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Dominion of New England
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Dominion of New England in America
Colony of the Kingdom of England
↓ 1686 (1686)–1689 (1689) ↓
Seal
Motto
"Nunquam libertas gratior extat"
"Never does liberty appear in a more gracious form"
Map of the Dominion, as of 1688
Capital Boston, Massachusetts
42°21′N 71°3′W / 42.350°N 71.050°W / 42.350; -71.050Coordinates: 42°21′N 71°3′W / 42.350°N 71.050°W / 42.350; -71.050
Government Constitutional monarchy
Governor
• 1686 (1686) Joseph Dudley
• 1686 (1686)–1689 (1689) Edmund Andros
Lieutenant Governor
• 1688 (1688)–1689 (1689) Francis Nicholson
Legislature Council of New England
Historical era Colonial history of the United States
• Established 1686 (1686)
• Boston revolt April 18, 1689 (1689-04-18)
• New York revolt May 31, 1689 (1689-05-31)
• Disestablished 1689 (1689)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Province of New Hampshire
Connecticut Colony
Plymouth Colony
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Province of New York
Province of East Jersey
Province of West Jersey
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Province of New Hampshire
Connecticut Colony
Plymouth Colony
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Province of New York
Province of East Jersey
Province of West Jersey
Today part of United States
The Dominion of New England in America (1686–89) was an administrative union of English colonies covering New England and the Mid-Atlantic Colonies (except for the Colony of Pennsylvania). Its political structure represented centralized control similar to the model used by the Spanish monarchy through the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The dominion was unacceptable to most colonists, because they deeply resented being stripped of their rights and having their colonial charter revoked. Governor Sir Edmund Andros tried to make legal and structural changes, but most of these were undone and the Dominion was overthrown as soon as word was received that King James had left the throne in England. One notable change was the introduction of the Church of England into Massachusetts, whose Puritan leaders had previously refused to allow it any sort of foothold.
The Dominion encompassed a very large area from the Delaware River in the south to Penobscot Bay in the north, composed of present-day New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, plus a small portion of Maine. It was too large for a single governor to manage. Governor Andros was highly unpopular, and was seen as a threat by most political factions. News of the Glorious Revolution in England reached Boston in 1689, and the Puritans launched a revolt against Andros, arresting him and his officers.
Leisler's Rebellion in New York City deposed the dominion's lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson. After these events, the colonies that had been assembled into the dominion reverted to their previous forms of government, although some governed formally without a charter. New charters were eventually issued by the new joint rulers William III of England and Queen Mary II.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Establishment
3 Dudley administration
4 Andros administration
4.1 Church of England
4.2 Revenue laws
4.3 Town meeting laws
4.4 Land titles and taxes
4.5 Connecticut charter
4.6 Inclusion of New York and the Jerseys
4.7 Indian diplomacy
5 Glorious Revolution and dissolution
5.1 Massachusetts and Plymouth
6 Administrators of the Dominion of New England in America
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
Background[edit]
A number of English colonies were established in North America and in the West Indies during the first half of the 17th century, with varying attributes. Some originated as commercial ventures, such as the Virginia Colony, while others were founded for religious reasons, such as Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. The governments of the colonies also varied. Virginia became a crown colony, despite its corporate beginning, while Massachusetts and other New England colonies had corporate charters and a great deal of administrative freedom. Other areas were proprietary colonies, such as Maryland and Carolina, owned and operated by one or a few individuals.
Following the English Restoration in 1660, King Charles II sought to streamline the administration of these colonial territories. Charles and his government began a process that brought a number of the colonies under direct crown control. One reason for these actions was the cost of administration of individual colonies; another significant reason was the regulation of trade. Throughout the 1660s, the English Parliament passed a number of laws to regulate the trade of the colonies, collectively called the Navigation Acts. These laws were resisted, particularly in the New England colonies which had established significant trading networks with other English colonies and with other European countries and their colonies, especially Spain and the Dutch Republic. The laws outlawed some existing New England practices, in effect turning merchants into smugglers, and the payment of additional duties would have significantly increased their shipping costs.[citation needed]
Some of the New England colonies presented specific problems for the king, and combining those colonies into a single administrative entity was seen as a way to resolve those problems. The Plymouth Colony had never been formally chartered, and the New Haven Colony had sheltered two of the regicides of Charles I, the king's father. The territory of Maine was disputed by competing grantees and by Massachusetts, and New Hampshire was a very small, recently established crown colony.
Massachusetts had a long history of virtually theocratic rule, in addition to their widespread resistance to the Navigation Acts, and they exhibited little tolerance for non-Puritans, including supporters of the Church of England (which was most important for the king). Charles II repeatedly sought to change the Massachusetts government, but they resisted all substantive attempts at reform. In 1683, legal proceedings began to vacate the Massachusetts charter; it was formally annulled in June 1684.[1]
The primary motivation in London was not to attain efficiency in administration, but to guarantee that the purpose of the colonies was to make England richer. England's desire for colonies that produced agricultural staples worked well for the southern colonies, which produced tobacco, rice, and indigo, but not so well for New England due to the geology of the region. Lacking a suitable staple, the New Englanders engaged in trade and became successful competitors to English merchants. They were now starting to develop workshops that threatened to deprive England of its lucrative colonial market for manufactured articles: textiles, leather goods, and ironware. The plan, therefore, was to establish a uniform all-powerful government over the northern colonies so that the people would be diverted away from manufacturing and foreign trade.[2]
Establishment[edit]
Following the revocation of the Massachusetts charter, Charles II and the Lords of Trade moved forward with plans to establish a unified administration over at least some of the New England colonies. The specific objectives of the dominion included the regulation of trade, reformation of land title practices to conform more to English methods and practices, coordination on matters of defense, and a streamlining of the administration into fewer centers. The Dominion initially comprised the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of New Hampshire, the Province of Maine, and the Narraganset Country (present-day Washington County, Rhode Island).
