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Nitrogen cycle
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Schematic representation of the flow of nitrogen through the land environment. The importance of bacteria in the cycle is immediately recognized as being a key element in the cycle, providing different forms of nitrogen compounds assimilable by higher organisms
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen,[1] making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.[2]
A simple diagram of the nitrogen cycle. The blue boxes represent stores of nitrogen, the green writing is for processes that occur to move the nitrogen from one place to another and the red writing are all the bacteria involved
Contents
[hide]
1 Processes
1.1 Nitrogen fixation
1.2 Assimilation
1.3 Ammonification
1.4 Nitrification
1.5 Denitrification
1.6 Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium
1.7 Anaerobic ammonia oxidation
1.8 Other processes
2 Marine nitrogen cycle
2.1 New vs. regenerated nitrogen
3 Human influences on the nitrogen cycle
3.1 Environmental impacts
4 See also
5 References
Processes[edit]
Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH+
4), nitrite (NO−
2), nitrate (NO−
3), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes of the nitrogen cycle transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used as new. The diagram besides shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen fixation[edit]
Main article: Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of nitrogen into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial and biological processes is called as nitrogen fixation. Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", in a usable form to be taken up by plants. Between 5x1012 and 10x1012 g per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-nitrogenase is a complex two-component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic groups.[3] An example of free-living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process,[4] which uses high temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia.[5]
Assimilation[edit]
Main articles: Assimilation (biology) and Nitrogen assimilation
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.[5] In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent relationship.[6] While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.
Ammonification[edit]
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH+
4), a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:
GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)
GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH-dependent)
GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:
Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.
Important in amino acid catabolism.
A schematic representation of the microbial nitrogen cycle.[7][8] ANAMMOX is anaerobic ammonium oxidation, DNRA is dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, and COMMAMOX is complete ammonium oxidation.
Nitrification[edit]
Main article: Nitrification
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH+
4) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO−
2). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites (NO−
2) into nitrates (NO−
3).[5] It is important for the ammonia (NH
3) to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.
Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby syndrome.[9][10] Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially blue-green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer has been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is occurring along the same lines as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally considered essential to the recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.
Denitrification[edit]
Main article: Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions.[5] They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium[edit]
Main article: Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), or nitrate/nitrite ammonification, is an anaerobic respiration process. Microbes which undertake DNRA oxidise organic matter and use nitrate as an electron acceptor, reducing it to nitrite, then ammonium (NO3−→NO2−→NH4+).[11] Both denitrifying and nitrate ammonification bacteria will be competing for nitrate in the environment, although DNRA acts to conserve bioavailable nitrogen as soluble ammonium rather than producing dinitrogen gas.[12]
Anaerobic ammonia oxidation[edit]
Main article: Ammonia
In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into molecular nitrogen (N2) gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in the oceans. The balanced formula for this "anammox" chemical reaction is: NH+
4 + NO−
2 => N2 + 2H2O (ΔG° = -357 kJ mol-1).[13]
Other processes[edit]
Though nitrogen fixation is the primary source of plant-available nitrogen in most ecosystems, in areas with nitrogen-rich bedrock, the breakdown of this rock also serves as a nitrogen source.[14][15][16]
Marine nitrogen cycle[edit]
A schematic representing the Marine Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is an important process in the ocean as well. While the overall cycle is similar, there are different players and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the water through the precipitation, runoff, or as N2 from the atmosphere. Nitrogen cannot be utilized by phytoplankton as N2 so it must undergo nitrogen fixation which is performed predominately by cyanobacteria.[17] Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years.[18] Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the euphotic zone by the downward movement of the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate but they are inhibited by light so this must occur below the euphotic zone.[19] Ammonification or Mineralization is performed by bacteria to convert organic nitrogen to ammonia. Nitrification can then occur to convert the ammonium to nitrite and nitrate.[20] Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and upwelling where it can be taken up by phytoplankton to continue the cycle. N2 can be returned to the atmosphere through denitrification.
