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Timur
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Turco-Mongol ruler
"Tamerlane", "Tamerlan", and "Taimur" redirect here. For the poem, see Tamerlane (poem). For the play, see Tamburlaine. For people named Tamerlan, see Tamerlan (given name). For other uses, see Timur (disambiguation).
Temür
Amir
A Timurid-era illustration of Timur
Reign
9 April 1370 – 14 February 1405
Coronation
9 April 1370, Balkh[1]
Predecessor
Amir Hussain
Successor
Khalil Sultan
Born
9 April 1336[1]
Kesh, Chagatai Khanate
Died
19 February 1405(1405-02-19) (aged 68)
Otrar, Farab, near Shymkent, Syr Darya
Burial
Gur-e-Amir, Samarkand
Spouse
Saray Mulk Khanum
Chulpan Mulk Agha
Aljaz Turkhan Agha
Tukal Khanum
Dil Shad Agha
Touman Agha
Other consorts
Issue
Detail
Miran Shah
Shahrukh Mirza
Full name
Shuja-ud-din Timur[2]
House
Barlas Timurid
Father
Amir Taraghai
Mother
Tekina Khatun
Religion
Islam
show
v
t
e
Timur's conquests
Central Asia
Balkh
Kath
Urganj
Persia
Fushanj
Herat
Kandahar
Tehran
Soltaniyeh
Isfizar
Zaranj
Tabriz
Maragha
Van
Isfahan
Shiraz (1387)
Shiraz (1393)
Anjudan
Tikrit
Yazd
Baghdad
Tokhtamysh–Timur war
Kondurcha River
Ryazan
Sarai
Shirvan
Astrakhan
Terek River
Caucasus
Tbilisi
Nekresi
Gori
Birtvisi
India
Multan
Delhi
Levant
Aleppo
Damascus
Anatolia
Ankara
Smyrna
Timur[3] (Persian: تیمور Temūr, Chagatai: Temür; 9 April 1336 – 18 February 1405), historically known as Amir Timur and Tamerlane[4] (Persian: تيمور لنگ Temūr(-i) Lang, "Timur the Lame"), was a Turco-Mongol conqueror. As the founder of the Timurid Empire in Persia and Central Asia, he became the first ruler in the Timurid dynasty.[5] According to John Joseph Saunders, Timur was "the product of an islamized and iranized society", and not steppe nomadic.[6]
Born into the Barlas confederation in Transoxiana (in modern-day Uzbekistan) on 9 April 1336, Timur gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that base, he led military campaigns across Western, South and Central Asia, the Caucasus and southern Russia, and emerged as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, and the declining Delhi Sultanate.[7] From these conquests, he founded the Timurid Empire, but this empire fragmented shortly after his death.
Timur was the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe, and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Gunpowder Empires in the 16th and 17th centuries.[8][9]:1 Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan (died 1227). According to Beatrice Forbes Manz, "in his formal correspondence Temur continued throughout his life to portray himself as the restorer of Chinggisid rights. He justified his Iranian, Mamluk, and Ottoman campaigns as a re-imposition of legitimate Mongol control over lands taken by usurpers."[10] To legitimize his conquests, Timur relied on Islamic symbols and language, referred to himself as the "Sword of Islam", and patronized educational and religious institutions. He converted nearly all the Borjigin leaders to Islam during his lifetime. Timur decisively defeated the Christian Knights Hospitaller at the Siege of Smyrna, styling himself a ghazi.[11]:91 By the end of his reign, Timur had gained complete control over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde, and even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty in China.
Timur's armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and were feared throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe,[11] sizable parts of which his campaigns laid to waste.[12] Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of 17 million people, amounting to about 5% of the world population at the time.[13][14]
He was the grandfather of the Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Babur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled parts of South Asia for over three centuries, from 1526 until 1857.[15][16] Timur is considered as a great patron of art and architecture, as he interacted with intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun and Hafiz-i Abru.[11]:341–2
Contents
1 Ancestry
2 Early life
3 Personality
4 Military leader
5 Rise to power
6 Legitimization of Timur's rule
7 Period of expansion
8 Conquest of Persia
8.1 Tokhtamysh–Timur war
8.2 Ismailis
9 Campaign against the Tughlaq Dynasty
9.1 Capture of Delhi (1398)
10 Campaigns in the Levant
11 Attempts to attack the Ming dynasty
12 Death
13 Succession
14 Exchanges with Europe
15 Legacy
15.1 Historical sources
15.1.1 Malfuzat-i Timuri
15.2 European views
15.3 Exhumation and alleged curse
15.4 In the arts
16 Gallery
17 Consorts
18 Descendants of Timur
18.1 Sons of Timur
18.2 Daughters of Timur
18.3 Sons of Jahangir
18.4 Sons of Umar Shaikh Mirza I
18.5 Sons of Miran Shah
18.6 Sons of Shahrukh Mirza
19 See also
20 Notes
21 References
22 External links
Ancestry
Genealogical relationship between Timur and Genghis Khan
Through his father, Timur claimed to be a descendant of Tumanay Khan, a male-line ancestor he shared in common with Genghis Khan.[17] Tuminai's great-great grandson Karachar Noyan (1165–1242/54) was a minister for the Emperor and was eventually transferred to assist his second son Chagatai in the governorship of Transoxiana.[18][19] Though there are not many mentions of Karachar in 13th and 14th century records, later Timurid sources greatly emphasised his role in the early history of the Mongol Empire.[20] These histories also state that Genghis Khan later "established the bond of fatherhood and sonship" by marrying Chagatai's daughter to Karachar.[21] Through his descent from this marriage, Timur claimed kinship with the Chagatai Khans.
The origins of Timur's mother, Tekina Khatun are less clear. The Zafarnama merely states her name without giving any information regarding her background. Writing in 1403 Jean, Archbishop of Sultaniyya claimed that she was of lowly origins.[22] The Mu'izz al-Ansab, written decades later say that she was related to the Yasa'uri tribe, whose lands bordered that of the Barlas.[23] Ibn Khaldun recounted that Timur himself described to him his mother's descent from the legendary Persian hero Manuchehr.[24] Ibn Arabshah suggested that she was a descendant of Genghis Khan.[25] The 18th century Books of Timur identify her as the daughter of 'Sadr al-Sharia', believed to be referring to the Hanafi scholar Ubayd Allah al-Mahbubi of Bukhara.[26]
Early life
Emir Timur feasts in the gardens of Samarkand.
Timur was born in Transoxiana near the city of Kesh (modern Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan) some 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Samarkand, part of what was then the Chagatai Khanate.[27] His father, Taraghai, was a minor noble of the Barlas,[27] a Mongolian tribe[28][29] that had been turkified in many aspects.[30][31][32] Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz believes that Timur may have later understated the social position of his father so as to make his own successes appear more remarkable. She states that though he is not believed to be especially powerful, Taraghai was reasonalbly wealthy and influential.[33] This is shown by Timur returning to his birthplace following the death of Taraghai in 1360, suggesting concern over his estate.[34] He is described by Arabshah as a magnate in the court of Amir Husayn Qara'unas.[25] In addition to this the father of the great Amir Hamid Kereyid of Moghulistan is stated as a friend of Taraghai's.[35]
According to Gérard Chaliand, Timur was a Muslim,[36] and he saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir.[36] Though not a Borjigid or a descendent of Genghis Khan,[37] he clearly sought to invoke the legacy of Genghis Khan's conquests during his lifetime.[38]
His name Temur means "Iron" in the Chaghatay language, Timur's mother-tongue (cf. Uzbek Temir, Turkish Demir).
Later Timurid dynastic histories claim that he was born on 8 April 1336, but most sources from his lifetime give ages that are consistent with a birthdate in the late 1320s. Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz suspects the 1336 date was designed to tie Timur to the legacy of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, the last ruler of the Ilkhanate descended from Hulagu Khan, who died in that year.[39]
At the age of eight or nine, Timur and his mother and brothers were carried as prisoners to Samarkand by an invading Mongol army. In his childhood, Timur and a small band of followers raided travelers for goods, especially animals such as sheep, horses, and cattle.[39]:116 Around 1363, it is believed that Timur tried to steal a sheep from a shepherd but was shot by two arrows, one in his right leg and another in his right hand, where he lost two fingers. Both injuries crippled him for life. Some believe that Timur suffered his crippling injuries while serving as a mercenary to the khan of Sistan in Khorasan in what is today the Dashti Margo in southwest Afghanistan. Timur's injuries have given him the names of Timur the Lame and Tamerlane by Europeans.[11]:31
Timur was a Muslim, possibly belonging to the Naqshbandi school of Sufism, which was influential in Transoxiana.[40] However, his chief official religious counsellor and adviser was the Hanafi scholar 'Abdu 'l-Jabbar Khwarazmi. In Tirmidh, he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Baraka, a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur-e-Amir.[41][42][43] Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahl al-Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his "pro-Alid" stance. Despite this, Timur was noted for attacking the Shia with Sunni apologism, while at other times he attacked Sunnis on religious ground as well.[44] In contrast, Timur held the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar in high regard for attacking the Ismailis at Alamut, while Timur's own attack on Ismailis at Anjudan was equally brutal.[44]
Personality
Timur facial reconstruction from skull
Timur is regarded as a military genius and as a brilliant tactician with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent – not only intuitively but also intellectually.[9]:16 In Samarkand and his many travels, Timur, under the guidance of distinguished scholars, was able to learn the Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish languages[11]:9 (according to Ahmad ibn Arabshah, Timur could not speak Arabic).[45] More importantly, Timur was characterized as an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco-Mongolian heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the law and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims.[11] Timur was a learned king, and enjoyed the company of scholars; he was tolerant and generous to them. He was a contemporary of the Persian poet Hafez, and a story of their meeting explains that Timur summoned Hafiz, who had written a ghazal with the following verse:
For the black mole on thy cheek
I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.
Timur upbraided him for this verse and said, "By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered the greater part of the world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara, my capitals and residences; and you, pitiful creature, would exchange these two cities for a mole." Hafez, undaunted, replied, "It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced, as you see, to my present state of poverty." It is reported that the King was pleased by the witty answer and the poet departed with magnificent gifts.[46][47]
Timur used Persian expressions in his conversations often, and his motto was the Persian phrase rāstī rustī (راستی رستی, meaning "truth is safety" or "veritas salus").[45]
Military leader
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About 1360, Timur gained prominence as a military leader whose troops were mostly Turkic tribesmen of the region.[36] He took part in campaigns in Transoxiana with the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate. Allying himself both in cause and by family connection with Qazaghan, the dethroner and destroyer of Volga Bulgaria, he invaded Khorasan[48] at the head of a thousand horsemen. This was the second military expedition that he led, and its success led to further operations, among them the subjugation of Khwarezm and Urgench.
