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Parliament of Ghana
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Parliament of Ghana
7th Parliament of the 4th Republic
Type
Type
Unicameral
Leadership
Speaker
Aaron Mike Oquaye
Since 7 January 2017
Structure
Seats
275[1]
Political groups
NPP (169)
NDC (106)
Elections
Voting system
First-past-the-post
Last election
7 December 2016
Meeting place
Parliament House
Accra, Greater Accra
Republic of Ghana
Website
www.parliament.gh
Ghana
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
Ghana
Constitution
Executive[show]
President (list)
Nana Akufo-Addo
Vice President
Mahamudu Bawumia
Ministers
Council of State
Legislative[show]
Parliament
Members of Parliament
Judiciary[show]
Supreme Court
Chief Justice: Sophia Akuffo
Human rights
Elections[show]
Constituencies
Political parties
Politicians
Electoral Commission
Recent elections
General: 2008
2012
2016
Administrative divisions[show]
Regions
Districts
Foreign relations[show]
Minister for Foreign Affairs
Diplomatic missions
Passport
Nationality law
Other countries
Atlas
v
t
e
The Parliament of Ghana is the legislative body of the Government of Ghana.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Parliament of the Fourth Republic
2.1 Leadership structure
2.2 2008 elections
2.3 Composition Parliament in 2008
3 2012 elections
4 Past Speakers of the National Assembly/Parliament
5 Members of parliament
6 Parliamentary constituencies
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Legislative representation in Ghana dates back to 1950, when the country (then known as Gold Coast) was a British colony. The body, called the Legislative Council, was purely advisory as the Governor exercised all legislative and executive powers. Reforms were introduced in 1916 and 1925, although the governor's power remained extensive. In 1946, a new constitution was introduced that allowed for an unofficial member of the Legislative Council to become its president while the governor ceased to be the ex officio president of the body. This system continued until 1951 when the Legislature elected its first Speaker - Sir Emmanuel Charles Quist.
1951 was also the first year that elections based on universal suffrage were held. The Convention People's Party (CPP), which was formed in 1949 and led by Kwame Nkrumah, won the election. Another party, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) led by J.B. Danquah, fared poorly, and was disbanded soon after. Nkrumah, who had been jailed in early 1950 for subversion, was released and appointed Leader of Government Business, becoming the country's first Prime Minister the following year.
Legislative Assembly elections held in 1954 resulted in another CPP victory, with the party winning 71 out of a total of 104 seats. It also won 71 out of 104 seats in the 1956 Legislative Assembly election. The Gold Coast was renamed Ghana and granted independence on 6 March 1957, while retaining the British monarch as head of state. The Legislative Assembly was renamed National Assembly.
After the approval of a new Republican constitution, Ghana officially became a republic on 1 July 1960 with Kwame Nkrumah as its President. The plebiscite was taken as a fresh mandate from the people and the terms of National Assembly members were extended for another five years. A one-party state was introduced following a referendum in 1964. As a result, only CPP candidates stood in the National Assembly Election held in 1965. Nkrumah was overthrown in 1966 by the military, which banned political parties and dissolved the National Assembly.
The country returned to civilian rule in 1969. Elections held on 29 August resulted in victory for the Progress Party (PP) of Kofi Abrefa Busia, which won 105 of the National Assembly's 140 seats. He took office as Prime Minister on 3 September 1969. His government was toppled in a 1972 military coup.
During the Third Republic, which lasted from 1979 to 1981, the dominant party in the National Assembly was the People's National Party (PNP), which won 71 out of 104 seats in elections held on 18 June 1979. After the military intervened in 1981, all elected institutions were dissolved and political party activity was prohibited.
Parliament of the Fourth Republic[edit]
After 11 years of military rule, a new constitution was approved in a 1992 referendum. Presidential elections were held in November and were won by Jerry Rawlings, leader of the 1981 coup and subsequent military ruler. The opposition contested the results and boycotted the December parliamentary elections. As a result, Rawlings' National Democratic Congress (NDC) won 189 out of 200 seats in Parliament.
All parties participated in the 1996 parliamentary elections. The NDC won 133 out of a total of 200 seats, while the main opposition New Patriotic Party (NPP) won 60. Two small parties won the remaining seats.
The 2000 elections were significant in that President Rawlings was constitutionally barred from seeking another term. In the presidential poll, John Kufuor of the NPP defeated the NDC candidate John Atta Mills in a run-off election. In the 200-seat Parliament, the NPP won 100, followed by the NDC's 92. Small political parties and independents won the remaining seats.
Kufuor was re-elected in 2004 and the New Patriotic Party (NPP) won 128 out of 230 seats in the concurrent parliamentary election. The main opposition National Democratic Congress (NDC) won 94, while two other parties - The People's National Convention (PNC) and Convention People's Party (CPP) - won 4 and 3 seats, respectively. An Independent captured the remaining seat.
