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Measurement
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Measurement is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events.[1][2] The scope and application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline. In the natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[2] However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioral sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.[1][3]
Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology, and quantitative research in many disciplines. Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements between trading partners or collaborators. Since the 18th century, developments progressed towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of Units (SI). This system reduces all physical measurements to a mathematical combination of seven base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology.
A typical tape measure with both metric and imperial units and two US pennies for comparison
Contents
1 Methodology
2 Standardization of measurement units
2.1 Standards
3 Units and systems
3.1 Imperial and US customary systems
3.2 Metric system
3.3 International System of Units
3.3.1 Converting prefixes
3.4 Length
3.5 Some special names
3.6 Building trades
3.7 Surveyor's trade
3.8 Time
3.9 Mass
3.10 Economics
3.11 Survey research
4 Difficulties
5 Definitions and theories
5.1 Classical definition
5.2 Representational theory
5.3 Information theory
5.4 Quantum mechanics
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Methodology[edit]
The measurement of a property may be categorized by the following criteria: type, magnitude, unit, and uncertainty.[citation needed] They enable unambiguous comparisons between measurements.
The level of measurement is a taxonomy for the methodological character of a comparison. For example, two states of a property may be compared by ratio, difference, or ordinal preference. The type is commonly not explicitly expressed, but implicit in the definition of a measurement procedure.
The magnitude is the numerical value of the characterization, usually obtained with a suitably chosen measuring instrument.
A unit assigns a mathematical weighting factor to the magnitude that is derived as a ratio to the property of an artifact used as standard or a natural physical quantity.
An uncertainty represents the random and systemic errors of the measurement procedure; it indicates a confidence level in the measurement. Errors are evaluated by methodically repeating measurements and considering the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument.
Standardization of measurement units[edit]
Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units (SI) as a comparison framework. The system defines seven fundamental units: kilogram, metre, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. Six of these units are defined without reference to a particular physical object which serves as a standard (artifact-free), while the kilogram is still embodied in an artifact which rests at the headquarters of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres near Paris. Artifact-free definitions fix measurements at an exact value related to a physical constant or other invariable phenomena in nature, in contrast to standard artifacts which are subject to deterioration or destruction. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to.
The seven base units in the SI system. Arrows point from units to those that depend on them.
The first proposal to tie an SI base unit to an experimental standard independent of fiat was by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914),[4] who proposed to define the metre in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line.[5] This directly influenced the Michelson–Morley experiment; Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method.[6]
Standards[edit]
With the exception of a few fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are derived from historical agreements. Nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, nor that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometre. Over the course of human history, however, first for convenience and then for necessity, standards of measurement evolved so that communities would have certain common benchmarks. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.
Units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Metre Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI) and having custody of the International Prototype Kilogram. The metre, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM in terms of light speed, while in 1960 the international yard was defined by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being exactly 0.9144 metres.
In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Australia by the National Measurement Institute,[7] in South Africa by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and in India the National Physical Laboratory of India.
Units and systems[edit]
Main articles: Units of measurement and Systems of measurement
A baby bottle that measures in three measurement systems—metric, imperial (UK), and US customary.
Four measuring devices having metric calibrations
Imperial and US customary systems[edit]
Main article: Imperial and US customary measurement systems
Before SI units were widely adopted around the world, the British systems of English units and later imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth and the United States. The system came to be known as U.S. customary units in the United States and is still in use there and in a few Caribbean countries. These various systems of measurement have at times been called foot-pound-second systems after the Imperial units for length, weight and time even though the tons, hundredweights, gallons, and nautical miles, for example, are different for the U.S. units. Many Imperial units remain in use in Britain, which has officially switched to the SI system—with a few exceptions such as road signs, which are still in miles. Draught beer and cider must be sold by the imperial pint, and milk in returnable bottles can be sold by the imperial pint. Many people measure their height in feet and inches and their weight in stone and pounds, to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other places, for example, in many Commonwealth countries that are considered metricated, land area is measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather than government statistics). Similarly, gasoline is sold by the gallon in many countries that are considered metricated.
Metric system[edit]
The metric system is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the metre and for mass, the kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the internationally recognised metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and scientific purposes.
The metric system features a single base unit for many physical quantities. Other quantities are derived from the standard SI units. Multiples and fractions are expressed as powers of 10 of each unit. When smaller or larger units are more convenient for given use, metric prefixes can be added to the base unit to denote its multiple by a power of ten: a thousandth (10−3) of a metre is a millimetre, while a thousand (103) metres is a kilometre. Unit conversions are thus always simple, so that convenient magnitudes for measurements are achieved by simply moving the decimal place: 1.234 metres is 1234 millimetres or 0.001234 kilometres. The use of fractions, such as 2/5 of a metre, is not prohibited, but uncommon. There is no profusion of different units with different conversion factors as in the Imperial system which uses, for example, inches, feet, yards, fathoms, and rods for length.
