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The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
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The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
Cover of the German edition from 1934
Author
Max Weber
Original title
Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus
Country
Germany
Language
German
Genre
Economic sociology
Publication date
1905
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (German: Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus) is a book written by Max Weber, a German sociologist, economist, and politician. Begun as a series of essays, the original German text was composed in 1904 and 1905, and was translated into English for the first time by American sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1930.[1] It is considered a founding text in economic sociology and sociology in general.
In the book, Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe evolved when the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment. In other words, the Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated emergence of modern capitalism.[2] In his book, apart from Calvinists, Weber also discusses Lutherans (especially Pietists, but also notes differences between traditional Lutherans and Calvinists), Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and Moravians (specifically referring to the Herrnhut-based community under Count von Zinzendorf's spiritual lead).
In 1998, the International Sociological Association listed this work as the fourth most important sociological book of the 20th century.[3] It is the 8th most cited book in the social sciences published before 1950.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary
1.1 Basic concepts
1.2 Origins of the Protestant work ethic
1.3 The Protestant work ethic in Weber's time
1.4 Conclusions
2 Reception
3 Table of contents
4 Criticisms
4.1 Economic criticism
4.2 Revisionist criticism
4.3 Other criticism
5 Support
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Summary[edit]
Basic concepts[edit]
Although not a detailed study of Protestantism but rather an introduction to Weber's later studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economics (The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, and Ancient Judaism), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism argues that Puritan ethics and ideas influenced the development of capitalism. The 'spirit of capitalism' does not refer to the spirit in the metaphysical sense but rather a set of values, the spirit of hard work and progress.[5]
Religious devotion, Weber argues, is usually accompanied by a rejection of worldly affairs, including the pursuit of wealth and possessions. To illustrate his theory, Weber quotes the ethical writings of Benjamin Franklin:
Remember, that time is money. He that can earn ten shillings a day by his labor, and goes abroad, or sits idle, one half of that day, though he spends but sixpence during his diversion or idleness, ought not to reckon that the only expense; he has really spent, or rather thrown away, five shillings besides. [...] Remember, that money is the prolific, generating nature. Money can beget money, and its offspring can beget more, and so on. Five shillings turned is six, turned again is seven and threepence, and so on, till it becomes a hundred pounds. The more there is of it, the more it produces every turning, so that the profits rise quicker and quicker. He that kills a breeding feline taint, destroys all her offspring to the thousandth generation. He that murders a crown, destroys all that it might have produced, even scores of pounds.
Weber notes that this is not a philosophy of mere greed, but a statement laden with moral language. Indeed, Franklin claims that God revealed the usefulness of virtue to him.[6]:9–12
The Reformation profoundly affected the view of work, dignifying even the most mundane professions as adding to the common good and thus blessed by God, as much as any "sacred" calling (German: Ruf). A common illustration is that of a cobbler, hunched over his work, who devotes his entire effort to the praise of God.
To emphasize the work ethic in Protestantism relative to Catholics, he notes a common problem that industrialists face when employing precapitalist laborers: Agricultural entrepreneurs will try to encourage time spent harvesting by offering a higher wage, with the expectation that laborers will see time spent working as more valuable and so engage it longer. However, in precapitalist societies this often results in laborers spending less time harvesting. Laborers judge that they can earn the same, while spending less time working and having more leisure. He also notes that societies having more Protestants are those that have a more developed capitalist economy.[6]:15–16
It is particularly advantageous in technical occupations for workers to be extremely devoted to their craft. To view the craft as an end in itself, or as a "calling" would serve this need well. This attitude is well-noted in certain classes which have endured religious education, especially of a Pietist background.[6]:17
He defines spirit of capitalism as the ideas and esprit that favour the rational pursuit of economic gain: "We shall nevertheless provisionally use the expression 'spirit of capitalism' for that attitude which, in the pursuit of a calling [berufsmäßig], strives systematically for profit for its own sake in the manner exemplified by Benjamin Franklin."[6]:19
Weber points out that such a spirit is not limited to Western culture if one considers it as the attitude of individuals, but that such individuals – heroic entrepreneurs, as he calls them – could not by themselves establish a new economic order (capitalism).[7]:54–55 He further noted that the spirit of capitalism could be divorced from religion, and that those passionate capitalists of his era were either passionate against the Church or at least indifferent to it.[6]:23 Desire for profit with minimum effort and seeing work as a burden to be avoided, and doing no more than what was enough for modest life, were common attitudes.[7]:55 As he wrote in his essays:
In order that a manner of life well adapted to the peculiarities of the capitalism… could come to dominate others, it had to originate somewhere, and not in isolated individuals alone, but as a way of life common to the whole groups of man.
After defining the "spirit of capitalism," Weber argues that there are many reasons to find its origins in the religious ideas of the Reformation. Many others like William Petty, Montesquieu, Henry Thomas Buckle, John Keats have noted the affinity between Protestantism and the development of commercialism.[8]
Weber shows that certain branches of Protestantism had supported worldly activities dedicated to economic gain, seeing them as endowed with moral and spiritual significance. This recognition was not a goal in itself; rather they were a byproduct of other doctrines of faith that encouraged planning, hard work and self-denial in the pursuit of worldly riches.[7]:57
Origins of the Protestant work ethic[edit]
Weber traced the origins of the Protestant ethic to the Reformation, though he acknowledged some respect for secular everyday labor as early as the Middle Ages.[6]:28 The Roman Catholic Church assured salvation to individuals who accepted the church's sacraments and submitted to the clerical authority. However, the Reformation had effectively removed such assurances. From a psychological viewpoint, the average person had difficulty adjusting to this new worldview, and only the most devout believers or "religious geniuses" within Protestantism, such as Martin Luther, were able to make this adjustment, according to Weber.
In the absence of such assurances from religious authority, Weber argued that Protestants began to look for other "signs" that they were saved. Calvin and his followers taught a doctrine of double predestination, in which from the beginning God chose some people for salvation and others for damnation. The inability to influence one's own salvation presented a very difficult problem for Calvin's followers. It became an absolute duty to believe that one was chosen for salvation, and to dispel any doubt about that: lack of self-confidence was evidence of insufficient faith and a sign of damnation. So, self-confidence took the place of priestly assurance of God's grace.