The simple majority (or First Past the Post) voting system is used in Ghana's parliamentary elections. Since 2012, the country is divided into 275 single-member constituencies. Members serve four-year terms.
Leadership structure[edit]
U.S. President Barack Obama shakes hands after delivering a speech to the Ghanaian Parliament at the Parliament House
Speaker - The Speaker presides over the Parliament and enforces observance of all rules that govern its conduct. After a general election the majority party in Parliament, in consultation with other parties, nominates a Speaker.
The Speaker cannot be a Member of Parliament though he/she must possess the qualifications to stand for elections as a Member of Parliament, such person on appointment as Speaker must resign and declare the seat occupied in Parliament as vacant. The Speaker is assisted by two Deputy Speakers (First and Second Deputy Speakers), who are elected at the commencement of every Parliament. They must come from different political parties. The current Speaker is Prof. Aaron Mike Ocquaye former MP for Dome-Kwabenya constituency of Ghana.
First Deputy Speaker - The First Deputy Speaker presides over the sittings of Parliament whenever the Speaker is absent. The current First Deputy Speaker is Joseph Osei Owusu of the New Patriotic Party (NPP).
Second Deputy Speaker - The Second Deputy Speaker presides over the sittings of Parliament in the absence of the Speaker and the First Deputy Speaker. The current Second Deputy Speaker is Alban Bagbin of the National Democratic Congress (NDC).
Majority Leader - The Majority Leader is elected from the party with a majority of parliamentary seats. A deputy majority leader and a majority chief whip assist him, constituting the majority leadership of Parliament. The current Majority Leader is Osei Kyei-Mensah Bonsu of the NPP.
Minority Leader - The Minority leader is elected from the second largest party in Parliament. A deputy minority leader and a chief whip assist him, constituting the minority leadership of Parliament. The current Minority Leader is Haruna Iddrisu of the NDC.
2008 elections[edit]
Ghanaian Parliamentary Election Map, 2008
Map of Ghana's parliamentary constituencies as per MP's party affiliation as at 2008. NB: Where constituencies are too small to be shown (i.e. Accra and Tamale Metropolitan Areas) the majority party elected in the district is shown.
Green: National Democratic Congress (NDC) Blue: New Patriotic Party (NPP) Yellow: People's National Convention (PNC) Red: Convention People's Party (CPP)
Grey: Independent
Main article: Ghanaian parliamentary election, 2008
Composition Parliament in 2008[edit]
Region
NPP
NDC
PNC
CPP
Ind.
Total
Ashanti 34 3 - - 2 39
Brong Ahafo 15 9 - - - 24
Central 8 11 - - - 19
Eastern 20 7 - - 1 28
Greater Accra 9 18 - - - 27
Northern 3 22 - - 1 26
Upper East 4 8 1 - - 13
Upper West 3 6 1 - - 10
Volta 1 21 - - - 22
Western 10 11 - 1 - 22
Total 107 116 2 1 4 230
2012 elections[edit]
Main article: Ghanaian parliamentary election, 2012
Past Speakers of the National Assembly/Parliament[edit]
Pre-Independence (1951 – 1957)
Speaker of the National Assembly
Emmanuel Charles Quist (March 1951 – December 1957)
Independent State within the Commonwealth (1957 – 1960) / First Republic (1960 – 1966)
Speakers of the National Assembly
Augustus Molade Akiwumi (February 1958 – June 1960)
Joseph Richard Asiedu (July 1960 – June 1965)
Kofi Asante Ofori-Atta (10 June 1965 – 22 February 1966)
Second Republic (1969 – 1972)
Speaker of the National Assembly
Nii Amaa Ollennu (October 1969 – December 1971)
Third Republic (1979 – 1981)
Speaker of the National Assembly
Jacob Hackenbug Griffiths-Randolph (24 September 1979 – 31 December 1981)
Fourth Republic (1992 – present)
Speakers of Parliament
Daniel Francis Annan (7 January 1993 – 6 January 2001)
Peter Ala Adjetey (7 January 2001 – 6 January 2005)
Ebenezer Sekyi Hughes (7 January 2005 – 6 January 2009)
Joyce Adeline Bamford-Addo (7 January 2009 – 6 January 2013)
Edward Adjaho (7 January 2013 – 6 January 2017)
Aaron Mike Oquaye (7 January 2017 – Present)
Members of parliament[edit]
For a list of current members, see MPs elected in the Ghanaian parliamentary election, 2012.
The composition of the Parliament has changed over the years. There were 140 members in both the Second and the Third Republic parliaments.
2nd Republic parliament: 1969 — 1972
3rd Republic parliament: 1979 — 1981
In the current Fourth Republic, the number of MPs have increased first to 200 and subsequently to 275. There have been 6 parliaments so far in the Fourth Republic. The list of its members are below.