International System of Units[edit]
The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name Système International d'Unités) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. During its development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric system. The original SI units for the seven basic physical quantities were:[8]
Base quantity
Base unit
Symbol
Current SI constants
New SI constants (proposed)[9]
time second s hyperfine splitting in caesium-133 same as current SI
length metre m speed of light in vacuum, c same as current SI
mass kilogram kg mass of International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) Planck's constant, h
electric current ampere A permeability of free space, permittivity of free space charge of the electron, e
temperature kelvin K triple point of water, absolute zero Boltzmann's constant, k
amount of substance mole mol molar mass of Carbon-12 Avogadro constant NA
luminous intensity candela cd luminous efficacy of a 540 THz source same as current SI
The mole was subsequently added to this list and the degree Kelvin renamed the kelvin.
There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are constructed from the base units, for example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m2·kg·s−3. Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg/m3.
Converting prefixes[edit]
The SI allows easy multiplication when switching among units having the same base but different prefixes. To convert from metres to centimetres it is only necessary to multiply the number of metres by 100, since there are 100 centimetres in a metre. Inversely, to switch from centimetres to metres one multiplies the number of centimetres by 0.01 or divide centimetres by 100.
Length[edit]
A 2-metre carpenter's ruler
See also: List of length, distance, or range measuring devices
A ruler or rule is a tool used in, for example, geometry, technical drawing, engineering, and carpentry, to measure lengths or distances or to draw straight lines. Strictly speaking, the ruler is the instrument used to rule straight lines and the calibrated instrument used for determining length is called a measure, however common usage calls both instruments rulers and the special name straightedge is used for an unmarked rule. The use of the word measure, in the sense of a measuring instrument, only survives in the phrase tape measure, an instrument that can be used to measure but cannot be used to draw straight lines. As can be seen in the photographs on this page, a two-metre carpenter's rule can be folded down to a length of only 20 centimetres, to easily fit in a pocket, and a five-metre-long tape measure easily retracts to fit within a small housing.
Some special names[edit]
Some non-systematic names are applied for some multiples of some units.
100 kilograms = 1 quintal; 1000 kilogram = 1 metric tonne;
10 years = 1 decade; 100 years = 1 century; 1000 years = 1 millennium
Building trades[edit]
The Australian building trades adopted the metric system in 1966 and the units used for measurement of length are metres (m) and millimetres (mm). Centimetres (cm) are avoided as they cause confusion when reading plans. For example, the length two and a half metres is usually recorded as 2500 mm or 2.5 m; it would be considered non-standard to record this length as 250 cm.[citation needed]
Surveyor's trade[edit]
American surveyors use a decimal-based system of measurement devised by Edmund Gunter in 1620. The base unit is Gunter's chain of 66 feet (20 m) which is subdivided into 4 rods, each of 16.5 ft or 100 links of 0.66 feet. A link is abbreviated "lk," and links "lks" in old deeds and land surveys done for the government.
Time[edit]
Main article: Time
Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum. It is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum.
Mass[edit]
Main article: Weighing scale
Mass refers to the intrinsic property of all material objects to resist changes in their momentum. Weight, on the other hand, refers to the downward force produced when a mass is in a gravitational field. In free fall, (no net gravitational forces) objects lack weight but retain their mass. The Imperial units of mass include the ounce, pound, and ton. The metric units gram and kilogram are units of mass.
One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a scale. A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares weight, both require a gravitational field to operate. Some of the most accurate instruments for measuring weight or mass are based on load cells with a digital read-out, but require a gravitational field to function and would not work in free fall.
Economics[edit]
Main article: Measurement in economics
The measures used in economics are physical measures, nominal price value measures and real price measures. These measures differ from one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded from measurements.
Survey research[edit]
Main article: Survey methodology
In the field of survey research, measures are taken from individual attitudes, values, and behavior using questionnaires as a measurement instrument. As all other measurements, measurement in survey research is also vulnerable to measurement error, i.e. the departure from the true value of the measurement and the value provided using the measurement instrument.[10] In substantive survey research, measurement error can lead to biased conclusions and wrongly estimated effects. In order to get accurate results, when measurement errors appear, the results need to be corrected for measurement errors.
Difficulties[edit]
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Since accurate measurement is essential in many fields, and since all measurements are necessarily approximations, a great deal of effort must be taken to make measurements as accurate as possible. For example, consider the problem of measuring the time it takes an object to fall a distance of one metre (about 39 in). Using physics, it can be shown that, in the gravitational field of the Earth, it should take any object about 0.45 second to fall one metre. However, the following are just some of the sources of error that arise:
This computation used for the acceleration of gravity 9.8 metres per second squared (32 ft/s2). But this measurement is not exact, but only precise to two significant digits.
The Earth's gravitational field varies slightly depending on height above sea level and other factors.
The computation of .45 seconds involved extracting a square root, a mathematical operation that required rounding off to some number of significant digits, in this case two significant digits.
Additionally, other sources of experimental error include:
carelessness,
determining of the exact time at which the object is released and the exact time it hits the ground,
measurement of the height and the measurement of the time both involve some error,
Air resistance.
posture of human participants[11]
Scientific experiments must be carried out with great care to eliminate as much error as possible, and to keep error estimates realistic.