Worldly success became one measure of that self-confidence. Luther made an early endorsement of Europe's emerging divisions. Weber identifies the applicability of Luther's conclusions, noting that a "vocation" from God was no longer limited to the clergy or church, but applied to any occupation or trade. Weber had always detested Lutheranism for the servility it inspired toward the bureaucratic state. When he discussed it in the Protestant Ethic, he used Lutheranism as the chief example of the unio mystica that contrasted sharply with the ascetic posture. Later he would associate "Luther, the symbolic exponent of bureaucratic despotism, with the ascetic hostility to Eros — an example of Weber's sporadic tendency to link together bureaucratic and ascetic modes of life and to oppose both from mystical and aristocratic perspectives."[9]
However, Weber saw the fulfillment of the Protestant ethic not in Lutheranism, which was too concerned with the reception of divine spirit in the soul, but in Calvinistic forms of Christianity.[6]:32–33 The trend was carried further still in Pietism.[6]:90 The Baptists diluted the concept of the calling relative to Calvinists, but other aspects made its congregants fertile soil for the development of capitalism—namely, a lack of paralyzing ascetism, the refusal to accept state office and thereby develop unpolitically, and the doctrine of control by conscience which caused rigorous honesty.[6]:102–104
What Weber argued, in simple terms:
According to the new Protestant religions, an individual was religiously compelled to follow a secular vocation (German: Beruf) with as much zeal as possible. A person living according to this world view was more likely to accumulate money.
The new religions (in particular, Calvinism and other more austere Protestant sects) effectively forbade wastefully using hard earned money and identified the purchase of luxuries as a sin. Donations to an individual's church or congregation were limited due to the rejection by certain Protestant sects of icons. Finally, donation of money to the poor or to charity was generally frowned on as it was seen as furthering beggary. This social condition was perceived as laziness, burdening their fellow man, and an affront to God; by not working, one failed to glorify God.
The manner in which this paradox was resolved, Weber argued, was the investment of this money, which gave an extreme boost to nascent capitalism.
The Protestant work ethic in Weber's time[edit]
By the time Weber wrote his essay, he believed that the religious underpinnings of the Protestant ethic had largely gone from society. He cited the writings of Benjamin Franklin, which emphasized frugality, hard work and thrift, but were mostly free of spiritual content. Weber also attributed the success of mass production partly to the Protestant ethic. Only after expensive luxuries were disdained could individuals accept the uniform products, such as clothes and furniture, that industrialization offered.
In his remarkably prescient conclusion to the book, Weber lamented that the loss of religious underpinning to capitalism's spirit has led to a kind of involuntary servitude to mechanized industry.
The Puritan wanted to work in calling; we are forced to do so. For when asceticism was carried out of monastic cells into everyday life, and began to dominate worldly morality, it did its part in building the tremendous cosmos of the modern economic order. This order is now bound to the technical and economic conditions of machine production which today determine the lives of all the individuals who are born into this mechanism, not only those directly concerned with economic acquisition, with irresistible force. Perhaps it will so determine them until the last ton of fossilized coal is burnt. In Baxter’s view the care for external goods should only lie on the shoulders of the 'saint like a light cloak, which can be thrown aside at any moment.' But fate decreed that the cloak should become an iron cage. (Page 181, 1953 Scribner's edition.)
Weber maintained that while Puritan religious ideas had significantly impacted the development of economic system in Europe and United States, there were other factors in play, as well. They included a closer relationship between mathematics and observation, the enhanced value of scholarship, rational systematization of government administration, and an increase in entrepreneurship ventures. In the end, the study of Protestant ethic, according to Weber, investigated a part of the detachment from magic, that disenchantment of the world that could be seen as a unique characteristic of Western culture.[7]:60
Conclusions[edit]
In the final endnotes Weber states that he abandoned research into Protestantism because his colleague Ernst Troeltsch, a professional theologian, had begun work on The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches and Sects. Another reason for Weber's decision was that Troeltsch's work already achieved what he desired in that area, which is laying groundwork for comparative analysis of religion and society. Weber moved beyond Protestantism with his research but would continue research into sociology of religion within his later works (the study of Judaism and the religions of China and India).[7]:49
This book is also Weber's first brush with the concept of rationalization. His idea of modern capitalism as growing out of the religious pursuit of wealth meant a change to a rational means of existence, wealth. That is to say, at some point the Calvinist rationale informing the "spirit" of capitalism became unreliant on the underlying religious movement behind it, leaving only rational capitalism. In essence then, Weber's "Spirit of Capitalism" is effectively and more broadly a Spirit of Rationalization.
Reception[edit]
The essay can also be interpreted as one of Weber's criticisms of Karl Marx and his theories. While Marx's historical materialism held that all human institutions – including religion – were based on economic foundations, many have seen The Protestant Ethic as turning this theory on its head by implying that a religious movement fostered capitalism, not the other way around.[citation needed]
Other scholars have taken a more nuanced view of Weber's argument. Weber states in the closing of this essay, "it is, of course, not my aim to substitute for a one-sided materialistic an equally one-sided spiritualistic causal interpretation of culture and history. Each is equally possible, but each if it does not serve as the preparation, but as the conclusion of an investigation, accomplishes equally little in the interest of historical truth." Weber's argument can be understood as an attempt to deepen the understanding of the cultural origins of capitalism, which does not exclude the historical materialist origins described by Marx: modern capitalism emerged from an elective affinity of 'material; and 'ideal' factors.[2]
Table of contents[edit]
Table of contents from the 1958 Scribner's edition, with section titles added by Talcott Parsons:
Part 1. The Problem
I. Religious Affiliation and Social Stratification
II. The Spirit of Capitalism
III. Luther's Conception of the Calling. Task of the Investigation.
Part 2. The Practical Ethics of the Ascetic Branches of Protestantism.
IV. The Religious Foundations of Worldly Asceticism
A. Calvinism
Predestination; Elimination of Magic; Rationalization of the World; Certainty of Salvation; Lutheranism vs. Calvinism; Catholicism vs. Calvinism; Monasticism vs. Puritanism; Methodical Ethic; Idea of Proof.
B. Pietism
Emotionalism; Spener; Francke; Zinzendorf; German Pietism.
C. Methodism
D. The Baptism Sects
Baptist and Quaker; Sect Principle; Inner Worldly Asceticism; Transformation of the World.
V. Asceticism and the Spirit of Capitalism
Richard Baxter; Meaning of Work; Justification of Profit; Jewish vs. Puritan Capitalism; Puritanism and Culture; Saving and Capital; Paradox of Asceticism and Rich; Serving Both Worlds; Citizenry Capitalistic Ethic; Iron Cage of Capitalism.
Criticisms[edit]
Economic criticism[edit]
The economist and historian Henryk Grossman criticises Weber's analysis on two fronts, firstly with reference to Marx's extensive work which showed that the stringent legal measures taken against poverty and vagabondage was a reaction to the massive population shifts caused by the enclosure of the commons in England. And, secondly, in Grossman's own work showing how this "bloody legislation" against those who had been put off their land was effected across Europe and especially in France. For Grossman this legislation, the outlawing of idleness and the poorhouses they instituted physically forced people from serfdom into wage-labor. For him, this general fact was not related to Protestantism and so capitalism came largely by force and not by any vocational training regarding an inner-worldliness of Protestantism.[10] However, it is possible that the Protestant "work ethic" reinforced or legitimized these legal measures within a larger cultural context.
