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Ancient Greek philosophy
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The School of Athens (1509-1511) by Raphael, depicting famous classical Greek philosophers in an idealized setting inspired by ancient Greek architecture
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to make sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.[citation needed]
Many philosophers around the world agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato".[1] Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.[2]
Some claim that Greek philosophy was in turn influenced by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East, though this is debated. Martin Litchfield West gives qualified assent to this view by stating that "contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers' imagination; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas. But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation".[3]
Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of "classical Greek" and "Hellenistic" philosophy.
Contents
1 Pre-Socratic philosophy
1.1 Milesian school
1.2 Xenophanes
1.3 Pythagoreanism
1.4 Heraclitus
1.5 Eleatic philosophy
1.6 Pluralism and atomism
1.7 Sophistry
2 Classical Greek philosophy
2.1 Socrates
2.2 Plato
2.3 Aristotle
3 Hellenistic philosophy
4 Transmission of Greek philosophy under Byzantium and Islam
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Pre-Socratic philosophy[edit]
Main article: Pre-Socratic philosophy
The convention of terming those philosophers who were active prior to Socrates the pre-Socratics gained currency with the 1903 publication of Hermann Diels' Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, although the term did not originate with him.[4] The term is considered philosophically useful because what came to be known as the "Athenian school" (composed of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle) signaled a profound shift in the subject matter and methods of philosophy; Friedrich Nietzsche's thesis that this shift began with Plato rather than with Socrates (hence his nomenclature of "pre-Platonic philosophy") has not prevented the predominance of the "pre-Socratic" distinction.[5]
The pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology and mathematics. They were distinguished from "non-philosophers" insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse.[6]
Milesian school[edit]
Main article: Milesian school
Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher,[7] held that all things arise from a single material substance, water.[8] It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the "first man of science," but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons.[9] According to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids.[10]
Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the apeiron). He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites (e.g., hot and cold), yet a thing can become its opposite (e.g., a hot thing cold). Therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity (substratum, arche) could not be any of the classical elements, since they were one extreme or another. For example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet.[11] This initial state is ageless and imperishable, and everything returns to it according to necessity [12]Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether.[13] Despite their varied answers, the Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain unchanged despite appearing in different forms, and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic theory; "the Milesians," says Burnet, "asked for the φύσις of all things."[14]
Xenophanes[edit]
Main article: Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful, and may have picked up some of the Milesians' cosmological theories as a result.[15] What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired.[16]
Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his "naturalistic" explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish.[17] He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion.[18]
Pythagoreanism[edit]
Main article: Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras lived at roughly the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a rationalist whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain.[19]
Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the arche of everything.[20] Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony.[21] Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.[22]
Heraclitus[edit]
Main article: Heraclitus
Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with Homer as proving that much learning cannot teach a man to think; since Parmenides refers to him in the past tense, this would place him in the 5th century BCE.[23] Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei ("everything flows"), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire. All things come to pass in accordance with Logos,[24] which must be considered as "plan" or "formula",[25] and "the Logos is common".[26] He also posited a unity of opposites, expressed through dialectic, which structured this flux, such as that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself.[27]
Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (eris), "strife", and hypothesized that the apparently stable state of δίκη (dikê), or "justice", is the harmonic unity of these opposites.[28]
Eleatic philosophy[edit]
Main article: Eleatics
Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions,"—presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him.[29] Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging.[30] Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist.[31] While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought.[32]
In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being.[33] His arguments are known as Zeno's paradoxes.
Pluralism and atomism[edit]
The power of Parmenides' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the arche, and adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras.[34] There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.[35]
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus.[36]
Sophistry[edit]
Main article: Sophists
Sophistry arose from the juxtaposition of physis (nature) and nomos (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order; the world in which men lived, on the other hand, was one of law and order, albeit of humankind's own making.[37] At the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed.
The first man to call himself a sophist, according to Plato, was Protagoras, whom he presents as teaching that all virtue is conventional. It was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not," which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism, where some things seem to be one way for one person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are that way as well); the conclusion being that one cannot look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one's life.[38]
Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach rhetoric as their primary vocation. Prodicus, Gorgias, Hippias, and Thrasymachus appear in various dialogues, sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance, the guidance that the laws provide is worthless, or that nature favors those who act against the laws.
Classical Greek philosophy[edit]
Socrates[edit]
Main article: Socrates
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Socrates, born in Athens in the 5th century BCE, marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, geometry, and the like. The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious. Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age.[39] There is a story that Protagoras, too, was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books.[40] Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates). In the version of his defense speech presented by Plato, he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him.