Definitions and theories[edit]
Classical definition[edit]
In the classical definition, which is standard throughout the physical sciences, measurement is the determination or estimation of ratios of quantities.[12] Quantity and measurement are mutually defined: quantitative attributes are those possible to measure, at least in principle. The classical concept of quantity can be traced back to John Wallis and Isaac Newton, and was foreshadowed in Euclid's Elements.[12]
Representational theory[edit]
In the representational theory, measurement is defined as "the correlation of numbers with entities that are not numbers".[13] The most technically elaborated form of representational theory is also known as additive conjoint measurement. In this form of representational theory, numbers are assigned based on correspondences or similarities between the structure of number systems and the structure of qualitative systems. A property is quantitative if such structural similarities can be established. In weaker forms of representational theory, such as that implicit within the work of Stanley Smith Stevens,[14] numbers need only be assigned according to a rule.
The concept of measurement is often misunderstood as merely the assignment of a value, but it is possible to assign a value in a way that is not a measurement in terms of the requirements of additive conjoint measurement. One may assign a value to a person's height, but unless it can be established that there is a correlation between measurements of height and empirical relations, it is not a measurement according to additive conjoint measurement theory. Likewise, computing and assigning arbitrary values, like the "book value" of an asset in accounting, is not a measurement because it does not satisfy the necessary criteria.
Three type of Representational theory
1) Empirical relation
In science, an empirical relationship is a relationship or correlation based solely on observation rather than theory. An empirical relationship requires only confirmatory data irrespective of theoretical basis
2) The rule of mapping
The real world is the Domain of mapping, and the mathematical world is the range. when we map the attribute to mathematical system, we have many choice for mapping and the range
3) The representation condition of measurement
Information theory[edit]
Information theory recognises that all data are inexact and statistical in nature. Thus the definition of measurement is: "A set of observations that reduce uncertainty where the result is expressed as a quantity."[15] This definition is implied in what scientists actually do when they measure something and report both the mean and statistics of the measurements. In practical terms, one begins with an initial guess as to the expected value of a quantity, and then, using various methods and instruments, reduces the uncertainty in the value. Note that in this view, unlike the positivist representational theory, all measurements are uncertain, so instead of assigning one value, a range of values is assigned to a measurement. This also implies that there is not a clear or neat distinction between estimation and measurement.
Quantum mechanics[edit]
In quantum mechanics, a measurement is an action that determines a particular property (position, momentum, energy, etc.) of a quantum system. Before a measurement is made, a quantum system is simultaneously described by all values in a spectrum, or range, of possible values, where the probability of measuring each value is determined by the wavefunction of the system. When a measurement is performed, the wavefunction of the quantum system "collapses" to a single, definite value.[16] The unambiguous meaning of the measurement problem is an unresolved fundamental problem in quantum mechanics.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Airy points
Conversion of units
Detection limit
Differential linearity
Dimensional analysis
Dimensionless number
Econometrics
Electrical measurements
History of measurement
History of science and technology
ISO 10012, Measurement management systems
Instrumentation
Integral linearity
Key relevance in locksmithing
Least count
Levels of measurement
Measurement in quantum mechanics
Measuring instrument
NCSL International
Number sense
Observation
Observable quantity
Orders of magnitude
Primary instrument
Psychometrics
Remote sensing
Quantification (science)
Standard (metrology)
Statistics
Test method
Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
Timeline of time measurement technology
Units of measurement
Uncertainty principle
Measurement uncertainty
Virtual instrumentation
Web analytics
Weights and measures
List of unusual units of measurement
List of humorous units of measurement
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Pedhazur, Elazar J.; Schmelkin, Liora Pedhazur (1991). Measurement, Design, and Analysis: An Integrated Approach (1st ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 15–29. ISBN 0-8058-1063-3.
^ Jump up to: a b International Vocabulary of Metrology – Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms (VIM) (PDF) (3rd ed.). International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 2008. p. 16.
Jump up ^ Kirch, Wilhelm, ed. (2008). "Level of measurement". Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2. Springer. p. 81. ISBN 0-321-02106-1.
Jump up ^ Crease 2011, pp. 182–4
Jump up ^ C.S. Peirce (July 1879) "Note on the Progress of Experiments for Comparing a Wave-length with a Metre" American Journal of Science, as referenced by Crease 2011, p. 203
Jump up ^ Crease 2011, p. 203
Jump up ^ "About Us". National Measurement Institute of Australia.
Jump up ^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), p. 147, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14
Jump up ^ Crease 2011, p. 261
Jump up ^ Groves, Robert (2004). Survey Methodology. New Jersey: Wiley. "By measurement error we mean a departure from the value of the measurement as applied to a sample unit and the value provided. " p 51-52 .
Jump up ^ Gill, Simeon; Parker, Christopher J. (2017). "Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning". Ergonomics. 60 (8): 1123–1136. doi:10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Michell, J. (1999). Measurement in psychology: a critical history of a methodological concept. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Ernest Nagel: "Measurement", Erkenntnis, Volume 2, Number 1 / December 1931, pp. 313–335, published by Springer, the Netherlands
Jump up ^ Stevens, S.S. On the theory of scales and measurement 1946. Science. 103, 677-680.
