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Flag of Syria
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As a result of the ongoing Syrian civil war, there are currently two governments claiming to be the de jure government of Syria,[dubious – discuss] using different flags to represent the state. The incumbent government, led by Bashar al-Assad and the Ba'ath Party, is using the red-white-black United Arab Republic flag in use since 1980; while the Syrian Interim Government, led by the Syrian National Coalition – seeking to overthrow the Assad government – readopted the green-white-black Independence flag in 2012.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flag used by the Assad government
1.1 Interpretation of the colors
2 Flag used by the Syrian Opposition
3 Historic flags of Syria
3.1 Kingdom of Syria (1920)
3.2 French Mandate flags (1920–32)
3.3 Independence flag
3.3.1 French Mandate and independence (1932–58, 1961–63)
3.4 Ba'athist flags
4 List of flags of Syria
4.1 Flags of heads of state
5 Mandate of Syria
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
Flag used by the Assad government[edit]
Syrian Arab Republic
Use
National flag and ensign
Proportion
2:3
Adopted
22 February 1958, abandoned on 28 September 1961;
readopted on 30 March 1980[1]
Design
A horizontal tricolour of red, white, and black; charged with two green stars at the centre.
The current flag was first adopted in 1958 to represent Syria as part of the United Arab Republic, and was used until 1961. It was readopted in 1980. Since its first adoption, variations of the red-white-black flag have been used in various Arab Unions of Syria with Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Yemen and Iraq. Although Syria is not part of any Arab state union, the flag of the United Arab Republic was readopted to show Syria's commitment to Arab unity.[2] The usage of the flag has become disputed because it is often associated with the Ba'ath Party and has come to represent parties loyal to Assad's government in the Syrian civil war.[3]
The Syrian flag is described in Article 6 of the Syrian Constitution. The first paragraph of the Article states:
The flag of the Syrian Arab Republic consists of three colours: red, white and black, with two green stars, of five angles each. The flag is rectangular, with its width measuring two thirds of its length. It is divided into three rectangles of identical dimensions and have the same length as the flag. The upper one is red, the middle being white and the bottom one is black, with the two green stars in the middle of the white rectangle.
—  1st Paragraph of Article 6 of the Syrian Constitution[4]
The flag is based on the Arab Liberation Flag, which had four colors - black, green, white and red - representing four major dynasties of Arab history: Abbasids, Faṭimids, Umayyads, and Hashimites.[5]
Interpretation of the colors[edit]
Scheme
Textile color
Red
The Hashemite dynasty, bloody struggle for freedom.[6]
White
The Umayyad dynasty[6], bright and peaceful future.
Green
The Fatimid dynasty,[6] the stars representing Egypt and Syria.[5]
Black
The Abbasid dynasty,[6] oppression.[5]
Flag used by the Syrian Opposition[edit]
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Flag of the Syrian opposition. (Discuss) (April 2018)
See also: Syrian Civil War
Syrian National Coalition
Syrian Interim Government
Name
"Independence flag"[7]
Use
National flag and ensign
Proportion
2:3 (disputed)
Adopted
Originally in 1932 with 1:2 aspect ratio, was readopted in 1961. Adopted with 2:3 aspect ratio in 2012 by opposition government-in-exile[8] (sometimes the original 1:2 aspect ratio flag is used unofficially)
Design
A horizontal tricolor triband of green, white, and black, with three red stars charged in the center.
During the ongoing civil war, the Syrian opposition, represented by the Syrian National Council, then by the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces[9] (commonly named the Syrian National Coalition) used a modified version of the independence flag first used in 1932 with a 2:3 aspect ratio. The modified independence flag began to be used as a universal display of the protesting opposition in late 2011.[9] The opposition wanted to distinguish themselves from the current Syrian government and favoured the use of the flag used when Syria gained its independence from France. Khaled Kamal, an official from the Syrian National Council, now believes this flag to also represent independence and the end of Bashar al-Assad's government. Today the flag is mainly used in areas controlled by the Syrian National Coalition. The use of the modified independence flag is similar to the Libyan rebels' use of the pre-Gaddafi Libyan flag from the era of the Kingdom of Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi's green flag.[10] The original 1:2 aspect ratio flag has been used by the opposition unofficially on several occasions.
Historic flags of Syria[edit]
Kingdom of Syria (1920)[edit]
See also: Arab Kingdom of Syria
Flag of the Arab Kingdom of Syria
The first native Syrian flag was that of the short-lived Kingdom of Syria. The Ottoman flag had been used in Syria until Ottomans left the country on 18 September 1918. In 1918, the official flag of Syria was the Faysal flag, the flag of the Arab revolt between 1916 and 1918. It was officially adopted by the Hashemite family on 30 September 1918 and remained in use until 8 March 1920. The Faysal flag was then redesigned with the 7-pointed white star and was in use until 24 July 1920. This flag was, however, was adopted by Jordan somewhat later.[2] The kingdom lasted for just over 4 months in 1920 before being occupied by France and formally incorporated into the French colonial empire for some 12 years. Due first to French stalling with regard to signing an independence treaty, then followed by the chaotic political environment of World War II, Syria continued to be factually occupied to varying degrees.[11] The last French troops left Syria in August 1946.[12]
French Mandate flags (1920–32)[edit]
See also: French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon
Flag of the State of Syria
The Faysal flag was abandoned with the arrival of French colonials to Syria. The French High Commissioner for Syria, General Henri Gouraud adopted the new flag of the French Mandate of Syria (blue with a white crescent, see below) on 24 July 1920. Gouraud's flag was in use until 1 September 1920, after which Syria was split into separate territories, each eventually given its own flag.[13] The Prime Minister of Syria under French Mandate, Jamil al-Ulshi, adopted the new flag on 22 June 1920. This flag was in use until 1930. The third and final flag under the French Mandate was adopted by Prime Minister Taj al-Din al-Hasani in 1930 and was used until 1 January 1932.[14]
Independence flag[edit]
French Mandate and independence (1932–58, 1961–63)[edit]
See also: Mandatory Syrian Republic and Syrian Republic (1946–1963)
Flag of the Syrian Republic under the French Mandate, as described in the Constitution of the Syrian Republic
The flag of the newly established Syrian Republic, under the French mandate was determined by the 1930 constitution. The constitution was drafted by a parliamentary committee led by nationalist leader Ibrahim Hananu.[15] At first, French authorities refused to allow the constituent assembly to ratify the constitution, and Henri Ponsot, the High Commissioner of the Levant, dissolved the assembly on 5 February 1929. After a public uproar, French authorities rescinded their decision and decided to approve the draft with some changes.[16] On 14 May 1930, Ponsot issued decree number 3111, which approved the Syrian-drafted "Constitution of the Syrian Republic", and which in Article IV of Part I states:
"[The] Syrian flag will be as follows: length double width, and is divided into three parallel and equal colors, the highest green, white then black, that the white section contains in a straight line three red five-pointed stars".