Following Qazaghan's murder, disputes arose among the many claimants to sovereign power. Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar, the Khan of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, another descendant of Genghis Khan, invaded, interrupting this infighting. Timur was sent to negotiate with the invader but joined with him instead and was rewarded with Transoxania. At about this time, his father died and Timur also became chief of the Berlas. Tughlugh then attempted to set his son Ilyas Khoja over Transoxania, but Timur repelled this invasion with a smaller force.[48]
Rise to power
Timur commanding the Siege of Balkh
It was in this period that Timur reduced the Chagatai khans to the position of figureheads while he ruled in their name. Also during this period, Timur and his brother-in-law Amir Husayn, who were at first fellow fugitives and wanderers in joint adventures, became rivals and antagonists. The relationship between them began to become strained after Husayn abandoned efforts to carry out Timur's orders to finish off Ilya Khoja (former governor of Mawarannah) close to Tishnet.[11]:40
Timur began to gain a following of people in Balkh, consisting of merchants, fellow tribesmen, Muslim clergy, aristocracy and agricultural workers, because of his kindness in sharing his belongings with them. This contrasted Timur's behavior with that of Husayn, who alienated these people, took many possessions from them via his heavy tax laws and selfishly spent the tax money building elaborate structures.[11]:41–2 Around 1370, Husayn surrendered to Timur and was later assassinated, which allowed Timur to be formally proclaimed sovereign at Balkh. He married Husayn's wife Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan, allowing him to become imperial ruler of the Chaghatay tribe.[11]
One day Aksak Temür spoke thusly:
"Khan Züdei (in China) rules over the city. We now number fifty to sixty men, so let us elect a leader." So they drove a stake into the ground and said: "We shall run thither and he among us who is the first to reach the stake, may he become our leader". So they ran and Aksak Timur, as he was lame, lagged behind, but before the others reached the stake he threw his cap onto it. Those who arrived first said: "We are the leaders." ["But,"] Aksak Timur said: "My head came in first, I am the leader." Meanwhile, an old man arrived and said: "The leadership should belong to Aksak Timur; your feet have arrived but, before then, his head reached the goal." So they made Aksak Timur their prince.[49][50]
Legitimization of Timur's rule
Map of the Timurid Empire
Timur's Turco-Mongolian heritage provided opportunities and challenges as he sought to rule the Mongol Empire and the Muslim world. According to the Mongol traditions, Timur could not claim the title of khan or rule the Mongol Empire because he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. Therefore, Timur set up a puppet Chaghatay Khan, Suyurghatmish, as the nominal ruler of Balkh as he pretended to act as a "protector of the member of a Chinggisid line, that of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi".[51]
As a result, Timur never used the title of khan because the name khan could only be used by those who come from the same lineage as Genghis Khan himself. Timur instead used the title of amir meaning general, and acting in the name of the Chagatai ruler of Transoxania.[39]:106
To reinforce his position in the Mongol Empire, Timur managed to acquire the royal title of son-in-law when he married a princess of Chinggisid descent.[9]:14
Likewise, Timur could not claim the supreme title of the Islamic world, caliph, because the "office was limited to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad". Therefore, Timur reacted to the challenge by creating a myth and image of himself as a "supernatural personal power" ordained by God.[51] Since Timur had a successful career as a conqueror, it was easy to justify his rule as ordained and favored by God since no ordinary man could be a possessor of such good fortune that resistance would be seen as opposing the will of God. Moreover, the Islamic notion that military and political success was the result of Allah's favor had long been successfully exploited by earlier rulers. Therefore, Timur's assertions would not have seemed unbelievable to fellow Islamic people.
Period of expansion
Timur spent the next 35 years in various wars and expeditions. He not only consolidated his rule at home by the subjugation of his foes, but sought extension of territory by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potentates. His conquests to the west and northwest led him to the lands near the Caspian Sea and to the banks of the Ural and the Volga. Conquests in the south and south-West encompassed almost every province in Persia, including Baghdad, Karbala and Northern Iraq.
One of the most formidable of Timur's opponents was another Mongol ruler, a descendant of Genghis Khan named Tokhtamysh. After having been a refugee in Timur's court, Tokhtamysh became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde. After his accession, he quarreled with Timur over the possession of Khwarizm and Azerbaijan. However, Timur still supported him against the Russians and in 1382 Tokhtamysh invaded the Muscovite dominion and burned Moscow.[52]
In 1395, Tamerlane reached the frontier of Principality of Ryazan, took Elets and advancing towards Moscow came near the banks of the Don River. Great Prince Vasily I of Moscow went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the Oka River. The clergy brought the famed Theotokos of Vladimir icon from Vladimir to Moscow. Along the way people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” Suddenly, Tamerlane's armies retreated. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian land from Tamerlane on August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established.[53]
Conquest of Persia
Timur besieges the historic city of Urganj.
Timur orders campaign against Georgia.
Emir Timur's army attacks the survivors of the town of Nerges, in Georgia, in the spring of 1396.
After the death of Abu Sa'id, ruler of the Ilkhanate, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in Persia. In the end, Persia was split amongst the Muzaffarids, Kartids, Eretnids, Chobanids, Injuids, Jalayirids, and Sarbadars. In 1383, Timur started his lengthy military conquest of Persia, though he already ruled over much of Persian Khorasan by 1381, after Khwaja Mas'ud, of the Sarbadar dynasty surrendered. Timur began his Persian campaign with Herat, capital of the Kartid dynasty. When Herat did not surrender he reduced the city to rubble and massacred most of its citizens; it remained in ruins until Shahrukh Mirza ordered its reconstruction.[54] Timur then sent a General to capture rebellious Kandahar. With the capture of Herat the Kartid kingdom surrendered and became vassals of Timur; it would later be annexed outright less than a decade later in 1389 by Timur's son Miran Shah.
Timur then headed west to capture the Zagros Mountains, passing through Mazandaran. During his travel through the north of Persia, he captured the then town of Tehran, which surrendered and was thus treated mercifully. He laid siege to Soltaniyeh in 1384. Khorasan revolted one year later, so Timur destroyed Isfizar, and the prisoners were cemented into the walls alive. The next year the kingdom of Sistan, under the Mihrabanid dynasty, was ravaged, and its capital at Zaranj was destroyed. Timur then returned to his capital of Samarkand, where he began planning for his Georgian campaign and Golden Horde invasion. In 1386, Timur passed through Mazandaran as he had when trying to capture the Zagros. He went near the city of Soltaniyeh, which he had previously captured but instead turned north and captured Tabriz with little resistance, along with Maragha. He ordered heavy taxation of the people, which was collected by Adil Aqa, who was also given control over Soltaniyeh. Adil was later executed because Timur suspected him of corruption.
Timur then went north to begin his Georgian and Golden Horde campaigns, pausing his full-scale invasion of Persia. When he returned, he found his generals had done well in protecting the cities and lands he had conquered in Persia. Though many rebelled, and his son Miran Shah, who may have been regent, was forced to annex rebellious vassal dynasties, his holdings remained. So he proceeded to capture the rest of Persia, specifically the two major southern cities of Isfahan and Shiraz. When he arrived with his army at Isfahan in 1387, the city immediately surrendered; he treated it with relative mercy as he normally did with cities that surrendered (unlike Herat). However, after Isfahan revolted against Timur's taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers, he ordered the massacre of the city's citizens; the death toll is reckoned at between 100,000 and 200,000.[55] An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers constructed of about 1,500 heads each.[56] This has been described as a "systematic use of terror against towns...an integral element of Tamerlane's strategic element", which he viewed as preventing bloodshed by discouraging resistance. His massacres were selective and he spared the artistic and educated.[55] This would later influence the next great Persian conqueror: Nader Shah.
Timur then began a five-year campaign to the west in 1392, attacking Persian Kurdistan. In 1393, Shiraz was captured after surrendering, and the Muzaffarids became vassals of Timur, though prince Shah Mansur rebelled but was defeated, and the Muzafarids were annexed. Shortly after Georgia was devastated so that the Golden Horde could not use it to threaten northern Iran. In the same year, Timur caught Baghdad by surprise in August by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz. Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur’s envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned. Ahmad was unpopular but got some dangerous help from Qara Yusuf of the Kara Koyunlu; he fled again in 1399, this time to the Ottomans.
Tokhtamysh–Timur war
In the meantime, Tokhtamysh, now khan of the Golden Horde, turned against his patron and in 1385 invaded Azerbaijan. The inevitable response by Timur resulted in the Tokhtamysh–Timur war. In the initial stage of the war, Timur won a victory at the Battle of the Kondurcha River. After the battle Tokhtamysh and some of his army were allowed to escape. After Tokhtamysh's initial defeat, Timur invaded Muscovy to the north of Tokhtamysh's holdings. Timur's army burned Ryazan and advanced on Moscow. He was pulled away before reaching the Oka River by Tokhtamysh's renewed campaign in the south.[57]
In the first phase of the conflict with Tokhtamysh, Timur led an army of over 100,000 men north for more than 700 miles into the steppe. He then rode west about 1,000 miles advancing in a front more than 10 miles wide. During this advance, Timur's army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers. It was then that Tokhtamysh's army was boxed in against the east bank of the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed at the Battle of the Kondurcha River, in 1391.
In the second phase of the conflict, Timur took a different route against the enemy by invading the realm of Tokhtamysh via the Caucasus region. In 1395, Timur defeated Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River, concluding the struggle between the two monarchs. Tokhtamysh was unable to restore his power or prestige, and he was killed about a decade later in the area of present-day Tyumen. During the course of Timur's campaigns, his army destroyed Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, and Astrakhan, subsequently disrupting the Golden Horde's Silk Road. The Golden Horde no longer held power after their losses to Timur.
Ismailis
