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Milankovitch cycles
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Past and future Milankovitch cycles. VSOP allows prediction of past and future orbital parameters with great accuracy.
Figure shows variations in orbital elements:
Obliquity (axial tilt) (ε).
Eccentricity (e).
Longitude of perihelion (sin(ϖ) ).
Precession index (e sin(ϖ) ), which together with obliquity, controls the seasonal cycle of insolation.[1]
Calculated daily-averaged insolation at the top of the atmosphere ( Q ¯ d a y {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\mathrm {day} }} ),
on the day of the summer solstice at 65° N latitude.
Two distinct proxies for past global sea level and temperature, from ocean sediment and Antarctic ice respectively are:
Benthic forams
Vostok ice core
The vertical gray line shows current conditions, at 2 ky A.D.
Milankovitch cycles describe the collective effects of changes in the Earth's movements on its climate over thousands of years. The term is named for Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković. In the 1920s, he hypothesized that variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation reaching the Earth, and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth.
Similar astronomical hypotheses had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar, James Croll and others, but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence, and because it was unclear which periods were important.
Now, materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia (obtained via ice, rock, and deep ocean cores) are being studied to indicate the history of Earth's climate. Though they are consistent with the Milankovitch hypothesis, there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain.
Contents
1 Earth's movements
1.1 Orbital shape (eccentricity)
1.1.1 Effect on temperature
1.1.2 Effect on lengths of seasons
1.2 Axial tilt (obliquity)
1.3 Axial precession
1.4 Apsidal precession
1.5 Orbital inclination
2 Problems
2.1 100,000-year problem
2.2 Transition problem
2.3 Unsplit peak problem
2.4 Stage 5 problem
2.5 Effect exceeds cause
3 Present and future conditions
4 Effects beyond Earth
4.1 Mars
4.2 Outer planets
4.3 Exoplanets
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Earth's movements[edit]
The Earth's rotation around its axis, and revolution around the Sun, evolve over time due to gravitational interactions with other bodies in the solar system. The variations are complex, but a few cycles are dominant.[2]
The Earth's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical (its eccentricity varies). When the orbit is more elongated, there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and in the amount of solar radiation, at different times in the year. In addition, the rotational tilt of the Earth (its obliquity) changes slightly. A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme. Finally, the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth's axis changes (axial precession), while the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates (apsidal precession). The combined effect is that proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons.
Milankovitch studied changes in these movements of the Earth, which alter the amount and location of solar radiation reaching the Earth. This is known as solar forcing (an example of radiative forcing). Milankovitch emphasized the changes experienced at 65° north due to the great amount of land at that latitude. Land masses change temperature more quickly than oceans, because of the mixing of surface and deep water and the fact that soil has a lower volumetric heat capacity than water.
Orbital shape (eccentricity)[edit]
Main article: Orbital eccentricity
Circular orbit, no eccentricity
Orbit with 0.5 eccentricity; Earth's orbit is never this eccentric
The Earth's orbit approximates an ellipse. Eccentricity measures the departure of this ellipse from circularity. The shape of the Earth's orbit varies between nearly circular (with the lowest eccentricity of 0.000055) and mildly elliptical (highest eccentricity of 0.0679)[3] Its geometric or logarithmic mean is 0.0019. The major component of these variations occurs with a period of 413,000 years (eccentricity variation of ±0.012). Other components have 95,000-year and 125,000-year cycles (with a beat period of 400,000 years). They loosely combine into a 100,000-year cycle (variation of −0.03 to +0.02). The present eccentricity is 0.017 and decreasing.
Eccentricity varies primarily due to the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Saturn. However, the semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse remains unchanged; according to perturbation theory, which computes the evolution of the orbit, the semi-major axis is invariant. The orbital period (the length of a sidereal year) is also invariant, because according to Kepler's third law, it is determined by the semi-major axis.
Effect on temperature[edit]
The semi-major axis is a constant. Therefore, when Earth's orbit becomes more eccentric, the semi-minor axis shortens. This increases the magnitude of seasonal changes.[4]
The relative increase in solar irradiation at closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) compared to the irradiation at the furthest distance (aphelion) is slightly larger than four times the eccentricity. For Earth's current orbital eccentricity, incoming solar radiation varies by about 6.8%, while the distance from the Sun currently varies by only 3.4% (5.1 million km). Perihelion presently occurs around January 3, while aphelion is around July 4. When the orbit is at its most eccentric, the amount of solar radiation at perihelion will be about 23% more than at aphelion. However, the Earth's eccentricity is always so small that the variation in solar irradiation is a minor factor in seasonal climate variation, compared to axial tilt and even compared to the relative ease of heating the larger land masses of the northern hemisphere.