—  Article IV, Part I, Constitution of the Syrian Republic[17]
The flag was adopted when Syria gained its independence on 17 April 1946.[2] The flag's green colour stood for the Rashidun, white represented the Umayyads and black symbolised the Abbasids. Originally, the three red stars represented the three districts of Syria, Aleppo, Damascus, and Deir ez-Zor. In 1936, the Sanjak of Latakia and Jebel Druze were added to Syria, and the representation of the three stars was changed, with the first representing the districts of Aleppo, Damascus and Deir ez-Zor, the second Jebel Druze, and the final star representing Sanjak of Latakia.[14] The flag was officially hoisted in Damascus on 11 June 1932, but was previously flown in Aleppo on 1 January 1932.[14] The flag was used as a symbol for Syrians to rally around when France reneged on its agreement to leave the country, due to the outbreak of World War II.[18] The standard was used until the creation of the United Arab Republic, a state union of Syria and Egypt, in 1958. After the collapse of the United Arab Republic, Syria used the UAR's flag until 28 September 1961, when it was replaced by the independence flag to disassociate Syria from the former failed union.[2]
Ba'athist flags[edit]
See also: Ba'ath Party and Pan-Arab colors
Flag of Syria in 1958–1961 (in the United Arab Republic) and from 1980 onwards
Flag of Syria between 1963 and 1972 and Flag of Iraq between 1963 and 1991
Flag of Syria in the Federation of Arab Republics between 1972 and 1980
The current two-star flag of Syria was first adopted by Gamal Abd al-Nasser, president of Egypt and president of the United Arab Republic.[19] The flag was changed from the former independence flag in April 1958 along with associated laws designed to create a greater Arab identity.[19] The new flag took the coloured red-white-black bands from the Arab Liberation flag and the stars on the flag were changed from red to green in order to restore the pan-Arab colours. The two stars represented Egypt and Syria.[20] After Syria left the UAR on 28 September 1961, the previous independence flag was readopted to disassociate Syria from the failed union. The first flag of Syria to be adopted by its Revolutionary Command Council — following a Ba'athist coup d'état[21] — was adopted on 8 March 1963, and was used until 1 January 1972.[2] In 1963, the Ba'athist regime came to power in Iraq as well, and the two Ba'athis governments began negotiations in Cairo in order to once again form a union between Egypt, Syria and Iraq. The process failed after the Iraqi Ba'athist government was overthrown in November 1963 but both Syria and Iraq did adopt a new flag to represent the union.[22] This flag was not much different from the flag of the UAR, with only a change from two stars to three, in order to represent the addition of Iraq to the Federation.[2] The three stars represented the unity of Egypt, Syria and Iraq, as well as three pillars of Ba'athism: unity, freedom, and socialism.[23] President Hafez al-Assad adopted the new flag on 1 January 1972, as Syria joined Egypt and Libya in the Federation of Arab Republics. The green stars were replaced by the Hawk of Quraish (the symbol of the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad). The eagle held the ribbon with name of the Federation, but unlike Egypt and Libya, Syria did not include its name on the coat of arms.[14] This flag was an official flag during the October War in 1973.[2] The Federation was dissolved in 1977, but Syria continued to use the flag for the next three years.[14] The flag was abrogated on 29 March 1980,[2] and replaced by the current two-star flag[23] in order to show Syria's commitment to Arab unity.[2]
List of flags of Syria[edit]
1920, Kingdom of Syria
1920, Mandate of Syria
1922–1932, Syrian Federation and State of Syria
1932–1958, Syrian Republic
1958–1961, United Arab Republic
1961–1963, Syrian Arab Republic
1963–1972, Syrian Arab Republic
1972–1980, Syrian Arab Republic in the Federation of Arab Republics
2012–present, Flag used by the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
1980–present, Syrian Arab Republic
Flags of heads of state[edit]
1920, Royal Standard of the King of Syria
1972–1980, Standard of the President of Syria
1980–present, Standard of the President of Syria
Mandate of Syria[edit]
Each of the states in the French Mandate of Syria had its own distinct flag. The Alexandretta Sanjak, which was a part of the State of Aleppo from 1920 to 1923, and later a part of the Alawite State from 1923 to 1938, did not have its own flag until it became independent as the Hatay State.
1920–1925, State of Aleppo
1920–1925, State of Damascus
1920–1936, Alawite Territory, Alawite State, and Sanjak of Latakia
1921–1924, State of Souaida
1924–1936, State of Souaida and Jebel Druze State
1921–1936, Civil flag of Souaida and Jebel Druze
1938–1939, State of Hatay
See also[edit]
Coat of arms of Syria
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ipavec, Eugene (17 March 2012). "Syria". Flags of the World. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Syrian Flag". History of Syria. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Moubayed, Sami (6 August 2012). "Capture the Flag". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "English Translation of the Syrian Constitution". Qordoba. 15 February 2012. p. 8. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Syria Flag - colors, meaning, history of Syria's Flag
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Come to Syria | Syrian flag | National Anthem of Syria | Facts about Syria". Cometosyria.com, Syria guide - Come to Syria.
Jump up ^ http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6c332676-32f4-11e1-8e0d-00144feabdc0.html#axzz21nLTtBKA
Jump up ^ http://www.etilaf.org/
^ Jump up to: a b "Syria halts Homs siege as Arab monitors arrive". CBS News. 27 December 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Daraghi, Borzou (30 December 2011). "Syrian rebels raise a flag from the past". Retrieved 7 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Thomas 2007, p. 276-278.