In May 1393, Timur's army invaded the Anjudan, crippling the Ismaili village only a year after his assault on the Ismailis in Mazandaran. The village was prepared for the attack, evidenced by its fortress and system of underground tunnels. Undeterred, Timur's soldiers flooded the tunnels by cutting into a channel overhead. Timur's reasons for attacking this village are not yet well understood. However, it has been suggested that his religious persuasions and view of himself as an executor of divine will may have contributed to his motivations.[58] The Persian historian Khwandamir explains that an Ismaili presence was growing more politically powerful in Persian Iraq. A group of locals in the region was dissatisfied with this and, Khwandamir writes, these locals assembled and brought up their complaint with Timur, possibly provoking his attack on the Ismailis there.[58]
Campaign against the Tughlaq Dynasty
Timur defeats the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmud Tughluq, in the winter of 1397–1398, painting dated 1595–1600.
In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq Dynasty. He was opposed by Ahirs and faced some reversals from the Jats, but the Sultanate at Delhi did nothing to stop him.[59][60] After crossing the Indus river on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants.[61] Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.[62]
Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now in Pakistan) on 24 September 1398. His invasion did not go unopposed and he encountered resistance from the Governor of Meerut during the march to Delhi. Timur was still able to continue his approach to Delhi, arriving in 1398, to fight the armies of Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, which had already been weakened by a succession struggle within the royal family.
Capture of Delhi (1398)
Delhi after sack of Timur Lang, 1398
The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and the army of Mallu Iqbal[63] had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks.[11]:267 As his Tatar forces were afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants howling in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in the forces of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, securing an easy victory. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of his forces. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. Before the battle for Delhi, Timur executed 100,000 captives.[16]
The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur's greatest victories, arguably surpassing the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan because of the harsh conditions of the journey and the achievement of taking down one of the richest cities at the time. After Delhi fell to Timur's army, uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic-Mongols began to occur, causing a retaliatory bloody massacre within the city walls. After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi, it was said that the city reeked of the decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds by Timur's soldiers. Timur's invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India, and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century.[11]:269–274
Campaigns in the Levant
Timur defeating the Mamluk Sultan Nasir-ad-Din Faraj of Egypt
Bayezid I being held captive by Timur
Before the end of 1399, Timur started a war with Bayezid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Nasir-ad-Din Faraj. Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim rulers in Anatolia. As Timur claimed sovereignty over the Turkmen rulers, they took refuge behind him.
In 1400, Timur invaded Christian Armenia and Georgia. Of the surviving population, more than 60,000 of the local people were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated.[64]
Then Timur turned his attention to Syria, sacking Aleppo[65][66] and Damascus.[67][68][69][70] The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. Timur cited the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I and the killing of Husayn ibn Ali by Yazid I as the reason for his massacre of the inhabitants of Damascus.
Timur invaded Baghdad in June 1401. After the capture of the city, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him. When they ran out of men to kill, many warriors killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign, and when they ran out of prisoners to kill, many resorted to beheading their own wives.[71]
In the meantime, years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid. Finally, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the twelve-year Ottoman Interregnum period. Timur's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority. Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors, illustrating again Timur's interest with Genghizid legitimacy.
After the Ankara victory, Timur's army ravaged Western Anatolia, with Muslim writers complaining that the Timurid army acted more like a horde of savages than that of a civilized conqueror.[citation needed] But Timur did besiege and take the city of Smyrna, a stronghold of the Christian Knights Hospitalers, thus he referred to himself as ghazi or "Warrior of Islam". A mass beheading was carried out in Smyrna by Timur's soldiers.[72][73][74][75]
Timur was furious with the Genoese and Venetians, as their ships ferried the Ottoman army to safety in Thrace. As Lord Kinross reported in The Ottoman Centuries, the Italians preferred the enemy they could handle to the one they could not.
Shakh-i Zindeh mosque, Samarkand
While Timur invaded Anatolia, Qara Yusuf assaulted Baghdad and captured it in 1402. Timur returned to Persia from Anatolia and sent his grandson Abu Bakr ibn Miran Shah to reconquer Baghdad, which he proceeded to do. Timur then spent some time in Ardabil, where he gave Ali Safavi, leader of the Safaviyya, a number of captives. Subsequently, he marched to Khorasan and then to Samarkhand, where he spent nine months celebrating and preparing to invade Mongolia and China.[76]
He ruled over an empire that, in modern times, extends from southeastern Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, through Central Asia encompassing part of Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, and even approached Kashgar in China. The conquests of Timur are claimed to have caused the deaths of up to 17 million people, an assertion impossible to verify.[77]
Of Timur's four sons, two (Jahangir and Umar Shaikh) predeceased him. His third son, Miran Shah, died soon after Timur, leaving the youngest son, Shah Rukh. Although his designated successor was his grandson Pir Muhammad b. Jahangir, Timur was ultimately succeeded in power by his son Shah Rukh. His most illustrious descendant Babur founded the Islamic Mughal Empire and ruled over most of Afghanistan and North India. Babur's descendants Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, expanded the Mughal Empire to most of the Indian subcontinent.
Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo's embassy, states that, after Timur died, his body "was embalmed with musk and rose water, wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried". His tomb, the Gur-e Amir, still stands in Samarkand, though it has been heavily restored in recent years.
Attempts to attack the Ming dynasty
Timur had aligned himself with the remnants of the Yuan dynasty in his attempts to conquer Ming China.
The fortress at Jiayu Pass was strengthened due to fear of an invasion by Timur.[78]
By 1368, Han Chinese forces had driven the Mongols out of China. The first of the new Ming dynasty's emperors, the Hongwu Emperor, and his son, the Yongle Emperor, produced tributary states of many Central Asian countries. The suzerain-vassal relationship between Ming empire and Timurid existed for a long time. In 1394, Hongwu's ambassadors eventually presented Timur with a letter addressing him as a subject. He had the ambassadors Fu An, Guo Ji, and Liu Wei detained.[79] Neither Hongwu's next ambassador, Chen Dewen (1397), nor the delegation announcing the accession of the Yongle Emperor fared any better.[79]
Timur eventually planned to invade China. To this end Timur made an alliance with surviving Mongol tribes based in Mongolia and prepared all the way to Bukhara. Engke Khan sent his grandson Öljei Temür Khan, also known as "Buyanshir Khan" after he converted to Islam while at the court of Timur in Samarkand.[80]
Death
Timur's mausoleum is located in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
Timur preferred to fight his battles in the spring. However, he died en route during an uncharacteristic winter campaign. In December 1404, Timur began military campaigns against Ming China and detained a Ming envoy. He suffered illness while encamped on the farther side of the Syr Daria and died at Farab on February 17, 1405,[81] before ever reaching the Chinese border.[82] After his death the Ming envoys such as Fu An and the remaining entourage were released[79] by his grandson Khalil Sultan.
Timur was buried in Gur-i Amir, his mausoleum in Samarkand.
Succession
Main article: Timurid Empire
The Timurid Empire at Timur's death in 1405
Just before his death, Timur designated his grandson Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir as his successor. However, his other descendants did not abide by this wish, and spent the next fifteen years engaged in violent infighting. His son Shahrukh Mirza and grandson Khalil Sultan struggled for control until Shahrukh won.
Exchanges with Europe
Main article: Timurid relations with Europe
Letter of Timur to Charles VI of France, 1402, a witness to Timurid relations with Europe. Archives Nationales, Paris.
Timur had numerous epistolary and diplomatic exchanges with various European states, especially Spain and France. Relations between the court of Henry III of Castile and that of Timur played an important part in medieval Castilian diplomacy. In 1402, the time of the Battle of Ankara, two Spanish ambassadors were already with Timur: Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos. Later, Timur sent to the court of the Kingdom of León and Castile a Chagatai ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi with letters and gifts.
In return, Henry III of Castile sent a famous embassy to Timur's court in Samarkand in 1403–06, led by Ruy González de Clavijo, with two other ambassadors, Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar. On their return, Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Castile "as his very own son".
According to Clavijo, Timur's good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the "lord of Cathay" (i.e., the Yongle Emperor), the Chinese ruler. Clavijo's visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay (China), which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo.
The French archives preserve:
A 30 July 1402 letter from Timur to Charles VI of France, suggesting that he send traders to Asia. It is written in Persian.[83]
A May 1403 letter. This is a Latin transcription of a letter from Timur to Charles VI, and another from Miran Shah, his son, to the Christian princes, announcing their victory over Bayezid I at Smyrna.[84]
A copy has been kept of the answer of Charles VI to Timur, dated 15 June 1403.[85]
Legacy
Inside the mausoleum – deep niches and diverse muqarnas decorate the inside of the Gur-e Amir.
Timur's legacy is a mixed one. While Central Asia blossomed under his reign, other places, such as Baghdad, Damascus, Delhi and other Arab, Georgian, Persian, and Indian cities were sacked and destroyed and their populations massacred. He was responsible for the effective destruction of the Nestorian Christian Church of the East in much of Asia. Thus, while Timur still retains a positive image in Muslim Central Asia, he is vilified by many in Arabia, Iraq, Persia, and India, where some of his greatest atrocities were carried out. However, Ibn Khaldun praises Timur for having unified much of the Muslim world when other conquerors of the time could not.[86] The next great conqueror of the Middle East, Nader Shah, was greatly influenced by Timur and almost re-enacted Timur's conquests and battle strategies in his own campaigns. Like Timur, Nader Shah conquered most of Caucasia, Persia, and Central Asia along with also sacking Delhi.