Effect on lengths of seasons[edit]
Season durations[5]
Year
Northern
Hemisphere
Southern
Hemisphere
Date: GMT
Season
duration
2005 Winter solstice Summer solstice 21 December 2005 18:35 88.99 days
2006 Spring equinox Autumn equinox 20 March 2006 18:26 92.75 days
2006 Summer solstice Winter solstice 21 June 2006 12:26 93.65 days
2006 Autumn equinox Spring equinox 23 September 2006 4:03 89.85 days
2006 Winter solstice Summer solstice 22 December 2006 0:22 88.99 days
2007 Spring equinox Autumn equinox 21 March 2007 0:07 92.75 days
2007 Summer solstice Winter solstice 21 June 2007 18:06 93.66 days
2007 Autumn equinox Spring equinox 23 September 2007 9:51 89.85 days
2007 Winter solstice Summer solstice 22 December 2007 06:08
The seasons are quadrants of the Earth's orbit, marked by the two solstices and the two equinoxes. Kepler's second law states that a body in orbit traces equal areas over equal times; its orbital velocity is highest around perihelion and lowest around aphelion. The Earth spends less time near perihelion and more time near aphelion. This means that the lengths of the seasons vary.
Perihelion currently occurs around January 3, so the Earth's greater velocity shortens winter and autumn in the northern hemisphere. Summer in the northern hemisphere is 4.66 days longer than winter, and spring is 2.9 days longer than autumn.
Greater eccentricity increases the variation in the Earth's orbital velocity. However, currently, the Earth's orbit is becoming less eccentric (more nearly circular). This will make the seasons more similar in length.
Axial tilt (obliquity)[edit]
Main article: Axial tilt
22.1–24.5° range of Earth's obliquity
The angle of the Earth's axial tilt with respect to the orbital plane (the obliquity of the ecliptic) varies between 22.1° and 24.5°, over a cycle of about 41,000 years. The current tilt is 23.44°, roughly halfway between its extreme values. The tilt last reached its maximum in 8,700 BCE. It is now in the decreasing phase of its cycle, and will reach its minimum around the year 11,800 CE.
Increased tilt increases the amplitude of the seasonal cycle in insolation, providing more solar radiation in each hemisphere's summer and less in winter. However, these effects are not uniform everywhere on the Earth's surface. Increased tilt increases the total annual solar radiation at higher latitudes, and decreases the total closer to the equator.
The current trend of decreasing tilt, by itself, will promote milder seasons (warmer winters and colder summers), as well as an overall cooling trend. Because most of the planet's snow and ice lies at high latitude, decreasing tilt may encourage the onset of an ice age for two reasons: There is less overall summer insolation, and also less insolation at higher latitudes, which melts less of the previous winter's snow and ice.
Axial precession[edit]
Main article: Axial precession
Precessional movement
Axial precession is the trend in the direction of the Earth's axis of rotation relative to the fixed stars, with a period of 25,771.5 years. This motion means that eventually Polaris will no longer be the north pole star. It is caused by the tidal forces exerted by the Sun and the Moon on the solid Earth; both contribute roughly equally to this effect.
Currently, perihelion occurs during the southern hemisphere's summer. This means that solar radiation due to (1) axial tilt inclining the southern hemisphere toward the Sun and (2) the Earth's proximity to the Sun, both reach maximum during the summer and both reach minimum during the winter. Their effects on heating are additive, which means that seasonal variation in irradiation of the southern hemisphere is more extreme. In the northern hemisphere, these two factors reach maximum at opposite times of the year: The north is tilted toward the Sun when the Earth is furthest from the Sun. The two effects work in opposite directions, resulting in less extreme variations in insolation.
In about 13,000 years, the north pole will be tilted toward the Sun when the Earth is at perihelion. Axial tilt and orbital eccentricity will both contribute their maximum increase in solar radiation during the northern hemisphere's summer. Axial precession will promote more extreme variation in irradiation of the northern hemisphere and less extreme variation in the south.
When the Earth's axis is aligned such that aphelion and perihelion occur near the equinoxes, axial tilt will not be aligned with or against eccentricity.
Apsidal precession[edit]
Main article: Apsidal precession
Planets orbiting the Sun follow elliptical (oval) orbits that rotate gradually over time (apsidal precession). The eccentricity of this ellipse, as well as the rate of precession, is exaggerated for visualization. Most orbits in the Solar System have a much smaller eccentricity, making them nearly circular.
In addition, the orbital ellipse itself precesses in space, in an irregular fashion, completing a full cycle every 112,000 years relative to the fixed stars.[6] Apsidal precession occurs in the plane of the ecliptic and alters the orientation of the Earth's orbit relative to the ecliptic. This happens primarily as a result of interactions with Jupiter and Saturn. Smaller contributions are also made by the sun's oblateness and by the effects of general relativity that are well known for Mercury.
