text:
Panama Canal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Panama Canal
Canal de Panamá
A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and passages
Specifications
Locks
3 locks up, 3 down per transit; all three lanes
(3 lanes of locks)
Status
Open, expansion opened June 26, 2016
Navigation authority
Panama Canal Authority
History
Original owner
La Société internationale du Canal
Principal engineer
John Findlay Wallace (1904–1905), John Frank Stevens (1905–1907), George Washington Goethals (1907–1914)
Date of first use
August 15, 1914
Location of Panama between Pacific (bottom) and Caribbean (top), with canal at top center
The panamax ship MSC Poh Lin exiting the Miraflores locks, March 2013
The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panamá) is an artificial 48-mile (77 km) waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. There are locks at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 metres (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 33.5 metres (110 ft) wide. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began commercial operation on June 26, 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo.[1]
France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15, 1914. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduced the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan.
Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U.S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority.
Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal.[2] It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early proposals in Panama
1.2 French construction attempts, 1881–1894
1.3 United States acquisition
1.4 United States construction of the Panama canal, 1904–1914
1.5 West Indian labor migration to Panama (1850–1914)
1.6 Goethals replaces Stevens
1.7 Recent Developments
1.8 Later developments
2 Canal
2.1 Layout
2.2 Navigation
2.3 Gatun Lake
2.4 Lock size
2.5 Tolls
3 Issues leading to expansion
3.1 Efficiency and maintenance
3.2 Capacity
3.3 Competition
3.4 Water issues
4 Third set of locks project (expansion)
4.1 Rival Colombia rail link
4.2 Rival Nicaragua canal
4.3 Other projects
5 Panama Canal Honorary Pilots
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Construction and technical issues
8.2 Diplomatic and political history
9 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Panama Canal
Satellite image showing location of Panama Canal. Dense jungles are visible in green.
Early proposals in Panama[edit]
The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates back to 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ordered a survey for a route through the Americas that would ease the voyage for ships traveling between Spain and Peru. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese.[4]
In 1668 the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne speculated in his encyclopaedic endeavour Pseudodoxia Epidemica - some Isthmus have been eat through by the Sea, and others cut by the spade: And if policy would permit, that of Panama in America were most worthy the attempt: it being but few miles over, and would open a shorter cut unto the East Indies and China.[5]
In 1788, Thomas Jefferson suggested that the Spanish should create it since it would be a less treacherous route than going around the southern tip of South America, which tropical ocean currents would naturally widen thereafter.[6] During an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction.[7]
Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other trade links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort and it was abandoned in April 1700.[8]
Another effort was made in 1843. According to the New York Daily Tribune, August 24, 1843, a contract was entered into by Barings of London and the Republic of New Granada for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien (Isthmus of Panama). They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor. It was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal (and/or a railroad) across Mexico's Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either.[9]
In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U.S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855. This overland link became a vital piece of western hemisphere infrastructure, greatly facilitating trade and largely determining the later canal route.
An all-water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal solution, and in 1855 William Kennish, a Manx-born engineer working for the United States government, surveyed the isthmus and issued a report on a route for a proposed Panama Canal.[10] His report was published as a book entitled The Practicality and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[11]
In 1877 Armand Reclus, an officer with the French Navy, and Lucien Napoléon Bonaparte Wyse, both engineers, surveyed the route and published a French proposal for a canal.[12] French success in building the Suez Canal, while a lengthy project, encouraged planning for one to cross the isthmus.[13]
French construction attempts, 1881–1894[edit]
Ferdinand de Lesseps
Excavator at work, in Bas Obispo, 1886
The first attempt to construct a canal through what was then Colombia's province of Panama began on January 1, 1881. The project was inspired by the diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was able to raise considerable finance in France as a result of the huge profits generated by his successful construction of the Suez Canal.[14] Although the Panama Canal would eventually have to be only 40% as long as the Suez Canal, the former would prove to be far more of an engineering challenge, due to the tropical rain forests, the climate, the need for canal locks, and the lack of any ancient route to follow.
De Lesseps wanted a sea-level canal as at Suez but only visited the site a few times, during the dry season which lasts only four months of the year.[15] His men were totally unprepared for the rainy season, during which the Chagres River, where the canal started, became a raging torrent, rising up to 35 feet (10 m). The dense jungle was alive with venomous snakes, insects and spiders, but the worst aspect was the yellow fever and malaria (and other tropical diseases) which killed thousands of workers: by 1884 the death rate was over 200 per month.[16] Public health measures were ineffective because the role of the mosquito as a disease vector was then unknown. Conditions were downplayed in France to avoid recruitment problems,[17] but the high mortality rate made it difficult to maintain an experienced workforce.
Workers had to continually widen the main cut through the mountain at Culebra and reduce the angles of the slopes to minimize landslides into the canal.[18] Steam shovels were used in the construction of the canal, and they were purchased from Bay City Industrial Works, a business owned by William L. Clements in Bay City, Michigan.[19] Other mechanical and electrical equipment was limited in its capabilities, and steel equipment rusted rapidly in the climate.[20]
In France, de Lesseps kept the investment and supply of workers flowing long after it was obvious that the targets were not being met, but eventually the money ran out. The French effort went bankrupt in 1889 after reportedly spending US$287,000,000 and losing an estimated 22,000 lives to disease and accidents, wiping out the savings of 800,000 investors.[17][21] Work was suspended on May 15, and in the ensuing scandal, known as the Panama affair, various of those deemed responsible were prosecuted, including Gustave Eiffel.[22] De Lesseps and his son Charles were found guilty of misappropriation of funds and sentenced to five years' imprisonment, though this was later overturned, and the father, at 88, was never imprisoned.[17]
In 1894, a second French company, the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, was created to take over the project. A minimal workforce of a few thousand people was employed primarily to comply with the terms of the Colombian Panama Canal concession, to run the Panama Railroad, and to maintain the existing excavation and equipment in salable condition. The company sought a buyer for these assets, with an asking price of US$109,000,000. In the meanwhile they continued with enough activity to maintain their franchise, and Bunau-Varilla eventually managed to persuade de Lesseps that a lock-and-lake canal was more realistic than a sea-level canal.[23]
United States acquisition[edit]
The U.S.'s intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903
The Culebra Cut, or Gaillard Cut, in 1896
The Culebra Cut in 1902
At this time, the President and the Senate of the United States were interested in establishing a canal across the isthmus, with some favoring a canal across Nicaragua and others advocating the purchase of the French interests in Panama. The French manager of the New Panama Canal Company, Phillipe Bunau-Varilla, who was seeking American involvement, asked for $100 million, but accepted $40 million in the face of the Nicaraguan option. In June 1902, the U.S. Senate voted in favor of pursuing the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained, in the Spooner Act.[24]
On January 22, 1903, the Hay–Herrán Treaty was signed by United States Secretary of State John M. Hay and Colombian Chargé Dr. Tomás Herrán. For $10 million and an annual payment it would have granted the United States a renewable lease in perpetuity from Colombia on the land proposed for the canal.[25] The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate on March 14, 1903, but the Senate of Colombia did not ratify it. Bunau-Varilla told President Theodore Roosevelt and Hay of a possible revolt by Panamanian rebels who aimed to separate from Colombia, and hoped that the United States would support the rebels with U.S. troops and money. Roosevelt changed tactics, based in part on the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty of 1846, and actively supported the separation of Panama from Colombia and, shortly after recognizing Panama, signed a treaty with the new Panamanian government under similar terms to the Hay–Herrán Treaty.[26]
On November 2, 1903, U.S. warships blocked sea lanes for possible Colombian troop movements en route to put down the rebellion. Panama declared independence on November 3, 1903. The United States quickly recognized the new nation.[27] On November 6, 1903, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, as Panama's ambassador to the United States, signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses. This is sometimes misinterpreted as the "99-year lease" because of misleading wording included in article 22 of the agreement.[28] Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country's new national sovereignty.[29][30] This would later become a contentious diplomatic issue among Colombia, Panama, and the United States.
President Roosevelt famously stated that "I took the Isthmus, started the canal and then left Congress not to debate the canal, but to debate me." Several parties in the United States called this an act of war on Colombia: The New York Times called the support given by the United States to Bunau-Varilla an "act of sordid conquest." The New York Evening Post called it a "vulgar and mercenary venture." It is often cited as the classic example of U.S. gunboat diplomacy in Latin America, and the best illustration of what Roosevelt meant by the old African adage, "Speak softly and carry a big stick [and] you will go far." After the revolution in 1903, the Republic of Panama became a U.S. protectorate until 1939.[31]
Thus in 1904, the United States purchased the French equipment and excavations, including the Panama Railroad, for US$40 million, of which $30 million related to excavations completed, primarily in the Gaillard Cut (then called the Culebra Cut), valued at about $1.00 per cubic yard.[32] The United States also paid the new country of Panama $10 million and a $250,000 payment each following year.
In 1921, Colombia and the United States entered into the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty, in which the United States agreed to pay Colombia $25 million: $5 million upon ratification, and four-$5 million annual payments, and grant Colombia special privileges in the Canal Zone. In return, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation.
