe, even before Roman invasions.
An undercurrent of British influence is found in some artefacts from the Roman period, such as the Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, and it appears that it was from this, passing to Ireland in the late Roman and post-Roman period, that the "Celtic" element in Early Medieval Insular art derived.
Territory[edit]
Main articles: British Iron Age, Roman Britain, and Sub-Roman Britain
Throughout their existence, the territory inhabited by the Britons was composed of numerous ever-changing areas controlled by Brittonic tribes. The extent of their territory before and during the Roman period is unclear, but is generally believed to include the whole of the island of Great Britain, at least as far north as the Clyde-Forth isthmus, and if the Picts are included as Brittonic speaking people as they more usually are,[13] the entirety of Great Britain. The territory north of the Firth of Forth was largely inhabited by the Picts; little direct evidence has been left of the Pictish language, but place names and Pictish personal names recorded in the later Irish annals suggest it was indeed related to the Common Brittonic language rather than to the Goidelic (Gaelic) languages of the Irish, Scots and Manx; indeed their Goidelic Irish name, Cruithne, is cognate with Brythonic Priteni. Part of the Pictish territory was eventually absorbed into the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata and Alba, which became Scotland. The Isle of Man, Shetland, Hebrides and the Orkney islands were originally inhabited by Britons also, but eventually became respectively Manx and Scots Gaelic speaking territories, while the Scilly isles and Anglesey (Ynys Mon) remained Brittonic and the originally Brittonic Isle of Wight was taken by Anglo-Saxons.
In 43 AD, the Roman Empire invaded Britain. The British tribes opposed the Roman legions for many decades, but by 84 AD the Romans had decisively conquered southern Britain and had pushed into Brittonic areas of what would later become northern England and southern Scotland. In 122, they fortified the northern border with Hadrian's Wall, which spanned what is now Northern England. In 142 AD, Roman forces pushed north again and began construction of the Antonine Wall, which ran between the Forth-Clyde isthmus, but they retreated back to Hadrian's Wall after only twenty years. Although the native Britons south of Hadrian's Wall mostly kept their land, they were subject to the Roman governors, whilst the Brittonic-Pictish Britons north of the wall remained fully independent. The Roman Empire retained control of "Britannia" until its departure about AD 410, although some parts of Britain had already effectively shrugged off Roman rule decades earlier.
Shortly after the time of the Roman departure, the Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons began a migration to the eastern coast of Britain, where they established their own kingdoms, and the Gaelic speaking Scots migrating from Dál nAraidi (modern Northern Ireland), did the same on the west coast of Scotland and the Isle of Man.[14][15]
At the same time, some Britons established themselves in what is now called Brittany. There they set up their own small kingdoms and the Breton language developed there from Brittonic Insular Celtic rather than Gaulish or Frankish. A further colony, Britonia, was also set up at this time in Gallaecia in northwestern Spain.
Many of the old Brittonic kingdoms began to disappear in the centuries after the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish Gaelic invasions; The regions of modern East Anglia, East Midlands, North East England, Argyll and South East England were the first to fall to the Germanic and Gaelic Scots invasions; The kingdom of Ceint (modern Kent) fell in 456 AD, Linnuis (which stood astride modern Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire) was subsumed as early as 500 AD and became the English Kingdom of Lindsey, Rhegin (essentially modern Sussex and eastern Hampshire) was likely fully conquered by 510 AD, Ynys Weith (Isle of Wight) fell in 530 AD,[16]Caer Colun (essentially modern Essex) by 540 AD, The Gaels arrived on the north west coast of Britain from Ireland, dispossessed the native Britons and founded Dal Riata which encompassed modern Argyll, Skye and Iona between 500 and 560 AD. Deifr (Deira) which encompassed modern day Teeside, Wearside, Tyneside and Humberside fell to the Anglo-Saxons in 559 AD and Deira became an Anglo-Saxon kingdom after this point. Caer Went had officially disappeared by 575 AD becoming the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of East Anglia, Gwent and its capital Caer Gloui (Gloucester) was divided in 577 AD, handing Gloucestershire and Wiltshire to the invaders, while the westernmost part continued to exist in modern Wales, Caer Lundein encompassing London, St. Albans and parts of the Home Counties fell from Brittonic hands by 600 AD,[17] Bryneich which existed in modern Northumbria and County Durham with its capital of Din Guardi (modern Bamburgh) and which included Ynys Metcaut (Lindisfarne) had fallen by 605 AD becoming Anglo-Saxon Bernicia.[18] Caer Celemion (in modern Hampshire and Berkshire) had fallen by 610 AD.[19] Elmet, which covered much of modern Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cheshire and likely had its capital at modern Leeds, was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons in 627 AD. Pengwern, which covered Staffordshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire, was largely destroyed in 656 AD with only its westernmost parts in modern Wales enduring. AD,[20] and it is likely that Cynwidion which had stretched from modern Bedfordshire to Northamptonshire, fell in the same general period as Pengwern, though a sub-kingdom of Calchwynedd may have clung on in the Chilterns for a time. Novant which occupied Galloway and Carrick was soon subsumed by fellow Brittonic-Pictish polities by 700 AD. Aeron which encompassed modern Ayrshire[21] was conquered into the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria by 700 AD.