Timur's short-lived empire also melded the Turko-Persian tradition in Transoxiana, and in most of the territories that he incorporated into his fiefdom, Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture (diwan), regardless of ethnicity.[87] In addition, during his reign, some contributions to Turkic literature were penned, with Turkic cultural influence expanding and flourishing as a result. A literary form of Chagatai Turkic came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language.[88]
Emir Timur and his forces advance against the Golden Horde, Khan Tokhtamysh.
Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle.[89]
Timur became a relatively popular figure in Europe for centuries after his death, mainly because of his victory over the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid. The Ottoman armies were at the time invading Eastern Europe and Timur was ironically seen as an ally.
Timur has now been officially recognized as a national hero in Uzbekistan. His monument in Tashkent now occupies the place where Karl Marx's statue once stood.
Muhammad Iqbal, a philosopher, poet and politician in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement,[90][better source needed] composed a notable poem entitled Dream of Timur, the poem itself was inspired by a prayer of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II:[citation needed]
The Sharif of the Hijaz suffers due to the divisive sectarian schisms of his faith, And lo! that young Tatar (Timur) has boldly re-envisioned magnanimous victories of overwhelming conquest.
In 1794, Sake Dean Mahomed published his travel book, The Travels of Dean Mahomet. The book begins with the praise of Genghis Khan, Timur, and particularly the first Mughal emperor, Babur. He also gives important details on the then incumbent Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
Historical sources
Ahmad ibn Arabshah's work on the Life of Timur
The earliest known history of his reign was Nizam ad-Din Shami's Zafarnama, which was written during Timur's lifetime. Between 1424 and 1428, Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi wrote a second Zafarnama drawing heavily on Shami's earlier work. Ahmad ibn Arabshah wrote a much less favorable history in Arabic. Arabshah's history was translated into Latin by the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius in 1636.
As Timurid-sponsored histories, the two Zafarnamas present a dramatically different picture from Arabshah's chronicle. William Jones remarked that the former presented Timur as a "liberal, benevolent and illustrious prince" while the latter painted him as "deformed and impious, of a low birth and detestable principles".[citation needed]
Malfuzat-i Timuri
The Malfuzat-i Timurī and the appended Tuzūk-i Tīmūrī, supposedly Timur's own autobiography, are almost certainly 17th-century fabrications.[16][91] The scholar Abu Taleb Hosayni presented the texts to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, a distant descendant of Timur, in 1637–38, supposedly after discovering the Chagatai language originals in the library of a Yemeni ruler. Due to the distance between Yemen and Timur's base in Transoxiana and the lack of any other evidence of the originals, most historians consider the story highly implausible, and suspect Hosayni of inventing both the text and its origin story.[91]
European views
Timur arguably had a significant impact on the Renaissance culture and early modern Europe.[92] His achievements both fascinated and horrified Europeans from the fifteenth century to the early nineteenth century.
European views of Timur were mixed throughout the fifteenth century, with some European countries calling him an ally and others seeing him as a threat to Europe because of his rapid expansion and brutality.[93]:341
When Timur captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid at Ankara, he was often praised and seen as a trusted ally by European rulers, such as Charles VI of France and Henry IV of England, because they believed he was saving Christianity from the Turkish Empire in the Middle East. Those two kings also praised him because his victory at Ankara allowed Christian merchants to remain in the Middle East and allowed for their safe return home to both France and England. Timur was also praised because it was believed that he helped restore the right of passage for Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land.[93]:341–44
Other Europeans viewed Timur as a barbaric enemy who presented a threat to both European culture and the religion of Christianity. His rise to power moved many leaders, such as Henry III of Castile, to send embassies to Samarkand to scout out Timur, learn about his people, make alliances with him, and try to convince him to convert to Christianity in order to avoid war.[93]:348–49
In the introduction to a 1723 translation of Yazdi's Zafarnama, the translator wrote:[94]
[M. Petis de la Croix] tells us, that there are calumnies and impostures, which have been published by authors of romances, and Turkish writers who were his enemies, and envious at his glory: among whom is Ahmed Bin Arabschah...As Timur-Bec had conquered the Turks and Arabians of Syria, and had even taken the Sultan Bajazet prisoner, it is no wonder that he has been misrepresented by the historians of those nations, who, in despite of truth, and against the dignity of history, have fallen into great excesses on this subject.
Exhumation and alleged curse
Statue of Timur
Timur's body was exhumed from his tomb on 19 June 1941 and his remains examined by the Soviet anthropologist Mikhail M. Gerasimov, Lev V. Oshanin and V. Ia. Zezenkova. It was determined that Timur was a tall and broad-chested man with strong cheek bones. At 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 meters), Timur was tall for his era. The examinations confirmed that Timur was lame and had a withered right arm due to his injuries. His right thighbone had knitted together with his kneecap, and the configuration of the knee joint suggests that he had kept his leg bent at all times and therefore would have had a pronounced limp.[95][96] Gerasimov reconstructed the likeness of Timur from his skull and found that Timur's facial characteristics displayed Mongoloid features with some Caucasoid admixture. Oshanin also concluded that Timur's cranium showed predominately the characteristics of a South Siberian Mongoloid type.[96]
It is alleged that Timur's tomb was inscribed with the words, "When I rise from the dead, the world shall tremble." It is also said that when Gerasimov exhumed the body, an additional inscription inside the casket was found, which read, "Whomsoever opens my tomb shall unleash an invader more terrible than I."[97] In any case, three days after Gerasimov began the exhumation, Adolf Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the largest military invasion of all time, upon the Soviet Union.[98] Timur was re-buried with full Islamic ritual in November 1942 just before the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad.[99]
In the arts
Tamburlaine the Great, Parts I and II (English, 1563–1594): play by Christopher Marlowe
Tamerlane (1701): play by Nicholas Rowe (English)
Tamerlano (1724): opera by George Frideric Handel, in Italian, based on the 1675 play Tamerlan ou la mort de Bajazet by Jacques Pradon.
Bajazet (1735): opera by Antonio Vivaldi, portrays the capture of Bayezid I by Timur
Il gran Tamerlano (1772): opera by Josef Mysliveček that also portrays the capture of Bayezid I by Timur
Tamerlane: first published poem of Edgar Allan Poe (American, 1809–1849).
Timur is the deposed, blind former King of Tartary and father of the protagonist Calaf in the opera Turandot (1924) by Giacomo Puccini, libretto by Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni.
Tamerlane (1928): historical novel by Harold Lamb.
Timour appears in the story Lord of Samarkand by Robert E. Howard.
Tamerlan: novel by Colombian writer Enrique Serrano in Spanish[100]
Tamburlaine: Shadow of God: a BBC Radio 3 play by John Fletcher, broadcast 2008, is a fictitious account of an encounter between Tamburlaine, Ibn Khaldun, and Hafez.
Gallery
Geometric courtyard surrounding the tomb showing the Iwan, and dome.
View of the Registan.
Timurid Mosque in Herat.
Goharshad Mosque, Timurid architecture
Green Mosque (Balkh) is a Timurid mosque that inspired Shah Jahan.
Bibi-Khanym Mosque
Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, a prime example of Timurid architecture.
Consorts
Timur had forty-three consorts:
Turmish Agha, mother of Jahangir Mirza, Jahanshah Mirza and Aka Begi;
Oljay Turkhan Agha (m. 1357/58), daughter of Amir Mashlah and granddaughter of Amir Qazaghan;
Saray Mulk Khanum (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Qazan Khan;
Islam Agha (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Amir Bayan Salduz;
Ulus Agha (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Amir Khizr Yasuri;
Dilshad Agha (m. 1374), daughter of Shams ed-Din and his wife Bujan Agha;
Touman Agha (m. 1377), daughter of Amir Musa and his wife Arzu Mulk Agha, daughter of Amir Bayezid Jalayir;
Chulpan Mulk Agha, daughter of Haji Beg of Jetah;
Tukal Khanum (m. 1395), daughter of Mongol Khan Khizr Khawaja Oglan;
Tolun Agha, concubine, and mother of Umar Shaikh Mirza I;
Mengli Agha, concubine, and mother of Miran Shah ibn Timur;
Toghay Turkhan Agha, lady from the Kara Khitai, widow of Amir Husain, and mother of Shahrukh Mirza ibn Timur;
Tughdi Bey Agha, daughter of Aq Sufi Qongirat;
Sultan Aray Agha, a Nukuz lady;
Malikanshah Agha, a Filuni lady;
Khand Malik Agha, mother of Ibrahim Mirza;
Sultan Agha, mother of a son who died in infancy;
His other wives and concubines included: Dawlat Tarkan Agha, Burhan Agha, Jani Beg Agha, Tini Beg Agha, Durr Sultan Agha, Munduz Agha, Bakht Sultan Agha, Nowruz Agha, Jahan Bakht Agha, Nigar Agha, Ruhparwar Agha, Dil Beg Agha, Dilshad Agha, Murad Beg Agha, Piruzbakht Agha, Khoshkeldi Agha, Dilkhosh Agha, Barat Bey Agha, Sevinch Malik Agha, Arzu Bey Agha, Yadgar Sultan Agha, Khudadad Agha, Bakht Nigar Agha, Qutlu Bey Agha, and another Nigar Agha.
Descendants of Timur
Sons of Timur
Jahangir Mirza ibn Timur – with Turmish Agha;
Umar Shaikh Mirza I – with Tolun Agha;
Miran Shah ibn Timur – with Mengli Agha;
Shahrukh Mirza ibn Timur – with Toghay Turkhan Agha.
Daughters of Timur
Aka Begi, married to Mohammad Bey, son of Amir Musa – with Turmish Agha;
unknown, married to Solyman Mirza – mother unknown;
unknown, married to Cumaleza Mirza – mother unknown;
Sultan Bakht Begum, married firstly Mohammed Mireke, married secondly, 1389/90, Soliman Shah – with Oljay Turkhan Agha.
Sons of Jahangir
Muhammad Sultan bin Jahangir Mirza
Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza
Sons of Umar Shaikh Mirza I
Pir Muhammad ibn Umar Shaikh Mirza I
Iskandar ibn Umar Shaikh Mirza I
Rustam ibn Umar Shaikh Mirza I
Bayqarah ibn Umar Shaikh Mirza I
Mansur ibn Bayqarah
Husayn ibn Mansur bin Bayqarah
Badi' al-Zaman
Muhammed Mu'min
Muzaffar Hussein
Ibrahim Hussein
Sons of Miran Shah
Khalil Sultan ibn Miran Shah
Abu Bakr ibn Miran Shah
Muhammad ibn Miran Shah
Abu Sa'id Mirza
Umar Shaikh Mirza II
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur
the Mughals
Jahangir Mirza II
Sons of Shahrukh Mirza
Mirza Muhammad Taraghay – better known as Ulugh Beg
Abdul-Latif
Ghiyath-al-Din Baysonqor
Ala-ud-Daulah Mirza ibn Baysonqor
Ibrahim Mirza
Sultan Muhammad ibn Baysonqor
Yadigar Muhammad
Mirza Abul-Qasim Babur ibn Baysonqor
Sultan Ibrahim Mirza
Abdullah Mirza
Mirza Soyurghatmïsh Khan
Mirza Mohammed Juki
See also
Ahmad Jalayir
Global Empire
Harold Lamb, author of the historical novel Tamerlane (1928)
List of the Muslim Empires
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
Tamburlaine (play)
Tamerlane chess
Timurid dynasty
Timurlengia
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, Khafi Khan Nizam-ul-Mulk, Vol I, p. 49. Printed in Lahore, 1985
Jump up ^ W. M. Thackston, A Century of Princes: Sources on Timurid History and Art, (1989), p.239
Jump up ^ /tɪˈmʊər/
Jump up ^ /ˈtæmərleɪn/
Jump up ^ Josef W. Meri (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Routledge. p. 812.
