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Storming of the Bastille
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Storming of the Bastille
Part of the French Revolution

Storming of The Bastile by Jean-Pierre Houël
Date
14 July 1789; 229 years ago (1789-07-14)
Location
Paris, France
48°51′11″N 2°22′09″E / 48.85306°N 2.36917°E / 48.85306; 2.36917Coordinates: 48°51′11″N 2°22′09″E / 48.85306°N 2.36917°E / 48.85306; 2.36917
Result
Bastille captured, rebellion begins
Belligerents
French government Civilian insurgents
Gardes françaises
Commanders and leaders
Bernard-René de Launay Pierre-Augustin Hulin[1]
Jacob Job Élie
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
Joseph Arné
Jean Baptiste-Humbert
Strength
114 soldiers (82 Invalides (veterans), 32 Swiss soldiers of the Salis-Samade Regiment), 30 artillery pieces Between 688 to 1,000 armed civilian insurgents; 61 French Guards, at least five artillery pieces
Casualties and losses
One killed; remainder captured (at least seven killed after surrender) 98 killed
73 wounded
The Storming of the Bastille (French: Prise de la Bastille [pʁiz də la bastij]) occurred in Paris, France, on the afternoon of 14 July 1789. The medieval fortress, armory, and political prison in Paris known as the Bastille represented royal authority in the centre of Paris. The prison contained just seven inmates at the time of its storming, but was seen by the revolutionaries as a symbol of the monarchy's abuses of power; its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution.
In France, Le quatorze juillet (14 July) is a public holiday, usually called Bastille Day in English.
Contents
1 Background
2 Necker's dismissal
3 Armed conflict
4 Storming the Bastille (14 July 1789)
5 Aftermath
6 In popular culture
7 References
7.1 Additional sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background[edit]
During the reign of Louis XVI, France faced a major economic crisis, caused in part by the cost of intervening in the American Revolution, and exacerbated by a regressive system of taxation.[2] On 5 May 1789, the Estates General of 1789 convened to deal with this issue, but were held back by archaic protocols and the conservatism of the second estate, consisting of the nobility and amounting to only 2% of France's population.[3] On 17 June 1789, the third estate, with its representatives drawn from the commoners, reconstituted themselves as the National Assembly, a body whose purpose was the creation of a French constitution. The king initially opposed this development, but was forced to acknowledge the authority of the assembly, which renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July.[4] France was under major changes during this time.
The commoners had formed the National Guard, sporting tricolour cockades (cocardes) of blue, white and red, formed by combining the red and blue cockade of Paris and the white cockade of the king. These cockades, and soon simply their colour scheme, became the symbol of the revolution and, later, of France itself.[5]
Paris, close to insurrection and, in François Mignet's words, "intoxicated with liberty and enthusiasm",[6] showed wide support for the Assembly. The press published the Assembly's debates; political debate spread beyond the Assembly itself into the public squares and halls of the capital. The Palais-Royal and its grounds became the site of an ongoing meeting.[7] The crowd, on the authority of the meeting at the Palais-Royal, broke open the prisons of the Abbaye to release some grenadiers of the French guards, reportedly imprisoned for refusing to fire on the people.[8] The Assembly recommended the imprisoned guardsmen to the clemency of the king; they returned to prison, and received pardon. The rank and file of the regiment, previously considered reliable, now leaned toward the popular cause.[9]
Necker's dismissal[edit]
On 11 July 1789, Louis XVI—acting under the influence of the conservative nobles of his privy council—dismissed and banished his finance minister, Jacques Necker (who had been sympathetic to the Third Estate) and completely reconstructed the ministry.[10] The marshals Victor-François, duc de Broglie, la Galissonnière, the duc de la Vauguyon, the Baron Louis de Breteuil, and the intendant Foulon, took over the posts of Puységur, Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin, La Luzerne, Saint-Priest, and Necker.
