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Squad number (association football)
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Squad number, as depicted on the association football jersey of Tim Cahill.
Squad numbers are used in association football to identify and distinguish players that are on the field. Numbers were originally used to also indicate position, with starting players being assigned numbers 1–11, although these numbers often bear little or no significance in the modern game other than the players' favourite numbers and the numbers available. However, numbers 1–11 are often still worn by players of the previously associated position.[1]
As national leagues adopted squad numbers and game tactics evolved over the decades, numbering systems evolved separately in each football scene, and so different countries have different conventions. Still, there are some numbers that are universally agreed upon being used for a particular position, because they are quintessentially associated with that role.[1]
For instance, "1" is frequently used by the starting goalkeeper, as the goalkeeper is the first player in a line-up.[1] It is also the only position on the field that is required to be occupied. "10" is one of the most emblematic squad numbers in football, due to the sheer number of football legends that used the number 10 shirt; playmakers, second strikers and attacking midfielders usually wear this number.[1] "7" is often associated with effective and profitable wingers or second strikers.[1] "9" is usually worn by centre forwards or strikers, who hold the most advanced offensive positions on the pitch, and are often the highest scorers in the team.[1]
Cristiano Ronaldo displaying his squad number (7), as portrayed on his Portugal national team jersey.
Lionel Messi displaying his squad number (10), as portrayed on his FC Barcelona jersey.
Zlatan Ibrahimović displaying his squad number (9), as portrayed on his Manchester United jersey.
A particular squad number can be strongly attached to a certain player, leading to comparisons being drawn with anyone subsequently assigned that number at the same club. Some clubs have retired squad numbers as a way of honouring the player who last used it; usually a player who has made a significant contribution to the success of the club. This is normally done to mark the player in question's retirement or death.
Contents
[hide]
1 First use of numbers
2 In club football
2.1 Argentina
2.2 United Kingdom
2.3 France
2.4 Italy
2.5 Spain
2.6 U.S.-Canada
3 Goalkeeper numbering
4 Retired numbers
5 Unusual or notable numbers
5.1 Commemorative numbers
6 References
7 External links
First use of numbers[edit]
The first documented instance of numbers being used in association football was on 30 March 1924 when the Fall River Marksmen played St. Louis Vesper Buick during the 1923–24 National Challenge Cup.[2]
The first time numbers were used in association football in Europe was 25 August 1928 when Sheffield Wednesday played Arsenal[3] and Chelsea hosted Swansea Town at Stamford Bridge. Numbers were assigned by field location:
Goalkeeper
Right full back (right side centre back)
Left full back (left side centre back)
Right half back (right side defensive midfield)
Centre half back (centre defensive midfield)
Left half back (left side defensive midfield)
Outside right (right winger)
Inside right (attacking midfield)
Centre forward
Inside left (attacking midfield)
Outside left (left winger)
In the first game at Stamford Bridge, only the outfield players wore numbers (2–11). The Daily Express (p. 13, 27 August 1928) reported, "The 35,000 spectators were able to give credit for each bit of good work to the correct individual, because the team were numbered, and the large figures in black on white squares enabled each man to be identified without trouble." The Daily Mirror ("Numbered Jerseys A Success", p. 29, 27 August 1928) also covered the match: "I fancy the scheme has come to stay. All that was required was a lead and London has supplied it." When Chelsea toured Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil at the end of the season in the summer of 1929, they also wore numbered shirts, earning the nickname "Los Numerados" ("the numbered") from locals.
Early evolutions of formations involved moving specific positions; for example, moving the centre half back to become a defender rather than a half back. Their numbers went with them, hence central defenders wearing number 5, and remnants of the system remain to this day. For example, in friendly and championship qualifying matches England, when playing the 4–4–2 formation, generally number their players (using the standard right to left system of listing football teams) four defenders – 2, 5, 6, 3; four midfielders – 7, 4, 8, 11; two forwards – 10, 9. This system of numbering can also be adapted to a midfield diamond with the holding midfielder wearing 4 and the attacking central midfielder wearing 8. Similarly the Swedish national team number their players: four defenders – 2, 3, 4, 5; four midfielders – 7, 6, 8, 9; two forwards – 10, 11.
In Brazil, the 4–2–4 formation was developed independently from Europe, thus leading to a different numbering – here shown in the 4–3–3 formation to stress that in Brazil, number ten is midfield:
1 Goleiro (Goalkeeper)
2 Lateral Direito (right wingback)
3 Beque Central (centre back)
4 Quarto Zagueiro (the "fourth defender", almost the same as a centre back)
6 Lateral Esquerdo (left wingback)
5 Volante ("Rudder" or "mobile", the defensive midfielder)
8 Meia Direita (right midfielder)
10 Meia Esquerda (left midfielder, generally more offensive than the right one)
7 Ponta Direita (right winger)
9 Centro-Avante (centre forward)
11 Ponta Esquerda (left winger)
When in 4–2–4, number 10 passes to the Ponta de Lança (striker), and 4–4–2 formations get this configuration: four defenders – 2 (right wingback), 4, 3, 6 (left wingback); four midfielders – 5 (defensive), 8 ("second midfielder"), similar to a central midfielder), 7, 10 (attacking); two strikers – 9, 11
Evolution from 2–3–5 to 4–4–2
In England, in a now traditional 4–4–2 formation, the standard numbering is usually: 2 (right fullback), 5, 6, 3 (left fullback); 4 (defensive midfielder), 7 (right midfielder), 8 (central/attacking midfielder), 11 (left midfielder); 10 (second/support striker), 9 (striker). This came about based on the traditional 2–3–5 system. Where the 2 fullbacks retained the numbers 2, 3. Then of the halves, 4 was kept as the central defensive midfielder, while 5 and 6 were moved backward to be in the central of defence. 7 and 11 stayed as the wide attacking players, whilst 8 dropped back a little from inside forward to a (sometimes attacking) midfield role, and 10 stayed as a second striker in support of a number 9. The 4 is generally the holding midfielder, as through the formation evolution it was often used for the sweeper or libero position. This position defended behind the central defenders, but attacked in front – feeding the midfield. It is generally not used today, and developed into the holding midfielder role.
When substitutions were introduced to the game in 1965, the substitute typically took the number 12; when a second substitute was allowed, they wore 14. Players were not compelled to wear the number 13 if they were superstitious.
In Eastern Europe, the defence numbering is slightly different. The Hungarian national team under Gustav Sebes switched from a 2–3–5 formation to 3–2–5. So the defence numbers were 2 to 4 from right to left thus making the right back (2), centre back (3) and the left back (4). Since the concept of a flat back four the number (5) has become the other centre back.
In continental Western Europe this can generally be seen:
1 Goalkeeper
2 Right full back
4 Centre half back
5 Centre half back
3 Left full back
6 Defensive Midfielder
8 Central Midfielder
10 Attacking Midfielder
7 Right Winger
9 Striker
11 Left Winger
This changes from formation to formation, however the defensive number placement generally remain the same. The use of inverted wingers now sees traditional right wingers, the number 7's, like Cristiano Ronaldo, on the left, and traditional left wingers, the number 11's, like Gareth Bale, on the right.