While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."[41] By this account he would be considered the founder of political philosophy.[42] The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study.[43][44]
The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically,[45] has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.[46] Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue.
While Socrates' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.[47][48] He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). Plato presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not know that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.[49]
Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates. Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism). Plato's student Aristotle in turn criticized and built upon the doctrines he ascribed to Socrates and Plato, forming the foundation of Aristotelianism. Antisthenes founded the school that would come to be known as Cynicism and accused Plato of distorting Socrates' teachings. Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism. Epicurus studied with Platonic and Stoic teachers before renouncing all previous philosophers (including Democritus, on whose atomism the Epicurean philosophy relies). The philosophic movements that were to dominate the intellectual life of the Roman empire were thus born in this febrile period following Socrates' activity, and either directly or indirectly influenced by him. They were also absorbed by the expanding Muslim world in the 7th through 10th centuries AD, from which they returned to the West as foundations of Medieval philosophy and the Renaissance, as discussed below.
Plato[edit]
Main article: Plato
Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders.[50] A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.[51]
Plato's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the Laws, instead contains an "Athenian Stranger.") Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato's mouthpiece, Socrates' reputation for irony, his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues, and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato's doctrines.[52] Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them.
The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the Republic, the Laws, and the Statesman. The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by philosopher kings; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in common; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through noble lies; the Republic says that such a city is likely impossible, however, generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.[53]
Whereas the Republic is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the Statesman, on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly.[53] Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.
Both the Republic and the Statesman reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the Laws, a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent.[53] The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized timocracy on the Spartan or Cretan model or that of pre-democratic Athens.[53]
Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms. It holds that non-material abstract (but substantial) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality.
Plato often uses long-form analogies (usually allegories) to explain his ideas; the most famous is perhaps the Allegory of the Cave. It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.[54] If they turned around, they would see what is casting the shadows (and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality). If some left the cave, they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun (representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth). If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.[55] This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality, and advances the view that philosopher-kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant.[56] One student of Plato (who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time) stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first-hand observation.
Aristotle[edit]
Main article: Aristotle
Aristotle moved to Athens from his native Stageira in 367 BCE and began to study philosophy (perhaps even rhetoric, under Isocrates), eventually enrolling at Plato's Academy.[57] He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study botany and zoology, became a tutor of Alexander the Great, and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school: the Lyceum.[58] At least twenty-nine of his treatises have survived, known as the corpus Aristotelicum, and address a variety of subjects including logic, physics, optics, metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, politics, poetry, botany, and zoology.
Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato (e.g., in Raphael's School of Athens). He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws,[59] and refers to the theory of forms as "empty words and poetic metaphors."[60] He is generally presented as giving greater weight to empirical observation and practical concerns.
Aristotle's fame was not great during the Hellenistic period, when Stoic logic was in vogue, but later peripatetic commentators popularized his work, which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy.[61] His influence was such that Avicenna referred to him simply as "the Master"; Maimonides, Alfarabi, Averroes, and Aquinas as "the Philosopher."
Hellenistic philosophy[edit]
Main article: Hellenistic philosophy
See also: Roman philosophy
The philosopher Pyrrho from Elis, in an anecdote taken from Sextus Empiricus' Pyrrhonic Sketches
(upper) PIRRHO • HELIENSIS •
PLISTARCHI • FILIVS
translation (from Latin): Phyrrho . Greek . Son of Plistarchus

(middle) OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM
HANC ILLIVS IMITARI
SECVRITATEM translation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Phyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)

(lower) Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind trepidation and misery
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco-Roman world. There were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were:
Neoplatonism: Plotinus (Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Zethos (Arab), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus
Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman)
Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus
Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism)
Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman)
Epicureanism: Epicurus (Greek) and Lucretius (Roman)
Eclecticism: Cicero (Roman)
The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy.
Transmission of Greek philosophy under Byzantium and Islam[edit]
Main article: Arab transmission of the Classics to the West
See also: Early Islamic philosophy and Latin translations of the 12th century
During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe due to the Migration Period, which resulted into decline in literacy. In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin and also from the Byzantine Empire.[62] The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Although we are fortunate to have some figures who preserved these valuable texts, the general trend in Islam was to dispose of books that conflicted with the teachings of Mohammad. This can be seen in events such as the burning of the Al-hakam II library in Córdoba by Al-Mansur Ibn and Abi Aamir in 976. [63][64]
See also[edit]
Ancient philosophy
Byzantine philosophy
Dehellenization
English words of Greek origin
International scientific vocabulary
List of ancient Greek philosophers
Translingualism
Transliteration of Greek into English
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Alfred North Whitehead (1929), Process and Reality, Part II, Chap. I, Sect. I.