Jacques Necker (1732–1804), French minister of finance
News of Necker's dismissal reached Paris on the afternoon of Sunday, 12 July. The Parisians generally presumed that the dismissal marked the start of a coup by conservative elements.[11] Liberal Parisians were further enraged by the fear that a concentration of Royal troops—brought in from frontier garrisons to Versailles, Sèvres, the Champ de Mars, and Saint-Denis—would attempt to shut down the National Constituent Assembly, which was meeting in Versailles. Crowds gathered throughout Paris, including more than ten thousand at the Palais-Royal. Camille Desmoulins successfully rallied the crowd by "mounting a table, pistol in hand, exclaiming: 'Citizens, there is no time to lose; the dismissal of Necker is the knell of a Saint Bartholomew for patriots! This very night all the Swiss and German battalions will leave the Champ de Mars to massacre us all; one resource is left; to take arms!'"[6]
The Swiss and German regiments referred to were among the foreign mercenary troops who made up a significant portion of the pre-revolutionary Royal Army, and were seen as being less likely to be sympathetic to the popular cause than ordinary French soldiers.[12] By early July, approximately half of the 25,000 regular troops in Paris and Versailles were drawn from these foreign regiments. The French regiments included in the concentration appear to have been selected either because of the proximity of their garrisons to Paris or because their colonels were supporters of the reactionary "court party" opposed to reform.[4]
During the public demonstrations that started on 12 July, the multitude displayed busts of Necker and of Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, then marched from the Palais Royal through the theater district before continuing westward along the boulevards. The crowd clashed with the Royal German Cavalry Regiment ("Royal-Allemand") between the Place Vendôme and the Tuileries Palace. From atop the Champs-Élysées, the Prince de Lambesc unleashed a cavalry charge that dispersed the remaining protesters at Place Louis XV—now Place de la Concorde.[13] The Royal commander, Baron de Besenval, fearing the results of a blood bath amongst the poorly armed crowds or defections among his own men, then withdrew the cavalry towards Sèvres.[14] Meanwhile, unrest was growing among the people of Paris who expressed their hostility against state authorities by attacking customs posts blamed for causing increased food and wine prices.[15] The people of Paris started to plunder any place where food, guns and supplies could be hoarded. That night, rumors spread that supplies were being hoarded at Saint-Lazare, a huge property of the clergy, which functioned as convent, hospital, school and even as a jail. An angry mob broke in and plundered the property,[16] seizing 52 wagons of wheat, which were taken to the public market. That same day multitudes of people plundered many other places including weapon arsenals. The Royal troops did nothing to stop the spreading of social chaos in Paris during those days.[17]
Armed conflict[edit]
The Bastille of Paris before the Revolution.
The regiment of Gardes Françaises (French Guards) formed the permanent garrison of Paris and, with many local ties, was favourably disposed towards the popular cause.[18] This regiment had remained confined to its barracks during the initial stages of the mid-July disturbances. With Paris becoming the scene of a general riot, Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (Marshal of the Camp, Proprietor of the Royal Allemand-Dragoons), not trusting the regiment to obey his order, posted sixty dragoons to station themselves before its dépôt in the Chaussée d'Antin. The officers of the French Guards made ineffectual attempts to rally their men. The rebellious citizenry had now acquired a trained military contingent. As word of this spread, the commanders of the royal forces encamped on the Champ de Mars became doubtful of the dependability of even the foreign regiments.[19] The future "Citizen King", Louis-Philippe, duc d'Orléans, witnessed these events as a young officer and was of the opinion that the soldiers would have obeyed orders if put to the test. He also commented in retrospect that the officers of the French Guards had neglected their responsibilities in the period before the uprising, leaving the regiment too much to the control of its non-commissioned officers.[20] However, the uncertain leadership of Besenval led to a virtual abdication of royal authority in central Paris. On the morning of 13 July the electors of Paris met and agreed to the recruitment of a "bourgeois militia" of 48,000 men[16] from the sixty voting districts of Paris, to restore order.[21]
Storming the Bastille (14 July 1789)[edit]
People in the Castle of Bastille, (Musée de la Révolution française).
On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The partisans of the Third Estate in France, now under the control of the Bourgeois Militia of Paris (soon to become Revolutionary France's National Guard), had earlier stormed the Hôtel des Invalides without meeting significant opposition.[22] Their intention had been to gather the weapons held there (29,000 to 32,000 muskets, but without powder or shot). The commandant at the Invalides had in the previous few days taken the precaution of transferring 250 barrels of gunpowder to the Bastille for safer storage.[23]
At this point, the Bastille was nearly empty, housing only seven prisoners:[24] four forgers, two "lunatics" and one "deviant" aristocrat, the Comte de Solages (the Marquis de Sade had been transferred out ten days earlier).[23]
The high cost of maintaining a garrisoned medieval fortress, for what was seen as having a limited purpose, had led to a decision being made shortly before the disturbances began to replace it with an open public space.[25] Amid the tensions of July 1789, the building remained as a symbol of royal tyranny.
