text:
Piezoelectricity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Piezoelectric balance presented by Pierre Curie to Lord Kelvin, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and latent heat. It is derived from the Greek πιέζειν piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and ἤλεκτρον ēlektron, which means amber, an ancient source of electric charge.[2][3] Piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie.[4]
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[5] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of the original dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material. The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in the production of ultrasonic sound waves.[6]
Piezoelectricity is exploited in a number of useful applications, such as the production and detection of sound, piezoelectric inkjet printing, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation, microbalances, to drive an ultrasonic nozzle, and ultrafine focusing of optical assemblies. It forms the basis for a number of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe microscopies, such as STM, AFM, MTA, and SNOM. It also finds everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters, and push-start propane barbecues, as well as being used as the time reference source in quartz watches.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Discovery and early research
1.2 World War I and post-war
1.3 World War II and post-war
2 Mechanism
2.1 Mathematical description
3 Crystal classes
4 Materials
4.1 Naturally occurring crystals
4.2 Bone
4.3 Other natural materials
4.4 Synthetic crystals
4.5 Synthetic ceramics
4.6 Lead-free piezoceramics
4.7 III–V and II–VI semiconductors
4.8 Polymers
4.9 Organic nanostructures
5 Application
5.1 High voltage and power sources
5.2 Sensors
5.3 Actuators
5.4 Frequency standard
5.5 Piezoelectric motors
5.6 Reduction of vibrations and noise
5.7 Infertility treatment
5.8 Surgery
5.9 Potential applications
5.9.1 Photovoltaics
6 See also
7 References
7.1 International standards
8 External links
History[edit]
Discovery and early research[edit]
The pyroelectric effect, by which a material generates an electric potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid-18th century. Drawing on this knowledge, both René Just Haüy and Antoine César Becquerel posited a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge; however, experiments by both proved inconclusive.[7]
The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie.[8] They combined their knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying crystal structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity.
A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is greatly exaggerated)
The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect. The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[9] The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect,[10] and went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electro-elasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals.
For the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained something of a laboratory curiosity. More work was done to explore and define the crystal structures that exhibited piezoelectricity. This culminated in 1910 with the publication of Woldemar Voigt's Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik (Textbook on Crystal Physics),[11] which described the 20 natural crystal classes capable of piezoelectricity, and rigorously defined the piezoelectric constants using tensor analysis.
World War I and post-war[edit]
The first practical application for piezoelectric devices was sonar, first developed during World War I. In France in 1917, Paul Langevin and his coworkers developed an ultrasonic submarine detector.[12] The detector consisted of a transducer, made of thin quartz crystals carefully glued between two steel plates, and a hydrophone to detect the returned echo. By emitting a high-frequency pulse from the transducer, and measuring the amount of time it takes to hear an echo from the sound waves bouncing off an object, one can calculate the distance to that object.
The use of piezoelectricity in sonar, and the success of that project, created intense development interest in piezoelectric devices. Over the next few decades, new piezoelectric materials and new applications for those materials were explored and developed.
Piezoelectric devices found homes in many fields. Ceramic phonograph cartridges simplified player design, were cheap and accurate, and made record players cheaper to maintain and easier to build. The development of the ultrasonic transducer allowed for easy measurement of viscosity and elasticity in fluids and solids, resulting in huge advances in materials research. Ultrasonic time-domain reflectometers (which send an ultrasonic pulse through a material and measure reflections from discontinuities) could find flaws inside cast metal and stone objects, improving structural safety.
World War II and post-war[edit]
During World War II, independent research groups in the United States, Russia, and Japan discovered a new class of synthetic materials, called ferroelectrics, which exhibited piezoelectric constants many times higher than natural materials. This led to intense research to develop barium titanate and later lead zirconate titanate materials with specific properties for particular applications.
One significant example of the use of piezoelectric crystals was developed by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Following World War I, Frederick R. Lack, working in radio telephony in the engineering department, developed the “AT cut” crystal, a crystal that operated through a wide range of temperatures. Lack's crystal didn't need the heavy accessories previous crystal used, facilitating its use on aircraft. This development allowed Allied air forces to engage in coordinated mass attacks through the use of aviation radio.
Development of piezoelectric devices and materials in the United States was kept within the companies doing the development, mostly due to the wartime beginnings of the field, and in the interests of securing profitable patents. New materials were the first to be developed — quartz crystals were the first commercially exploited piezoelectric material, but scientists searched for higher-performance materials. Despite the advances in materials and the maturation of manufacturing processes, the United States market did not grow as quickly as Japan's did. Without many new applications, the growth of the United States' piezoelectric industry suffered.
In contrast, Japanese manufacturers shared their information, quickly overcoming technical and manufacturing challenges and creating new markets. In Japan, a temperature stable crystal cut was developed by Issac Koga. Japanese efforts in materials research created piezoceramic materials competitive to the United States materials but free of expensive patent restrictions. Major Japanese piezoelectric developments included new designs of piezoceramic filters for radios and televisions, piezo buzzers and audio transducers that can connect directly to electronic circuits, and the piezoelectric igniter, which generates sparks for small engine ignition systems and gas-grill lighters, by compressing a ceramic disc. Ultrasonic transducers that transmit sound waves through air had existed for quite some time but first saw major commercial use in early television remote controls. These transducers now are mounted on several car models as an echolocation device, helping the driver determine the distance from the car to any objects that may be in its path.
Mechanism[edit]
Piezoelectric plate used to convert audio signal to sound waves
