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Ratite
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Ratites
Temporal range: Paleocene-Holocene 56–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Possible Late Cretaceous record
Southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Infraclass: Palaeognathae
Pycraft, 1900[1]
Orders
Struthioniformes ostrich
Rheiformes rhea
Casuariiformes cassowary and emu
†Aepyornithiformes elephant bird
†Dinornithiformes moa
Apterygiformes kiwi
Synonyms
Grallae Linnaeus, 1760[2]
Nudipedes Schäffer, 1774[2]
Fissipedes bidactyles Schäffer, 1774[2]
Retipedes Scopoli, 1777[2]
Struthiones Latham, 1790[2][3]
Campestres Illiger, 1811[2]
Cursores Illiger, 1811[3]
Proceri Illiger, 1811[2][3]
Megistanes Vieillot, 1816[2][3]
Brevipennes Cuvier, 1817[3]
Pressirostres Cuvier, 1817[2]
Inertes Temminck, 1820[2]
Ratitae Ranzani, 1823[2]
Rasores Vigors, 1826[2]
Cursitrices MacGillivray, 1840[2]
Grallatores Keyserling & Bl., 1840[2]
Proceres Sunder., 1872[3]
Struthiornithiformes
A ratite is any of a diverse group of flightless and mostly large and long-legged birds of the infraclass Palaeognathae.[4] Kiwis, however, are relatively much smaller and shorter-legged, as well as being the only nocturnal ratites.
The systematics of and relationships within the paleognath clade have been in flux. Previously, all the flightless members had been assigned to the order Struthioniformes, which is more recently regarded as containing only the ostrich.[1][5] The modern bird superorder Palaeognathae consists of ratites and flighted Neotropic tinamous (compare to Neognathae).[6] Unlike other flightless birds, the ratites have no keel on their sternum – hence the name from the Latin ratis (raft, a vessel which has no keel). Without this to anchor their wing muscles, they could not fly even if they were to develop suitable wings.[citation needed] Recent research has indicated that ratites are a paraphyletic group; tinamous fall within them, and are the sister group of the extinct moa.[6][7][8][9] This implies that flightlessness is a trait that evolved independently multiple times in different ratite lineages.[8]
Most parts of the former supercontinent Gondwana have ratites, or did have until the fairly recent past.[10][11] So did Europe in the Paleocene and Eocene, from where the first flightless paleognaths are known.[12] Ostriches were present in Asia as recently as the Holocene, although the genus is thought to have originated in Africa.[13] However, the ostrich order may have evolved in Eurasia.[13] A recent study posits a Laurasian origin for the clade.[14]
Contents
1 Species
1.1 Living forms
1.2 Holocene extinct forms
2 Classification
3 Evolution
3.1 Loss of flight
4 Description
4.1 Gallery of living species
5 Behavior and ecology
5.1 Feeding and diet
5.2 Reproduction
6 Ratites and humans
6.1 United States regulation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Species[edit]
See also: List of ratites
Living forms[edit]
The African ostrich is the largest living ratite. A large member of this species can be nearly 2.8 metres (9.2 ft) tall, weigh as much as 156 kilograms (344 lb),[15] and can outrun a horse.
Of the living species, the Australian emu is next in height, reaching up to 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) tall and about 50 kilograms (110 lb).[15] Like the ostrich, it is a fast-running, powerful bird of the open plains and woodlands.
Also native to Australia and the islands to the north are the three species of cassowary. Shorter than an emu, but heavier and solidly built, cassowaries prefer thickly vegetated tropical forest. They can be very dangerous when surprised or cornered because of their razor sharp talons. In New Guinea, cassowary eggs are brought back to villages and the chicks raised for eating as a much-prized delicacy, despite (or perhaps because of) the risk they pose to life and limb. They reach up to 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) tall and weigh as much as 59 kilograms (130 lb)[15]
South America has two species of rhea, large fast-running birds of the Pampas. The larger American rhea grows to about 1.4 metres (4.6 ft) tall and usually weighs 15 to 40 kilograms (33–88 lb).[15]
The smallest ratites are the five species of kiwi from New Zealand. Kiwi are chicken-sized, shy, and nocturnal. They nest in deep burrows and use a highly developed sense of smell to find small insects and grubs in the soil. Kiwi are notable for laying eggs that are very large in relation to their body size. A kiwi egg may equal 15 to 20 percent of the body mass of a female kiwi. The smallest species of kiwi is the little spotted kiwi, at 0.9 to 1.9 kilograms (2.0–4.2 lb) and 35 to 45 centimetres (14–18 in).[15]
Holocene extinct forms[edit]
At least nine species of moa lived in New Zealand before the arrival of humans, ranging from turkey-sized to the giant moa Dinornis giganteus with a height of 3.7 metres (12 ft) and weighing about 230 kilograms (510 lb).[15] They became extinct by A.D. 1400 due to hunting by Māori settlers, who arrived around A.D. 1280.