Jump up ^ Douglas Hubbard: "How to Measure Anything", Wiley (2007), p. 21
Jump up ^ Penrose, Roger (2007). The road to reality : a complete guide to the laws of the universe. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4. "The jumping of the quantum state to one of the eigenstates of Q is the process referred to as state-vector reduction or collapse of the wavefunction. It is one of quantum theory's most puzzling features ..." "[T]he way in which quantum mechanics is used in practice is to take the state indeed to jump in this curious way whenever a measurement is deemed to take place." p 528 Later Chapter 29 is entitled the Measurement paradox.
External links[edit]
Look up measurement in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Measurement
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A Dictionary of Units of Measurement
'Metrology – in short' 3rd edition, July 2008 ISBN 978-87-988154-5-7
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text:
Third degree (interrogation)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The third degree is a euphemism for torture ("inflicting of pain, physical or mental, to extract confessions or statements").[1] In 1931, the Wickersham Commission found that use of the third degree was widespread in the United States.[1] No one knows the origin of the term, but there are several hypotheses.[1] The use of the third degree was technically made illegal after the Wickersham report.[citation needed] However, the interrogation method known as the Reid technique, which is now widely used by law enforcement in the U.S., is seen by many as simply a psychological version of the third degree in that it is equally capable of extracting a false confession through coercion when abused by police.[2]
Possible origins[edit]
Richard H. Sylvester.[3]
The third degree of Freemasonry and the rigorous procedures to advance to that level.[1]
The term may have been coined by nineteenth century New York City Police detective Thomas F. Byrnes, perhaps as a pun on his name, as in third degree burns.[4]
The Knights of Columbus have a third degree ceremony which is required to advance to that level, seen as rigorous.
The progressive degrees of torture used to extract confessions during the Spanish Inquisition.[5]
The great difficulty of solving third-degree polynomial equations by comparison with those of second degree.[6]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jerome Herbert Skolnick (1994). Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force. Simon & Schuster. p. 43. ISBN 0-02-929153-4. …which it defined as "the inflicting of pain, physical or mental, to extract confessions or statements" was widespread throughout the United States… Another, proposed in 1910 by Richard Sylvester, President of the“…
Jump up ^ Kolker, Robert (2010-10-03). "Why Do People Confess to Crimes They Didn't Commit?". New York Magazine. Retrieved 2010-10-05.
Jump up ^ Darius M. Rejali (2007). Torture and Democracy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11422-6. The phrase was originally coined by Major Richard Sylvester of Washington ...
Jump up ^ Ken Alder (2007). The Lie Detectors. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5988-2. Thomas Byrnes, New York's notorious cop, is said to have coined the term 'third degree'—perhaps a pun on his name—for his violent interrogations…
Jump up ^ The degrees of torture used by the Spanish Inquisition have been described by Julius Glarus in the following terms: "Know therefore that there are five degrees of torture, viz: First, the being threatened to be tortured. Secondly, being carried to the place of torture. Thirdly, by stripping and binding. Fourthly, the being hoisted up on the rack. Fifthly, squassation." From these degrees of torture we get the famous third degree over which there has been so much controversy in the Press recently.
John Swain, The Pleasures of the Torture Chamber, 1931
The "third degree" method of torturing a prisoner or suspect into confessing or answering questions or giving information is based on the method used by the Spanish Inquisition and is, generally, a war of nerves on the victim, followed many times by brute force at the end of a truncheon, by deliberate starvation, a deprivation of drink, exercise, sleep and amenities to perform the natural functions.
Edwin J. Henri, Methods of Torture and Execution, 1966
Jump up ^ Odifreddi, Piergiorgio (c. 2000). "L'intuizione al potere". Logica Matematica. Episode 14. Nettuno (RAI). Translation of relevant passage (13:03-13:22): "The next problem, however, equations of third degree, is a very complicated problem. And in fact, even today people say 'he's giving me the third degree', or when you go to the police station and get arrested, the police give you the 'third degree'. So why this expression about the 'third degree'? Well the 'third degree' derives from right here, from the fact that the third-degree equation was very difficult to solve.'
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third_degree_(interrogation)&oldid=838322095"
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text:
The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy
Frontispiece and title page in an early posthumous edition, published by L. Wangford, c. 1777
Author
"By a LADY"
(Hannah Glasse)
Country
England
Language
English
Subject
English cooking
Genre
Cookbook
Publisher
Hannah Glasse
Publication date
1747
Pages
384
The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy is a cookbook by Hannah Glasse (1708–1770) first published in 1747. It was a bestseller for a century after its first publication, dominating the English-speaking market and making Glasse one of the most famous cookbook authors of her time. The book ran through at least 40 editions, many of them were copied without explicit author consent. It was published in Dublin from 1748, and in America from 1805.
Glasse said in her note "To the Reader" that she used plain language so that servants would be able to understand it.
The 1751 edition was the first book to mention trifle with jelly as an ingredient; the 1758 edition gave the first mention of "Hamburgh sausages" and piccalilli, while the 1774 edition of the book included one of the first recipes in English for an Indian-style curry. Glasse criticised French influence of British cuisine, but included dishes with French names and French influence in the book. Other recipes use imported ingredients including cocoa, cinnamon, nutmeg, pistachios and musk.
The book was popular in the Thirteen Colonies of America, and its appeal survived the American War of Independence, with copies being owned by Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington.