United States construction of the Panama canal, 1904–1914[edit]
Construction of locks on the Panama Canal, 1913
The U.S. formally took control of the canal property on May 4, 1904, inheriting from the French a depleted workforce and a vast jumble of buildings, infrastructure and equipment, much of it in poor condition. A U.S. government commission, the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC), was established to oversee construction[33] and was given control of the Panama Canal Zone, over which the United States exercised sovereignty. The commission reported directly to Secretary of War William Howard Taft and was directed to avoid the inefficiency and corruption that had plagued the French 15 years earlier.
John Frank Stevens
On May 6, 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed John Findley Wallace, formerly chief engineer and finally general manager of the Illinois Central Railroad, as chief engineer of the Panama Canal Project. Overwhelmed by the disease-plagued country and forced to use often dilapidated French infrastructure and equipment,[34] as well as being frustrated by the overly bureaucratic ICC, Wallace resigned abruptly in June 1905.[35] He was succeeded by John Frank Stevens, a self-educated engineer who had built the Great Northern Railroad.[36] Stevens was not a member of the ICC; he increasingly viewed its bureaucracy as a serious hindrance, bypassing the commission and sending requests and demands directly to the Roosevelt Administration in Washington.
One of Stevens' first achievements in Panama was in building and rebuilding the housing, cafeterias, hotels, water systems, repair shops, warehouses, and other infrastructure needed by the thousands of incoming workers. Stevens began the recruitment effort to entice thousands of workers from the United States and other areas to come to the Canal Zone to work, and tried to provide accommodation in which the incoming workers could work and live in reasonable safety and comfort. He also re-established and enlarged the railway that was to prove crucial in transporting millions of tons of soil from the cut through the mountains to the dam across the Chagres River.
William C. Gorgas
Colonel William C. Gorgas had been appointed chief sanitation officer of the canal construction project in 1904. Gorgas implemented a range of measures to minimize the spread of deadly diseases, particularly yellow fever and malaria which had recently been shown to be mosquito-borne following the work of Dr. Carlos Finlay and Dr. Walter Reed.[37] There was investment in extensive sanitation projects, including city water systems, fumigation of buildings, spraying of insect-breeding areas with oil and larvicide, installation of mosquito netting and window screens, and elimination of stagnant water. Despite opposition from the Commission (one member said his ideas were barmy), Gorgas persisted and when Stevens arrived, he threw his weight behind the project. After two years of extensive work, the mosquito-spread diseases were nearly eliminated.[38] Nevertheless, even with all this effort, about 5,600 workers died of disease and accidents during the U.S. construction phase of the canal.
President Theodore Roosevelt sitting on a steam shovel at Culebra Cut, 1906
Construction work on the Gaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from 1907
In 1905, a U.S. engineering panel was commissioned to review the canal design, which still had not been finalized. It recommended to President Roosevelt a sea-level canal, as had been attempted by the French. However, in 1906 Stevens, who had seen the Chagres in full flood, was summoned to Washington and declared a sea-level approach to be "an entirely untenable proposition". He argued in favor of a canal using a lock system to raise and lower ships from a large reservoir 85 ft (26 m) above sea level. This would create both the largest dam (Gatun Dam) and the largest man-made lake (Gatun Lake) in the world at that time. The water to refill the locks would be taken from Gatun Lake by opening and closing enormous gates and valves and letting gravity propel the water from the lake. Gatun Lake would connect to the Pacific through the mountains at the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut. Stevens successfully convinced Roosevelt of the necessity and feasibility of the alternative scheme.[39]
The construction of a canal with locks required the excavation of more than 170,000,000 cu yd (129,974,326 m3) of material over and above the 30,000,000 cu yd (22,936,646 m3) excavated by the French. As quickly as possible, the Americans replaced or upgraded the old, unusable French equipment with new construction equipment that was designed for a much larger and faster scale of work. About 102 new large, railroad-mounted steam shovels were purchased from the Marion Power Shovel Company and brought from the United States. These were joined by enormous steam-powered cranes, giant hydraulic rock crushers, cement mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills, nearly all of which were manufactured by new, extensive machine-building technology developed and built in the United States. The railroad also had to be comprehensively upgraded with heavy-duty, double-tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate new rolling stock. In many places, the new Gatun Lake flooded over the original rail line, and a new line had to be constructed above Gatun Lake's waterline.
West Indian labor migration to Panama (1850–1914)[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Emancipation in the British West Indies in 1838 freed over one-half million slaves, transforming the islands’ societies and economies. Most freedmen preferred not to do plantation work anymore, and the sugar industries gradually declined. The white colonial elites and mulatto middle classes managed to reconstruct the social hierarchy so that the blacks remained at the bottom. In such a precarious position, black freedmen had to take any jobs that appeared, including those abroad. Thus, began the trans-Caribbean migration phase of the diaspora.
The California gold rush of 1849 rekindled interest in a modern transportation route across Central America and spurred larger migrations of these freedmen. Two crossings were developed, Vanderbilt’s steamship and stage line in Nicaragua and the New York-based Panama Railroad. Both enterprises used imported labor, largely Jamaican. Some 5,000 eventually worked on the Panama railroad line. The projects proved that the West Indian blacks resisted tropical diseases better than other workers and they were available in large numbers due to the islands’ depressed economies.
Caribbean migration on a large scale would resume again in the 1880s as a result of two developments, the French canal project and the spread of banana cultivation. The French company employed over 50,000 West Indians (again mainly Jamaicans) during its unsuccessful bid to build the canal across the isthmus.
Banana cultivation also proved a boon to the region’s economy after the 1880s, expanding commercial agriculture and inducing thousands more to migrate. By the early twentieth century, the United Fruit Company operated a string of banana ports, including Puerto Limon (Costa Rica) and Bocas del Toro (Panama).
During the construction of the Panama Canal by the Americans (1904-1914), the West Indian migrations to Panama constituted a demographic tidal wave, the largest yet in Caribbean history. Officially, canal authorities brought over 31,000 West Indian men and a few women. But in fact, contemporaries estimated that between 150,000 and 200,000 men and women must have migrated during the decade 1904-1914. Most did not plan to stay in Panama. Eventually though, tens of thousands remained on the isthmus because the islands offered few opportunities that could compete with the pay and benefits available in Panama. The West Indians settled, married, had children, and became the largest immigrant group in the sparsely populated country. The descendants of these immigrants are known today as Afro-Panamanians.
Goethals replaces Stevens[edit]
In 1907, Stevens resigned as chief engineer, having in his view made success certain.[40] His replacement, appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt, was U.S. Army Major George Washington Goethals of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (soon to be promoted to lieutenant colonel and later to colonel), a strong, United States Military Academy–trained leader and civil engineer with experience of canals (unlike Stevens). Goethals would direct the work in Panama to a successful conclusion.[41]
George W. Goethals
Goethals divided the engineering and excavation work into three divisions: Atlantic, Central, and Pacific. The Atlantic Division, under Major William L. Sibert, was responsible for construction of the massive breakwater at the entrance to Limon Bay, the Gatun locks and their 5.6 km (3.5 mi) approach channel, and the immense Gatun Dam. The Pacific Division, under Sydney B. Williamson (the only civilian member of this high-level team), was similarly responsible for the Pacific 4.8 km (3.0 mi) breakwater in Panama Bay, the approach channel to the locks, and the Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks and their associated dams and reservoirs.[42]
Spanish laborers working on the Panama Canal in early 1900s
The Central Division, under Major David du Bose Gaillard of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, was assigned one of the most difficult parts: excavating the Culebra Cut through the continental divide to connect Gatun Lake to the Pacific Panama Canal locks.[43]
On October 10, 1913, President Woodrow Wilson sent a signal from the White House by telegraph which triggered the explosion that destroyed the Gamboa Dike. This flooded the Culebra Cut, thereby joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[44] Alexandre La Valley (a floating crane built by Lobnitz & Company, and launched in 1887) was the first self-propelled vessel to transit the canal from ocean to ocean. This vessel crossed the canal from the Atlantic in stages during construction, finally reaching the Pacific on January 7, 1914.[45] SS Cristobal (a cargo and passenger ship built by Maryland Steel, and launched in 1902 as SS Tremont) was the first ship to transit the canal from ocean to ocean on August 3, 1914.[46]
The construction of the canal was completed in 1914, 401 years after Panama was first crossed by Vasco Núñez de Balboa. The United States spent almost $375,000,000 (roughly equivalent to $9,169,650,000 now[47]) to finish the project. This was by far the largest American engineering project to date. The canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914, with the passage of the cargo ship SS Ancon.[48]
The opening of Panama Canal in 1914 caused a severe drop in traffic along Chilean ports due to shifts in the maritime trade routes.[49][50][51]
A Marion steam shovel excavating the Panama Canal in 1908
The Panama Canal locks under construction in 1910
The first ship to transit the canal, the SS Ancon, passes through on 15 August 1914
Throughout this time, Ernest "Red" Hallen was hired by the Isthmian Canal Commission to document the progress of the work.
Recent Developments[edit]
Panama has joined the Lima Consensus denouncing the current state of Venezuela and joining 12 other countries who are making the defense of democracy a priority on the American continent.[52]One aspect of this is dedicating itself to safe transport between ports to decrease transnational trafficking of drugs and weapons per case volume, with an average of 1,366 weapons per seizure.<ref> http://www.gfintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Transnational_Crime-final.pdf </ref>
The expansion of the Panama Canal has led to many East Coast ports in the U.S expanding as well, in turn supplying jobs and improving the economy for both parties Along with the government alliance and joining of capacities to contribute to peace, the economic success resulting from a healthy relationship between the U.S and Panama makes the ties strong. [53]
Later developments[edit]
See also: § Third set of locks project