1st parliament: 1993 — 1997
2nd parliament: 1997 — 2001
3rd parliament: 2001 — 2005
4th parliament: 2005 — 2009
5th parliament: 2009 — 2013
6th parliament: 2013 — 2017
Parliamentary constituencies[edit]
Main article: Ghana Parliament constituencies
[show]
Parliamentary Constituencies of Ghana
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in Ashanti
NPP
Adansi-Asokwa
Afigya Kwabre North
Afigya Kwabre South
Afigya Sekyere East
Ahafo Ano South East
Ahafo Ano South West
Asante-Akim Central
Asante-Akim North
Asante-Akim South
Asokwa
Atwima-Kwanwoma
Atwima-Mponua
Atwima-Nwabiagya North
Atwima-Nwabiagya South
Bantama
Bekwai
Bosome-Freho
Bosomtwe
Effiduase-Asokore
Ejisu
Ejura-Sekyedumase
Fomena
Juaben
Kumawu
Kwabre East
Kwadaso
Mampong North
Mampong South
Manso-Adubia
Manso-Nkwanta
Manhyia North
Manhyia South
Nhyiaeso
Nsuta-Kwamang-Beposo
Obuasi East
Obuasi West
Odotobri
Offinso North
Offinso South
Oforikrom
Old Tafo
Suame
Subin
NDC
Ahafo Ano North
Asawase
New Edubease
Sekyere Afram Plain
NPP (43)
NDC (4)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana
NDC
Atebubu-Amantin
Jaman North
Kintampo North
Kintampo South
Pru
Sene
Tain
Techiman South
NPP
Asunafo North
Asunafo South
Asutifi North
Berekum
Dormaa East
Dormaa West
Jaman South
Nkoranza North
Nkoranza South
Sunyani East
Sunyani West
Tano North
Tano South
Techiman North
Wenchi
awaiting election
Asutifi South
NDC (8)
NPP (15)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Central Region of Ghana
NDC
Abura-Asebu
Ajumako-Enyan-Essiam
Awutu-Senya
Cape Coast
Effutu
Gomoa East
Gomoa West
Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abirem
Mfantseman-East
Mfantseman-West
Twifo-Atii Morkwaa
NPP
Agona East
Agona West
Asikuma-Odoben-Brakwa
Assin North
Assin South
Hemang Lower Denkyira
Upper Denkyira East
Upper Denkyira West
NDC (11)
NPP (8)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Eastern Region of Ghana
NDC
Afram Plains North
Afram Plains South
Asuogyaman
Lower Manya
Upper Manya
Upper West Akim
Yilo Krobo
NPP
Abetifi
Abirem
Abuakwa North
Abuakwa South
Aburi-Nsawam
Akropong
Akim Oda
Akim Swedru
Akwatia
Atiwa
Ayensuano
Fanteakwa
Kade
Lower West Akim
Mpraeso
New Juaben North
New Juaben South
Ofoase-Ayirebi
Okere
Suhum
Independent
Nkawkaw
NDC (7)
NPP (20)
Independent (1)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana
NDC
Ablekuma Central
Ablekuma South
Abokobi-Madina
Ada
Adenta
Ashaiman
Ayawaso East
Dade Kotopon
Domeabra-Obom
Korle Klottey
Krowor
Kpone-Katamanso
Ledzokuku
Ningo-Prampram
Odododiodoo
Sege
Shai-Osudoku
Trobu-Amasaman
NPP
Ablekuma North
Ayawaso Central
Ayawaso West
Dome-Kwabenya
Okaikwei North
Okaikwei South
Tema East
Tema West
Weija
NDC (18)
NPP (9)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Northern Region of Ghana
Independent
Wulensi
NDC
Bole
Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo
Chereponi
Damango-Daboya
Gushiegu
Karaga
Kpandai
Kumbungu
Mion
Nalerigu
Saboba
Salaga
Savelugu
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba
Tamale Central
Tamale North
Tamale South
Tolon
Walewale
Yagaba-Kubori
Yapei-Kusawgu
Yendi
NPP
Bimbilla
Nanton
Zabzugu-Tatale
Independent (1)
NDC (21)
NPP (4)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Upper East Region of Ghana
NDC
Bawku Central
Binduri
Bolgatanga Central
Bolgatanga East
Bongo
Builsa North
Chiana-Paga
Garu
Nabdam
Navrongo Central
Pusiga
Talensi
Tempane
Zebilla
NPP
PNC
Builsa South
NDC (14)
NPP (0)
PNC (1)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Upper West Region of Ghana
NDC
Daffiama-Bussie-Issa
Lambussie
Lawra
Nadowli West
Sissala East
Sissala West
Wa Central
Wa East
Wa West
Independent
Jirapa
NDC (9)
Independent (1)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in Volta
NDC
Adaklu
Afadjato South
Agotime-Ziope
Akatsi North
Akatsi South
Anlo
Biakoye
Buem
Central Tongu
Ho Central
Ho West
Hohoe
Keta
Ketu North
Ketu South
Kpando
Krachi East
Krachi Nchumuru
Krachi West
Nkwanta North
Nkwanta South
North Dayi
North Tongu
South Dayi
South Tongu
IND
Akan
NDC (25)
Independent (1)
[hide]
v
t
e
Constituencies in the Western Region of Ghana
NDC
Amenfi Central
Amenfi West
Aowin
Bia
Ellembelle
Juabeso
Prestea-Huni Valley
Sefwi Akontombra
Sefwi-Wiawso
Shama
Suaman
NPP
Ahanta West
Amenfi East
Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai
Effia-Kwesimintsim
Essikado-Ketan
Evalue Gwira
Mpohor-Wassa East
Sekondi
Takoradi
Tarkwa-Nsuaem
CPP
Jomoro
NDC (11)
NPP (10)
CPP (1)
See also[edit]
Ghana
History of Ghana
Legislative Branch
List of national legislatures
List of Ghana Parliament constituencies
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://ghanaelections.peacefmonline.com/
External links[edit]
Official website
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Coordinates: 05°33′24″N 00°11′23″E / 5.55667°N 0.18972°E / 5.55667; 0.18972
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Crisis of the Roman Republic
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The Crisis of the Roman Republic refers to an extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic and the advent of the Roman Empire, from about 134 BC to 44 BC.
The exact dates of the Crisis are unclear because "Rome teetered between normality and crisis" for many decades.[1]
Likewise, the causes and attributes of the crises changed throughout the decades, including the forms of slavery, brigandage, wars internal and external, land reform, the invention of excruciating new punishments,[2] the expansion of Roman citizenship, and even the changing composition of the Roman army.[3]
Modern scholars also disagree about the nature of the crisis. Traditionally, the expansion of citizenship (with all its rights, privileges, and duties) was looked upon negatively by Sallust, Gibbon, and others of their schools, because it caused internal dissension, disputes with Rome's Italian allies, slave revolts, and riots.[4] However, other scholars have argued that as the Republic was meant to be res publica—the essential thing of the people—the poor and disenfranchised can not be blamed for trying to redress their legitimate and legal grievances.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Dating the crisis
1.1 Arguments for an early start-date (c. 134 to 73 BC)
1.2 Arguments for a later start date (69 to 44 BC)
1.3 Arguments for an end date (49 to 27 BC)
2 Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
3 Gaius Marius and Sulla
4 Pompey
5 See also
6 References
7 Major sources and further reading
8 External links
Dating the crisis[edit]
The Roman Republic at 100 BC.
For centuries, historians have argued about the start, specific crises involved, and end date for the Crisis of the Roman Republic. As a culture (or "web of institutions"), Florence Dupont and Christopher Woodall wrote, "no distinction is made between different periods."[5] However, without question, the Romans lost liberty through plunder, by "their morally undermining consequences."[6]
Arguments for an early start-date (c. 134 to 73 BC)[edit]
Harriet I. Flower and Jurgen Von Ungern-Sternberg argue for an exact start date of 10 December 134 BC, with the inauguration of Gracchus as tribune,[7] or alternately, when he first issued his proposal for land reform in 133 BC.[8] Appian of Alexandria wrote that this political crisis was "the preface to... the Roman civil wars".[9] Velleius commentated that it was Gracchus' unprecedented standing for re-election as tribune in 132 BC, and the riots and controversy it engendered as the start of a crisis:
This was the beginning of civil bloodshed and of the free reign [sic] of swords in the city of Rome. From then on justice was overthrown by force and the strongest was preeminent.
—  Velleius, Vell. Pat. 2.3.3–4, translated and cited by Harriet I. Flower[10]
In any case,the assassination of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC marked "a turning point in Roman history and the beginning of the crisis of the Roman Republic."[11]
Barbette S. Spaeth specifically refers to "the Gracchan crisis at the beginning of the Late Roman Republic"...[12]
Nic Fields, in his popular history of Spartacus, argues for a start date of 135 BC with the beginning of the First Slave War in Sicily.[13] Fields asserts:
The rebellion of the slaves in Italy under Spartacus may have been the best organized, but it was not the first of its kind. There had been other rebellions of slaves that afflicted Rome, and we may assume that Spartacus was wise enough to profit by their mistakes.