Jump up ^ Kevin Scharp (Department of Philosophy, Ohio State University) – Diagrams Archived 2014-10-31 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Griffin, Jasper; Boardman, John; Murray, Oswyn (2001). The Oxford history of Greece and the Hellenistic world. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-19-280137-6.
Jump up ^ Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiv–xvi.
Jump up ^ Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiii–xix.
Jump up ^ John Burnet, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato, 3rd ed. (London: A & C Black Ltd., 1920), 3–16. Scanned version from Internet Archive
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983 b6 8–11.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 3–4, 18.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 18–20; Herodotus, Histories, I.74.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 22–24.
Jump up ^ Guthrie, p.83
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 21.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 27.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35; Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes, frs. 15–16.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 36.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 33, 36.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 37–38.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 38–39.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 40–49.
Jump up ^ C. M. Bowra 1957 The Greek experience p. 166"
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 57.
Jump up ^ DK B1.
Jump up ^ pp. 419ff., W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962.
Jump up ^ DK B2.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 57–63.
Jump up ^ DK B80
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 64.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 66–67.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 68.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 67.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 82.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 69.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 70.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 94.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 105–10.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 113–17.
Jump up ^ Debra Nails, The People of Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2002), 24.
Jump up ^ Nails, People of Plato, 256.
Jump up ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, V 10–11 (or V IV).
Jump up ^ Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 120.
Jump up ^ Seth Benardete, The Argument of the Action (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 277–96.
Jump up ^ Laurence Lampert, How Philosophy Became Socratic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).
Jump up ^ Cf. Plato, Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology of Socrates 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7.
Jump up ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75.
Jump up ^ Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 14
Jump up ^ Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964): 147–64, 147.
Jump up ^ Apology of Socrates 21d.
Jump up ^ John M. Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), v–vi, viii–xii, 1634–35.
Jump up ^ Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato, v–vi, viii–xii.
Jump up ^ Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Leo Strauss, "Plato", in History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.
Jump up ^ "Plato - Allegory of the cave" (PDF). classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com.
Jump up ^ "Allegory of the Cave". washington.edu.
Jump up ^ Garth Kemerling. "Plato: The Republic 5-10". philosophypages.com.
Jump up ^ Carnes Lord, Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984): 1–29.
Jump up ^ Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Politics, bk. 2, ch. 1–6.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 991a20–22.
Jump up ^ Robin Smith, "Aristotle's Logic," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007).
Jump up ^ Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.
Jump up ^ Ann Christy, Christians in Al-Andalus:711–1000, (Curzon Press, 2002), 142.
Jump up ^ Libraries, Claude Gilliot, Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, Index, ed. Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, (Routledge, 2006), 451.
References[edit]
Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
Nikolaos Bakalis (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy, 1930.
Charles Freeman (1996). Egypt, Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press.
William Keith Chambers Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, 1962.
Søren Kierkegaard, On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates, 1841.
A. A. Long. Hellenistic Philosophy. University of California, 1992. (2nd Ed.)
Martin Litchfield West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.
Martin Litchfield West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Oxford [England] ; New York: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Further reading[edit]
Clark, Stephen. 2012. Ancient Mediterranean Philosophy: An Introduction. New York: Bloomsbury.
Curd, Patricia, and D. W. Graham, eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Gaca, Kathy L. 2003. The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Garani, Myrto and David Konstan eds. 2014. The Philosophizing Muse: The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Roman Poetry. Pierides, 3. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Gill, Mary Louise, and Pierre Pellegrin. 2009. A Companion to Ancient Greek Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hankinson, R.J. 1999. Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hughes, Bettany. 2010. The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life. London: Jonathan Cape.
Kahn, C. H. 1994. Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
Luchte, James. 2011. Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. New York: Continuum.
Martín-Velasco, María José and María José García Blanco eds. 2016. Greek Philosophy and Mystery Cults. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Nightingale, Andrea W. 2004. Spectacles of Truth in Classical Greek Philosophy: Theoria in its Cultural Context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
O’Grady, Patricia. 2002. Thales of Miletus. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Preus, Anthony. 2010. The A to Z of Ancient Greek Philosophy. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
Reid, Heather L. 2011. Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient World: Contests of Virtue. Ethics and Sport. London; New York: Routledge.
Wolfsdorf, David. 2013. Pleasure in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Key Themes in Ancient Philosophy. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Figs in the Bible
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Common fig branch, showing leaves and fruit in various stages
Figs in the Bible refers to references to figs and fig trees in the Tanakh and the New Testament, which are sometimes symbolic.