In club football[edit]
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Argentina[edit]
Argentina developed its numeration system independently from the rest of the world. This was due to the fact that until the 1960s, Argentine football developed more or less isolated from the evolution brought by English, Italian and Hungarian coaches, owing to technological limitations at the time in communications and travelling with Europe, lack of information as to keeping up with news, lack of awareness and/or interest in the latest innovations, and strong nationalism promoted by the Asociación del Fútbol Argentino (for example, back then Argentines playing in Europe were banned from playing in the Argentine national team).
The first formation used in Argentine football was the 2–3–5 and, until the '60s, it was the sole formation employed by Argentine clubs and the Argentina national football team, with only very few exceptions like River Plate's La Máquina from the '40s that used 3–2–2–3. It wasn't until the mid '60s in the national team, with Argentina winning the Taça das Nações (1964) using 3–2–5, and the late '60s, for clubs, with Estudiantes winning the treble of the Copa Libertadores (1968, 1969, 1970) using 4–4–2, that Argentine football finally adopted modern formations on major scale, and caught up with its counterparts on the other side of the Atlantic.
While the original 2–3–5 formation used the same numbering system dictated by the English clubs in 1928, subsequent changes were developed independently.
The basic formation to understand the Argentine numeration system is the 4–3–3 formation, like the one used by the coach César Menotti that made Argentina win the 1978 World Cup, the squad numbers employed are:
1 Goalkeeper
4 Right Back [4]
2 First Centre Back / Sweeper
6 Second Centre Back / Stopper
3 Left Back[5]
8 Right Midfielder
5 Central Defensive Midfielder[6]
10 Left Midfielder
7 Right Winger
9 Centreforward
11 Left Winger
However, in a 4–3–1–2 like those used by the multichampion teams of Independiente in the 1980s and Boca Juniors in the 2000s, the use of an enganche (playmaker) and the re-accommodation of other roles changes the numbers:
1 Goalkeeper
4 Right Back
2 First Centre Back
6 Second Centre Back
3 Left Back
8 Right Midfielder
5 Central Defensive Midfielder
11 Left Midfielder
10 Playmaker
7 Second Striker
9 Centreforward
When using a 4–4–2 like that of the multichampion Estudiantes de La Plata of the 1960s or the Argentine national team that became runners-up in the 2014 World Cup, the numbers are the same as in 4–3–3, except that the box-to-box midfielder may have any number. In Argentina, the role is called doble 5 so there isn't any fixed convention as to which number it has. Also, due to the use of just two strikers, the number 11 may not be used at all. So, the numbers are:
1 Goalkeeper
4 Right Back
2 First Centre Back / Sweeper
6 Second Centre Back / Stopper
3 Left Back
8 Right Midfielder
5 Central Defensive Midfielder
# Box-to-box Midfielder (may have any number)
10 Left Midfielder
7 Second Striker
9 Centreforward
Then there is the 4–2–3–1 formation, ubiquitous at world-level in the 2010s, and employed in Argentina by the national team nicknamed Los 4 Fantásticos that finished first in CONMEBOL 2014 World Cup qualifying, attacking with the forwards Sergio Agüero, Lionel Messi, Ángel Di María and Gonzalo Higuaín. The numbers used are:
1 Goalkeeper
4 Right Back
2 First Centre Back
6 Second Centre Back
3 Left Back
8 Midfielder
5 Central Defensive Midfielder
7 Right Winger
10 Playmaker
11 Left Winger
9 Centreforward
Meanwhile, the 3–5–2 formation, famously used by the coach Carlos Bilardo to make Argentina win the 1986 World Cup and become runners-up in the 1990 World Cup, and one of the last major changes in the history of football formations, changes drastically the use of numbers, due to major movements in roles and positions:
1 Goalkeeper
2 Sweeper
4 Right Stopper
6 Left Stopper
8 Right Wing-Back
7 Right Central Midfielder
5 Central Defensive Midfielder
11 Left Central Midfielder
3 Left Wing-Back
10 Playmaker / Second Striker
9 Centreforward
And, last, the 3–3–3–1, used by the coach Marcelo Bielsa to help Argentina finish first in the CONMEBOL's 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, become runners-up in the 2004 Copa América and win the gold medal in the 2004 Olympics. It was also employed by the Argentine under-20 team that won the 2015 South American Youth Football Championship. 3–3–3–1 uses mixtures from many of the aforementioned formations:
1 Goalkeeper
2 Sweeper
4 Right Stopper
6 Left Stopper
8 Right Wing-Back
5 Central Defensive Midfielder
3 Left Wing-Back
7 Right Winger
10 Playmaker
11 Left Winger
9 Centreforward
United Kingdom[edit]
In 1993, The Football Association (The FA) switched to persistent squad numbers, abandoning the mandatory use of 1–11 for the starting line-up. The first league event to feature this was the 1993 Football League Cup Final between Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday,[citation needed] and it became standard in the FA Premier League the following season, along with names printed above the numbers.
Squad numbers became optional in the three divisions of The Football League at the same time, but only 10 out of 70 clubs utilized them. One of those clubs, Brighton & Hove Albion, issued 25 players with squad numbers but reverted to traditional 1–11 numbering halfway through the season.[7] In the Premier League, Arsenal temporarily reverted to the old system halfway through that same season, but reverted to the new numbering system for the following campaign.
Most European top leagues adopted the system during the 1990s.
The Football League made squad numbers compulsory for the 1999–2000 season, and the Football Conference followed suit for the 2002–03 season.
The traditional 1–11 numbers have been worn on occasions by English clubs since their respective leagues introduced squad numbers. Premier League clubs often used the traditional squad numbering system when competing in domestic or European cups, often when their opponents still made use of the traditional squad numbering system. This included Manchester United's Premier League clash with Manchester City at Old Trafford on 10 February 2008, when 1950s style kits were worn as part of the Munich air disaster's 50th anniversary commemorations.
Charlton Athletic were among the ten Football League clubs who chose to adopt squad numbers for the 1993–94 season (with squad numbers assigned to players in alphabetical order according to their surname), before reverting to 1–11 shirt numbering a year later.[8]
Players may now wear any number (as long as it is unique within their squad) between 1 and 99. To date, the highest number worn by a player in the Premier League is 78, by Manchester City's José Ángel Pozo against Sunderland on 3 December 2014.[citation needed]
Bigger teams have a tendency to field reserve and fringe players in the English Football League Cup so high squad numbers are not uncommon. Nico Yennaris wore 64 for Arsenal in the competition on 26 September 2012 in a match against Coventry City[9] and on 24 September 2014, again in the League Cup, Manchester City forward José Ángel Pozo wore the number 78 shirt in a match against Sheffield Wednesday.[10]
In The Football League, the number 55 has been worn by Ade Akinbiyi, for Crystal Palace,[11] and Dominik Werling, for Barnsley,[12]
When Sunderland signed Cameroonian striker Patrick Mboma on loan in 2002, he wanted the number 70 to symbolize his birth year of 1970. The Premier League refused, however, and he wore the number 7 instead.[13]
Players are not generally allowed to change their number during a season, although a player may change number if he changes clubs mid-season. Players may change squad numbers between seasons. Occasionally, when a player has two loan spells at the same club in a single season (or returns as a permanent signing after an earlier loan spell), an alternative squad number is needed if the original number assigned during the player's first loan spell has been reassigned by the time the player returns.