King James II
Charles II had chosen Colonel Percy Kirke to govern the dominion, but Charles died before the commission was approved. King James II approved Kirke's commission in 1685, but Kirke came under harsh criticism for his role in putting down Monmouth's Rebellion, and his commission was withdrawn.[3] A provisional commission was issued on October 8, 1685 to Massachusetts Bay native Joseph Dudley as President of the Council of New England, due to delays in developing the commission for Kirke's intended successor Sir Edmund Andros.[4]
Dudley's limited commission specified that he would rule with an appointed council and no representative legislature.[5] The councillors named as members of this body included a cross-section of politically moderate men from the old colonial governments. Edward Randolph had served as the crown agent investigating affairs in New England, and he was appointed to the council, as well.[6] Randolph was also commissioned with a long list of other posts, including secretary of the dominion, collector of customs, and deputy postmaster.[7]
Dudley administration[edit]
Dudley's charter arrived in Boston in May 14, 1686, and he formally took charge of Massachusetts on May 25.[8] His rule did not begin auspiciously, since a number of Massachusetts magistrates refused to serve who had been named to his council.[9] According to Edward Randolph, the Puritan magistrates "were of opinion that God would never suffer me to land again in this country, and thereupon began in a most arbitrary manner to assert their power higher than at any time before."[10] Elections of colonial military officers were also compromised when many of them refused to serve.[11] Dudley made a number of judicial appointments, generally favoring the political moderates who had supported accommodation of the king's wishes in the battle over the old charter.[12]
Joseph Dudley
Dudley was significantly hampered by the inability to raise revenues in the dominion. His commission did not allow the introduction of new revenue laws, and the Massachusetts government had repealed all such laws in 1683, anticipating the loss of the charter.[13] Furthermore, many refused to pay the few remaining taxes on the grounds that they had been enacted by the old government and were thus invalid.[14] Attempts by Dudley and Randolph were largely unsuccessful at introducing the Church of England due to a lack of funding, but were also hampered by the perceived political danger of imposing on the existing churches for their use.[15]
Dudley and Randolph enforced the Navigation Acts, although they did not adhere entirely to the laws. Some variations were overlooked, understanding that certain provisions of the acts were unfair (some resulted in the payments of multiple duties), and they suggested to the Lords of Trade that the laws be modified to ameliorate these conditions. However, the Massachusetts economy suffered, also negatively affected by external circumstances.[16] A dispute eventually occurred between Dudley and Randolph over matters related to trade.[17]
During Dudley's administration, the Lords of Trade decided on September 9, 1686 to include into the dominion the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut, based on a petition from Dudley's council. Andros's commission had been issued in June, and he was given an annex to his commission to incorporate them into the dominion.
Andros administration[edit]
Andros had previously been governor of New York; he arrived in Boston on December 20, 1686 and immediately assumed power.[18] He took a hard-line position, claiming that the colonists had left behind all their rights as Englishmen when they left England. The Reverend John Wise rallied his parishioners in 1687 to protest and resist taxes; Andros had him arrested, convicted, and fined. An Andros official explained, "Mr. Wise, you have no more privileges Left you then not to be Sold for Slaves."[19]
His commission called for governance by himself, again with a council. The initial composition of the council included representatives from each of the colonies which the dominion absorbed, but the council's quorums were dominated by representatives from Massachusetts and Plymouth because of the inconvenience of travel and the fact that travel costs were not reimbursed.
Sir Edmund Andros
Church of England[edit]
Shortly after his arrival, Andros asked each of the Puritan churches in Boston if its meetinghouse could be used for services of the Church of England,[18] but he was consistently rebuffed. He then demanded keys to Samuel Willard's Third Church in 1687,[20] and services were held there under the auspices of Robert Ratcliff until 1688, when King's Chapel was built.[21]
Revenue laws[edit]
After Andros' arrival, the council began a long process of harmonizing laws throughout the dominion to conform more closely to English laws. This work was so time-consuming that Andros issued a proclamation in March 1687 stating that pre-existing laws would remain in effect until they were revised. Massachusetts had no pre-existing tax laws, so a scheme of taxation was developed that would apply to the entire dominion, developed by a committee of landowners. The first proposal derived its revenues from import duties, principally alcohol. After much debate, a different proposal was abruptly put forward and adopted, in essence reviving previous Massachusetts tax laws. These laws had been unpopular with farmers who felt that the taxes were too high on livestock.[22] In order to bring in immediate revenue, Andros also received approval to increase the import duties on alcohol.[23]
The first attempts to enforce the revenue laws were met by stiff resistance from a number of Massachusetts communities. Several towns refused to choose commissioners to assess the town population and estates, and officials from a number of them were consequently arrested and brought to Boston. Some were fined and released, while others were imprisoned until they promised to perform their duties. The leaders of Ipswich had been most vocal in their opposition to the law; they were tried and convicted of misdemeanor offenses.[24]
The other provinces did not resist the imposition of the new law, even though the rates were higher than they had been under the previous colonial administration, at least in Rhode Island. Plymouth's relatively poor landowners were hard hit because of the high rates on livestock.
