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Coal mining in the United Kingdom
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This article is about deep pit, underground mining. For surface mining, see Open-pit coal mining in the United Kingdom.
See also: History of coal mining § Great Britain
Coalfields of the United Kingdom in the 19th century
Coal mining in the United Kingdom dates back to Roman times and occurred in many different parts of the country. Britain's coalfields are associated with Northumberland and Durham, North and South Wales, Yorkshire, the Scottish Central Belt, Lancashire, Cumbria, the East and West Midlands and Kent. After 1970, coal mining quickly collapsed and practically disappeared in the 21st century.[1] The consumption of coal -mostly for electricity- plunged from 157 million tonnes in 1970 to 37 million tonnes in 2015, nearly all of it imported. Employment in the coal mines fell from a peak of 1,191,000 in 1920 to 695,000 in 1956, 247,000 in 1976, 44,000 in 1993, and a mere 2,000 in 2015.[2]
Almost all onshore coal resources in the UK occur in rocks of the Carboniferous age, some of which extend under the North Sea. Bituminous coal is present in most of Britain’s coalfields and is 86% to 88% carbon. In Northern Ireland, there are extensive deposits of lignite which is less energy-dense.[3]
The last deep coal mine in the UK closed on 18 December 2015. Twenty-six open cast mines still remain open.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Extent and geology
2 History
2.1 Industrial Revolution
3 Decline
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Extent and geology[edit]
The United Kingdom's onshore coal resources occur in rocks of the Carboniferous age, some of which extend under the North Sea.[5] The carbon content of the bituminous coal present in most of the coalfields is 86% to 88%.[6] Britain's coalfields are associated with Northumberland and Durham, North and South Wales, Yorkshire, the Scottish Central Belt, Lancashire, Cumbria, the East and West Midlands and Kent.
History[edit]
Stone and Bronze Age flint axes have been discovered embedded in coal, showing that it was mined in Britain before the Roman invasion. Early miners first extracted coal already exposed on the surface and then followed the seams underground.[7]
It is probable that the Romans used outcropping coal when working iron or burning lime for building purposes. Evidence to support these theories comes mostly from ash discovered at excavations of Roman sites.[8]
There is no mention of coal mining in the Domesday Book of 1086 although lead and iron mines are recorded.[9] In the 13th century there are records of coal digging in Durham[10] and Northumberland,[11] Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Lancashire, the Forest of Dean and North[12] and South Wales. At this time coal was referred to as sea cole, a reference to coal washed ashore on the north east coast of England from either the cliffs or undersea outcrops. As the supply of coal on the surface became used up, settlers followed the seam inland by digging up the shore. Generally the seam continued underground, encouraging the settlers to dig to find coal, the precursor to modern operations.[7]
The early mines would have been drift mines or adits where coal seams outcropped or by shallow bell pits where coal was close to the surface.[13] Shafts lined with tree trunks and branches have been found in Lancashire in workings dating from early 17th century and by 1750 brick lined shafts to 150 foot depth were common.
Industrial Revolution[edit]
Annual UK coal production (in red) and imports (black), DECC data.
Coal mining employment in the UK, 1880-2012 (DECC data)
Coal production increased dramatically in the 19th century as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace, as a fuel for steam engines such as the Newcomen engine, and later, the Watt steam engine. To produce firewood in the 1860s equivalent in energy terms to domestic consumption of coal would have required 25 million acres of land per year, nearly the entire farmland area of England (26 m. acres).[14]
A key development was the invention at Coalbrookdale in the early 18th century of coke which could be used to make pig iron in the blast furnace. The development of the steam locomotive by Trevithick early in the 19th century gave added impetus, and coal consumption grew rapidly as the railway network expanded through the Victorian period. Coal was widely used for domestic heating owing to its low cost and widespread availability. The manufacture of coal also provided coal gas, which could be used for heating and lighting. Most of the workers were children and men.[15]A gentleman named Jordan Geoff of Upton colliery, West Yorkshire was prosecuted in 1927 for man slaughter, after his appalling treatment of his workforce.
Decline[edit]
Aberaman Miners' Training Centre S.Wales 1951
UK coal production peaked in 1913 at 287 million tonnes.[3] Until the late 1960s, coal was the main source of energy produced in the UK, peaking at 228 million tonnes in 1952. Ninety-five per cent of this came from roughly 1,334 deep-mines that were operational at the time, with the rest from around 92 surface mines.[16]After modernisation of underground mining, a deep shaft mine could produce 700 million tonne annually. In 1986 Kellingley colliery achieved 404,000 tonne in a single shift.
In the 1950s and 1960s around a hundred North East coal mines were closed.[17] In March 1968, the last pit in the Black Country closed and pit closures were a regular occurrence in many other areas.[18] Beginning with wildcat action in 1969, the National Union of Mineworkers became increasingly militant, and was successful in gaining increased wages in their strikes in 1972 and 1974.[19] Closures were less common in the 1970s, and new investments were made in sites such as the Selby Coalfield. In early 1984, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher announced plans to close 20 coal pits which led to the year-long miners' strike which ended in March 1985. The strike was unsuccessful in stopping the closures and led to an end to the closed shop in British Coal, as the breakaway Union of Democratic Mineworkers was formed by miners who objected to the NUM's handling of the strike.[20] Numerous pit closures followed, and in August 1989 coal mining ended in the Kent coalfield.[21] Since 1981 production fell sharply from 128 to 17.8 million tonnes in 2009.