Hebrew Bible[edit]
The fig tree is the third tree to be mentioned by name in the Hebrew Bible. The first is the Tree of life and the second is the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Adam and Eve used the leaves of the fig tree to sew garments for themselves after the Fall, when they realized that they were naked (Genesis 3:7).
In Deuteronomy, the Promised Land is described as "a land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive oil and honey; a land where you will eat food without scarcity, in which you will not lack anything;" (Deuteronomy 8:8-10). During Solomon's reign Judah and Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, lived in safety, each man "under his own vine and fig tree" (1 Kings 4:25), an indicator of national wealth and prosperity. 2 Kings 18 states that Hezekiah rebelled against the King of Assyria, of whom he had become a vassal. In response, the Assyrian commander attempted to sway the army of Jerusalem by offering deserters each his own vine and fig tree.
Proverbs 27:18 likens tending a fig tree to looking after one's master. There was a fig tree in the garden of the Song of Solomon, and in the year of love the tree formed its fruit early (Song 2:13).
The fig tree and figs are featured in the Book of Jeremiah and mentioned briefly in the Book of Micah.
Another species of ficus, the Egyptian sycamore fig is occasionally mentioned as well, for example 1 Kings 10:27.
New Testament[edit]
The parable of the budding fig tree is found in Matt 24:32–36, Mark 13:28–32, Luke 21:29–33 as part of the Olivet discourse. The term fig tree could be understood to refer to Israel Joel 2:21–25,
The parable of the barren fig tree is a parable of Jesus recorded in the Gospel of Luke 13:6–9. A vinekeeper holds out hope that a barren fig tree will bear fruit next year.
Mark 11:12–20 includes an account of Jesus cursing the fig tree:
The next day as they were leaving Bethany, Jesus was hungry. Seeing in the distance a fig tree in leaf, he went to find out if it had any fruit. When he reached it, he found nothing but leaves, because it was not the season for figs.
Then he said to the tree, "May no one ever eat fruit from you again." And his disciples heard him say it. On reaching Jerusalem, Jesus entered the temple area and began driving out those who were buying and selling there. He overturned the tables of the money changers and the benches of those selling doves, and would not allow anyone to carry merchandise through the temple courts. And as he taught them, he said, "Is it not written: " 'My house will be called a house of prayer for all nations'? But you have made it 'a den of robbers.'" The chief priests and the teachers of the law heard this and began looking for a way to kill him, for they feared him, because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching. When evening came, they went out of the city.
In the morning, as they went along, they saw the fig tree withered from the roots. Peter remembered and said to Jesus, "Rabbi, look! The fig tree you cursed has withered!"“Have faith in God,” Jesus answered. “Truly I tell you, if anyone says to this mountain, ‘Go, throw yourself into the sea,’ and does not doubt in their heart but believes that what they say will happen, it will be done for them. Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask for in prayer, believe that you have received it, and it will be yours. And when you stand praying, if you hold anything against anyone, forgive them, so that your Father in heaven may forgive you your sins.”
—  NRSV
A parallel is found in Matthew 21:18–22, but the fig tree withers immediately and is noticed at that time by the disciples.
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Adam and Eve
Source
Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis
Adam
Eve
Offspring
Cain and Abel
Aclima
Seth
Awan
Azura
Television
"Probe 7, Over and Out" (1963)
Film
Mama's Affair (1921)
Good Morning, Eve! (1934)
The Broken Jug (1937)
The Original Sin (1948)
The Private Lives of Adam and Eve (1960)
El pecado de Adán y Eva (1969)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
The Annunciation (1984)
Adipapam (1988)
Adam (1992)
Babs (2000)
The Last Eve (2005)
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Education of the British royal family
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HRH Princess Charlotte of Cambridge
HRH Prince Louis of Cambridge
HRH The Duke of Sussex
HRH The Duchess of Sussex
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HRH Princess Eugenie of York
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t
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The education of the British royal family has changed over time, reflecting shifting ideas about education of the aristocracy and the role of the monarchy in the United Kingdom. Traditionally, heirs to the throne and other royal children were educated privately by tutors. In the Tudor era, ideas of Renaissance humanism—emphasising the liberal arts and sciences and the classics—influenced royal education. Elizabeth I of England, for example, was multi-lingual and wrote a number of translations.
Later, in the Georgian and Victorian eras, royal education followed the French model, with governors overseeing the child's discipline and moral development, and preceptors conducting academic instruction. In the modern era, members of the House of Windsor have had varying degrees of education. The first heir to the British throne to receive a university degree is the current one, Charles, Prince of Wales. Since the later 20th century, members of the royal family have been educated in public schools, universities and military institutes.