Some Brittonic kingdoms, such as Rheged, which at its height encompassed much what is today Strathclyde, Cumbria, Northumberland, the Scottish borders, Lancashire and modern Greater Manchester and had a capital at Cair Ligualid (Carlisle), were able to successfully resist these incursions for some time, before the eastern part peacefully joined with the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia-Northumberland by 730 AD, and the west was taken over by the fellow Britons of Ystrad Clud.[22][23]
Similarly, the kingdom of Gododdin, which appears to have had its capital at Din Eidyn (modern Edinburgh and encompassed parts of modern Northumbria, County Durham, Lothian and Clackmannanshire endured until approximately 775 AD before being divided by fellow Brittonic Picts, Gaelic Scots and Anglo-Saxons.
The Kingdom of Cait, covering modern Caithness, Sutherland, Orkneys and Shetlands was conquered in 871 AD, similarly, the Kingdom of Ce which encompassed modern Marr, Banff, Buchan, Fife and much of Aberdeenshire disappeared in 900 at the hands of the Gaelic Scots AD. Fortriu the largest Pictish kingdom which covered Strathearn, Morayshire and Easter Ross had fallen by approximately 950 AD to the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). Other Pictish kingdoms such as Circinn ( in modern Angus and The Mearns), Fib (modern Fife), Fidach (Inverness and Perthshire), Ath-Fotla (Atholl) had also fallen by the beginning of the 11th century AD.
The Brythonic languages in these areas was replaced by the Old English of the Anglo-Saxons and Scots Gaelic, although this was likely a gradual process in many areas.
The kingdom of Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde) was for some time a large and powerful Brittonic kingdom which endured until the end of the 11th century, successfully resisting Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic Scots and later also Viking attacks. At its peak it encompassed modern Strathclyde, Dumbartonshire, Cumbria, Stirlingshire, Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Dumfries and Galloway, Argyll and Bute and parts of North Yorkshire, western Pennines, and as far as modern Leeds in West Yorkshire.[23][24]
The Britons also retained control of Wales, Cornwall and south Devon (Dumnonia), as well as northwest England and parts of Scotland, where kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd endured. Dumnonia was effectively partitioned during the 9th century AD, the north becoming Anglo-Saxon Devonshire while he south remained in the hands of the Britons as Kernow (essentially modern Cornwall).
Wales was divided among varying Brittonic kingdoms, the foremost being Gwynedd, Powys (including Clwyd and Ynys Mon (Anglesey), Deheubarth (originally Ceredigion, Seisyllwg and Dyfed), Gwent and Morgannwg (Glamorgan. Some of these Welsh kingdoms initially included territories further east, for example Powys included parts of modern Merseyside, Cheshire and The Wirral and Gwent held parts of modern Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Somerset and Gloucestershire, but had largely been confined to the borders of modern Wales by the beginning of the 12th century.
However, by the beginning of the 12th century, the Anglo-Saxons and Gaels had become the dominant cultural force in most of the formerly Brittonic ruled territory in Britain, and the language and culture of the native Britons was thereafter gradually replaced in those regions,[25] remaining only in Wales, Cornwall, parts of Cumbria, Strathclyde, eastern Galloway and Brittany.