The regular garrison consisted of 82 invalides (veteran soldiers no longer suitable for service in the field).[26] It had however been reinforced on 7 July by 32 grenadiers of the Swiss Salis-Samade Regiment from the regular troops on the Champ de Mars.[27] The walls mounted 18 eight-pound guns and 12 smaller pieces. The governor was Bernard-René de Launay, son of the previous governor and actually born within the Bastille.[23]
Arrest of de Launay, by Jean-Baptiste Lallemand, 1790, (Musée de la Révolution française)
Arrest of de Launay by an anonymous artist. A 2013 analysis of the Bastille dimensions showed that it did not tower over the neighborhood as was depicted in the paintings but was more of a comparable height to other buildings in the neighborhood.[28]
The official list of vainqueurs de la Bastille (conquerors of the Bastille) subsequently compiled has 954 names,[29] and the total of the crowd was probably fewer than one thousand. A breakdown of occupations included in the list indicates that the majority were local artisans, together with some regular army deserters and a few distinctive categories such as 21 wine merchants.[30]
The crowd gathered outside around mid-morning, calling for the surrender of the prison, the removal of the cannon and the release of the arms and gunpowder.[23] Two representatives of the crowd outside were invited into the fortress and negotiations began, and another was admitted around noon with definite demands. The negotiations dragged on while the crowd grew and became impatient.[31] Around 1:30, the crowd surged into the undefended outer courtyard. A small party climbed onto the roof of a building next to the gate to the inner courtyard and broke the chains on the drawbridge, crushing one vainqueur as it fell. Soldiers of the garrison called to the people to withdraw but in the noise and confusion these shouts were misinterpreted as encouragement to enter.[3] Gunfire began, apparently spontaneously, turning the crowd into a mob. The crowd seems to have felt that they had been intentionally drawn into a trap and the fighting became more violent and intense, while attempts by deputies to organise a cease-fire were ignored by the attackers.[3]
The firing continued, and after 3:00 pm, the attackers were reinforced by mutinous gardes françaises, along with two cannons. A substantial force of Royal Army troops encamped on the Champ de Mars did not intervene.[32] With the possibility of mutual carnage suddenly apparent, Governor de Launay ordered a cease-fire at 5:00 pm. A letter offering his terms was handed out to the besiegers through a gap in the inner gate. His demands were refused, but de Launay nonetheless capitulated, as he realised that with limited food stocks and no water supply[30] his troops could not hold out much longer. He accordingly opened the gates to the inner courtyard, and the vainqueurs swept in to liberate the fortress at 5:30.[33]
Ninety-eight attackers and one defender had died in the actual fighting, a disparity accounted for by the protection provided to the garrison by the fortress walls.[34] De Launay was seized and dragged towards the Hôtel de Ville in a storm of abuse. Outside the Hôtel, a discussion as to his fate began.[35] The badly beaten de Launay shouted "Enough! Let me die!"[36] and kicked a pastry cook named Dulait in the groin. De Launay was then stabbed repeatedly and died. An English traveller, Doctor Edward Rigby, reported what he saw, "[We] perceived two bloody heads raised on pikes, which were said to be the heads of the Marquis de Launay, Governor of the Bastille, and of Monsieur Flesselles, Prévôt des Marchands. It was a chilling and a horrid sight! ... Shocked and disgusted at this scene, [we] retired immediately from the streets."[37]
The three officers of the permanent Bastille garrison were also killed by the crowd; surviving police reports detail their wounds and clothing.[38]
Two of the invalides of the garrison were lynched, but all but two of the Swiss regulars of the Salis-Samade Regiment were protected by the French Guards and eventually released to return to their regiment. Their officer, Lieutenant Louis de Flue, wrote a detailed report on the defense of the Bastille, which was incorporated in the logbook of the Salis-Samade and has survived.[39] It is (perhaps unfairly) critical of the dead Marquis de Launay, whom de Flue accuses of weak and indecisive leadership.[39] The blame for the fall of the Bastille would rather appear to lie with the inertia of the commanders of the 5,000[40] Royal Army troops encamped on the Champ de Mars, who did not act when either the nearby Hôtel des Invalides or the Bastille were attacked.
Engraving, c. 1789: militia hoisting the heads of Flesselles and the Marquis de Launay on pikes. The caption reads "Thus we take revenge on traitors".
Returning to the Hôtel de Ville, the mob accused the prévôt dès marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery, and he was assassinated en route to an ostensible trial at the Palais-Royal.[41]
Sans-culottes wearing iconic Phrygian caps and tricolor cockades
The Place de la Bastille and the July Column where the Bastille once stood.