Jump up ^ Heydemann 1999, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Sache, Ivan; Ollé, Jaume (29 March 2012). "Historical Flags Until 1932 (Syria)". Flags of the World. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ipavec, Eugene; Martins, António; Heimer, Željko; Dotor, Santiago (10 June 2011). "Historical flags since 1932". Flags of the World. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Thompson 2000, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Schumann 2008, p. 204.
Jump up ^ The 1930 Constitution is integrally reproduced in: Giannini, A. (1931). "Le costituzioni degli stati del vicino oriente" (in French). Istituto per l’Oriente. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Lawson 2006, p. 46.
^ Jump up to: a b Podeh 1999, p. 120.
Jump up ^ Mills, T. F. (10 March 2012). "Pan-Arab Colours". Flags of the World. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
Jump up ^ King 2009, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Goodarzi 2006, p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b العلم السوري (in Arabic). Discover Syria. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
Bibliography[edit]
Goodarzi, Jubin M. (2006). Syria and Iran: Diplomatic Alliance and Power Politics in the Middle East. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781845111274.
Heydemann, Steven (1999). Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801429323.
Lawson, Fred H. (2006). Constructing International Relations in the Arab World. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804753722.
King, Stephen J. (2009). The New Authoritarianism in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253353979.
Podeh, Elie (1999). The Decline of Arab Unity: The Rise and Fall of the United Arabic Republic. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 9781902210209.
Schumann, Cristoph (2008). Liberal Thought in the Eastern Mediterranean: Late 19th Century Until the 1960s. BRILL. ISBN 9789004165489.
Thomas, Martin (2007). Empires of Intelligence: Security Services and Colonial Disorder after 1914. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520251175.
Thompson, Elizabeth (2000). Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231106610.
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Atrioventricular block
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Atrioventricular block
Classification and external resources
Specialty
Cardiology
ICD-10
I44.0-I44.3
ICD-9-CM
426.0-426.1
eMedicine
med/189
MeSH
D054537
[edit on Wikidata]
Atrioventricular block (AV block) is a type of heart block in which the conduction between the atria and ventricles of the heart is impaired. Under normal conditions, the sinoatrial node (SA node) in the atria sets the pace for the heart, and these impulses travel down to the ventricles. In an AV block, this message does not reach the ventricles or is impaired along the way. The ventricles of the heart have their own pacing mechanisms, which can maintain a lowered heart rate in the absence of SA stimulation.
The causes of pathological AV block are varied and include ischaemia, infarction, fibrosis or drugs, and the blocks may be complete or may only impair the signaling between the SA and AV nodes. Certain AV blocks can also be found as normal variants, such as in athletes or children, and are benign.[1] Strong vagal stimulation may also produce AV block. The cholinergic receptor types affected are the muscarinic receptors.
There are three types:
First-degree atrioventricular block - The heart’s electrical signals move between the upper and lower chambers of the heart.[2]PR interval greater than 0.20sec.
Second-degree atrioventricular block - The heart’s electrical signals between the upper and lower signals of the heart are slowed by a much greater rate than in first-degree atrioventricular block.[2] Type 1 (a.k.a. Mobitz 1, Wenckebach): Progressive prolongation of PR interval with dropped beats (the PR interval gets longer and longer; finally one beat drops) . Type 2 (a.k.a. Mobitz 2, Hay): PR interval remains unchanged prior to the P wave which suddenly fails to conduct to the ventricles.
Mobitz I is characterized by a reversible block of the AV node. When the AV node is severely blocked, it fails to conduct an impulse. Mobitz I is a progressive failure. Some patients are asymptomatic; those who have symptoms respond to treatment effectively. There is low risk of the AV block leading to heart attack. Mobitz II is characterized by a failure of the His-Purkinje cells resulting in the lack of a supra ventricular impulse. These cardiac His-Purkinje cells are responsible for the rapid propagation in the heart. Mobitz II is caused by a sudden and unexpected failure of the His-Purkinje cells. The risks and possible effects of Mobitz II are much more severe than Mobitz I in that it can lead to severe heart attack.[3]
Third-degree atrioventricular block - No association between P waves and QRS complexes. The heart’s electrical signals are slowed to a complete halt. This means that none of the signals reach either the upper or lower chambers causing a complete blockage of the ventricles and can result in cardiac arrest. Third-degree atrioventricular block is the most severe of the types of heart ventricle blockages. Persons suffering from symptoms of third-degree heart block need emergency treatment including but not limited to a pacemaker.[2]
In order to differentiate between the different degrees of the atrioventricular block (AV block), the First-Degree AV block occurs when an electrocardiogram (ECG) reads a PR interval that is more than 200 msec. This degree is typically asymptomatic and is only found through an ECG reading. Second-Degree AV block, although typically asymptomatic, has early signs that can be detected or are noticeable such as irregular heartbeat or a syncope. A Third-Degree AV block, has noticeable symptoms that present itself as more urgent such as: dizziness, fatigue, chest pain, pre syncope, or syncope.[4]
Laboratory diagnosis for AV blocks include electrolyte, drug level and cardiac enzyme level tests. A clinical evaluation also looks at infection, myxedema, or connective tissue disease studies. In order to properly diagnose a patient with AV block, an electrocardiographic recording must be completed (ECG). Based on the P waves and QRS complexes that can be evaluated from these readings, that relationship will be the standardized test if an AV block is present or not. In order to identify this block based on the readings the following must occur: multiple ECG recordings, 24-hour Holter monitoring, and implant loop recordings. Other examinations for the detection of an AV block include electrophysiologic testing, echocardiography, and exercise.[4]
Management includes a form of pharmacologic therapy that administers anticholinergic agents and is dependent upon the severity of a blockage. In severe cases or emergencies, atropine administration or isoproterenol infusion would allow for temporary relief if bradycardia is the cause for the blockage, but if His-Purkinje system is the result of the AV block then pharmacologic therapy is not recommended.[4]
Sinus rhythm with acute inferior infarction complicated by Type I A-V block manifest in the form of 5:4 Wenckebach periods; R-P/P-R reciprocity.
Sinus rhythm (rate = 100/min) with 3:2 and 2:1 Type II A-V block; RBBB
Sinus tachycardia with complete A-V block and resulting junctional escape
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lilly, Leonard (2006). Pathophysiology of Heart Disease. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-6321-9. [page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Types of Heart Block - NHLBI, NIH". www.nhlbi.nih.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
Jump up ^ Wogan, J. M.; Lowenstein, S. R.; Gordon, G. S. (1993-01-01). "Second-degree atrioventricular block: Mobitz type II". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 11 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1016/0736-4679(93)90009-v. ISSN 0736-4679. PMID 8445186.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Atrioventricular Block: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology". 2017-01-06.