Ammonium is thought to be the preferred source of fixed nitrogen for phytoplankton because its assimilation does not involve a redox reaction and therefore requires little energy. Nitrate requires a redox reaction for assimilation but is more abundant so most phytoplankton have adapted to have the enzymes necessary to undertake this reduction (nitrate reductase). There are a few notable and well-known exceptions that include Prochlorococcus and some Synechococcus.[18] These species can only take up nitrogen as ammonium.
The nutrients in the ocean are not uniformly distributed. Areas of upwelling provide supplies of nitrogen from below the euphotic zone. Coastal zones provide nitrogen from runoff and upwelling occurs readily along the coast. However, the rate at which nitrogen can be taken up by phytoplankton is decreased in oligotrophic waters year-round and temperate water in the summer resulting in lower primary production.[21] The distribution of the different forms of nitrogen varies throughout the oceans as well.
Nitrate is depleted in near-surface water except in upwelling regions. Coastal upwelling regions usually have high nitrate and chlorophyll levels as a result of the increased production. However, there are regions of high surface nitrate but low chlorophyll that are referred to as HNLC (high nitrogen, low chlorophyll) regions. The best explanation for HNLC regions relates to iron scarcity in the ocean, which may play an important part in ocean dynamics and nutrient cycles. The input of iron varies by region and is delivered to the ocean by dust (from dust storms) and leached out of rocks. Iron is under consideration as the true limiting element to ecosystem productivity in the ocean.
Ammonium and nitrite show a maximum concentration at 50–80 m (lower end of the euphotic zone) with decreasing concentration below that depth. This distribution can be accounted for by the fact that nitrite and ammonium are intermediate species. They are both rapidly produced and consumed through the water column.[18] The amount of ammonium in the ocean is about 3 orders of magnitude less than nitrate.[18] Between ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate, nitrite has the fastest turnover rate. It can be produced during nitrate assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification; however, it is immediately consumed again.
New vs. regenerated nitrogen[edit]
Nitrogen entering the euphotic zone is referred to as new nitrogen because it is newly arrived from outside the productive layer. [17] The new nitrogen can come from below the euphotic zone or from outside sources. Outside sources are upwelling from deep water and nitrogen fixation. If the organic matter is eaten, respired, delivered to the water as ammonia, and re-incorporated into organic matter by phytoplankton it is considered recycled/regenerated production.
New production is an important component of the marine environment. One reason is that only continual input of new nitrogen can determine the total capacity of the ocean to produce a sustainable fish harvest.[22] Harvesting fish from regenerated nitrogen areas will lead to a decrease in nitrogen and therefore a decrease in primary production. This will have a negative effect on the system. However, if fish are harvested from areas of new nitrogen the nitrogen will be replenished.
Human influences on the nitrogen cycle[edit]
Main article: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle
As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use of the Haber–Bosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by vehicles and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of nitrogen into biologically available forms.[10] In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic systems. Human alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries and in Asia, where vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest.[23]
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources.[24] N2O has deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is also a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global warming, after carbon dioxide and methane. While not as abundant in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is, for an equivalent mass, nearly 300 times more potent in its ability to warm the planet.[25]
Ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging to water droplets, eventually resulting in nitric acid (HNO3) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems.
The very high temperature of lightning naturally produces small amounts of NOx, NH3, and HNO3, but high-temperature combustion has contributed to a 6- or 7-fold increase in the flux of NOx to the atmosphere. Its production is a function of combustion temperature - the higher the temperature, the more NOx is produced. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary contributor, but so are biofuels and even the burning of hydrogen. However, the rate that hydrogen is directly injected into the combustion chambers of internal combustion engines can be controlled to prevent the higher combustion temperatures that produce NOx.
Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric chemistry. They are precursors of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog and acid rain, damages plants and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems.[26] Ecosystem processes can increase with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen saturation, which weakens productivity and can damage the health of plants, animals, fish, and humans.[10]
Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-demanding grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species-diverse heathlands.[27]
Environmental impacts[edit]
Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans.[28] Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced hypoxia.[29][30] The New York Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species.[31]
Ammonia (NH3) is highly toxic to fish and the level of ammonia discharged from wastewater treatment facilities must be closely monitored. To prevent fish deaths, nitrification via aeration prior to discharge is often desirable. Land application can be an attractive alternative to the aeration.
See also[edit]
Planetary boundaries
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ New York State Environmental Conservation, Environmental Impacts of Acid Deposition: Lakes [1]
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1946 Cabinet Mission to India
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The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 came to India aimed to discuss the transfer of power from the British government to the Indian leadership, with the aim of preserving India's unity and granting it independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the mission had Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate in every step but was present.
Contents
1 Purposes and proposals
1.1 Plan of 16 May
1.2 Plan of 16 June
1.2.1 Reactions
2 Coalition and breakdown
3 References
4 Bibliography
5 Further reading
Purposes and proposals[edit]
The British wanted to keep India and its Army united so as to keep it in their system of 'imperial defence' even after granting it independence.[1][2] To preserve India's unity[3] the British formulated the Cabinet Mission Plan.[4] The Cabinet Mission's role was to hold preparatory discussions with the elected representatives of British India and the Indian states so as to secure agreement to the method of framing the constitution, to set up a constitution body and to set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties.
The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India. The two parties planned to determine a power-sharing arrangement between Hindus and Muslims to prevent a communal dispute. The Congress, under Gandhi and Nehru, wanted to obtain a strong central government, with more powers than state governments.[5] The All India Muslim League, under Jinnah, initially wanted to keep India united but with political safeguards provided to Muslims like parity in the legislatures because of the wide belief of Muslims that the British Raj was simply going to be turned into a Hindu Raj once the British departed, and since the Muslim League regarded itself as the sole spokesman party of Indian Muslims, it was incumbent upon it to take the matter up with the Crown. However, in the 1940 Lahore session of the Muslim League, Jinnah endorsed partition via the two nation theory of a West and East Pakistan, painting recent developments (1937 provincial election, refusal of Congress to recognise the League as the sole mouthpiece of Muslims in India, etc.) as a sign of assured enmity from Hindus, culminating in the Lahore Resolution, also known as the Pakistan Resolution. After initial dialogue, the Mission proposed its plan over the composition of the new government on 16 May 1946. In its proposals, the creation of a separate Muslim Pakistan was rejected.[6]
Plan of 16 May[edit]
A united Dominion of India would be given independence.
The Muslim-majority provinces would be grouped, with Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan and North-West Frontier Province forming one group, and Bengal and Assam would form another.
The Hindu-majority provinces in central and southern India would form another group.
The central government, stationed in Delhi, would be empowered to handle nationwide affairs, such as defence, currency, and diplomacy, and the rest of powers and responsibility would belong to the provinces,coordinated by groups.
An interim Government at the Centre representing all communities would be installed on the basis of parity between the representatives of the Hindus and the Muslims
Plan of 16 June[edit]
The plan of 16 May 1946 had a united India, in line with Congress and Muslim League aspirations, but that was where the consensus between the two parties ended since Congress abhorred the idea of having the groupings of Muslim-majority provinces and that of Hindu-majority provinces with the intention of balancing one another at the central legislature. The Muslim League could not accept any changes to this plan since they wanted to keep the safeguards of British Indian laws to prevent absolute rule of Hindus over Muslims.
Reaching an impasse, the British proposed a second plan on 16 June 1946 to arrange for India to be divided into Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority India that would later be renamed Pakistan since Congress had vehemently rejected 'parity' at the centre. A list of princely states of India, which would be permitted to accede to the dominion or attain independence, was also drawn up.