The king first learned of the storming only the next morning through the Duke of La Rochefoucauld. "Is it a revolt?" asked Louis XVI. The duke replied: "No sire, it's not a revolt; it's a revolution."[42]
At Versailles, the Assembly remained ignorant of most of the Paris events, but eminently aware that Marshal de Broglie stood on the brink of unleashing a pro-Royalist coup to force the Assembly to adopt the order of 23 June[43] and then to dissolve. The vicomte de Noailles apparently first brought reasonably accurate news of the Paris events to Versailles. M. Ganilh and Bancal-des-Issarts, dispatched to the Hôtel de Ville, confirmed his report.[44]
By the morning of 15 July, the outcome appeared clear to the king as well, and he and his military commanders backed down.[45] The Royal troops concentrated around Paris dispersed to their frontier garrisons. The Marquis de la Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris;[46] Jean-Sylvain Bailly – leader of the Third Estate and instigator of the Tennis Court Oath – became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the Commune de Paris.[47] The king announced that he would recall Necker and return from Versailles to Paris; on 17 July, in Paris, he accepted a tricolour cockade from Bailly and entered the Hôtel de Ville to cries of "Long live the King" and "Long live the Nation".[48]
Aftermath[edit]
Nonetheless, after this violence, nobles – little assured by the apparent and, as it was to prove, temporary reconciliation of king and people – started to flee the country as émigrés.[49] Among the first to leave were the comte d'Artois (the future Charles X of France) and his two sons, the prince de Condé, the prince de Conti, the Polignac family, and (slightly later) Charles Alexandre de Calonne, the former finance minister. They settled at Turin, where Calonne, as agent for the count d'Artois and the prince de Condé, began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France.[50]
The news of the successful insurrection at Paris spread throughout France. In accord with principles of popular sovereignty and with complete disregard for claims of royal authority, the people established parallel structures of municipalities for civic government and militias for civic protection.[21] In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as the "Great Fear" spread across the countryside during the weeks of 20 July to 5 August, with attacks on wealthy landlords impelled by the belief that the aristocracy was trying to put down the revolution.[51][52]
On 22 July 1789 the populace lynched Joseph Foullon de Doué and his son-in-law[53] Louis Bénigne François Bertier de Sauvigny. Both held official positions under the monarchy.
Although there were arguments that the Bastille should be preserved as a monument to liberation or as a depot for the new National Guard, the Permanent Committee of Municipal Electors at the Paris Town Hall gave the construction entrepreneur Pierre-François Palloy the commission of disassembling the building.[54] Palloy commenced work immediately. The demolition of the fortress itself, the melting down of its clock portraying chained prisoners, and the breaking up of four statues were all carried out within five months.[55]
On 16 July 1789, two days after the Storming of the Bastille, John Frederick Sackville, serving as ambassador to France, reported to Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, "Thus, my Lord, the greatest revolution that we know anything of has been effected with, comparatively speaking—if the magnitude of the event is considered—the loss of very few lives. From this moment we may consider France as a free country, the King a very limited monarch, and the nobility as reduced to a level with the rest of the nation."[56]
In 1790, Lafayette gave the cast-iron, one-pound and three-ounce key to the Bastille to U.S. President George Washington. Washington displayed it prominently at government facilities and events in New York and in Philadelphia until shortly before his retirement in 1797. The key remains on display at Washington's residence of Mount Vernon.[57]
Palloy also took bricks from the Bastille and had them carved into replicas of the fortress, which he sold, along with medals allegedly made from the chains of prisoners. Pieces of stone from the structure were sent to every district in France, and some have been located. Various other pieces of the Bastille also survive, including stones used to build the Pont de la Concorde bridge over the Seine, and one of the towers, which was found buried in 1899 and is now at Square Henri-Galli in Paris, as well as the clock bells and pulley system, which are now in the Musée d’Art Campanaire.[58] About 900 people who claimed to have stormed the Bastille received certificates (Brevet de vainqueur de la Bastille) from the National Assembly in 1790, and a number of these still exist.[59] The building itself is outlined in brick on the location where it once stood, as is the moat in the Paris Metro stop below it, where a piece of the foundation is also on display.
In popular culture[edit]
This section appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018)
An annual reenactment of the Storming of the Bastille was held at the Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, hosted by the Bearded Ladies (a cabaret troupe). Traditionally a Marie Antoinette reenactor declares "Let them eat Tastykake" and is promptly beheaded by the mob. The 24 year tradition was ended in 2018. [60][61]
Austrian composer Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf wrote his Symphony in C Major as a tribute to the event. The first movement of the piece is known as La Prise De La Bastille.[citation needed]
In Book 2 of Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, the Defarges help lead the assault on the Bastille.
1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, stage musical whose main characters are split up during the early stages, then reunited during the storming of the Bastille.
The protagonist of Assassin's Creed Unity, Arno Dorian, is depicted as being one of the prisoners in the Bastille when it gets stormed, and manages to escape in the confusion.
Bastille Day was a song written in 1975 by the progressive rock band Rush about the siege, and was included on their album Caress of Steel.
References[edit]
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Additional sources[edit]
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bastille". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 502.
This article incorporates text from the public domain History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814, by François Mignet (1824), as made available by Project Gutenberg.