A move from a high number to a low one may be an indication that the player is likely to be a regular starter for the coming season. An example of this is Celtic's Scott McDonald, who, after the departure of former number 7 Maciej Żurawski, was given the number, a move down from 27.[14] Another example is Steven Gerrard, who wore number 28 (which was his academy number) during his debut 1998–99 season, then switched to number 17 in 2000–01. In 2004–05, after Emile Heskey left Liverpool, Gerrard then changed his number again to 8. More recently, Tottenham Hotspur striker Harry Kane changed his number 37 shirt from the 2013–14 season to 18 for the 2014–15 season when he became one of the club's first-choice strikers after Jermain Defoe was sold and the number 18 was vacated. Kane then switched to the number 10 for the 2015-16 season after Emmanuel Adebayor left the club and the number was vacated. Manchester City's Sergio Agüero also did a similar switch in jersey number, from number 16 in 2014–15 to number 10 in 2015–16, a number he took over from Edin Džeko following his loan departure to Roma.
Some players keep the number they start their career at a club with, such as Chelsea defender John Terry, who has worn the number 26 from when he became part of the first-team squad. On occasion, players have moved numbers to accommodate a new player; for example, Chelsea midfielder Yossi Benayoun handed new signing Juan Mata the number 10 shirt, and changed to the number 30, which doubles his "lucky" number 15.[15] Upon signing for Everton in 2007, Yakubu refused the prestigious number 9 shirt and asked to be assigned number 22, setting this number as a goal-scoring target for his first season,[16] a feat he ultimately fell one goal short of achieving.
In a traditional 4–4–2 system in the UK, the squad numbers 1–11 would usually have been occupied in this manner:
1 Goalkeeper
2 Right back
3 Left back
4 Central midfielder (more defensive)
5 Centre back
6 Centre back
7 Right winger
8 Central midfielder (more attacking)
9 Centre forward (usually a target player)
10 Striker (usually a fast poacher)
11 Left winger
However, in a more modern 4–2–3–1 system, they will be arranged like this:
1 Goalkeeper
2 Right back
3 Left back
4 Central midfielder (more defensive)
5 Centre back
6 Centre back
7 Right winger
8 Central midfielder (box-to-box)
9 Striker
10 Central midfielder (more attacking)
11 Left winger
France[edit]
In France, players must be registered between numbers 1-30, with 1, 16 and 30 reserved for goalkeepers and 33 left empty for extra signings. In case a fourth goalkeeper has to be registered, he wears number 40.[17]
Italy[edit]
In 1995, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) also switched to persistent squad numbers for Serie A and Serie B (second division), abandoning the mandatory use of 1–11 for the starting lineup. After some years during which players had to wear a number between 1–24, now they can wear any number between 1–99 without restrictions. Notably, Chievo Verona had the goalkeeper Cristiano Lupatelli wearing number 10 from 2001 to 2003[18] and midfielder Jonathan De Guzman wearing number 1 in 2016.[19]
Spain[edit]
In the Spanish La Liga, players in the A-squad (maximum 25 players, including a maximum of three goalkeepers) must wear a number between 1–25. Goalkeepers must wear either 1, 13 or 25. When players from the reserve team are selected to play for the first team, they are given squad numbers between 26 and 50.
U.S.-Canada[edit]
North American professional club soccer follows a model similar to that of European clubs, with the exception that many American and Canadian clubs do not have "reserve squads", and thus do not assign higher numbers to those players.
Most American and Canadian clubs have players numbered from 1 to 30, with higher numbers being reserved for second and third goalkeepers. In the United Soccer Leagues First Division and Major League Soccer (MLS), there were only 20 outfield players wearing squad numbers higher than 30 on the first team in the 2009 season, suggesting that the traditional model has been followed.
In 2007, MLS club LA Galaxy retired the former playing number of Cobi Jones, number 13, becoming the first MLS team to do so.
In 2011, MLS club Real Salt Lake retired the former playing number of coach Jason Kreis, number 9.[20]
Goalkeeper numbering[edit]
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Hope Solo displaying her squad number (1), as portrayed on her US national team jersey.
The first-choice goalkeeper is usually assigned the number 1 shirt as he or she is the first player in a line-up.[1].
The second-choice goalkeeper wears, on many occasions, shirt number 12 which is the first shirt of the second line up, or number 13. In the past, when it was permitted to assign five substitute players in a match, the goalkeeper would also often wear the number 16, the last shirt number in the squad. Later on, when association football laws changed and it was permitted to assign seven substitute players, second-choice goalkeepers often wore the number 18. In the A-League, second-choice goalkeepers mostly wear number 20, based on that competition have a 20-man regulated "first team" squad size.
In international tournaments (such as FIFA World Cup or continental cups) each team must list a squad of 23 players, wearing shirts numbered 1 through 23. Thus, in this case, third-choice goalkeepers often wear the number 23. Prior to the 2002 FIFA World Cup, only 22 players were permitted in international squads; therefore, the third goalkeeper was often awarded the number 22 jersey in previous tournaments.
The move to a fixed number being assigned to each player in a squad was initiated for the 1954 World Cup where each man in a country's 22-man squad wore a specific number for the duration of the tournament. As a result, the numbers 12 to 22 were assigned to different squad players, with no resemblance to their on-field positions. This meant that a team could start a match not necessarily fielding players wearing numbers one to eleven. Although the numbers one to eleven tended to be given to those players deemed to be the "first choice line-up", this was not always the case for a variety of reasons – a famous example was Johan Cruyff, who insisted on wearing the number 14 shirt for the Netherlands.