The Cabinet Mission arrived in karachi on 23 March 1946 and in Delhi on 24 March 1946 and left on June 29. The announcement of the Plan on 16 May 1946 had been preceded by the Simla Conference in the first week of May.
Reactions[edit]
The approval of the plans determined the composition of the new government. The Congress Working Committee officially did not accept either plan. The resolution of the committee dated 24 May 1946 concluded that
The Working Committee consider that the connected problems involved in the establishment of a Provisional Government and a Constituent Assembly should be viewed together... In absence of a full picture, the Committee are unable to give a final opinion at this stage.[7]
And the resolution of 25 June 1946, in response to the June plan concluded
In the formation of a Provisional or other governance, Congressmen can never give up the national character of Congress, or accept an artificial and unjust parity, or agree to a veto of a communal group. The Committee are unable to accept the proposals for formation of an Interim Government as contained in the statement of June 16. The Committee have, however, decided that the Congress should join the proposed Constituent Assembly with a view to framing the Constitution of a free, united and democratic India.[7]
Coalition and breakdown[edit]
The Viceroy began organising the transfer of power to a Congress-League coalition. But in a "provocative speech" on 10 July 1946 Nehru was quoted in the press as saying "We are not bound by a single thing except that we have decided to go into the Constituent Assembly". By this Nehru effectively "torpedoed" any hope for a united India. Having been "duped in such a way", Jinnah withdrew the Muslim League's acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on 17 July.[8][9]
Thus Congress leaders entered the Viceroy's Executive Council or the Interim Government of India. Nehru became the head, vice-president in title, but possessing the executive authority. Patel became the home member, responsible for internal security and government agencies. Congress-led governments were formed in most provinces, including the NWFP, in Punjab (a coalition with the Shiromani Akali Dal and the Unionist Muslim League).[citation needed] The League led governments in Bengal and Sind.[10] The Constituent Assembly was instructed to begin work to write a new constitution for India.
Jinnah and the League condemned the new government, and vowed to agitate for Pakistan by any means possible. Disorder arose in Punjab and Bengal, including the cities of Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta. On the League-organized Direct Action Day, over 5,000 people were killed across India, and Hindu, Sikh and Muslim mobs began clashing routinely. Wavell stalled the Central government's efforts to stop the disorder, and the provinces were instructed to leave this to the governors, who did not undertake any major action. To end the disorder and rising bloodshed, Wavell encouraged Nehru to ask the League to enter the government. While Patel and most Congress leaders were opposed to conceding to a party that was organising disorder, Nehru conceded in hope of preserving communal peace.
League leaders entered the council under the leadership of Liaquat Ali Khan, the future first Prime Minister of Pakistan who became the finance minister,[11] but the council did not function in harmony, as separate meetings were not held by League ministers, and both parties vetoed the major initiatives proposed by the other, highlighting their ideological differences and political antagonism. At the arrival of the new (and proclaimed as the last) viceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma in early 1947, Congress leaders expressed the view that the coalition was unworkable. That led to the eventual proposal, and acceptance of the partition of India. The rejection of cabinet mission plan led to a resurgence of confrontational politics beginning with the Muslim League's Direct action day and the subsequent killings in Noakhali and Bihar. The portioning of responsibility of the League, the Congress and the British Colonial Administration for the breakdown continues to be a topic of fierce disagreement.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jeffery J. Roberts (2003). The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-275-97878-5. Virtually every Briton wanted to keep India united. Many expressed moral or sentimental obligations to leave India intact, either for the inhabitants' sake or simply as a lasting testament to the Empire. The Cabinet Defense Committee and the Chiefs of Staff, however, stressed the maintenance of a united India as vital to the defense (and economy) of the region. A unified India, an orderly transfer of power, and a bilateral alliance would, they argued, leave Britain's strategic position undamaged. India's military assets, including its seemingly limitless manpower, naval and air bases, and expanding production capabilities, would remain accessible to London. India would thus remain of crucial importance as a base, training ground, and staging area for operations from Egypt to the Far East.