In 1994 John Major privatised British Coal after announcing closures, with the majority of operations transferred to the new company UK Coal.[22][23] Nevertheless, by this time British Coal had closed all but the most economical of coal pits.[24]
The pit closures caused coal production to slump to the lowest rate in more than a century, further declining towards the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s. This coincided with initiatives for cleaner energy generation as power stations switched to gas and biomass. A total of 100 million tons was produced in 1986, but by 1995 the amount was around 50 million tons.[25] The last deep mine in South Wales closed when the coal was exhausted in January 2008. The mine was closed by British Coal in the privatisation of the industry 14 years earlier and re-opened after being bought by the miners who had worked the pit.[26]
Following the limitations to the National Union of Mineworkers' power, British coal-dependent industries have turned to cheaper imported coal.[27] In 2001, production was exceeded by imports for the first time. In 2014, coal imported was three times the coal mined, despite large resources in the country.[28] In 2009, companies were licensed to extract 125 million tonnes of coal in operating underground mines and 42 million tonnes at opencast locations.[3]
Coal mining employed 4,000 workers at 30 locations in 2013, extracting 13 million tonnes of coal.[28] The three deep-pit mines were Hatfield and Kellingley Collieries in Yorkshire and Thoresby in Nottinghamshire.[1] There were 26 opencast sites in 2014, mainly in Scotland.[4] British coal mines achieve the most economically produced coal in Europe, with a level of productivity of 3,200 tonnes per man year.[24] Most coal is used for electricity generation and steel-making, but its use to heat homes has decreased because of pollution concerns. The commodity is also used for fertilisers, chemicals, plastics, medicines and road surfaces. Hatfield Colliery closed in June 2015, as did Thoresby, and in December 2015, Kellingley, bringing to an end deep coal mining in the UK. On 20 December, thousands of people turned out for a march in Yorkshire to mark the occasion. The march began in Knottingley and finished with a rally and party at Kellingley Miners Welfare club.[29]
The demand for coal is likely to fall with increasing focus on renewable energy or low-carbon sources and loss of industry due to globalisation. Oil and gas reserves are predicted to run out long before coal,[30] so gas could be produced from coal by gasification.[31]
On 21 April 2017, Britain went a full day without using coal power to generate electricity for the first time since the Industrial Revolution, according to the National Grid.[32]
See also[edit]
Mines Act of 1842
Mines (Prohibition of Child Labour Underground) Act 1900
National Coal Board
Three-Day Week
Coal Mines (Emergency) Act 1920
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Seddon (April 10, 2013). "The long, slow death of the UK coal. industry" (The Northerner blog). The Guardian. London. Retrieved April 17, 2013. Earlier this month Maltby colliery in South Yorkshire closed down for good. At the end of a winter that saw 40% of our energy needs met by coal – most of it imported – we witnessed the poignant closing ceremony
Jump up ^ Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, "Historical coal data: coal production, availability and consumption 1853 to 2015" (2016) online
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mineral Profile - Coal". bgs.ac.uk. British Geological Society. March 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Surface Coal Mining Statistics". www.bgs.ac.uk. 2014. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
Jump up ^ Survey, British. "Coal | Mines & quarries | MineralsUK". www.bgs.ac.uk. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Types and uses of coal". www.ukcoal.com. UK Coal. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mining through the ages". ukcoal.com. UK Coal. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Galloway 1971, p. 5
Jump up ^ Galloway 1971, p. 11
Jump up ^ The Durham Coalfield, Coalmining History Research Centre, archived from the original on 2011-07-19, retrieved 2010-12-05
Jump up ^ The NorthumberlandCoalfield, Coalmining History Research Centre, retrieved 2010-12-05
Jump up ^ The North Wales Coalfield, Coalmining History Research Centre, archived from the original on 2016-03-04, retrieved 2010-12-05
Jump up ^ Galloway 1971, p. 20
Jump up ^ Clark, Gregory; Jacks, David (April 2006). "Coal and the Industrial Revolution, 1700-1869" (PDF). European Review of Economic History (April 2007 (Volume 11, Issue 1 )). doi:10.1017/S1361491606001870. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Making gas from coal, National Gas Museum, archived from the original on July 17, 2011, retrieved 2011-12-06
Jump up ^ "Energy Trends: September 2014, special feature articles - Coal in 2013 - Publications - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Coal Mining in North East England". www.englandsnortheast.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
Jump up ^ Pearson, Mick. "The Closing Of Baggeridge Colliery (from "We Were There" Blackcountryman Volume 1, Issue 3)". blackcountrysociety.co.uk/. Black Country Society. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Routledge, Paul (1994). Scargill: the unauthorised biography. London: Harper Collins. pp. 59–79. ISBN 0-00-638077-8.