Town meeting laws[edit]
One consequence of the tax protest was that Andros sought to restrict town meetings, since these were where that protest had begun. He, therefore, introduced a law that limited meetings to a single annual meeting, solely for the purpose of electing officials, and explicitly banning meetings at other times for any reason. This loss of local power was widely hated. Many protests were made that the town meeting and tax laws were violations of the Magna Carta, which guaranteed taxation by representatives of the people.[25]
Land titles and taxes[edit]
Andros dealt a major blow to the colonists by challenging their title to the land; unlike England, the great majority of Americans were land-owners. Taylor says that, because they "regarded secure real estate as fundamental to their liberty, status, and prosperity, the colonists felt horrified by the sweeping and expensive challenge to their land titles."[26] Andros had been instructed to bring colonial land title practices more in line with those in England, and to introduce quit-rents as a means of raising colonial revenues.[27] Titles issued in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine under the colonial administration often suffered from defects of form (for example, lacking an imprint of the colonial seal), and most of them did not include a quit-rent payment. Land grants in colonial Connecticut and Rhode Island had been made before either colony had a charter, and there were conflicting claims in a number of areas.[28]
The manner was doubly divisive in which Andros approached the issue, since it threatened any landowner whose title was in any way dubious. Some landowners went through the confirmation process, but many refused, since they did not want to face the possibility of losing their land, and they viewed the process as a thinly veiled land grab. The Puritans of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were among the latter, some of whom had extensive landholdings.[29] All of the existing land titles in Massachusetts had been granted under the now-vacated colonial charter; in essence, Andros declared them to be void, and required landowners to recertify their ownership, paying fees to the dominion and becoming subject to the charge of a quit-rent.
Andros attempted to compel the certification of ownership by issuing writs of intrusion, but large landowners who owned many parcels contested these individually, rather than recertifying all of their lands. The number was small of new titles issued during the Andros regime; 200 applications were made, but only about 20 of those were approved.[30]
Connecticut charter[edit]
Andros' commission included Connecticut, and he asked Connecticut Governor Robert Treat to surrender the colonial charter not long after his arrival in Boston. Connecticut officials formally acknowledged Andros' authority, unlike Rhode Island, whose officials acceded to the dominion but in fact did little to assist him. Connecticut continued to run their government according to the charter, holding quarterly meetings of the legislature and electing colony-wide officials, while Treat and Andros negotiated over the surrender of the charter. In October 1687, Andros finally decided to travel to Connecticut to personally see to the matter. He arrived in Hartford on October 31, accompanied by an honor guard, and met that evening with the colonial leadership. According to legend, the charter was laid out on the table for all to see during this meeting. The lights in the room unexpectedly went out and, when they were relit, the charter had disappeared. It was said to have been hidden in a nearby oak tree (referred to afterward as the Charter Oak) so that a search of nearby buildings could not locate the document.[31]
Francis Nicholson
Whatever the truth of the legend, Connecticut records show that its government formally surrendered its seals and ceased operation that day. Andros then traveled throughout the colony, making judicial and other appointments, before returning to Boston.[32] On December 29, 1687, the dominion council formally extended its laws over Connecticut, completing the assimilation of the New England colonies.[33]
Inclusion of New York and the Jerseys[edit]
On May 7, 1688, the provinces of New York, East Jersey, and West Jersey were added to the Dominion. They were remote from Boston where Andros had his seat, so New York and the Jerseys were run by Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson from New York City. Nicholson was an army captain and protégé of colonial secretary William Blathwayt who came to Boston in early 1687 as part of Andros' honor guard and had been promoted to his council.[34] During the summer of 1688, Andros traveled first to New York and then to the Jerseys to establish his commission. Dominion governance of the Jerseys was complicated by the fact that the proprietors' charters had been revoked, yet they had retained their property and petitioned Andros for what were traditional manorial rights.[35] The dominion period in the Jerseys was relatively uneventful because of their distance from the power centers and the unexpected end of the Dominion in 1689.[36]
Indian diplomacy[edit]
In 1687, governor of New France Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville launched an attack against Seneca villages in what is now western New York. His objective was to disrupt trade between the English at Albany and the Iroquois confederation, to which the Seneca belonged, and to break the Covenant Chain, a peace that Andros had negotiated in 1677 while he was governor of New York.[37] New York Governor Thomas Dongan appealed for help, and King James ordered Andros to render assistance. James also entered into negotiations with Louis XIV of France, which resulted in an easing of tensions on the northwestern frontier.[38]
On New England's northeastern frontier, however, the Abenaki harbored grievances against English settlers, and they began an offensive in early 1688. Andros made an expedition into Maine early in the year, in which he raided a number of Indian settlements. He also raided the trading outpost and home of Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin on Penobscot Bay. His careful preservation of the Catholic Castin's chapel was a source of later accusations of "popery" against Andros.[39]
Andros took over the administration of New York in August 1688, and he met with the Iroquois at Albany to renew the covenant. In this meeting, he annoyed the Iroquois by referring to them as "children" (that is, subservient to the English) rather than "brethren" (that is, equals).[40] He returned to Boston amid further attacks on the New England frontier by Abenaki parties, who admitted that they were doing so in part because of French encouragement. The situation in Maine had also deteriorated again, with English colonists raiding Indian villages and shipping the captives to Boston. Andros castigated the Mainers for this unwarranted act and ordered the Indians released and returned to Maine, earning the hatred of the Maine settlers. He then returned to Maine with a significant force, and began the construction of additional fortifications to protect the settlers.[41] Andros spent the winter in Maine, and returned to Boston in March upon hearing rumors of revolution in England and discontent in Boston.