Jump up ^ J. J. Saunders (March 2001). The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 173–. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7.
Jump up ^ "Counterview: Taimur's actions were uniquely horrific in Indian history".
Jump up ^ Darwin, John (2008). After Tamerlane: the rise and fall of global empires, 1400–2000. Bloomsbury Press. pp. 29, 92. ISBN 978-1-59691-760-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1989). The rise and rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Forbes Manz, Beatrice (April 1998). "Temür and the Problem of a Conqueror's Legacy". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third. 8 (1): 25. JSTOR 25183464.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Marozzi, Justin (2004). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, conqueror of the world. HarperCollins.
Jump up ^ Matthew White: Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements, Canongate Books, 2011, ISBN 9780857861252, section "Timur"
Jump up ^ "The Rehabilitation Of Tamerlane". Chicago Tribune. 17 January 1999.
Jump up ^ J.J. Saunders, The history of the Mongol conquests (page 174), Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1971, ISBN 0812217667
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^ Jump up to: a b c Beatrice F. Manz (2000). "Tīmūr Lang". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 10 (2nd ed.). Brill. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Harry N. Abrams, Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600 (2005), p. 196
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Jump up ^ Franklin Mackenzie, The Ocean and the Steppe: The Life and Times of the Mongol Conqueror Genghis Khan, 1155-1227 (1963), p. 322
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Jump up ^ Mansura Haidar, Indo-Central Asian relations: from early times to medieval period (2004), p. 126
Jump up ^ Martin Bernard Dickson, Michel M. Mazzaoui, Vera Basch Moreen, Intellectual studies on Islam: essays written in honor of Martin B. Dickson (1990), p. 97
Jump up ^ Mu'izz al-Ansab, Folio. 97a
Jump up ^ W.J Fischel, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane (1952), p. 37
^ Jump up to: a b Ahmed ibn Arabshah, Tamerlane: The Life of the Great Amir, p. 4
Jump up ^ Ron Sela, The Legendary Biographies of Tamerlane: Islam and Heroic Apocrypha in Central Asia (2011), p. 27
^ Jump up to: a b "Tamerlane". AsianHistory. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Central Asia, history of Timur", in Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Edition, 2007. (Quotation:"Under his leadership, Timur united the Mongol tribes located in the basins of the two rivers.")
Jump up ^ "Islamic world", in Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Edition, 2007. Quotation: "Timur (Tamerlane) was of Mongol descent and he aimed to restore Mongol power."
Jump up ^ Carter V. Findley, The Turks in World History, Oxford University Press, 2005, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-19-517726-8, p. 101.
Jump up ^ G. R. Garthwaite, The Persians, Malden, ISBN 978-1-55786-860-2, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2007. (p.148) Quotation: "Timur's tribe, the Barlas, had Mongol origins but had become Turkic-speaking ... However, the Barlus tribe is considered one of the original Mongol tribes and there are "Barlus Ovogton" people who belong to Barlus tribe in modern Mongolia."
Jump up ^ M.S. Asimov & Clifford Edmund Bosworth, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, UNESCO Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: "One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..."
Jump up ^ Beatrice Forbes Manz, Tamerlane and the Symbolism of Sovereignty (1988), p. 116
Jump up ^ Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi, Zafarnama (1424-1428), p. 35
Jump up ^ Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi, Zafarnama (1424-1428), p. 75
^ Jump up to: a b c Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A.M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. translated by A.M. Berrett. Transaction Publishers, p.75. ISBN 0-7658-0204-X. Limited preview at Google Books. p. 75., ISBN 0-7658-0204-X, p.75., "Timur Leng (Tamerlane) Timur, known as the lame (1336–1405) was a Muslim Turk. He aspired to recreate the empire of his ancestors. He was a military genius who loved to play chess in his spare time to improve his military tactics and skill. And although he wielded absolute power, he never called himself more than an emir.", "Timur Leng (Tamerlane) Timur, known as the lame (1336–1405) was a Muslim Turk from the Umus of Chagatai who saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir."
Jump up ^ Justin Marozzi (2006). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. Da Capo Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-0-306-81465-5.
Jump up ^ Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World A-L, Macmillan Reference USA, 2004, ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5, p. 134.
^ Jump up to: a b c Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1988). "Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty". Iranian Studies. 21 (1–2): 105–122. doi:10.1080/00210868808701711. JSTOR 4310596.
Jump up ^ Beatrice Forbes Manz (25 March 1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-0-521-63384-0.
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Jump up ^ Four studies on the history of Central Asia, Volume 1 By Vasilij Vladimirovič Bartold p.19
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^ Jump up to: a b Manz, Beatrice Forbes (2002). "Tamerlane's Career and Its Uses". Journal of World History. 13: 3. doi:10.1353/jwh.2002.0017.
Jump up ^ Nicholas V. Raisanovsky; Mark D. Steinberg: A History of Russia Seventh Edition, pg 93
Jump up ^ Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane
Jump up ^ "Mughal Gardens". google.ca.
^ Jump up to: a b Chaliand, Gerard; Arnaud Blin (2007). The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda. University of California Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-520-24709-3.
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Jump up ^ Nicholas V. Raisanovsky; Mark D. Steinberg: A History of Russia Seventh Edition, pg 94
^ Jump up to: a b Virani, Shafique N. The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, p. 116.
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Jump up ^ Aleppo:the Ottoman Empire's caravan city, Bruce Masters, The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul, ed. Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Master, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 20.
Jump up ^ "Shlama – Aleppo – BELIEVING IN ALEPPO".
Jump up ^ Margaret Meserve, Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought, (Harvard University Press, 2008), 207.
Jump up ^ "Tamerlane in Damascus".
Jump up ^ "The Sack of Damascus – History Today".
Jump up ^ "تيمور لنك..بشار الأسد..لافرق! – نور سورية".
Jump up ^ Ibn Arabshah, Timur the Great Amir, p. 168
Jump up ^ Kevin Reilly (2012). The Human Journey: A Concise Introduction to World History. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-4422-1384-5.
Jump up ^ Henry Cabot Lodge (1913). The History of Nations. P.F.Collier. pp. 51–.
Jump up ^ Marina Belozerskaya (4 September 2012). Medusas Gaze: The Extraordinary Journey of the Tazza Farnese. Oxford University Press. pp. 88–. ISBN 978-0-19-987642-6.
Jump up ^ Vertot (abbé de) (1856). The History of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem: Styled Afterwards, the Knights of Rhodes, and at Present, the Knights of Malta. J.W. Leonard & Company. pp. 104–.
Jump up ^ Stevens, John. The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and memorable actions of its kings from the first erecting of that monarchy to this time; an exact Description of all its Dominions; a curious Account of India, China, Tartary, Kermon, Arabia, Nixabur, and the Islands of Ceylon and Timor; as also of all Cities occasionally mention'd, as Schiras, Samarkand, Bokara, &c. Manners and Customs of those People, Persian Worshippers of Fire; Plants, Beasts, Product, and Trade. With many instructive and pleasant digressions, being remarkable Stories or Passages, occasionally occurring, as Strange Burials; Burning of the Dead; Liquors of several Countries; Hunting; Fishing; Practice of Physick; famous Physicians in the East; Actions of Tamerlan, &c. To which is added, an abridgment of the lives of the kings of Harmuz, or Ormuz. The Persian history written in Arabick, by Mirkond, a famous Eastern Author that of Ormuz, by Torunxa, King of that Island, both of them translated into Spanish, by Antony Teixeira, who liv'd several Years in Persia and India; and now render'd into English.
Jump up ^ Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population". Academic Press. p.34. ISBN 0-12-765660-X
Jump up ^ Turnbull, Stephen (30 January 2007). The Great Wall of China 221 BC-1644 AD. Osprey Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-84603-004-8. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002), Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle (2 ed.), University of Washington Press, pp. 188–189, ISBN 0-295-98124-5
Jump up ^ C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, see: Northern Yuan Dynasty
Jump up ^ Adela C.Y. Lee. "Tamerlane (1336–1405) – ''The Last Great Nomad Power''". Silkroad Foundation. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
Jump up ^ Tsia 2002, p. 161
Jump up ^ Document preserved at Le Musée de l'Histoire de France, code AE III 204. Mentioned Dossier II, 7, J936
Jump up ^ Mentioned Dossier II, 7 bis
Jump up ^ Mentioned Dossier II, 7 ter
Jump up ^ Frances Carney Gies (September–October 1978). "The Man Who Met Tamerlane". Saudi Aramco World. 29 (5).
Jump up ^ Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, p. 109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. Limited preview at Google Books. p. 109. "In Temür's government, as in those of most nomad dynasties, it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs, or to identify the Persian bureaucracy as solely civil or the Turko-Mongolian solely with military government. In fact, it is difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks. (In discussing the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense. In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'diwan' was Persian and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.) Temür's Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs, traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy."
Jump up ^ Roy, Olivier (2007). The new Central Asia. I. B. Tauris. p. 7. ISBN 1-84511-552-X.
Jump up ^ "History of the Nestorians".
Jump up ^ "Iqbal'S Hindu Relations". The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. 30 June 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Hameed ud-Din (2011). "Abū Ṭāleb Ḥosaynī". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Milwright, Marcus (2006). "So Despicable a Vessel: Representations of Tamerlane in Printed Books of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries". Muqarnas. 23: 317. doi:10.1163/22118993-90000105.
^ Jump up to: a b c Knobler, Adam (November 1995). "The Rise of Timur and Western Diplomatic Response, 1390–1405". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. 5 (3). doi:10.1017/s135618630000660x.
Jump up ^ The History of Timur-Bec. 1. 1723. pp. xii–ix. Punctuation and spelling modernized.
Jump up ^ Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich Gerasimov (1971). The face finder. Hutchinson. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-09-105510-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Lev Vasilʹevich Oshanin (1964). Anthropological composition of the population of Central Asia: and the ethnogenesis of its peoples. 2. Peabody Museum. p. 39.
Jump up ^ "Uzbekistan: On the bloody trail of Tamerlane". The Independent. London. 9 July 2006. Archived from the original on December 20, 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2016. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Mark & Ruth Dickens. "Timurid Architecture in Samarkand". Oxuscom.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