In a paper published on 10 November 2009, Harvard economist Davide Cantoni tested Weber's Protestant hypothesis using population and economic growth in second-millennium Germany as the data set, with negative results. Cantoni writes:
Using population figures in a dataset comprising 276 cities in the years 1300–1900, I find no effects of Protestantism on economic growth. The finding is robust to the inclusion of a variety of controls, and does not appear to depend on data selection or small sample size. In addition, Protestantism has no effect when interacted with other likely determinants of economic development. I also analyze the endogeneity of religious choice; instrumental variables estimates of the effects of Protestantism are similar to the OLS results.[11]
However, Cantoni uses city size, and not relative real wage growth, which was the Weber thesis, as his "main dependent variable" (Cantoni, 2).
Other recent scholarship continues to find valid Protestant Ethic effects both in historical and contemporary development patterns.
Dudley and Blum write:
Evidence of falling wages in Catholic cities and rising wages in Protestant cities between 1500 and 1750, during the spread of literacy in the vernacular, is inconsistent with most theoretical models of economic growth. In The Protestant Ethic, Weber suggested an alternative explanation based on culture. Here, a theoretical model confirms that a small change in the subjective cost of cooperating with strangers can generate a profound transformation in trading networks. In explaining urban growth in early-modern Europe, specifications compatible with human-capital versions of the neoclassical model and endogenous-growth theory are rejected in favor of a "small-world" formulation based on the Weber thesis.[12]
Revisionist criticism[edit]
H. M. Robertson, in his book Aspects of Economic Individualism, argued against the historical and religious claims of Weber. Robertson points out that capitalism began to flourish not in Britain, but in 14th century Italy, a decidedly different epoch. Since this is true, then the rise of capitalism cannot be attributed to Adam Smith, the Protestant Reformation, etc. In fact, Robertson goes further, and states that what happened in Britain was rather a retrogression from what was achieved in Italy centuries earlier.
Looking at the history of the development of economic thought, Robertson shows that Adam Smith and David Ricardo did not found economic science de novo. In fact, liberal economic theory was developed by French and Italian Catholics, who were influenced by the Scholastics. The British economic thought was rather a step backwards since it espoused the Labor Theory of Value, which had already been proved incorrect by the School of Salamanca.[13]
Other criticism[edit]
It has recently been suggested that Protestantism has indeed influenced positively the capitalist development of respective social systems not so much through the "Protestant ethics" but rather through the promotion of literacy.[14]
Becker and Wossmann at the University of Munich,[15] as well as Andrey Korotayev and Daria Khaltourina at the Russian Academy of Sciences,[14] showed that literacy levels differing in religious areas can sufficiently explain the economic gaps cited by Weber. The results were supported even under a concentric diffusion model of Protestantism using distance from Wittenberg as a model.[15]
Support[edit]
In 1958, American sociologist Gerhard Lenski conducted an empirical inquiry into "religion's impact on politics, economics, and family life" in the Detroit, Mich., area. It revealed, among other insights, that there were significant differences between Catholics on the one hand and (white) Protestants and Jews on the other hand with respect to economics and the sciences. Lenski's data supported basic hypotheses of Weber's work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. According to Lenski, "the contribution of Protestantism to material progress have been largely unintended by-products of certain distinctive Protestant traits. This was a central point in Weber's theory." Lenski noted that more than a hundred years prior to Weber, John Wesley, one of the founders of the Methodist church, had observed that "diligence and frugality" made Methodists wealthy. "In an early era, Protestant asceticism and dedication to work, as noted both by Wesley and Weber, seem to have been important patterns of action contributing to economic progress. Both facilitated the accumulation of capital, so critically important to the economic growth and development of nations."[16]
German theologian Friedrich Wilhelm Graf notes: "Sociologists of religion like Peter L. Berger and David Martin have interpreted the Protestant revolution in Latin America as implicit support of basic elements of Weber's thesis. [...] At any rate, many pious persons there interpret their transition from the Roman Catholic church to Protestant Pentecostal congregations in terms of a moral idea that promises long-term economic gains through strong innerworldly asceticism. The strict ascetic self-discipline that has been successfully institutionalized in the Pentecostal congregations, the readiness to work more and with greater effort and to take less leisurely attitudes lead many Pentecostal Christians to believe that their new faith in God is supported by their economic successes."[17]
See also[edit]
Anglo-Saxon economy
Disenchantment
Iron cage
Merton thesis
Prosperity theology
Protestant work ethic
Rationalization
Social evolutionism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Max Weber; Peter R. Baehr; Gordon C. Wells (2002). The Protestant ethic and the "spirit" of capitalism and other writings. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-043921-2. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b McKinnon, AM (2010). "Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism" (PDF). Sociological Theory. 28 (1): 108–126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01367.x.
Jump up ^ "ISA - International Sociological Association: Books of the Century". International Sociological Association. 1998. Retrieved 2012-07-25.
Jump up ^ Green, Elliott (12 May 2016). "What are the most-cited publications in the social sciences (according to Google Scholar)?". LSE Imact Blog. London School of Economics.
Jump up ^ Michael Shea (6 October 2015). "The Protestant Ethic and the Language of Austerity". Discover Society.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Weber, Max "The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism" (Penguin Books, 2002) translated by Peter Baehr and Gordon C. Wells
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: an intellectual portrait, University of California Press, 1977
Jump up ^ Bendix. Max Weber. p. 54.
Jump up ^ Arthur Mitzman (1970). The Iron Cage: An Historical Interpretation of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-4128-3745-3. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Grossman, Henryk (2006) ‘The Beginnings of Capitalism and the New Mass Morality’ Journal of Classical Sociology 6 (2): July
Jump up ^ David Cantoni, "The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands," November 2009, [1]
Jump up ^ Blum, Ulrich; Dudley, Leonard (February 2001), "Religion and Economic Growth: Was Weber Right?" (PDF), Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 11 (2): 207–230, archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-08-07
Jump up ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (February 1957), Catholicism, Protestantism, and Capitalism, Ludwig von Mises Institute [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. (2006), Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Moscow: URSS, ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [2] (Chapter 6: Reconsidering Weber: Literacy and "the Spirit of Capitalism"). P.87-91.
^ Jump up to: a b Becker, Sascha O. and Wossmann, Ludger. "Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economics History." Munich Discussion Paper No. 2007-7, 22 January 2007. http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/1366/1/weberLMU.pdf.
Jump up ^ Gerhard Lenski (1963), The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics. and Family Life, Revised Edition, Garden City, N.Y., pp. 350-352
Jump up ^ Friedrich Wilhelm Graf (2010), Der Protestantismus. Geschichte und Gegenwart, Second, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), pp. 116-117
Further reading[edit]
Albrow, Martin. (1990). Max Weber’s Construction of Social Theory. London: MacMillan
McKinnon, AM (2010). "Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism" (PDF). Sociological Theory. 28 (1): 108–126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01367.x.