—  Nic Fields[14]
The start of the Social War (91–88 BC), when Rome fought her nearby Italian neighbours, may be thought of as the beginning of the end of the Republic.[15][16] Fields also suggests that things got much worse with the Samnite engagement at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC) around 82 BC.[17]
Barry Strauss argues that the crisis really started with "The Spartacus War" in 73 BC, adding that, because the dangers were unappreciated, "Rome faced the crisis with mediocrities".[18]
Arguments for a later start date (69 to 44 BC)[edit]
Thornton Wilder, in his novel, The Ides of March, focuses on the period c. 69 BC to 44 BC as the Crisis. Pollio and Ronald Syme date the Crisis only from the time of Julius Caesar in 60 BC.[19] Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC has become the clichéd point of no return for the Republic, as noted in many books, including Tom Holland's Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic.[20]
Arguments for an end date (49 to 27 BC)[edit]
The end of the Crisis can likewise either be dated from the Assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, after he and Sulla did so much "to dismantle the government of the Republic,"[21] or alternately when Octavian took on the name of Augustus and founded the Roman Empire in 27 BC.[22] The end could also be dated earlier, at the time of the Constitutional Reforms of Julius Caesar in 49 BC.[citation needed]
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus[edit]
Tiberius Gracchus from Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum (17th century)
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2012)
Tiberius Gracchus took office as a tribune of the plebs in late 134 BC while "everything in the Roman Republic seemed to be in fine working order."[23] There were a few apparently minor problems, such as "the annoyance of a slave revolt in Sicily".[24]
At the same time, Roman society was a highly stratified class system whose divisions were bubbling below the surface. This system consisted of noble families of the senatorial rank, the knight or equestrian class, citizens (grouped into two or three classes depending on the time period - self-governing allies of Rome, landowners, and plebs or tenant freemen), non-citizens who lived outside of southwestern Italy, and at the bottom, slaves. By law, only men who were citizens could vote in certain assemblies, and only those men who owned a certain amount of real property could serve in the military, which would gain them social prestige and additional benefits of citizenship.[25] The government owned large tracts of farm land that it had gained through invasion or escheat, and rented out to large landowners, whose slaves tilled their land, or who sub-leased to small tenant farmers.[26] There was some social mobility and limited suffrage.[27] The plebs (or plebeians) were a socio-economic class, but also had possible origins as an ethnic group with its own cult to the goddess Ceres, and ultimately, were a political party during much of the Roman Republic.[28]
Beginning in 133 BC, Gracchus tried to redress the grievances of displaced smallholders. He bypassed the Roman senate and used the plebian assembly to pass a law limiting the amount of land belonging to the state that any individual could farm.[29] This would have resulted in the breakup of the large plantations maintained by the rich on public land and worked by slaves.[29]
Gracchus' moderate plan of agrarian reform was motivated "to increase the number of Roman citizens who owned land and consequently the number who would qualify as soldiers according to their census rating."[29] The plan included a method to quiet title, and had a goal of increasing the efficiency of farmland, while doling out small parcels of land to tenant farmers, his populist constituency.[29] Gracchus used a law that had been in place for over a century, the lex Hortensia of 287 BC, which allowed the assembly of plebs to bypass the Senate.[29] However, another tribune, Marcus Octavius, used his veto to scuttle the plan. It was widely believed that the rich Senators had bribed Octavius to veto the proposal.[29]
The crisis escalated: Gracchus pushed the assembly to impeach and remove Octavius; the Senate denied funds to the commission needed for land reform; Gracchus then tried to use money out of a trust fund left by Attalus III of Pergamum; and the Senate blocked that, too.[30] At one point, Gracchus had "one of his freedmen... drag Octavius from the speaker's platform."[31] This assault violated the Lex sacrata, which prohibited people of lower status from violating the person of a person of higher class.[31] Rome's unwritten constitution hampered reform.[29] So Gracchus sought re-election to his one-year term, which was unprecedented in an era of strict term limits.[32] The oligarchic nobles responded by murdering Gracchus,[33][34] Gracchus had been highly popular with the poor, and he had been murdered while working on their behalf, mass riots broke out in the city in reaction to the assassination.[35]
Barbette Stanley Spaeth asserts that Ceres' roles as (a) patron and protector of plebeian laws, rights and Tribunes and (b) "normative/liminal" crimes, continued throughout the Republican era.[12] These roles were "exploited for the purposes of political propaganda during the Gracchan crisis...."[12]
Ceres' Aventine Temple served the plebeians as cult centre, legal archive, treasury, and court of law, founded contemporaneously with the passage of the Lex sacrata;[12] the lives and property of those who violated this law were forfeit to Ceres, whose judgment was expressed by her aediles.[36] The official decrees of the Senate (senatus consulta) were placed in her Temple, under her guardianship; Livy bluntly states this was done so that the consuls could no longer arbitrarily tamper with the laws of Rome.[37] The Temple might also have offered asylum for those threatened with arbitrary arrest by patrician magistrates.[38] Ceres was thus the patron goddess of Rome's written laws; the poet Vergil later calls her legifera Ceres (Law-bearing Ceres), a translation of Demeter's Greek epithet, thesmophoros.[39] Those who approved the murder of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC justified his death as punishment for his offense against the Lex sacrata of the goddess Ceres: those who deplored this as murder appealed to Gracchus' sacrosanct status as tribune under Ceres' protection.[12] In 70 BC, Cicero refers to this killing in connection with Ceres' laws and cults.[12][40][41]
Spaeth believed that he was killed because:
Tiberius Gracchus had transgressed the laws that protected the equilibrium of the social and political order, the laws on the tribunician sacrosanctitas and attempted tyranny, and hence was subject to the punishment they prescribed, consecration of his goods and person [to Ceres].