Apsidal precession combines with the 25,771.5-year cycle of axial precession (see above) to vary the position in the year that the Earth reaches perihelion. Apsidal precession shortens this period to 23,000 years on average (varying between 20,800 and 29,000 years).[6]
Effects of precession on the seasons (using the Northern Hemisphere terms).
As the orientation of Earth's orbit changes, each season will gradually start earlier in the year. Precession means the Earth's nonuniform motion (see above) will affect different seasons. Winter, for instance, will be in a different section of the orbit. When the Earth's apsides are aligned with the equinoxes, the length of spring and summer combined will equal that of autumn and winter. When they are aligned with the solstices, the difference in the length of these seasons will be greatest.
Orbital inclination[edit]
Main article: Orbital inclination
The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit. This three-dimensional movement is known as "precession of the ecliptic" or "planetary precession". Earth's current inclination relative to the invariable plane (the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System, approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter) is 1.57°.
Milankovitch did not study apsidal precession. It was discovered more recently and measured, relative to Earth's orbit, to have a period of about 70,000 years. However, when measured independently of Earth's orbit, but relative to the invariable plane, precession has a period of about 100,000 years. This period is very similar to the 100,000-year eccentricity period. Both periods closely match the 100,000-year pattern of glacial events.[7]
Problems[edit]
The nature of sediments can vary in a cyclic fashion, and these cycles can be displayed in the sedimentary record. Here, cycles can be observed in the colouration and resistance of different strata.
Artifacts taken from the Earth have been studied to infer the cycles of past climate. A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice, which appear to respond directly to the local insolation, concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis.[8] Analysis of deep-ocean cores, analysis of lake depths,[9][10] and a seminal paper by Hays, Imbrie, and Shackleton[11] provide additional validation through physical artifacts. Climate records contained in a 1,700 ft (520 m) core of rock drilled in Arizona show a pattern synchronized with Earth's eccentricity, and cores drilled in New England match it, going back 215 million years.[12]
These studies fit so well with the orbital periods that they supported Milankovitch's hypothesis that variations in the Earth's orbit influence climate. However, the fit was not perfect, and problems remained reconciling hypothesis with observation.
100,000-year problem[edit]
Main article: 100,000-year problem
Of all the orbital cycles, Milankovitch believed that obliquity had the greatest effect on climate, and that it did so by varying the summer insolation in northern high latitudes. Therefore, he deduced a 41,000-year period for ice ages.[13][14] However, subsequent research[11][15][16] has shown that ice age cycles of the Quaternary glaciation over the last million years have been at a 100,000-year period, which matches the eccentricity cycle.
Various explanations for this discrepancy have been proposed, including frequency modulation[17] or various feedbacks (from carbon dioxide, cosmic rays, or from ice sheet dynamics). Some models can reproduce the 100,000-year cycles as a result of non-linear interactions between small changes in the Earth's orbit and internal oscillations of the climate system.[18][19]
Jung-Eun Lee of Brown University proposes that precession changes the amount of energy that Earth absorbs, because the southern hemisphere's greater ability to grow sea ice reflects more energy away from Earth. Moreover, Lee says, "Precession only matters when eccentricity is large. That's why we see a stronger 100,000-year pace than a 21,000-year pace."[20][21]
Some have argued that the length of the climate record is insufficient to establish a statistically significant relationship between climate and eccentricity variations.[22]
Transition problem[edit]
Variations of cycle times, curves determined from ocean sediments
In fact, from 1–3 million years ago, climate cycles did match the 41,000-year cycle in obliquity. After 1 million years ago, this switched to the 100,000-year cycle matching eccentricity. The transition problem refers to the need to explain what changed 1 million years ago.[23]
Unsplit peak problem[edit]
Even the well-dated climate records of the last million years do not exactly match the shape of the eccentricity curve. Eccentricity has component cycles of 95,000 and 125,000 years. However, some researchers say the records do not show these peaks, but only show a single cycle of 100,000 years.[24]
Stage 5 problem[edit]
Deep-sea core samples show that the interglacial interval known as marine isotope stage 5 began 130,000 years ago. This is 10,000 years before the solar forcing that the Milankovitch hypothesis predicts. (This is also known as the causality problem, because the effect precedes the putative cause.)[25]
Effect exceeds cause[edit]
See also: Climate change feedback
420,000 years of ice core data from Vostok, Antarctica research station, with more recent times on the left
Artifacts show that the variation in Earth's climate is much more extreme than the variation in the intensity of solar radiation calculated as the Earth's orbit evolves. If orbital forcing causes climate change, science needs to explain why the observed effect is amplified compared to the theoretical effect.
Some climate systems exhibit amplification (positive feedback) and damping responses (negative feedback). An example of amplification would be if, with the land masses around 65° north covered in year-round ice, solar energy were reflected away. Amplification would mean that an ice age induces changes that impede orbital forcing from ending the ice age.