Contents
1 Tudor and Elizabethan eras
2 Stuart era
3 Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian eras
4 Modern era
4.1 Elizabeth II's generation
4.2 Elizabeth and Philip's children and their spouses
4.3 Charles's children
4.4 Prince Andrew's children
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
Tudor and Elizabethan eras[edit]
The scholar John Cheke, depicted here in an engraving by Joseph Nutting, was tutor to Edward VI of England.
The scholar Erasmus and his fellow humanists, who promoted the liberal arts and sciences over military training for princes, had an influence on the curriculum studied by Henry VIII's children, and later the Stuart princes.[1]
Henry VIII established an elite palace school for his son Prince Edward, selecting fourteen sons of prominent aristocrats to be educated alongside him.[2] Biographer Alison Weir writes: "The men who were given responsibility for the Prince's education were among the most brilliant scholars of their day".[2] Edward was taught by Dr. Richard Cox, a clergyman who later become provost of Eton College and bishop of Ely, as well as John Cheke, the first Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge University.[2] Elizabeth I was well-educated, receiving lessons alongside her brother Edward and later being tutored by William Grindal and Roger Ascham.[3][4] Elizabeth was proficient in French, Italian and Latin, using these foreign-language skills to interact with foreign diplomats and to create a "sizeable body of translations" over the course of her life.[4] Battista Castiglione served as Elizabeth's formal tutor in Italian.[5]
Historian Aysha Pollnitz writes: "While Erasmus never managed to deter English or Scottish royal boys from military training, he did succeed in tipping the scales in letters' favour: between 1534 in England, 1566 in Scotland and the outbreak of the Bishops' Wars in 1639, princes male and female spent more time learning to wield pens than swords or guns".[6] During this period, "British princes were notably bookish" in comparison to the Spanish Hapsburgs (who emphasized "bureaucratic skills, handling weapons, and orthodox piety").[6] While royal females in early modern Britain were not raised in preparation to rule and received liberal educations that were constrained in comparison to their male relatives, Mary I, Elizabeth I, Lady Jane Grey, Mary, Queen of Scots, and Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia all wrote letters generally praised by scholars.[7] Lady Jane Grey was tutored by clergyman John Aylmer, her family's chaplain, and "distinguished herself in her studies beyond her parents' wishes, since they were more interested in preparing her for the stylish life of court" than for serious academic learning.[3]
Stuart era[edit]
The education of Charles I of England was overseen by Sir Thomas Murray, who taught Charles "the usual subjects: the Classics, French, Italian, arithmetic and theology" and supervised other tutors to the future king—Charles Guerolt, who taught fencing; John Beauchesne (who taught fine penmanship), and John Norton (who oversaw the library).[8] Charles's education "has been praised and blamed for forming his personality and political conduct" in the lead-up to the English Civil War.[9] Samuel Rawson Gardiner and Conrad Russell believed that Charles's education had not taught him empathy or the ability "to identify both sides of a political or religious question, a skill that may have taught him to appreciate both his opponents' perspectives or at least to anticipate their arguments and negotiate with them effectively".[9]
In 1635, Brian Duppa—dean of Christ Church and a chaplain to Charles I—was appointed tutor to the future Charles II.[10] Duppa was well-suited to the position and had a close relationship with Charles for the rest of his life.[10] Other tutors were brought in as well - including Peter Massonnet, who taught the prince Latin, Spanish, Italian, and most importantly French; Henry Gregory, who taught the prince to write; and Guilaume le Pierrie, a Frenchman hired when Charles was six years old to teach him dancing.[11] In 1638, William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle was placed in overall charge of the prince (then seven years old) as his governor.[10][12]
Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian eras[edit]
In the 18th century, George III had his two eldest sons—his heir Prince George of Wales (later George IV), and Prince Frederick (later the Duke of York and Albany)—educated in emulation of French royal custom.[13] A governor and sub-governor were appointed for the child's discipline and morals, and the preceptor and sub-preceptor for lessons concerning academic subjects.[13]
The role and public perceptions of the monarchy have changed over time,[14] raising "interesting questions about the ideal upbringing and preparation of future constitutional kings and queens, including their formal education".[15] Walter Bagehot, in his book The British Constitution, concluded that a prince's education "can be but a poor education and that a royal family will generally have less ability than other families".[16]
Edward VII was described as having a "lack of power to grasp almost anything put before him" by one of his tutors.