Jump up ^ Marozzi 2004
Jump up ^ Enrique Serrano (2011-01-02). Tamerlan (Biblioteca Breve) (Spanish Edition). ISBN 9789584205407.
References
Knobler, Adam (1995). "The Rise of Tīmūr and Western Diplomatic Response, 1390–1405". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Third Series). 5 (3): 341–349.
Knobler, Adam (2001). "Timur the (Terrible/Tartar) Trope: a Case of Repositioning in Popular Literature and History". Medieval Encounters. 7 (1): 101–112.
May, Timothy. "Timur ("the Lame")(1336–1405)". The Encyclopedia of War.
Marozzi, Justin, Tamerlane: sword of Islam, conqueror of the world, London: HarperCollins, 2004
Marozzi, Justin, "Tamerlane", in: The Art of War: great commanders of the ancient and medieval world, Andrew Roberts (editor), London: Quercus Military History, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84724-259-4
Beatrice Forbes Manz, "Temür and the Problem of a Conqueror's Legacy," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Apr., 1998)
Abazov, Rafis. "Timur (Tamerlane) and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia." The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Central Asia. Palgrave Macmillan US, 2008. 56–57.
YÜKSEL, Musa Şamil. "Timur’un Yükselişi ve Batı’nın Diplomatik Cevabı, 1390–1405." Selçuk Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi 1.18 (2005): 231–243.
Shterenshis, Michael V. "Approach to Tamerlane: Tradition and Innovation." Central Asia and the Caucasus 2 (2000).
Marlowe, Christopher: Tamburlaine the Great. Ed. J. S. Cunningham. Manchester University Press, Manchester 1981.
Novosel'tsev, A. P. "On the Historical Evaluation of Tamerlane." Soviet studies in history 12.3 (1973): 37–70.
Sykes, P. M. "Tamerlane." Journal of the Central Asian Society 2.1 (1915): 17–33.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Timūr". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Timur
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Timur.
Timur at Encyclopædia Britannica
Forbes, Andrew, & Henley, David: Timur's Legacy: The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand (CPA Media)
Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez De Clavijo to the Court of Timour, at Samarcand, A.D.1403-6 – Full text at Google Books.
Ruy González de Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, 1403–1406, translated by Guy Le Strange, with a new Introduction by Caroline Stone (Hardinge Simpole, 2009).
Nationality or Religion: Views of Central Asian Islam
Timur
Timurid dynasty
Preceded by
None Timurid Empire
1370–1405 Succeeded by
Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir
and Khalil Sultan
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Timurid Empire
Emperors
Timur
Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir
Khalil Sultan
Shah Rukh
Ulugh Beg
Abdal-Latif Mirza
Abdallah Mirza
Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor
Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza
Abu Sa'id Mirza
Sultan Ahmed Mirza
Sultan Mahmud Mirza
Mirza Shah Mahmud
Ibrahim Mirza bin Ala-ud-Daulah
Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara
Yadgar Muhammad Mirza
Badi' al-Zaman Mirza
Battles and conflicts
Battle of Ankara (1402)
Battle of Ab Darrah Pass (1511)
Battle of Akhsi (1502-03)
Battle of Algami Canal (1402)
Battle of Bajaur (1519)
Battle of Damghan (1447)
Battle of Farhadgerd (1449)
Battle of Ghazdewan (1512)
Battle of Nakhchivan (1406)
Battle of Nishapur (1447)
Battle of Qalat-i-Ghilzai (1505)
Battle of Qara-Derrah Pass (1395)
Battle of Qarabagh(1469)
Battle of Sar-e-Pul (1501)
Battle of Sarakhs (1459)
Battle of Tarnab (1448)
Battle of the Chirciq River (1488)
Battle of the Kondurcha River (1391)
Battle of the Terek River(1395)
Siege of Balkh (1370)
Siege of Balkh (1447)
Siege of Herat (1448)
Siege of Kabul (1504)
Siege of Samarkand (1494)
Siege of Samarkand (1497)
Siege of Samarkand (1501)
Siege of Shahrukhiya (1461)
Timurid Civil Wars
Battle of Damghan (1447)
Battle of Nishapur (1447)
Battle of Tarnab (1448)
Occupation of Balkh (1447)
Revolt of Abdal-Latif Mirza (1449)
Siege of Balkh (1447)
Siege of Herat (1448)
Urdu Bazar Revolt (1447)
Architecture
Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
Bibi-Khanym Mosque
See also
Turko-Persian tradition
Timurid dynasty
family tree
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v
t
e
Ottoman Interregnum
Background
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Murad I
Bayezid I
Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)
Crusade of Nicopolis
Timur
Battle of Ankara
Events
Siege of Smyrna
Battle of Tripolje
Treaty of Gallipoli
Battle of Ermeni-beli
Battle of Ulubad
Battle of Karasi
Battle of Kosmidion
Battle of Edirne
Siege of Constantinople (1411)
Treaty of Selymbria
Battle of İnceğiz
Battle of Çamurlu
Ottoman princes and leaders
Mehmed I
Süleyman Çelebi
İsa Çelebi
Musa Çelebi
Mustafa Çelebi
Çandarlı Ali Pasha
Imamzade Halil Pasha
Bayezid Pasha
Evrenos
Pasha Yiğit Bey
Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey
Turahan Bey
Sheikh Bedreddin
Neighbouring rulers and leaders
Junayd Bey (Aydın)
Manuel II Palaiologos (Byzantine Empire)
John VII Palaiologos (Byzantine Empire)
Demetrios Laskaris Leontares (Byzantine Empire)
Nasireddin Mehmed Bey (Dulkadir)
Yakup II (Germiyan)
Philibert de Naillac (Hospitallers)
İsfendiyar Bey
Mehmed II (Karaman)
Stefan Lazarević (Serbia)
Đurađ Branković (Serbia)
Mircea I (Wallachia)
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v
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e
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Ancestor
Qutalmish
Founder
Suleyman I
Capital
İznik, then Konya
Important centers and extension
Konya
Kayseri
Sivas (1175)
Malatya (1178)
Alanya
Antalya
Dynasty
Suleyman I (1077–1086)
Kilij Arslan I (1092–1107)
Melikshah (1107–1116)
Mesud I (1116–1156)
Kilij Arslan II (1156–1192)
Kaykhusraw I (1192–1196)
Süleymanshah II (1196–1204)
Kilij Arslan III (1204–1205)
Kaykhusraw I (2nd reign) (1205–1211)
Kaykaus I (1211–1220)
Kayqubad I (1220–1237)
Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246)
Kaykaus II (1246–1260)
Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265)
Kayqubad II (1249–1257)
Kaykhusraw III (1265–1282)
Mesud II (1282–1284)
Kayqubad III (1284)
Mesud II (2nd reign) (1284–1293)
Kayqubad III (2nd reign) (1293–1294)
Mesud II (3rd reign) (1294–1301)
Kayqubad III (3rd reign) (1301–1303)
Mesud II (4th reign) (1303–1307)
Mesud III (1307)
Chronology
1243
Gradually vassalized to the Mongol Empire after the defeat suffered in the Battle of Köse Dağ
1307
Taken over by the Karamanids
Palaces and castles
Seljuk Palace in Konya (1190–1220)
Kubadabad Palace in Beyşehir (1220–1230)
Keykubadiye Palace in Kayseri (1220–1230)
Alanya Kızıl Kule (Red Tower) and Shipyard constructions and widescale extension of Alanya Castle
Külliye ("complexes") and
dar al-shifa (hospitals) and
medrese (schools) and mosques:
Gevher Nesibe Külliye with Medical Center and Medical School and Mosque in Kayseri (1204–1210)
Battal Gazi Külliye in Seyitgazi (1208)
Karatay Medrese in Konya (1225)
Ince Minaret Medrese in Konya (1258–1279)
Atabeg Ferruh Darüşşifa in Çankırı (1236)
Alâeddin Keykubad I Darüşşifa in Konya (1237)
Torumtay Darüşşifa in Amasya (1266)
Izzeddin Keykavus I Şifaiye Medrese and Medical Center (Darüşşifa) in Sivas (1218)
Gökmedrese in Sivas (1271)
Çifte Minaret Medrese in Sivas (1271)
Alaeddin Mosque in Konya (1220)
Alâeddin Mosque in Niğde (1220)
Great Mosque of Malatya in Eskimalatya (Battalgazi) (1224)
Hüsameddin Temurlu castle, caravanseai and medrese in Kalehisar, Alaca (~1250)
Havadan Külliye in Develi (~1300)
Caravanserais
Ağzıkara Han caravanserai near Aksaray (1237)
Ak Han caravanserai near Denizli (1254)
Alaca Han caravanserai in Alacahan (~1280)
Alara Han caravanserai near Manavgat
Alay Han caravanserai near Aksaray (1190)
Altınapa Han caravanserai between Beyşehir and Konya (1201)
Angit Han caravanserai between Konya and Akşehir (1201)
Burma Han caravanserai in Divriği (13th century)
Çakallı Han caravanserai near Samsun (~1250)
Çardak Han (Hanabad) caravanserai in Çardak (1230)
Çay Han caravanserai in Çay (1279)
Dokuzun Han caravanserai in Konya (1210)
Eğirdir Han caravanserai in Eğirdir (1238)
Ertokuş Han caravanserai near Eğirdir (1224)
Eshab-i Kehf Han caravanserai near Afşin–Elbistan (~1225)
Evdir Han caravanserai near Antalya (1224)
Ezinepazar Han caravanserai near Amasya (1246)
Goncalı Akhan caravanserai between Konya and Aksaray
Hatun Han caravanserai between Amasya and Tokat
Hekim Han caravanserai in Hekimhan (1220)
Horozlu Han caravanserai near Konya (1249)
Incir Han caravanserai near Bucak (1239)
Kadın Han caravanserai in Kadınhanı (1223)
Karatay Han caravanserai near Pınarbaşı (1241)
Kargı Han caravanserai near Antalya (1246)
Kesikköprü Han caravanserai near Kırşehir (1268)
Kırkgöz Han caravanserai near Antalya (1246)
Kızılören Han caravanserai near Konya (1206)
Kuruçeşme Han caravanserai near Konya (1210)
Melleç Han caravanserai near Anamur (13th century)
Mirçinge Han caravanserai near Divriği (13th century)
Obruk Han caravanserai near Konya (1230)
Öresin Han caravanserai near Aksaray (~1275)
Pazar Han caravanserai near Tokat (1239)
Zazadın Han caravanserai near Konya (1236)
Şarapsa Han caravanserai near Alanya (1246)
Sarı Han caravanserai near Ürgüp (1249)
Sevserek Han caravanserai between Malatya and Pötürge (13th century)
Sultan Han caravanserai between Konya and Aksaray (1229)
Sultan Han caravanserai near Bünyan between Kayseri and Sivas (1236)
Susuz Han caravanserai near Bucak (1246)
show
Anatolian beyliks
show
Tzachas (1081 - 1092)
Founder
Tzachas
Capital
İzmir
Chronology
1082
Submitted to the Seljuks of Turkey
Important centers and extension:
Ephesus
Lesbos
Chios
show
Shah-Armens (1100–1207)
Founder
Sökmen el Kutbi
Capital
Ahlat
Chronology
1207
Submitted to the Ayyoubids
Important centers and extension:
Silvan
Malazgirt
Erciş
Adilcevaz
Başkale
Eleşkirt
Van
Tatvan
Bitlis
Muş
Hani
Dynasty:
Sökmen el Kutbi (1100–1112)
Ibrahim bin Sökmen (? - ?)
Ahmed bin Ibrahim (? - ?)
Sökmen the Second (1128–1185)
Seyfeddin Begtimur (1185–1193)
Aksungur (1193–1197)
Muhammed bin Begtimur (1185–1207)
Important works:
Ahlat Tombs
show
Artuqids (1102 - )
Ancestors
Eksük and his son Artuk, from Döğer Oghuz Türkmen clan
Founder
Muinüddin Sökmen Bey
Capitals
Three branches in Hasankeyf, Mardin and Harput
Important centers and extension:
Diyarbakır
Hasankeyf
Silvan
Mardin
Midyat
Harput
Palu
Aleppo (temporarily in 1117)
Hasankeyf Dynasty or Sökmenli Dynasty:
Müinüddin Sökmen Bey (1102–1104)
Sökmenli Ibrahim Bey (1104–1131)
Mardin Dynasty or Ilgazi Dynasty:
Necmeddin Ilgazi (1106–1122)
Hüsameddin Timurtaş (1122–1154)
Necmeddin Alp (1154–1176)
Harput Dynasty:
Belek Bey (1112–1124)
Nureddin Muhammed (? - ?)
Sökmen the Second (? - ?)
Important works:
Artuqid Palace in Diyarbakır
Widescale extension of Diyarbakır City Walls
Malabadi Bridge
Hasankeyf Bridge
Sökmenli Nasirüddevle Bîmaristan-ı Farukî Medical Center (Darüşşifa) in Silvan (1108)
Emineddin (brother of Ilgazi) Medical Center (Darüşşifa) in Mardin (built between 1122)
Great Mosque of Silvan
Great Mosque of Mardin
Older Great Mosque of Midyat (Cami-i Kebir)
Great Mosque of Kızıltepe
Great Mosque of Harput
Artuqid Caravanserai in Mardin
Ibrahim Shah Caravanserai near Keban between Elazığ and Çemişgezek
show
Danishmends (1071–1178)
Founder
Danishmend Gazi
Capitals
Sivas
Niksar
Chronology
1175
Capital city of Sivas incorporated into the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
1178
Malatya branch incorporated into the Seljuk Sultanate
Important centers and extension:
Sivas
Niksar
Malatya
Kayseri
Tokat
Amasya
Kastamonu
Ankara
Dynasty:
Danishmend Gazi (1071–1105)
Emir Gazi Gümüştekin (1105–1134)
Melik Mehmed (1134–1146)
Yağıbasan (1146–1164)
Melik Ismail (1164–1175)
Important works:
Great Mosque of Niksar
Great Mosque of Kayseri
Kayseri Kölük Mosque
Danishmend Gazi Tomb (Melik Gazi Tomb) in Niksar
Denishmend Melik Mehmed Gazi Tomb in Kayseri
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Mengujekids (1071–1277)
Founder
Mengücek Bey
Capitals
Erzincan, later also Divriği
Important centers and extension:
Erzincan
Divriği
Kemah
Şebinkarahisar
Dynasty:
Mengücek Bey (1071–1118)