Jump up ^ Darwin, John (2011-03-03). "Britain, the Commonwealth and the End of Empire". BBC. Retrieved Apr 10, 2017. But the British still hoped that a self-governing India would remain part of their system of 'imperial defence'. For this reason, Britain was desperate to keep India (and its army) united.
Jump up ^ Michael Mann (24 October 2014). South Asia’s Modern History: Thematic Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. pp. 118–. ISBN 978-1-317-62445-5. The Mission's aim was to ensure the unity of British India.
Jump up ^ Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf (2002). A Concise History of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-521-63974-3. By this scheme, the British hoped they could at once preserve the united India desired by the Congress, and by themselves, and at the same time, through the groups, secure the essence of Jinnah's demand for a 'Pakistan'.
Jump up ^ Seervai, H. M.: Partition of India: Legend and Reality, 2005. Intro: xxvi. ISBN 0-19-597719-X
Jump up ^ "Cabinet Mission Plan 1946". GKToday. 30 October 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cabinet Mission Plan: May and June Congress Resolutions". Retrieved 2013-05-28.
Jump up ^ Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf (2002). A Concise History of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–. ISBN 978-0-521-63974-3.
Jump up ^ Michael Mann (24 October 2014). South Asia’s Modern History: Thematic Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-1-317-62445-5.
Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal (1994). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-521-45850-4.
Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal (1994). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-521-45850-4.
Bibliography[edit]
Kanji Dwarkadas, Ten years to freedom
Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life
Nicholas Mansergh, The Transfer of Power 1942-7 [12 volumes]
V. P. Menon, Transfer of no Power
Robin James Moore, Escape from Empire
H. M. Seervai, Partition of India: Legend and Reality [ed. 2005]
Jaswant Singh, Jinnah: India- Partition- Independence
Stanley Wolpert, Jinnah
Philip Zeigler, Mountbatten
Further reading[edit]
India's Constitutional Question – The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946
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text:
The Block NZ
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the current season, see The Block NZ (season 6).
The Block NZ
Created by
Julian Cress
David Barbour
Presented by
Mark Richardson[1] (2012 – present)
Shannon Ryan (2012 – 2014)
Shelley Ferguson (2015 – present)
Judges
Victoria Bidwell (2012)
Stewart Harris (2012)
Jeremy Hansen (2013)
Janice Kumar-Ward (2013)
Shelley Ferguson (2014)
Mark Gascoigne (2014)
Jason Bonham (2015, 2017)
Bernadette Morrison (2015, 2017)
Fiona Mcleod (2016)
Paul Izzard (2016)
Country of origin
New Zealand
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
6
No. of episodes
235 (as of 17 September 2017[update])
Production
Producer(s)
Aaron Dolbel[2]
Location(s)
Auckland:
Takapuna (season 1)
Belmont (season 2)
Point Chevalier (season 3)
Sandringham/Three Kings (season 4)[3]
Meadowbank (season 5)[4]
Northcote (season 6)
Running time
60 – 120 minutes
Release
Original network
Three
Picture format
576i (SDTV)
HDTV 1080i
Original release
4 July 2012 (2012-07-04) – present
External links
Website
www.threenow.co.nz/tv/the-block-nz/home.html
The Block NZ is a New Zealand reality show based on the popular Australian reality television series The Block. The first season premiered on Three on 4 July 2012.
The show is hosted by former Black Cap Mark Richardson and Shelley Ferguson,[1] while Peter Wolfkamp serves as site foreman. It follows four couples as they compete against each other to completely renovate, room by room, four neighbouring houses in Auckland,[5][6] and then sell them at auction. Each couple keeps any profit made on the house, and the winner receives a bonus cash sum.[6]
The current main sponsors are hardware chain PlaceMakers, car manufacturer Honda, AMP bank, and restaurant franchise Pita Pit.[7] Throughout seasons 1–2, car manufacturer Mazda was also a main sponsor, but for season 3, the sponsorship was awarded to car manufacturer Honda.[8] Other previous sponsors include Bunning's Warehouse and BP's Wild Bean Cafe.