Contents
1 Book
1.1 Contents
1.2 Approach
2 Foreign ingredients and recipes
3 Reception
3.1 Contemporary
3.1.1 England
3.1.2 Thirteen Colonies
3.2 Modern
4 Legacy
5 Editions
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Book[edit]
The Art of Cookery was the dominant reference for home cooks in much of the English-speaking world in the second half of the 18th century and the early 19th century, and it is still used as a reference for food research and historical reconstruction. The book was updated significantly both during her life and after her death.
Hannah Glasse's signature at the top of the first chapter of her book, 6th Edition, 1758, in an attempt to reduce plagiarism
Early editions were not illustrated. Some posthumous editions include a decorative frontispiece, with the caption
The FAIR, who's Wise and oft consults our BOOK,
And thence directions gives her Prudent Cook,
With CHOICEST VIANDS, has her Table Crown'd,
And Health, with Frugal Ellegance is found.
Some of the recipes were plagiarised, to the extent of being reproduced verbatim from earlier books by other writers.[1] To guard against plagiarism, the title page of, for example, the sixth edition (1758) carries at its foot the warning "This BOOK is published with his MAJESTY's Royal Licence; and whoever prints it, or any Part of it, will be prosecuted". In addition, the first page of the main text is signed in ink by the author.
The first edition of the book was published by Glasse herself, funded by subscription, and sold (to non-subscribers) at Mrs. Ashburn's China Shop.[2]
Contents[edit]
Chapter 1: Of Roasting, Boiling, &c.
Chapter 2: Made Dishes.
Chapter 3: Read this Chapter, and you will find how expensive a French Cook's Sauce is.
Chapter 4: To make a Number of pretty little Dishes fit for a Supper, or Side-Dish, and little Corner-Dishes for a Great Table; and the rest you have in the Chapter for Lent.
Chapter 5: Of Dressing Fish.
Chapter 6: Of Soops and Broths.
Chapter 7: Of Puddings.
Chapter 8: Of Pies.
Chapter 9: For a Fast-Dinner, a Number of good Dishes, which you may make use of for a Table at any other Time.
Chapter 10: Directions for the Sick.
Chapter 11: For Captains of Ships.
Chapter 12: Of Hogs Puddings, Sausages, &c.
Chapter 13: To pot and make Hams, &c.
Chapter 14: Of Pickling.
Chapter 15: Of making Cakes, &c.
Chapter 16: Of Cheesecakes, Creams, Jellies, Whipt Syllabubs, &c.
Chapter 17: Of Made Wines, Brewing, French Bread, Muffins, &c.
Chapter 18: Jarring Cherries, and Preserves, &c.
Chapter 19: To make Anchovies, Vermicella, Catchup, Vinegar; and to keep Artichokes, French Beans, &c.
Chapter 20: Of Distilling.
Chapter 21: How to market, and the Seasons of the Year for Butchers Meat, Poultry, Fish, Herbs, Roots, &c and Fruit.
Chapter 22: [Against pests]
Additions
Contents of the Appendix.
Approach[edit]
To make a trifle.[a]
COVER the bottom of your dish or bowl with Naples biscuits broke in pieces, mackeroons broke in halves, and ratafia cakes. Just wet them all through with sack, then make a good boiled custard not too thick, and when cold pour it over it, then put a syllabub over that. You may garnish it with ratafia cakes, currant jelly, and flowers.[4]
The book has a brief table of contents on the title page, followed by a note "To the Reader", and then a full list of contents, by chapter, naming every recipe. There is a full alphabetical index at the back.
Glasse explains in her note "To the Reader" that she has written simply, "for my Intention is to instruct the lower Sort", giving the example of larding a chicken: she does not call for "large Lardoons, they would not know what I meant: But when I say they must lard with little Pieces of Bacon, they know what I mean." And she comments that "the great Cooks have such a high way of expressing themselves, that the poor Girls are at a Loss to know what they mean."[5]
As well as simplicity, to suit her readers in the kitchen, Glasse stresses her aim of economy: "some Things [are] so extravagant, that it would be almost a Shame to make Use of them, when a Dish can be made full as good, or better, without them."[6]
Chapters sometimes begin with a short introduction giving general advice on the topic at hand, such as cooking meat; the recipes occupy the rest of the text. The recipes give no indication of cooking time or oven temperature.[7] There are no separate lists of ingredients: where necessary, the recipes specify quantities directly in the instructions. Many recipes do not mention quantities at all, simply instructing the cook what to do, thus:
Sauce for Larks.
LARKS, roast them, and for Sauce have Crumbs of Bread; done thus: Take a Sauce-pan or Stew-pan and some Butter; when melted, have a good Piece of Crumb of Bread, and rub it in a clean Cloth to Crumbs, then throw it into your Pan; keep stirring them about till they are Brown, then throw them into a Sieve to drain, and lay them round your Larks.[8]
Foreign ingredients and recipes[edit]
Glasse used costly truffles in some recipes.