—  Barbette S. Spaeth, The Roman goddess Ceres, p. 74.[42]
Rather than attempting to atone for the murder, the Senate used a mission to Ceres' temple at Henna (in Sicily) to justify his execution.[42] The agrarian reforms were only partially implemented by the commission; yet Gracchi colonies were set up both Italy and Carthage.[43]
About nine years later Tiberius's younger brother, Gaius, passed more radical reforms. In addition to settling the poor in colonies on land conquered by Rome, he passed the lex frumentaria, which gave the poor the right to buy grain at subsidized prices.[44]
In the past, the senate eliminated political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate").[45][46] Both devices allowed the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had.[47]
Some of Gaius' followers caused the death of a man, many historians contend they were attacked and were acting in self defense. In any case, the death was used by Gaius Gracchus's political rival, Lucius Opimius, to suspend the constitution again with another senatus consultum ultimum.[48]
Gaius fled, but he was also probably murdered by the oligarchs.[33] According to one ancient source, Gaius was not killed directly by them, but ordered his slave Philocrates to do the deed in a murder-suicide.[49]
Gaius Marius and Sulla[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2012)
A Roman denarius depicting Sulla
The next major reformer of the time was Gaius Marius, who like the Gracchi, was a populist.[4] Unlike them, he was also a general.[4][50] He abolished the property requirement for becoming a soldier.[4][50] The poor enlisted in large numbers.[4][50] This opening of the Army's ranks to the capite censii enfranchised the plebs, thus creating an esprit de corps in the enlarged army.[4][51] Some elites complained that the army now became unruly due to the commoners in its ranks, but this is without good cause:[4][51]
Marius stands accused of paving the way for the so-called lawless, greedy soldiery whose activities were thought to have contributed largely to the decline and fall of the Republic a few generations later. Yet we should not lose sight of the fact that Marius was not the first to enrol the capite censi. Rome was ruled by an aristocratic oligarchy embedded in the Senate. Thus at times of extreme crisis in the past the Senate had impressed them, along with convicts and slaves, for service as legionaries.
—  Nic Fields[4]
Marius employed his soldiers to defeat an invasion by the Germanic Cimbri and Teutons.[50] His political influence and military leadership allowed him to obtain six terms as consul in 107, and 103 to 99 BC, an unprecedented honour.[50] However, on 10 December 100 BC the senate declared another senatus consultum ultimum, this time in order to bring down Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a radical tribune in the mould of the Gracchi who had been inciting violence in Rome on behalf of Marius' interests. The Senate ordered Marius to put down Saturninus and his supporters, who had taken defensive positions on the Capitol. Marius proceeded to do this, but imprisoned Saturninus inside the Curia Hostilia, intending it seems to keep him alive. However, a senatorial mob lynched the tribune regardless, by climbing atop the Senate House and throwing dislodged roof tiles down onto Saturninus and his supporters below.[50]
Sulla, who was appointed as Marius' quaestor in 107, later contested with Marius for supreme power. In 88, the senate awarded Sulla the lucrative and powerful post of commander in the war against Mithridates over Marius. However, Marius managed to secure the position anyway, through political deal-making with Publius Sulpicius Rufus. Sulla initially went along, but finding support among his troops, seized power in Rome and marched to Asia Minor with his soldiers anyway. There, he fought a largely successful military campaign and was not persecuted by the senate. Marius himself launched a coup with Cinna in Sulla's absence and put to death some of his enemies. He instituted a populist regime, but died soon after.[52]
Sulla made peace with Rome's enemies in the east and began to arrange for his return to Rome. Cinna, Marius's populist successor, was killed by his own men as they moved to meet Sulla on foreign soil. When Sulla heard of this, he ceased negotiations with Rome and openly rebelled in 84. Invading the peninsula, he was joined by many aristocrats including Crassus and Pompey and defeated all major opposition within a year. He began a dictatorship and purged the state of many populists through proscription. A reign of terror followed in which some innocents were denounced just so their property could be seized for the benefit of Sulla's followers. Sulla's coup resulted in a major victory for the oligarchs. He reversed the reforms of the Gracchi and other populists, stripped the tribunes of the people of much of their power and returned authority over the courts to the senators.[53]
See also: Constitutional reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Pompey[edit]