The series premiered in Australia on 9Go! on 12 August 2012.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Differences from the Australian series
3 Hosts and judges
4 Series overview
5 Profits
6 Season synopses
6.1 Season 1
6.2 Season 2
6.3 Season 3
6.4 Season 4
6.5 Season 5
6.6 Season 6
7 Notes
8 References
Development[edit]
The show was initially announced on 24 February 2012, when a casting call went out[9] and saw over 1,000 couples apply.[10] The four couples selected for the first season were announced on the official Facebook page on 17 June 2012.[11]
Differences from the Australian series[edit]
The series differs from the original Australian version in several ways. In the New Zealand version, the final contestants have been pre-determined by the show's producers. This contrasts to the Australian version, where the final couples are decided from a shortlist in an elimination week. In the New Zealand version, the show aired twice a week in the first season,[11] thrice a week in the second season,[citation needed] and four times a week in the third season,[citation needed] as opposed to the Australian show's Sunday to Thursday schedule. In all four seasons thus far, there are challenges to determine auction order rather than contestants deciding amongst themselves, or being randomly drawn out, and the final challenge winners never have prices knocked off the original reserve price.
Hosts and judges[edit]
Timeline of hosts, judges and other personnel
Starring
Season
1
2
3
4
5
6
Current
Mark Richardson[1] Host
Shelley Ferguson[1][12] Judge Host
Bernadette Morrison[13][14] Judge Judge
Jason Bonham[13][14] Judge Judge
Peter Wolfkamp[15] Site foreman
Former
Shannon Ryan[1] Host
Victoria Bidwell[16] Judge
Stewart Harris[16] Judge
Janice Kumar-Ward[17] Judge
Jeremy Hansen[17] Judge
Mark Gascoigne[12] Judge
Fiona McLeod Judge
Paul Izzard Judge
Series overview[edit]
Season
Title
Location
Episodes
Originally aired
Result
Season premiere
Season finale
Winning team
Winning profit (NZD)
Total Profit
1 The Block NZ Takapuna, Auckland 20 4 July 2012 (2012-07-04)[18] 6 September 2012 (2012-09-06) Libby & Ben Crawford $157,000 $237,000
2 The Block NZ 2013 Belmont, Auckland 31 26 August 2013 (2013-august-26) 4 November 2013 (2013-november-04) Alice & Caleb Pearson $181,000 $261,000
3 The Block NZ 2014 Point Chevalier, Auckland 49 26 August 2014 (2014-august-26) 18 November 2014 (2014-november-18) Alex & Corban Walls $227,000 $307,000
4 Villa Wars Sandringham and Three Kings, Auckland 40 29 September 2015 (2015-september-29) 6 December 2015 (2015-december-06) Brooke Thompson & Mitch Davies $190,000 $290,000
5 Girls Vs. Boys Meadowbank, Auckland 46 29 May 2016 (2016-may-29) 14 August 2016 (2016-august-14) Sam Cable & Emmett Vallender $380,000 $480,000
6 Side X Side Northcote, North Shore, Auckland 49 25 June 2017 (2017-june-25) 17 September 2017 (2017-september-17) Andy Murdie & Nate Ross $31,000 $131,000
Profits[edit]
Season
No. of teams
No. of properties sold at auction
Winning Prize
Average auction profit
Combined auction profit1
1
2012
4 $80,000 $58,000
$232,000
2
2013
4 $74,750
$299,000
3
2014
4 $111,250
$445,000
4
2015
4 $100,000 $158,250
$633,000
5
2016
4 $245,250
$981,000
6
2017
4 $16,250
$65,000
Overall combined profit
$7006265500000000000♠2,655,000
Including Prize Money ($540,000)
$7006319500000000000♠3,195,000
^1 The combined auction profit excludes the winning prize money
Season synopses[edit]
Season 1[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 1)
The first season of The Block NZ premiered on 4 July 2012 and ended on 6 September 2012. It was set in the Auckland suburb of Takapuna.