Glasse set out her views of French cuisine in the book's introduction: "I have indeed given some of my Dishes French Names to distinguish them, because they are known by those names; And where there is great Variety of Dishes, and a large Table to cover, so there must be Variety of Names for them; and it matters not whether they be called by a French, Dutch, or English Name, so they are good, and done with as little Expence as the Dish will allow of."[9] An example of such a recipe is "To à la Daube Pigeons";[10] a daube is a rich French meat stew from Provence, traditionally made with beef.[11] Her "A Goose à la Mode" is served in a sauce flavoured with red wine, home-made "Catchup", veal sweetbread, truffles, morels, and (more ordinary) mushrooms.[12] She occasionally uses French ingredients; "To make a rich Cake" includes "half a Pint of right French[b] Brandy", as well as the same amount of "Sack" (Spanish sherry).[12]
Ingredients from faraway countries were becoming available. The recipe for "Elder-Shoots, in Imitation of Bamboo" makes use of a homely ingredient to substitute for a foreign one that English travellers had encountered in the Far East. The same recipe also calls for a variety of imported spices to flavour the pickle: "an Ounce of white or red Pepper, an Ounce of Ginger sliced, a little Mace, and a few Corns of Jamaica Pepper."[13]
There are two recipes for making chocolate, calling for costly imported ingredients like musk (an aromatic obtained from musk deer) and ambergris (a waxy substance from sperm whales), vanilla and cardamon:[14]
Take six pounds of Cocoa-nuts, One Pound of Anniseeds, four Ounces of long Pepper, one of Cinnamon, a Quarter of a Pound of Almonds, one Pound of Pistachios, as much Achiote[c] as will make it the colour of Brick; three grains of Musk, and as much Ambergrease, six Pounds of Loaf-sugar, one Ounce of Nutmegs, dry and beat them, and fearce them through a fine Sieve...[14]
Reception[edit]
Contemporary[edit]
England[edit]
The Art of Cookery was a bestseller for a century after its first publication, making Glasse one of the most famous cookbook authors of her time.[15] The book was "by far the most popular cookbook in eighteenth-century Britain".[16]
It was rumoured for decades that despite the byline it was the work of a man, Samuel Johnson being quoted by James Boswell as observing at the publisher Charles Dilly's house that "Women can spin very well; but they cannot make a good book of cookery."[15]
The Foreign Quarterly Review of 1844 commented that "there are many good receipts in the work, and it is written in a plain style." The review applauds Glasse's goal of plain language, but observes "This book has one great fault; it is disfigured by a strong anti-Galican [anti-French] prejudice."[17]
Thirteen Colonies[edit]
The book sold extremely well in the Colonies of North America. This popularity survived the American War of Independence. A New York memoir of the 1840s declared that "We had emancipated ourselves from the sceptre of King George, but that of Hannah Glasse was extended without challenge over our fire-sides and dinner-tables, with a sway far more imperative and absolute".[16] The first American edition of The Art of Cookery (1805) included two recipes for "Indian pudding" as well as "Several New Receipts adapted to the American Mode of Cooking", such as "Pumpkin Pie", "Cranberry Tarts" and "Maple Sugar". Benjamin Franklin is said to have had some of the recipes translated into French for his cook while he was the American ambassador in Paris.[18][19] Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson owned copies of the book.[20]
Food critic John Hess and food historian Karen Hess have commented that the "quality and richness" of the dishes "should surprise those who believe that Americans of those days ate only Spartan frontier food", giving as examples the glass of Malaga wine, seven eggs and half a pound of butter in the pumpkin pie. They argue that while the elaborate bills of fare given for each month of the year in American editions were conspicuously wasteful, they were less so than the "interminable" menus "stuffed down" in the Victorian era, as guests were not expected to eat everything, but to choose which dishes they wanted, and "the cooking was demonstrably better in the eighteenth century."[18]
The book contains a recipe "To make Hamburgh Sausages"; it calls for beef, suet, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, "a great Quantity of Garlick cut small", white wine vinegar, salt, a glass of red wine and a glass of rum; once mixed, this is to be stuffed "very tight" into "the largest Gut you can find", smoked for up to ten days, and then air-dried; it would keep for a year, and was "very good boiled in Peas Porridge, and roasted with toasted bread under it, or in an Amlet".[21] The cookery writer Linda Stradley in an article on hamburgers suggests that the recipe was brought to England by German immigrants; its appearance in the first American edition may be the first time "Hamburgh" is associated with chopped meat in America.[22]
Modern[edit]
Rose Prince, writing in The Independent, describes Glasse as "the first domestic goddess, the queen of the dinner party and the most important cookery writer to know about." She notes that Clarissa Dickson-Wright "makes a good case" for giving Glasse this much credit, that Glasse had found a gap in the market, and had the distinctions of simplicity, an "appetising repertoire", and a lightness of touch. Prince quotes the food writer Bee Wilson: "She's authoritative but she is also intimate, treating you as an equal", and concludes "A perfect book, then; one that deserved the acclaim it received."[23] Jane Shilling, writing in Mail Online, agrees, noting that "Glasse writes in the same sort of chatty, intimate style that makes Delia and Nigella's books so comforting for the nervous cook: Glasse concludes one chapter 'You must do just as you like it'."[24]