Jump up ^ "1984: Miners strike over threatened pit closures". BBC News. 1984-03-12.
Jump up ^ Elmhirst, Sophie (22 June 2011). "After the coal rush". newstatesman.com. New Statesman. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Leading Article: John Major: Is he up to the job?". The Independent. London. 1993-04-04.
Jump up ^ "BBC Wales - History - The Miners' Strike". BBC Wales. BBC. 15 August 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "UK Coal: Coal In Britain Today". UK Coal (Archived). Archived from the original on 2012-04-14. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Thatcher years in graphics". BBC News. 2005-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Coal mine closes with celebration". BBC News. 2008-01-25.
Jump up ^ John F. Burnes (April 16, 2013). "Whitwell Journal: As Thatcher Goes to Rest, Miners Feel No Less Bitter". The New York Times. Retrieved April 17, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Historical coal data: coal production, availability and consumption 1853 to 2013 - Statistical data sets - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Department of Energy & Climate Change. 22 January 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Thousands march through Yorkshire to mark end of deep coal mining at Kellingley - BBC News". Bbc.co.uk. 20 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "World Reserves of Fossil Fuels".
Jump up ^ "UK COAL : Britain's largest coal mining company - Coal Today and for Tomorrow". UK Coal. 2012-01-26. Archived from the original on 2012-01-26. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
Jump up ^ "First coal-free day in Britain since Industrial Revolution". BBC News. 22 April 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Ashton, T. S. & Sykes, J. The coal industry of the eighteenth century. 1929.
Baylies, Carolyn. The History of the Yorkshire Miners, 1881-1918 Routledge (1993).
Benson, John. "Coalmining" in Chris Wrigley, ed. A History of British industrial relations, 1875-1914 (Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1982), pp 187-208.
Benson, John. British Coal-Miners in the Nineteenth Century: A Social History Holmes & Meier, (1980) online
Buxton, N.K. The economic development of the British coal industry: from Industrial Revolution to the present day. 1979.
Dintenfass, Michael. "Entrepreneurial failure reconsidered: the case of the interwar British coal industry." Business History Review 62#1 (1988): 1-34. in JSTOR
Dron, Robert W. The economics of coal mining (1928).
Fine, B. The Coal Question: Political Economy and Industrial Change from the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (1990).
Galloway, R.L. Annals of coal mining and the coal trade. First series [to 1835] 1898; Second series. [1835-80] 1904. Reprinted 1971
Galloway, Robert L. A History Of Coal Mining In Great Britain (1882) Online at Open Library
Griffin, A. R. The British coalmining industry: retrospect and prospect. 1977.
Handy, L. J. Wages Policy in the British Coal Mining Industry: A Study of National Wage Bargaining (1981) excerpt
Hatcher, John, et al. The History of the British Coal Industry (5 vol, Oxford U.P., 1984–87); 3000 pages of scholarly history
John Hatcher: The History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 1: Before 1700: Towards the Age of Coal (1993). online
Michael W. Flinn, and David Stoker. History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 2. 1700-1830: The Industrial Revolution (1984).
Roy Church, Alan Hall and John Kanefsky. History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 3: Victorian Pre-Eminence
Barry Supple. The History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 4: 1913-1946: The Political Economy of Decline (1988) excerpt and text search
William Ashworth and Mark Pegg. History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 5: 1946-1982: The Nationalized Industry (1986)
Heinemann, Margot. Britain's coal: A study of the mining crisis (1944).
Hill, Alan. Coal - a Chronology for Britain. : 2012: Northern Mine Research Society.
Hull, Edward (1861). The coal-fields of Great Britain: their history, structure, and resources. London: 1861: Stanford.
Hull, Edward. Our coal resources at the close of the nineteenth century (1897) Online at Open Library. Stress on geology.
Jaffe, James Alan. The Struggle for Market Power: Industrial Relations in the British Coal Industry, 1800-1840 (2003).
Jevons, H.S. The British coal trade. 1920, reprinted 1969
Jevons, W. Stanley. The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865).
Kirby, Maurice William. "The Control of Competition in the British Coal‐Mining Industry in the Thirties" Economic History Review 26.2 (1973): 273-284. in JSTOR
Kirby, M.W. The British coalmining industry, 1870-1946: a political and economic history. 1977.
Lucas, Arthur F. "A British Experiment in the Control of Competition: The Coal Mines Act of 1930." Quarterly Journal of Economics (1934): 418-441. in JSTOR
Prest, Wilfred. "The British Coal Mines Act of 1930, Another Interpretation." Quarterly Journal of Economics (1936): 313-332. in JSTOR
Lewis, B. Coal mining in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Longman, 1971.
Nef, J. U. Rise of the British coal industry. 2v 1932, a comprehensive scholarly survey
Orwell, George. "Down the Mine" (The Road to Wigan Pier chapter 2, 1937) full text
Rowe, J.W.F. Wages In the coal industry (1923).