Further reading[edit]
Paris portal
History portal
France portal
Alpaugh, Micah. "The Politics of Escalation in French Revolutionary Protest: Political Demonstrations, Nonviolence and Violence in the Grandes journees of 1789", French History (Fall 2009).
Alpaugh, Micah. "A Self-Defining Bourgeoisie in the Early French Revolution: The Milice bourgeoise, the Bastille Days of 1789, and their Aftermath", Journal of Social History 47, no. 3 (Spring 2014), 696–720.
Lüsebrink, Hans-Jürgen; Reichardt, Rolf; Schürer, Norbert (1997). The Bastille. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1894-1.
Mignet, Francois-Auguste (1 January 2006). History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814.
Taylor, David (1997). The French Revolution. Heinemann. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-435-31694-5.
Stephens, Henry Morse (1886). A History of the French Revolution. C. Scribner's sons. pp. 128–68.
Sewell, William H. "Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille", Theory and Society 25, no. 6 (Dec. 1996), 841–81.
Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1887). The French Revolution of 1789 as Viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions. Jefferson Press. pp. 112–22.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Storming of the Bastille.
Place de la Bastille – Official French website (in English)
Thomas Jefferson's letter to John Jay recounting the storming of the Bastille
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1794
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1795
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The Ireland Expedition (Dec 1796)
1797
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Michel Ney
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Nicolas Oudinot
Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon
Jean-Charles Pichegru
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Grace Elliott
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Jean-Sifrein Maury
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Antoine Barnave
Lafayette
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Charles Malo François Lameth
André Chénier
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Camille Jordan
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Jean-Charles Pichegru
Pierre Paul Royer-Collard
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Étienne Clavière
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Charlotte Corday
Marie Jean Hérault
Jean Baptiste Treilhard
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
Jean Debry
Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil
Olympe de Gouges
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The Plain
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Mirabeau
Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville
Jean Joseph Mounier
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
François de Neufchâteau
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Maximilien Robespierre
Georges Danton
Jean-Paul Marat
Camille Desmoulins
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
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Louis Philippe I
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Jacques-Louis David
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Georges Couthon
Roger Ducos
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois
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Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier
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Antoine-François Momoro
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Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
François Hanriot
Jacques Roux
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
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BNF: cb119567399 (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Storming_of_the_Bastille&oldid=856689547"
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Mining industry of South Africa
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Premier Diamond Mine, Cullinan, Gauteng, South Africa
An aerial view of the Two Rivers mine in Steelpoort, Limpopo, owned by both African Rainbow Minerals and Impala Platinum holdings limited.
Mining in South Africa was once the main driving force[1] behind the history and development of Africa's most advanced and richest economy.[2] Large-scale and profitable mining started with the discovery of a diamond on the banks of the Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. Gold rushes to Pilgrim's Rest and Barberton were precursors to the biggest discovery of all, the Main Reef/Main Reef Leader on Gerhardus Oosthuizen's farm Langlaagte, Portion C, in 1886, the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the subsequent rapid development of the gold field there, the biggest of them all.
Diamond and gold production are now well down from their peaks, though South Africa is still number 5 in gold[3] but South Africa remains a cornucopia of mineral riches. It is the world's largest producer[4] of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite. It is the second largest producer[4] of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium. It is also the world's third largest coal exporter.[5] South Africa is also a huge producer of iron ore; in 2012, it overtook India to become the world's third-biggest iron ore supplier to China, who are the world's largest consumers of iron ore.[6]
Due to a history of corruption and maladministration in the South African mining sector, ANC secretary-general Gwede Mantashe announced at the beginning of 2013 that mining companies misrepresenting their intentions could have their licences revoked.[7]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Coal
1.2 Gold
1.3 Diamonds
1.4 Platinum and palladium
1.5 Chromium
1.6 Uranium
1.7 Working conditions
1.8 Rand Rebellion
1.9 2007 strike
1.10 2012 Lonmin strike
2 Politics
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
See also: History of South Africa and Economy of South Africa
Diamond and gold discoveries played an important part in the growth of the early South African economy. A site northeast of Cape Town was discovered to have rich deposits of diamonds, and thousands rushed to the area of Kimberley in an attempt to profit from the discovery. The British later annexed the region of Griqualand West, an area which included the diamond fields. In 1868, the republic attempted to annex areas near newly discovered diamond fields, drawing protests from the nearby British colonial government. These annexations later led to the First Boer War of 1880-1881.[8]
Gold was discovered in the area known as Witwatersrand, triggering what would become the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886. Like the diamond discoveries before, the gold rush caused thousands of foreign expatriates to flock to the region. This heightened political tensions in the area ultimately contributing to the Second Boer War in 1899.[citation needed] Ownership of the diamond and gold mines became concentrated in the hands of a few entrepreneurs, largely of European origin, known as the Randlords. South Africa's and the world's biggest diamond miner, De Beers, was funded by baron Nathaniel Mayer Rothschild in 1887, and Cecil Rhodes became the Founding Chairman of the board of directors in 1888. Cecil Rhodes' place was later taken by sir Ernest Oppenheimer, co-founder of the Anglo-American Corporation with J.P. Morgan.