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization (dimensionality [C·m/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic unit cell.[13] As every dipole is a vector, the dipole density P is a vector field. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned using the process of poling (not the same as magnetic poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated temperatures. Not all piezoelectric materials can be poled.[14]
Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be caused by a reconfiguration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization strength, its direction or both, with the details depending on: 1. the orientation of P within the crystal; 2. crystal symmetry; and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of the electric field extending between the faces caused by a change in dipole density in the bulk. For example, a 1 cm3 cube of quartz with 2 kN (500 lbf) of correctly applied force can produce a voltage of 12500 V.[15]
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called the converse piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.
Mathematical description[edit]
Linear piezoelectricity is the combined effect of
The linear electrical behavior of the material:
D = ε E ⟹ D i = ε i j E j {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} ={\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\,\mathbf {E} \quad \implies \quad D_{i}=\varepsilon _{ij}\,E_{j}\;}
where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric displacement), ε is permittivity (free-body dielectric constant), E is electric field strength, and ∇ ⋅ D = 0 , ∇ × E = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {D} =0\,\,,\,\nabla \times \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {0} } .
Hooke's Law for linear elastic materials:
S = s T ⟹ S i j = s i j k l T k l {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {S}}={\mathsf {s}}\,{\boldsymbol {T}}\quad \implies \quad S_{ij}=s_{ijkl}\,T_{kl}\;}
where S is strain, s is compliance under short-circuit conditions, T is stress, and
∇ ⋅ T = 0 , S = ∇ u + u ∇ 2 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot {\boldsymbol {T}}=\mathbf {0} \,\,,\,{\boldsymbol {S}}={\frac {\nabla \mathbf {u} +\mathbf {u} \nabla }{2}}} .
These may be combined into so-called coupled equations, of which the strain-charge form is:[16]
S = s T + d t E ⟹ S i j = s i j k l T k l + d k i j E k D = d T + ε E ⟹ D i = d i j k T j k + ε i j E j . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {S}}&={\mathsf {s}}\,{\boldsymbol {T}}+{\mathfrak {d}}^{t}\,\mathbf {E} \quad \implies \quad S_{ij}=s_{ijkl}\,T_{kl}+d_{kij}\,E_{k}\\\mathbf {D} &={\mathfrak {d}}\,{\boldsymbol {T}}+{\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\,\mathbf {E} \quad \implies \quad D_{i}=d_{ijk}\,T_{jk}+\varepsilon _{ij}\,E_{j}\,.\end{aligned}}}
In matrix form,
{ S } = [ s E ] { T } + [ d t ] { E } { D } = [ d ] { T } + [ ε T ] { E } , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\{S\}&=\left[s^{E}\right]\{T\}+[d^{\mathrm {t} }]\{E\}\\\{D\}&=[d]\{T\}+\left[\varepsilon ^{T}\right]\{E\}\,,\end{aligned}}}
where [d] is the matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect and [dt] is the matrix for the converse piezoelectric effect. The superscript E indicates a zero, or constant, electric field; the superscript T indicates a zero, or constant, stress field; and the superscript t stands for transposition of a matrix.
Notice that the third order tensor d {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {d}}} maps vectors into symmetric matrices. There are no non-trivial rotation-invariant tensors that have this property, which is why there are no isotropic piezoelectric materials.
The strain-charge for a material of the 4mm (C4v) crystal class (such as a poled piezoelectric ceramic such as tetragonal PZT or BaTiO3) as well as the 6mm crystal class may also be written as (ANSI IEEE 176):
[ S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 5 S 6 ] = [ s 11 E s 12 E s 13 E 0 0 0 s 21 E s 22 E s 23 E 0 0 0 s 31 E s 32 E s 33 E 0 0 0 0 0 0 s 44 E 0 0 0 0 0 0 s 55 E 0 0 0 0 0 0 s 66 E = 2 ( s 11 E − s 12 E ) ] [ T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 ] + [ 0 0 d 31 0 0 d 32 0 0 d 33 0 d 24 0 d 15 0 0 0 0 0 ] [ E 1 E 2 E 3 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}S_{1}\\S_{2}\\S_{3}\\S_{4}\\S_{5}\\S_{6}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}s_{11}^{E}&s_{12}^{E}&s_{13}^{E}&0&0&0\\s_{21}^{E}&s_{22}^{E}&s_{23}^{E}&0&0&0\\s_{31}^{E}&s_{32}^{E}&s_{33}^{E}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&s_{44}^{E}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&s_{55}^{E}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&s_{66}^{E}=2\left(s_{11}^{E}-s_{12}^{E}\right)\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}T_{1}\\T_{2}\\T_{3}\\T_{4}\\T_{5}\\T_{6}\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}0&0&d_{31}\\0&0&d_{32}\\0&0&d_{33}\\0&d_{24}&0\\d_{15}&0&0\\0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}E_{1}\\E_{2}\\E_{3}\end{bmatrix}}}
[ D 1 D 2 D 3 ] = [ 0 0 0 0 d 15 0 0 0 0 d 24 0 0 d 31 d 32 d 33 0 0 0 ] [ T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 ] + [ ε 11 0 0 0 ε 22 0 0 0 ε 33 ] [ E 1 E 2 E 3 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}D_{1}\\D_{2}\\D_{3}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&0&0&0&d_{15}&0\\0&0&0&d_{24}&0&0\\d_{31}&d_{32}&d_{33}&0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}T_{1}\\T_{2}\\T_{3}\\T_{4}\\T_{5}\\T_{6}\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}{\varepsilon }_{11}&0&0\\0&{\varepsilon }_{22}&0\\0&0&{\varepsilon }_{33}\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}E_{1}\\E_{2}\\E_{3}\end{bmatrix}}}
where the first equation represents the relationship for the converse piezoelectric effect and the latter for the direct piezoelectric effect.[17]
Although the above equations are the most used form in literature, some comments about the notation are necessary. Generally, D and E are vectors, that is, Cartesian tensors of rank 1; and permittivity ε is a Cartesian tensor of rank 2. Strain and stress are, in principle, also rank-2 tensors. But conventionally, because strain and stress are all symmetric tensors, the subscript of strain and stress can be relabeled in the following fashion: 11 → 1; 22 → 2; 33 → 3; 23 → 4; 13 → 5; 12 → 6. (Different conventions may be used by different authors in literature. For example, some use 12 → 4; 23 → 5; 31 → 6 instead.) That is why S and T appear to have the "vector form" of six components. Consequently, s appears to be a 6-by-6 matrix instead of a rank-3 tensor. Such a relabeled notation is often called Voigt notation. Whether the shear strain components S4, S5, S6 are tensor components or engineering strains is another question. In the equation above, they must be engineering strains for the 6,6 coefficient of the compliance matrix to be written as shown, i.e., 2(sE
11 − sE
12). Engineering shear strains are double the value of the corresponding tensor shear, such as S6 = 2S12 and so on. This also means that s66 = 1/G12, where G12 is the shear modulus.
In total, there are four piezoelectric coefficients, dij, eij, gij, and hij defined as follows:
d i j = ( ∂ D i ∂ T j ) E = ( ∂ S j ∂ E i ) T e i j = ( ∂ D i ∂ S j ) E = − ( ∂ T j ∂ E i ) S g i j = − ( ∂ E i ∂ T j ) D = ( ∂ S j ∂ D i ) T h i j = − ( ∂ E i ∂ S j ) D = − ( ∂ T j ∂ D i ) S {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}d_{ij}&=\left({\frac {\partial D_{i}}{\partial T_{j}}}\right)^{E}&&=\left({\frac {\partial S_{j}}{\partial E_{i}}}\right)^{T}\\e_{ij}&=\left({\frac {\partial D_{i}}{\partial S_{j}}}\right)^{E}&&=-\left({\frac {\partial T_{j}}{\partial E_{i}}}\right)^{S}\\g_{ij}&=-\left({\frac {\partial E_{i}}{\partial T_{j}}}\right)^{D}&&=\left({\frac {\partial S_{j}}{\partial D_{i}}}\right)^{T}\\h_{ij}&=-\left({\frac {\partial E_{i}}{\partial S_{j}}}\right)^{D}&&=-\left({\frac {\partial T_{j}}{\partial D_{i}}}\right)^{S}\\\end{aligned}}}