The Earth's current orbital inclination is 1.57° (see above). Earth presently moves through the invariable plane around January 9 and July 9. At these times, there is an increase in meteors and noctilucent clouds. If this is because there is a disk of dust and debris in the invariable plane, then when the Earth's orbital inclination is near 0° and it is orbiting through this dust, materials could be accreted into the atmosphere. This process could explain the narrowness of the 100,000-year climate cycle.[26][27]
Present and future conditions[edit]
Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude. The green curve is with eccentricity e hypothetically set to 0. The red curve uses the actual (predicted) value of e. Blue dot is current conditions, at 2 ky A.D.
Since orbital variations are predictable,[28] any model that relates orbital variations to climate can be run forward to predict future climate, with two caveats: the mechanism by which orbital forcing influences climate is not definitive; and non-orbital effects can be important (for example, Human impact on the environment principally increases in greenhouse gases result in a warmer climate[29][30][31]).
An often-cited 1980 orbital model by Imbrie predicted "the long-term cooling trend that began some 6,000 years ago will continue for the next 23,000 years."[32] More recent work suggests that orbital variations should gradually increase 65° N summer insolation over the next 25,000 years.[33] Earth's orbit will become less eccentric for about the next 100,000 years, so changes in this insolation will be dominated by changes in obliquity, and should not decline enough to cause an ice age in the next 50,000 years.[34][35]
Effects beyond Earth[edit]
Other bodies in the Solar System undergo orbital fluctuations like the Milankovitch cycles. Any geological effects would not be as pronounced as climate change on the Earth, but might cause the movement of elements in the solid state:
Mars[edit]
Mars has no moon large enough to stabilize its obliquity, which has varied from 10 to 70 degrees. This would explain recent observations of its surface compared to evidence of different conditions in its past, such as the extent of its polar caps.[36][37]
Outer planets[edit]
Saturn's moon Titan has a cycle of approximately 60,000 years that could change the location of the methane lakes.[38][39] Neptune's moon Triton has a variation similar to Titan's, which could cause its solid nitrogen deposits to migrate over long time scales.[40]
Exoplanets[edit]
Scientists using computer models to study extreme axial tilts have concluded that high obliquity would cause climate extremes that would threaten Earth-like life. They noted that high obliquity would not likely sterilize a planet completely, but would make it harder for warm-blooded, land-based life to thrive.[41] Although the obliquity they studied is more extreme than Earth ever experiences, there are scenarios 1.5 to 4.5 billion years from now, as the Moon's stabilizing effect lessens, where obliquity could leave its current range and the poles could eventually point almost directly at the Sun.[42]
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Further reading[edit]
The oldest reference for Milankovitch cycles is: Milankovitch, M. (1930). Mathematische Klimalehre und Astronomische Theorie der Klimaschwankungen. Handbuch der Klimatologie. 1 Teil A. von Gebrüder Borntraeger. OCLC 490063906.
Roe G (2006). "In defense of Milankovitch". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (24): L24703. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3324703R. doi:10.1029/2006GL027817. This shows that Milankovitch theory fits the data extremely well, over the past million years, provided that we consider derivatives.
Kaufmann R. K.; Juselius K. (2016), "Testing competing forms of the Milankovitch hypothesis", Paleoceanography, 31: 286–297, Bibcode:2016PalOc..31..286K, doi:10.1002/2014PA002767 .
Edvardsson S, Karlsson KG, Engholm M (2002). "Accurate spin axes and solar system dynamics: Climatic variations for the Earth and Mars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 384 (2): 689–701. Bibcode:2002A&A...384..689E. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020029. This is the first work that investigated the derivative of the ice volume in relation to insolation (page 698).
Zachos J, Pagani M, Sloan L, Thomas E, Billups K (2001). "Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present". Science. 292 (5517): 686–693. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..686Z. doi:10.1126/science.1059412. PMID 11326091.
This review article discusses cycles and great-scale changes in the global climate during the Cenozoic Era.
Pälike, H., R.D. Norris, J.O. Herrle, P.A. Wilson, H.K. Coxall, C.H. Lear, N.J. Shackleton, A.K. Tripati, and B.S. Wade (2006). "The Heartbeat of the Oligocene Climate System". Science. 314 (5807): 1894–8. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1894P. doi:10.1126/science.1133822. PMID 17185595. A 13-million-year continuous record of Oligocene climate from the equatorial Pacific reveals a pronounced "heartbeat" in the global carbon cycle and periodicity of glaciations. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
External links[edit]
Media related to Milankovitch cycles at Wikimedia Commons
Milankovitch cycles at Wikibooks
Ice Age – Milankovitch Cycles – National Geographic Channel
The Milankovitch band, Internet Archive of American Geophysical Union lecture
Some history of the adoption of the Milankovitch hypothesis (and an alternative)
More detail on orbital obliquity also matching climate patterns
"Milutin Milankovitch". On the Shoulders of Giants. Retrieved January 15, 2010.