Mengücekli Ishak Bey (1118–1120)
1120–1142
Temporarily incorporated into the Beylik of Danishmends
Erzincan and Kemah Branch
Mengücekli Davud Shah (1142- ?)
1228
Incorporation into the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Divriği Branch
Mengücekli Süleyman Shah (1142- ?)
1277
Beylik destroyed by Abaka
Important works:
Divriği Great Mosque and Divriği Turan Melek Sultan Medical Center (Darüşşifa) (1229)
Kale Mosque in Divriği
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Saltukids (1072–1202)
Founder
Saltuk Bey
Capital
Erzurum
Chronology
1202
Incorporation into the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Important centers and extension:
Erzurum
Tercan
Dynasty:
Saltuk Bey (1072–1102)
Ali bin Ebu'l-Kâsım (1102 - ~1124)
Ziyâüddin Gazi (~1124–1132)
Izzeddin Saltuk (1132–1168)
Nâsırüddin Muhammed (1168–1191)
Mama Hatun (1191–1200)
Melikshah bin Muhammed (1200–1202)
Important works:
Great Mosque of Erzurum
Emir Saltuk Tomb in Erzurum
Mama Hatun Caravanserai in Tercan
Mama Hatun Tomb in Tercan
Kale Mosque in Erzurum
Erzurum Medical Center (Darüşşifa) (1147)
show
Aydinids (1307–1425)
Founder
Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey
Capitals
Birgi, later Ayasluğ
Important centers and extension:
Tire
İzmir
Alaşehir
Aydın
Sakız/Chios (between 1336–1344)
Dynasty:
Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey (1307–1334)
Umur Beg (1334–1348)
Aydınoğlu Hızır Bey (? - ?)
Aydınoğlu Isa Bey (- 1390)
Events
1390
First period of incorporation (by marriage) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1414
Second period of Beylik reconstituted by Tamerlane to Aydınoğlu Musa Bey (1402–1403)
Aydınoğlu Umur Bey (1403–1405)
İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey (1405–1425 with intervals)
1425
Second and last incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
Important works:
Isabey Mosque in Selçuk (1375)
show
Isfendiyarids (~1300–1461)
Founder
Şemseddin Yaman Candar, commander of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Chronology
1392
Incorporation (by conquest) of Kastamonu branch into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I
Important centers and extension:
Sinop
Eflani
Çankırı
Kalecik
Tosya
Araç
Samsun (temporarily)
Dynasty:
Candaroğlu Süleyman Pasha (1309 - ~1340)
Candaroğlu Ibrahim Bey (1340–1345)
Candaroğlu Adil Bey (1340–1361)
Celaleddin Bayezid (1361–1385)
Candaroğlu Süleyman Pasha the Second (1384–1392)
Sinop Dynasty or Isfendiyarid Dynasty :
Isfendiyar Bey (1385–1440)
Taceddin Ibrahim Bey (1440–1443)
Kemaleddin Ismail Bey (1443–1461)
Chronology
1461
Incorporation (by surrender) of Sinop branch into the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II
show
Chobanids (1227–1309)
Founder
Hüsamettin Çoban Bey, commander from Kayı Oghuz clan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Chronology
1309
Incorporation (by conquest) into the Beylik of Isfendiyarids
Important centers and extension:
Kastamonu
Taşköprü
Dynasty:
Hüsamettin Çoban Bey (1309 - ?)
Alp Yürek (? - ?)
Muzafferüddin Yavlak Arslan (? - ?)
Çobanoğlu Mahmud Bey (? - 1309)
show
Dulkadirids (1348- ~1525)
Ancestor
Hasan Dulkadir
Founder
Zeyneddin Karaca Bey
Capital
Elbistan
Chronology
1443–1525
Increasingly tributary and gradually incorporated into the Ottoman Empire
Important centers and extension:
Maraş
Malatya
Harput
Kayseri
Antep
Dynasty:
Zeyneddin Karaca Bey (1348–1348)
Dulkadiroğlu Halil Bey (1348–1386)
Sûli Bey (1386–1396)
Nâsıreddin Mehmed Bey (1396–1443)
Dulkadiroğlu Süleyman Bey (1443–1454)
Melik Arslan (?-?)
Shah Budak (?-1492)
Şahsuvar (?-?)
Alaüddevle Bozkurt Bey (1492–1507)
Şahsuvaroğlu Ali Bey (1507- ~1525)
show
Eretnids (1328–1381)
Founder
Eretna Bey, brother-in-law of the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia, Timurtash
Capital
Sivas, later Kayseri
Chronology
1326
Beylik replaced by Mehmed Bey's chancellor Kadı Burhaneddin
Important centers and extension:
Sivas
Kayseri
Niğde
Tokat
Amasya
Erzincan
Şebinkarahisar
Niksar
Dynasty:
Eretna Bey (1328–1352)
Gıyasüddin Mehmed Bey (1352–1365)
Alâeddin Ali Bey (1365–1380)
Mehmed Bey the Second (1380–1381)
show
Eshrefids (1288–1326)
Founder
Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey, regent to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Beyşehir
Chronology
1326
Beylik destroyed by Demirtaş, the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia
Important centers and extension:
Beyşehir
Akşehir
Bolvadin
Dynasty:
Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey (1288–1302)
Eşrefoğlu Mehmed Bey (1302–1320)
Eşrefoğlu Süleyman Bey the Second (1320–1326)
Important works:
Eşrefoğlu Mosque in Beyşehir (1299)
show
Germiyanids (1300–1429)
Ancestor
Kerimüddin Alişir
Founder
Germiyanlı Yakub Bey the First
Capital
Kütahya
Important centers and extension:
Kula (District), Manisa
Simav
Yenicekent
Yenicekent (Beylik of Lâdik between 1300–1368)
Dynasty:
Germiyanlı Yakub Bey the First (1300–1340)
Germiyanlı Mehmed Bey (1340–1361)
Germiyanlı Süleyman Shah (1361–1387)
Chronology
1390
First period of incorporation (by legation) into the Ottoman Empire under Murad I
1402–1414
Second period of Beylik restituted by Tamerlane to Germiyanoğlu Yakub Bey the Second (1402–1429)
1414
Recognition of Ottoman sovereignty by Germiyanoğlu Yakub Bey the Second under Mehmed I
1429
Second and last incorporation (by legation) into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
show
Hamidids (~1280–1374)
Ancestors
Hamid and his son Ilyas Bey, frontier rulers under Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Founder
Hamidoğlu Feleküddin Dündar Bey
Capital
Isparta
Chronology
1374
Incorporation (by sale of territories) into the Ottoman Empire under Murad I and also partially to the Karamanid dynasty.
Important centers and extension:
Eğirdir
Uluborlu
Gölhisar
Korkuteli and Antalya transferred in 1301 to Dündar Bey's brother Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey
Dynasty:
Hamidoğlu Feleküddin Dündar Bey (~1280–1324)
Hamidoğlu Hızır Bey (1324–1330)
Hamidoğlu Necmeddin Ishak Bey (? - ?)
Hamidoğlu Muzafferüddin Mustafa Bey (? - ?)
Hamidoğlu Hüsameddin Ilyas Bey (? - ?)
Hamidoğlu Kemaleddin Hüseyin Bey (? - 1391)
show
Karamanids (~1250–1487)
Ancestor
Nure Sûfi from Afshar Oghuz clan
Founder
Kerimeddin Karaman Bey
Capitals
successively Ereğli
Ermenek
Larende (Karaman)
Konya
Mut
Chronology
1398–1402
First incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I
1402–1414
Second period of Beylik restituted by Tamerlane
1414–1487
Gradual second incorporation into the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed I, Murad II and Mehmed II.
Dynasty:
Kerîmeddin Karaman (1256–1261)
Mehmet I (1261–1283)
Güneri (1283–1300)
Bedreddin Mahmut (1300–1308)
Yahşı Han (1308–1312)
Bedreddin Ibrahim I (1312–1333)
Alâeddin Halil Mirza (1333–1348)
Bedreddin Ibrahim I, 2nd reign (1348–1349)
Fahreddin Ahmed (1349–1350)
Şemseddin (1350–1351)
Burhaneddin Musa (1351–1356)
Seyfeddin Süleyman (1356–1357)
Alâeddin Ali (1357–1398)
Nasreddin Mehmed Bey (1398–1399)
Sultanzâde Mehmet II (1398–1399, 1402–1420, 1421–1423)
Bengi Alâeddin Ali (1418–1424)
Ibrahim II (1424–1464)
Sultanzâde Ishak (1464)
Sultanzâde Pîr Ahmed (1464–1469)
Kasım (1469–1483)
Turgutoğlu Mahmud Bey (1483–1487)
show
Karasids (1303–1360)
Ancestor
Melik Danişmend Gazi
Founder
Karesi Bey
Capital
Balıkesir
Chronology
1374
Incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman Beylik under Orhan and Murad I
Important centers and extension:
Aydıncık
Bergama
Edremit
Bigadiç
Ezine
Dynasty:
Karesi Bey (1307–1328)
Demir Han (1328–1345)
Yahşı Han (1328–1345)
Süleyman Bey (1345–1360)
show
Ladik (~1300–1368)
Ancestor
Germiyanlı Ali Bey
Founder
Inanç Bey
Capital
Denizli
Chronology
1368
Re-incorporation (by conquest) into the Beylik of Germiyan
Important centers and extension:
Denizli
Dynasty:
Inanç Bey (~1300 - ~1314)
Murad Arslan (~1314 - ?)
Inançoğlu Ishak Bey (? - ~1360)
Süleyman Bey (1345–1368)
show
Menteshe (~1261–1424)
Founder
Menteshe Bey
Capitals
Beçin castle and nearby Milas, later also Balat
Important centers and extension
present-day Muğla Province
Muğla
Finike
Kaş
Çameli
Acıpayam
Tavas
Bozdoğan
Çine
temporarily Aydın and Güzelhisar, also Rhodes between 1300–1314
Dynasty:
Menteshe Bey (~1261 - ~1282)
Mesut (~1282 - ~1320)
Orhan (~1320 - ~1340)
Ibrahim (~1340 - ~1360)
Chronology
1360
Division between the three sons of Ibrahim Bey: Musa, Mehmed, Ahmed
1390
First incorporation into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1414
Beylik reconstituted by Tamerlane to Ilyas Bey
1414
Recognition of Ottoman suzereignty under Mehmed I
1424
Final incorporation into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
Important works:
Firuz Bey Mosque in Milas
İlyas Bey Mosque in Didim
Great Mosque of Muğla (1344)
Vakıflar Hamam (Turkish bath) in Muğla (1334)
show
Pervâneoğlu (1261–1322)
Ancestor
Mühezzibeddin Ali Kâşî (vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum)
Founder
Süleyman Pervâne
Capital
Sinop
Chronology
1516
Incorporation into the Beylik of Isfendiyarids
Important centers and extension:
Sinop
Dynasty:
Süleyman Pervâne (1261–1277)
Pervâneoğlu Mehmed Bey (1277–1296)
Pervâneoğlu Mesud Bey (1296–1300)
Pervâneoğlu Gazi Çelebi (1300–1326)
Important works
Muîneddin Pervâne Medical Center (Darüşşifa) in Tokat (1276)
Pervâne Medrese in Sinop
Durağan Han caravanserai in Durağan (1266)
Eğret Han caravanserai near İhsaniye (1278)
Pervâne Bey Medrese in Closed Bazaar in Kayseri
Mosque in Merzifon
show
Ramadanids (1352–1516)
Founder
Ramazan Bey from Yüreğir Oghuz clan
Capitals
Adana
Chronology
1516
Icorporation (by submission) into the Ottoman Empire under Selim I
1516–1608
Dynasty members as Beys of Ottoman sanjak of Adana until 1608.
Important centers and extension:
Adana
Tarsus
Dynasty:
Ibrahim Bey (1344-?)
Ahmed Bey (?-1416)
Ibrahim Bey (1416–1417)
Hamza Bey (1417–1427)
Mehmed Bey (1427-?)
Eyluk Bey (? - ?)
Dündar Bey (? - ?)
Omer Bey (?-1490)
Giyas al-Din Halil Bey (1490–1511)
Hahmud Bey (1511–1516)
Selim Bey (?-?)
Kubad Bey (1517-?)
show
Sahib Ataids (1275–1341)
Founder
Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali, vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Afyonkarahisar
Chronology
1341
Incorporation into the Beylik of Germiyan
Important centers and extension:
Akşehir
Beyşehir
Sandıklı
Denizli
Dynasty
Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali (1275–1288) and sons
Nusreddin Ahmed (1288–1341)
Important works:
Sâhib Ata Caravanserai in Sultandağı
show
Sarukhanids (1302–1410)
Founder
Saruhan Bey
Capital
Manisa
Important centers and extension:
Demirci
Nif (Kemalpaşa)
Akhisar
Gördes
Menemen
Dynasty
Saruhan Bey (1302–1345)
Fahreddin Ilyas Bey
Muzafferuddin Ishak Bey (-1388)
Hızır Shah (1388–1390)
Chronology
1390
First period of incorporation (by submission) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1410
Second period of Beylik restituted by Tamerlane to Saruhanoğlu Orhan Bey (1402–1403)
Hızır Shah (1403–1410)
1410
Second and last incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman realm under Mehmed I
show
Teke (1301–1423)
Ancestors
Hamidoğlu dynasty
Founder
Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey
Capitals
Antalya
Korkuteli
Important centers and extension:
Antalya (lost to the Kingdom of Cyprus between 1361–1373)
Teke Peninsula
Dynasty:
Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey (1301-?)
Tekeoğlu Mehmud Bey (?-1327)
Tekeoğlu Hızır Bey (? - ?)
Tekeoğlu Dadı Bey (?-?)
Zincirkıran Mehmed Bey (~1360 - ~1375)
Tekeoğlu Osman Bey (~1375–1390)
Chronology
1390
First period of incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1423
Second period of Beylik restituted by Tamerlane to Tekeoğlu Osman Bey (1402–1423)
1423
Second and last incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
Important works:
Yivli Minare Mosque in Antalya (~1375)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX1289010
BNF: cb11939835h (data)
GND: 118622803
ISNI: 0000 0001 2136 280X
LCCN: n50015000
LNB: 000197177
NDL: 00621564
NKC: jn20000720307
SELIBR: 259304
SNAC: w6418r4b
SUDOC: 027333868
VIAF: 63984707
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timur&oldid=865969795"
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Archives Nationales