where the first set of four terms corresponds to the direct piezoelectric effect and the second set of four terms corresponds to the converse piezoelectric effect.[18] For those piezoelectric crystals for which the polarization is of the crystal-field induced type, a formalism has been worked out that allows for the calculation of piezoelectrical coefficients dij from electrostatic lattice constants or higher-order Madelung constants.[13]
Crystal classes[edit]
Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. In a piezoelectric device, mechanical stress, instead of an externally applied voltage, causes the charge separation in the individual atoms of the material.
Of the 32 crystal classes, 21 are non-centrosymmetric (not having a centre of symmetry), and of these, 20 exhibit direct piezoelectricity[19] (the 21st is the cubic class 432). Ten of these represent the polar crystal classes,[20] which show a spontaneous polarization without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole moment associated with their unit cell, and which exhibit pyroelectricity. If the dipole moment can be reversed by applying an external electric field, the material is said to be ferroelectric.
Polar crystal classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 4, 4mm, 3, 3m, 6, 6mm.
Piezoelectric crystal classes: 1, 2, m, 222, mm2, 4, 4, 422, 4mm, 42m, 3, 32, 3m, 6, 6, 622, 6mm, 62m, 23, 43m.
For polar crystals, for which P ≠ 0 holds without applying a mechanical load, the piezoelectric effect manifests itself by changing the magnitude or the direction of P or both.
For the nonpolar but piezoelectric crystals, on the other hand, a polarization P different from zero is only elicited by applying a mechanical load. For them the stress can be imagined to transform the material from a nonpolar crystal class (P = 0) to a polar one,[13] having P ≠ 0.
Materials[edit]
Many materials, both natural and synthetic, exhibit piezoelectricity:
Naturally occurring crystals[edit]
Quartz
Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz
Sucrose (table sugar)
Rochelle salt
Topaz
Tourmaline-group minerals
Lead titanate (PbTiO3). Although it occurs in nature as mineral macedonite,[21][22] it is synthesized for research and applications.
The action of piezoelectricity in Topaz can probably be attributed to ordering of the (F,OH) in its lattice, which is otherwise centrosymmetric: orthorhombic bipyramidal (mmm). Topaz has anomalous optical properties which are attributed to such ordering.[23]
Bone[edit]
Dry bone exhibits some piezoelectric properties. Studies of Fukada et al. showed that these are not due to the apatite crystals, which are centrosymmetric, thus non-piezoelectric, but due to collagen. Collagen exhibits the polar uniaxial orientation of molecular dipoles in its structure and can be considered as bioelectret, a sort of dielectric material exhibiting quasipermanent space charge and dipolar charge. Potentials are thought to occur when a number of collagen molecules are stressed in the same way displacing significant numbers of the charge carriers from the inside to the surface of the specimen. Piezoelectricity of single individual collagen fibrils was measured using piezoresponse force microscopy, and it was shown that collagen fibrils behave predominantly as shear piezoelectric materials.[24]
The piezoelectric effect is generally thought to act as a biological force sensor.[25][26] This effect was exploited by research conducted at the University of Pennsylvania in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which established that sustained application of electrical potential could stimulate both resorption and growth (depending on the polarity) of bone in-vivo.[27] Further studies in the 1990s provided the mathematical equation to confirm long bone wave propagation as to that of hexagonal (Class 6) crystals.[28]
Other natural materials[edit]
Biological materials exhibiting piezoelectric properties include:
Tendon
Silk
Wood due to piezoelectric texture
Enamel
Dentin
DNA
Viral proteins, including those from bacteriophage. One study has found that thin films of M13 bacteriophage can be used to construct a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal display.[29]
Synthetic crystals[edit]
Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz-analogous crystal
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz-analogous crystal
Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)
Synthetic ceramics[edit]
Tetragonal unit cell of lead titanate
Ceramics with randomly oriented grains must be ferroelectric to exhibit piezoelectricity.[30] The macroscopic piezoelectricity is possible in textured polycrystalline non-ferroelectric piezoelectric materials, such as AlN and ZnO. The family of ceramics with perovskite, tungsten-bronze and related structures exhibits piezoelectricity:
Barium titanate (BaTiO3)—Barium titanate was the first piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
Lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1−x]O3 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1)—more commonly known as PZT, lead zirconate titanate is the most common piezoelectric ceramic in use today.
Potassium niobate (KNbO3)
Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)
Ba2NaNb5O5
Pb2KNb5O15
Zinc oxide (ZnO)–Wurtzite structure. While single crystals of ZnO are piezoelectric and pyroelectric, polycrystalline (ceramic) ZnO with randomly oriented grains exhibits neither piezoelectric nor pyroelectric effect. Not being ferroelectric, polycrystalline ZnO cannot be poled like barium titanate or PZT. Ceramics and polycrystalline thin films of ZnO may exhibit macroscopic piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity only if they are textured (grains are preferentially oriented), such that the piezoelectric and pyroelectric responses of all individual grains do not cancel. This is readily accomplished in polycrystalline thin films.[17]
Lead-free piezoceramics[edit]
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in lead-containing devices driven by the result of restriction of hazardous substances directive regulations. To address this concern, there has been a resurgence in the compositional development of lead-free piezoelectric materials.
Sodium potassium niobate ((K,Na)NbO3). This material is also known as NKN. In 2004, a group of Japanese researchers led by Yasuyoshi Saito discovered a sodium potassium niobate composition with properties close to those of PZT, including a high TC.[31] Certain compositions of this material have been shown to retain a high mechanical quality factor (Qm ≈ 900) with increasing vibration levels, whereas the mechanical quality factor of hard PZT degrades in such conditions. This fact makes NKN a promising replacement for high power resonance applications, such as piezoelectric transformers.[32]
Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for the replacement of lead-based ceramics.
Sodium niobate NaNbO3
Barium titanate (BaTiO3)—Barium titanate was the first piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
Bismuth titanate Bi4Ti3O12
Sodium bismuth titanate NaBi(TiO3)2
So far, neither the environmental effect nor the stability of supplying these substances have been measured.
III–V and II–VI semiconductors[edit]
A piezoelectric potential can be created in any bulk or nanostructured semiconductor crystal having non central symmetry, such as the Group III–V and II–VI materials, due to polarization of ions under applied stress and strain. This property is common to both the zincblende and wurtzite crystal structures. To first order, there is only one independent piezoelectric coefficient in zincblende, called e14, coupled to shear components of the strain. In wurtzite, there are instead three independent piezoelectric coefficients: e31, e33 and e15. The semiconductors where the strongest piezoelectricity is observed are those commonly found in the wurtzite structure, i.e. GaN, InN, AlN and ZnO. ZnO is the most used material in the recent field of piezotronics.