Waller, Robert. The Dukeries Transformed: A history of the development of the Dukeries coal field after 1920 (Oxford U.P., 1983) on the Dukeries
Williams, Chris. Capitalism, community and conflict: The south Wales coalfield, 1898-1947 (U of Wales Press, 1998).

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Ellipsis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the punctuation mark. For the syntactic omission of words, see Ellipsis (linguistics). For other uses, see Ellipsis (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Ellipse.
…
Ellipsis
…
. . .
⋯
Precomposed ellipsis
Spaced 3 periods
Mid-line ellipsis
Punctuation
apostrophe ’ '
brackets [ ] ( ) { } ⟨ ⟩
colon :
comma , ، 、
dash ‒ – — ―
ellipsis … ... ⋯ ᠁ ฯ
exclamation mark !
full stop, period .
guillemets ‹ › « »
hyphen ‐
hyphen-minus -
question mark ?
quotation marks ‘ ’ “ ” ' ' " "
semicolon ;
slash, stroke, solidus / ⧸ ⁄
Word dividers
interpunct ·
space
General typography
ampersand &
asterisk *
at sign @
backslash \
basis point ‱
bullet •
caret ^
dagger † ‡ ⹋
degree °
ditto mark ”
equals sign =
inverted exclamation mark ¡
inverted question mark ¿
komejirushi, kome, reference mark ※
multiplication sign ×
number sign, pound, hash #
numero sign №
obelus ÷
ordinal indicator º ª
percent, per mil % ‰
plus, minus + −
plus-minus, minus-plus ± ∓
pilcrow ¶
prime ′ ″ ‴
section sign §
tilde ~
underscore, understrike _
vertical bar, pipe, broken bar | ‖ ¦
Intellectual property
copyright ©
copyleft 🄯
sound-recording copyright ℗
registered trademark ®
service mark ℠
trademark ™
Currency
currency sign ¤
currency symbols

؋ ₳  ฿ ₿  ₵ ¢ ₡ ₢  $ ₫ ₯ ֏  ₠ €  ƒ ₣  ₲  ₴  ₭  ₺ ₾  ₼ ℳ ₥  ₦  ₧ ₱ ₰ £  元 圆 圓 ﷼ ៛ ₽ ₹ ₨  ₪  ৳ ₸ ₮  ₩  ¥ 円
Uncommon typography
asterism ⁂
fleuron, hedera ❧
index, fist ☞
interrobang ‽
irony punctuation ⸮
lozenge ◊
tie ⁀
Related
Diacritics
Logic symbols
Whitespace characters
In other scripts
Chinese
Hebrew
Japanese
Korean
Category
Portal
Book
v
t
e
An ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the Ancient Greek: ἔλλειψις, élleipsis, 'omission' or 'falling short') is a series of dots (typically three, such as "…") that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.[1]
Contents
1 Background
2 In writing
3 In different languages
3.1 In American English
3.2 In British English
3.3 In Polish
3.4 In Russian
3.5 In Japanese
3.6 In Chinese
3.7 In Spanish
3.8 In French
3.9 In German
4 Usage in menus
5 In mathematical notation
6 Programming languages
6.1 HTML and CSS
7 On the Internet and in text messaging
8 Computer representations
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Background[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The ellipsis is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or (colloquially) "dot-dot-dot".[2]
Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, an echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence. Aposiopesis is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence—for example: "But I thought he was …" When placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing.
The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full points (...) or a precomposed triple-dot glyph (…). The usage of the em dash (—) can overlap the usage of the ellipsis, especially in dialogue. Style guides often have their own rules governing the use of ellipses. For example, The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago style) recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides ( . . . ), while the Associated Press Stylebook (AP style) puts the dots together, but retains a space before and after the group.[3]
Whether an ellipsis at the end of a sentence needs a fourth dot to finish the sentence is a matter of debate; Chicago advises it,[4] as does the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA style),[5], while some other style guides do not;[citation needed] the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and related works treat this style as optional, saying that it "may" be used.[6] More commonly, a normal full stop (period) terminates the sentence, then a separate three-dot ellipsis is used to indicate one or more subsequent elided sentences before continuing a longer quotation. Business Insider magazine suggests this style,[7] and it is also used in many academic journals. Even the Associated Press Stylebook[8] – notably hostile to punctuation that journalists may consider optional and removable to save newsprint column width – favors this approach. It is consistent in intent if not exact form with the agreement among those in favor of a fused four-dot ellipsis that the first of them is a full stop terminating the sentence and the other three are the ellipsis.