Receipt To make a Currey the Indian Way, on page 101
The cookery writer Laura Kelley notes that the 1774 edition was one of the first books in English to include a recipe for curry: "To make a currey the Indian way." The recipe calls for two small chickens to be fried in butter; for ground turmeric, ginger and pepper to be added and the dish to be stewed; and for cream and lemon juice to be added just before serving. Kelley comments that "The dish is very good, but not quite a modern curry. As you can see from the title of my interpreted recipe, the modern dish most like it is an eastern (Kolkata) butter chicken. However, the Hannah Glasse curry recipe lacks a full complement of spices and the varying amounts of tomato sauce now so often used in the dish."[25]
The cookery writer Sophia Waugh said that Glasse's food was what Jane Austen and her contemporaries would have eaten. Glasse is one of the five female writers discussed in Waugh's 2013 book Cooking People: The Writers Who Taught the English How to Eat.[26]
The historian of food Peter Brears said that the book was the first to include a recipe for Yorkshire pudding.[27]
Legacy[edit]
Ian Mayes, writing in The Guardian, quotes Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable as stating "First catch your hare. This direction is generally attributed to Hannah Glasse, habit-maker to the Prince of Wales, and author of The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy". Her actual directions are, 'Take your Hare when it is cas'd, and make a pudding...' To 'case' means to take off the skin" [not "to catch"]; Mayes notes further that both the Oxford English Dictionary and The Dictionary of National Biography discuss the attribution.[28]
As at 2015[update], Scott Herritt's "South End" restaurant in South Kensington, London serves some recipes from the book.[29] The "Nourished Kitchen" website describes the effort required to translate Glasse's 18th-century recipes into modern cooking techniques.[7]
Editions[edit]
The book ran through many editions, including:[30]
First edition, London: Printed for the author, 1747.
London: Printed for the author, 1748.
Dublin: E. & J. Exshaw, 1748.
London: Printed for the author, 1751.
London: Printed for the author, 1755.
Sixth edition, London: Printed for the author, sold by A. Millar, & T. Trye, 1758.
London: A. Millar, J. and R. Tonson, W. Strahan, P. Davey and B. Law, 1760.
London: A. Millar, J. and R. Tonson, W. Strahan, T. Caslon, B. Law, and A. Hamilton, 1763.
Dublin: E. & J. Exshaw, 1762.
Dublin: E. & J. Exshaw, 1764.
London: A. Millar, J. and R. Tonson, W. Strahan, T. Caslon, T. Durham, and W. Nicoll, 1765.
London: W. Strahan and 30 others, 1770.
London: J. Cooke, 1772.
Dublin: J. Exshaw, 1773.
Edinburgh: Alexander Donaldson, 1774.
London: W. Strahan and others, 1774.
London: L. Wangford, c. 1775.
London: W. Strahan and others, 1778.
London: W. Strahan and 25 others, 1784.
London: J. Rivington and others, 1788.
Dublin: W. Gilbert, 1791.
London: T. Longman and others, 1796.
Dublin: W. Gilbert, 1796.
Dublin: W. Gilbert, 1799.
London: J. Johnson and 23 others, 1803.
Alexandria, Virginia: Cottom and Stewart, 1805.
Alexandria, Virginia: Cottom and Stewart, 1812.
London: H. Quelch, 1828.
London: Orlando Hodgson, 1836.
London: J.S. Pratt, 1843.
Aberdeen: G. Clark & Son, 1846.
The art of cookery, made plain and easy to the understanding of every housekeeper, cook, and servant. With John Farley. Philadelphia: Franklin Court, 1978.
"First catch your hare--" : the art of cookery made plain and easy. With Jennifer Stead, Priscilla Bain. London: Prospect, 1995.
--- Totnes: Prospect, 2004.
Alexandria, Virginia: Applewood Books, 1997.
Farmington Hill, Michigan: Thomson Gale, 2005.
Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2015.
See also[edit]
Cajsa Warg
François Pierre La Varenne
Early modern European cuisine
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This recipe first appeared in the 1751 edition, making Glasse the first author to record the use of jelly in trifle.[3]
Jump up ^ Her emphasis.
Jump up ^ Achiote is the plant that yields the natural pigment annatto, still used to colour food.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rose Prince (24 June 2006). "Hannah Glasse: The original domestic goddess". The Independent.
Jump up ^ Boyle, Laura (13 October 2011). "Hannah Glasse". Jane Austen Centre. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Phipps, Catherine (21 December 2009). "No such thing as a mere trifle". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page 285
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page i
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page ii
^ Jump up to: a b "Cookery Made Plain & Easy – An 18th Century Supper". Nourished Kitchen. 27 September 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Pages 5–6
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page v
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page 85
Jump up ^ "Daube de boeuf provençale, la recette". Saveurs Croisees. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Glasse, 1758. Page 271
Jump up ^ Glasse, 1758. Page 270
^ Jump up to: a b Glasse, 1758. Page 357
^ Jump up to: a b "The Art of Cookery". British Library. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Stavely, Keith W. F.; Fitzgerald, Kathleen (1 January 2011). Northern Hospitality: Cooking by the Book in New England. Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. 8. ISBN 1-55849-861-3.