USS Missouri passes through the canal in 1945. The Iowa-class battleships were designed to be narrow enough to fit through.
By the 1930s it was seen that water supply would be an issue for the canal; this prompted the building of the Madden Dam across the Chagres River above Gatun Lake. Completed in 1935, the dam created Madden Lake (later Alajeula Lake) which provides additional water storage for the canal.[54] In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks for the canal, large enough to carry the larger warships that the United States was building at the time and planned to continue building. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the new approach channels, but the project was canceled after World War II.[55][56]
Statement on the Panama Canal Treaty Signing
Jimmy Carter's speech upon signing the Panama Canal treaty, 7 September 1977
Problems playing this file? See media help.
After World War II, U.S. control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious; relations between Panama and the United States became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing-in of the zone and an increased military presence there.[57] Demands for the United States to hand over the canal to Panama increased after the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the United States used financial and diplomatic pressure to force France and the UK to abandon their attempt to retake control of the Suez Canal, previously nationalized by the Nasser regime in Egypt. Unrest culminated in riots on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964, when about 20 Panamanians and 3–5 U.S. soldiers were killed.
A decade later, in 1974, negotiations toward a settlement began and resulted in the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. On September 7, 1977, the treaty was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos, de facto leader of Panama. This mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama.[58][59]
Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canal's Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong–based shipping interest owned by Li Ka-shing.[citation needed]
Canal[edit]
Layout[edit]
[hide]
[
v
t
e
]
Panama Canal
Legend
km
mi
Atlantic Ocean(Caribbean Sea)
0 Atlantic Entrance,Manzanillo Bay Breakwater entrance
8.7
5.4
[show]Port of Colón (Cristóbal)
Colón, cruise terminal, MIT, Free Trade Zone, airport
Cristóbal harbor,Atlantic passenger station
Third Bridge or Atlantic bridge
1.9
1.2
Gatun Locks3 chambers, +26 m (85 ft)
new Agua Clara Locks(3 chambers; water saving basins)
Gatun Dam,Chagres River hydroelectricity (22.5 MW)[60], spillway
24.2
15.0
Gatun Lake
Gatún River, causeway, Monte Lirio bridge
8.5
5.3
Gamboa
Chagres River,Madden Dam, Alajuela Lake
with hydroelectricity (36 MW)[60]
12.6
7.8
Culebra Cut(Gaillard Cut)
Continental watershed, summit
Centennial Bridge (Pan-American Highway, via Panama City)
1.4
0.9
Pedro Miguel Locks1 chamber, +9.5 m (31 ft)
new Cocoli Locks(3 chambers; water saving basins)
1.7
1.1
Miraflores Lake
1.7
1.1
Miraflores Locks2 chambers, +16.5 m (54 ft); spillway
13.2
8.2
[show]Port of Balboa
Diablo, Corozal passenger station, Airport, Rail terminal
Balboa
total
Bridge of the Americas (Arraiján–Panama City)
77.1
47.9
Pacific Entrance
Pacific Ocean(Gulf of Panama)
Legend
Navigable canal(maximum draft: 39.5 feet (12.0 m))
Non-navigable water
Dock, industrial or logistical area
Water flow direction
Panama Canal Railway(passenger station, freight station)
City, village or town
While globally the Atlantic Ocean is east of the isthmus and the Pacific is west, the general direction of the canal passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific is from northwest to southeast. This is because of a local anomaly in the shape of the isthmus at the point the canal occupies. The Bridge of the Americas (Spanish: Puente de las Américas) at the Pacific side is about a third of a degree east of the Colón end on the Atlantic side.[61] Still, in formal nautical communications, the simplified directions "Southbound" and "Northbound" are used.
The canal consists of artificial lakes, several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of locks. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American era as Madden Lake), acts as a reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific is as follows:[62]
From the formal marking line of the Atlantic Entrance, one enters Limón Bay (Bahía Limón), a large natural harbour. The entrance runs 8.7 km (5.4 mi). It provides a deepwater port (Cristóbal), with facilities like multimodal cargo exchange (to and from train) and the Colón Free Trade Zone (a free port).
A 2.0 mi (3.2 km) channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side.
The Gatun Locks, a three-stage flight of locks 1.9 km (1.2 mi) long, lifts ships to the Gatun Lake level, some 26.5 m (87 ft) above sea level.
Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carries vessels 24.2 km (15 mi) across the isthmus. It is the summit canal stretch, fed by the Gatun River and emptied by basic lock operations.
From the lake, the Chagres River, a natural waterway enhanced by the damming of Gatun Lake, runs about 8.5 km (5.3 mi). Here the upper Chagres River feeds the high level canal stretch.
The Culebra Cut slices 12.6 km (7.8 mi) through the mountain ridge, crosses the continental divide and passes under the Centennial Bridge.
The single-stage Pedro Miguel Lock, which is 1.4 km (0.87 mi) long, is the first part of the descent with a lift of 9.5 m (31 ft).
The artificial Miraflores Lake 1.7 km (1.1 mi) long, and 16.5 m (54 ft) above sea level.
The two-stage Miraflores Locks is 1.7 km (1.1 mi) long, with a total descent of 16.5 m (54 ft) at mid-tide.
From the Miraflores Locks one reaches Balboa harbour, again with multimodal exchange provision (here the railway meets the shipping route again). Nearby is Panama City.
From this harbour an entrance/exit channel leads to the Pacific Ocean (Gulf of Panama), 13.2 km (8.2 mi) from the Miraflores Locks, passing under the Bridge of the Americas.
Thus, the total length of the canal is 77.1 km (48 mi).
Navigation[edit]
[show]Map this section's coordinates using OSM
Map this section's coordinates using Google
Export this section's coordinates as KML
Export this section's coordinates as GPX
Map all microformatted coordinates
Place data as RDF
Pacific Side entrance
Point
Coordinates
(links to map & photo sources)
Notes
Atlantic Entrance 9°23′15″N 79°55′07″W / 9.38743°N 79.91863°W / 9.38743; -79.91863 (Atlantic Entrance)
Gatún Locks 9°16′20″N 79°55′22″W / 9.27215°N 79.92266°W / 9.27215; -79.92266 (Gatún Locks)
Trinidad Turn 9°12′36″N 79°55′27″W / 9.20996°N 79.92408°W / 9.20996; -79.92408 (Trinidad Turn) In "The Cut"
Bohío Turn 9°10′42″N 79°52′00″W / 9.17831°N 79.86667°W / 9.17831; -79.86667 (Bohío Turn) In "The Cut"
Orchid Turn 9°11′03″N 79°50′42″W / 9.18406°N 79.84513°W / 9.18406; -79.84513 (Orchid Turn) In "The Cut"
Frijoles Turn 9°09′33″N 79°48′49″W / 9.15904°N 79.81362°W / 9.15904; -79.81362 (Frijoles Turn) In "The Cut"
Barbacoa Turn 9°07′14″N 79°48′14″W / 9.12053°N 79.80395°W / 9.12053; -79.80395 (Barbacoa Turn) In "The Cut"
Mamei Turn 9°06′42″N 79°46′07″W / 9.11161°N 79.76856°W / 9.11161; -79.76856 (Mamei Turn) In "The Cut"
Gamboa Reach 9°07′04″N 79°43′21″W / 9.11774°N 79.72257°W / 9.11774; -79.72257 (Gamboa Reach)
Bas Obispo Reach 9°05′46″N 79°41′04″W / 9.09621°N 79.68446°W / 9.09621; -79.68446 (Bas Obispo Reach)
Las Cascadas Reach 9°04′36″N 79°40′30″W / 9.07675°N 79.67492°W / 9.07675; -79.67492 (Las Cascadas Reach)
Empire Reach 9°03′40″N 79°39′47″W / 9.06104°N 79.66309°W / 9.06104; -79.66309 (Empire Reach)
Culebra Reach 9°02′51″N 79°39′01″W / 9.04745°N 79.65017°W / 9.04745; -79.65017 (Culebra Reach)
Cucaracha Reach 9°02′01″N 79°38′14″W / 9.03371°N 79.63736°W / 9.03371; -79.63736 (Cucaracha Reach)
Paraiso Reach 9°01′33″N 79°37′30″W / 9.02573°N 79.62492°W / 9.02573; -79.62492 (Paraiso Reach)
Pedro Miguel Locks 9°01′01″N 79°36′46″W / 9.01698°N 79.61281°W / 9.01698; -79.61281 (Pedro Miguel Locks)
Miraflores Lake 9°00′27″N 79°36′09″W / 9.00741°N 79.60254°W / 9.00741; -79.60254 (Miraflores Lake)
Miraflores Locks 8°59′48″N 79°35′31″W / 8.99679°N 79.59182°W / 8.99679; -79.59182 (Miraflores Locks)
Balboa Reach 8°58′22″N 79°34′40″W / 8.97281°N 79.57771°W / 8.97281; -79.57771 (Balboa Reach)
Pacific Entrance 8°53′18″N 79°31′17″W / 8.88846°N 79.52145°W / 8.88846; -79.52145 (Pacific Entrance)
Gatun Lake[edit]
Artificially created in 1913 by damming the Chagres River, Gatun Lake is an essential part of the Panama Canal, providing the millions of gallons of water necessary to operate the Panama Canal locks each time a ship passes through. At the time it was formed, Gatun Lake was the largest human-made lake in the world. The impassable rainforest around the lake has been the best defense of the Panama Canal. Today these areas remain practically unscathed by human interference and are one of the few accessible areas where various native Central American animal and plant species can be observed undisturbed in their natural habitat.
The largest island on Gatun Lake is Barro Colorado Island. It was established for scientific study when the lake was formed, and is operated by the Smithsonian Institution. Many important scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Gatun Lake covers about 470 square kilometres (180 sq mi), a vast tropical ecological zone and part of the Atlantic Forest Corridor. Ecotourism on the lake has become an industry for Panamanians.
Gatun Lake also provides drinking water for Panama City and Colón. Fishing is one of the primary recreational pursuits on Gatun Lake. Non-native peacock bass were introduced by accident to Gatun Lake around 1967[63] by a local businessman,[64] and have since flourished to become the dominant angling game fish in Gatun Lake. Locally called Sargento and believed to be the species Cichla pleiozona,[65] these peacock bass originate from the Amazon, Rio Negro, and Orinoco river basins, where they are considered a premier game fish.
Lock size[edit]
Main article: Panama Canal locks
Miter lock gate at Gatún
Lock gate at Miraflores
The size of the locks determines the maximum size ship that can pass through. Because of the importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximum size allowed. These are known as Panamax vessels. A Panamax cargo ship typically has a deadweight tonnage (DWT) of 65,000–80,000 tonnes, but its actual cargo is restricted to about 52,500 tonnes because of the 12.6 m (41.2 ft) draft restrictions within the canal.[66] The longest ship ever to transit the canal was the San Juan Prospector (now Marcona Prospector), an ore-bulk-oil carrier that is 296.57 m (973 ft) long with a beam of 32.31 m (106 ft).[67]
Initially the locks at Gatun were designed to be 28.5 m (94 ft) wide. In 1908, the United States Navy requested that an increased width of at least 36 m (118 ft) to allow the passage of U.S. Naval ships. Eventually a compromise was made and the locks were built 33.53 m (110.0 ft) wide. Each lock is 320 m (1,050 ft) long, with the walls ranging in thickness from 15 m (49 ft) at the base to 3 m (9.8 ft) at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatun is 18 m (59 ft) thick and over 24 m (79 ft) high. The steel lock gates measure an average of 2 m (6.6 ft) thick, 19.5 m (64 ft) wide, and 20 m (66 ft) high.[68] It is the size of the locks, specifically the Pedro Miguel Locks, along with the height of the Bridge of the Americas at Balboa, that determine the Panamax metric and limit the size of ships that may use the canal.
The 2006 third set of locks project has created larger locks, allowing bigger ships to transit through deeper and wider channels. The allowed dimensions of ships using these locks increased by 25% in length, 51% in beam, and 26% in draft, as defined by New Panamax metrics.[69]
Tolls[edit]
Roll-on/roll-off ships, such as this one pictured here at Miraflores locks, are among the largest ships to pass through the canal.
Tolls for the canal are set by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo.[70]