Glorious Revolution and dissolution[edit]
Main articles: Glorious Revolution, 1689 Boston revolt, and Leisler's Rebellion
The religious leaders of Massachusetts, led by Cotton and Increase Mather, were opposed to the rule of Andros, and organized dissent targeted to influence the court in London. After King James published the Declaration of Indulgence in May 1687, Increase Mather sent a letter to the king thanking him for the declaration, and then he suggested to his peers that they also express gratitude to the king as a means to gain favor and influence.[42] Ten pastors agreed to do so, and they decided to send Mather to England to press their case against Andros.[43] Edward Randolph attempted to stop him; Mather was arrested, tried, and exonerated on one charge, but Randolph made a second arrest warrant with new charges. Mather was clandestinely spirited aboard a ship bound for England in April 1688.[44] He and other Massachusetts agents were well received by James, who promised in October 1688 that the colony's concerns would be addressed.[45] However, the events of the Glorious Revolution took over, and by December James had been deposed by William III and Mary II.[46]
Engraving depicting Andros under arrest
The Massachusetts agents then petitioned the new monarchs and the Lords of Trade for restoration of the old Massachusetts charter. Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution.[47] He had already dispatched a letter to previous colonial governor Simon Bradstreet containing news that a report (prepared before the revolution) stated that the charter had been illegally annulled, and that the magistrates should "prepare the minds of the people for a change."[48] News of the revolution apparently reached some individuals as early as late March,[49] and Bradstreet is one of several possible organizers of the mob that formed in Boston in April 18, 1689. He and other pre-Dominion magistrates and some members of Andros' council addressed an open letter to Andros on that day calling for his surrender in order to quiet the mob.[50] Andros, Randolph, Dudley, and other dominion supporters were arrested and imprisoned in Boston.[51]
In effect, the dominion then collapsed, as local authorities in each colony seized dominion representatives and reasserted their earlier power. In Plymouth, dominion councilor Nathaniel Clark was arrested on April 22, and previous governor Thomas Hinckley was reinstated. Rhode Island authorities organized a resumption of its charter with elections on May 1, but previous governor Walter Clarke refused to serve, and the colony continued without one. In Connecticut, the earlier government was also rapidly readopted.[52] New Hampshire was temporarily left without formal government, and came under de facto rule by Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet.[53]
News of the Boston revolt reached New York by April 26, but Lieutenant Governor Nicholson did not take any immediate action.[54] Andros managed during his captivity to have a message sent to Nicholson. Nicholson received the request for assistance in mid-May, but he was unable to take any effective action due to rising tensions in New York, combined with the fact that most of Nicholson's troops had been sent to Maine.[55] At the end of May, Nicholson was overthrown by local colonists supported by the militia in Leisler's Rebellion, and he fled to England.[56] Leisler governed New York until 1691, when King William commissioned Colonel Henry Sloughter as its governor.[57] Sloughter had Leisler tried on charges of high treason; he was convicted[58] in a trial presided over by Joseph Dudley and then executed.[59]
Massachusetts and Plymouth[edit]
The dissolution of the dominion presented legal problems for both Massachusetts and Plymouth. Plymouth never had a royal charter, and that of Massachusetts had been legally vacated. As a result, the restored governments lacked legal foundations for their existence, an issue that the political opponents of the leadership made it a point to raise. This was particularly problematic in Massachusetts, whose long frontier with New France saw its defenders recalled in the aftermath of the revolt, and was exposed to French and Indian raids after the outbreak of King William's War in 1689. The cost of colonial defense resulted in a heavy tax burden, and the war also made it difficult to rebuild the colony's trade.[60]
Agents for both colonies worked in England to rectify the charter issues, with Increase Mather petitioning the Lords of Trade for a restoration of the old Massachusetts charter. (Massachusetts Bay's charter was issued in 1691 and began operating in 1692 under governor Sir William Phips.) King William was informed that this would result in a return of the hard-line Puritan government, and he acted to prevent that from happening. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve the issue by combining the two provinces. The resulting Province of Massachusetts Bay combined the territories of those two provinces, along with the islands south of Cape Cod (Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, and the Elizabeth Islands) that had been Dukes County in the colony of New York.[citation needed]
The word dominion was later used to describe the 1867 Dominion of Canada and other self-governing British colonies, although no precedent from the Dominion of New England was cited in these cases.[citation needed]
Administrators of the Dominion of New England in America[edit]
This is a list of the chief administrators of the Dominion of New England in America from 1684 to 1689:
Name
Title
Date of commission
Date office assumed
Date term ended
Percy Kirke Governor in Chief (designate) of the Dominion of New England 1684 Appointment withdrawn in 1685 Not applicable
Joseph Dudley President of the Council of New England October 8, 1685 May 25, 1686 December 20, 1686
Sir Edmund Andros Governor in Chief of the Dominion of New England June 3, 1686 December 20, 1686 April 18, 1689
See also[edit]
History of New England
New England Colonies
New England Confederation
Further reading[edit]
Adams, James Truslow (1921). The Founding of New England. Boston, MA: Atlantic Monthly Press.
Barnes, Viola Florence (1923). The Dominion of New England: A Study in British Colonial Policy. ISBN 978-0-8044-1065-6. OCLC 395292.
Dunn, Richard S. "The Glorious Revolution and America" in The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century ( The Oxford History of the British Empire, (1998) vol 1 pp 445–66.
Dunn, Randy (2007). "Patronage and Governance in Francis Nicholson's Empire". English Atlantics Revisited. Montreal: McGill-Queens Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-3219-9. OCLC 429487739.
Hall, Michael Garibaldi (1960). Edward Randolph and the American Colonies. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Hall, Michael Garibaldi (1988). The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather, 1639–1723. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-5128-3. OCLC 16578800.
Kimball, Everett (1911). The Public Life of Joseph Dudley. New York: Longmans, Green. OCLC 1876620.
Lovejoy, David (1987). The Glorious Revolution in America. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6177-0. OCLC 14212813.
Lustig, Mary Lou (2002). The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, 1637–1714. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3936-8. OCLC 470360764.
Miller, Guy Howard (May 1968). "Rebellion in Zion: The Overthrow of the Dominion of New England". Historian. 30 (3): 439–459. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1968.tb00328.x.
Moore, Jacob Bailey (1851). Lives of the Governors of New Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. Boston, MA: C. D. Strong. OCLC 11362972.
Palfrey, John (1864). History of New England: History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 1658888.
Stanwood, Owen (2007). "The Protestant Moment: Antipopery, the Revolution of 1688–1689, and the Making of an Anglo-American Empire". Journal of British Studies. 46 (3): 481–508. JSTOR 10.1086/515441. doi:10.1086/515441.