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 4 Rachel & Tyson $789,000 $789,000 $0 $0 4th
2 2 Sarah & Rich $806,000 $870,000 $64,000 $64,000 2nd
3 1 Libby & Ben $804,000 $961,000 $157,000 $237,000 1st
4 3 Ginny & Rhys $794,000 $805,000 $11,000 $11,000 3rd
Season 2[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 2)
The second season of The Block NZ premiered on 26 August 2013 and ended on 4 November 2013. It was set in the Auckland suburb of Belmont.
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 3 Alice & Caleb $945,000 $1.126m $181,000 $260,000 1st
2 4 Alisa & Koan $948,000 $1.014m $66,000 $66,000 2nd
3 1 Pete & Andy $925,000 $952,000 $27,000 $27,000 3rd
4 2 Loz & Tom $922,000 $947,000 $25,000 $25,000 4th
Season 3[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 3)
The third season of The Block NZ premiered on 26 August 2014 and ended on 18 November 2014. It was set in the Auckland suburb of Point Chevalier, the first time the Block was held outside of North Shore.
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 3 Quinn & Ben $1.325m $1.335m $10,000 $10,000 4th
2 2 Maree & James $1.325m $1.472m $147,000 $147,000 2nd
3 1 Alex & Corban $1.325m $1.552m $227,000 $307,000 1st
4 4 Jo & Damo $1.325m $1.386m $61,000 $61,000 3rd
Season 4[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 4)
The fourth season of The Block NZ premiered on 29 September 2015. It was set boundaries of the Auckland suburbs of Sandringham and Three Kings.[3] The title for season four was The Block NZ: Villa Wars.[19]
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 3 Jamie & Hayden $1.175m $1.335m $160,000 $160,000 2nd (tie)
2 2 Sarah & Minanne $1.149m $1.272m $123,000 $123,000 4th
3 4 Cat & Jeremy $1.160m $1.320m $160,000 $160,000 2nd (tie)
4 1 Brooke & Mitch $1.160m $1.350m $190,000 $290,000 1st
Season 5[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 5)
The fifth season of The Block NZ premiered on 29 May 2016 and was filmed in the Auckland suburb of Meadowbank.[20] The title of this series is "Girls vs Boys" with two of the teams being made up of females and the other two made up with males. [21]It had netted the highest combined profits of $981,000.[22]
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 1 Niki & Tiff $1,170,000 $1,320,000 $150,000 $150,000 4th
2 3 Dyls & Dylz $1,190,000 $1,341,000 $151,000 $151,000 3rd
3 2 Courtney & Emma $1,210,000 $1,510,000 $300,000 $300,000 2nd
4 4 Sam & Emmett $1,230,000 $1,610,000 $380,000 $480,000 1st
Season 6[edit]
Main article: The Block NZ (season 6)
On 14 August 2016, Three announced the series will return for a sixth season.[23] The sixth season premiered on 25 June 2017.[24] It was set in the Auckland suburbs of Northcote, North Shore.[25] The title of this series is "Side X Side", as each of the houses were large 4-storey townhouses the largest houses in terms of floor areas in the history of The Block NZ. It had netted the lowest combined profits ($65,000), and it also saw the first time a house didn't meet reserve, but got the highest bid on the re-sell.[22]
House
Auction spot
Couple
Reserve
Auction Result
Profit
Total Winnings
Placing spot
1 1 Ling & Zing $1,299,000 $1,300,000 $1,000 $1,000 4th
2 2 & 5[a] Andy & Nate $1,219,000 $1,250,000 $31,000 $131,000 1st
3 3 Julia & Ali $1,229,000 $1,242,000 $13,000 $13,000 3rd
4 4 Stace & Yanita $1,251,000 $1,271,000 $20,000 $20,000 2nd
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ House was passed in as the reserve was not met the first time, and then went back to auction after fourth auction was complete.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The Block NZ's photo". Facebook.com. 20 May 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2014. Big news - the hosts of The Block NZ have been announced! We've got sports star turned broadcaster Mark Richardson as the show host and the gorgeous Shannon Ryan will joining him as the challenge presenter. Bring it on!