O’Toole, Roger. (1984). Religion: Classical Sociological Approaches. Toronto: McGraw Hill.
Parkin, Frank. (1983). Max Weber. London and New York: Routledge
Poggi, Gianfranco. (1983). Calvinism and the Capitalist Spirit: Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press
Shea, Michael (2015) "The Protestant Ethic and the Language of Austerity". Discover Society.
External links[edit]
Online web version of the text
Complete German text
Complete text archive of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism as 'prosperity classic'. Commentary by Tom Butler-Bowdon
'Protestant Ethic Thesis' at the Swatos' Encyclopedia of Religion and Society
Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, (Norton Critical Editions, 2009), Introduction by Richard Swedberg
Benjamin, Franklin (1748), Advice to a Young Tradesman
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Max Weber
Books
Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law (1891)
Condition of Farm Labour in Eastern Germany (1892)
The Stock Exchange (1896)
The Objectivity of the Sociological and Social-Political Knowledge (1904)
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905)
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism (1915)
The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (1916)
The Rejection and the Meaning of the World (1916)
Sociology of Religion (1920)
Ancient Judaism (1921)
The City (1921)
Economy and Society (1922)
Basic Concepts in Sociology (1922)
The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947)
The Three Types of Legitimate Rule (1958)
Sociology of Community
Sociology of Rulership and Religion
Sociology of the World Religions: Introduction
Concepts
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Life chances
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Monopoly on violence
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Rationalisation
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Three-component stratification
Tripartite classification of authority
Verstehen
Essays
"The Protestant Sects and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1904)
"Politics as a Vocation" (1919)
Lectures
Science as a Vocation (1918)
Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1923)
Related
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Speeches of Max Weber
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People
Max Weber Sr. (father)
Alfred Weber (brother)
Marianne Weber (wife)
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text:
Jason Lewis (actor)
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Jason Lewis
Lewis at the 10th Annual Angel Ball on October 29, 2007
Born
(1971-06-25) June 25, 1971 (age 46)
Newport Beach, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actor, model
Years active
1995–present
Jason Lewis (born June 25, 1971) is an American actor and former fashion model. He is known for his role as Jerry "Smith" Jerrod in the HBO series Sex and the City.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Filmography
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Lewis was born in Newport Beach, California, to Nancy, a nurse, and Gregory Lewis, a judge; his parents are divorced.[1][2] He has three siblings, Sean, Katie and Nicole.[2] He grew up in Los Alamitos, California, and graduated from Los Alamitos High School.[2] He attended college at San Diego State University. After college he started modeling, first in Paris and then with star status in Milan in the late 1990s for Guess?, Tommy Hilfiger and Hugo Boss, among others.[1][2]
Career[edit]
In 1995, Lewis made his acting debut as a regular on High Sierra Search and Rescue.[2] He appeared on Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1997, playing Rob Andrews, a love interest of character Valerie (Tiffani-Amber Thiessen).[3] His most prominent role to date was in Sex and the City, where he was a recurring member of the show's cast in its final season as waiter turned emerging young actor Smith Jerrod, the one man whose sincerity got to Samantha. He reprised the role in 2008's Sex and the City: The Movie and its 2010 sequel.[4][5]
Lewis has appeared in several films: My Bollywood Bride, a Hollywood/Bollywood romantic comedy where Lewis plays the leading man opposite Bollywood actress Kashmira Shah,[6] and Mr. Brooks, a thriller, where he plays opposite Demi Moore and Kevin Costner.[7] He is also known in Europe for playing the hunk on the Aero Advert for Aero Bubbles.[8]
After appearing on The WB's supernatural drama Charmed, where he played the recurring role of Dex Lawson, a love interest (and brief husband) of Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano), it was announced on December 5, 2006, that he would guest-star on episodes of Brothers & Sisters as a possible love interest to Matthew Rhys' character Kevin Walker. He signed on to do seven episodes to play Chad Barry, a closeted gay soap opera actor who finds it difficult trying to develop a relationship with Kevin while keeping his sexuality secret from the Hollywood press.[9] He reprised the role in an episode in April 2009. He also played a soap opera actor on two episodes of House. Lewis appears and is highlighted on the cover in the limited-edition coffee table book About Face, shot by celebrity photographer John Russo and published by Pixie Press Worldwide.[10]
Lewis is a supporter of the LGBT community. On May 10, 2008, he attended the 19th GLAAD Media Awards, a ceremony that celebrates gay-friendly actors and actresses as well as media outlets.[11]
Lewis appeared in the How I Met Your Mother episode "The Wedding Bride" as a star in a fictional film within the show.[12] He starred in the 2011 Canadian film Textuality.[13] In addition, he appeared as Pete in the Israeli television show, Be With Her. He starred as Christopher Dollanganger in If There Be Thorns and Seeds of Yesterday, the third and fourth films of the Flowers in the Attic TV film series based on the Dollanganger novel series by V.C. Andrews.[14]
Filmography[edit]
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1998 Next Stop Wonderland Rory
1999 Kimberly Scott
2000 King's Guard, TheThe King's Guard William
2001 Elite, TheThe Elite Jason
2004 Vision, TheThe Vision Blake Short film
2005 Jacket, TheThe Jacket Officer Harrison
2006 My Bollywood Bride Alex Kincade
2006 For One Night Mark Manning Television film
2007 Lucifer Lucifer Short film
2007 Mr. Brooks Jesse Vialo
2007 Death and Life of Bobby Z, TheThe Death and Life of Bobby Z Bobby Z
2007 Deadbox Aaron
2008 Attic, TheThe Attic John Trevor Direct-to-video
2008 Sex and the City Smith Jerrod
2009 Tribute Ford Sawyer Television film
2009 So che ritornerai Tom Television film
2010 Sex and the City 2 Smith Jerrod
2011 Textuality Breslin
2013 Pardon, TheThe Pardon Cowboy
2017 Running Wild Brannon Bratt
2017 Palm Swings Lance
2018 Half Magic
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1995 High Sierra Search and Rescue Flynn Norstedt 6 episodes
1997 Beverly Hills, 90210 Rob Andrews 4 episodes
2003–2004 Sex and the City Jerry "Smith" Jerrod 16 episodes
2003 CSI: Miami Jimmy Hutton Episode: "Grand Prix"
2005 Charmed Dex Lawson 6 episodes
2006 Evidence, TheThe Evidence Inspector Rourke/Officer Rourke 2 episodes
2007, 2009 Brothers & Sisters Chad Barry 8 episodes
2007 Six Degrees Todd Episode: "Get a Room"
2008 House Evan Greer/Dr. Brock Sterling Episode: Living the Dream (1 other uncredited)
2008 Mogli a pezzi Elvio Giorgi Main cast