For container ships, the toll is assessed on the ship's capacity expressed in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs), one TEU being the size of a standard intermodal shipping container. Effective April 1, 2016, this toll went from US$74.00 per loaded container to $60.00 per TEU capacity plus $30.00 per loaded container for a potential $90 per TEU when the ship is full. A Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400 TEU. The toll is calculated differently for passenger ships and for container ships carrying no cargo ("in ballast"). As of April 1, 2016[update], the ballast rate is US$60.00, down from US$65.60 per TEU.
Passenger vessels in excess of 30,000 tons (PC/UMS), known popularly as cruise ships, pay a rate based on the number of berths, that is, the number of passengers that can be accommodated in permanent beds. The per-berth charge since April 1, 2016 is $111 for unoccupied berths and $138 for occupied berths in the Panamax locks. Started in 2007, this fee has greatly increased the tolls for such ships.[71] Passenger vessels of less than 30,000 tons or less than 33 tons per passenger are charged according to the same per-ton schedule as are freighters. Almost all major cruise ships have more than 33 tons per passenger; the rule of thumb for cruise line comfort is generally given as a minimum of 40 tons per passenger.
Most other types of vessel pay a toll per PC/UMS net ton, in which one "ton" is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.83 m3). (The calculation of tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of fiscal year 2016[update], this toll is US$5.25 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, US$5.14 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US$5.06 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, reduced tolls are charged for freight ships "in ballast", $4.19, $4.12, $4.05 respectively.
On 1 April 2016, a more complicated toll system was introduced, having the neopanamax locks at a higher rate in some cases, natural gas transport as a new separate category and other changes.[72] Small (less than 125 ft) vessels up to 583 PC/UMS net tons when carrying passengers or cargo, or up to 735 PC/UMS net tons when in ballast, or up to 1,048 fully loaded displacement tons, are assessed minimum tolls based upon their length overall, according to the following table (as of 29 April 2015):
Length of vessel
Toll
Up to 15.240 meters (50 ft) US$800
More than 15.240 meters (50 ft) up to 24.384 meters (80 ft) US$1,300
More than 24.384 meters (80 ft) up to 30.480 meters (100 ft) US$2,000
More than 30.480 meters (100 ft) US$3,200
INTRA MARITIME CLUSTER - Local Tourism
More than 24.384 meters (80 ft) US$2,000
plus $72/TEU
Morgan Adams of Los Angeles, California, holds the distinction of paying the first toll received by the United States Government for the use of the Panama Canal by a pleasure boat. His boat Lasata passed through the Zone on August 14, 1914. The crossing occurred during a 6,000-mile sea voyage from Jacksonville, Florida, to Los Angeles in 1914.
The most expensive regular toll for canal passage to date was charged on April 14, 2010 to the cruise ship Norwegian Pearl, which paid US$375,600.[73][74] The average toll is around US$54,000. The highest fee for priority passage charged through the Transit Slot Auction System was US$220,300, paid on August 24, 2006, by the Panamax tanker Erikoussa,[75] bypassing a 90-ship queue waiting for the end of maintenance work on the Gatun Locks, and thus avoiding a seven-day delay. The normal fee would have been just US$13,430.[76]
The lowest toll ever paid was 36 cents, by American Richard Halliburton who swam the Panama Canal in 1928.[77]
In the Warner Bros. cartoon, Eight Ball Bunny, Bugs Bunny attempted to bring a penguin "home" to the South Pole. Going through the canal in a handmade canoe, Bugs complained, "Twenty-five cents to go tru DIS ting? Nah, we'll walk foist!"
Issues leading to expansion[edit]
Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal. Left: Pacific Ocean and Puente de las Americas (Bridge of Pan-American Highway); far right: Miraflores locks.
In the 100+ years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Even though world shipping—and the size of ships themselves—has changed markedly since the canal was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargo than ever before, with fewer overhead costs.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the canal faces a number of potential concerns.
Efficiency and maintenance[edit]
Opponents to the 1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaties feared that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S. withdrawal from the Panama Canal Zone; however, this has been proven not to be the case. Capitalizing on practices developed during the American administration, canal operations are improving under Panamanian control.[78] Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency; according to the ACP, since 2000, it has ranged between 20 and 30 hours. The accident rate has also not changed appreciably in the past decade, varying between 10 and 30 accidents each year from about 14,000 total annual transits.[79][80][81] An official accident is one in which a formal investigation is requested and conducted.
Increasing volumes of imports from Asia, which previously landed on U.S. West Coast ports, are now passing through the canal to the American East Coast.[82] The total number of ocean-going transits increased from 11,725 in 2003 to 13,233 in 2007, falling to 12,855 in 2009. (The canal's fiscal year runs from October through September.)[83] This has been coupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of Panamax vessels passing through the canal, so that the total tonnage carried rose from 227.9 million PC/UMS tons in fiscal year 1999 to a then record high of 312.9 million tons in 2007, and falling to 299.1 million tons in 2009.[61][83] Tonnage for fiscal 2013, 2014 and 2015 was 320.6, 326.8 and 340.8 million PC/UMS tons carried on 13,660, 13,481 and 13,874 transits respectively.[84] The Panama Canal Authority (ACP) has invested nearly US$1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20%.[85] The ACP cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on passing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances to the canal. This is supported by new equipment, such as a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the tug boat fleet by 20%. In addition, improvements have been made to the canal's operating machinery, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than 16 km (10 mi) of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal.[86]
In December 2010, record-breaking rains caused a 17-hour closure of the canal; this was the first closure since the United States invasion of Panama in 1989.[87][88] The rains also caused an access road to the Centenario Bridge to collapse.[89][90][91][92]
Capacity[edit]
The canal is currently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year;[93] as noted above, canal traffic in 2015 reached 340.8 million tons of shipping.
Gatun Lake provides the water to raise and lower vessels in the Canal, gravity fed into each set of locks
To improve capacity, a number of improvements have been made to the current canal system. These improvements aim to maximize the possible use of current locking system:[94]
Implementation of an enhanced locks lighting system;
Construction of two tie-up stations in Gaillard Cut;
Widening Gaillard Cut from 192 to 218 meters (630 to 715 ft);
Improvements to the tugboat fleet;
Implementation of the carousel lockage system in Gatun locks;
Development of an improved vessel scheduling system;
Deepening of Gatun Lake navigational channels from 10.4 to 11.3 meters (34 to 37 ft) PLD;
Modification of all locks structures to allow an additional draft of about 0.30 meters (1 ft);
Deepening of the Pacific and Atlantic entrances;
Construction of a new spillway in Gatun, for flood control.
These improvements enlarged the capacity from 300 million PCUMS (2008) to 340 PCUMS (2012). It should be noted that these improvements were started before the new locks project, and are complementary to it.
Competition[edit]
Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls have risen as ships have become larger, some critics[95] have suggested that the Suez Canal is now a viable alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the U.S. East Coast.[96] The Panama Canal, however, continues to serve more than 144 of the world's trade routes and the majority of canal traffic comes from the "all-water route" from Asia to the U.S. East and Gulf Coasts.[citation needed]
On June 15, 2013, Nicaragua awarded the Hong Kong-based HKND Group a 50-year concession to develop a canal through the country.[97]
The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to speculation that the Northwest Passage or Arctic Bridge may become viable for commercial shipping at some point in the future. This route would save 9,300 km (5,800 mi) on the route from Asia to Europe compared with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some traffic to that route. However, such a route is beset by unresolved territorial issues and would still hold significant problems owing to ice.[98]
Water issues[edit]
Gatun locks showing the "mule" locomotives at work
Gatun Lake is filled with rainwater, and the lake accumulates excess water during wet months. The water is lost to the oceans at a rate of 101,000 m3 (26,700,000 US gal; 22,200,000 imp gal) per downward lock cycle. Since a ship will have to go upward to Gatun Lake first and then descend, a single passing will cost double the amount; but the same waterflow cycle can be used for another ship passing in the opposite direction. The ship's submerged volume is not relevant to this amount of water.[99][100] During the dry season, when there is less rainfall, there is also a shortfall of water in Gatun Lake.[citation needed]
As a signatory to the United Nations Global Compact and member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the ACP has developed an environmentally and socially sustainable program for expansion, which will protect the aquatic and terrestrial resources of the canal watershed. After completion, expansion will guarantee the availability and quality of water resources by using water-saving basins at each new lock. These water-saving basins will diminish water loss and preserve freshwater resources along the waterway by reusing water from the basins into the locks. Each lock chamber will have three water-saving basins, which will reuse 60% of the water in each transit. There are a total of nine basins for each of the two lock complexes, and a total of 18 basins for the entire project.[citation needed]
The mean sea level at the Pacific side is about 20 cm (8 in) higher than that of the Atlantic side due to differences in ocean conditions such as water densities and weather.[101]
Third set of locks project (expansion)[edit]
Main article: Panama Canal expansion project
New Panama Canal expansion project. July 2015
New Agua Clara locks (Atlantic side)
Canal lock sizes
As demand is rising for efficient global shipping of goods, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature of world shipping for the foreseeable future. However, changes in shipping patterns —particularly the increasing numbers of larger-than-Panamax ships— necessitated changes to the canal for it to retain a significant market share. In 2006 it was anticipated that by 2011, 37% of the world's container ships would be too large for the present canal, and hence a failure to expand would result in a significant loss of market share. The maximum sustainable capacity of the original canal, given some relatively minor improvement work, was estimated at 340 million PC/UMS tons per year; it was anticipated that this capacity would be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50% of transiting vessels were already using the full width of the locks.[102]
An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, to allow for a greater number of transits and the ability to handle larger ships, had been under consideration for some time,[103] was approved by the government of Panama,[104][105] The cost was estimated at US$5.25 billion, and the expansion allowed to double the canal's capacity, allowing more traffic and the passage of longer and wider Post-Panamax ships. The proposal to expand the canal was approved in a national referendum by about 80% on October 22, 2006.[106] The canal expansion was built between 2007 and 2016, though completion was originally expected by the end of 2014.[1]