In writing[edit]
In her book on the ellipsis, Ellipsis in English Literature: Signs of Omission (Cambridge University Press, 2015), Anne Toner suggests that the first use of the punctuation in the English language dates to a 1588 translation of Terence's Andria, by Maurice Kyffin.[2] In this case, however, the ellipsis consists not of dots but of short dashes.[9] "Subpuncting" of medieval manuscripts also denotes omitted meaning and may be related.[10]
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, an ellipsis was often used when a writer intentionally omitted a specific proper noun, such as a location: "Jan was born on . . . Street in Warsaw."[citation needed]
As commonly used, this juxtaposition of characters is referred to as "dots of ellipsis" in the English language.[11]
Occasionally, it would be used in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th-century fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been censored.[12]
An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when Sue says "I never drink wine . . . ", the implication is that she does drink something else—such as vodka.
In reported speech, the ellipsis can be used to represent an intentional silence.
In poetry, an ellipsis is used as a thought-pause or line break at the caesura[13] or this is used to highlight sarcasm or make the reader think about the last points in the poem.
In news reporting, often associated with brackets, it is used to indicate that a quotation has been condensed for space, brevity or relevance.
Herb Caen, Pulitzer-prize-winning columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle, became famous for his "three-dot journalism".[14]
In different languages[edit]
In American English[edit]
The Chicago Manual of Style suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: . . .) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots: . ...).
The Modern Language Association (MLA) used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: [ . . . ]. Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style handbooks. However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.[15]
The MLA now indicates that a three-dot, spaced ellipsis ( . . . ) should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote. When crossing sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so that omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four-dot, spaced (except for before the first dot) ellipsis (. . . . ) should be used. When ellipsis points are used in the original text, ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g. "text […] text").[16][17]
According to the Associated Press, the ellipsis should be used to condense quotations. It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip. The stylebook indicates that if the shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or other ending punctuation. When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and at the beginning of the next, according to this style.[18]
According to Robert Bringhurst's Elements of Typographic Style, the details of typesetting ellipses depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide"—he recommends using flush dots, or thin-spaced dots (up to one-fifth of an em), or the prefabricated ellipsis character (U+2026 … HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS (HTML … · …). Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. This is the usual practice in typesetting. He provides the following examples:
i … j k…. l…, l l, … l m…? n…!
In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the Bluebook citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation (e.g. Hah . . . ?). In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as three asterisks (*** or * * *) to make it obvious that text has been omitted. (...) is also used for awkward silence.
In British English[edit]
The Oxford Style Guide recommends setting the ellipsis as a single character (…) or as a series of three (narrow) spaced dots (. . .), and surrounding it by spaces. If there is an ellipsis at the end of an incomplete sentence, the final full stop is omitted. However, it is retained if the following ellipsis represents an omission between two complete sentences.[19]
The … fox jumped …
The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. … And if they have not died, they are still alive today.
Contrary to The Oxford Style Guide, the University of Oxford Style Guide demands an ellipsis not to be surrounded by spaces, except when it stands for a pause; then, a space has to be set after the ellipsis (but not before). An ellipsis is never preceded or followed by a full stop.[20]
The…fox jumped…
The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog…And if they have not died, they are still alive today.
It is not cold… it is freezing cold.
In Polish[edit]
When applied in Polish language syntax, the ellipsis is called wielokropek, which means "multidot". The word wielokropek distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that of mathematical notation, in which it is known as an elipsa.
When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed in parentheses or square brackets. An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech.
The syntactical rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document PN-83/P-55366, Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim ("Rules for setting texts in the Polish Language").
In Russian[edit]
The combination "ellipsis+period" is replaced by the ellipsis. The combinations "ellipsis+exclamation mark" and "ellipsis+question mark" are written in this way: !.. ?..
In Japanese[edit]
The most common character corresponding to an ellipsis is called 3-ten rīdā ("3-dot leaders", …). 2-ten rīdā exists as a character, but it is used less commonly. In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two 3-ten rīdā characters, ……). Three dots (one 3-ten rīdā character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header. However, variations in the number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Windows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced "ten", the dots are colloquially called "ten-ten-ten" (てんてんてん, akin to the English "dot dot dot")[21].
In manga, the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "pregnant pause". Depending on the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt to an expression of being dumbfounded at another person's words or actions. As a device, the ten-ten-ten is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative "camera" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects "speaking" the ellipsis.
In Chinese[edit]
In Chinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal or vertical space as two characters) (i.e. ……).[22]
In Spanish[edit]
In Spanish, ellipsis is commonly used as a substitute of et cetera at the end of unfinished lists. So it means "and so forth" or "and other things".
Other use is the suspension of a part of a text, or a paragraph, or a phrase or a part of a word because it is obvious, or unnecessary, or implied. For instance, sometimes the ellipsis is used to avoid the complete use of expletives.
When the ellipsis is placed alone into a parenthesis (...) or—less often—between brackets […], which is what happens usually within a text transcription, it means the original text had more contents on the same position but are not useful to our target in the transcription. When the suppressed text is at the beginning or at the end of a text, the ellipsis does not need to be placed in a parenthesis.
In French[edit]
In French, the ellipsis is commonly used at the end of lists to represent et cetera. In French typography, the ellipsis is written close up to the preceding word but has a space after it, for example: comme ça… pas comme ceci. If, exceptionally, it begins a sentence, there is a space before and after, for example: Lui ? … vaut rien, je crois… .