Since 2006, there have also been a number of reports of strong non linear piezoelectric effects in polar semiconductors.[33] Such effects are generally recognized to be at least important if not of the same order of magnitude as the first order approximation.
Polymers[edit]
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times greater than quartz. Unlike ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined long-chain molecules attract and repel each other when an electric field is applied.
Organic nanostructures[edit]
A strong shear piezoelectric activity was observed in self-assembled diphenylalanine peptide nanotubes (PNTs), indicating electric polarization directed along the tube axis. Comparison with LiNbO3 and lateral signal calibration yields sufficiently high effective piezoelectric coefficient values of at least 60 pm/V (shear response for tubes of ≈200 nm in diameter). PNTs demonstrate linear deformation without irreversible degradation in a broad range of driving voltages.[34]
Application[edit]
Currently, industrial and manufacturing is the largest application market for piezoelectric devices, followed by the automotive industry. Strong demand also comes from medical instruments as well as information and telecommunications. The global demand for piezoelectric devices was valued at approximately US$14.8 billion in 2010. The largest material group for piezoelectric devices is piezoceramics, and piezopolymer is experiencing the fastest growth due to its low weight and small size.[35]
Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways:
High voltage and power sources[edit]
Direct piezoelectricity of some substances, like quartz, can generate potential differences of thousands of volts.
The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high-voltage electric current that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used to ignite gas stoves work the same way, and many types of gas burners now have built-in piezo-based ignition systems.
A similar idea is being researched by DARPA in the United States in a project called Energy Harvesting, which includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by piezoelectric generators embedded in soldiers' boots. However, these energy harvesting sources by association affect the body. DARPA's effort to harness 1–2 watts from continuous shoe impact while walking were abandoned due to the impracticality and the discomfort from the additional energy expended by a person wearing the shoes. Other energy harvesting ideas include harvesting the energy from human movements in train stations or other public places[36][37] and converting a dance floor to generate electricity.[38] Vibrations from industrial machinery can also be harvested by piezoelectric materials to charge batteries for backup supplies or to power low-power microprocessors and wireless radios.[39]
A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency is chosen to be the resonant frequency of the block, typically in the 100 kilohertz to 1 megahertz range. A higher output voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect. Step-up ratios of more than 1,000:1 have been demonstrated.[citation needed] An extra feature of this transformer is that, by operating it above its resonant frequency, it can be made to appear as an inductive load, which is useful in circuits that require a controlled soft start.[40] These devices can be used in DC–AC inverters to drive cold cathode fluorescent lamps. Piezo transformers are some of the most compact high voltage sources.
Sensors[edit]
Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup
Many rocket-propelled grenades used a piezoelectric fuse. For example: RPG-7.[41]
Main article: Piezoelectric sensor
The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical dimension, transformed into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the sensing element. Depending on the design of a sensor, different "modes" to load the piezoelectric element can be used: longitudinal, transversal and shear.
Detection of pressure variations in the form of sound is the most common sensor application, e.g. piezoelectric microphones (sound waves bend the piezoelectric material, creating a changing voltage) and piezoelectric pickups for acoustic-electric guitars. A piezo sensor attached to the body of an instrument is known as a contact microphone.
Piezoelectric sensors especially are used with high frequency sound in ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and also industrial nondestructive testing (NDT).
For many sensing techniques, the sensor can act as both a sensor and an actuator – often the term transducer is preferred when the device acts in this dual capacity, but most piezo devices have this property of reversibility whether it is used or not. Ultrasonic transducers, for example, can inject ultrasound waves into the body, receive the returned wave, and convert it to an electrical signal (a voltage). Most medical ultrasound transducers are piezoelectric.
In addition to those mentioned above, various sensor applications include:
Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves.
Piezoelectric materials are used in single-axis and dual-axis tilt sensing.[42]
Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment, sonochemistry and industrial processing).
Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors.
Piezos are sometimes used in strain gauges.
A piezoelectric transducer was used in the penetrometer instrument on the Huygens Probe.
Piezoelectric transducers are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's sticks, and to detect muscle movements in medical acceleromyography.
Automotive engine management systems use piezoelectric transducers to detect Engine knock (Knock Sensor, KS), also known as detonation, at certain hertz frequencies. A piezoelectric transducer is also used in fuel injection systems to measure manifold absolute pressure (MAP sensor) to determine engine load, and ultimately the fuel injectors milliseconds of on time.
Ultrasonic piezo sensors are used in the detection of acoustic emissions in acoustic emission testing.
Actuators[edit]
Metal disk with piezoelectric disk attached, used in a buzzer.
As very high electric fields correspond to only tiny changes in the width of the crystal, this width can be changed with better-than-µm precision, making piezo crystals the most important tool for positioning objects with extreme accuracy — thus their use in actuators. Multilayer ceramics, using layers thinner than 100 µm, allow reaching high electric fields with voltage lower than 150 V. These ceramics are used within two kinds of actuators: direct piezo actuators and Amplified piezoelectric actuators. While direct actuator's stroke is generally lower than 100 µm, amplified piezo actuators can reach millimeter strokes.
Loudspeakers: Voltage is converted to mechanical movement of a metallic diaphragm.
Piezoelectric motors: Piezoelectric elements apply a directional force to an axle, causing it to rotate. Due to the extremely small distances involved, the piezo motor is viewed as a high-precision replacement for the stepper motor.
Piezoelectric elements can be used in laser mirror alignment, where their ability to move a large mass (the mirror mount) over microscopic distances is exploited to electronically align some laser mirrors. By precisely controlling the distance between mirrors, the laser electronics can accurately maintain optical conditions inside the laser cavity to optimize the beam output.
A related application is the acousto-optic modulator, a device that scatters light off soundwaves in a crystal, generated by piezoelectric elements. This is useful for fine-tuning a laser's frequency.
Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes employ converse piezoelectricity to keep the sensing needle close to the specimen.[43]
Inkjet printers: On many inkjet printers, piezoelectric crystals are used to drive the ejection of ink from the inkjet print head towards the paper.