Steele, Ian K (March 1989). "Origins of Boston's Revolutionary Declaration of 18 April 1689". New England Quarterly (Volume 62, No. 1): 75–81. JSTOR 366211.
Taylor, Alan, American Colonies: the Settling of North America, Penguin Books, 2001.
Tuttle, Charles Wesley (1880). New Hampshire Without Provincial Government, 1689–1690: an Historical Sketch. Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson and Son. OCLC 12783351.
Webb, Stephen Saunders. Lord Churchill's coup: the Anglo-American empire and the Glorious Revolution reconsidered (Syracuse University Press, 1998)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hall, Michael G. (1979). "Origins in Massachusetts of the Constitutional Doctrine of Advice and Consent". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series. Massachusetts Historical Society. 91: 5. JSTOR 25080845. Randolph's efforts at reporting unfavorably on the autonomous and "democratically government of Massachusetts brought about in 1684 total annulment of the first charter and in position of a new, arbitrary, prerogative government.
Jump up ^ Curtis P. Nettels, The Roots of American Civilization: A History of American Colonial Life (1938) p. 297.
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 45
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 47–48
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 48
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 49
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 50
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 50,54
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 51
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 53
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 55
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 56
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 58
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 59
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 61
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 62–63
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 68
^ Jump up to: a b Lustig, p. 141
Jump up ^ Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (2001) p277
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 164
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 165
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 84
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 85
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, p. 184
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 97
Jump up ^ Taylor, p 277
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 176
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 182, 187
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 189–193
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 199–201
Jump up ^ Federal Writers Project (1940). Connecticut: A Guide to Its Roads, Lore and People. p. 170.
Jump up ^ Palfrey, pp. 545–546
Jump up ^ Palfrey, p. 548
Jump up ^ Dunn, p. 64
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, p. 211
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, pp. 212–213
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 171
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 173
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 174
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 176
Jump up ^ Lustig, pp. 177–179
Jump up ^ Hall (1988), pp. 207–210
Jump up ^ Hall (1988), p. 210
Jump up ^ Hall (1988), pp. 210–211
Jump up ^ Hall (1988), p. 217
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 234
Jump up ^ Barnes, pp. 234–235
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 238
Jump up ^ Steele, p. 77
Jump up ^ Steele, p. 78
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, p. 241
Jump up ^ Palfrey, p. 596
Jump up ^ Tuttle, pp. 1–12
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, p. 252
Jump up ^ Lustig, p. 199
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, pp. 255–256
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, pp. 326–338
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, pp. 355–357
Jump up ^ Kimball, pp. 61–63
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 257
[show]
v
t
e
Dominion of New England
Monarchs
Charles II of England
James II of England
William III and Mary II of England
Administrators
Colonel Percy Kirke
Joseph Dudley
Sir Edmund Andros
Francis Nicholson
Opponents
Simon Bradstreet
Jacob Leisler
Increase Mather
Cotton Mather
Sir William Phips
Background
New England Puritans
The Navigation Acts
Assimilated colonies
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
Plymouth
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
East Jersey
West Jersey
Events
Creation of the dominion
Charter Oak incident
1689 Boston revolt
Leisler's Rebellion
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e
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Legend
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1643–1860 Bay Islands
Since 1650 Anguilla
1655–1850 Mosquito Coast
1655–1962 *Jamaica
1663–1712 Carolina
1664–1776 New York
1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New Jersey
Since 1666 Virgin Islands
Since 1670 Cayman Islands
1670–1973 *Bahamas
1670–1870 Rupert's Land
1671–1816 Leeward Islands
1674–1702 East Jersey
1674–1702 West Jersey
1680–1776 New Hampshire
1681–1776 Pennsylvania
1686–1689 New England
1691–1776 Massachusetts Bay
1701–1776 Delaware
1712–1776 North Carolina
1712–1776 South Carolina
1713–1867 Nova Scotia
1733–1776 Georgia
1754–1820 Cape Breton Island
1762–1974 *Grenada
1763–1978 Dominica
1763–1873 Prince Edward Island
1763–1791 Quebec
1763–1783 East Florida
1763–1783 West Florida
1784–1867 New Brunswick
1791–1841 Lower Canada
1791–1841 Upper Canada
Since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands
1818–1846 Columbia District/Oregon Country1
1833–1960 Windward Islands
1833–1960 Leeward Islands
1841–1867 Canada
1849–1866 Vancouver Island
1853–1863 Queen Charlotte Islands
1858–1866 British Columbia
1859–1870 North-Western Territory
1860–1981 *British Antigua and Barbuda
1862–1863 Stickeen
1866–1871 British Columbia
1867–1931 *Dominion of Canada2
1871–1964 Honduras
1882–1983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis
1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago
1907–1949 Newfoundland3
1958–1962 West Indies Federation
1. Occupied jointly with the United States.
2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of Canada.
3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.
[show]
South America
1631–1641 Providence Island
1651–1667 Willoughbyland
1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4
1831–1966 Guiana
Since 1833 Falkland Islands5
Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5
4. Now a department of Colombia.
5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
[show]