Aepyornis maximus, the "elephant bird" of Madagascar, was the heaviest bird ever known. Although shorter than the tallest moa, a large A. maximus could weigh over 400 kilograms (880 lb) and stand up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) tall.[15] Accompanying it were three other species of Aepyornis as well as three species of the smaller genus Mullerornis. All these species went into decline following the arrival of humans on Madagascar around 2000 years ago, and were gone by the 17th or 18th century if not earlier.
Classification[edit]
Comparison of a kiwi, ostrich, and Dinornis, each with its egg
There are two taxonomic approaches to ratite classification: the one applied here combines the groups as families in the order Struthioniformes, while the other supposes that the lineages evolved mostly independently and thus elevates the families to order rank (e.g. Rheiformes, Casuariformes etc.).
Evolution[edit]
The longstanding story of their evolution suggests that they share a common flightless ancestor that lived on Gondwana, whose descendants were carried by continental drift to their present locations. Supporting this idea, some studies based on morphology, immunology and DNA sequencing has indicated that ratites are monophyletic.[10] Cracraft's (1974) biogeographic vicariance hypothesis suggests that ancestral flightless paleognaths, the ancestors of ratites, were present and widespread in Gondwana during the Late Cretaceous. As the supercontinent fragmented due to plate tectonics, they were carried by plate movements to their current positions and evolved into the species present today.[16] The earliest known ratite fossils date to the Paleocene epoch about 56 million years ago (e.g. Diogenornis, a possible early relative of the rhea).[17] However, more primitive paleognaths are known from several million years earlier,[18] and the classification and membership of the Ratitae itself is uncertain. Some of the earliest ratites occur in Europe.[12]
Recent analyses of genetic variation between the ratites do not support this simple picture. The ratites may have diverged from one another too recently to share a common Gondwanan ancestor. Also, the Middle Eocene ratites such as Palaeotis and Remiornis from Central Europe may imply that the "out-of-Gondwana" hypothesis is oversimplified. Furthermore, recent analysis of twenty nuclear genes has indicated that the flighted tinamous cluster within the ratites, thus demonstrating that ratites are a paraphyletic group. The authors say the data "unequivocally places tinamous within ratites".[19] A later study using forty novel nuclear loci confirmed the aforementioned conclusion.[20]
A comparative study of the full mitochondrial DNA sequences of living ratites plus two moas places moas in the basal position, followed by rheas, followed by ostriches, followed by kiwis, with emus and cassowaries being closest relatives.[10] Another study has reversed the relative positions of moas and rheas, and indicated that elephant birds are not close relatives of ostriches or other ratites,[11] while a study of nuclear genes shows ostriches branching first, followed by rheas and tinamous, then kiwis splitting from emus and cassowaries.[19] In a recent study, elephant birds were shown to be most closely related to the New Zealand kiwi.[8]
These studies share branching dates which suggest that, while ancestral moas may have been present in New Zealand since it split off from Gondwana, the ancestors of kiwis appear to have arrived there from Australia more recently, perhaps by island-hopping and possibly by powered flight. A recent extensive morphological comparison makes South American and Australian ratites a clade, with three successively more distant sister groups consisting of ostriches, elephant birds, and a clade of New Zealand ratites.[21]
All analyses (apart from one recent morphological study) show that rheas and extant Australo-Pacific ratites are monophyletic. The DNA data showing the ostriches branching first would match the sequence of Gondwana's plate tectonic breakup.[19] Other, but not all, aspects of ratite paleobiogeography were found to be consistent with the vicariance (plate tectonic split-up of Gondwana) hypothesis. The sister-group relationship of New Zealand ratites to other ratites proposed on morphological grounds would not be consistent with vicariance, while the proposed South American-Australian clade would be.[21]