Diesel engines: High-performance common rail diesel engines use piezoelectric fuel injectors, first developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, instead of the more common solenoid valve devices.
Active vibration control using amplified actuators.
X-ray shutters.
XY stages for micro scanning used in infrared cameras.
Moving the patient precisely inside active CT and MRI scanners where the strong radiation or magnetism precludes electric motors.[44]
Crystal earpieces are sometimes used in old or low power radios.
High-intensity focused ultrasound for localized heating or creating a localized cavitation can be achieved, for example, in patient's body or in an industrial chemical process.
Refreshable braille display A small crystal is expanded, by applying a current, that moves a lever to raise individual braille cells.
Frequency standard[edit]
The piezoelectrical properties of quartz are useful as a standard of frequency.
Quartz clocks employ a crystal oscillator made from a quartz crystal that uses a combination of both direct and converse piezoelectricity to generate a regularly timed series of electrical pulses that is used to mark time. The quartz crystal (like any elastic material) has a precisely defined natural frequency (caused by its shape and size) at which it prefers to oscillate, and this is used to stabilize the frequency of a periodic voltage applied to the crystal.
The same principle is used in some radio transmitters and receivers, and in computers where it creates a clock pulse. Both of these usually use a frequency multiplier to reach gigahertz ranges.
Piezoelectric motors[edit]
A slip-stick actuator.
Main article: Piezoelectric motor
Types of piezoelectric motor include:
The traveling-wave motor used for auto-focus in reflex cameras
Inchworm motors for linear motion
Rectangular four-quadrant motors with high power density (2.5 W/cm3) and speed ranging from 10 nm/s to 800 mm/s.
Stepping piezo motor, using stick-slip effect.
Aside from the stepping stick-slip motor, all these motors work on the same principle. Driven by dual orthogonal vibration modes with a phase difference of 90°, the contact point between two surfaces vibrates in an elliptical path, producing a frictional force between the surfaces. Usually, one surface is fixed, causing the other to move. In most piezoelectric motors, the piezoelectric crystal is excited by a sine wave signal at the resonant frequency of the motor. Using the resonance effect, a much lower voltage can be used to produce a high vibration amplitude.
A stick-slip motor works using the inertia of a mass and the friction of a clamp. Such motors can be very small. Some are used for camera sensor displacement, thus allowing an anti-shake function.
Reduction of vibrations and noise[edit]
Different teams of researchers have been investigating ways to reduce vibrations in materials by attaching piezo elements to the material. When the material is bent by a vibration in one direction, the vibration-reduction system responds to the bend and sends electric power to the piezo element to bend in the other direction. Future applications of this technology are expected in cars and houses to reduce noise. Further applications to flexible structures, such as shells and plates, have also been studied for nearly three decades.
In a demonstration at the Material Vision Fair in Frankfurt in November 2005, a team from TU Darmstadt in Germany showed several panels that were hit with a rubber mallet, and the panel with the piezo element immediately stopped swinging.
Piezoelectric ceramic fiber technology is being used as an electronic damping system on some HEAD tennis rackets.[45]
Infertility treatment[edit]
In people with previous total fertilization failure, piezoelectric activation of oocytes together with intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) seems to improve fertilization outcomes.[46]
Surgery[edit]
A recent application of piezoelectric ultrasound sources is piezoelectric surgery, also known as piezosurgery.[4] Piezosurgery is a minimally invasive technique that aims to cut a target tissue with little damage to neighboring tissues. For example, Hoigne et al.[47] reported its use in hand surgery for the cutting of bone, using frequencies in the range 25–29 kHz, causing microvibrations of 60–210 μm. It has the ability to cut mineralized tissue without cutting neurovascular tissue and other soft tissue, thereby maintaining a blood-free operating area, better visibility and greater precision.[48]
Potential applications[edit]
In 2015, Cambridge University researchers working in conjunction with researchers from the National Physical Laboratory and Cambridge-based dielectric antenna company Antenova Ltd, using thin films of piezoelectric materials found that at a certain frequency, these materials become not only efficient resonators, but efficient radiators as well, meaning that they can potentially be used as antennas. The researchers found that by subjecting the piezoelectric thin films to an asymmetric excitation, the symmetry of the system is similarly broken, resulting in a corresponding symmetry breaking of the electric field, and the generation of electromagnetic radiation.[49][50]
In recent years, several attempts at the macro-scale application of the piezoelectric technology have emerged[51][52] to harvest kinetic energy from walking pedestrians. The piezoelectric floors have been trialed since the beginning of 2007 in two Japanese train stations, Tokyo and Shibuya stations. The electricity generated from the foot traffic is used to provide all the electricity needed to run the automatic ticket gates and electronic display systems.[53] In London, a famous nightclub[which?] exploited the piezoelectric technology in its dance floor. Parts of the lighting and sound systems in the club can be powered by the energy harvesting tiles.[54] However, the piezoelectric tile deployed on the ground usually harvests energy from low frequency strikes provided by the foot traffic. This working condition may eventually lead to low power generation efficiency.[55]
In this case, locating high traffic areas is critical for optimization of the energy harvesting efficiency, as well as the orientation of the tile pavement significantly affects the total amount of the harvested energy. A density flow evaluation is recommended to qualitatively evaluate the piezoelectric power harvesting potential of the considered area based on the number of pedestrian crossings per unit time.[55] In X. Li's study, the potential application of a commercial piezoelectric energy harvester in a central hub building at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia is examined and discussed. Optimization of the piezoelectric tile deployment is presented according to the frequency of pedestrian mobility and a model is developed where 3.1% of the total floor area with the highest pedestrian mobility is paved with piezoelectric tiles. The modelling results indicate that the total annual energy harvesting potential for the proposed optimized tile pavement model is estimated at 1.1 MW h/year, which would be sufficient to meet close to 0.5% of the annual energy needs of the building.[55] In Israel, there is a company which has installed piezoelectric materials under a busy highway. The energy generated is adequate and powers street lights, billboards and signs.[citation needed]
Tire company Goodyear has plans to develop an electricity generating tire which has piezoelectric material lined inside it. As the tire moves, it deforms and thus electricity is generated.[56]
Photovoltaics[edit]
The efficiency of a hybrid photovoltaic cell that contains piezoelectric materials can be increased simply by placing it near a source of ambient noise or vibration. The effect was demonstrated with organic cells using zinc oxide nanotubes. The electricity generated by the piezoelectric effect itself is a negligible percentage of the overall output. Sound levels as low as 75 decibels improved efficiency by up to 50%. Efficiency peaked at 10 kHz, the resonant frequency of the nanotubes. The electrical field set up by the vibrating nanotubes interacts with electrons migrating from the organic polymer layer. This process decreases the likelihood of recombination, in which electrons are energized but settle back into a hole instead of migrating to the electron-accepting ZnO layer.[57][58]