The Brittonic-Pictish polities in Scotland and northern England gradually fell to the English and Scots; with the Kingdom of Strathclyde (Strath-Clota) being the last of the Brittonic kingdoms of the north to fall in the 1090s, when it was effectively divided between England and Scotland.[26]
Cornwall (Kernow, Dumnonia) had certainly been largely absorbed by England by the 1050s, although it retained a distinct Brittonic culture and language.[27] Britonia in Spanish Galicia seems to have disappeared by 900 AD.
Wales and Brittany remained independent for some time however, with Brittany finally being absorbed into France during the 1490s, and Wales united with England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 in the mid 16th century during the rule of the Tudors (Twdyr), who were themselves of Welsh heritage on the male side.
Wales, Cornwall and Brittany continued to retain a distinct Brittonic culture, identity and language, which they have maintained to the present day. The Welsh language and Breton language remain widely spoken, and the Cornish language, once close to extinction, has experienced a revival since the 20th century. The vast majority of place names and names of geographical features in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany are Brittonic, and Brittonic family and personal names remain common.
During the 19th century, a large number of Welsh farmers migrated to Patagonia in Argentina, forming a community called Y Wladfa, which today consists of over 1,500 Welsh speakers.
In addition, a Brittonic legacy remains in England, Scotland and Galicia in Spain,[28] in the form of often large numbers of Brittonic place and geographical names. Some examples of geographical Brittonic names survive in the names of rivers, such as the Thames, Clyde, Severn, Tyne, Wye, Exe, Dee, Tamar, Tweed, Avon, Trent, Tambre, Navia and River Forth. A number of place names in England and Scotland are of Brittonic rather than Anglo-Saxon or Gaelic origin, such as; London, Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Carlisle, Caithness, Aberdeen, Dundee, Barrow, Exeter, Lincoln, Dumbarton, Brent, Penge, Colchester, Durham, Dover, Leatherhead and York.
Notable representatives[edit]
Main articles: King of the Britons and List of legendary kings of Britain
King Arthur – Romano-British war leader of debatable historicity.
Ambrosius Aurelianus (Emrys Wledig) – Romano-British War leader.
Boudica – Queen of the Iceni, who led the failed rebellion against Roman occupation in 60 AD.
Bonosus – a Romano-British military general and imperial pretender in 280 AD.
Cadwallon ap Cadfan – King of Gwynedd, fought against the Anglo-Saxons.
Caratacus – a leader of the defence against the Roman conquest of Britain.
Cartimandua – Queen of the Brigantes during and after the Roman invasion.
Cassivellaunus – led the defence against Julius Caesar's second expedition to Britain in 54 BC.
Conan Meriadoc – legendary founder of Brittany.
Coel Hen – the "Old King Cole" of the popular nursery rhyme.
Cogidubnus – a British client-king, later made a citizen of Rome and awarded Fishbourne Roman Palace.
Commius – historical King of the Belgic nation of the Atrebates, initially in Gaul, then in Britannia, during the 1st century BC.
Cunedda – post-Roman King and progenitor of the Kingdom of Gwynedd.
Cunobelinus – historical King of southern Britain between the first and second Roman invasions, ruling from the stronghold of Camulodunon (modern Colchester). Called "King of the Britons" by Suetonius. The basis for Shakespeare's Cymbeline.[29]
Gratianus – a Romano-British aristocrat and imperial usurper in 407.
King Lot – grandfather of St Kentigern, and eponymous king of Lothian.
Mailoc – Bishop of Britonia (Galicia) in the 6th century AD.
Marcus Cunomorus – King Mark of Cornwall and Brittany.
Saint Patrick – a Romano-Briton and Christian missionary, who is the most generally recognized patron saint of Ireland or the Apostle of Ireland.
Pelagius – an influential Christian monk and theologian, whose thought was branded heresy later in life.
Prasutagus – husband of Boudica.
Togodumnus – a leader of the defence against the Roman conquest of Britain.
Urien – King of Rheged (modern Lancashire and Cumbria).