2008 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Craig Hess Episode: "Let It Bleed"
2009 Eastmans, TheThe Eastmans Rick Green Unsold CBS pilot
2009 Rick & Steve: The Happiest Gay Couple in All the World Manfred Dax (voice) Episode: "The Only Straight in the Village"
2010 How I Met Your Mother Movie Tony Episode: "The Wedding Bride"
2011 Love Bites N/A Unaired pilot
2012 Watson & Oliver Various Episode #1.1
2013 Hit the Floor Benny Episode: "Turnover"
2014 Be With Her Pete Evans Episode #10, Israeli TV show
2015 If There Be Thorns Christopher Dollanganger Lifetime Original Movie
2015 Seeds of Yesterday Christopher Dollanganger Lifetime Original Movie
2017–present Midnight, Texas Joe Strong Main cast
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hancock, Louise (September 21, 2003). "Our lad's ABSOLUTEly Fab". Sunday Mirror. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Jason Lewis". Yahoo! Movies. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ DiPasquale, Cara; Karnopp, Kris (March 26, 2003). "Former model gets 'Sex and the City' role". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Watson, Margeaux (May 19, 2008). "Sex and the City Q&A: Jason Lewis". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Scott, A. O. (May 26, 2010). "Operation Desert Togs". The New York Times. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Loewenstein, Lael (January 27, 2006). "My Bollywood Bride". Variety. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anderson, John (May 30, 2007). "Mr. Brooks". Variety. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sweney, Mark (March 2, 2009). "Nestlé unveils £7m bubbles ad for Aero". The Guardian. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived September 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Education Press: Presenting News About Worldwide Education". Pixiepressworldwide.com. Archived from the original on November 7, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived January 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Stanhope, Kate (April 1, 2010). "How I Met Your Mother Taps Malin Akerman, Jason Lewis, Chris Kattan". TV Guide. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Barnard, Linda (April 20, 2011). "Text and the city with Jason Lewis". Toronto Star. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Fries, Laura (April 3, 2015). "TV Review: Lifetime's 'If There Be Thorns,' 'Seeds of Yesterday'". Variety. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
External links[edit]
Jason Lewis on IMDb
Men's Fitness interview
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
GND: 1013086791
ISNI: 0000 0001 2018 3287
LCCN: no2005049276
NLA: 41897987
VIAF: 76048322
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jason_Lewis_(actor)&oldid=831882120"
Categories:
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text:
Thirty pieces of silver
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Judas receiving thirty pieces of silver for betraying Jesus, by Mattia Preti, c. 1640.
Thirty pieces of silver was the price for which Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus, according to an account in the Gospel of Matthew 26:15 in the New Testament.[1] Before the Last Supper, Judas is said to have gone to the chief priests and agreed to hand over Jesus in exchange for 30 silver coins, and to have attempted to return the money afterwards, filled with remorse.
The Gospel of Matthew claims that the subsequent purchase of the Potter's field was fulfilment, by Jesus, of a prophecy of Zechariah.[2][3]
The image has often been used in artwork depicting the Passion of Christ. The phrase is used in literature and common speech to refer to people "selling out", compromising a trust, friendship, or loyalty for personal gain.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narrative
2 Types of coin
3 Theological interpretation
4 Relics and depiction in art
5 Literary references
6 Modern usage
7 See also
8 References
Biblical narrative[edit]
According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas Iscariot was a disciple of Jesus. Before the Last Supper, Judas went to the chief priests and agreed to hand over Jesus in exchange for 30 silver coins.[4] Jesus was then arrested in Gethsemane, where Judas revealed Jesus' identity to the soldiers by giving him a kiss.[5]
According to Chapter 27 of Matthew's gospel, Judas was filled with remorse and returned the money to the chief priests before hanging himself. The chief priests decided that they could not put it into the temple treasury as it was considered blood money,[6] and so with it they bought the Potter's Field.[7] A different account of the death of Judas is given in Acts of Apostles; it describes Judas as using the money he had been rewarded with - no sum is specified - to buy the Potter's field, and then falling there, dying of the resulting intestinal injuries.[8]
Types of coin[edit]
The Antiochan tetradrachm is one possibility for the identity of the coins making up the thirty pieces.
A Tyrian shekel, another possibility for the type of coin involved.
The word used in Matthew 26:15 (ἀργύρια, argyria) simply means "silver coins,"[9] and scholars disagree on the type of coins that would have been used. Donald Wiseman suggests two possibilities. They could have been tetradrachms of Tyre, usually referred to as Tyrian shekels (14 grams of 94% silver), or staters from Antioch (15 grams of 75% silver), which bore the head of Augustus.[10] Alternatively, they could have been Ptolemaic tetradrachms (13.5 ± 1 g of 25% silver).[11] There are 31.1035 grams per troy ounce. At spot valuation of $17.06/oz (the closing price on Monday, December 12, 2016), 30 "pieces of silver" would be worth between $185 and $216 in present-day value (USD).
The Tyrian shekel weighed four Athenian drachmas, about 14 grams, more than earlier 11-gram Israeli shekels, but was regarded as the equivalent for religious duties at that time.[12] Because Roman coinage was only 80% silver, the purer (94% or more) Tyrian shekels were required to pay the temple tax in Jerusalem. The money changers referenced in the New Testament Gospels (Matt. 21:12 and parallels) exchanged Tyrian shekels for common Roman currency.[13][14]
The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachm ("four drachmae") coin was perhaps the most widely used coin in the Greek world before the time of Alexander the Great (along with the Corinthian stater). It featured the helmeted profile bust of Athena on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called γλαῦκες glaukes (owls),[15] hence the proverb Γλαῦκ’ Ἀθήναζε, 'an owl to Athens', referring to something that was in plentiful supply, like 'coals to Newcastle'. The reverse is featured on the national side of the modern Greek 1 euro coin. Drachmae were minted on different weight standards at different Greek mints. The standard that came to be most commonly used was the Athenian or Attic one, which weighed a little over 4.3 grams. A drachma was approximately a day's pay for a skilled laborer.[16] So 30 pieces of silver (30 tetradrachm), at four drachmas each, would roughly be comparable to four months' (120 days) wages.
In the medieval period some religious institutions displayed ancient Greek coins of the island of Rhodes as specimens of the Thirty Pieces of Silver. The obverses of these coins showed a facing head of the sun god Helios, with rays projecting around the upper part of it. These rays were interpreted as a representation of the Crown of Thorns.