In the 1958 World Cup, the Brazilian Football Confederation forgot to send the player numbers list to the event organization. However, the Uruguayan official Lorenzo Villizzio assigned random numbers to the players. The goalkeeper Gilmar received the number 3, and Garrincha and Zagallo wore opposite winger numbers, 11 and 7, while Pelé was randomly given the number 10, for which he would become famous.[21][22]
Argentina defied convention by numbering their squads for the 1974, 1978, and 1982 World Cups alphabetically, resulting in outfield players (not goalkeepers) wearing the number 1 shirt (although Diego Maradona was given an out-of-sequence number 10 in 1982).[23] England used a similar alphabetical scheme for the 1982 World Cup, but retained the traditional numbers for the goalkeepers (1, 13 and 22) and the team captain (7), Kevin Keegan.[24] In the 1990 World Cup, Scotland assigned squad numbers according to the number of international matches each player had played at the time (with the exception of goalkeeper Jim Leighton, who was assigned an out-of-sequence number 1): Alex McLeish, who was the most capped player, wore number 2, whereas Robert Fleck and Bryan Gunn, who only had one cap each, wore numbers 21 and 22, respectively. In a practice that ended after the 1998 World Cup, Italy gave low squad numbers to defenders, medium to midfielders, and high ones to forwards, while numbers 1, 12 and 22 were assigned to goalkeepers.[25][26] On July 2007, a FIFA document issuing regulations for the 2010 World Cup finally stated that the number 1 jersey must be issued to a goalkeeper.[27]
Before the 2002 World Cup, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) attempted to retire the number 10 in honour of Maradona by submitting a squad list of 23 players for the tournament, listed 1 through 24, with the number 10 omitted. FIFA rejected Argentina's plan, with the governing body's president Sepp Blatter suggesting the number 10 shirt be instead given to the team's third-choice goalkeeper, Roberto Bonano. The AFA ultimately submitted a revised list with Ariel Ortega, originally listed as number 23, as the number 10.[28]
Retired numbers[edit]
Main article: Retired numbers in association football
Unusual or notable numbers[edit]
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Goalkeeper Jan Jongbloed unusually wore the number 8 jersey for Netherlands at the 1974 and 1978 World Cups. He was assigned the number in 1974 when the Netherlands took an alphabetical approach to its squad numbering (striker Ruud Geels was assigned the number 1). In 1978, although this alphabetical approach was not used, many of the squad retained their 1974 numbers (goalkeeper Piet Schrijvers wore number 1).
From 1974 to 1986, the Argentine national team's numbers for World Cups were mostly assigned alphabetically, leading to unusual numbers being assigned for goalkeepers Ubaldo Fillol (number 5 in 1978 and 7 in 1982), Héctor Baley (number 3 in 1978 and 2 in 1982) and Enrique Vidallé (number 3 in 1979), with number 1 being assigned to offensive players: Norberto Alonso in 1978, Osvaldo Ardiles in 1982 and Sergio Almirón in 1986.
Hicham Zerouali was allowed to wear the number 0 for Scottish Premier League club Aberdeen after the fans nicknamed him "Zero".[29]
Outfield players have occasionally worn the number 1 for their clubs, including Pantelis Kafes for Olympiacos and AEK Athens, Charlton Athletic's Stuart Balmer in the 1990s,[30] Sliema Wanderers' David Carabott in 2005–06, Partizan's Simon Vukčević in 2004–05[citation needed], Beşiktaş's Daniel Pancu in 2005–06, Atlético Mineiro's Diego Souza in 2010 and Barnet player-manager Edgar Davids in 2013–14.[31]
In 2001, Colombian Freddy Rincón wore number 35 for Santos.[32]
Also in 2001, Argentinian Sergio Vargas wore number 188 for Universidad de Chile, as part of a comercial agreement with telecommunications brand Telefónica CTC Chile.[33] However, the number was not allowed in international competitions, in which Vargas was forced to wear number 1.[34]
In 2004, Porto goalkeeper Vítor Baía became the first player to wear 99 in the final of a major European competition, the UEFA Champions League.[35]
During the 1990s and early 2000s, number 58 was somewhat common among players based in or native to western Mexico, especially the city of Guadalajara. It started as a publicity stunt by radio station XEAV-AM (580 AM), branded as Canal 58.[36] Some notable players to use number 58 were Jared Borgetti, Juan Pablo Rodríguez, Hugo Norberto Castillo, Darío Franco, Carlos María Morales, Osmar Donizete, and Benjamín Galindo.
Adolfo Bautista, when playing for Guadalajara, wore number 100 under special dispensation from the Mexican Football Federation (he wore 1 in CONCACAF competitions and 7 during the 2005 Copa Libertadores campaign). Later, when he was traded to Chiapas, he received jersey number 1.
Argentine goalkeeper Federico Vilar has used number 3 for most of his career in the Liga MX.
Chilean striker Marco Olea wore number 111 for Universidad de Chile during the 2005 season. Originally wearing number 11, he decided to give his number to Marcelo Salas upon his arrival to the club.[37]
Parma goalkeeper Luca Bucci wore the numbers 7 (2005–06) and 5 (2006–07 and 2007–08).[38]
From 2007 to his retirement in 2015, goalkeeper Rogério Ceni of São Paulo wore the double-digit "01" shirt for his club.
Iván Zamorano wore number "1+8", or number 18 with a plus symbol between the two digits, for Internazionale from 1997 to 2000, after his number 9 was given to Ronaldo.[39]
Juan Pablo Sorín was allowed to use the number "1+2" for Villarreal because the number 3 was taken. This was only used rarely.[citation needed]
Derek Riordan was given squad number 01 by Hibernian in the 2008–09 season. Number 10 had already been taken by Colin Nish, and none of the club's goalkeepers had been allocated number 1.[40]
In 2008, Milan's three new signings each chose a number indicating the year of his birth: 76 (Andriy Shevchenko, born 1976), 80 (Ronaldinho, born 1980) and 84 (Mathieu Flamini, born 1984).[41]
The Asian Football Confederation (AFC) requires players to keep the same squad numbers throughout the preliminary rounds for the AFC Asian Cup,[42] resulting in players with squad numbers of 100 or higher, including 121 worn by Thomas Oar of Australia in a 2011 AFC Asian Cup qualification match against Indonesia.[43]
During the 2012–13 Liga MX season, Víctor Perales and Luis Ángel Morales of Guadalajara wore numbers 143 and 163, respectively.
At the beginning of the 2013–14 season, Barnet midfielder and player-manager Edgar Davids allocated himself the number 1 shirt, announcing he intended to "set a trend".
Gary Hooper wore shirt number 88 at Celtic as his number 10 was already taken and 88 is the year he was born in. "88" (1888) is also the year Celtic was founded.[44]. The season after Hooper signed, new signing Victor Wanyama chose the number 67 to honour the Lisbon Lions, Celtic's European Cup winning team of 1967.
Goalkeeper Joe Wildsmith wore the number 2 shirt for Sheffield Wednesday during the 2016–17 season, while midfielder David Jones, forward Steven Fletcher midfielder Adam Reach wore numbers 3, 6 and 9 respectively.
Mexican goalkeeper Guillermo Ochoa wears the number 8 shirt for Standard Liège.[45] His last name (Ochoa) is similar to the Spanish word for "8" (ocho).
Commemorative numbers[edit]
Steven Gerrard of Liverpool wearing 08 in the Merseyside derby in March 2006, to commemorate the City of Liverpool becoming the 2008 European Capital of Culture.