The Seasons
"Climate Forcing Data". NOAA. National Centers for Environmental Information. Text: includes (calculated) data on orbital variations over the last 50 million years and for the coming 20 million years.
The Orbital Simulations; by Varadi, Ghil and Runnegar (2003) provide another, slightly different series for orbital eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination
ABC: Earth wobbles linked to extinctions
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Harris County Toll Road Authority
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Harris County Toll Road Authority
Authority overview
Formed
September 1983 (1983-09)
Jurisdiction
Harris County, Texas
Headquarters
7701 Wilshire Place Drive
Houston, TX 77040
29°51′25″N 95°30′31″W / 29.857062°N 95.508666°W / 29.857062; -95.508666Coordinates: 29°51′25″N 95°30′31″W / 29.857062°N 95.508666°W / 29.857062; -95.508666
Authority executive
Peter W. Key, Director
Parent department
Harris County Public Infrastructure Department
Website
www.hctra.com
The Harris County Toll Road Authority (HCTRA, pronounced "Hectra") maintains and operates a 103-mile (165.8 km) toll road system in the Houston/Harris County area. Its headquarters are in Houston.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Current system
2.1 Sam Houston Tollway (1982)
2.2 Hardy Toll Road (1988)
2.3 Westpark Tollway (2004)
2.4 Fort Bend Toll Road (2004)
2.5 Katy Freeway Managed Lanes (2009)
2.6 Tomball Tollway (2015)
2.7 Toll Ramps at SH 242 and I-45 (2015)
3 Future projects
3.1 Hardy Downtown Connector
3.2 Hardy Toll Road Interchange at Beltway 8
3.3 SH 249 Southbound to Westbound Sam Houston Tollway Direct Connector
3.4 Tomball Tollway: Phase II
3.5 SH 288 Managed Lanes
3.6 Hempstead Highway/US 290 Managed Lanes
3.7 Increased capacity of existing toll roads
3.8 Fort Bend Parkway/South Post Oak Road Extension
3.9 Fairmont Parkway East Managed Lanes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
HCTRA came into existence in September 1983 when Harris County voters approved a referendum by a 7-3 margin to release up to $900 million in bonds to create two toll roads - the Hardy Toll Road and the Sam Houston Tollway, to improve the regional mobility and reduce traffic congestion in the Greater Houston area, an area known for rapid population growth.
The need for a county-run toll road system came from TxDOT's budget shortfall and its inability to authorize funding to upgrade the second loop around the city, Beltway 8, which had been on planning maps since the 1950s. The Texas Turnpike Authority turned down the opportunity to improve the road as well, leaving the county to upgrade the road to freeway standards. However, Harris County could not afford to build and maintain a freeway from its general fund.
Shortly after the referendum, the Commissioners Court created the Toll Road Authority to administer the construction and operation of the new road system. Then-County Judge Jon Lindsay is generally credited with shepherding the referendum from its infancy to its passage, along with the implementation of the plan for the roadway. HCTRA is a part of Harris County's Public Infrastructure Department and is subdivided into a Services and an Operations Division.
While for many years, the Hardy Toll Road never had the traffic that the HCTRA envisioned it would need to turn a profit, the Sam Houston Tollway has more than made up for the lost revenue. The high profit margins on the Sam Houston Tollway allowed the authority to construct its third and fourth toll roads, the Westpark Tollway and Fort Bend Toll Road, both of which opened in 2004. Both of these toll roads have termini in Fort Bend County and are run in conjunction with the Fort Bend County Toll Road Authority. The most recent project of HCTRA is the construction of managed lanes that run along the median of I-10/Katy Freeway between SH 6 and I-610 that opened in April 2009.[2]
Current system[edit]
The HCTRA uses their own toll tag called the EZ TAG. The system has been interoperable with the Texas Department of Transportation's TxTag and the North Texas Tollway Authority's TollTag since 2003. Around the 3rd quarter of 2017, the system will be interoperable with the Kansas Turnpike Authority's K-Tag[3] and the Oklahoma Turnpike Authority's PikePass.[3]
The following toll roads (in order of first segment completion) form the current HCTRA system:
Sam Houston Tollway (1982)[edit]
Main article: Texas State Highway Beltway 8
The Sam Houston Tollway is the name given to the tolled sections of Beltway 8, the second highway loop around Houston. The first opened section was the Sam Houston Ship Channel Bridge in the east quadrant of the road system. From 1982 to 1994, the bridge, which was originally named in honor of local politician and entrepreneur Jesse H. Jones, was maintained by the Texas Turnpike Authority (now North Texas Tollway Authority). As of February 26, 2011, the Sam Houston Tollway is a complete tolled beltway loop around Houston (minus a few minor sections that are freeways managed by TXDOT).