Historians have "assessed how well royal education has prepared monarchs for their political and ceremonial role" in British society.[17] Peter Gordon and Dennis Lawton rated the education of Queen Victoria as good, "yet in contrast no subsequent monarch (or current heir) has been anywhere near adequately educated".[17] Ross McKibbin argues that the educations of George V, Edward VIII, and George VI were "aimless" and "narrow," leaving them with the equivalent to the educations of "landed gentry with military connections".[17]
Although phrenology was largely discredited by the mid-19th century,[18] Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had their children evaluated by a phrenologist. He described her eldest son Edward VII (Queen Elizabeth II's great-grandfather) as having a skull that was "feeble and abnormal".[19] Throughout her life, Victoria believed Edward to have a "small, empty brain".[19]
Edward briefly attended the universities at Edinburgh, Oxford, and Cambridge, but did not graduate from any of them.[20] Dennis Judd, professor of British history at London Metropolitan University has opined that "there is no evidence" Edward's brief time at these universities "did much good" and William Ewart Gladstone said of the king that he "knew everything except what is in books".[20] John Neale Dalton, one of Edward's tutors, said that the future king had a "weakness of brain, this feebleness and lack of power to grasp almost anything put before him"; another tutor, J. K. Stephen, determined there was no use for Edward to attend university at all since he was unable to understand the words he was reading.[21] As a "tribute to his birth, rather than his intellect" he was granted an honorary LL.D.[21] Edward VII, however, had great social gifts; his popularity is believed to have helped the United Kingdom create alliances in Europe in the early 20th century.[22]
Victoria's youngest son, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, enrolled at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872. He had been diagnosed about 1859 with haemophilia,[23] having shown symptoms from a young age. It is now known to be haemophilia B and believed to have resulted from a gene mutation in Victoria.[24] The family tried to take measures through Leopold's youth to protect his health; the disease was not well understood at the time. He studied science, art and the modern languages at Oxford but did not receive a university degree; he was granted an honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1876.[25][26] He also was believed to suffer from epilepsy,[27] and died young in 1884.[25] His death is attributed to haemophilia.[28] (Note: Victoria's daughters Alice and Beatrice inherited the gene for haemophilia and passed it to their descendants in the Russian and Spanish royal families.[28])
George VI, the current Queen's father, attended the Royal Naval College, Osborne, which was then a junior officer training facility for students of secondary-school age; he finished at the bottom of his class. George studied for one year at the University of Cambridge, but did not complete an undergraduate degree.[29]
Modern era[edit]
According to journalist Katy Guest, commenting in 2008, "the royal family is not known for its intellectualism".[30]
Elizabeth II's generation[edit]
The reigning queen, Elizabeth II, and her sister Margaret were the last members of the royal family to be educated at home by tutors in the traditional manner.[31] Elizabeth and Margaret were home-schooled by their governess Marion Crawford. Private tutors of Elizabeth included the provost of Eton, Henry Marten, who instructed her in constitutional history.[32][33] Elizabeth speaks French fluently,[30] learning from a succession of governesses who were native speakers.[34] During World War II, then-Princess Elizabeth joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service and participated in a Vehicle Maintenance Course at Aldershot; the length of the course is variously reported as six weeks[35] and three weeks.[36]
Historian David Starkey described Elizabeth II in his 2007 television documentary series Monarchy as poorly learned, comparing her to a "housewife" in terms of cultural refinement and intellectual curiosity.[37][38] According to The Telegraph, his comments prompted rebuttals from several sources. Royal biographer Penny Junor said: "The Queen is certainly cultured even if not that moved by the arts. The Prince of Wales has a great sense of history and a lot of that comes from his mother".[38] Marco Houston, editor of Royalty Monthly, said Elizabeth "may not have had the best formal education, but she has had the best education at the university of life".[39]
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Elizabeth's cousin, studied architecture at Magdalene College, Cambridge. Richard graduated in 1966 after completing three years of a five-year architectural course; after a practical year at an office in the Ministry of Public Building and Works, Richard returned to Cambridge and in June 1969 passed both parts of a diploma in architecture.[40] Richard went on to work as an architect.[40]
Elizabeth and Philip's children and their spouses[edit]
After being tutored as a child, Prince Charles briefly attended Hill House School before entering Cheam School at age eight.[41] Charles spent five years at Cheam, from ages eight to thirteen.[41] Charles was then sent—over the objections of Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother[42]—to Gordonstoun, a Scottish public school, becoming the first heir to the throne to sit for public examinations when he took his GCE O-levels at age sixteen, passing six.[41][43] Charles strongly disliked Gordonstoun, describing the school as "Colditz in kilts"[44][45] and his time there as a "disastrous" one.[43] Prince Charles entered Trinity College, Cambridge in 1967, where he read history, archaeology and anthropology and graduated with a 2:2 degree in 1970.[41][43] This was the first time in history that a British monarch or heir to the throne had completed a university degree.[41]
Diana, Princess of Wales, failed her O-level exams before dropping out of finishing school.