See also[edit]
Charge amplifier
Electronic component
Electret
Electrostriction
Energy harvesting, methods of converting other forms of energy to electricity.
Ferroelectricity
Flexoelectricity
Magnetostriction
Photoelectric effect
Piezoluminescence
Piezomagnetism
Piezosurgical
Piezoresistive effect
Sonomicrometry
Surface acoustic wave
Triboluminescence
Piezotronics
Piezoelectric speaker
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Holler, F. James; Skoog, Douglas A.; Crouch, Stanley R. (2007). "Chapter 1". Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-495-01201-6.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "piezoelectric". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ πιέζειν, ἤλεκτρον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
^ Jump up to: a b Manbachi, A. & Cobbold, R.S.C. (2011). "Development and Application of Piezoelectric Materials for Ultrasound Generation and Detection". Ultrasound. 19 (4): 187–196. doi:10.1258/ult.2011.011027.
Jump up ^ Gautschi, G. (2002). Piezoelectric Sensorics: Force, Strain, Pressure, Acceleration and Acoustic Emission Sensors, Materials and Amplifiers. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-04732-3. ISBN 978-3-662-04732-3.
Jump up ^ Krautkrämer, J. & Krautkrämer, H. (1990). Ultrasonic Testing of Materials. Springer. [ISBN missing]
Jump up ^ Erhart, Jiří. "Piezoelectricity and ferroelectricity: Phenomena and properties" (PDF). Department of Physics, Technical University of Liberec. Archived from the original on May 8, 2014. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880). "Développement par compression de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées" [Development, via compression, of electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces]. Bulletin de la Société minérologique de France. 3: 90–93.
Reprinted in: Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880). "Développement, par pression, de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées". Comptes rendus (in French). 91: 294–295. Archived from the original on 2012-12-05.
See also: Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880). "Sur l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées" [On electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces]. Comptes rendus (in French). 91: 383–386. Archived from the original on 2012-12-05.
Jump up ^ Lippmann, G. (1881). "Principe de la conservation de l'électricité" [Principle of the conservation of electricity]. Annales de chimie et de physique (in French). 24: 145. Archived from the original on 2016-02-08.
Jump up ^ Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1881). "Contractions et dilatations produites par des tensions dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées" [Contractions and expansions produced by voltages in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces]. Comptes rendus (in French). 93: 1137–1140. Archived from the original on 2012-12-05.
Jump up ^ Voigt, Woldemar (1910). Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik. Berlin: B. G. Teubner. Archived from the original on 2014-04-21.
Jump up ^ Katzir, S. (2012). "Who knew piezoelectricity? Rutherford and Langevin on submarine detection and the invention of sonar". Notes Rec. R. Soc. 66 (2): 141–157. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2011.0049. Archived from the original on 2015-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c M. Birkholz (1995). "Crystal-field induced dipoles in heteropolar crystals – II. physical significance". Z. Phys. B. 96 (3): 333–340. Bibcode:1995ZPhyB..96..333B. doi:10.1007/BF01313055. Archived from the original on 2016-10-30.
Jump up ^ S. Trolier-McKinstry (2008). "Chapter3: Crystal Chemistry of Piezoelectric Materials". In A. Safari; E.K. Akdo˘gan. Piezoelectric and Acoustic Materials for Transducer Applications. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-76538-9.
Jump up ^ Sensor Sense: Piezoelectric Force Sensors Archived 2010-04-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Machinedesign.com (2008-02-07). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.
Jump up ^ Ikeda, T. (1996). Fundamentals of piezoelectricity. Oxford University Press. [ISBN missing]
^ Jump up to: a b Damjanovic, Dragan (1998). "Ferroelectric, dielectric and piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric thin films and ceramics". Reports on Progress in Physics. 61 (9): 1267–1324. Bibcode:1998RPPh...61.1267D. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/61/9/002.
Jump up ^ Kochervinskii, V. (2003). "Piezoelectricity in Crystallizing Ferroelectric Polymers". Crystallography Reports. 48 (4): 649–675. Bibcode:2003CryRp..48..649K. doi:10.1134/1.1595194.
Jump up ^ "Piezoelectric Crystal Classes". Newcastle University, UK. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Pyroelectric Crystal Classes". Newcastle University, UK. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Radusinović, Dušan & Markov, Cvetko (1971). "Macedonite – lead titanate: a new mineral" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 56: 387–394. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-05.
Jump up ^ Burke, E. A. J. & Kieft, C. (1971). "Second occurrence of makedonite, PbTiO3, Långban, Sweden". Lithos. 4: 101–104. Bibcode:1971Litho...4..101B. doi:10.1016/0024-4937(71)90102-2.
Jump up ^ Akizuki, Mizuhiko; Hampar, Martin S.; Zussman, Jack (1979). "An explanation of anomalous optical properties of topaz" (PDF). Mineralogical Magazine. 43 (326): 237–241. Bibcode:1979MinM...43..237A. doi:10.1180/minmag.1979.043.326.05.
Jump up ^ Minary-Jolandan, M. & Yu, Min-Feng (2009). "Nanoscale characterization of isolated individual type I collagen fibrils: Polarization and piezoelectricity". Nanotechnology. 20 (8): 085706. Bibcode:2009Nanot..20h5706M. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/20/8/085706. PMID 19417467.
Jump up ^ Lakes, Roderic. "Electrical Properties of Bone: A Review". University of Wisconsin–Madison. Archived from the original on 2013-11-05.
Jump up ^ Becker, Robert O.; Marino, Andrew A. (1982). "Chapter 4: Electrical Properties of Biological Tissue (Piezoelectricity)". Electromagnetism & Life. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-560-9. Archived from the original on 2009-08-02.
Jump up ^ Pollack, S. R.; Korostoff, E.; Starkebaum,, W.; Lannicone,, W. (1979). "Micro-Electrical Studies of Stress-Generated Potentials in Bone". In Brighton, C. T.; Black, J.; Pollack, S. R. Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton. ISBN 0-8089-1228-3.
Jump up ^ Fotiadis, D. I.; Foutsitzi, G.; Massalas, C. V. (1999). "Wave propagation modeling in human long bones". Acta Mechanica. 137: 65–81. doi:10.1007/BF01313145.
Jump up ^ Lee, B. Y.; Zhang, J.; Zueger, C.; Chung, W. J.; Yoo, S. Y.; Wang, E.; Meyer, J.; Ramesh, R.; Lee, S. W. (2012-05-13). "Virus-based piezoelectric energy generation". Nature Nanotechnology. 7 (6): 351–6. Bibcode:2012NatNa...7..351L. doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.69. PMID 22581406.
Jump up ^ Jaffe, B.; Cook, W. R.; Jaffe, H. (1971). Piezoelectric Ceramics. New York: Academic. [ISBN missing]
Jump up ^ Saito, Yasuyoshi; Takao, Hisaaki; Tanil, Toshihiko; Nonoyama, Tatsuhiko; Takatori, Kazumasa; Homma, Takahiko; Nagaya, Toshiatsu; Nakamura, Masaya (2004-11-04). "Lead-free piezoceramics". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 432 (7013): 81–87. Bibcode:2004Natur.432...84S. doi:10.1038/nature03028. PMID 15516921. Archived from the original on 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ Gurdal, Erkan A.; Ural, Seyit O.; Park, Hwi-Yeol; Nahm, Sahn; Uchino, Kenji (2011). "High Power (Na0.5K0.5)NbO3-Based Lead-Free Piezoelectric Transformer". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 50 (2): 027101. Bibcode:2011JaJAP..50b7101G. doi:10.1143/JJAP.50.027101. ISSN 0021-4922.