Hardy Toll Road (1988)[edit]
Main article: Hardy Toll Road
The Hardy Toll Road was constructed to help alleviate traffic off of I-45 North. The route begins at I-610 North between I-45 North and I-69/US 59 North and travels northward parallel to I-45 for 21.6 miles (34.8 km) after which it merges onto I-45. The toll road also features a 4-mile (6.4 km) spur to George Bush Intercontinental Airport.
Westpark Tollway (2004)[edit]
Main article: Westpark Tollway
The Westpark Tollway is a 20-mile (32.2 km) toll road starting in Uptown Houston and travelling westward parallel to sections of Westpark Drive and FM 1093 and terminating just past the Grand Parkway (SH 99). It is the first all-electronic toll road in the United States. The Fort Bend County Toll Road Authority (FBCTRA) operates the western-most 6 miles (9.7 km) of the tollway.
Fort Bend Toll Road (2004)[edit]
Main article: Fort Bend Parkway Toll Road
The Fort Bend Toll Road is a 7.5-mile (12.1 km) tollway that follows the route of the formerly-cancelled State Highway 122. The toll road currently begins with direct connectors at US 90A, just north of the Sam Houston Tollway, and travels southward to its terminus at SH 6. As with the Westpark Tollway, the Fort Bend Toll Road is jointly operated with the FBCTRA.
Katy Freeway Managed Lanes (2009)[edit]
Main article: Interstate 10 in Texas
In 2002, HCTRA entered into an agreement with TxDOT and Harris County for the reconstruction of I-10/Katy Freeway. The toll road authority's portion of the project is a 12-mile (19.3 km) managed lane facility in the center of the reconstructed freeway that is used by METRO and HOV vehicles at no charge and single passenger vehicles for a toll. The four lane roadway, running between I-610/West Loop and SH 6, has been completed. The lanes opened during the second quarter of 2009.
Tomball Tollway (2015)[edit]
Main article: Texas State Highway 249
The Tomball Tollway consists of a 6.0-mile (9.7 km) segment of three toll lanes in each direction from Spring Cypress Road up to the northern end of the Tomball Bypass. Texas State Highway 249 serves as toll-free frontage roads for the Tomball Tollway. Tolling on the Tomball Tollway is all-electronic; an EZ TAG, TollTag or TxTag are required for passage. No cash or pay-by-mail option is available for the Tomball Tollway. Construction of Phase I began in Fall 2013 and was finished on April 12, 2015.
Toll Ramps at SH 242 and I-45 (2015)[edit]
Main article: Texas State Highway 242
Though in Montgomery County and owned by Montgomery County Toll Road Authority (MCTRA), HCTRA collects tolls for two ramps: one from northbound I-45 to SH 242 westbound and the other from westbound SH 242 to I-45 southbound near the Woodlands. The two ramps were completed on May 11, 2015 and were free until July 6 when HCTRA began to collect tolls for MCTRA. Both toll ramps are all-electronic and require an EZ TAG, TollTag or TxTag; no pay-by-mail or cash option is available.
Future projects[edit]
Hardy Downtown Connector[edit]
This 4-mile (6.4 km) long project will provide a connection between Downtown Houston and the current terminus of the Hardy Toll Road at I-610. Planning for the Hardy Toll Road connection into Downtown Houston was announced in 2000. The project will be completed in two phases. Phase I consists of moving a railroad line, right of way acquisition, and the construction of two overpasses. Phase II will be the construction of 4 toll lanes. Relocation of the rail line is expected to begin Fall of 2012.
Hardy Toll Road Interchange at Beltway 8[edit]
To relieve congestion on surface streets, direct connectors between Hardy Toll Road and Beltway 8 will be constructed. Currently there is only one direct connector ramp from Beltway 8 East to Hardy Toll Road North. Expected construction start date is unknown.
SH 249 Southbound to Westbound Sam Houston Tollway Direct Connector[edit]
This project will add a direct connector to feed traffic travelling south on SH 249 onto the westbound Sam Houston Tollway. This will be the second tolled direct connector at that intersection. Construction began in 2014.
Tomball Tollway: Phase II[edit]
Phase II of the SH 249 (Tomball Tollway) project, in partnership with Montgomery County Toll Road Authority, will provide three toll lanes in each direction to the existing SH 249 corridor. The plan for Phase II will extend the toll lanes north of the Tomball Bypass to the Harris County line at Spring Creek and points beyond in Montgomery County. Schematic designs have been completed for the portion that lies within Harris County. Construction of Phase II is projected to begin in 2016.