Recent phylogenomic studies indicate that tinamous nest within this group. This makes 'ratites' paraphyletic rather than monophyletic.[19][22] Since tinamous are weak fliers, this raises interesting questions about the evolution of flightlessness in this group. While the ratites were traditionally thought of as an ancestrally flightless, monophyletic group, the branching of the tinamous within the ratite lineage suggests that ratites evolved flightlessness at least three times.[19][23] More recent evidence suggests six or more times.[8] Re-evolution of flight in the tinamous would be an alternative explanation, but such a development is without precedent in avian history, while loss of flight is commonplace.[19]
Cladogram based on Mitchell et al. (2014)[8] and Yonezawa et al. (2016)[14]
Recent
paleognaths
†Aepyornithidae (elephant birds)
Apterygidae (kiwi)
Dromaiidae (emus)
Casuariidae (cassowaries)
†Dinornithiformes (moa)
Tinamidae (tinamous)
Rheidae (rheas)
Struthionidae (ostriches)
By 2014, a mitochondrial DNA phylogeny including fossil members showed tinamous nested well within the group.[8] Ostriches were placed on the first (basal) branch, followed by rheas, then a clade consisting of moas and tinamous, followed by the final two branches, a clade of emus plus cassowaries, and one of elephant birds plus kiwis.[8] The moa-tinamou relationship is consistent with other earlier and current findings,[6][7][9] while the finding of a sister relationship between elephant birds and kiwis is new. Additional support for this relationship was obtained from morphological analysis.[8]
While the basal position of ostriches would be predicted by vicariant speciation based on continental drift, the elephant bird-kiwi relation appears to require dispersal across oceans by flight; the phylogeny as a whole suggests multiple independent parallel origins of flightlessness (at least six times, or once in each major ratite lineage) and gigantism (at least five times).[8] Gigantism in birds is normally insular; however, a ten-million-year-long window of opportunity for evolution of avian gigantism on continents may have existed following the extinction of the dinosaurs, before mammals had evolved to large size. Additionally, ratite ancestors were able to fill diurnal herbivory niches originally filled by dinosaurs.[8] However, some authorities have been skeptical of the new findings and conclusions.[24]
Kiwis and tinamous are the only palaeognath lineages not to evolve gigantism, perhaps because of competitive exclusion by giant ratites already present on New Zealand and South America when they arrived or arose.[8] The fact that New Zealand has been the only land mass to support two major lineages of flightless ratites may reflect the absence of native mammals, which allowed kiwis to occupy a mammal-like nocturnal niche.[25] However, various other landmasses such as South America and Europe have supported multiple lineages of flightless ratites that evolved independently, undermining this competitive exclusion hypothesis.[26]
Most recently, studies on genetic and morphological divergence and fossil distribution show that paleognaths as a whole probably had an origin in the northern hemisphere. Early Cenozoic northern hemisphere paleognaths such as Lithornis, Pseudocrypturus, Paracathartes and Palaeotis appear to be the most basal members of the clade. The various ratite lineages were probably descended from flying ancestors that colonised the south in multiple waves, probably initially in South America, and then evolved gigantism.[14]
Loss of flight[edit]
Loss of flight allows birds to eliminate the energetic cost of maintaining flight-enabling pectoral muscle mass.[27] The basal metabolic rate of volant species is much higher than that of flightless terrestrial birds.[28] But energetic efficiency can only help explain the loss of flight when the benefits of flying are not critical to fitness.