Africa
17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
1792–1961 Sierra Leone
1795–1803 Cape Colony
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
1806–1910 Cape of Good Hope
1807–1808 Madeira
1810–1968 Mauritius
1816–1965 The Gambia
1856–1910 Natal
1862–1906 Lagos
1868–1966 Basutoland
1874–1957 Gold Coast
1882–1922 Egypt
1884–1900 Niger Coast
1884–1966 Bechuanaland
1884–1960 Somaliland
1887–1897 Zululand
1890–1962 Uganda
1890–1963 Zanzibar
1891–1964 Nyasaland
1891–1907 Central Africa
1893–1968 Swaziland
1895–1920 East Africa
1899–1956 Sudan
1900–1914 Northern Nigeria
1900–1914 Southern Nigeria
1900–1910 Orange River
1900–1910 Transvaal
1903–1976 Seychelles
1910–1931 South Africa
1914–1960 Nigeria
1915–1931 South-West Africa
1919–1961 Cameroons6
1920–1963 Kenya
1922–1961 Tanganyika6
1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia7
1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia
6. League of Nations mandate.
7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
[show]
Asia
17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century
1685–1824 Bencoolen
1702–1705 Pulo Condore
1757–1947 Bengal
1762–1764 Manila and Cavite
1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Padang
1786–1946 Penang
1795–1948 Ceylon
1796–1965 Maldives
1812–1824 Banka and Billiton
1819–1826 Malaya
1824–1948 Burma
1826–1946 Straits Settlements
1839–1967 Aden
1839–1842 Afghanistan
1841–1997 Hong Kong
1841–1946 Sarawak
1848–1946 Labuan
1858–1947 India
1874–1963 Borneo
1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate)
1882–1963 North Borneo
1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States
1888–1984 Brunei
1891–1971 Muscat and Oman
1892–1971 Trucial States
1895–1946 Federated Malay States
1898–1930 Weihai
1878–1960 Cyprus
1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate)
1918–1961 Kuwait
1920–1932 Mesopotamia8
1921–1946 Transjordan8
1923–1948 Palestine8
1945–1946 South Vietnam
1946–1963 North Borneo
1946–1963 Sarawak
1946–1963 Singapore
1946–1948 Malayan Union
1948–1957 Federation of Malaya
Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus)
Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles)
8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
[show]
Oceania
18th and 19th centuries 20th century
1788–1901 New South Wales
1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania
1807–1863 Auckland Islands9
1824–1980 New Hebrides
1824–1901 Queensland
1829–1901 Swan River/Western Australia
1836–1901 South Australia
since 1838 Pitcairn Islands
1841–1907 New Zealand
1851–1901 Victoria
1874–1970 Fiji10
1877–1976 Western Pacific Territories
1884–1949 Papua
1888–1901 Rarotonga/Cook Islands9
1889–1948 Union Islands9
1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11
1893–1978 Solomon Islands12
1900–1970 Tonga
1900–1974 Niue9
1901–1942 *Australia
1907–1953 *New Zealand
1919–1942 and 1945–1968 Nauru
1919–1949 New Guinea
1949–1975 Papua and New Guinea13
9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.
10. Suspended member.
11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.
12. Now the *Solomon Islands.
13. Now *Papua New Guinea.
[show]
Antarctica and South Atlantic
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15
1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)
1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)
14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
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LCCN: n85313484
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text:
New International Version
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"NIV" redirects here. For the ventilation process, see non-invasive ventilation.
New International Version
Cover of an NIV Bible
Full name
New International Version
Other names
Nueva Versión Internacional (Spanish); Nova Versão Internacional (Portuguese)
Abbreviation
NIV (Spanish: NVI) (Portuguese: NVI-PT)
OT published
1978
NT published
1973
Complete Bible
published
1978 (Spanish: 1999) (Portuguese: 1993)
Authorship
Biblica, (formerly International Bible Society)
Textual basis
NT: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. OT: Biblia Hebraica Masoretic Hebrew Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, Samaritan Pentateuch, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, Latin Vulgate, Syriac Peshitta, Aramaic Targums, for Psalms Juxta Hebraica of Jerome.
Translation type
Mixed formal & dynamic equivalence
Reading level
7.80[1]
Revision
1984, 2011
Publisher
Biblica (Worldwide), Zondervan (US), Hodder & Stoughton (UK) and others
Copyright
Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 Biblica [2]
Religious affiliation
Protestant
Website
http://www.biblica.com/bible/niv-bible/
show
Genesis 1:1–3
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. And God said, "Let there be light," and there was light.
Genesis 1:1 in other translations
show
John 3:16
For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16 in other translations
The New International Version (NIV) is an English translation of the Bible first published in 1978 by Biblica (formerly the International Bible Society). The NIV was published to meet the need for a modern translation done by Bible scholars using the earliest, highest quality manuscripts available. Of equal importance was that the Bible be expressed in broadly understood modern English.
A team of 15 biblical scholars, representing a variety of denominations, worked from the oldest copies of reliable texts, variously written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Each section was subjected to multiple translations and revisions, and those assessed in detail to produce the best option. Everyday Bible readers were used to provide feedback on ease of understanding and comprehensibility. Finally, plans were made to continue revision of the Bible as new discoveries were made and as changes in the use of the English language occurred.
The NIV is published by Zondervan in the United States and Hodder & Stoughton in the UK. The NIV was updated in 1984 and 2011,[3] and has become one of the most popular and best selling modern translations.[4]
Contents
1 History
1.1 2011 update
1.2 Derivative versions
1.2.1 Plain English version (NIrV)
1.2.2 Spanish version (NVI)
2 Textual basis
3 Translation methodology
4 Circulation
5 Reception
5.1 2011 revision
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Cover of a 1984 New International Version Bible
The NIV began in 1956 with the formation of a small committee to study the value of producing a translation in the common language of the American people.[5] The project was formally started after a meeting in 1965 at Trinity Christian College in Palos Heights, Illinois, of the Christian Reformed Church, National Association of Evangelicals, and a group of international scholars. The initial "Committee on Bible Translation" consisted of E. Leslie Carlson, Edmund Clowney, Ralph Earle, Jr., Burton L. Goddard, R. Laird Harris, Earl S. Kalland, Kenneth Kantzer, Robert H. Mounce, Charles F. Pfeiffer, Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Francis R. Steele, John H. Stek, J. C. Wenger, Stephen W. Paine, and Marten Woudstra. The New York Bible Society (now Biblica) was selected to do the translation. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978.