SH 288 Managed Lanes[edit]
To help alleviate congestion on SH 288, HCTRA or TxDOT plan to construct toll lanes in the median of the existing freeway. The route would begin at I-69/US 59 just south of Midtown and terminate at the intersection of the proposed Grand Parkway (SH 99) for a total length of 26 miles (41.8 km). It is unknown when construction will begin; or which agency will oversee construction, currently it is TxDOT.
Hempstead Highway/US 290 Managed Lanes[edit]
The planned project will add four tolled lanes along the Hempstead Highway corridor between I-610 and the future Grand Parkway (SH 99) northwest segment. The project is one component of the complete US 290 corridor upgrade by TxDOT, which also includes added capacity to US 290, a new HOV system parallel to the Hempstead Highway, and a possible commuter rail line in conjunction with METRO. Construction began in 2013 on US 290, with TxDOT overseeing construction.
Increased capacity of existing toll roads[edit]
Added capacity is planned for the following existing tollway segments:
Sam Houston Tollway Southwest from SH 288 to IH 69/US 59 South: Two lanes will be added in each direction with improvements to the mainline toll plaza, and will have reconstructed and/or realigned entrance/exit ramps. Construction commenced in early 2012 - lanes completed as of 2014.
Sam Houston Tollway Southeast from SH 288 to IH 45 South: Two lanes will be added in each direction with improvements to the mainline toll plaza, and will have reconstructed entrance/exit ramps. Schematic design has been completed, construction is expected to begin in approximately 2 years. As of late 2015 the construction has not commenced since the interchange at SH288 has not been finalized where both TxDOT and HCTRA are finalizing plans for both the tollway upgrade and SH288 managed lanes. The first phase which commenced in 2015 is the construction of new overpasses for the west and eastbound Beltway 8 service lanes over a railroad right of way which parallels Mykawa Road (since the 1997 opening of the Sam Houston Tollway East one eastbound lane over Mykawa Road is co-shared with Beltway 8 where the realignment of the service lanes will eliminate the co-sharing with HCTRA and TxDOT (prior to the right of way co-sharing those who used the Beltway 8 service lanes had to make a turn on Mykawa Road and a left on Knapp Road in Pearland, TX where it had a surface crossing at a railroad right of way, which has been decommissioned later replaced with a flyover on McHard Road a few miles south during the early 2000s); this section of the tollway is congested on weekends where Cole's Flea Market is located south of the tollway on State Highway 35 in Pearland).
Sam Houston Tollway East from IH 45 South to SH 225: One or two lanes are to be added in each direction with improvements to the mainline toll plaza, and will have reconstructed entrance/exit ramps. Construction for the tollway lanes is expected to begin in 2017.
Sam Houston Tollway - Ship Channel Bridge from SH 225 to IH 10 East: A second span will be constructed over the Ship Channel with three or four lanes with full shoulders in each direction. Construction is expected to begin in 2018. First phase of the plan involved the conversion of the Ship Channel Bridge toll plazas into electronic toll collection, which was implemented on January 11, 2016.
Hardy Toll Road from FM 1960 to SH 99 (Grand Parkway): This will add one lane in each direction to the intersection with SH 99 (Grand Parkway). During construction, HCTRA also eliminated cash collection and converted the Hardy Toll Road to all-electronic tolling on July 18, 2016; all traffic must utilize an EZ TAG for access to the toll road. Construction to widen the Hardy Toll Road began in August 2015, with a completion date for early 2017. The Hardy Toll Road interchange with the Grand Parkway Segment G (which was completed in March 2016) was finished on July 18, 2016.[4][5][6]
Fort Bend Parkway/South Post Oak Road Extension[edit]
The project will connect I-610 via the South Post Oak exit (which terminates south of West Bellfort) to the northern terminus of the Fort Bend Parkway with just over 3 miles (4.8 km) of tolled lanes. However, this project is not in planning or design. As of 2016 traffic exiting the Fort Bend Parkway goes directly to US90-A/South Main.
Fairmont Parkway East Managed Lanes[edit]
Project is no longer being built. As of 03/30/10[7]
See also[edit]
Houston portal U.S. Roads portal
Texas State Highway 99
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Contact Us." Harris County Toll Road Authority. Retrieved on October 16, 2011. "Administrative Office Harris County Toll Road Authority 7701 Wilshire Place Drive Houston, TX 77040"
Jump up ^ Katy Toll Road, accessed 29 September 2006
^ Jump up to: a b Begley, Dug (June 19, 2016). "Local toll tags going national, eventually". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved September 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/news/2015/08/21/119115/the-hardy-toll-road-is-getting-a-big-makeover/
Jump up ^ https://www.hctra.org/about_construction/hardy-toll-road-widening
Jump up ^ "Hardy Toll Road goes EZ Tag only". KHOU 11 News.