The extracanonical Narrative of Joseph of Arimathea records that Judas was paid 30 pieces of gold, not silver.[17]
Theological interpretation[edit]
In Zechariah 11:12–13, 30 pieces of silver is the price Zechariah receives for his labour. He takes the coins and throws them "to the potter". Klaas Schilder notes that Zechariah's payment indicates an assessment of his worth, as well as his dismissal.[18] In Exodus 21:32, 30 pieces of silver was the price of a slave, so while Zechariah calls the amount a "handsome price" (Zechariah 11:13), this could be sarcasm. Barry Webb, however, regards it as a "considerable sum of money."[19]
Schilder suggests that these 30 pieces of silver then get "bandied back and forth by the Spirit of Prophecy."[20] When the chief priests decide to buy a field with the returned money, Matthew says that this fulfilled "what was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet." Namely, "They took the thirty silver coins, the price set on him by the people of Israel, and they used them to buy the potter's field, as the Lord commanded me" (Matthew 27:9–10). Although many scholars see Jeremiah's name as included in error,[21] Jeremiah's purchase of a field in Jeremiah 32 may indicate that both prophets are in mind.[22] Craig Blomberg argues that Matthew is using typology in his quotation, rather than "any kind of single or double fulfillment of actual predictive prophecy." According to Blomberg, Matthew is telling his readers that, "like Jeremiah and Zechariah, Jesus attempts to lead his people with a prophetic and pastoral ministry, but instead he ends up suffering innocently at their hands."[23] William Hendriksen argues that Matthew is referring to Jeremiah 19.[24]
Blomberg also suggests that Matthew may also be saying that "Jesus' death is a ransom, the price paid to secure a slave's freedom," and that the use of the blood money to buy a burial ground for foreigners (Matthew 27:7) may hint at the idea that "Jesus' death makes salvation possible for all the peoples of the world, including the Gentiles."[25]
The 1877 Handy Book for Bible Readers states that "Argurion, argenteus, denarius. This word occurs in two passages--(A) the account of the betrayal of our Lord for "thirty pieces of silver" (Matt. xxvi. 15; xxvii. 3, 5, 6, 9). These have usually been considered to be denarii, but on no sufficient ground. The parallel passage in Zechariah (xi. 12, 13), is translated "thirty [pieces] of silver"; but which should doubtless be read, "thirty shekels of silver", whilst it is observable that "thirty shekels of silver" was the price of blood to be paid in the case of a servant accidentally killed (Exod. xxi. 32). The passage may therefore be explained as "thirty shekels of silver", not surrent shekels, but tetradrachms of the Attic standard of the Greek cities of Syria and Phoencia. These tetradrachms were common at the time of our Lord, and of them the stater was a specimen."
Relics and depiction in art[edit]
Rembrandt's Judas Returning the Thirty Silver Pieces, 1629.
Judas is often shown in narrative scenes from the Passion holding the silver in a bag or purse, where they serve as an attribute to identify him. As one of the "Instruments of the Passion" the Thirty Pieces by themselves often feature in groups of the Instruments, especially in the late Middle Ages, although they are one of the less commonly chosen elements of the group. Sometimes a money bag is used in depictions; otherwise a hand holding the coins, or two hands, showing the counting-out.[26]
The Basilewsky Situla (920) (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
A number of "Judas-pennies", ancient coins said to be from the original thirty, were treated as relics in the Middle Ages, and were believed to help in difficult cases of childbirth.[27][28] As a minor component of the Instruments, and one whose survival was hard to explain given the Biblical account of the use of the money, the relics, and their depiction in art, both appear from the 14th century, later than more important elements like the Crown of Thorns or Spear of Longinus. This was as a result of new styles of devotions, led by the Franciscans in particular, which promoted contemplation of the Passion episode by episode, as in the Stations of the Cross.[29] The stone on which the coins were said to have been counted out was in the Lateran Palace in Rome.[30]
A Syracusan decadrachm held at the Hunt Museum, Limerick is one such coin claimed to be one of the thirty: inscribed on the mount is Quia precium sanguinis est (Latin: "This is the price of blood").[31]
Literary references[edit]
The 30 pieces are used in Christian literature on the betrayal of Jesus, as in the poem Thirty Pieces of Silver by William Blane:
"Thirty pieces of silver"
Burns on the traitor's brain;
"Thirty pieces of silver!
Oh! it is hellish gain!"[32]
or as in the poem Matthew XXVII:9 by Jorge Luis Borges:
The coin fell on my hollow hand.
I could not bear it, although it was light,
and I let it fall. It was all in vain.
The other said: "There are still twenty nine."[33]
The phrase "30 pieces of silver" is used more generally to describe a price at which people sell out.[34] In Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, it is echoed in the 30 roubles which the character Sonia earns for selling herself.[35][36] In the folk-song King John and the Bishop, the bishop's answer to the riddle of how much the king is worth is 29 pieces of silver, as no king is worth more than Jesus. In Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part 2, the mistress of Falstaff asks "and didst thou not kiss me, and bid me fetch thee thirty shillings?"[34] The story "Treasure Trove" by F. Tennyson Jesse relates the rediscovery in modern times of the thirty pieces of silver and how they drive men to kill.
Modern usage[edit]
The phrase is used to accuse politicians and artists of selling out their principles or ideals, and is also used in literature as a symbol of betrayal. For example, in the aftermath of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, a number of residents of the street in which the Governor General John Kerr had been born sent the Governor 30 pieces of silver,[37] as Kerr was widely blamed for the crisis. Another usage was at the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, a spokesman from Tuvalu criticised the final document by saying, "It looks like we are being offered 30 pieces of silver to betray our people and our future ... Our future is not for sale."[38]
The author Jim Butcher uses the coins in his Dresden Files series, in which each coin is the focal point of a fallen angel. This group of angels is known as the Order of the Blackened Denarius, or the Denarians.
The Belgian comic book series Blake and Mortimer had a two part story centered on the coins, titled The Curse of the Thirty Denarii (the English title being The Curse of The 30 Pieces of Silver).
In film, the allegory of the silver pieces as a price for treason is used in Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, and in the title of a fourth-season episode of Daniel Boone.
In 2016, Texas Attorney General files a lawsuit to keep Obama's recommendations (via Education Dept) (re: public school bathroom access for transgender people) from being enforced. The directive states that schools risk their funding if they don't comply -- Texas Governor responds to the US Dept of Ed stating they can "keep their 30 pieces of silver"
In the Babylon 5 The Face of the Enemy from 1997, Michael Garibaldi remarks "I think the last guy got thirty pieces of silver for the same job." when he was pressured into betraying his best friend, John Sheridan
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 30 pieces of silver.
Bargain of Judas
Coins in the Bible
Kiss of Judas
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Matthew 26:15
Jump up ^ Vincent P. Branick, Understanding the New Testament and Its Message, (Paulist Press, 1998), pp. 126–128.
Jump up ^ Frederick Dale Bruner, Matthew: A Commentary (Eerdmans, 2004), p. 710
Jump up ^ R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2007), 976–979.
Jump up ^ France, The Gospel of Matthew, 1012.