External links[edit]
http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/1429.htm
Second-Degree Atrioventricular Block at eMedicine
[show]
v
t
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Cardiovascular disease (heart) (I00–I52, 390–429)
Ischaemic
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Coronary thrombosis
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days
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weeks
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valves
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non-infective endocarditis
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regurgitation
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aortic
stenosis
insufficiency
tricuspid
stenosis
insufficiency
pulmonary
stenosis
insufficiency
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arrhythmia
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1°
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Right
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Adams–Stokes syndrome
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(paroxysmal and sinus)
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Multifocal
Junctional
AV nodal reentrant
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Ventricular
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Torsades de pointes
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Junctional
Ventricular
Pre-excitation syndrome
Lown–Ganong–Levine
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Andersen–Tawil
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Other / ungrouped
hexaxial reference system
Right axis deviation
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QT
Short QT syndrome
T
T wave alternans
ST
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Ventricular hypertrophy
Left
Right / Cor pulmonale
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Left
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Real estate bubble
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A real estate bubble or property bubble (or housing bubble for residential markets) is a type of economic bubble that occurs periodically in local or global real estate markets, typically following a land boom. A land boom is the rapid increase in the market price of real property such as housing until they reach unsustainable levels and then decline. The questions of whether real estate bubbles can be identified and prevented, and whether they have broader macroeconomic significance, are answered differently by schools of economic thought, as detailed below.
Bubbles in housing markets are more critical than stock market bubbles. Historically, equity price busts occur on average every 13 years, last for 2.5 years, and result in about 4 percent loss in GDP. Housing price busts are less frequent, but last nearly twice as long and lead to output losses that are twice as large (IMF World Economic Outlook, 2003). A recent laboratory experimental study[1] also shows that, compared to financial markets, real estate markets involve longer boom and bust periods. Prices decline slower because the real estate market is less liquid.
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 was related to the bursting of real estate bubbles that had begun in various countries during the 2000s.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Identification and prevention
2 Macroeconomic significance
3 Housing market indicators
3.1 Housing affordability measures
3.2 Housing debt measures
3.3 Housing ownership and rent measures
3.4 Housing price indices
4 Recent real estate bubbles
5 US real estate bubble 2012–present
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Identification and prevention[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
US house price trend (1998–2008) as measured by the Case-Shiller index
Ratio of Melbourne median house prices to Australian annual wages, 1965 to 2010
As with all types of economic bubbles, disagreement exists over whether or not a real estate bubble can be identified or predicted, then perhaps prevented. Speculative bubbles are persistent, systematic and increasing deviations of actual prices from their fundamental values.[4] Bubbles can often be hard to identify, even after the fact, due to difficulty in accurately estimating intrinsic values.
In real estate, fundamentals can be estimated from rental yields (where real estate is then considered in a similar vein to stocks and other financial assets) or based on a regression of actual prices on a set of demand and/or supply variables.[5][6]
Within mainstream economics[clarification needed], it can be posed that real estate bubbles cannot be identified as they occur and cannot or should not be prevented, with government and central bank policy rather cleaning up after the bubble bursts.
American economist Robert Shiller of the Case-Shiller Home Price Index of home prices in 20 metro cities across the United States indicated on May 31, 2011 that a "Home Price Double Dip [is] Confirmed"[7] and British magazine The Economist, argue that housing market indicators can be used to identify real estate bubbles. Some[who?] argue further that governments and central banks can and should take action to prevent bubbles from forming, or to deflate existing bubbles.
Macroeconomic significance[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Within mainstream economics, economic bubbles, and in particular real estate bubbles, are not considered major concerns.[dubious – discuss] Within some schools of heterodox economics, by contrast, real estate bubbles are considered of critical importance and a fundamental cause of financial crises and ensuing economic crises.
The pre-dominating economic perspective is that economic bubbles result in a temporary boost in wealth and a redistribution of wealth. When prices increase, there is a positive wealth effect (property owners feel richer and spend more), and when they decline, there is a negative wealth effect (property owners feel poorer and spend less). These effects can be smoothed by counter-cyclical monetary and fiscal policies.[citation needed] The ultimate effect on owners who bought before the bubble formed and did not sell is zero. Those who bought when low and sold high profited, whereas those who bought high and sold low (after the bubble has burst) or held until the price fell lost money. This redistribution of wealth is of little macroeconomic significance[according to whom?].
In some schools of heterodox economics, notably Austrian economics and Post-Keynesian economics, real estate bubbles are seen as an example of credit bubbles (pejoratively,[clarification needed] speculative bubbles), because property owners generally use borrowed money to purchase property, in the form of mortgages. These are then argued to cause financial and hence economic crises. This is first argued empirically – numerous real estate bubbles have been followed by economic slumps, and it is argued that there is a cause-effect relationship between these.
The Post-Keynesian theory of debt deflation takes a demand-side view, arguing that property owners not only feel richer but borrow to (i) consume against the increased value of their property – by taking out a home equity line of credit, for instance; or (ii) speculate by buying property with borrowed money in the expectation that it will rise in value. When the bubble bursts, the value of the property decreases but not the level of debt. The burden of repaying or defaulting on the loan depresses aggregate demand, it is argued, and constitutes the proximate cause of the subsequent economic slump.
Housing market indicators[edit]
UK house prices between 1975 and 2006 adjusted for inflation.
Robert Shiller's plot of U.S. home prices, population, building costs, and bond yields, from Irrational Exuberance, 2d ed. Shiller shows that inflation adjusted U.S. home prices increased 0.4% per year from 1890–2004, and 0.7% per year from 1940–2004, whereas U.S. census data from 1940–2004 shows that the self-assessed value increased 2% per year.