Jump up ^ Smithies, Grant (25 June 2017). "The Questionnaire: The Block NZ's Aaron Dolbel". i.stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Block gears up for Auckland inner-city sites". The New Zealand Herald. 19 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/tv-radio/77144069/the-block-2016-the-secret-location-is-out
Jump up ^ Hallahan, Marnie (31 May 2012). "Bargains on The Block". North Shore Times - via Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "About The Block NZ". tv3.co.nz. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.morefm.co.nz/TV3s-announces-new-season-and-new-host-of-The-Block-NZ/tabid/92/articleID/26383/Default.aspx
Jump up ^ Springall, Lesley. "The Block NZ – leveraged to perfection". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "TV3’s The Block searching for contestants". newshub.co.nz. 24 February 2012. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ contestants revealed". 3news.co.nz. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Block NZ photo". Facebook.com. 17 June 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2014. The Block has finally come NZ and we're thrilled to announce the teams! Meet Sarah & Rich from Hamilton, Libby & Ben from CHCH & AKL, Ginny & Rhys from New Plymouth and Rachel & Ty from Wellington! Who will nail it? The Block NZ, Wednesdays and Thursdays from 4th July on TV3. C'Mon now!
^ Jump up to: a b "Meet the new Block NZ judges". Stuff.co.nz. 10 July 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.tv3.co.nz/NEW-JUDGES-FOR-THE-BLOCK-NZ-VILLA-WARS/tabid/2983/articleID/117657/Default.aspx
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/entertainment/2017/06/the-block-nz-2017-judges-revealed.html
Jump up ^ http://www.tv3.co.nz/Interview-with-The-Block-NZ-Foreman/tabid/2986/articleID/77896/Default.aspx
^ Jump up to: a b "Lights, camera... DIY". 27 May 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Q&A with The Block NZ Judges". tv3.co.nz. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ contestants revealed". 3 News. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ Villa Wars". 10 September 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "CONTESTANT SEARCH: The Block NZ 2016". www.tv3.co.nz. TV3. Retrieved 2016-01-03.
Jump up ^ http://www.newshub.co.nz/entertainment/the-block-nz-girls-vs-boys-2016051506
^ Jump up to: a b "Social media lashes out at two attempts to sell winning Block house". NZ Herald. 2017-09-17. ISSN 1170-0777. Retrieved 2017-09-18.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ winners: 'I couldn't have done it without him'". i.stuff.co.nz. Stuff. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ's Mark Richardson reveals what's different about this year's show". i.stuff.co.nz. Stuff. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Block NZ heads to the North Shore". newshub.co.nz. 11 June 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
[show]
v
t
e
The Block NZ
Series
1
2
3
4 (Villa Wars)
5 (Girls vs Boys)
6 (Side X Side)
[show]
v
t
e
The Block
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6 (All Stars)
7 (Sky High)
8 (Fans v Faves)
9 (Glasshouse)
10 (Triple Threat)
11 (Blocktagon)
12
13
Hosts
Jamie Durie (2003–2004)
Scott Cam (2010–)
Shelley Craft (2011–)
International adaptations
Netherlands (2004–2007)
United Kingdom (2004)
Israel (2009)
New Zealand (2012–)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Block_NZ&oldid=806500730"
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