The gold mining industry continued to grow throughout much of the early 20th century, significantly contributing to the tripling of the economic value of what was then known as the Union of South Africa. In particular, revenue from gold exports provided sufficient capital to purchase much-needed machinery and petroleum products to support an expanding manufacturing base.
As of 2007, the South African mining industry employs 493,000 workers. The industry represents 18% of South Africa's $588 billion USD Gross Domestic Product.[9][10]
Coal[edit]
South Africa Coal production (red) and exports (black)
Main article: Coal in South Africa § Mining
South Africa is the world's third largest coal exporter, and much of the country's coal is used for power production. (about 40%)[5] 77% of South Africa's energy needs are provided by coal.
Gold[edit]
South Africa mined gold production, 1940-2011
South Africa accounted for 15% of the world's gold production in 2002[11] and 12% in 2005, though the nation had produced as much as 30% of world output as recently as 1993. Despite declining production, South Africa's gold exports were valued at $3.8 billion USD in 2005.[12] The US Geological Survey estimated in that as of 2002, South Africa held about 50% of the world's gold resources, and 38% of reserves.[11] In July 2018, Mineral Council of South Africa announced, 75% of mines in South Africa are now unprofitable due to decline in gold reserves. [13][14]
Among the nation's gold mines are two of the deepest mines in the world. The East Rand Mine, in Boksburg, extends to a depth of 3,585 metres (11,762 ft). A 4-metre (13 ft) shallower mine is located at TauTona in Carletonville, though plans are in place to begin work on an extension to the TauTona mine, bringing the total depth to over 3,900 metres (12,800 ft) and breaking the current record by 127 feet (39 m).[15] At these depths the temperature of the rocks is 140 °F (60 °C).[16]
The gold in the Witwatersrand Basin area was deposited in ancient river deltas, having been washed down from surrounding gold-rich greenstone belts to the north and west. Rhenium-osmium isotope studies indicates that the gold in those mineral deposits came from unusual three billion year old mantle sourced intrusions known as komatiites present in the greenstone belts.[17] The Vredefort Dome impact which lies within the basin and the nearby Bushveld Igneous Complex are both about a billion years younger than the interpreted age of the gold.[17]
Diamonds[edit]
Ever since the Kimberley diamond strike of 1868, South Africa has been a world leader in diamond production.[citation needed] The primary South African sources of diamonds, including seven large diamond mines around the country, are controlled by the De Beers Consolidated Mines Company. In 2003, De Beers operations accounted for 94% of the nation's total diamond output of 11,900,000 carats (2.38 t) and the 6% diamond operations by JK Minerals Africa . This figure includes both gem stones and industrial diamonds.[18] Diamond production rose in 2005 to over 15,800,000 carats (3.16 t).[12]
Platinum and palladium[edit]
South Africa produces more platinum and similar metals than any other nation.[10] In 2005, 78% of the world's platinum was produced in South Africa, along with 39% of the world's palladium. Over 163,000 kilograms (5,200,000 ozt) of platinum was produced in 2010, generating export revenues of $3.82 billion USD.[12] Palladium is produced in two ways: recovery and mining production.[19] Currently Russia and South Africa are the biggest palladium producers in the world.[20]
Chromium[edit]
Chromium is another leading product of South Africa's mining industry. The metal, used in stainless steel and for a variety of industrial applications, is mined at 10 sites around the country. South Africa's production of chromium accounted for 100% of the world's total production in 2005, and consisted of 7,490,000 metric tons (7,370,000 long tons; 8,260,000 short tons) of material.[12]
Uranium[edit]
South Africa has the second-largest reserves of uranium in the world.[21] The Nuclear Fuels Corporation of South Africa (NUFCOR) started processing uranium as a by-product of gold mining[22] in 1967.[23] Most of the uranium produced as a by-product of gold mining is concentrated in the golf fields of the Witwatersrand area. Uranium is more easily and readily available than gold in South Africa.[24]
There are a number of mining companies that process uranium from mines that they own. Anglo Gold Ashanti,[25] Sibayane Gold Ltd,[26] Harmony Gold Mining Co.,[27] First Uranium, and Peninsula Energy own or control most of the uranium-from-gold mining processing plants in South Africa.