The expansion plan had two new flights of locks built parallel to, and operated in addition to, the old locks: one east of the existing Gatun locks, and one southwest of the Miraflores locks, each supported by approach channels. Each flight ascends from sea level directly to the level of Gatun Lake; the existing two-stage ascent at Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks was not replicated. The new lock chambers feature sliding gates, doubled for safety, and are 427 m (1,400 ft) long, 55 m (180 ft) wide, and 18.3 m (60 ft) deep. This allows the transit of vessels with a beam of up to 49 m (160 ft), an overall length of up to 366 m (1,200 ft) and a draft of up to 15 m (49 ft), equivalent to a container ship carrying around 12,000 containers, each 6.1 m (20 ft) in length (TEU).
The new locks are supported by new approach channels, including a 6.2 km (3.9 mi) channel at Miraflores from the locks to the Gaillard Cut, skirting Miraflores Lake. Each of these channels are 218 m (720 ft) wide, which will require post-Panamax vessels to navigate the channels in one direction at a time. The Gaillard Cut and the channel through Gatun Lake were widened to at least 280 m (920 ft) on the straight portions and at least 366 m (1,200 ft) on the bends. The maximum level of Gatun Lake was raised from 26.7 m (88 ft) to 27.1 m (89 ft).
Each flight of locks is accompanied by nine water reutilization basins (three per lock chamber), each basin being about 70 m (230 ft) wide, 430 m (1,400 ft) long and 5.50 m (18 ft) deep. These gravity-fed basins allow 60% of the water used in each transit to be reused; the new locks consequently use 7% less water per transit than each of the existing lock lanes. The deepening of Gatun Lake and the raising of its maximum water level also provide capacity for significantly more water storage. These measures are intended to allow the expanded canal to operate without constructing new reservoirs.
The estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 billion. The project was designed to allow for an anticipated growth in traffic from 280 million PC/UMS tons in 2005 to nearly 510 million PC/UMS tons in 2025. The expanded canal will have a maximum sustainable capacity of about 600 million PC/UMS tons per year. Tolls will continue to be calculated based on vessel tonnage, and in some cases depend on the locks used.
An article in the February 2007 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine described the plans for the canal expansion, focusing on the engineering aspects of the expansion project.[107] There is also a follow-up article in the February 2010 issue of Popular Mechanics.[108]
On September 3, 2007, thousands of Panamanians stood across from Paraíso Hill in Panama to witness a huge initial explosion and launch of the Expansion Program. The first phase of the project was the dry excavations of the 218 meters (715 feet) wide trench connecting the Gaillard Cut with the Pacific coast, removing 47 million cubic meters of earth and rock.[109] By June 2012, a 30 m reinforced concrete monolith had been completed, the first of 46 such monoliths which will line the new Pacific-side lock walls.[110] By early July 2012, however, it was announced that the canal expansion project had fallen six months behind schedule, leading expectations for the expansion to open in April 2015 rather than October 2014, as originally planned.[111] By September 2014, the new gates were projected to be open for transit at the "beginning of 2016."[112][113][114][115]
It was announced in July 2009 that the Belgian dredging company Jan De Nul, together with a consortium of contractors consisting of the Spanish Sacyr Vallehermoso, the Italian Impregilo, and the Panamanian company Grupo Cusa, had been awarded the contract to build the six new locks for US$3.1 billion, which was one billion less than the next highest competing bid due to having a concrete budget 71% percent smaller than that of the next bidder and allotted roughly 25% less for steel to reinforce that concrete. The contract resulted in $100 million in dredging works over the next few years for the Belgian company and a great deal of work for its construction division. The design of the locks is a carbon copy of the Berendrecht Lock, which is 68 m wide and 500 m long, making it the largest lock in the world. Completed in 1989 by the Port of Antwerp, which De Nul helped build, the company still has engineers and specialists who were part of that project.[116]
In January 2014, a contract dispute threatened the progress of the project.[117][118] There was a delay of less than two months however, with work by the consortium members reaching goals by June 2014.[119][120]
In June 2015, flooding of the new locks began: first on the Atlantic side, then on the Pacific; by then, the canal's re-inauguration was slated for April 2016.[121][122][123] On March 23, 2016, the expansion inauguration was set for June 26, 2016.[124]
The new locks opened for commercial traffic on 26 June 2016, and the first ship to cross the canal using the third set of locks was a modern New Panamax vessel, the Chinese-owned container ship Cosco Shipping Panama.[1] The original locks, now over 100 years old, allow engineers greater access for maintenance, and are projected to continue operating indefinitely.[102]
The total cost is unknown since the expansion's contractors are seeking at least an addition US$3.4 billion from the canal authority due to excess expenses.[125]
Rival Colombia rail link[edit]
China is investigating a proposal to construct a 220 km (137 mi) railway between Colombia's Pacific and Caribbean coasts.[126][127][128][129]
Rival Nicaragua canal[edit]
Main article: Nicaragua Canal
On July 7, 2014, Wang Jing, chairman of the HK Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Co. Ltd. (HKND Group) advised that a route for Nicaragua's proposed canal had been approved. The construction work began in December 2014 and is projected by HKND to take 5 years.[130] The Nicaraguan parliament approved plans for the 173-mile canal through Nicaragua. According to the deal, the company will be responsible for operating and maintaining the canal for a 50-year period. The government of Nicaragua hopes this will boost the economy; the opposition is concerned with its environmental impact. Hundreds of thousands of local residents will be displaced by the canal and nearly a million acres of delicate ecosystems will be destroyed by the time construction is completed in early 2019.[131][132]
Other projects[edit]
Individuals, companies, and governments have explored the possibility of constructing deep water ports and rail links connecting coasts as a "dry canal" in Guatemala, Costa Rica, and El Salvador/Honduras. However, plans to construct these sea-rail-sea links have yet to materialize.[133]
Panama Canal Honorary Pilots[edit]
During the last one hundred years, the Panama Canal Authority has appointed a few "Panama Canal Honorary Pilots." The most recent of these were Commodore Ronald Warwick,[134] a former Master of the Cunard Liners RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 and RMS Queen Mary 2, who has traversed the Canal more than 50 times, and Captain Raffaele Minotauro, an Unlimited Master Senior Grade, of the former Italian governmental navigation company known as the "Italian Line."
See also[edit]
Panama portal
North America portal
United States portal
Canal Zone Police
Cargo ship sizes
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
List of waterways
Marion Power Shovel Company
Nicaragua Canal
Strait of Magellan
Suez Canal
Ajax (crane barge)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Zamorano, Juan; Martinez, Kathia (June 26, 2016). "Panama Canal opens $5B locks, bullish despite shipping woes". The Big Story. Associated Press. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Panama Canal Traffic—Years 1914–2010". Panama Canal Authority. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
Jump up ^ "Seven Wonders". American Society of Civil Engineers. Archived from the original on 2010-08-02. Retrieved 2011-02-21.
Jump up ^ "A History of the Panama Canal: French and American Construction Efforts". Panama Canal Authority. Retrieved 2007-09-03. ; Chapter 3, Some Early Canal Plans
Jump up ^ Final words of Book 6 chapter 8 On the River Nile in 4th edition of P.E. (1668) https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aOI_AQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=pseudodoxia+epidemica&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj43rT8h9bRAhUCuhoKHdbkB34Q6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=pseudodoxia%20epidemica&f=false
Jump up ^ James Rodger Fleming (1990). Meteorology in America, 1800–1870. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0801839580.
Jump up ^ Caso, Adolph; Marion E. Welsh (1978). They Too Made America Great. Branden Books. p. 72. ISBN 0-8283-1714-3. ;online at Google Books
Jump up ^ "Darien Expedition". Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030213/1843-08-24/ed-1/seq-/#date1=1836&index=1&rows=20&words=Lexington+Ship+ship&searchType=basic&sequence=0&state=New+York&date2=1850&proxtext=lexington+ship&y=10&x=16&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1)
Jump up ^ "Manx Worthies"
Jump up ^ The Practicality and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Jump up ^ Gérard Fauconnier Panama: Armand Reclus et le canal des deux océans e-text University of Virginia reprint in French Panama Atlantica 2004
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 58–59.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 125.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 103–123.
Jump up ^ Cadbury, Deborah (2003). Seven Wonders of the Industrial World. London and New York: Fourth Estate. pp. 252–260. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c Avery, Ralph E. (1913). "The French Failure". America's Triumph in Panama. Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter Company.
Jump up ^ Rocco, Fiammetta (2003). The Miraculous Fever-Tree. HarperCollins. p. 192. ISBN 0-00-653235-7.
Jump up ^ "The Panama Canal: Explorers, pirates, scientists and engineers – University of Michigan News". umich.edu.
Jump up ^ "Read our history: The French Canal Construction". Panama Canal Authority. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ Cadbury 2003, p. 262.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 224.
Jump up ^ Cadbury 2003, p. 261.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 305–328.
Jump up ^ "Hay-Herrán Treaty". U-s-history.com. 1903-11-18. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ Livingstone, Grace (2009). America's backyard : the United States and Latin America from the Monroe Doctrine to the war on terror. London: Zed. p. 13. ISBN 9781848132146.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 361–386.
Jump up ^ "Avalon Project—Convention for the Construction of a Ship Canal (Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty), November 18, 1903". Avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ "September 07, 1977 : Panama to control canal". History.com. 2010. Retrieved Apr 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lowe, Vaughan. International Law. Oxford University Press. p. 66. Retrieved Apr 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hanson, David C. "Theodore Roosevelt and the Panama Canal" (PDF). Virginia Western Community College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ The Panama Canal Congressional Hearings 1909; Col. Goethals testimony; p.15 [1] Accessed 26 December 2011
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 273–274.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 440.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 457.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 459–462.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 405–426.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 466–468.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 485–489.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 503–508.