Research on flightless rails indicates the flightless condition evolved in the absence of predators.[29] This shows flight to be generally necessary for survival and dispersal in birds.[30] In apparent contradiction to this, many landmasses occupied by ratites are also inhabited by predatory mammals.[8] However, the K–Pg extinction event created a window of time with large predators absent that may have allowed the ancestors of ratites to evolve flightlessness.[6] They subsequently underwent selection for large size.[6] One hypothesis suggests that as predation pressure decreases on islands with low raptor species richness and no mammalian predators, the need for large, powerful flight muscles that make for a quick escape decreases.[31] Moreover, raptor species tend to become generalist predators on islands with low species richness as opposed to specializing in the predation of birds. An increase in leg size compensates for a reduction in wing length in insular birds that have not lost flight by providing a longer lever to increase force generated during the thrust that initiates takeoff.[31]
Description[edit]
Ratites in general have many physical characteristics in common, which are often not shared by the family Tinamidae, or tinamous. First, the breast muscles are underdeveloped. They do not have keeled sterna. Their wishbones (furculae) are almost absent. They have a simplified wing skeletons and musculature. Their legs are stronger and do not have air chambers, except the femurs. Their tail and flight feathers have retrogressed or have become decorative plumes. They have no feather vanes, which means they do not need to oil their feathers, hence they have no preen glands. They have no separation of pterylae (feathered areas) and apteria (non-feathered areas),[32] and finally, they have palaeognathous palates.[33]
Ostriches have the greatest dimorphism, rheas show some dichromatism during the breeding season. Emus, cassowaries, and kiwis show some dimorphism, predominantly in size.
While the ratites share a lot of similarities, they also have major differences. Ostriches have only two toes, with one being much larger than the other. Cassowaries have developed long inner toenails, used defensively. Ostriches and rheas have prominent wings; although they don't use them to fly, they do use them in courtship and predator distraction.[33]
Without exception, ratite chicks are capable of swimming and even diving.[citation needed]
On an allometric basis, paleognaths have generally smaller brains than neognaths. Kiwis are exceptions to this trend, and possess proportionally larger brains comparable to those of parrots and songbirds, though evidence for similar advanced cognitive skills is currently lacking.[34]
Gallery of living species[edit]
Ostrich
Ostrich herd (S. camelus massaicus)
American rhea
Darwin's rhea
Southern cassowary
Northern cassowary
Dwarf cassowary
Emu
Great spotted kiwi
Little spotted kiwi
North Island brown kiwi
Behavior and ecology[edit]
Feeding and diet[edit]
Ratite chicks tend to be more omnivorous or insectivorous; similarities in adults end with feeding, as they all vary in diet and length of digestive tract, which is indicative of diet. Ostriches, with the longest tracts at 14 m (46 ft), are primarily herbivorous. Rheas' tracts are next longest at between 8–9 m (26–30 ft), and they also have caeca. They are also mainly herbivores, concentrating on broad-leafed plants. However, they will eat insects if the opportunity arises. Emus have tracts of 7 m (23 ft) length, and have a more omnivorous diet, including insects and other small animals. Cassowaries have nearly the shortest tracts at 4 m (13 ft). Finally, kiwis have the shortest tracts and eat earthworms, insects, and other similar creatures.[33] Moas and elephant birds were the largest native herbivores in their faunas, far larger than contemporary herbivorous mammals in the latter's case.[35]
Some extinct ratites might have had odder lifestyles, such as the narrow-billed Diogenornis and Palaeotis, compared to the shorebird-like lithornithids, and could imply similar animalivorous diets.[36][37]
Reproduction[edit]
Ratites are different from the flying birds in that they needed to adapt or evolve certain features to protect their young. First and foremost is the thickness of the shells of their eggs. Their young are hatched more developed than most and they can run or walk soon thereafter. Also, most ratites have communal nests, where they share the incubating duties with others. Ostriches are the only ratites where the female incubates; they share the duties, with the males incubating at night. Cassowaries and emu are polyandrous, with males incubating eggs and rearing chicks with no obvious contribution from females. Ostriches and rheas are polygynous with each male courting several females. Male rheas are responsible for building nests and incubating while ostrich males incubate only at night. Kiwis stand out as the exception with extended monogamous reproductive strategies where either the male alone or both sexes incubate a single egg.[33] Without exception, ratite chicks are capable of swimming and even diving.[citation needed]
Ratites and humans[edit]
Ratites and humans have had a long relationship starting with the use of the egg for water containers, jewelry, or other art medium. Male ostrich feathers were popular for hats during the 18th century, which led to hunting and sharp declines in populations. Ostrich farming grew out of this need, and humans harvested feathers, hides, eggs, and meat from the ostrich. Emu farming also became popular for similar reasons and for their emu oil. Rhea feathers are popular for dusters, and eggs and meat are used for chicken and pet feed in South America. Ratite hides are popular for leather products like shoes.[33]
United States regulation[edit]
The USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) began a voluntary, fee-for-service ratite inspection program in 1995 to help the fledgling industry improve the marketability of the meat. A provision in the FY2001 USDA appropriations act (P.L. 106-387) amended the Poultry Products Inspection Act to make federal inspection of ratite meat mandatory as of April 2001 (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.).[38]
See also[edit]
List of Struthioniformes by population
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Alvarenga, H.M.F. (1983) Uma ave ratitae do Paleoceno Brasileiro: bacia calcária de Itaboraí, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Boletim do Museu Nacional, Nova Série, Geologia 41: 1–8
Jump up ^ Gerald Mayr, Paleogene Fossil Birds
Jump up ^ Womach, Jasper (2005). "Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 15 Jul 2009.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palaeognathae.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Ratitæ.