Jesús Arellano, when playing for Club de Futbol Monterrey, wore the number 400 in 1996 to celebrate the city's 400th anniversary.[46]
Brazilian Goiás goalkeeper Harlei wore number 400 in a match in 2006, to celebrate his 400th match for the team.[47]
Brazilian Santos goalkeeper Fábio Costa wore number 300 in a match in 2008 to celebrate his 300th match for the team.[48]
Andreas Herzog wore the number 100 on his 100th match for the Austrian national team, a friendly against Norway, as he was the first Austrian player to have 100 caps.[49]
James Beattie and Steven Gerrard both wore 08 instead of their usual 8 in the Merseyside derby on 25 March 2006, to commemorate the City of Liverpool becoming the European Capital of Culture in 2008.[50]
Tugay Kerimoğlu wore the number 94 on his 94th and final cap for Turkey against Brazil in 2007.[51]
Rubén Sosa wore number 100 for the 100th Anniversary of Nacional on 14 May 1999.[52]
The same 1999 year, Pablo Bengoechea wore number 108 for the 108th Anniversary of Peñarol.[53]
During his record-breaking 618th game for São Paulo, Rogério Ceni wore number 618, the highest number ever worn in professional football until 2015.[39]
During his last match, number 100, for the Danish national team, Martin Jørgensen wore shirt number 100.[54]
During his record-breaking 100th cap for South Africa, Aaron Mokoena wore shirt number 100.[55]
In 2011, Vasco da Gama's heroes Felipe and Juninho Pernambucano wore the number 300—in different matches—to celebrate their 300th matches for the club.[56][57]
Vasco captain Juninho also wore the 114 shirt against Clássico dos Gigantes rivals Fluminense for the 114th anniversary of the club in 2012.[58]
Goalkeeper Victor of Atlético Mineiro wore the 2019 shirt in July 2015 celebrating his contract renewal until 2019.[59]
Colombian playmaker Giovanni Hernández playing for Junior F.C. at the time, wore the number 800 in 2012 to commemorate his 800th cap as a professional footballer against Independiente Medellín. He scored the only goal in a 1-0 win.
Brazilian and now Paris Saint-Germain star Neymar wore the number 200 for Santos to celebrate his 200th match for the team.
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
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Real estate broker
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the North American practice. For other definitions and practices in other countries, see Real estate. For real property, see Real property.
"Realtor" redirects here. For the trade associations that refer to its members as "Realtors", see National Association of Realtors and Canadian Real Estate Association.
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A real estate broker or real estate salesperson (often called a real estate agent) is a person who acts as an intermediary between sellers and buyers of real estate/real property and attempts to match up sellers who wish to sell and buyers who wish to buy.
In the United States, the relationship was originally established by reference to the English common law of agency, with the broker having a fiduciary relationship with his or her clients. A real estate broker typically receives a payment called a commission for successfully matching a seller's real estate with a buyer such that a sale can be made. This commission can be divided up with other participating real estate brokers or agents when applicable.
An estate agent, which is a term used in the United Kingdom, is a person or business entity whose business is to market real estate on behalf of clients. There are significant differences between the actions, powers, obligations, and liabilities of brokers and estate agents in each country. Other countries take markedly different approaches to the marketing and selling of real property.
In the United States, however, real estate brokers and their salespersons who assist owners in marketing, selling, or leasing properties are commonly called "listing brokers" and "listing agents." [1] Listing brokers and agents seek to market and sell or lease property for the highest available price under the best available terms.
Other brokers and agents may focus on representing buyers or tenants. However, licensing as a broker or salesperson authorizes the licensee to represent parties on either side of a transaction. The choice of which side to represent is a business decision for the licensee.
In the U.S., real estate brokers and salespersons are licensed by each state, not by the federal government. Each state has its own laws defining the types of relationships that can exist between clients and real estate licensees, and the duties of real estate licensees to clients and members of the public. These rules differ substantially from state to state, for example, on subjects that include required documentation, agency relationships, inspections, disclosures, continuing education, and other subjects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Buyer's agent
2 Written Agreement
3 Dual agent
4 Licensing
5 The difference between salespersons and brokers
5.1 Real estate education
5.2 Real estate salesperson (or, in some states, Real estate broker)
5.3 Real estate broker (or, in some states, qualifying broker)
6 Agency relationships with clients versus non-agency relationships with customers
6.1 Transaction brokers
6.2 Designated agency
6.3 Dual or limited agency
7 Types of services that a broker can provide
8 Real estate brokers and sellers
8.1 Services provided to seller as client
8.2 The listing contract
8.3 Brokerage commissions
8.3.1 RESPA
8.3.2 Lock-box
8.4 Shared commissions with co-op brokers
9 Real estate brokers and buyers
9.1 Services provided to buyers
9.1.1 Buyers as clients
9.1.2 Buyers as customers
10 Education
11 Organizations
12 Changing industry
13 See also
14 References
Buyer's agent[edit]
When acting as a buyer's agent, brokers and salespersons assist buyers by helping them purchase property for the lowest available price under the best terms. The real estate broker owes fiduciary duties to whomever that broker services as a client. The broker must ensure to negotiate in the best interest of the client, and at all times keep the client (buyer) aware of any new information that can help make a solid decision.
Written Agreement[edit]
It is important to have a clear agreement between the broker and the client, for the protection of both of them. These agreements should (and in many U.S. states must) be in writing. If the parties only have an oral agreement, it is more likely for a dispute to arise concerning the services the broker or agent is supposed to provide, whether the broker can enforce the parties' compensation agreement, the duration of the relationship, whether the relationship is "exclusive," and other issues. Enforceability of oral agreements, what kinds of agreements are required to be in writing, and other important issues vary from state to state.
Dual agent[edit]
If the broker is helping both the buyer and the seller, this is referred to as a "dual agency". Traditionally, the broker represents the seller, and his fiduciary duty is to the seller. If the broker suggests to the buyer that he will help the buyer negotiate the best price, the broker is practicing "undisclosed dual agency," which is unethical and illegal in all states.[2] Under a dual agency transaction, it is vital that the broker discloses to both parties whom he represents as a client and whom he represents as a customer. A real estate broker owes his client fiduciary duties, which include care, confidentiality, loyalty, obedience, accounting, and disclosure. To protect his license to practice, a real estate broker owes his customer fair and honest dealing and must request that both parties (seller and buyer) sign a dual agency agreement.
Licensing[edit]
In most jurisdictions in the United States, a person must have a license before they may receive remuneration for services rendered as a real estate broker. Unlicensed activity is illegal, but buyers and sellers acting as principals in the sale or purchase of real estate are usually not required to be licensed. In some states, lawyers are authorized to handle real estate sales for compensation without being licensed as brokers or agents.[citation needed]
The difference between salespersons and brokers[edit]
Before the Multiple Listing Service (MLS) was introduced in 1967, when brokers (and their licensees) only represented sellers, the term "real estate salesperson" may have been more appropriate than it is today, given the various ways that brokers and licensees now help buyers through the process rather than merely "selling" them a property. Legally, however, the term "salesperson" is still used in many states to describe a real estate licensee.
Real estate education[edit]
To become licensed, most states require that an applicant take a minimum number of classroom hours before taking the state licensing exam. Such education is often provided by real estate firms or by education companies, either of which is typically licensed to teach such courses within their respective states. The courses are designed to prepare the new licensee primarily for the legal aspects of the practice of real estate and to pass the state licensing exam.
Once licensed, the licensee in most states is initially designated a salesperson and must work under a broker's license. Some other states have recently eliminated the salesperson's license and instead, all licensees in those states automatically earn their broker's license.