In attempting to identify bubbles before they burst, economists have developed a number of financial ratios and economic indicators that can be used to evaluate whether homes in a given area are fairly valued. By comparing current levels to previous levels that have proven unsustainable in the past (i.e. led to or at least accompanied crashes), one can make an educated guess as to whether a given real estate market is experiencing a bubble. Indicators describe two interwoven aspects of housing bubble: a valuation component and a debt (or leverage) component. The valuation component measures how expensive houses are relative to what most people can afford, and the debt component measures how indebted households become in buying them for home or profit (and also how much exposure the banks accumulate by lending for them). A basic summary of the progress of housing indicators for U.S. cities is provided by Business Week.[8] See also: real estate economics and real estate trends.
Housing affordability measures[edit]
The price to income ratio is the basic affordability measure for housing in a given area. It is generally the ratio of median house prices to median familial disposable incomes, expressed as a percentage or as years of income. It is sometimes compiled separately for first-time buyers and termed attainability.[citation needed] This ratio, applied to individuals, is a basic component of mortgage lending decisions.[citation needed] According to a back-of-the-envelope calculation by Goldman Sachs, a comparison of median home prices to median household income suggests that U.S. housing in 2005 was overvalued by 10%. "However, this estimate is based on an average mortgage rate of about 6%, and we expect rates to rise", the firm's economics team wrote in a recent[when?] report.[9] According to Goldman's figures, a one-percentage-point rise in mortgage rates would reduce the fair value of home prices by 8%.[citation needed]
The deposit to income ratio is the minimum required downpayment for a typical mortgage[specify], expressed in months or years of income. It is especially important for first-time buyers without existing home equity; if the down payment becomes too high then those buyers may find themselves "priced out" of the market. For example, as of 2004[update] this ratio was equal to one year of income in the UK.[10]
Another variant is what the United States's National Association of Realtors calls the "housing affordability index" in its publications.[11] (The soundness of the NAR's methodology was questioned by some analysts as it does not account for inflation.[12] Other analysts,[who?] however, consider the measure appropriate, because both the income and housing cost data are expressed in terms that include inflation and, all things being equal, the index implicitly includes inflation[citation needed]).
The affordability index measures the ratio of the actual monthly cost of the mortgage to take-home income. It is used more in the United Kingdom where nearly all mortgages are variable and pegged to bank lending rates. It offers a much more realistic measure of the ability of households to afford housing than the crude price to income ratio. However it is more difficult to calculate, and hence the price-to-income ratio is still more commonly used by pundits.[who?] In recent years,[when?] lending practices have relaxed, allowing greater multiples of income to be borrowed. Some[who?] speculate that this practice in the long term cannot be sustained and may ultimately lead to unaffordable mortgage payments, and repossession for many.[citation needed]
The Median Multiple measures the ratio of the median house price to the median annual household income. This measure has historically hovered around a value of 3.0 or less, but in recent years[when?] has risen dramatically, especially in markets with severe public policy constraints on land and development.[13]
Inflation-adjusted home prices in Japan (1980–2005) compared to home price appreciation in the United States, Britain, and Australia (1995–2005)
Housing debt measures[edit]
The housing debt to income ratio or debt-service ratio is the ratio of mortgage payments to disposable income. When the ratio gets too high, households become increasingly dependent on rising property values to service their debt. A variant of this indicator measures total home ownership costs, including mortgage payments, utilities and property taxes, as a percentage of a typical household's monthly pre-tax income; for example see RBC Economics' reports for the Canadian markets.[14]
The housing debt to equity ratio (not to be confused with the corporate debt to equity ratio), also called loan to value, is the ratio of the mortgage debt to the value of the underlying property; it measures financial leverage. This ratio increases when the homeowner takes a second mortgage or home equity loan using the accumulated equity as collateral. A ratio greater higher than 1 implies that owner's equity is negative.
Housing ownership and rent measures[edit]
Bubbles can be determined when an increase in housing prices is higher than the rise in rents. In the US, rent between 1984 and 2013 has risen steadily at about 3% per year, whereas between 1997 and 2002 housing prices rose 6% per year. Between 2011 and the third-quarter of 2013 housing prices rose 5.83% and rent increased 2%.[15]
The ownership ratio is the proportion of households who own their homes as opposed to renting. It tends to rise steadily with incomes. Also, governments often enact measures such as tax cuts or subsidized financing to encourage and facilitate home ownership. If a rise in ownership is not supported by a rise in incomes, it can mean either that buyers are taking advantage of low interest rates (which must eventually rise again as the economy heats up) or that home loans are awarded more liberally, to borrowers with poor credit. Therefore, a high ownership ratio combined with an increased rate of subprime lending may signal higher debt levels associated with bubbles.
The price-to-earnings ratio or P/E ratio is the common metric used to assess the relative valuation of equities. To compute the P/E ratio for the case of a rented house, divide the price of the house by its potential earnings or net income, which is the market annual rent of the house minus expenses, which include maintenance and property taxes. This formula is:
House P/E ratio = House price Rent − Expenses {\displaystyle {\mbox{House P/E ratio}}={\frac {\mbox{House price}}{{\mbox{Rent}}-{\mbox{Expenses}}}}}
The house price-to-earnings ratio provides a direct comparison with P/E ratios utilised to analyze other uses of the money tied up in a home. Compare this ratio to the simpler but less accurate price-rent ratio below.
The price-rent ratio is the average cost of ownership divided by the received rent income (if buying to let) or the estimated rent (if buying to reside):
House Price-Rent ratio = House price Monthly Rent × 12 {\displaystyle {\mbox{House Price-Rent ratio}}={\frac {\mbox{House price}}{{\mbox{Monthly Rent}}\times 12}}}
The latter is often measured using the "owner's equivalent rent" numbers published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. It can be viewed as the real estate equivalent of stocks' price-earnings ratio; in other terms it measures how much the buyer is paying for each dollar of received rent income (or dollar saved from rent spending). Rents, just like corporate and personal incomes, are generally tied very closely to supply and demand fundamentals; one rarely sees an unsustainable "rent bubble" (or "income bubble" for that matter).[citation needed] Therefore a rapid increase of home prices combined with a flat renting market can signal the onset of a bubble. The U.S. price-rent ratio was 18% higher than its long-run average as of October 2004.[16]
The gross rental yield, a measure used in the United Kingdom, is the total yearly gross rent divided by the house price and expressed as a percentage:
Gross Rental Yield = Monthly rent × 12 House price × 100 % {\displaystyle {\mbox{Gross Rental Yield}}={\frac {{\mbox{Monthly rent}}\times 12}{\mbox{House price}}}\times 100\%}
This is the reciprocal of the house price-rent ratio. The net rental yield deducts the landlord's expenses (and sometimes estimated rental voids) from the gross rent before doing the above calculation; this is the reciprocal of the house P/E ratio.