The NIV underwent a minor revision in 1984. In 1997 a new version was published in the UK as the New International Version Inclusive Language Edition, but was not published in the U.S. because of opposition from conservative evangelical groups there to inclusive language.[6]
A revised English edition titled Today's New International Version (TNIV) released a New Testament in March 2002, with the complete Bible published February 2005.[7]
2011 update[edit]
In 2011, an updated version of the NIV was released. The update modified and dropped some of the gender-neutral language of the TNIV (such as going back to using "mankind" and "man" instead of "human beings" and "people"), along with other changes.[8] Translational issues with Paul's letters were also addressed.[9][10] Keith Danby, president and chief executive officer of Biblica, speaking of the TNIV, said they had failed to convince people revisions were needed and underestimated readers' loyalty to the 1984 edition.[6]
Derivative versions[edit]
Plain English version (NIrV)[edit]
An 'easy-reader' version, New International Reader's Version (NIrV), was published in 1996; it was written at a third grade reading level.
Spanish version (NVI)[edit]
In 1979 it was decided to produce a version of the New Testament in Spanish with the title La Santa Biblia, Nueva Versión Internacional (often abbreviated NVI)[11] though at this point this version was based only on the former English translation of the historic manuscripts. In 1990 the committee on Bible translation headed by Drs. René Padilla and Luciano Jaramillo conducted a translation from the historic manuscripts directly into Spanish of both testaments, bypassing English altogether and producing a complete Spanish NVI Bible in 1999.
Textual basis[edit]
The manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. Other ancient texts consulted were the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targum, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome.[12] The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies and of Nestle-Aland.[13] The deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation.
Translation methodology[edit]
The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars using Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts whose goal was to produce a more modern English language text than the King James Version. The translation took ten years and involved a team of over 100 scholars.[14][15] from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The range of those participating included many different denominations such as Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Christian Reformed, Lutheran and Presbyterian.[16][verification needed]
The NIV is a balance between word-for-word and thought-for-thought or literal and phrase by phrase translations.[17]
Recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding passages that have traditionally been difficult to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained.[18]
In Genesis 2:19 a translation such as the NRSV uses "formed" in a plain past tense "So out of the ground the LORD God formed every animal...". Some have questioned the NIV choice of pluperfect "Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the wild animals..." to try to make it appear that the animals had already been created.[19] Theologian John Sailhamer states "Not only is such a translation ... hardly possible ... but it misses the very point of the narrative, namely, that the animals were created in response to God's declaration that it was not good that the man should be alone."[20]
Biblical scholar Bruce M. Metzger criticized the NIV 1984 edition[21] for the addition of just into Jeremiah 7:22 so the verse becomes "For when I brought your forefathers/ancestors out of Egypt and spoke to them, I did not just give them commands about burnt offerings and sacrifices." Metzger also criticized[21] the addition of your into Matthew 13:32, so it becomes "Though it (the mustard seed) is the smallest of all your seeds." The usage of your was removed in the TNIV and did not return in the 2011 revision.
Circulation[edit]
According to the Association for Christian Retail (CBA), the New International Version has become the most popular selling English translation of the Bible in CBA bookstores, having sold more than 450 million copies worldwide.[22]
There are numerous study Bibles available with extensive notes on the text and background information to make the Biblical stories more comprehensible. Among these are the NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible, Concordia Study Bible, the Zondervan published NIV Study Bible, the Wesleyan revision, Reflecting God Study Bible, as well as the Life Application Study Bible.
Reception[edit]
In 2009, the New Testament scholar N. T. Wright wrote that the NIV obscured what Paul the Apostle was saying, making sure that Paul's words conformed to Protestant and Evangelical tradition. Wright believes that due to paraphrasing and interpretation, Protestants and Evangelicals will never understand what Paul was talking about if they rely on the NIV. According to Wright, this happens in several of Paul's letters, including Galatians and Romans.[23]
2011 revision[edit]
Professor of New Testament Studies Daniel B. Wallace[24] has praised the 2011 update, stating: "it is a well-thought out translation, with checks and balances through rigorous testing, overlapping committees to ensure consistency and accuracy".[25] The Southern Baptist Convention rejected the 2011 update because of gender-neutral language,[26] although it had dropped some gender-neutral language of the 2005 revision.[8] Southern Baptist publisher LifeWay declined the SBC's censor request to remove the NIV from their stores.[27] While the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod[28] rejected its use, some in the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) believe many of the translations changes are right and defensible.[29] Si Cochran of World Magazine said the NIV 2011 is an "egalitarian" translation that "obscures the [meaning of] the text," concluding that he "cannot recommend this translation, and...actually encourage others to avoid it as a reading/study Bible."[30]
Professor of New Testament Studies, Rodney J. Decker wrote in Themelios Journal review of the NIV 2011 that,
By taking a mediating position between formal and functional equivalence (though tending, I think, closer to the formal end of the spectrum), the NIV has been able to produce a text that is clearer than many translations, especially those weighted more heavily with formal equivalence...If we are serious about making the word of God a vital tool in the lives of English-speaking Christians, then we must aim for a translation that communicates clearly in the language of the average English-speaking person. It is here that the NIV excels. It not only communicates the meaning of God’s revelation accurately, but does so in English that is easily understood by a wide range of English speakers. It is as well-suited for expository preaching as it is for public reading and use in Bible classes and children’s ministries."[31][32]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The New International Reader's Version: What, Who, and Why". International Society of Bible Collectors. Retrieved 2014-09-14.
Jump up ^ "New International Version :: Official Site". Retrieved 2014-09-14.
Jump up ^ "About The NIV, Version Information". BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2014-09-14.