Jump up ^ http://app1.kuhf.org/houston_public_radio-news-display.php?articles_id=1253738352
External links[edit]
Harris County Toll Road Authority - About HCTRA
Harris County Toll Road Authority
Houston Freeways
- About the Grand Parkway
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harris_County_Toll_Road_Authority&oldid=801112267"
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Steve Reevis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Steve Reeves.
Steve Reevis
Born
(1962-08-14)August 14, 1962
Browning, Montana, U.S.
Died
December 7, 2017(2017-12-07) (aged 55)
Missoula, Montana, U.S.
Years active
1988–2017
Spouse(s)
Macile Reevis (m. 1984)
Steve Reevis (August 14, 1962 – December 7, 2017) was a Blackfoot Native American actor. The role of Shep Proudfoot in the Academy Award-winning film Fargo (1996) is perhaps the best known performance by Reevis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
2 Selected filmography
3 Television
4 References
5 External links
Biography[edit]
Steve Reevis grew up on the Blackfeet Reservation. Reevis graduated from South Dakota's Flandreau Indian School and attended Haskell Indian Junior College[1] in Lawrence, Kansas, where he received a degree in arts.
Reevis' first movie job was as a stunt rider in the 1987 film War Party, which also had his brother, Tim, who later performed in Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show at Disneyland Paris. Reevis' first acting role, in 1988, was in Universal's Twins. He had a nonspeaking role as Sioux Warrior #1 in the Academy Award-winning Dances with Wolves in 1990.[citation needed] In 1993, he was cast as the Apache scout, Chato, in Geronimo: An American Legend starring Wes Studi as the titular warrior.[2][3][4] Reevis played the Native American lead role in Last of the Dogmen (1995) with Tom Berenger.[5][6]
In 1996, Reevis received an award from First Americans in the Arts (FAITA) for his supporting roles in both the critically acclaimed film Fargo and in the made-for-television movie Crazy Horse. In 2004, he repeated this honor for his work on the ABC series Line of Fire.[citation needed] Reevis appeared in Columbia’s 2003 film The Missing, in the 2005 remake of The Longest Yard,[7] and in TNT's 2005 miniseries Into the West. Reevis also appeared on Fox's drama series Bones.
Reevis died on December 7, 2017, of undisclosed causes in Missoula, Montana, at the age of 55.[8]
Selected filmography[edit]
Twins (1988) - Native American
Dances with Wolves (1990) - Sioux #1/Warrior #1
Geronimo: An American Legend (1993) – Chato
Last of the Dogmen (1995) - Yellow Wolf
Wild Bill (1995) - Sioux Chief
Fargo (1996) – Shep Proudfoot
Crazy Horse (1996)
The Missing (2003) – Two Stone
The Longest Yard (2005) – Baby Face Bob
Into the West (2005) – Older Loved By The Buffalo
Comanche Moon (2008) – Worm
Road to Paloma (2013)
Television[edit]
Promised Land - episode "The Outrage" (1997) - Sheriff Lamont Nez
Walker, Texas Ranger - episode "Mayday" (1997) - Jake Stonecrow
JAG - episode "The Return of Jimmy Blackhorse" (1998) - Sammy Wheeler
Walker, Texas Ranger - episode "Way of the Warrior" (1999) - John Wolf / Lone Wolf.
Malcolm in the Middle - episode "Poker #2" (2002) - Piama's dad
Bones - episode "The Man in the Bear" (2005) - Sherman Rivers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cottrell, Chris. "Haskell runners enjoyed another memorable year", Lawrence Journal-World, December 25, 1985, p. 13. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hicks, Chris. "'Geronimo' is not the story of Geronimo", Deseret News, December 10, 1993, p. W3. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Cherry, Nanciann. "'Geronimo' tale of man waging a losing battle", Toledo Blade, December 11, 1993, pp. P1, P4. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Calhoun Times. "Flutist, actor to perform at New Echota Saturday". July 10, 2002, p. 3A. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Turan, Kenneth. "'Dogmen' Charms With Its Familiarity", Los Angeles Times, September 8, 1995. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Paseman, Lloyd. "'Dogmen' a satisfying adventure" (Review). Eugene Register-Guard, September 15, 1995, p. 17D. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Cauthron, Randy M. "Updating 'The Longest Yard'" The Daily Reporter (Spencer, Iowa), June 3, 2005, p. 7. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Steve Reevis, 'Fargo,' 'Dancing With Wolves' Actor, Dies at 55". The Hollywood Reporter. Associated Press. December 8, 2017. ISSN 0018-3660.
External links[edit]
Steve Reevis on IMDb
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX1265434
ISNI: 0000 0000 5963 7736
VIAF: 87028122
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve_Reevis&oldid=830988775"
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Male actors from Montana
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This page was last edited on 18 March 2018, at 02:39.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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suggestions
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