However, any omitted word, phrase or line at the end of a quoted passage would be indicated like this: [...] (space before and after the square brackets but not inside), for example: … à Paris, Nice, Nantes, Toulouse […] .
In German[edit]
In German, the ellipsis in general is surrounded by spaces, if it stands for one or more omitted words. On the other side there is no space between a letter or (part of) a word and an ellipsis, if it stands for one or more omitted letters, that should stick to the written letter or letters.
Example for both cases, using German style: The first el…is stands for omitted letters, the second … for an omitted word.
If the ellipsis is at the end of a sentence, the final full stop is omitted.[23]
Example: I think that …
A drop-down menu of file operations
Usage in menus[edit]
In computer menu functions or buttons, an appended ellipsis means that on selection another dialog will follow, where the user can or must make a choice.[24] If the ellipsis is missing, the function is already executed on selection.
"Save" – the file will be overwritten without further input.
"Save as …" – in the following dialog, you can, for example, select another location, file name, or format.
In mathematical notation[edit]
An ellipsis is also often used in mathematics to mean "and so forth". In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in:
1 , 2 , 3 , … , 100 {\displaystyle 1,2,3,\ldots ,100}
or to mean an infinite list, as:
1 , 2 , 3 , … {\displaystyle 1,2,3,\ldots }
To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 100 {\displaystyle 1+2+3+\cdots +100}
Sometimes, e.g. in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are used even in repeated summations[25].
The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol. Repeated summations or products may similarly be denoted using capital sigma and capital pi notation, respectively:
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 100 = ∑ n = 1 100 n {\displaystyle 1+2+3+\cdots +100\ =\sum _{n=1}^{100}n}
1 × 2 × 3 × ⋯ × 100 = ∏ n = 1 100 n = 100 ! {\displaystyle 1\times 2\times 3\times \cdots \times 100\ =\prod _{n=1}^{100}n=100!} (see factorial)
Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the indefinite continuation of an irrational number such as:
π = 3.14159265 … {\displaystyle \pi =3.14159265\ldots }
Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example:
1 + 4 + 9 + ⋯ + n 2 + ⋯ + 400 {\displaystyle 1+4+9+\cdots +n^{2}+\cdots +400}
Another example is the set of zeros of the cosine function:
{ ± π 2 , ± 3 π 2 , ± 5 π 2 , … } {\displaystyle \left\{\pm {\frac {\pi }{2}},\pm {\frac {3\pi }{2}},\pm {\frac {5\pi }{2}},\ldots \right\}}
There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation.
The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in matrices, such as the size-n identity matrix:
I n = [ 1 0 ⋯ 0 0 1 ⋯ 0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 0 0 ⋯ 1 ] {\displaystyle I_{n}={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&\cdots &0\\0&1&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&0&\cdots &1\end{bmatrix}}}
The use of ellipses in mathematical proofs is often discouraged because of the potential for ambiguity. For this reason, and because the ellipsis supports no systematic rules for symbolic calculation, in recent years some authors have recommended avoiding its use in mathematics altogether.[26]
Programming languages[edit]
A two- or three-dot ellipsis is used as an operator in some programming languages. The precise meaning varies by language, but it generally involves something dealing with multiple items. One of its most common uses is in defining ranges or sequences. This is used in many languages, including Pascal, Modula, Oberon, Ada, Haskell, Perl, Python, Ruby, Bash shell and F#. It is also used to indicate so called variadic functions in the C, C++ and Java languages. See Ellipsis (programming operator).
HTML and CSS[edit]
The CSS text-overflow property can be set to ellipsis, which cuts off text with an ellipsis when it overflows the content area.[27][28]
On the Internet and in text messaging[edit]
The ellipsis is a non-verbal cue that is often used in computer-mediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as chat. The reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions:
The sign of ellipsis can function as a floor holding device, and signal that more is to come, for instance when people break up longer turns in chat.[29]
Dot-dot-dot can be used systematically to enact linguistic politeness, for instance indicating topic change or hesitation.[30]
Suspension dots can be turn construction units to signal silence, for example when indicating disagreement, disapproval or confusion.[31]
Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a "trailing-off" or "silence" indicator, particularly in mid-20th-century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipsis anywhere from two to dozens of periods have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages.[32] The extent of repetition in itself might serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue, to "extend the lexical meaning of the words, add character to the sentences, and allow fine-tuning and personalisation of the message".[33]
Computer representations[edit]
In computing, several ellipsis characters have been codified, depending on the system used.