Jump up ^ "August 2009 CBA Best Sellers" (PDF). Christian Booksellers Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-14. Retrieved 2014-09-14. New International Version #1 in dollar and unit sales
Jump up ^ Ronald F. Youngblood; Glen G. Scorgie; Mark L. Strauss; Steven M. Voth, eds. (2003). The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World. Zondervan. pp. 236–245. ISBN 0310246857. Retrieved 2014-09-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Update of popular 'NIV' Bible due in 2011". USA TODAY. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
Jump up ^ Phan, Katherine T. (March 13, 2011). "New NIV Bible to Debut Amid Ongoing Concern". The Christian Post. Retrieved September 5, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Smietana, Bob. "New Bible drops gender-neutral language of '05 version". About USATODAY.com. USA TODAY, a division of Gannett Co. Inc. Retrieved 2015-07-30. But they also made changes — like going back to using words like "mankind" and "man" instead of "human beings" and "people" — in order to appease critics.
Jump up ^ "Updated NIV Text Available for Online Viewing November 1". Zondervan. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
Jump up ^ World’s most popular Bible to be revised, MSN.com, 1 September 2009, retrieved 2011-02-19
Jump up ^ "Nueva Versión Internacional - Version Information - BibleGateway.com".
Jump up ^ Irwin, Ben (2002). History of the English Bible. Zondervan. p. 61.
Jump up ^ Barker, Kenneth L. (1991). The NIV The Making of a Contemporary Translation. International Bible Society. p. 54.
Jump up ^ "About the NIV".
Jump up ^ "History of the New International Version". About.com. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
Jump up ^ Irwin, Ben (2002). History of the English Bible. Zondervan. p. 60.
Jump up ^ "Bible Translation Chart" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-09.
Jump up ^ "Background of the New International Version (NIV) Bible". "Although archaeological and linguistic discoveries in this century aid in understanding difficult passages", "As for other proper nouns, the familiar spellings of the King James Version are generally retained" Paragraphs 14 & 17
Jump up ^ Mariottini, Claude F. (2013). Rereading the Biblical Text: Searching for Meaning and Understanding. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1620328279.
Jump up ^ Sailhamer, John H. The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0310364405.
^ Jump up to: a b Metzger, Bruce M. (2001). The Bible in Translation : Ancient and English Versions. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-8010-2282-1. Retrieved July 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ Menzie, Nicola (27 March 2013). "NIV remains the bestselling Bible translation". Christian Today. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Wright, N. T. (2009). Justification : God's Plan and Paul's Vision. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-0-8308-3863-9. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "DTS faculty". Retrieved 22 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Wallace, Dan. "A Review of the New International Version 2011". Retrieved 22 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Stephanie Samuel. "LifeWay Tells Critics of 2011 NIV Bible: 'Trust the Trustees'". Retrieved 2015-07-30.
Jump up ^ Marty King. "LifeWay to continue selling NIV; trustees select new leadership". Retrieved 2014-04-21.
Jump up ^ Audrey Barrick. "Lutherans Latest to Reject New NIV Bible Over Gender Language". Retrieved 2012-09-05.
Jump up ^ Kenneth A. Cherney, Jr. "Gender-Neutral Language, with Special Reference to NIV 2011" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-18. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "A fair analysis of the new NIV - Faith & Religion - WORLD". Retrieved 2018-07-24.
Jump up ^ http://tgc-documents.s3.amazonaws.com/themelios/36-3/Themelios36.3.pdf#page=73
Jump up ^ http://tgc-documents.s3.amazonaws.com/themelios/36-3/Themelios36.3.pdf#page=74
External links[edit]
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Mass flow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is about the flow of fluids in biological systems. For use of mass flow in physics see Fluid Dynamics. For bulk flow in physics see Advection. For protein transport in cell biology see Bulk movement.
Mass flow, also known as “mass transfer” and “bulk flow”, is the movement of fluids down a pressure or temperature gradient,[1] particularly in the life sciences. As such, mass flow is a subject of study in both fluid dynamics and biology. Examples of mass flow include blood circulation and transport of water in vascular plant tissues. Mass flow is not to be confused with diffusion which depends on concentration gradients within a medium rather than pressure gradients of the medium itself.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plant Biology
1.1 Xylem
1.2 Phloem
2 See also
3 References
Plant Biology[edit]
In general, bulk flow in plant biology typically refers to the movement of water from the soil up through the plant to the leaf tissue, but can also be applied to the transport of larger solutes (e.g. sucrose) through the phloem.
Xylem[edit]
According to cohesion-tension theory, water transport in xylem relies upon the cohesion of water molecules to each other and adhesion to the vessel's wall via hydrogen bonding combined with the high water pressure of the plant's substrate and low pressure of the extreme tissues (usually leaves).[2]
As in blood circulation in animals, (gas) embolisms may form within one or more xylem vessels of a plant. If an air bubble forms, the upward flow of xylem water will stop because the pressure difference in the vessel cannot be transmitted. Once these embolisms are nucleated[definition needed], the remaining water in the capillaries begins to turn to water vapor. When these bubbles form rapidly by cavitation, the "snapping" sound can be used to measure the rate of cavitation within the plant .[3] Plants[which?] do, however, have physiological mechanisms to reestablish the capillary action within their cells [clarification needed][citation needed].
Phloem[edit]
Solute flow is driven by a difference in hydraulic pressure created from the unloading of solutes in the sink tissues.[4] That is, as solutes are off-loaded into sink cells (by active or passive transport), the density of the phloem liquid decreases locally, creating a pressure gradient.
See also[edit]
Countercurrent exchange
Pounds Per Hour
Fluid Dynamics
Mass flow rate
Hemorheology
Flying and gliding animals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Moyes & Schulte (2008). Principles of Animal Physiology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. San Francisc, CA.
Jump up ^ Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo; Moller, Ian Max; Murphy, Angus (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 66. ISBN 978-1605353531.
Jump up ^ Pockman, W.T., Sperry, J.S., & O'Leary, J.W. 1995. Sustained and significant negative water pressure in xylem. 'Nature' 378: 715-716
Jump up ^ Lambers, Hans (2008). Plant Physiological Ecology. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-387-78341-3.
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