Jump up ^ https://www.biblica.com/bible/niv/matthew/27/
Jump up ^ Daniel J. Harrington, The Gospel of Matthew (Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 1991), 384–387.
Jump up ^ Acts 1:18.
Jump up ^ Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1889.
Jump up ^ D. J. Wiseman, Illustrations from Biblical Archaeology (London: Tyndale Press, 1958), 87–89.
Jump up ^ Michael E. Marotta (2001). "So-called 'Coins of the Bible'". Archived from the original on 18 June 2002. Retrieved 11 Sep 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ancient Jewish Coins Related to the Works of Josephus". , citing David Hendin's Guide to Biblical Coins and Y. Meshorer's Ancient Jewish Coinage.
Jump up ^ "The role of coins in the First Revolt".
Jump up ^ "Israel photos III".
Jump up ^ γλαύξ in Liddell and Scott.
Jump up ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 3.17.4.
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart; Plese, Zlatko (2011). The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 553. ISBN 9780199732104.
Jump up ^ Klaas Schilder, Christ in His Suffering (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1938), 74.
Jump up ^ Barry Webb, The Message of Zechariah (Bible Speaks Today; Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2003), 151.
Jump up ^ Schilder, Christ in His Suffering, 71.
Jump up ^ John Calvin, for example, says that "the passage itself plainly shows that the name of Jeremiah has been put down by mistake, instead of Zechariah, for in Jeremiah we find nothing of this sort, nor any thing that even approaches to it." John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark and Luke.
Jump up ^ Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009), 657.
Jump up ^ Craig L. Blomberg, "Matthew," in G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (eds.), Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 96.
Jump up ^ William Hendriksen, Exposition of the Gospel According to Matthew (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1973), 948.
Jump up ^ Blomberg, "Matthew,", 97.
Jump up ^ Gertrud Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II (trans. Janet Seligman; London: Lund Humphries, 1972), 190–196.
Jump up ^ G. F. Hill, "Coins and Medals (Western)," in James Hastings and John A. Selbie, (eds.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 6 (Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2003), 703.
Jump up ^ Johannes A. Mol, Klaus Militzer, and Helen J. Nicholson, The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, state building, and the weight of tradition (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2006), 287.
Jump up ^ Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II, 190–191
Jump up ^ Piero Della Francesca, Enigma of Piero, (2nd ed., trans. Martin Ryle and Kate Soper; London: Verso Books, 2001), 68.
Jump up ^ http://www.huntmuseum.com/collection/collection-items/mg-034.aspx
Jump up ^ William Blane, "Thirty Pieces of Silver," in The Silent Land and other Poems, (London: E. Stock, 1906), 149.
Jump up ^ Jorge Luis Borges, "Matthew XXVII:9," in La moneda de hierro, (Buenos Aires: 1976).
^ Jump up to: a b David L. Jeffrey, ed. (1992). A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 766. ISBN 978-0-8028-3634-2.
Jump up ^ Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Crime and punishment, (Ware: Wordsworth Classics, 2000), 17. Note by Keith Carabine on p. 470.
Jump up ^ William J. Leatherbarrow, The Cambridge Companion to Dostoevskii, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 98.
Jump up ^ The residents of the street in Balmain where he had been born posted him thirty pieces of silver. http://www.australian-politics-books.com/ccp0-prodshow/the-real-joh-kerr-richard-hall.html
Jump up ^ "Future not for sale: climate deal rejected". ABC News. 19 Dec 2009. Retrieved 11 Sep 2010.
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Crystal Pepsi
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Crystal Pepsi
Crystal Pepsi 20 oz. bottle, as released in the U.S. in 2016
Type
Clear cola
Manufacturer
PepsiCo
Country of origin
United States
Introduced
1992-1993; 2015 (giveaway only); 2016; 2017
Discontinued
November 20, 2017
Variants
Diet Crystal Pepsi, Crystal From Pepsi, Pepsi
Related products
Pepsi, Pepsi Blue, Tab Clear, Coca-Cola Clear
Crystal Pepsi is a soft drink made by PepsiCo. It was first sold in Europe in the early 1990s. The United States and Canada received it from 1992 to 1993, with brief rereleases in 2015, 2016, and 2017. It was briefly sold in the UK and Australia. The product's original market life was sabotaged by competitor Coca-Cola, in a "suicidal kamikaze" plan which sacrificed its Tab Clear product in order to end them both. Crystal Pepsi is notable for a fanatical revival by the public decades later, leading to a corporate response with these re-releases.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Pepsi Clear
3 Marketing
4 Revival and rereleases
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
In the early 1990s, a marketing fad called the Clear Craze equated clarity with purity. This began with the remake of Ivory soap, whose marketing slogan had already been "99 and 44/100 percent pure", from its classic milky solution.[1] The "clear" idea spread to many companies and product types including PepsiCo's development of a clear cola. Crystal Pepsi was marketed as a caffeine-free "clear alternative" to normal colas.[2] Its marketing slogan was "You've never seen a taste like this".[1]
In 1992, PepsiCo introduced Crystal Pepsi to test markets in Denver, Sacramento, Dallas, Providence,[3] and Grand Rapids,[4] and the product generated a positive response.[2] Pleased with the results, PepsiCo launched the cola on April 12, 1992,[5] and began to sell it nationwide in 1993. A large marketing campaign was launched, for which the company invented the world's first photo-realistic, computer-generated bus wrap printing. A series of television advertisements featuring Van Halen's hit song "Right Now" premiered on national television on January 31, 1993, during Super Bowl XXVII.[2] Another marketing ploy was to give out full sized sample bottles with the Sunday paper deliveries such as the Boston Globe in Massachusetts. In its first year, Crystal Pepsi captured a full percentage point of U.S. soft drink sales, approximately $474 million.[6] Coca-Cola followed suit by launching Tab Clear on December 14, 1992.[7] That company's previous clear cola had been a secret one-off made as a particular political favor between Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Soviet Union in the 1940s, to disguise the American beverage as if it was vodka, and was named White Coke.[8]
Initial sales were good but quickly fell.[citation needed] By late 1993, Pepsi pulled the drink off the market, and the final batches were delivered to retailers during the first few months of 1994. Pepsi returned several months later with a reformulated citrus-cola hybrid[9] called Crystal From Pepsi, but that was short-lived as well.[10]
According to Coca-Cola's chief marketing officer, Sergio Zyman, Tab Clear was an intentionally "suicidal kamikaze" effort to create an unpopular beverage that was positioned as an analogue of Crystal Pepsi in order to "kill both in the process". The "born to die" strategy included using the poor-performing Tab brand rather than Coke, labeling the product as a "sugar free" diet drink to confuse consumers into thinking Crystal Pepsi had no sugar, and marketing the product as if it were "medicinal". Zyman said "Pepsi spent an enormous amount of money on the brand and, regardless, we killed it. Both of them were dead within six months."[11]
Pepsi Clear[edit]
In 2005, a new clear Pepsi was sold in Mexico as Pepsi Clear for a limited time. On August 22, 2008, PepsiCo filed for trademarks on the product names "Pepsi Clear" and "Diet Pepsi Clear".[12]
Marketing[edit]
Yum! Brands Chairman David C. Novak is credited with introducing the Crystal Pepsi concept. In a December 2007 interview,[13] he stated:
It was a tremendous learning experience. I still think it's the best idea I ever had, and the worst executed. A lot of times as a leader you think, "They don't get it; they don't see my vision." People were saying we should stop and address some issues along the way, and they were right. It would have been nice if I'd made sure the product tasted good. Once you have a great idea and you blow it, you don't get a chance to resurrect it.