Websites With Information On Ratites
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q19170
EoL: 42331476
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ratite&oldid=847538551"
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text:
Crust (geology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Geologic provinces of the World (USGS)
Shield
Platform
Orogen
Basin
Large igneous province
Extended crust
Oceanic crust:
0–20 Ma
20–65 Ma
>65 Ma
In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crusts of Earth, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than their respective mantles. The Earth's crust is composed of distinctly different continental crust and oceanic crust, which have different chemical compositions and physical properties, and which were formed by different geological processes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Earth's crust
1.1 Composition
2 Moon's crust
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Earth's crust
The internal structure of Earth
The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.[1]
The crust of the Earth is of two distinctive types: oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust is 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick[2] and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro. The continental crust is typically from 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick and is mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust but rare to absent in the oceanic crust.
Both the continental and oceanic crust "float" on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of seismic waves it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (sial) becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (sima), and the transition zone is referred to as the Conrad discontinuity.
The temperature of the crust increases with depth,[3] reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F) at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere. Because of convection in the underlying plastic (although non-molten) upper mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C (54 °F) for every kilometer locally in the upper part of the crust, but the geothermal gradient is smaller in deeper crust.[4]
Plates in the crust of Earth
Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. During the Hadean, the primordial crust was very thin and was probably destroyed by much more vigorous plate tectonics, volcanic activity and significant asteroid impacts,[5] which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.
Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, but the age of the oldest oceanic crust today is only about 200 million years. In contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4.28 billion years [6][7] and have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on other cratonic regions such as those on the Fennoscandian Shield. Some zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane.
The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years.[8] Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms in part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.
Composition
Main articles: Abundance of elements in Earth's crust and Goldschmidt classification
Abundance (atom fraction) of the chemical elements in Earth's upper continental crust as a function of atomic number. The rarest elements in the crust (shown in yellow) are not the heaviest, but are rather the siderophile (iron-loving) elements in the Goldschmidt classification of elements. These have been depleted by being relocated deeper into Earth's core. Their abundance in meteoroid materials is higher. Additionally, tellurium and selenium have been depleted from the crust due to formation of volatile hydrides.
The continental crust has an average composition similar to that of andesite.[9] The most abundant minerals in Earth's continental crust are feldspars, which make up about 41% of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12%, and pyroxenes at 11%.[10] Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic ocean crust and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle. Although the continental crust comprises only about 0.6 weight percent of the silicate on Earth, it contains 20% to 70% of the incompatible elements.