In the Unicode standard, there are the following characters:
Name
Character
Unicode
UTF-8
HTML entity name or
Numeric character reference
Use
Horizontal ellipsis … U+2026 0xE2 0x80 0xA6 … General
Laotian ellipsis ຯ U+0EAF 0xE0 0xBA 0xAF ຯ General
Mongolian ellipsis ᠁ U+1801 0xE1 0xA0 0x81 ᠁ General
Thai ellipsis ฯ U+0E2F 0xE0 0xB8 0xAF ฯ General
Vertical ellipsis ⋮ U+22EE 0xE2 0x8B 0xAE ⋮ Mathematics
Midline horizontal ellipsis ⋯ U+22EF 0xE2 0x8B 0xAF ⋯ Mathematics
Up-right diagonal ellipsis ⋰ U+22F0 0xE2 0x8B 0xB0 ⋰ Mathematics
Down-right diagonal ellipsis ⋱ U+22F1 0xE2 0x8B 0xB1 ⋱ Mathematics
Presentation form for vertical horizontal ellipsis ︙ U+FE19 0xEF 0xB8 0x99 ︙ Vertical form
In Windows, it can be inserted with Alt+0133.
In OS X, it can be inserted with ⌥ Opt+; (on an English language keyboard).
In some Linux distributions, it can be inserted with AltGr+., or alternatively Compose . . sequence can be used.
In Chinese and sometimes in Japanese, ellipsis characters are made by entering two consecutive horizontal ellipsis (U+2026).[clarification needed] In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly.
Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (U+002E) as compatibility equivalent (though not canonical) to the horizontal ellipsis character.[34]
In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by the entity reference ⋮ (since HTML 5.0).[35] Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character reference such as … or … can be used.
In the TeX typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available:
Name
Glyph
TeX markup
Lower ellipsis … {\displaystyle \ldots } \ldots
Centred ellipsis ⋯ {\displaystyle \cdots } \cdots
Diagonal ellipsis ⋱ {\displaystyle \ddots } \ddots
Vertical ellipsis ⋮ {\displaystyle \vdots } \vdots
In LaTeX, note that the reverse orientation of \ddots can be achieved with \reflectbox provided by the graphicx package: \reflectbox{\ddots} yields .
With the amsmath package from AMS-LaTeX, more specific ellipses are provided for math mode.[36]
Markup
Usage
Example
Output
\dotsc dots with commas 1, 2, \dotsc , 9 1 , 2 , … , 9 {\displaystyle 1,2,\dotsc ,9}
\dotsb dots with binary operators/relations 1 + 2 + \dotsb + 9 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 9 {\displaystyle 1+2+\dotsb +9}
\dotsm dots with multiplication A_1 A_2 \dotsm A_9 A 1 A 2 ⋯ A 9 {\displaystyle A_{1}A_{2}\dotsm A_{9}}
\dotsi dots with integrals \int_{A_1}\int_{A_2}\dotsi\int_{A_9} ∫ A 1 ∫ A 2 ⋯ ∫ A 9 {\displaystyle \int _{A_{1}}\int _{A_{2}}\dotsi \int _{A_{9}}}
\dotso other dots 123 \dotso 9 123 … 9 {\displaystyle 123\dotso 9}
The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:
in Windows-1250—Windows-1258 and in IBM/MS-DOS Code page 874, at code 85 (hexadecimal)
in Mac-Roman, Mac-CentEuro and several other Macintosh encodings, at code C9 (hexadecimal)
in Ventura International encoding at code C1 (hexadecimal)
Note that ISO/IEC 8859 encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis.
As with all characters, especially those outside the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake.
The Chicago Style Q&A recommends to avoid the use of … (U+2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (. . .) instead, so that an editor, publisher, or designer can replace them later.[37]
In Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), the ellipsis is used as an extension marker to indicate the possibility of type extensions in future revisions of a protocol specification. In a type constraint expression like A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) an ellipsis is used to separate the extension root from extension additions. The definition of type A in version 1 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ...) and the definition of type A in version 2 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) constitute an extension series of the same type A in different versions of the same specification. The ellipsis can also be used in compound type definitions to separate the set of fields belonging to the extension root from the set of fields constituting extension additions. Here is an example: B ::= SEQUENCE { a INTEGER, b INTEGER, ..., c INTEGER }
See also[edit]
Caesura
Cohesion (linguistics)
Elision – Omission or deletion of a sound or syllable
Leader (typography) – A row of characters (usually dots or dashes) to connect items across a page (as in a table of contents)
Leiden Conventions
Line break (poetry)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "ellipsis". The Free Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b Toner, Anne (2015). Ellipsis in English Literature: Signs of Omission. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 151. According to Toner it is difficult to establish when the "dot-dot-dot" phrase was first used. There is an early instance, which is perhaps the first in a piece of fiction, in Virginia Woolf's short story "An Unwritten Novel" (1920).
Jump up ^ Yin, Karen (2011). "Em Dashes and Ellipses: Closed or Spaced Out?". AP vs Chicago: Edit or Die. Quiet Press. Retrieved 27 July 2018. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition (2017), § 13.51–52.