Revival and rereleases[edit]
Canadian label of a Crystal Pepsi 20 oz. bottle in 2016
In September 2014, following a Facebook campaign by consumers, The Coca-Cola Company reintroduced the soft drink Surge, leading to speculation in the public and amongst media about the return of Crystal Pepsi.[14]
In March 2015, an online campaign to bring back Crystal Pepsi began. The following month, a second and completely separate petition was spearheaded by an online competitive eating personality, Kevin Strahle, also known as The L.A. Beast. This generated enough interest for a call-in and email campaign, featuring around 37,000 Change.org petition signatures,[15] tens of thousands of Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram tagged comments, 15 billboards erected around the Los Angeles area, and a commitment to ride a mobile billboard truck at Pepsi's headquarters in Purchase, New York with a gathering of supporters at a park nearby[16] on June 15 and 16, 2015.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23] The interest from this campaign led to an official response by PepsiCo. on June 8, 2015: "We've had customers ask us to bring back their favorite products before, but never with your level of enthusiasm and humor. We're lucky to have a Pepsi superfan like you on our side. We definitely hear you and your followers and we think you'll all be happy with what's in store. Stay tuned."[24]
In November 2015, Pepsi hinted on its Twitter page that the beverage would make a comeback. In December 2015, Pepsi announced that fans of the drink could win one of 13,000 six-packs of the beverage by entering a sweepstakes via a mobile application or online at Pepsipass.com between December 10 and 11. Winners selected during the following week would receive the beverage in time for Christmas.[25]
On June 30, 2016, Pepsi announced that the drink would be making a second return, reaching Canadian stores on July 7, and American stores on August 8, 2016.[citation needed] Unlike the original release in the 1990s, the drink as released in 2015 and 2016 contains caffeine and sodium benzoate, a preservative.[26]
In October 2016, Pepsi rereleased the drink in the United States again for a limited time exclusively on Amazon.com through its Prime Pantry service, sold in 8 packs. On November 1, 2016, Pepsi announced that the drink would be making a third return for 2017. On July 19, People magazine released an article stating that Crystal Pepsi would be back one final time on August 14, and that Crystal Pepsi-themed music festivals would be held at baseball stadiums around the US with performers Busta Rhymes and Salt-n-Pepa.
See also[edit]
1990s portal
List of defunct consumer brands
List of Pepsi types
Tab Clear
Zima
New Coke
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Garber Jr, Lawrence L. Color as a Tool for Visual Persuasion, p313. Essay included in Persuasive Imagery ed. by Linda M Scott. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003. ISBN 0-8058-4202-0
^ Jump up to: a b c Zyman, Sergio. The End of Marketing as We Know It. Harper-Collins, 1999. ISBN 0-88730-983-6
Jump up ^ Business Digest and Bloomington, Illinois. The Washington Post, April 14, 1992
Jump up ^ "403. Forbidden - Bloomberg" – via www.bloomberg.com.
Jump up ^ "Business Digest". New York Times, April 13, 1992
Jump up ^ Janofsky, Michael. "Pepsi Tries New Diet Cola Abroad". New York Times, March 2, 1993.
Jump up ^ Bryant, Adam. "Coke Adds a Clear Cola To Its New Age Stable". New York Times, December 15, 1992
Jump up ^ Cordelia Hebblethwaite (September 11, 2012). "Who, What, Why: In which countries is Coca-Cola not sold?". BBC News. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ "PEPSI SEES CITRUS APPEAL IN ITS CRYSTAL".
Jump up ^ Brody, Aaron L and John B Lord. Developing New Foods for a Changing Marketplace, p62. CRC Press, 2000. ISBN 1-56676-778-4
Jump up ^ Denny, Stephen. Killing Giants: 10 Strategies to Topple the Goliath in Your Industry.
Jump up ^ Tanner, Steve (August 11, 2009). "Is Pepsi Clear the return of Crystal Pepsi?". BevReview.com. Retrieved October 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kate Bonamici Flaim, Winging It, December 19, 2007, Fast Company (magazine). Retrieved September 29, 2009.
Jump up ^ Rick Aristotle Munarriz. "Coke's Surge Surges Back; Will Crystal Pepsi Be Revived Next?". DailyFinance.com. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bring Back Crystal Pepsi!", at change.org
Jump up ^ "L.A. Beast- Facebook". facebook.com. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ ABC News. "You Can Thank This Guy If Popular '90s Drink Crystal Pepsi Returns". ABC News. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "'Crystal Pepsi' may return in response to online campaign". Retrieved June 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ E.J. Schultz. (June 9, 2015). "Crystal Pepsi Is Poised for a Comeback". adage.com. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ MAJOR BREAKING NEWS - Bring Back Crystal Pepsi. YouTube. June 8, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Charles Riley and Cristina Alesci (June 11, 2015). "Remember Crystal Pepsi? It might be coming back". CNNMoney. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Crystal Pepsi Might Be Making a Comeback! - Us Weekly". usmagazine.com. June 11, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "PepsiCo poised to revive 1990s flop Crystal Pepsi". cbsnews.com. June 11, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ledbetter, Carly. "Crystal Pepsi Might Be Making A Comeback Thanks To One Man's Excitement". Huffpost. Huffington Post. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Whitten, Sarah (December 9, 2015). "A six-pack of Crystal Pepsi could be yours...if you win this sweepstakes." CNBC.
Jump up ^ "Official Site for PepsiCo Beverage Information - Product". origin-www.pepsicobeveragefacts.com.
[hide]
v
t
e
Varieties of Pepsi
Regular
1893 from the makers of Pepsi-Cola
Pepsi
Caffeine-Free Pepsi
Crystal Pepsi
Pepsi Blue
Pepsi Raw (Pepsi Natural)
Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar
Pepsi Twist
Pepsi Wild Cherry
Low-calorie
Diet Pepsi
Jazz Diet Pepsi
Pepsi Max
Pepsi Next
Pepsi One
Pepsi Special
Pepsi True
Pepsi Zero Sugar
List of Pepsi variations
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