A salesperson must place their license under a managing broker. Typically there may be multiple licensees holding broker's licenses within a firm but only one broker or the firm itself, is the managing or principal broker and that individual or firm is then legally responsible for all licenses held under their license.
The term agent is not to be confused with salesperson or broker. An agent is simply a licensee that has entered into an agency relationship with a client. A broker can also be an agent for a client. It is commonly the firm that has the actual legal relationship with the client through one of their sales staff, be they salespersons or brokers.
In all states, the real estate licensee must disclose to prospective buyers and sellers the nature of their relationship [3] within the transaction and with the parties. See below for a broker/licensee relationship to sellers and their relationship with buyers.
In the United States, there are commonly two levels of real estate professionals licensed by the individual states but not by the federal government:
Real estate salesperson (or, in some states, Real estate broker)[edit]
When a person first becomes licensed to become a real estate agent, they obtain a real estate salesperson's license (some states use the term "broker") from the state in which s/he will practice. To obtain a real estate license, the candidate must take specific coursework (between 40 and 120 hours) and pass a state exam on real estate law and practice. To work, salespersons must be associated with (and act under the authority of) a real estate broker. In Delaware, for example, the licensing course requires the candidate to take 99 classroom hours in order to qualify to sit for the state and national examination. In Ohio, a license candidate must complete 120 hours of classroom education. Each successive year thereafter, the license holder must participate in continuing education in order to remain abreast of state and national changes.
Many states also have reciprocal agreements with other states, allowing a licensed individual from a qualified state to take the second state's exam without completing the course requirements or, in some cases, take only a state law exam.
Real estate broker (or, in some states, qualifying broker)[edit]
After gaining some years of experience in real estate sales, a salesperson may decide to become licensed as a real estate broker (or Principal/qualifying broker) in order to own, manage, or operate their own brokerage. In addition, some states allow college graduates to apply for a broker's license without years of experience. College graduates fall into this category once they have completed the state-required courses as well. California allows licensed attorneys to become brokers upon passing the broker exam without having to take the requisite courses required of an agent. Commonly more coursework and a broker's state exam on real estate law must be passed. Upon obtaining a broker's license, a real estate agent may continue to work for another broker in a similar capacity as before (often referred to as a broker associate or associate broker) or take charge of his/her own brokerage and hire other salespersons (or broker), licensees. Becoming a branch office manager may or may not require a broker's license. Some states allow licensed attorneys to become real estate brokers without taking any exam. In some states, there are no "salespeople" as all licensees are brokers.[4]
Agency relationships with clients versus non-agency relationships with customers[edit]
Relationship: Conventionally, the broker provides a conventional full-service, commission-based brokerage relationship under a signed listing agreement with a seller or a "buyer representation" agreement with a buyer, thus creating under common law in most states an agency relationship with fiduciary obligations. The seller or buyer is then a client of the broker. Some states also have statutes that define and control the nature of the representation.
Agency relationships in residential real estate transactions involve the legal representation by a real estate broker (on behalf of a real estate company) of the principal, whether that person(s) is a buyer or a seller. The broker and his licensed real estate salespersons (salesmen or brokers) then become the agents of the principal.
Non-agency relationship: where no written agreement or fiduciary relationship exists, a real estate broker and his sales staff work with a principal who is known as the broker's customer. When a buyer who has not entered into a Buyer Agency agreement with the broker buys a property, that broker functions as the sub-agent of the seller's broker. When a seller chooses to work with a transaction broker, there is no agency relationship created.
Transaction brokers[edit]
Some state Real Estate Commissions - notably Florida's[5] after 1992 (and extended in 2003) and Colorado's[6] after 1994 (with changes in 2003) - created the option of having no agency or fiduciary relationship between brokers and sellers or buyers. Having no more than a facilitator relationship, transaction brokers assist buyers, sellers, or both during the transaction without representing the interests of either party who may then be regarded as customers.
As noted by the South Broward Board of Realtors, Inc. in a letter to State of Florida legislative committees:
"The Transaction Broker crafts a transaction by bringing a willing buyer and a willing seller together and assists with the closing of details. The Transaction Broker is not a fiduciary of any party, but must abide by the law as well as professional and ethical standards." (such as NAR Code of Ethics).
The result was that in 2003, Florida created a system where the default brokerage relationship had "all licensees ... operating as transaction brokers, unless a single agent or no brokerage relationship is established, in writing, with the customer"[7][8] and the statute required written disclosure of the transaction brokerage relationship to the buyer or seller customer only through July 1, 2008.
In the case of both Florida[8] and Colorado,[6] dual agency and sub-agency (where both listing and selling agents represent the seller) no longer exist.
Designated agency[edit]
The most recent development in the practice of real estate is "designated agency"[9] which was created to permit individual licensees within the same firm, designated by the principal broker, to act as agents for individual buyers and sellers within the same transaction. In theory, therefore, two agents within the same firm act in strict fiduciary roles for their respective clients. Some states have adopted this practice into their state laws and others have decided this function is inherently problematic, just as was a dual agency. The practice was invented and promoted by larger firms to make it possible in theory to handle the entire transaction in the house without creating a conflict of interest within the firm.
Dual or limited agency[edit]
Dual agency occurs when the same brokerage represents both the seller and the buyer under written agreements. Individual state laws vary and interpret dual agency rather differently.
Many states no longer allow dual agency. Instead, "transaction brokerage" provides the buyer and seller with a limited form of representation but without any fiduciary obligations (see Florida law). Buyers and sellers are generally advised to consult a licensed real estate professional for a written definition of an individual state's laws of agency, and many states require written Disclosures to be signed by all parties outlining the duties and obligations.
If state law allows for the same agent to represent both the buyer and the seller in a single transaction, the brokerage/agent is typically considered to be a Dual Agent. Special laws/rules often apply to dual agents, especially in negotiating price.
In some states, Dual Agency can be practiced in situations where the same brokerage (but not agent) represent both the buyer and the seller. If one agent from the brokerage has a home listed and another agent from that brokerage has a buyer-brokerage agreement with a buyer who wishes to buy the listed property, Dual Agency occurs by allowing each agent to be designated as an "intra-company" agent. Only the broker himself is the Dual Agent.
Some states do allow a broker and one agent to represent both sides of the transaction as dual agents. In those situations, conflict of interest is more likely to occur, typically resulting in the loss of advocacy for both parties.
Types of services that a broker can provide[edit]
Real Estate Services are also called trading services [10] by some jurisdictions. Since each province's and state's laws may differ, it is generally advised that prospective sellers or buyers consult a licensed real estate professional.
Some examples:
Comparative Market Analysis (CMA) — an estimate of the home's value compared with others. This differs from an appraisal in that property currently for sale may be taken into consideration. (competition for the subject property)
Total Market Overview — an objective method for determining a home's value, where a CMA is subjective.
Broker's Price Opinion — estimate of a property's value or potential selling price
Real estate appraisal — in most states, only if the broker is also licensed as an appraiser.