Jump up ^ Brodhead, Michael J. 2012. "The Panama Canal: Writings of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Officers Who Conceived and Built It." Page 1.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 540–542.
Jump up ^ David Du Bose Gaillard [2] Accessed 12 January 2012
Jump up ^ "Wilson blows up last big barrier in Panama Canal". Chicago Tribune. Chicago. 1913-10-11. p. 1. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 607.
Jump up ^ McCullough 1977, pp. 609.
Jump up ^ CPI calculator [3] Accessed 25 May 2017
Jump up ^ "Read our history: American Canal Construction". Panama Canal Authority. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ John Lawrence, Rector (2005), The History of Chile, pp. xxvi
Jump up ^ Martinic Beros, Mateo (2001), "La actividad industrial en Magallanes entre 1890 y mediados del siglo XX.", Historia, 34
Jump up ^ Figueroa, Victor; Gayoso, Jorge; Oyarzun, Edgardo; Planas, Lenia. "Investigación aplicada sobre Geografía Urbana: Un caso práctico en la ciudad de Valdivia" Archived 2014-10-25 at the Wayback Machine.. Gestion Turistica, UACh.
Jump up ^ "EIUCountry Login". country.eiu.com. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Remarks by the Vice President and Panamanian President Varela in a Joint Statement to the Press". whitehouse.gov. 2017-08-17. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Panama Dam to Aid Canal Traffic." Popular Mechanics, January 1930, p. 25.
Jump up ^ "Enlarging the Panama Canal". czbrats.com.
Jump up ^ "Presentation on the Third Locks Project – Panama Canal Zone". czimages.com.
Jump up ^ The Martyrs of 1964, by Eric Jackson
Jump up ^ "Here’s Why The Panama Canal Expansion Has Everyone Excited". TheHuffingtonPost.com. 2016-07-11. The Canal previously accounted for about 15 percent of the country’s GDP
Jump up ^ "A plan to unlock prosperity". The Economist. Dec 3, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hydroelectric Plants in Panama". 2015-07-05. Retrieved 2016-06-26.
^ Jump up to: a b "Panama Canal Traffic—Fiscal Years 2002–2004" (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-12-01. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ "Historical Map & Chart Project". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2007-09-05. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ Zaret, Thomas M.; Paine, R.T. (2 November 1973). "Species Introduction in a Tropical Lake". Science. 182 (4111): 449–455. Bibcode:1973Sci...182..449Z. PMID 17832455. doi:10.1126/science.182.4111.449.
Jump up ^ "Peacock Bass: Fun to Catch, Fine to Eat". Panama Canal Review. February 1971: 11. Retrieved 2012-04-30.
Jump up ^ "Gatun Lake Peacock Bass Fishing Charters". Retrieved 2012-04-30.
Jump up ^ Modern ship size definitions, from Lloyd's register
Jump up ^ Background of the Panama Canal, Montclair State University
Jump up ^ "The Panama Canal". Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "New Panamax publication by ACP" (PDF). November 2006. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Marine Tariff". Panama Canal Authority.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Toll Table http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/1010-0000-Rev20160414.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/index.html
Jump up ^ "US Today Travel: Panama Canal Facts". USA Today. Retrieved 2012-08-03.
Jump up ^ "ACP rectifica récord en pago de peaje" (in Spanish). La Prensa. 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Récord en pago de peajes y reserva". La Prensa Sección Economía & Negocios Edition. Ediciones.prensa.com. 2007-04-24. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
Jump up ^ "Cupo de subasta del Canal alcanza récord. La Prensa. Sección Economía & Negocios. Edición 25 August 2006 in Spanish". Mensual.prensa.com. Archived from the original on 3 August 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
Jump up ^ "About ACP - PanCanal.com". Panama Canal Authority. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Cullen, Bob (March 2004). "Panama Rises". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2012-04-30.
Jump up ^ "ACP 2005 Annual Report" (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2005. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "News—PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2008 Metrics". Panama Canal Authority. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "News—PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2009 Metrics". Panama Canal Authority. 2009-10-30. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ Lipton, Eric (2004-11-22). "New York Port Hums Again, With Asian Trade". New York Times. [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "ACP 2009 Annual Report" (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2009. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Panama Canal Traffic—Fiscal Years 2013 through 2015" (PDF). Panama Canal Authority.
Jump up ^ Nettleton, Steve (1999). "Transfer heavy on symbolism, light on change". CNN Interactive. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ "9 Facts about the Panama Canal Expansion – Infographic". Mercatrade. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "BBC News—Panama Canal reopens after temporary closure". 2010-12-13. Retrieved 2010-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The Press Association: Panama flooding displaces thousands". 2010-12-12. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
Jump up ^ "NOTICIAS PANAMÁ—PERIODICO LA ESTRELLA ONLINE: Gobierno abrirá parcialmente Puente Centenario; Corredores serán gratis [Al Minuto]". 2010-12-13. Archived from the original on 2010-12-16. Retrieved 2010-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Rain Causes Panama Canal Bridge To Collapse". digtriad.com. 2010-12-12. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
Jump up ^ "Entrance to Panama Canal Bridge Closed due to Rain Damage". 2010-12-13. Retrieved 2010-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Aftermath of Panama flooding hits transport and finances—rain continues". 2010-12-13. Archived from the original on 2010-12-16. Retrieved 2010-12-13.
Jump up ^ Mack, Gerstle (1944). The Land Divided—A History of the Panama Canal and other Isthmian Canal Projects.
Jump up ^ Proposal for the Expansion of the Panama Canal Panama Canal Authority, p. 45
Jump up ^ Jackson, Eric (2007). Shipping industry complains about PanCanal toll hikes.
Jump up ^ "Maersk Line to Dump Panama Canal for Suez as Ships Get Bigger". 2013-05-11. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
Jump up ^ De Cordoba, Jose (June 13, 2013). "Nicaragua Revives Its Canal Dream". Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Sevunts, Levon (2005-06-12). "Northwest Passage redux". The Washington Times. Retrieved 2009-04-20. See also: Comte, Michel (2005-12-22). "Conservative Leader Harper Asserts Canada's Arctic Claims". DefenceNews.com (Agence France-Presse). Retrieved 2006-02-23.
Jump up ^ "The Panama Canal; Canal FAQ". Archived from the original on 2010-09-15.
Jump up ^ "The Panama Canal—Frequently Asked Questions". Archived from the original on May 7, 2009. Each lock chamber requires 101,000 m3 (26,700,000 US gal; 22,200,000 imp gal) of water. An average of 200,000,000 L (52,000,000 US gal) of fresh water are used [in a single passing].
Jump up ^ "Sea Level: Frequently Asked Questions and Answers", psmsl.org
^ Jump up to: a b "Relevant Information on the Third Set of Locks Project" (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2006-04-24. Retrieved 2006-04-25.
Jump up ^ "The Panama Canal". Business in Panama. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
Jump up ^ Monahan, Jane (2006-04-04). "Panama Canal set for $7.5bn revamp". BBC News.
Jump up ^ "Panama Canal Authority: Panama Canal Expansion is "2009 Project Finance Deal of the Year", 12 March 2010". Pancanal.com. 2010-03-12. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Panama approves $5.25 billion canal expansion". MSNBC.com. 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Reagan, Brad (February 2007). "The Panama Canal's Ultimate Upgrade". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Andrew (February 2010). "The Panama Canal Gets a New Lane". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 2010-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Work starts on biggest-ever Panama Canal overhaul". Reuters. 2007-09-04.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (19 June 2012). "Panama Canal Completes First Monolith at the New Pacific Locks". Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Ship and Bunker (2 July 2012). "Delay Confirmed on Panama Canal Expansion Project". Retrieved 2012-07-07.
Jump up ^ Dredging News Online (29 August 2014). "Panama Canal Authority updates Maersk Line on expansion programme". Dredging News Online. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Dredging News Online (1 September 2014). "Panama Canal Authority updates Maersk Line on expansion programme". Hellenic Shipping News. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (20 August 2014). "Panama Canal Updates Maersk Line on Expansion Program". Retrieved 3 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Smith, Bruce (9 Sep 2014). "Maritime panel to hold sessions on port congestion". Charlotte Observer. Archived from the original on 2014-09-11. Retrieved 11 Sep 2014.
Jump up ^ "De Nul dredging company to build locks in Panama Canal". Flanders Today. 2009-07-17. Archived from the original on 2015-09-04.
Jump up ^ "Contract dispute jeopardizes Panama Canal schedule". American Shipper. January 2, 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Lomi Kriel; Elida Moreno (January 8, 2014). "Panama Canal refuses to pay $1 billion more for expansion work". Reuters. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (20 February 2014). "Panama Canal New Locks Project Works Resume". Retrieved 2014-06-16.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (10 June 2014). "Second Shipment of new gates arrive at the Panama Canal". Retrieved 2014-06-16.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (11 June 2015). "Panama Canal Expansion Begins Filling of New Locks". Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Stone, Kathryn (10 June 2015). "Flooding of Expanded Panama Canal Begins". The Maritime Executive.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (22 June 2015). "Panama Canal Expansion Moves Ahead with Filling of New Pacific Locks". Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Panama Canal Authority (23 March 2016). "Panama Canal Inaugurates Scale Model Training Facility, Announces Expansion Inauguration Date". Retrieved 4 April 2016.
Jump up ^ WALT BOGDANICH, JACQUELINE WILLIAMS and ANA GRACIELA MÉNDEZ (JUNE 22, 2016) The New Panama Canal: A Risky Bet The New York Times, Retrieved 24 June 2016.
Jump up ^ John Paul Rathbone, Naomi Mapstone (2011-02-13). "China in talks over Panama Canal rival". Financial Times. Retrieved 2011-02-14.
Jump up ^ Wheatley, Jonathan (2011-02-14). "Colombia's smart canal". Financial Times. Retrieved 2011-02-14.
Jump up ^ "China in talk with Columbia over transcontinental railway: Colombian president". Xinhuanet. 2011-02-14. Retrieved 2011-02-14.
Jump up ^ Branigan, Tania and Lin Yi. China goes on the rails to rival Panama canal The Guardian, 14 February 2011. Accessed: 14 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nicaragua launches construction of inter-oceanic canal". BBC. December 23, 2014. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "A Chinese company wants to build a new canal in America (news in Estonian)". Postimees. 15 June 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Shaer, Matthew. "A New Canal Through Central America Could Have Devastating Consequences". smithsonianmag.com.
Jump up ^ Van Marle, Gavin (July 2013). "Canal mania hits central America with three more Atlantic-Pacific projects". The Load Star.
Jump up ^ "Buckingham First Day Covers". Internet Stamps Group Limited. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Construction and technical issues[edit]
Brodhead, Michael J. 2012. "The Panama Canal: Writings of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Officers Who Conceived and Built It." U.S. Army Corps of Engineers History Office, Alexandria, VA.