Because rents are received throughout the year rather than at its end, both the gross and net rental yields calculated by the above are somewhat less than the true rental yields obtained when taking into account the monthly nature of rental payments.
The occupancy rate (opposite: vacancy rate) is the number of occupied housing units divided by the total number of units in a given region (in commercial real estate, usually expressed in terms of area (i.e. in square metres, acres, et cetera) for different grades of buildings). A low occupancy rate means that the market is in a state of oversupply brought about by speculative construction and purchase. In this context, supply-and-demand numbers can be misleading: sales demand exceeds supply, but rent demand does not.[citation needed]
Housing price indices[edit]
The Case–Shiller index 1890–2016, showing a housing bubble peaking in 2006
Main article: House price index
Measures of house price are also used in identifying housing bubbles; these are known as house price indices (HPIs).
A noted series of HPIs for the United States are the Case–Shiller indices, devised by American economists Karl Case, Robert J. Shiller, and Allan Weiss. As measured by the Case–Shiller index, the US experienced a housing bubble peaking in the second quarter of 2006 (2006 Q2).
Recent real estate bubbles[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The crash of the Japanese asset price bubble from 1990 on has been very damaging to the Japanese economy.[17] The crash in 2005 affected Shanghai, China's largest city.[18]
As of 2007[update], real estate bubbles had existed in the recent past or were widely believed to still exist in many parts of the world,[19] especially in Austria, the United States, Malta, Argentina,[20] Britain, Jamaica, Micronesia, Ethiopia, Netherlands, Italy, Equatorial Guinea, Monaco, Turkey, Faroe Islands, Brazil, Denmark, Philippines, Fiji, Dominica, Iceland, Nauru, Greenland, Liechtenstein, Canada, Germany, Portugal, New Zealand, Zaire, Latvia, Ireland, Spain, Sri Lanka, Guinea-Bissau, Indonesia, Lebanon, Japan, Bahrain, Iraq, Iran, Timor-Leste, Afghanistan, Luxembourg, Bangladesh, Tuvalu, Andorra, Azerbaijan, Jordan, Oman, Venezuela, Mexico, Gibraltar, Poland,[21] South Africa, Turkmenistan, Israel, Greece, Outer Mongolia, Mozambique, Bahamas, Mali, El Salvador, Botswana, Algeria, Laos, Yemen, Bulgaria, Norway, Singapore, South Korea, North Korea, Baltic States, Thailand, Swaziland, India, Hong Kong, Romania, Zimbabwe, Vatican City, Ukraine, China and Croatia.[22] Then U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said in mid-2005 that "at a minimum, there's a little 'froth' (in the U.S. housing market) … it's hard not to see that there are a lot of local bubbles."[23] The Economist magazine, writing at the same time, went further, saying "the worldwide rise in house prices is the biggest bubble in history".[24] In France, the economist Jacques Friggit publishes each year a study called "Evolution of the price, value and number of property sales in France since the 19th century",[25] showing a high price increase since 2001. Yet, the existence of a real estate bubble in France is discussed by economists.[26] Real estate bubbles are invariably followed by severe price decreases (also known as a house price crash) that can result in many owners holding mortgages that exceed the value of their homes. 11.1 million residential properties, or 23.1% of all U.S. homes, were in negative equity at Dec. 31, 2010.[27] Commercial property values remained around 35% below their mid-2007 peak in the United Kingdom. As a result, banks have become less willing to hold large amounts of property-backed debt, likely a key issue affecting the worldwide recovery in the short term.
By 2006, most areas of the world were thought to be in a bubble state, although this hypothesis, based upon the observation of similar patterns in real estate markets of a wide variety of countries,[28] was subject to controversy. Such patterns include those of overvaluation and, by extension, excessive borrowing based on those overvaluations.
The U.S. subprime mortgage crisis of 2007–2010, alongside its impacts and effects on economies in various nations, has implied that these trends might have some[which?] common characteristics.[19]
For individual countries, see:
Australian property bubble – ongoing currently
Baltic states housing bubble
British property bubble
Bulgarian property bubble
Chinese property bubble – 2005–2011
Danish property bubble – 2001–2006
Indian property bubble
Irish property bubble – 1999–2006
Japanese asset price bubble – 1986–1991
Lebanese property bubble
New Zealand property bubble – ongoing currently
Polish property bubble – 2002–2008
Romanian property bubble
Spanish property bubble – 1985–2008
United States housing bubble – 1997–2006[29]
US real estate bubble 2012–present[edit]
The Washington Post writer Lisa Sturtevant thinks that the housing market of 2013 was not indicative of a housing bubble. "A critical difference between the current market and the overheated market of the middle of last decade is the nature of the mortgage market. Stricter underwriting standards have limited the pool of potential homebuyers to those who are most qualified and most likely to be able to pay loans back. The demand this time is based more closely on market fundamentals. And the price growth we’ve experienced recently is 'real.' Or 'more real.'"[30] Other recent research indicates that mid-level managers in securitized finance did not exhibit awareness of problems in overall housing markets.[31]
Economist David Stockman believes that a second housing bubble was started in 2012 and still inflating as of February 2013.[32] Housing inventory began to dwindle starting in early 2012 as hedge fund investors and private equity firms purchase single-family homes in hopes of renting them out while waiting for a housing rebound.[33] Due to the policies of QE3, mortgage interest rates have been hovering at an all-time low, causing real estate values to rise. Home prices have risen unnaturally as much as 25% within one year in metropolitan areas like the San Francisco Bay Area and Las Vegas.[34]
See also[edit]
Deed in lieu of foreclosure
Estate (land)
Foreclosure consultant
Real estate appraisal
Real estate economics
Real estate pricing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ikromov, Nuridding and Abdullah Yavas, 2012a, "Asset Characteristics and Boom and Bust Periods: An Experimental Study". Real Estate Economics. 40, 508–535.