Exposure — Marketing the real property to prospective buyers.
Facilitating a Purchase — guiding a buyer through the process.
Facilitating a Sale — guiding a seller through the selling process.
FSBO document preparation — preparing necessary paperwork for "For Sale By Owner" sellers.
Home Selling Kits — guides advising how to market and sell a property.
Hourly Consulting for a fee, based on the client's needs.
Leasing for a fee or percentage of the gross lease value.
Property Management
Exchanging property.
Auctioning property.
Preparing contracts and leases. (not in all states)
These services are also changing as a variety of real estate trends transform the industry.
Real estate brokers and sellers[edit]
Services provided to seller as client[edit]
Upon signing a listing contract with the seller wishing to sell the real estate, the brokerage attempts to earn a commission by finding a buyer for the sellers' property for the highest possible price on the best terms for the seller. In Canada, most provinces' laws require the real estate agent to forward all written offers to the seller for consideration or review.
To help accomplish the goal of finding buyers, a real estate agency commonly does the following:[citation needed]
Lists the property for sale to the public, often on an MLS, in addition to any other methods.
Provides the seller with a real property condition disclosure (if required by law) and other necessary forms.
Prepares necessary papers describing the property for advertising, pamphlets, open houses, etc.
Places a "For Sale" sign on the property indicating how to contact the real estate office and agent.
advertises the property, which may include social media and digital marketing in addition to paper advertising.
Holds an open house to show the property.
Serves as a contact available to answer any questions about the property and schedule showing appointments.
Ensures that buyers are pre-screened and financially qualified to buy the property. (Sellers should be aware that the underwriter for any real estate mortgage loan is the final say.)
Negotiates price on behalf of the sellers.
Acts as a fiduciary for the seller, which may include preparing a standard real estate purchase contract.
Holds an earnest payment cheque in escrow from the buyer(s) until the closing if necessary. In many states, the closing is the meeting between the buyer and seller where the property is transferred and the title is conveyed by a deed. In other states, especially those in the West, closings take place during a defined escrow period when buyers and sellers each sign the appropriate papers transferring title, but do not meet each other.
The listing contract[edit]
Main article: Listing contract
Several types of listing contracts exist between broker and seller. These may be defined as:
Exclusive right to sell
The broker is given the exclusive right to market the property and represents the seller exclusively. This is referred to as seller agency. However, the brokerage also offers to cooperate with other brokers and agrees to allow them to show the property to prospective buyers and offers a share of the total real estate commission.
Exclusive agency
Exclusive agency allows only the broker the right to sell the property, and no offer of compensation is ever made to another broker. In this case, the property will never be entered into an MLS. Naturally, this limits the exposure of the property to only one agency.
Open listing
The property is available for sale by any real estate professional who can advertise, show, or negotiate the sale. The broker/agent who first brings an acceptable offer would receive compensation. Real estate companies will typically require that a written agreement for an open listing be signed by the seller to ensure payment of a commission if a sale takes place.
Although there can be other ways of doing business, a real estate brokerage usually earns its commission after the real estate broker and a seller enter into a listing contract and fulfill agreed-upon terms specified within that contract. The seller's real estate is then listed for sale.
In most of North America, a listing agreement or contract between broker and seller must include the following:
starting and ending dates of the agreement;
the price at which the property will be offered for sale;
the amount of compensation due to the broker;
how much, if any, of the compensation will be offered to a cooperating broker who may bring a buyer (required for MLS listings).
Net listings: Property listings at an agreed-upon net price that the seller wishes to receive with any excess going to the broker as commission. In many states including Georgia, New Jersey and Virginia [18 VAC §135-20-280(5)] net listings are illegal, other states such as California and Texas state authorities discourage the practice and have laws to try and avoid manipulation and unfair transactions [22 TAC §535(b)] and (c).[11]
Brokerage commissions[edit]
In consideration of the brokerage successfully finding a buyer for the property, a broker anticipates receiving a commission for the services the brokerage has provided. Usually the payment of a commission to the brokerage is contingent upon finding a buyer for the real estate, the successful negotiation of a purchase contract between the buyer and seller, or the settlement of the transaction and the exchange of money between buyer and seller. The median real estate commission charged to the seller by the listing (seller's) agent is 6% of the purchase price. Typically, this commission is split evenly between the seller's and buyer's agents, with the buyer's agent generally receiving a commission of 3% of the purchase price of the home sold.
In North America, commissions on real estate transactions are negotiable and new services in real estate trends have created ways to negotiate rates. Local real estate sales activity usually dictates the amount of agreed commission. Real estate commission is typically paid by the seller at the closing of the transaction as detailed in the listing agreement.
RESPA[edit]
Real estate brokers who work with lenders may not receive any compensation from the lender for referring a residential client to a specific lender. To do so would be a violation of a United States federal law known as the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act (RESPA). Commercial transactions are exempt from RESPA. All lender compensation to a broker must be disclosed to all parties. A commission may also be paid during negotiation of contract base on seller and agent.
Lock-box[edit]
With the seller's permission, a lock-box is placed on homes that are occupied, and after arranging an appointment with the homeowner, agents can show the home to prospective buyers. When a property is vacant, a lock-box will generally be placed on the front door. The listing broker helps arrange showings of the property by various real estate agents from all companies associated with the MLS. The lock-box contains the key to the door of the property, and the box can only be opened by licensed real estate agents.
Shared commissions with co-op brokers[edit]
If any buyer's broker or his agents brings the buyer for the property, the buyer's broker would typically be compensated with a co-op commission coming from the total offered to the listing broker, often about half of the full commission from the seller. If an agent or salesperson working for the buyer's broker brings the buyer for the property, then the buyer's broker would commonly compensate his agent with a fraction of the co-op commission, again as determined in a separate agreement. A discount brokerage may offer a reduced commission if no other brokerage firm is involved and no co-op commission paid out.
If there is no co-commission to pay to another brokerage, the listing brokerage receives the full amount of the commission minus any other types of expenses.
Real estate brokers and buyers[edit]
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Services provided to buyers[edit]
Buyers as clients[edit]
With the increase in the practice of buyer brokerages in the United States, agents (acting under their brokers) have been able to represent buyers in the transaction with a written "Buyer Agency Agreement" not unlike the "Listing Agreement" for sellers referred to above. In this case, buyers are clients of the brokerage.
Some brokerages represent buyers only and are known as exclusive buyer agents (EBAs). Consumer Reports states, "You can find a true buyer's agent only at a firm that does not accept listings."[12] The advantages of using an Exclusive Buyer Agent is that they avoid conflicts of interest by working in the best interests of the buyer and not the seller, avoid homes and neighborhoods likely to fare poorly in the marketplace, ensure the buyer does not unknowingly overpay for a property, fully inform the buyer of adverse conditions, encourage the buyer to make offers based on true value instead of list price, and work to save the buyer money. A buyer agency firm commissioned a study that found EBA purchased homes were 17 times less likely to go into foreclosure.[citation needed]
A real estate brokerage attempts to do the following for the buyers of real estate only when they represent the buyers with some form of written buyer-brokerage agreement:
Find real estate in accordance with the buyers needs, specifications, and cost.