Hoffman, Jon T.; Brodhead, Michael J; Byerly, Carol R.; Williams, Glenn F. (2009). The Panama Canal: An Army's Enterprise. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 70–115–1.
Jaen, Omar. (2005). Las Negociaciones de los Tratados Torrijos-Carter, 1970–1979 (Tomos 1 y 2). Panama: Autoridad del Canal de Panama. ISBN 9962-607-32-9 (Obra completa)
Jorden, William J. (1984). Panama Odyssey. 746 pages, illustrated. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-76469-3
McCullough, David (1977), The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-671-24409-4
Mills, J. Saxon. (1913). The Panama Canal—A history and description of the enterprise A Project Gutenberg free ebook.
Parker, Matthew. (2007). Panama Fever: The Epic Story of One of the Greatest Human Achievements of All Time—The Building of the Panama Canal. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51534-4
Sherman, Gary. "Conquering the Landscape (Gary Sherman explores the life of the great American trailblazer, John Frank Stevens)," History Magazine, July 2008.
Diplomatic and political history[edit]
Gilboa, Eytan. "The Panama Invasion Revisited: Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era." Political Science Quarterly (1995): 539–562. in JSTOR
Greene, Julie, The Canal Builders: Making America's Empire at the Panama Canal (New York: Penguin Press, 2009)
Hogan, J. Michael. "Theodore Roosevelt and the Heroes of Panama." Presidential Studies Quarterly 19 (1989): 79-94. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574566
LaFeber, Walter. The Panama Canal: the crisis in historical perspective (Oxford University Press, 1978)
Major, John. Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903–1979 (1993)
Maurer, Noel, and Carlos Yu. The Big Ditch: How America Took, Ran, and Ultimately Gave Away the Panama Canal (Princeton University Press, 2010); 420 pp. ISBN 978-0-691-14738-3. Econometric analysis of costs ($9 billion in 2009 dollars) and benefits to U.S. and Panama
Mellander, Gustavo A.(1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Daville, Ill.:Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.
Sánchez, Peter M. Panama Lost? U.S. Hegemony, Democracy and the Canal (University Press of Florida, 2007), 251 pp,
Sánchez, Peter M. "The end of hegemony? Panama and the United States." International Journal on World Peace (2002): 57–89. in JSTOR
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Panama Canal (category)
[show]Map all coordinates using OSM
Map all coordinates using Google
Export all coordinates as KML
Export all coordinates as GPX
Map all microformatted coordinates
Place data as RDF
Panama Canal Authority website—Has a simulation showing how the canal works
Making the Dirt Fly, Building the Panama Canal Smithsonian Institution Libraries
Canalmuseum—History, Documents, Photographs and Stories
Early stereographic images of the construction University of California
A.B. Nichols Panama Canal Collection at the Linda Hall Library Archival collection of maps, blueprints, photographs, letters, and other documents, collected by Aurin B. Nichols, an engineer who worked on the canal project through from 1899 until its completion.
Coordinates: 9°04′48″N 79°40′48″W / 9.08000°N 79.68000°W / 9.08000; -79.68000
[show]
v
t
e
Panama Canal
Management
Panama Canal Authority (ACP)
Structures
Locks
Panamax
Gatun Dam
Gatun Lake
Chagres River
Culebra Cut (Gaillard Cut)
Centennial Bridge
Bridge of the Americas
Panama Canal Railway
Atlantic Bridge
Locations
Atlantic side (North)
Colón
Cristóbal port
Rainbow City
Limon Bay
Enrique Adolfo Jiménez Airport
Gatún
Passage
Gatun Lake
Culebra Cut
Pacific side (South)
Balboa
Albrook (Gelabert) Airport
Gamboa
Panama City
Expansion
2006 referendum
Atlantic Bridge
New Panamax / Post-Panamax
History
People
Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla
John G. Claybourn
Ephraim S. Claybourn
William Nelson Cromwell
David du Bose Gaillard
George Washington Goethals
William Crawford Gorgas
Ferdinand de Lesseps
John Frank Stevens
Construction
1903 Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty
1921 Thomson–Urrutia Treaty
Isthmian Canal Commission (1904–1906)
Health measures
Panama Canal Museum
Box 25
US Canal Zone
(1904–1979/99)
World War II
1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties
Former US military
installations
Airfields
Albrook AFB
France Field
Howard AFB
Forts
Amador
Clayton
Davis
De Lesseps
Grant
Gulick
Kobbe
Randolph
Sherman
Ports
Coco Solo
Rodman Naval Station
Radio
Galeta Island
Balboa Naval Station
[show]
v
t
e
Panama articles
History
to 1821
1821–1903
1904–64
1939-45
1964–77
1977–present
Geography
Biota
Cities
Earthquakes
Islands
National parks
Rivers
Volcanism
Politics
Administrative divisions
Constitution
Elections
Foreign relations
Law
Law enforcement
Military
National Assembly
Penal system
Political parties
Presidents
Economy
Agriculture
Balboa (currency)
Mineral industry
Panama Canal
Telecommunications
Tourism
Transport
Society
Crime
Demographics
Education
Health
Religion
Water supply and sanitation
Culture
Cuisine
Films
Flag
Literature
Media
Music
People
Public holidays
Outline
Index
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Ship measurements
Length
Length overall
Length between perpendiculars
Length at the waterline
Breadth
Beam
Depth
Draft
Moulded depth
Freeboard
Waterline (Plimsoll Line)
Volume
Worldwide
Tonnage
Gross tonnage
Compensated gross tonnage
Net tonnage
Specialized
Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System
Thames measurement tonnage
Archaic
Gross register tonnage
Net register tonnage
Capacity
Current
Deadweight tonnage
Twenty-foot equivalent unit (Intermodal containers)
Archaic
Builder's Old Measurement (sailing vessels)
Moorsom System (steamships)
Weight
Displacement
Loaded displacement
Standard displacement
Light displacement
Normal displacement
Stability
Inclining test
List
Angle of loll
Metacentric height (GM)
Limits
Aframax
Baltimax
Capesize
Chinamax
Handymax/Supramax
Handysize
Malaccamax
Panamax and Neopanamax
Péniche
Q-Max (Qatar-max)
Seawaymax
Suezmax
VLCC and ULCC
[show]
v
t
e
Theodore Roosevelt
26th President of the United States, 1901–1909
25th Vice President of the United States, 1901
33rd Governor of New York, 1899–1900
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897–1898
New York City Police Commissioner, 1895–1897
New York State Assemblyman, 1882
1883
1884
Presidency
First inauguration
historic site
Second inauguiration
"Square Deal"
Booker T. Washington dinner
Conservation
Newlands Reclamation Act
Transfer Act of 1905
Antiquities Act
Pelican Island
Devils Tower National Monument
Muir Woods National Monument
Other National Monuments
United States Forest Service,
United States Reclamation Service
National Wildlife Refuge System
Roosevelt Arch
Conference of Governors
Northern Securities Company breakup
court case
Coal strike of 1902
Pure Food and Drug Act
Food and Drug Administration
Meat Inspection Act
Expediting Act
Elkins Act
Hepburn Act
Aldrich–Vreeland Act
Federal Employers Liability Act
Kinkaid Act
Big Stick ideology
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty
Panama Canal Zone
Panama Canal
Venezuelan crisis
Roosevelt Corollary
Occupation of Cuba
Russo-Japanese War
Treaty of Portsmouth
1906 Nobel Peace Prize
Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907
College football meetings
Bureau of Investigation
Department of Commerce and Labor
Bureau of Corporations
Keep Commission
Inland Waterways Commission
Bureau of the Census
Great White Fleet
Perdicaris incident
Cabinet
White House West Wing
State of the Union Address, 1901
1906
1908
White House desk
Federal judiciary appointments
Other
events
Spanish–American War
Rough Riders
Battle of Las Guasimas
Battle of San Juan Hill
"Bull Moose" Progressive Party
New Nationalism
Assassination attempt
Boone and Crockett Club
Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition
"River of Doubt" Amazonian expedition
Life and
homes
Birthplace, boyhood home replica
Sagamore Hill Home and Museum
Oyster Bay
Elkhorn Ranch
Maltese Cross Cabin
Pine Knot cabin
Gravesite
Writings
and speeches
Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book)
"The Strenuous Life" (1899 speech)
"Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech)
"I have just been shot" (1912 speech)
The Forum magazine articles
Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia
Archival collections
Elections
New York state election, 1898
Republican National Convention, 1900
1904
1912
1916
United States presidential election, 1900
1904
1912
Legacy
Mount Rushmore
Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library
White House Roosevelt Room
Theodore Roosevelt National Park
Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness
Theodore Roosevelt Island
Roosevelt National Forest
Roosevelt Study Center
Theodore Roosevelt Association
Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park
Monument Assemblage
Roosevelt River
Theodore Roosevelt Award
Roosevelt Road
U.S. Postage stamps
Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider sculpture
Equestrian statue
Popular
culture
Teddy bear
"Speak softly, and carry a big stick"
Books
Films
Roosevelt in Africa 1910 documentary
The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
Related
Political positions
"Bully pulpit"
Ananias Club
"Nature fakers"
Progressive Era
A Guest of Honor
Porcellian Club
"Muckraker"
National Collegiate Athletic Association
"Roosevelt Republican"
Family
Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife)
Edith Kermit Carow (second wife)
Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter)
Theodore Roosevelt III (son)
Kermit Roosevelt (son)
Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter)
Archibald Roosevelt (son)
Quentin Roosevelt (son)
Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father)
Martha Stewart Bulloch (mother)
Anna Roosevelt (sister)
Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother)
Corinne Roosevelt (sister)
Cornelius Roosevelt (paternal grandfather)
James Stephens Bulloch (maternal grandfather)
James A. Roosevelt (paternal uncle)
Robert Roosevelt (paternal uncle)
James Dunwoody Bulloch (maternal half-uncle)
Irvine Bulloch (maternal uncle)
Theodore Douglas Robinson (nephew)
Corinne Robinson (niece)
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece)
Hall Roosevelt (nephew)
← William McKinley
William Howard Taft →
Category
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 245637111
GND: 4044446-6
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panama_Canal&oldid=800584148"
Categories:
Panama Canal
Canals in Panama
Ship canals
Water transport in Panama
Coasts of Panama
Economy of Panama
Geography of Panama
History of Panama
Macro-engineering
Transport infrastructure in Panama
Canals opened in 1914
1914 establishments in Panama
1914 establishments in the United States
1914 in Central America
Panamanian coasts of the Caribbean Sea
Panamanian coasts of the Pacific Ocean
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Hidden categories:
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from October 2010
Articles containing Spanish-language text
Articles needing additional references from August 2017
All articles needing additional references
Articles with hAudio microformats
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016
Lists of coordinates
Geographic coordinate lists
Articles with Geo
Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2016
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009
Coordinates on Wikidata
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Galego
贛語
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
मराठी
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Нохчийн
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Олык марий
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Patois
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Română
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Tarandíne
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Türkmençe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Vepsän kel’
Tiếng Việt
文言
Winaray
吴语
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Zeêuws
Žemaitėška
中文
Kabɩyɛ
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 September 2017, at 12:56.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF

values: La Société internationale du Canal (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/John_Findlay_Wallace
mw-redirect
John Findlay Wallace

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Maritime_trade
mw-redirect
Maritime trade

values:
/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level
mw-redirect
Above mean sea level

values:
/wiki/Measurement_ton
mw-redirect
Measurement ton

values:
/wiki/Seven_wonders_of_the_modern_world
mw-redirect
Seven wonders of the modern world

values:
/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Browne
mw-redirect
Sir Thomas Browne

values:
/wiki/Isthmus_of_Darien
mw-redirect
Isthmus of Darien

values:
/wiki/The_Republic_of_New_Granada
mw-redirect
The Republic of New Granada

values: Edit section: French construction attempts, 1881–1894

values:
/wiki/Panama_Railroad
mw-redirect
Panama Railroad

values:
/wiki/John_M._Hay
mw-redirect
John M. Hay

values:
/wiki/Gaillard_Cut
mw-redirect
Gaillard Cut

values:
/wiki/Thomson-Urrutia_Treaty
mw-redirect
Thomson-Urrutia Treaty

values: Edit section: United States construction of the Panama canal, 1904–1914

values:
/wiki/Secretary_of_War
mw-redirect
Secretary of War

values: Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal

values:
/wiki/Rock_crusher
mw-redirect
Rock crusher

values:
/wiki/Cement_mixer
mw-redirect
Cement mixer

values: Edit section: West Indian labor migration to Panama (1850–1914)

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/California_gold_rush
mw-redirect
California gold rush

values:
/wiki/U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers
mw-redirect
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

values:
/wiki/Panama_Canal_Locks
mw-redirect
Panama Canal Locks

values: Alexandre La Valley (1887) (page does not exist)

values: SS Cristobal (1902) (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Ernest_%22Red%22_Hallen
mw-redirect
Ernest "Red" Hallen

values: position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 110px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; height: 0px; width: 0px;

values: left: 50%; top: 50%; margin-left: -35px; margin-top: -27.5px;

values: width:220px width: 220px; position: relative;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: padding:5px; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; color:white; background-color:#003399

values: background-color:inherit; border:0; padding:0; width:20px; min-width:20px;

values: background-color:transparent; float:none !important; margin:auto !important; width: auto !important; line-height: 0px !important; text-align:left; padding:0 !important;

values: padding:0; ; background-color:; text-align:center !important; width:0px; border: 0px !important

values: font-size:80%; font-weight:inherit; color:inherit; background-color:transparent; margin-top:-2px; margin-bottom:-2px; display:inline-table; vertical-align:middle; text-align:inherit;

values: text-align:right; vertical-align:middle; padding:0 0 0 3px !important; font-size:90%; border: 0px !important

values: text-align:left; vertical-align:middle; padding:0 0 0 3px; white-space:nowrap; border: 0px !important;

values: padding:0; ; background-color:#003399; text-align:center !important; width:0px; border: 0px !important

values: position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 0px; padding: 0;

values: padding:0 !important; white-space:nowrap; text-align:center !important; width:0px !important;

values: text-align:right; vertical-align:middle; padding:0 3px; font-size:90%;

values: text-align:left; vertical-align:middle; white-space:nowrap; width:100%; padding-right:3px

values: position:absolute; bottom:0px; vertical-align:middle; bottom:0px; top:-18px; background-color:#eeeeee

values: text-align:left; padding:0; white-space:nowrap; vertical-align:middle

values: background-color:transparent; line-height:1.2 !important; padding:0 !important; align:left !important; margin:none !important; width:100% !important

values: padding:0 !important; white-space:nowrap; background-color:#eeeeee

values:
/wiki/Gatun_Locks
mw-redirect
Gatun Locks

values:
/wiki/Pedro_Miguel_Locks
mw-redirect
Pedro Miguel Locks

values:
/wiki/Miraflores_Lake
mw-redirect
Miraflores Lake

values:
/wiki/Miraflores_Locks
mw-redirect
Miraflores Locks

values: Albrook "Marcos A. Gelabert" International Airport

values: background-color: ; line-height: 1.2em; border: none; width: auto; text-align: left; margin:.5em; font-size:110%; white-space:nowrap;

values: padding:.2em; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; color:black; background-color: #eeeeee

attrs: cellpadding cellspacing align width class style

values: width: auto; border: 0px !important; padding:0; box-shadow: 0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 5px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 3px 1px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); -moz-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 5px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 3px 1px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 5px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 3px 1px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); border-spacing: 0px !important;font-size:90%;float:right !important;margin:.5em 0 1em 35px !important;clear:right;position:relative;background-color:#f9f9f9;

values:
/wiki/GPS_eXchange_Format
mw-redirect
GPS eXchange Format

values: width: 23em; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values:
/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)
mw-redirect
Lock (water transport)

values:
/wiki/Intermodal_shipping_container
mw-redirect
Intermodal shipping container

values:
plainlinks noprint asof-tag update
display:none;

values:
/wiki/Cruise_ships
mw-redirect
Cruise ships

values: Edit section: Issues leading to expansion

values: Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal.

values: File:Panama canal panoramic view from the top of Ancon hill.jpg

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)

values: Edit section: Efficiency and maintenance

values:
/wiki/Torrijos-Carter_Treaties
mw-redirect
Torrijos-Carter Treaties

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)

values:
/wiki/Global_Compact
mw-redirect
Global Compact

values: Edit section: Third set of locks project (expansion)

values:
/wiki/New_Panamax
mw-redirect
New Panamax

values: Edit section: Panama Canal Honorary Pilots

values:
/wiki/Captain_(nautical)
mw-redirect
Captain (nautical)

values:
/wiki/RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2
mw-redirect
RMS Queen Elizabeth 2

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.kinnaird.net/darien.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ns.umich.edu/new/releases/3000

values:
nofollow
external text
http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA564251

values:
nofollow
http://www.usinflationcalculator.com/
external autonumber

values: Historia (history of the Americas journal)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.economist.com/node/15014282

values: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17832455

values:
nofollow
http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10627208/
external text

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Edit section: Construction and technical issues

values: United States Army Center of Military History

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34124

values: Edit section: Diplomatic and political history

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151883

values:
nofollow
external free
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574566

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/138568

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/42970390

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20753364

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.pancanal.com/eng/index.html

values:
nofollow
http://www.canalmuseum.com/
external text

values: List of former United States military installations in Panama

values:
/wiki/Rodman_Naval_Station
mw-redirect
Rodman Naval Station

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: List of Vice Presidents of the United States

values: First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt

values: Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site

values: Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt

values: Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House

values: List of National Monuments of the United States

values: History of the National Wildlife Refuge System

values: Northern Securities Co. v. United States

values: National Collegiate Athletic Association

values: United States Department of Commerce and Labor

values: List of federal judges appointed by Theodore Roosevelt

values: Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site

values: Theodore Roosevelt's Maltese Cross Cabin

values: United States presidential election, 1900

values: United States presidential election, 1904

values: United States presidential election, 1912

values:
/wiki/Roosevelt_Study_Center
mw-redirect
Roosevelt Study Center

values: Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps

values: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/245637111

values:
nofollow
external text
http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044446-6

values: Category:Transport infrastructure in Panama

values: Category:1914 establishments in the United States

values: Category:Panamanian coasts of the Caribbean Sea

values: Category:Panamanian coasts of the Pacific Ocean

values: Category:Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks

values: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2010

values: Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from August 2017

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2016

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values:
/wiki/Panama_Canal
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: قناة بنما – Arabic

values: পানামা খাল – Assamese

values: পানামা খাল – Bangla

values: Панама каналы – Bashkir

values: Панамскі канал – Belarusian

values: Панамскі канал – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: पनामा नहर – Bhojpuri

values: Панамски канал – Bulgarian

values: Панамын һубаг – Russia Buriat

values: Панама каналĕ – Chuvash

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: ޕެނަމާ ކެނަލް – Divehi

values: Διώρυγα Παναμά – Greek

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: کانال پاناما – Persian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: 파나마 운하 – Korean

values: Պանամայի ջրանցք – Armenian

values: पनामा नहर – Hindi

values: תעלת פנמה – Hebrew

values: ಪನಾಮ ಕಾಲುವೆ – Kannada

values: პანამის არხი – Georgian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Панама каналы – Kazakh

values: Панама каналы – Kyrgyz

values: Панамски Канал – Macedonian

values: പനാമ കനാൽ – Malayalam

values: पनामा कालवा – Marathi

values: Панамын суваг – Mongolian

values: ပနားမား တူးမြောင်း – Burmese

values: पानामा नहर – Nepali

values: पनामा नहर – Newari

values: Панамера татол – Chechen

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Панама канал – Eastern Mari

values: ਪਨਾਮਾ ਨਹਿਰ – Punjabi

values: Panamaa Kianal – Jamaican Creole English

values: ព្រែកជីកប៉ាណាម៉ា – Khmer

values: Панамскый канал – Rusyn

values: Панамский канал – Russian

values: Панаама ханаала – Sakha

values: نۆکەندی پەنەما – Central Kurdish

values: Панамски канал – Serbian

values: பனாமா கால்வாய் – Tamil

values: పనామా కాలువ – Telugu

values: คลองปานามา – Thai

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Панамський канал – Ukrainian

values: نہر پاناما – Urdu

values: פאנאמא קאנאל – Yiddish

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Panama_Canal rootpage-Panama_Canal skin-vector action-view