Main article: Pompey
Bust of Pompey the Great in the Residenz, Munich
Pompey the Great, the next major leader who aggravated the crisis, was born Gnaeus Pompeius, but took his own cognomen of Magnus ("the Great").[54] Pompey as a young man was allied to Sulla,[55] but in the consular elections of 78 BC, he supported Lepidus against Sulla's wishes.[citation needed] When Sulla died later that year, Lepidus revolted, and Pompey suppressed him on behalf of the senate.[citation needed] Then he asked for proconsular imperium in Hispania, to deal with the populares general Quintus Sertorius, who had held out for the past three years against Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, one of Sulla's most able generals.[56]
Pompey's career seems to have been driven by desire for military glory and disregard for traditional political constraints.[57] Pompey served next to Crassus and Julius Caesar as part of the first triumvirate of Rome, however, before this, the Roman aristocracy turned him down— as they were beginning to fear the young, popular and successful general. Pompey refused to disband his legions until his request was granted.[58] The senate acceded, reluctantly granted him the title of proconsul and powers equal to those of Metellus, and sent him to Hispania.[59]
Pompey infamously wiped out what remained of Spartacus' troops in 71 BC, who had been pinned down by Marcus Crassus.[60] He received Rome's highest honor, the triumph, while Crassus only received the honorable mention of an ovation, which hurt Crassus' pride.[61]
In 69 BC, he conquered Syria, defeated King Tigranes of Armenia, and replaced one puppet king, Seleucus VII Philometor with his brother Antiochus XIII Asiaticus.[54] Four years later, he deposed the monarchy, replacing it with a governor.[54] This not only finished off the Seleucids,[62] but brought in thousands of slaves and strange peoples, including the Judeans, to Rome, thus creating the Jewish diaspora.[55] This generated swarms of refugees, which can only have created its own discord.
While many of Pompey's reckless actions ultimately increased discord in Rome, his unlucky alliance with Crassus and Caesar is cited as being especially dangerous to the Republic.[19]
See also[edit]
Damnatio memoriae
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
Rise of Rome
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 103, n. 58, citing Gruen 1974 and Meier 1997, pp. 7–23.
Jump up ^ The root of excruciating means from crucifixion. See Fields, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Fields, pp. 8, 18–25, 35–37.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Fields, p. 41, citing Sallust, Iugurthinum 86.2.
Jump up ^ Dupont, p. ix.
Jump up ^ Dupont, p. x.
Jump up ^ Flower 2004, p. 89.
Jump up ^ Flower 2004, pp. 90-92.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 89, citing Appian.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 91.
Jump up ^ Flower, p, 92.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Spaeth (1996), p. 73.
Jump up ^ Fields, p. 7, 8-10.
Jump up ^ Fields, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Fields, pp. 12, 24.
Jump up ^ Fields, pp. 19-20.
Jump up ^ Strauss, p. 96.
^ Jump up to: a b Syme, p. 16, wrote that Pollio "made his history of the Civil Wars begin not with the crossing of the Rubicon, but with the compact between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar...." Found at Google Books. Accessed February 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic (Anchor Books 2003). ISBN 1-4000-7897-0.
Jump up ^ Flower, pp. 85, 366.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 366.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 89
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 89, see also Fields, pp. 7-10.
Jump up ^ Fields, p. 41; Flower, pp. 90–91, 93; Dupont, pp. 40–41, 45–48.
Jump up ^ Flower, pp. 90-91
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 89, nn. 2, 3, citing various scholars discussions (citations omitted).
Jump up ^ For a further discussion of the plebs and Ceres, see Spaeth (1996), pp. 6–10, 14–15, and 81–102 (Chapter 4 of that treatise), citing R. Mitchell, Patricians and Plebeians: The Origin of the Roman State (Ithaca and London 1990).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Flower, p. 90.
Jump up ^ Flower, pp. 90-91.
^ Jump up to: a b Spaeth (1996), p. 75.
Jump up ^ Flower, pp. 89, 91.
^ Jump up to: a b Strauss, p. 204-205
Jump up ^ Spaeth (1996), pp. 74-75.
Jump up ^ Flower, pp. 91-92.
Jump up ^ For discussion of the duties, legal status and immunities of plebeian tribunes and aediles, see Andrew Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, 1999,pp. 92–101, and Spaeth, pp. 85-90.
Jump up ^ Livy's proposal that the senatus consulta were placed at the Aventine Temple more or less at its foundation (Livy, Ab urbe condita, 3.55.13) is implausible. See Spaeth (1996) p.86–87, 90.
Jump up ^ The evidence for the temple as asylum is inconclusive; discussion is in Spaeth, 1996, p.84.