Jump up ^ Migliorato, Max; et al. "A Review of Non Linear Piezoelectricity in Semiconductors". AIP Conf Proc. AIP Publishing. 1590 (N/A): 32–41. doi:10.1063/1.4870192.
Jump up ^ Kholkin, Andrei; Nadav, Amdursky; Igor, Bdikin; Ehud, Gazit; Gil, Rosenman. "Strong Piezoelectricity in Bioinspired Peptide Nanotubes". ACS Nano. ACS. 4 (2): 610–614. doi:10.1021/nn901327v.
Jump up ^ "Market Report: World Piezoelectric Device Market". Market Intelligence. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03.
Jump up ^ Richard, Michael Graham (2006-08-04). "Japan: Producing Electricity from Train Station Ticket Gates". TreeHugger. Discovery Communications, LLC. Archived from the original on 2007-07-09.
Jump up ^ Wright, Sarah H. (2007-07-25). "MIT duo sees people-powered "Crowd Farm"". MIT news. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2007-09-12.
Jump up ^ Kannampilly, Ammu (2008-07-11). "How to Save the World One Dance at a Time". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2010-10-31.
Jump up ^ Barbehenn, George H. (October 2010). "True Grid Independence: Robust Energy Harvesting System for Wireless Sensors Uses Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Power Supply and Li-Poly Batteries with Shunt Charger". Journal of Analog Innovation: 36.
Jump up ^ Phillips, James R. (2000-08-10). "Piezoelectric Technology: A Primer". eeProductCenter. TechInsights. Archived from the original on 2010-10-06.
Jump up ^ Speck, Shane (2004-03-11). "How Rocket-Propelled Grenades Work by Shane Speck". HowStuffWorks.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-29. Retrieved 2012-05-04.
Jump up ^ Moubarak, P.; et al. (2012). "A Self-Calibrating Mathematical Model for the Direct Piezoelectric Effect of a New MEMS Tilt Sensor". IEEE Sensors Journal. 12 (5): 1033–1042. Bibcode:2012ISenJ..12.1033M. doi:10.1109/jsen.2011.2173188.
Jump up ^ Le Letty, R.; Barillot, F.; Lhermet, N.; Claeyssen, F.; Yorck, M.; Gavira Izquierdo, J.; Arends, H.; Barillot, F.; Lhermet, N.; Claeyssen, F.; Yorck, M.; Gavira Izquierdo, J.; Arends, H. (2001). "The scanning mechanism for ROSETTA/MIDAS from an engineering model to the flight model". In Harris, R. A. Proceedings of the 9th European Space Mechanisms and Tribology Symposium, 19–21 September 2001, Liège, Belgium. ESA SP-480. 480. Noordwijk, Netherlands: ESA Publications Division. pp. 75–81. Bibcode:2001ESASP.480...75L. ISBN 92-9092-761-5.
Jump up ^ Simonsen, Torben R. (27 September 2010). "Piezo in space". Electronics Business (in Danish). Archived from the original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Isn't it amazing how one smart idea, one chip and an intelligent material has changed the world of tennis?". HEAD. Archived from the original on February 22, 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
Jump up ^ Baltaci, Volkan; Ayvaz, Özge Üner; Ünsal, Evrim; Aktaş, Yasemin; Baltacı, Aysun; Turhan, Feriba; Özcan, Sarp; Sönmezer, Murat (2009). "The effectiveness of intracytoplasmic sperm injection combined with piezoelectric stimulation in infertile couples with total fertilization failure". Fertil. Steril. 94 (3): 900–4. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.03.107. PMID 19464000.
Jump up ^ Hoigne, D.J.; Stubinger, S.; von Kaenel, O.; Shamdasani, S.; Hasenboehler, P. (2006). "Piezoelectric osteotomy in hand surgery: first experiences with a new technique". BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 7: 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-7-36.
Jump up ^ Labanca, M.; Azzola, F.; Vinci, R.; Rodella, L. F. (2008). "Piezoelectric surgery: twenty years of use". Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 46 (4): 265–9. doi:10.1016/j.bjoms.2007.12.007. PMID 18342999.
Jump up ^ Sinha, Dhiraj; Amaratunga, Gehan (2015). "Electromagnetic Radiation Under Explicit symmetry Breaking,". Physical Review Letters. 114 (14): 147701. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.114n7701S. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.114.147701. PMID 25910163.
Jump up ^ "New understanding of electromagnetism could enable 'antennas on a chip'". cam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
Jump up ^ Bischur, E.; Schwesinger, N. (January 2012). "Organic Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters in Floor". Advanced Materials Research. 433–440: 5848–5853. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.433-440.5848. Archived from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Duarte, F.; Casimiro, F.; Correia, D.; Mendes, R.; Ferreira, A. (2013). "A new pavement energy harvest system". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC), 2013 International: 408–413. doi:10.1109/IRSEC.2013.6529704. ISBN 978-1-4673-6374-7.
Jump up ^ Cafiso, Salvatore; Cuomo, M.; Di Graziano, A.; Vecchio, C. (2013). "Experimental Analysis for Piezoelectric Transducers Applications into Roads Pavements". Advanced Materials Research. 684: 253–257. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.684.253.
Jump up ^ Arjun, A.; Sampath, A.; Thiyagarajan, S.; Arvind, V. (December 2011). "A Novel Approach to Recycle Energy Using Piezoelectric Crystals". International Journal of Environmental Science and Development. 2: 488–492. doi:10.7763/IJESD.2011.V2.175.
^ Jump up to: a b c Li, Xiaofeng; Strezov, Vladimir (2014). "Modelling piezoelectric energy harvesting potential in an educational building". Energy Conversion and Management. 85: 435–442. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2014.05.096.
Jump up ^ "Goodyear Is Trying to Make an Electricity-Generating Tire". WIRED. Archived from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Heidi Hoopes (November 8, 2013). "Good vibrations lead to efficient excitations in hybrid solar cells". Gizmag.com. Archived from the original on November 11, 2013. Retrieved 2013-11-11.
Jump up ^ Shoaee, S.; Briscoe, J.; Durrant, J. R.; Dunn, S. (2013). "Acoustic Enhancement of Polymer/ZnO Nanorod Photovoltaic Device Performance". Advanced Materials. 26 (2): 263–8. doi:10.1002/adma.201303304. PMID 24194369.
International standards[edit]
ANSI-IEEE 176 (1987) Standard on Piezoelectricity
IEEE 177 (1976) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators
IEC 444 (1973) Basic method for the measurement of resonance freq & equiv series resistance of quartz crystal units by zero-phase technique in a pi-network
IEC 302 (1969) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators Operating over the Freq Range up to 30 MHz
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piezoelectricity.
Gautschi, Gustav H. (2002). Piezoelectric Sensorics. Springer. ISBN 3-540-42259-5.
Piezo motor based microdrive for neural signal recording
Research on new Piezoelectric materials
Piezo Equations
Piezo in Medical Design
Video demonstration of Piezoelectricity
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package – Piezoelectric Materials
PiezoMat.org – Online database for piezoelectric materials, their properties, and applications
Piezo Motor Types
Piezo-Theory & Applications
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piezoelectricity&oldid=850201796"
Categories:
Condensed matter physics
Electrical phenomena
Energy conversion
Transducers
Energy harvesting
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Pages with missing ISBNs
CS1 maint: Unfit url
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 Danish-language sources (da)
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Latviešu
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
41 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 July 2018, at 10:48 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/Lord_Kelvin
mw-redirect
Lord Kelvin