Though uranium production in South Africa showed a decrease from 711t in 2000 to 579t in 2010, in 2011 930t were produced with a forecast of 2,000t by 2020.[28] In 2016, Tasman Pacific Minerals, owned by Peninsula Energy started plans to open the first uranium ore mine, Tasman RSA.[29]
Working conditions[edit]
Conditions on most South African mines are very similar to those elsewhere[30] except for the gold mines where the low geothermal gradient, i.e. the rate at which the temperature goes up with depth, is often as low as 9 °C per kilometre depth (compared with a world average of about 25 °C/km[31]), and this, combined with narrow and very continuous orebodies in hard and competent rocks, makes it possible to mine to depths unattainable elsewhere in the world.
Silica dust is an ever-present potential hazard so that all drilling dust and loose rock has to be wetted down at all times to prevent silicosis, a lethal disease that attacks the lungs. Unfortunately the narrowness of the inclined reefs/orebodies prevents mechanisation except in a very few cases and most work is very labour-intensive. Ventilation requirements to keep working conditions tolerable are huge and a survey of the South African gold mines indicated that the average quantity of ventilating air circulated was some 6 cubic metres per second (210 cu ft/s) per 1000 ton of rock mined per month.[32]
Another serious problem is that of heat. In the deeper mines refrigeration of the intake air is often necessary to keep conditions tolerable and this is now becoming necessary on some platinum mines which, although shallower, have a higher geothermal gradient.[33] Refrigeration is very energy hungry and it is currently a moot point whether ESKOM, the state power company, can supply the necessary power after its recent[when?] problems, which will cut power supplies to 90% of previous levels until at least 2012, when a new powerstation is ready.[34][35]
The South African mining industry is frequently criticized for its poor safety record and high number of fatalities but conditions are improving. Total fatalities were 533 in 1995 and had fallen to 199 in 2006.[36] The overall fatality rate in 2006 was 0.43 per 1,000 per annum but this hides some important differences. The gold mining rate was 0.71, platinum mining was 0.24 and other mining was 0.35. (For comparison, the rate in the Sixties was around 1.5—see any Chamber of Mines Annual of the period). The reason for the difference is quite clear; the gold mines are much deeper and conditions are both more difficult and dangerous than on the shallower platinum mines.
Falls of ground dominated the causes at 72, machinery, transportation and mining accidents caused 70 and the remainder were classed as general.[37] Of the falls of ground, approximately two thirds were on the deep gold mines, a reflection of the extreme pressure at depth and continual movement of the country rock. Amongst the machinery, mining and transportation fatalities were working on grizzlies[clarification needed] without safety belts, working below loose rock in ore passes, getting crushed by that deadly combination of a loco and a ventilation door frame (the clearance between the two is only a few inches) and working on running conveyors, all direct contraventions of safety instructions. Drilling into misfires was also mentioned, a clear example of sloppy and unsafe mining.
It is difficult to see how falls of ground can be eliminated given their frequent unpredictability, which is increasing with depth, and the difficulties in providing continuous roof support as on longwall coal mines due to the violence of a face blast in the hard rock of the gold mines but clearly much can be done to improve training and to instill a sense of safe working practice in the miners, many of whom are relatively inexperienced.
Mine safety received considerable publicity in 2007, particularly after 3,200 workers were temporarily trapped underground at the Elandskraal mine after a compressed air pipe ruptured due to internal corrosion, broke lose and fell into the man-hoisting shaft. The workers were eventually rescued through the rock hoisting shaft after the blasting smoke had cleared. The incident caused South African President Thabo Mbeki to mandate full safety audits for all operating mines. This audit has caused additional facilities to shut down temporarily, including the nation's largest gold mine located at Driefontein.[38]
Rand Rebellion[edit]
The Rand Rebellion was a widespread strike amongst miners in the Witwatersrand area of the Transvaal Province in the former Union of South Africa.