Jump up ^ Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, p. 264, citing vergil, Aeneid, 4.58.
Jump up ^ David Stockton, Cicero: a political biography, Oxford University Press, 1971, pp. 43–49. Cicero's published account of the case is usually known as In Verrem, or Against Verres.
Jump up ^ Cicero, Against Verres, Second pleading, 4.49–51:English version available at wikisource.
^ Jump up to: a b Spaeth (1996), p. 74, fn. 84, pp. 204-205, citing Cicero, Dom. 91, et al..
Jump up ^ Dupont, pp. 45-46, 48.
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 93
Jump up ^ Polybius, 133
Jump up ^ Polybius, 136
Jump up ^ Abbott, 98
Jump up ^ Flower, p. 94, citing J. von Ungern-Sternberg, Unter suchungen: senatus consultum ultimum, pp. 55-57 (Munich 1970) and W. Nippels, Public order in ancient Rome, pp. 57-69 (Cambridge 1995).
Jump up ^ Dupont, p. 58, n. 29, citing Valerius maximus, Works, VI.8.5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Flower, pp. 95-96.
^ Jump up to: a b See also Fields, pp. 12, 46.
Jump up ^ Roberts, John (2007). Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–188, 450–451. ISBN 978-0-19-280146-3.
Jump up ^ Roberts, John (2007). Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–188, 450–451. ISBN 978-0-19-280146-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Losch, p. 390.
^ Jump up to: a b Losch, p. 349.
Jump up ^ Fields, q.v., get p. #
Jump up ^ Holland, Tom, Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic, pp. 141–42 (Abacus, London, 2004). ISBN 0-349-11563-X.
Jump up ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Pompey, p. 158 (Loeb Classical Library, 1917).
Jump up ^ Boak, Arthur E.R. A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 152 (MacMillan, New York, 1922).
Jump up ^ Losch, p. 349; Fields, pp. 71-81.
Jump up ^ Fields, pp. 81-82; Losch, p. 349; Strauss, pp. 195-200.
Jump up ^ Losch, pp. 379-390, 575.
Major sources and further reading[edit]
Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. ISBN 0-543-92749-0.
P.A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988) ISBN 978-0-19-814849-4.
Florence Dupont (translated by Christoper Woodall), Daily Life in Ancient Rome (Oxford UK and Cambridge USA: Blackwell, 1992) ISBN 0-631-17877-5.
Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt and Luis Roniger, Patrons, clients, and friends: interpersonal relations and the structure of trust in society, "Themes in the social sciences" series (Cambridge University Press, 1984) ISBN 978-0-521-28890-3
Nic Fields, Spartacus and the Slave war 73-71 BC: A gladiator rebels against Rome (Osprey 2009) ISBN 978-1-84603-353-7 (an easy read for young adults and college students)
Harriet I. Flower, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2004) ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2 (Found at Google Books). This book includes the essay by Jurgen Von Ungern-Sternberg (translated by Harriet I. Flower), "The Crisis of the Roman Republic," pp. 89–109.
E. S. Gruen, The last generation of the Roman Republic (Berkeley 1974).
Richard R. Losch, All the People in the Bible: An A–Z Guide to the Saints, Scoundrels and Other Characters in Scripture (William B. Erdmans 2008). ISBN 978-0-8028-2454-7.
Pamela Marin, Blood in the forum: the struggle for the Roman republic (New York: Continuum 2009) Dewey # 937.07M. ISBN 978-1-84725-167-1
Christian Meier, Caesar: A Biography, afterward pp. 481–496 (Basic Books, 1997) ISBN 978-0-465-00895-7
Christian Meier, Res publica Amissa: eine Studie zur Verassung und Geschichte der spaten romischen Republik (3rd ed. Frankfort, 1997)
Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. Vol 2 (Fifth ed.). Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter.
Robin Seager, ed., Crisis of the Roman Republic: Studies in political and social history (W. Heffner & Sons, Ltd. 1969) ISBN 978-0-85270-025-9 (soft cover) and ISBN 978-0-85270-024-2 (hardcover).
Barbette Spaeth (1996). The Roman Goddess Ceres. U. of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77693-4.
Barry Strauss, The Spartacus War (Simon and Schuster 2009) ISBN 978-1-4165-3205-7
Ronald Syme, The provincial at Rome: and, Rome and the Balkans 80BC–AD14 (original ed. Liverpool University Press, 1939) Anthony Birley, ed. (University of Exeter Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-85989-632-0.
Timothy Peter Wiseman, Remembering the Roman People: Essays on Late-Republican Politics and Literature (Oxford University Press US, 2009) ISBN 978-0-19-923976-4.
External links[edit]
Rome:crisis of the State from Washington State University website
Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg (Schmitz and Zumpt, 1848): Bellum Iugurthinum
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