values:
/wiki/Stress_(physics)
mw-redirect
Stress (physics)

values:
/wiki/Poling_(piezoelectricity)
mw-redirect
Poling (piezoelectricity)

values:
/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscopy
mw-redirect
Scanning tunneling microscopy

values: Edit section: Discovery and early research

values:
/wiki/Rochelle_salt
mw-redirect
Rochelle salt

values:
/wiki/Tensor_analysis
mw-redirect
Tensor analysis

values:
/wiki/Echo_(phenomenon)
mw-redirect
Echo (phenomenon)

values:
/wiki/Crystal_lattice
mw-redirect
Crystal lattice

values:
/wiki/Mechanical_stress
mw-redirect
Mechanical stress

values:
/wiki/Crystal_symmetry
mw-redirect
Crystal symmetry

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:31.594ex; height:2.843ex;

values: \mathbf{D} = \boldsymbol{\varepsilon}\,\mathbf{E} \quad \implies \quad D_i = \varepsilon_{ij}\,E_j \;

values:
/wiki/Electric_displacement
mw-redirect
Electric displacement

values:
/wiki/Electric_field_strength
mw-redirect
Electric field strength

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:23.089ex; height:2.509ex;

values: \nabla\cdot\mathbf{D} = 0 \,\,,\, \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{0}

values:
/wiki/Hooke%27s_Law
mw-redirect
Hooke's Law

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:32.745ex; height:2.843ex;

values: \boldsymbol{S}=\mathsf{s}\,\boldsymbol{T} \quad \implies \quad S_{ij} = s_{ijkl}\,T_{kl}\;

values:
/wiki/Strain_(materials_science)
mw-redirect
Strain (materials science)

values:
/wiki/Compliance_(mechanics)
mw-redirect
Compliance (mechanics)

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:27.316ex; height:5.176ex;

attrs: columnalign rowspacing columnspacing displaystyle

values: right left right left right left right left right left right left

values: 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em

values: vertical-align: -2.376ex; margin-bottom: -0.295ex; width:49.786ex; height:6.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:27.344ex; height:6.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.16ex; height:2.009ex;

values: vertical-align: -10.005ex; width:91.725ex; height:21.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -9.005ex; width:75.085ex; height:19.176ex;

values:
/wiki/Vector_(geometric)
mw-redirect
Vector (geometric)

values: display:block; line-height:1em; margin:0 0.1em;

values: display:block; line-height:1em; margin:0 0.1em; border-top:1px solid;

values: display:inline-block; vertical-align:-0.5em; font-size:85%; text-align:center;

values: vertical-align: -13.364ex; margin-bottom: -0.307ex; width:37.301ex; height:28.509ex;

values:
/wiki/Crystal_class
mw-redirect
Crystal class

values: Edit section: Naturally occurring crystals

values:
/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display
mw-redirect
Liquid crystal display

values:
/wiki/Gallium_orthophosphate
mw-redirect
Gallium orthophosphate

values: Restriction of hazardous substances directive

values: Edit section: III–V and II–VI semiconductors

values: Non linear piezoelectric effects in polar semiconductors

values: Edit section: High voltage and power sources

values:
/wiki/Potential_difference
mw-redirect
Potential difference

values:
/wiki/Energy_Harvesting
mw-redirect
Energy Harvesting

values:
/wiki/Acoustic_coupling
mw-redirect
Acoustic coupling

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Cold_cathode_fluorescent_lamp
mw-redirect
Cold cathode fluorescent lamp

values:
/wiki/Guitar_pickup
mw-redirect
Guitar pickup

values:
/wiki/Pick_up_(music_technology)
mw-redirect
Pick up (music technology)

values:
/wiki/Piezoelectric_microbalance
mw-redirect
Piezoelectric microbalance

values:
/wiki/Huygens_Probe
mw-redirect
Huygens Probe

values:
/wiki/Engine_Control_Unit
mw-redirect
Engine Control Unit

values:
/wiki/Acoustic_emission_testing
mw-redirect
Acoustic emission testing

values:
/wiki/Piezoelectric_loudspeaker
mw-redirect
Piezoelectric loudspeaker

values:
/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope
mw-redirect
Atomic force microscope

values:
/wiki/Inkjet_printer
mw-redirect
Inkjet printer

values:
/wiki/Fuel_injector
mw-redirect
Fuel injector

values:
/wiki/X-ray_computed_tomography
mw-redirect
X-ray computed tomography

values:
/wiki/Receiver_(radio)
mw-redirect
Receiver (radio)

values:
/wiki/Clock_pulse
mw-redirect
Clock pulse

values: Traveling-wave motor (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Single_lens_reflex
mw-redirect
Single lens reflex

values: Edit section: Reduction of vibrations and noise

values:
/wiki/Tennis_racket
mw-redirect
Tennis racket

values:
/wiki/Total_fertilization_failure
mw-redirect
Total fertilization failure

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (June 2016)

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)

values:
/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell
mw-redirect
Photovoltaic cell

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1258/ult.2011.011027

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098/rsnr.2011.0049

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007/BF01313055

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1134/1.1595194

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19417467

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007/BF01313145

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2012.69

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22581406

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/nature03028

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15516921

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.50.027101

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-4922

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.4870192

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021/nn901327v

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.linear.com/docs/29984

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109/jsen.2011.2173188

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19464000

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-7-36

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2007.12.007

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18342999

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25910163

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109/IRSEC.2013.6529704

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.7763/IJESD.2011.V2.175

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002/adma.201303304

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24194369

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/195

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:CS1 Danish-language sources (da)

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Piezoelectricity
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: كهرباء انضغاطية – Arabic

values: П’езаэлектрычны эфект – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Пиезоелектричен ефект – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Πιεζοηλεκτρισμός – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: اثر فشاربرقی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Պիեզոէլեկտրականություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: दाबविद्युतिकी – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: פיאזואלקטריות – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Пиезоелектричен ефект – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Пьезоэлектрический эффект – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Пијезоелектрични ефект – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: அழுத்தமின் விளைவு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: П'єзоефект – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Piezoelectricity rootpage-Piezoelectricity skin-vector action-view