Jump up ^ Michael Simkovic, "Competition and Crisis in Mortgage Securitization"
Jump up ^ Klein, Ezra (2009-05-28). "Bill Clinton and the Housing Bubble". Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Chris; Katsaris, Apostolos (2005). "Trading rules from forecasting the collapse of speculative bubbles for the S&P 500 composite index". The Journal of Business. 78 (5): 2003–2036. ISSN 0740-9168. doi:10.1086/431450.
Jump up ^ Nneji, Ogonna; Brooks, Chris; Ward, Charles (2013). "Intrinsic and rational speculative bubbles in the U.S. housing market 1960-2011". Journal of Real Estate Research. 35 (2): 121–151. ISSN 0896-5803.
Jump up ^ Nneji, Ogonna; Brooks, Chris; Ward, Charles W.R. (2013). "House price dynamics and their reaction to macroeconomic changes". Economic Modeling. 32: 172–178. ISSN 0264-9993. doi:10.1016/j.econmod.2013.02.007.
Jump up ^ Christie, Les (May 31, 2011). "Home prices: 'Double-dip' confirmed". CNN Money.
Jump up ^ "Interactive Table: How Bubbly Is Your Housing Market?". Business Week. April 11, 2005. Archived from the original on Nov 20, 2007. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ seek.estate
Jump up ^ "Home - SecurityNational Mortgage Company". snmcblog.com. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Affordable Housing Real Estate Resource: Housing Affordability Index". National Association of Realtors. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
Jump up ^ seek.estate
Jump up ^ "10th Annual Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey: 2014" (PDF). Retrieved 11 November 2014.
Jump up ^ June 2, 2005 report
Jump up ^ Wallison, Peter J (January 5, 2014), The Bubble is Back, New York: The New York Times, p. A15, retrieved 2014-04-14
Jump up ^ Krainer, John; Wei, Chishen (October 1, 2004). "House Prices and Fundamental Value". Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
Jump up ^ Fackler, Martin (December 25, 2005). "Take It From Japan: Bubbles Hurt". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ Lee, Don (January 8, 2006). "A Home Boom Busts". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Putland, Gavin R. (June 1, 2009). "From the subprime to the terrigenous: Recession begins at home". Land Values Research Group. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ "The good times are here again". Global Property Guide. February 28, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ "The end of Poland’s house price boom". Global Property Guide. August 25, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ "Real estate prices in Adriatic Coast up, Zagreb down". Global Property Guide. August 19, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ Leonhardt, David (December 25, 2005). "2005: In a Word: Frothy". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ "The global housing boom". The Economist. June 16, 2005.
Jump up ^ "The French housing market and its environment since 1800". Conseil Général de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Bulle immobilière : de quoi parle-t-on et que faut-il craindre ?". Ideal-investisseur. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Philyaw, Jason. "Underwater mortgages back above 11 million in 4Q". CoreLogic. Retrieved 2014-04-14.
Jump up ^ "House Prices Worldwide". Global Property Guide. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
Jump up ^ Bajaj, Vikas; Leonhardt, David (2008-12-18). "Tax Break May Have Helped Cause Housing Bubble". New York Times. Retrieved 2012-05-06.
Jump up ^ Sturtevant, Lisa A. (March 26, 2013). "Is the Washington, D.C.-area housing market bubbling again?". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Wall Street and the Housing Bubble, Princeton University, September 2013
Jump up ^ https://finance.yahoo.com/blogs/daily-ticker/housing-bubble-2-0-david-stockman-133026817.html
Jump up ^ StreetAuthority (15 January 2013). "Why Blackstone Bought 16,000 Homes". SeekingAlpha.com. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Comeback for California Housing Prices". NBCLosAngeles.com. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
Further reading[edit]
John Calverley (2004), Bubbles and how to survive them, N. Brealey. ISBN 1-85788-348-9
Robert J. Shiller (2005). Irrational Exuberance, 2d ed. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12335-7.
John R. Talbott (2003). The Coming Crash in the Housing Market, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-142220-X.
Andrew Tobias (2005). The Only Investment Guide You'll Ever Need (updated ed.), Harcourt Brace and Company. ISBN 0-15-602963-4.
Eric Tyson (2003). Personal Finance for Dummies, 4th ed., Foster City, CA: IDG Books. ISBN 0-7645-2590-5.
Burton G. Malkiel (2003). The Random Walk Guide to Investing: Ten Rules for Financial Success, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-05854-9.
Elizabeth Warren and Amelia Warren Tyagi (2003). The Two-Income Trap: Why Middle Class Mothers and Fathers are Going Broke, New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-09082-6.
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Left atrial enlargement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Left atrial enlargement (LAE) or left atrial dilation refers to enlargement of the left atrium (LA) of the heart, and is a form of cardiomegaly.
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
2 Clinical implications
3 Diagnosis
4 References
Causes[edit]
In the general population, obesity appears to be the most important risk factor for LAE.[1] LAE has been found to be correlated to body size, independent of obesity, meaning that LAE is more common in people with a naturally large body size.[2] Also, a study found that LAE can occur as a consequence of atrial fibrillation (AF),[3] although another study found that AF by itself does not cause LAE. The latter study also showed that the persistent type of AF was associated with LAE, but the number of years that a subject had AF was not.[4]
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may be a cause of LAE in some cases. When an OSA event occurs, an attempt is made to breathe with an obstructed airway and the pressure inside the chest is suddenly lowered. The negative intrathoracic pressure may cause the left atrium to expand and stretch its walls during each OSA event. Over time, the repetitive stretching of the left atrium may result in a persistent left atrial enlargement.[5]
Clinical implications[edit]
Left atrial enlargement can be mild, moderate or severe depending on the extent of the underlying condition. Although other factors may contribute, left atrium size has been found to be a predictor of mortality due to both cardiovascular issues as well as all-cause mortality. Current research suggests that left atrium size as measured by an echo-cardiograph may have prognostic implications for preclinical cardiovascular disease. However, studies that have found LAE to be a predictor for mortality recognize the need for more standardized left atrium measurements than those found in an echo-cardiogram.[2]
Diagnosis[edit]
LAE is suggested by an electrocardiogram (ECG) that has a pronounced notch in the P wave.[6] However, if atrial fibrillation is present, a P wave would not be present.[7] In any case, LAE can be diagnosed and measured using an echocardiogram (ECHO).