Jump up ^ Summarized here: Jackson, Paige (22 April 2011). "Ellipses–When and How?". Blog.APAStyle.org. American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Usage Notes: All About Ellipses – It's time to stop calling them 'dot dot dot'". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster. 2017. Archived from the original on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Robinson, Melia (30 April 2016). "Here's how to use the four-dot ellipsis like a pro". BusinessInsider.com. Insider Inc. / Axel Springer SE. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Using AP Style Ellipses Correctly". WordAgents.com. Lindenhurst, New York: Word Agents. 5 December 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Buxton, Alex (21 October 2015). "… dot, dot, dot: How the ellipsis made its mark". Research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
Jump up ^ McNabb, Cameron Hunt (17 August 2016). "The Mysterious History of the Ellipsis, From Medieval Subpuncting to Irrational Numbers". Slate. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Humez, Alexander; Humez, Nicholas (2 October 2008). "Chapter 7". On the Dot: The Speck that Changed the World. ISBN 9780190295943. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Raymond Chandler, Frank MacShane. Raymond Chandler: Stories and Early Novels. First Edition. New York: Library of America. 1995. Note on the Texts.
Jump up ^ "What Are Ellipses in a Poem?". Retrieved 12 January 2018.
Jump up ^ `HERB CAEN WAY . . .' HONORS S.F. COLUMNIST, in the Deseret News; published May 29, 1996; retrieved September 5, 2017
Jump up ^ Fowler, H. Ramsey, Jane E. Aaron, Murray McArthur. The Little, Brown Handbook. Fourth Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson Longman. 2005. p. 440.
Jump up ^ Jones, Karalyn (2009). "Using Ellipsis in MLA Style". University of Houston–Victoria.
Jump up ^ http://naropa.edu/documents/programs/jks/naropa-writing-center/citation-comparison.pdf
Jump up ^ Goldstein, Norm, editor. "Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law". 2005. pp.328–329.
Jump up ^ New Hart's Rules: The Oxford Style Guide. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Jump up ^ University of Oxford Style Guide: Hilary term 2016 (PDF). Oxford: University of Oxford, 2016. p. 15. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "秋元順子、古希に得意のダジャレ　「あまり"コキ"使わないでください」". SANSPO.COM. SANKEI DIGITAL Inc. 2017-06-05. Retrieved 2018-01-10.
Jump up ^ 省略号
Jump up ^ "Deutsche Rechtschreibung. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis" (PDF) (in German). Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung. 2010. p. 100. Retrieved 2015-10-18. $ 100: Stehen die Auslassungspunkte am Ende eines Ganzsatzes, so setzt man keinen Satzschlusspunkt.
Jump up ^ developer.apple.com: Menu and Menu Item Titles
Jump up ^ Мильчин А. Э. Издательский словарь-справочник.— Изд. 3-е, испр. и доп., Электронное — М.: ОЛМА-Пресс, 2006. (in Russian)
Jump up ^ Roland Backhouse, Program Construction: Calculating Implementations from Specifications. Wiley (2003), page 138
Jump up ^ "text-overflow". Mozilla Developer Network. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "CSS Basic User Interface Module Level 3 (CSS3 UI)". drafts.csswg.org. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Simpson, J (2005). "Meaning-making online: Discourse and CMC in a Language learning community". Recent Research Developments in Learning Technologies. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.463  . |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Erika, Darics (2010). "Relational work in synchronous text-based CMC of virtual teams". Handbook of research on discourse behavior and digital communication: language structures and social interaction.
Jump up ^ Ong, Kenneth Keng Wee (2011). "Disagreement, Confusion, Disapproval, Turn Elicitation and Floor Holding: Actions accomplished by Ellipsis Marks-Only Turns and Blank Turns in Quasisynchronous Chat". Discourse Studies. 13 (2). doi:10.1177/1461445610392138.
Jump up ^ Maness, Jack M. (2007). "The Power of Dots: Using Nonverbal Compensators in Chat Reference" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Meeting of ASIS&T. Annual Meeting of ASIS&T. University Libraries − University of Colorado at Boulder. doi:10.1002/meet.1450440341. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Kalman, Yoram M; Gergle, Darren. "CMC cues enrich lean online communication: the case of letter and punctuation mark repetitions" (PDF). Retrieved 9 July 2012.
Jump up ^ UnicodeData.txt: 2026;HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS;Po;0;ON;<compat> 002E 002E 002E;;;;N;;;;;
Jump up ^ "W3C Working Draft: HTML5: 8.5 Named character references". 2011. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
Jump up ^ User's Guide for the amsmath Package. American Mathematical Society, 1999, p. 12.
Jump up ^ "Chicago Style Q&A: How do I insert an ellipsis in my manuscript?". The Chicago Manual of Style, edition 16. University of Chicago Press. 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-10.
Further reading[edit]
Look up ellipsis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ellipses (punctuation).
Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (Version 2.5 ed.). Point Roberts, Washington: Hartley & Marks. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-88179-132-7. OCLC 50848361.
Halliday, M.A.K, and Ruqayia, H. (1976), Cohesion in English, London: Longman.
Morris, William (1980). The Houghton Mifflin Canadian Dictionary of the English Language. Markham, Ontario: Houghton Mifflin Canada. p. 424 (spacing of dots: . . .). ISBN 978-0-395-29654-7. OCLC 8063090.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ellipsis&oldid=856324484"
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