Vortigern – warlord and King in the 5th century AD. Best known for inviting the Jutes to Kent.
See also[edit]
Albion
Bretons
British Isles
British Isles (terminology)
British Latin
Britonia
Caledonia
Celtic nations
Cornish people
Cumbric
Dumnonia
Elmet
English people
Fortriu
Genetic history of the British Isles
Gododdin
History of the British Isles
Kingdom of Cat
Kingdom of Ce
Kingdom of Strathclyde
List of Celtic tribes
Picts
Rheged
Scottish people
Welsh people
Yr Hen Ogledd
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Koch, p. 291.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Koch, pp. 291–292.
Jump up ^ Sawyer, P.H. (1998). From Roman Britain to Norman England. pp. 69–74. ISBN 0415178940.
Jump up ^ Forsyth, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Snyder, Christopher A. (2003). The Britons. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22260-X.
^ Jump up to: a b Foster (editor), R F; Donnchadh O Corrain, Professor of Irish History at University College Cork: Prehistoric and Early Christian Ireland (1 November 2001). The Oxford History of Ireland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280202-X. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "The Avalon Project". Yale Law School. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
Jump up ^ OED s.v. "Briton". See also Online Etymology Dictionary: Briton
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: Brythonic
Jump up ^ Roberts, Peter (2003). Bradshaw, Brendon; Roberts, Peter, eds. "Tudor Wales, national identity, and British inheritance". British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533-1707. Cambridge University Press: 8. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Briton". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ While there have been attempts in the past to align the Pictish language with non-Celtic language, the current academic view is that it was Brittonic. See: Forsyth (1997) p. 37: "[T]he only acceptable conclusion is that, from the time of our earliest historical sources, there was only one language spoken in Pictland, the most northerly reflex of Brittonic."
Jump up ^ Forsyth 2006, p. 1447; Forsyth 1997; Fraser 2009, pp. 52–53; Woolf 2007, pp. 322–340
Jump up ^ John E Pattison. Is it necessary to assume an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England? Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275(1650), 2423–2429, 2008 doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0352
Jump up ^ Pattison, John E. (2011) "Integration versus Apartheid in post-Roman Britain: a Response to Thomas et al. (2008)," Human Biology: Vol. 83: Iss. 6, Article 9. pp. 715–733, 2011. Abstract available at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol83/iss6/9
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain05.htm#Ynys Weith
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain04.htm#Caer Lundein
Jump up ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 515–516.
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainAtrebates.htm#Caer Celemion
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain01.htm#Pengwern
Jump up ^ a b c d Bromwich, p. 157.
Jump up ^ Chadwick, H.M.; Chadwick, N.K. (1940). The Growth of Literature. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Kapelle, W.E. (1979). The Norman Conquest of the North: the Region and its Transformation, 1000–1135. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-7099-0040-6.
Jump up ^ Broun, "Dunkeld", Broun, "National Identity", Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100", pp. 28–32, Woolf, "Constantine II"; cf. Bannerman, "Scottish Takeover", passim, representing the "traditional" view.
Jump up ^ Germanic invaders may not have ruled by apartheid New Scientist, 23 April 2008
Jump up ^ Charles-Edards, pp. 12, 575; Clarkson, pp. 12, 63-66, 154-58
Jump up ^ Williams, Ann and Martin, G. H. (tr.) (2002) Domesday Book: a complete translation, London: Penguin, pp. 341–357.
Jump up ^ Young, Simon (2002). Britonia: camiños novos. Noia: Toxosoutos. pp. 123–128. ISBN 978-84-95622-58-7.
Jump up ^ Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust (ISBN 1 897719 04 3)
References[edit]
Forsyth, Katherine (1997). Language in Pictland (PDF). De Keltische Draak. ISBN 90-802785-5-6.
Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
External links[edit]
BBC – History – Native Tribes of Britain
DNA from ethnic Britons found in Ireland
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Britons&oldid=810646217"
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Celtic Britons
Celts
Iron Age Britain
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Ethnic groups in Scotland
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Britans – Catalan
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Britaniar – Basque
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Britanos – Galician
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Briti – Croatian
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