Jump up ^ The Foreign Quarterly Review. Treuttel and Würtz, Treuttel, Jun, and Richter. 1844. p. 202.
^ Jump up to: a b Hess, John L.; Hess, Karen (2000). The Taste of America. University of Illinois Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-252-06875-1.
Jump up ^ Chinard, Gilbert (1958). Benjamin Franklin on the Art of Eating. American Philosophical Society. p. (cited by Hess and Hess, 2000).
Jump up ^ Rountree, Susan Hight (2003). From a Colonial Garden: Ideas, Decorations, Recipes. Colonial Williamsburg. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-87935-212-7.
Jump up ^ Glass, 1758. Page 370.
Jump up ^ Stradley, Linda (2004). "Hamburgers - History and Legends of Hamburgers". What's Cooking America. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Prince, Rose (24 June 2006). "Hannah Glasse: The original domestic goddess". The Independent. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Shilling, Jane (9 January 2014). "A book on cookery? It'll never catch on". Daily Mail. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Kelley, Laura (14 April 2013). "Indian Curry Through Foreign Eyes #1: Hannah Glasse". Silk Road Gourmet. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Centuries of home cooking inspiration from female writers to be brought to life at Hampshire's Sophia Waugh book event". Hampshire Life. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Yorkshire pudding wrap: Reinventing the humble delicacy". BBC Leeds & West Yorkshire. 22 September 2017. According to Yorkshire food historian Peter Brears, the recipe first appeared in a book called The Art Of Cookery by Hannah Glasse in 1747. She *whisper* came from Northumberland.
Jump up ^ Mayes, Ian (3 June 2000). "Splitting Hares". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Kummer, Corby (November 2012). "Restaurant Review: Kitchen in the South End". Boston Magazine. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hannah Glasse: Art of Cookery". WorldCat. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
External links[edit]
In various formats at the Internet Archive
show
v
t
e
English cuisine
Roman times
Dishes
Sausages
Middle Ages
Exemplars
Utilis Coquinario
The Forme of Cury (c. 1390)
Dishes
Apple pie
Bacon
Banbury cake
Cheesecake
Custard
Game pie
Gingerbread
Kippers
Mince pie
Mortis
Pasty
Pease pudding
Pie
Pottage
16th century
Exemplars
Thomas Dawson (The Good Huswifes Jewell, 1585)
Dishes
Black pudding
Fruit fool
Pancake
Scones
Syllabub
Trifle (without jelly)
17th century
Exemplars
Elinor Fettiplace (Receipt Book, 1604)
Gervase Markham (The English Huswife, 1615)
Robert May (The Accomplisht Cook, 1660)
Hannah Woolley (The Queen-like Closet or Rich Cabinet 1670)
Kenelm Digby (The Closet Opened 1699)
Dishes
Battalia pie
Currant bun
Queen of Puddings
Sponge cake
Sussex pond pudding
Sweet and sour
Tea
18th century
Exemplars
Mary Kettilby (A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts 1714)
John Nott (The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary, 1723)
Eliza Smith (The Compleat Housewife 1727)
Hannah Glasse (The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy 1747)
Elizabeth Raffald (The Experienced English Housekeeper 1769)
Richard Briggs (The English Art of Cookery 1788)
William Augustus Henderson (The Housekeeper's Instructor 1791)
Dishes
Bread and butter pudding
Christmas pudding
Chutney
Cottage or Shepherd's pie
Eccles cake
Jellied eels
Jugged hare
Ketchup
Marmalade
Parkin
Piccalilli
Pork pie
Roast beef
Sandwich
Scouse
Suet pudding
Toad in the hole
Trifle (with jelly)
Welsh rabbit
Yorkshire pudding
19th century
Exemplars
Mrs Rundell (A New System of Domestic Cookery 1806)
Eliza Acton (Modern Cookery for Private Families 1845)
Charles Elmé Francatelli (The Modern Cook 1846)
Isabella Beeton (Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management 1861)
Dishes
Bubble and squeak
Cauliflower cheese
Cobbler
Devilled kidneys
Faggots
Fish and chips
Full English breakfast
HP Sauce
Ice cream cone
Lancashire hotpot
Potted shrimps
Sausage roll
Steak and kidney pudding
Battenberg cake
Eton mess
Eve's pudding
Jam roly-poly
Lardy cake
Madeira cake
Summer pudding
Worcestershire sauce
20th century
Exemplars
Elizabeth David (A Book of Mediterranean Food 1950)
Constance Spry
Marguerite Patten
Jane Grigson
Delia Smith
Rick Stein
Nigel Slater
Keith Floyd
Marco Pierre White
Fergus Henderson
Gordon Ramsay
Gary Rhodes
Dishes
Bakewell tart
Beef Wellington
Carrot cake
Chicken tikka masala
Crumble
Knickerbocker glory
Ploughman's lunch
Salad cream
21st century
Exemplars
Michel Roux Jr. (Le Gavroche)
Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall (River Cottage)
Antony Worrall Thompson
Heston Blumenthal (The Fat Duck)
Mary Berry
Clarissa Dickson Wright (A History of English Food 2011)
Related
Food in England (1954)
List of English dishes
List of English cheeses
List of puddings
Rationing in the United Kingdom
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