2007 strike[edit]
In 2007 the South African National Union of Mineworkers, which represents the nation's mineworkers, engaged in a series of talks with the Chamber of Mines, an industry group. The meetings also saw the participation of the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration, a body with mediation authority over the dispute. On 27 November 2007, the National Union of Mineworkers announced that South African mineworkers would go on strike to protest at unsafe working conditions.[39] The strike took place on 4 December, and impacted over 240,000 workers at 60 sites across the country, including mines devoted to the production of gold, platinum, and coal.[40][41]
2012 Lonmin strike[edit]
The Lonmin strike was a strike in August 2012 in the Marikana area, close to Rustenburg, South Africa at a mine owned by Lonmin one of the world's largest primary producers of platinum group metals (PGMs). A series of violent confrontations occurred between platinum mine workers on strike and the South African Police Service on Thursday, 16 August 2012, and resulted in the deaths of 34 individuals (30 were miners and 4 protesters), as well as the injury of an additional 78 miners. Occurring in the post-apartheid era, it was the deadliest incident of violence between police and the civilian population in South Africa since the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre which prompted South African President Jacob Zuma to set up an investigation. Gordon Farlam was appointed as the chairperson of a committee. Under the probe, Cyril Ramaphosa testified for lobbying with the Lonmin and SAPS. Ramaphosa also accepted to the commission that massacre could have been avoided if proper precautionary actions had been taken.[42][43]
Jacob Zuma declared a 66-day-long week of mourning.[44]
In 2014, platinum industry workers went on a strike that lasted five months. It was the longest strike in the history of South African mining.[45]
Politics[edit]
There were few parties that advocate to nationalizing the industry, the most major one is Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) that was founded on 2013, and by 2014 elections became the third-largest party in South Africa. The others are:
Black First Land First
Workers and Socialist Party
See also[edit]
African Exploration Mining and Finance Corporation
Asbestos and the law
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "South African mining is in crisis". The Economist. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Africa's new Number One". The Economist. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2013" (PDF). USGS.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "USGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries". minerals.USGS.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "South Africa's coal future looks bright". Platts.com. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ SA replaces India as China's No 3 iron-ore supplier, International: Mining Weekly, 2013
Jump up ^ Mining licences can be revoked – Mantashe, International: Mining Weekly, 2013
Jump up ^ Duxbury, Geo. (1981). David and Goliath: The First War of Independence, 1880-1881. South African National Museum of Military History. ISBN 0-620-05012-8.
Jump up ^ Charlotte Mathews (2007-11-07). "South Africa: Mining Investment Shows Recovery". Business Day (Johannesburg).
^ Jump up to: a b "CIA World Factbook, South Africa". United States Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "United States Geological Survey, 2002 Mineral Industry Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "United States Geological Survey, 2005 Minerals Yearbook: South Africa" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "75% of South African gold mines unprofitable – mineral council". RT International. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
Jump up ^ "World running out of gold & there's no substitute, experts warn". RT International. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
Jump up ^ Naidoo, Brindaveni (15 December 2006). "TauTona to take 'deepest mine' accolade". Creamer Media's Mining Weekly Online. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Two miles underground". Princeton Weekly Bulletin. 13 December 1999. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Kirk, Jason; Joakin Ruiz; John Chesley; Spencer Titley (December 2003). "The Origin of Gold in South Africa" (PDF). American Scientist. 91: 534–531.
Jump up ^ "United States Geological Survey, 2003 Mineral Study, South Africa" (PDF). (211 KiB)
Jump up ^ "NAP - Palladium - Market Overview". Napalladium.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Palladium mine production worldwide by country 2010-2015". Statista.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Power in South Africa". World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ Ackroyd, Bianca. "Uranium mining in the Karoo South Africa's new gold?". Enca.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "AngloGold still on top of uranium deposits". Financial Mail. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Sibanye hoards uranium for deals". Business Day Live. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "New Uranium Mining Projects - South Africa". Wise-uranium.org. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ Kotze, Chantelle. "Uranium-rich South Africa good environment for nuclear plants". Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ CrowleyKev, Kevin Crowley. "Uranium in South Africa's Karoo May Be 10 Times Estimate". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Mining Conditions in South Africa - Mining in Africa". Mining Africa. 2017-01-08. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Geothermal Gradient vs. Tectonic Setting (not a very satisfactory reference but the best I could find) ". UBC.ca. Archived from the original on 16 November 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Economics Dept The platinum supply equation - refrigeration key to ongoing supply levels Archived 3 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [3][dead link]
Jump up ^ [4][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Limited power for mines to 2012". News24.com. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ [5][permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Department of Minerals and Energy, Accident Statistics ". DME.gov.za. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Gold Fields Says Africa's Biggest Gold Mine Halted". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "First-ever industrywide strike to hit South Africa mines". CNN. Retrieved 2007-11-28. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Officials meet to decide planned S.Africa mine strike". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "South African miners to strike on Dec. 4". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-11-28. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Cyril Ramaphosa: The true betrayal". Dailymaverick.co.za. Retrieved 2017-06-17.
Jump up ^ "MARIKANA COMMISSION INQUIRY REPORT" (PDF). The Marikana Commission of Inquiry. October 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-12.
Jump up ^ "President declares week of mourning after Lonmin bloodbath". SowetanLive.co.za. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Leander (24 October 2014). "2014 South African platinum strike: longest wage strike in South Africa". SAHistory.org.za. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
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Mining in South Africa

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Mining in South Sudan

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Mining in Sudan

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Mining in Zimbabwe

values: Mining in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)

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Mining in Somaliland

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Mining in Réunion

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