Take buyers to and shows them properties available for sale.
Pre-screen buyers to ensure they are financially qualified to buy the properties shown (or use a mortgage professional, such a bank's mortgage specialist or alternatively a Mortgage broker, to do that task).
Negotiate price and terms on behalf of the buyers.
Prepare standard real estate purchase contract.
Act as a fiduciary for the buyer.
Find real estate in accordance with the buyers' needs, specifications, and affordability.
When deemed appropriate, prescreen buyers to ensure they are financially qualified to buy the properties shown.†
Assist the buyer in making an offer for the property.
†Due to the importance of the role of representing buyers' interests, many brokers who seek to play the role of client advocate are now seeking out the services of Certified Mortgage Planners, industry experts that work in concert with Certified Financial Planners to align consumers' home finance positions with their larger financial portfolio(s).
Buyers as customers[edit]
In most states until the 1990s, buyers who worked with an agent of a real estate broker in finding a house were customers of the brokerage since the broker represented only sellers.
Today, state laws differ. Buyers and/or sellers may be represented. Typically, a written "Buyer Brokerage" agreement is required for the buyer to have representation (regardless of which party is paying the commission), although by his/her actions, an agent can create representation.
Education[edit]
A person may attend a pre-license course lasting 60 hours and then be tested by the state for a real estate agent's license. Upon passing, the new licensee must place their license with an established real estate firm, managed by a broker. Requirements vary by state but after some period of time working as an agent, one may return to the classroom and test to become a broker. For example, California and Florida require you to have a minimum experience of two years as a full-time licensed agent within the prior 5 years. Where as Indiana only requires one year experience as a real estate salesperson and Arizona requires three out of the prior five years.[13][14] Brokers may manage or own firms. Each branch office of a larger real estate firm must be managed by a broker.
States issue licenses for a multi year period and require real estate agents and brokers to complete continuing education prior to renewing their licenses. For example, California licensees must complete 45 hours of continuing education every 4 years in topics such as agency, trust fund handling, consumer protection, fair housing, ethics, and risk management. Many states recognize licenses from other states and issue licenses to existing agents and firms upon request without additional education or testing however the license must be granted before real estate service is provided in the state.
California does not have license reciprocity with other states. An applicant for licensure is not, however, required to be a resident of California to obtain a license.
Organizations[edit]
Several notable groups exist to promote the real estate industry and to assist members who are in it.
The National Association of Realtors (NAR) is the largest real estate organization and one of the largest trade groups anywhere. Their membership exceeds one million. NAR also has state chapters as well as thousands of local chapters. Upon joining a local chapter, a new member is automatically enrolled into the state and national organizations. When the principals of a firm join, all licensed agents in that firm must also belong. A Realtor is a real estate broker or salesperson who is also a member of the National Association of Realtors, which is an industry trade association. The word "Realtor" is a registered trademark, protected under US and international law.
The Realtor Political Action Committee (RPAC) is a separate entity, and also the lobbying arm of NAR. In 2005, they were considered the largest PAC in the United States. According to realtor.org, RPAC is the largest contributor of direct contributions to federal candidates.
The National Association of Exclusive Buyer Agents is a group of agents and brokers who work in firms that represent buyers only. They assist in locating exclusive buyer agents for home buyers through the Web site www.naeba.org.
The National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) was founded in 1947 as an alternative for African Americans who were excluded from the dominant NAR. Both groups allow members to join without regard to race. However, NAREB has historically been an African American-centric group with a focus on developing housing resources for intercity populations.
Changing industry[edit]
Compensation is conventionally based on a percentage of the sales price, split between the buying and selling brokers, and then between the agent(s) and his/her real estate agency. While a split based on the percentage received by the broker is generally normal, in some brokerages agents may pay a monthly "desk fee" for office costs, monthly fee, etc., and then retain 100% of the commission received.[citation needed]
Economist Steven D. Levitt famously argued in his 2005 book Freakonomics that real estate brokers have an inherent conflict of interest with the sellers they represent because their commission motivates them to sell quickly more than it motivates them to sell at a higher price. Levitt supported his argument with a study finding brokers tend to put their own houses on the market for longer and receive higher prices for them compared to when working for their clients. He concluded that broker commissions will reduce in future.[15] A 2008 study by other economists found that when comparing brokerage without listing services, brokerage actually significantly reduces the average sale price.[16]
See also[edit]
Buyer brokerage
Estate agent
Flat fee MLS
Independent contractor
Estate (house)
List of real estate topics
Real estate
Real estate trends
Exclusive buyer agent
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "PART 4 SALESPERSON'S LICENSE: EXAMINATION AND LICENSING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS". nmcpr.state.nm.us. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Fiduciary Responsibilities".
Jump up ^ "Realtor Code of Ethics - Disclosure" (PDF). Real Estate Association Standards of Business Practice.
Jump up ^ "Real Estate Broker's License: Examination and Licensing Application Requirements". New Mexico Administrative Code. State of New Mexico Commission of Public Records.
Jump up ^ "Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine". Leg.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
^ Jump up to: a b "Outline of types of representation available in Colorado, including Transaction Brokerage" (PDF). Dora.state.co.us. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
Jump up ^ Evans, Blanche (2 July 2003). "FLORIDA IMPLEMENTS DEFAULT TRANSACTION BROKERAGE STATUTE". http://realtytimes.com/. Realty Times®. Retrieved 2 February 2014. External link in |work= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b The 2007 Florida Statutes. Chapter 475 Real Estate Brokers — Part I; Real Estate Brokers, Sales Associates, and Schools (ss. 475.001-475.5018), Section 475.278 Authorized brokerage relationships; presumption of transaction brokerage; required disclosures (1) Brokerage Relationships: (a) Authorized brokerage relationships. — A real estate licensee in this state may enter into a brokerage relationship as either a transaction broker or as a single agent with potential buyers and sellers. A real estate licensee may not operate as a disclosed or non-disclosed dual agent ... (b)Presumption of transaction brokerage. — It shall be presumed that all licensees are operating as transaction brokers unless a single agent or no brokerage relationship is established, in writing, with a customer."
Jump up ^ "Designated Agency Website". BC Real Estate Association.
Jump up ^ "Real Estate Laws Website". BC Real Estate Laws - Pat 1 Trading Services.
Jump up ^ "Real Estate Agent Directory". Real Estate Agent.
Jump up ^ Consumer Reports, May 2005
Jump up ^ "Indiana Real Estate License Requirements". Mortgagenewsdaily.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
Jump up ^ "Arizona Real Estate Broker's License Requirements". Re.state.az.us. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
Jump up ^ Daniel Gross (20 Feb 2005). "Why a Real Estate Agent May Skip the Extra Mile". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 Sep 2016. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ B. Douglas Bernheim; Jonathan Meer (13 Jan 2012). "Do Real Estate Brokers Add Value When Listing Services Are Unbundled?". The National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved 3 Sep 2016.
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