Novelist Monica Ali described Charles's first wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, as being able to engage with the public on issues such as mental health in spite of her being "uneducated and intellectually insecure".[46] Princess Michael of Kent has said that Diana struggled with praise on account of her difficult upbringing and because she "did not have much education".[47] According to tapes released in 2004, Diana had said that her immediate family members told her she was "the thick one".[48] Diana failed her O-level examinations (equivalent of a high school diploma in the United States[49]) and later dropped out of finishing school.[50] Journalist John Lanchester said that, while failure on Diana's scale would normally mean one was "astoundingly stupid", Diana had intentionally avoided academic pursuits as part of a master plan not to "put a royal suitor off".[51]
Anne, Princess Royal was tutored at home as a child by her governess Catherine Peebles, who had also taught Charles. At the age of 13, Anne was sent to Benenden School, a boarding school.[52] In 1968 she graduated with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels.[52]
Prince Andrew, Duke of York attended Gordonstoun.[53] He had no formal education beyond that, but completed a Royal Navy commissioning course at Britannia Royal Naval College and other courses during a military career.[54] Andrew's election to the Royal Society in 2013 prompted "Britain's leading scientists" to "revolt" due to Andrew's lack of scientific background, with some noting he had only a high-school level education.[55] In an op-ed in The Sunday Times, Humboldt Prize recipient David Colquhoun opined, in references to Andrew's qualifications, that "if I wanted a tip for the winner of the 14.30 at Newmarket, I'd ask a royal. For most other questions, I wouldn't".[55][56]
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, born in 1964, also went to private schools. In 1982, he left Gordonstoun with several A-levels. He enrolled for two terms at the Wanganui Collegiate School in Wanganui, New Zealand. There he also served as a house tutor and oversaw drama classes. In 1986, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Jesus College, Cambridge.[57]
Charles's children[edit]
Prince William of Wales, Charles's eldest son and next in line to the throne, entered Eton College in 1995, becoming the first senior member of the royal family to attend Eton.[58] William graduated with A-levels in geography, biology and history of art as well as 12 GCSEs.[59] Following a gap year, William enrolled at St Andrews University in Fife, Scotland, where he graduated in 2005 with a 2:1 degree in geography.[59][60]
To prepare for eventually inheriting and taking over management of the Duchy of Cornwall estate (a "£760 million (about $1.25 billion) entity established in 1337 to provide a private income for use by the reigning monarch's eldest son") when his father becomes king, William enrolled in 2014 in a 10-week, vocational agriculture-management course through the Cambridge Programme for Sustainability Leadership (CPSL), whose patron is the Prince of Wales.[61][62] William's admission to the program prompted some criticism from commentators who believed William had an unfair advantage, but criticism receded after observers noted that the program was a short, non-degree-granting executive education-type course that was customarily open to anyone willing to pay for it, without regard to past grades or academic records.[62][63][64]
William's younger brother Prince Harry also graduated from Eton; Harry does not have a university degree but completed ten months of officer commissioning training at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.[65][66][67]
In 2005 Sarah Forsyth, one of Harry's former teachers at Eton, said that Harry was a "weak student" and alleged that fellow staff had conspired to help him cheat on examinations. Her statement was related to a wrongful dismissal suit Forsyth filed alleging she had been fired for refusing to participate in the alleged cheating scheme.[68][69] Both Eton and Harry denied the claims.[68][69] While a tribunal made no ruling on the cheating claim, it "accepted the prince had received help in preparing his A-level 'expressive' project, which he needed to pass to secure his place at Sandhurst".[69] Eton paid £45,000 in damages to Forsyth over her dismissal.[70]
Prince Andrew's children[edit]
His daughters, Eugenie and Beatrice, were noted in 2008 as having earned the best grades so far in the royal family in their A-levels, better than their father and uncle, and than their older cousins William and Harry.[30] Eugenie ranked first with her two As and a B in art, English literature, and history of art from Marlborough College.[30] Beatrice, who is dyslexic,[71] studied at Goldsmiths, University of London, graduating in 2011 with a 2:1 degree in history and the history of ideas.[72] Eugenie studied at Newcastle University, graduating in 2012 with a 2:1 degree in English and history of art.[73]
See also[edit]
History of education in England
Education in the United Kingdom
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Katy Guest (23 August 2008). "Top marks for Eugenie as her exam results break all royal records". The Independent. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
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Jump up ^ James Panton (2011). Historical Dictionary of the British Monarchy. Scarecrow Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-8108-7497-8.