Characterizing the size of the left atrium according to its volume is preferred over a single linear dimension since enlargement can be different for different directions. For example, because of the smaller distance in the thoracic cavity between the sternum and spine, compared to the other directions, less room exists for enlargement of the left atrium along the anteroposterior axis.[8] By approximating the shape of the left atrium as an ellipsoid, its volume can be calculated from measurements of its dimensions along three perpendicular directions.[3]
Indexing the left atrial volume to body surface area (volume/BSA) is recommended by the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Echocardiography. The values for volume/BSA in the following table are the best validated, and are the same for both men and women.[8]
Left Atrium Size[8]
Women
Men
normal
enlarged
normal
enlarged
mild
moderate
severe
mild
moderate
severe
Diameter (mm) 27–38 39–42 43–46 ≥47 30–40 41–46 47–52 ≥52
Volume (ml) 22–52 53–62 63–72 ≥73 18–58 59–68 69–78 ≥79
Volume/BSA (ml/m²) 16–28 29–33 34–39 ≥40 16–28 29–33 34–39 ≥40
BSA, body surface area
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stritzke J, Markus MR, Duderstadt S, Lieb W, Luchner A, Döring A, Keil U, Hense H, Schunkert H (2009-11-17). "The Aging Process of the Heart: Obesity Is the Main Risk Factor for Left Atrial Enlargement During Aging: The MONICA/KORA (Monitoring of Trends and Determinations in Cardiovascular Disease/Cooperative Research in the Region of Augsburg) Study". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 54 (21): 1982–9. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2009.07.034. PMID 19909880. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Patel DA, Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Shah S, Giliand Y (Winter 2009). "Clinical Implications of Left Atrial Enlargement: A Review". The Ochsner Journal. 9 (4): 191–196. PMC 3096293  . PMID 21603443.
^ Jump up to: a b Sanfilippo AJ, Abascal VM, Sheehan M, Oertel LB, Harrigan P, Hughes RA, Weyman AE (1990). "Atrial enlargement as a consequence of atrial fibrillation A prospective echocardiographic study". Circulation. 82 (3): 792–7. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.82.3.792. PMID 2144217. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
Jump up ^ Osranek M, Bursi F, Bailey KR, Grossardt BR, Brown RD Jr, Kopecky SL, Tsang TS, Seward JB (Dec 2005). "Left atrial volume predicts cardiovascular events in patients originally diagnosed with lone atrial fibrillation: three-decade follow-up". European Heart Journal. 26 (23): 2556–61. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehi483. PMID 16141257. Retrieved 2009-12-27. See p. 2560 Left ventricular filling pressure, LAV, and AF.
Jump up ^ Latina JM, Estes III NAM, Garlitski AC (2013). "The Relationship between Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Atrial Fibrillation: A Complex Interplay". Pulmonary Medicine. 2013 (621736): 1–11. doi:10.1155/2013/621736. PMC 3600315  . PMID 23533751. Retrieved 2014-08-11. See section 5.1.
Jump up ^ Edhouse J, Thakur RK, Khalil JM (2002-05-25). "ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Conditions affecting the left side of the heart". British Medical Journal. 324 (7348): 1264–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7348.1264. PMC 1123219  . PMID 12028984. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Atrial Fibrillation (for Professionals)". American Heart Association, Inc. 2008-12-04. Archived from the original on 2009-03-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lang RM, Bierig M, Devereux RB, Flachskampf FA, Foster E, Pellikka PA, Picard MH, Roman MJ, Seward J, Shanewise J, Solomon S, Spencer KT, St John Sutton M, Stewart W (March 2006). "Recommendations for chamber quantification". European Journal of Echocardiography. 7 (2): 79–108. doi:10.1016/j.euje.2005.12.014. PMID 16458610. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
[show]
v
t
e
Cardiovascular disease (heart) (I00–I52, 390–429)
Ischaemic
Coronary disease
Coronary artery disease (CAD)
Coronary artery aneurysm
Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD)
Coronary thrombosis
Coronary vasospasm
Myocardial bridge
Active ischemia
Angina pectoris
Prinzmetal's angina
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Acute coronary syndrome
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Unstable angina
Sequelae
hours
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days
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weeks
Aneurysm of heart / Ventricular aneurysm
Dressler syndrome
Layers
Pericardium
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Acute
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Loeffler endocarditis
Cardiac amyloidosis
Endocardial fibroelastosis
Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia
Endocardium /
valves
Endocarditis
infective endocarditis
Subacute bacterial endocarditis
non-infective endocarditis
Libman–Sacks endocarditis
Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis
Valves
mitral
regurgitation
prolapse
stenosis
aortic
stenosis
insufficiency
tricuspid
stenosis
insufficiency
pulmonary
stenosis
insufficiency
Conduction /
arrhythmia
Bradycardia
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Heart block: Sinoatrial
AV
1°
2°
3°
Intraventricular
Bundle branch block
Right
Left
Left anterior fascicle
Left posterior fascicle
Bifascicular
Trifascicular
Adams–Stokes syndrome
Tachycardia
(paroxysmal and sinus)
Supraventricular
Atrial
Multifocal
Junctional
AV nodal reentrant
Junctional ectopic
Ventricular
Accelerated idioventricular rhythm
Catecholaminergic polymorphic
Torsades de pointes
Premature contraction
Atrial
Junctional
Ventricular
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Lown–Ganong–Levine
Wolff–Parkinson–White
Flutter / fibrillation
Atrial flutter
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Atrial fibrillation
Familial
Ventricular fibrillation
Pacemaker
Ectopic pacemaker / Ectopic beat
Multifocal atrial tachycardia
Pacemaker syndrome
Parasystole
Wandering pacemaker
Long QT syndrome
Andersen–Tawil
Jervell and Lange-Nielsen
Romano–Ward
Cardiac arrest
Sudden cardiac death
Asystole
Pulseless electrical activity
Sinoatrial arrest
Other / ungrouped
hexaxial reference system
Right axis deviation
Left axis deviation
QT
Short QT syndrome
T
T wave alternans
ST
Osborn wave
ST elevation
ST depression
Strain pattern
Cardiomegaly
Ventricular hypertrophy
Left
Right / Cor pulmonale
Atrial enlargement
Left
Right
Other
Cardiac fibrosis
Heart failure
Diastolic heart failure
Cardiac asthma
Rheumatic fever
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