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Ibrahim (Timurid Dynasty)

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Sultan Muhammad (Timurid dynasty)

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Global Empire

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values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timoer
Timoer – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Alemannisch
gsw
gsw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
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values: تيمورلنك – Arabic

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interlanguage-link interwiki-an
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values: তৈমুর লং – Bangla

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interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
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values: Аҡһаҡ Тимер – Bashkir

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Тымур – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
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values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Breton
br
br
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Дохолон Тэмүр – Russia Buriat

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values:
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values: Тамерлан – Chuvash

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interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Welsh
cy
cy
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ταμερλάνος – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-es
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: تیمور لنگ – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – French
fr
fr
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interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
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values: Լենկթեմուր – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: तैमूरलंग – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-id
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
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values: Тамерлан – Ossetic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlano
Tamerlano – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: טימור לנג – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
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values: ತೈಮೂರ್ ಲಂಗ್ – Kannada

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interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: თემურლენგი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Әмір Темір – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Амир Темир – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
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values: Тамерлан – Lezghian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-lez
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurs
Timurs – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lij
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
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values: तमेरलेन – Maithili

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mai
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Malagasy
mg
mg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values:
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display: none;

values: तैमूरलंग – Marathi

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
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values: თემურლენგი – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
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values:
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values: تیمور گورکانی – Mazanderani

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
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values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlane
Tamerlane – Malay
ms
ms
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-min
display: none;

values: Доголон Төмөр – Mongolian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: तिमुर – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: Тамерлан – Chechen

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
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values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamburlan
Tamburlan – Occitan
oc
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display: none;

values:
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values:
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values: گوډ تېمور – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Low German
nds
nds
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
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display: none;

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values: Тімур – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Тамерлан – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ru
display: none;

values: Тамерлан – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: तैमुरलंग – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timuri
Timuri – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Тамерлан – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: தைமூர் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Аксак Тимер – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: తైమూర్ లంగ్ – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: ตีมูร์ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Амир Темур – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: امیر تیمور – Urdu

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ur badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: ئەمىر تېمۇر – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
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interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
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values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Waray
war
war
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interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

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display: none;

values:
https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamerlan
Tamerlan – Kabiye
kbp
kbp
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp
display: none;

values:
https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur
Timur – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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