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Jump up ^ Royal Household. "Her Majesty The Queen: Early life and education". Royal Family website. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Philip Eade (2011). Prince Philip: The Turbulent Early Life of the Man Who Married Queen Elizabeth II. Henry Holt and Company. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4299-6168-4.
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^ Jump up to: a b Patrick Sawer (23 December 2007). "Historian David Starkey criticises the Queen". The Telegraph. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Senay Boztas (22 December 2007). "Starkey dubs YouTube Queen an uneducated housewife". The Independent. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Education". Prince of Wales website. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Profile: Prince Charles". BBC History. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Eleanor Doughty (14 November 2016). "Gordonstoun's headmaster: 'Colditz in kilts?' Not any more'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Piers Brendon (2012). Eminent Elizabethans: Rupert Murdoch, Prince Charles, Margaret Thatcher & Mick Jagger. Random House. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-4090-4108-5.
Jump up ^ Monica Ali (30 March 2011). "Royal rebel: the legacy of Diana". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Priay Joshi (26 January 2014). "Princess Michael of Kent: Princess Diana was 'uneducated' and older royals 'boring'". Yahoo. International Business Times. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Diana was insecure about her intelligence". Herald Tribune. Associated Press. 2 December 2004. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Equivalent Degrees". Indiana University. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Famous high school dropouts". WLWT-TV. 18 September 2013. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016.
Jump up ^ John Lanchester (25 June 2007). "The naked and the dead: The very public life of Princess Diana". The New Yorker. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Royal Household. "HRH The Princess Royal: Early life and education". British Monarchy website. Archived from the original on 22 October 2008.
Jump up ^ "Gordonstoun turns back clock to a golden age of cold showers (but would Prince Charles agree?)". The Scotsman. 28 April 2009. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Naval career". Duke of York website. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Jonathan Leake (5 May 2013). "Royal Society bust-up over Andrew". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
Jump up ^ David Colquohon (5 May 2013). "Dukes of York don't belong in our Royal Society". The Independent. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Edward, Earl of Wessex". Biography. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Proud parents: Charles, Diana said delighted by son's Eton acceptance". Toledo Blade. Reuters. 15 June 1995.
^ Jump up to: a b "Profile: Prince William, the Duke of Cambridge". BBC News. 12 September 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "William graduates from St Andrews". BBC News. 23 June 2005.
Jump up ^ Maria Puente (3 January 2014). "Are Prince William's grades good enough for Cambridge?". USA Today. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Victoria Arbiter (8 January 2014). "Opinion: Why Prince William is right to go back to school". CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cambridge student newspaper backtracks on Prince William criticism". ITV News. 7 January 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Ann Tatko-Peterson (3 January 2013). "Prince William not smart enough for Cambridge University?". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "No. 58667". The London Gazette (Supplement). 15 April 2008. p. 5736.
Jump up ^ Alan Cowell (7 September 2003). "Britain's upper crust still soldiers on". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Harry begins Sandhurst training". BBC News. 8 May 2005. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Tom Sykes (15 March 2016). "Harry at Yale studying law? Not likely, your honor". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Steven Morris (10 May 2005). "Prince Harry, a weak student who was helped to cheat in exam, says ex-teacher". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Jacqueline Maley (14 February 2006). "£45,000 damages for teacher who accused Prince Harry of cheating". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Princess Beatrice". Duke of York website. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Princess Beatrice graduates from Goldsmiths College". BBC News. 9 September 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Craig Thompson (16 October 2015). "Newcastle University welcomes back former student, HRH Princess Eugenie". ChronicleLive. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
Bibliography[edit]
Clarke, M.J. (1978). "The Education of Royalty in the Eighteenth Century: George IV and William IV". British Journal of Educational Studies. 26 (1): 73. doi:10.2307/3120477. JSTOR 3120477.
Gordon, Peter; Lawton, Denis (2003). Royal Education: Past, Present, and Future. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-8386-7.
Hulse, Clark (2003). Elizabeth I: Ruler and Legend. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07161-4.
Keay, Anna (2008). The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84725-225-8.
Mueller, Janel; Scodel, Joshia, eds. (2009). Elizabeth I: Translations, 1544-1589. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-20133-7.
Pollnitz, Aysha (2015). Princely Education in Early Modern Britain. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03952-0.
Weir, Alison (2008). Henry VIII: King and Court. Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-953242-2.
Zeepvat, Charlotte (1998). Prince Leopold: The Untold Story of Queen Victoria's Youngest Son. Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-1308-9.
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