Most Abundant Elements of Earth's Crust
Approximate % by weight
O 46.6
Si 27.7
Al 8.1
Fe 5.0
Ca 3.6
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 1.5
Oxide
Percent
SiO2 60.6
Al2O3 15.9
CaO 6.4
MgO 4.7
Na2O 3.1
Fe as FeO 6.7
K2O 1.8
TiO2 0.7
P2O5 0.1
All the other constituents except water occur only in very small quantities and total less than 1%. Estimates of average density for the upper crust range between 2.69 and 2.74 g/cm3 and for lower crust between 3.0 and 3.25 g/cm3.[11]
Moon's crust
Main article: Geology of the Moon
A theoretical protoplanet named "Theia" is thought to have collided with the forming Earth, and part of the material ejected into space by the collision accreted to form the Moon. As the Moon formed, the outer part of it is thought to have been molten, a “lunar magma ocean.” Plagioclase feldspar crystallized in large amounts from this magma ocean and floated toward the surface. The cumulate rocks form much of the crust. The upper part of the crust probably averages about 88% plagioclase (near the lower limit of 90% defined for anorthosite): the lower part of the crust may contain a higher percentage of ferromagnesian minerals such as the pyroxenes and olivine, but even that lower part probably averages about 78% plagioclase.[12] The underlying mantle is denser and olivine-rich.
The thickness of the crust ranges between about 20 and 120 km. Crust on the far side of the Moon averages about 12 km thicker than that on the near side. Estimates of average thickness fall in the range from about 50 to 60 km. Most of this plagioclase-rich crust formed shortly after formation of the moon, between about 4.5 and 4.3 billion years ago. Perhaps 10% or less of the crust consists of igneous rock added after the formation of the initial plagioclase-rich material. The best-characterized and most voluminous of these later additions are the mare basalts formed between about 3.9 and 3.2 billion years ago. Minor volcanism continued after 3.2 billion years, perhaps as recently as 1 billion years ago. There is no evidence of plate tectonics.
Study of the Moon has established that a crust can form on a rocky planetary body significantly smaller than Earth. Although the radius of the Moon is only about a quarter that of Earth, the lunar crust has a significantly greater average thickness. This thick crust formed almost immediately after formation of the Moon. Magmatism continued after the period of intense meteorite impacts ended about 3.9 billion years ago, but igneous rocks younger than 3.9 billion years make up only a minor part of the crust.[13]
See also
Geology portal
Eduction
Notes
Jump up ^ Robinson, Eugene C. (January 14, 2011). "The Interior of the Earth". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Structure of the Earth. The Encyclopedia of Earth. March 3, 2010
Jump up ^ Peele, Robert (1911). "Boring". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 251.
Jump up ^ Earth. Channel4.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-13.[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Erickson, Jon (2014). Historical Geology: Understanding Our Planet's Past. Infobase Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 1438109644. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks'". BBC News. 2008-09-26. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
Jump up ^ P. J. Patchett and S. D. Samson, 2003, Ages and Growth of the Continental Crust from Radiogenic Isotopes. In The Crust (ed. R. L. Rudnick) volume 3, pp. 321–348 of Treatise on Geochemistry (eds. H. D. Holland and K. K. Turekian), Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford ISBN 0-08-043751-6
Jump up ^ A. I. S. Kemp and C. J. Hawkesworth, 2003, Granitic Perspectives on the Generation and Secular Evolution of the Continental Crust. In The Crust (ed. R. L. Rudnick) volume 3, pp. 349–410 of Treatise on Geochemistry (eds. H. D. Holland and K. K. Turekian), Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford ISBN 0-08-043751-6
Jump up ^ R. L. Rudnick and S. Gao, 2003, Composition of the Continental Crust. In The Crust (ed. R. L. Rudnick) volume 3, pp. 1–64 of Treatise on Geochemistry (eds. H. D. Holland and K. K. Turekian), Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford ISBN 0-08-043751-6
Jump up ^ Anderson, Robert S.; Anderson, Suzanne P. (2010). Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes. Cambridge University Press. p. 187.
Jump up ^ "Structure and composition of the Earth". Australian Museum Online. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
Jump up ^ Wieczorek, M. A. & Zuber, M. T. (2001), "The composition and origin of the lunar crust: Constraints from central peaks and crustal thickness modeling", Geophysical Research Letters, 28 (21): 4023–4026, Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.4023W, doi:10.1029/2001GL012918
Jump up ^ Herald Hiesinger and James W. Head III (2006). "New views of Lunar geoscience: An introduction and overview" (PDF). Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry. 60: 1–81. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.1.
References
Condie, Kent C. (1989). "Origin of the Earth's Crust". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (Global and Planetary Change Section). 75: 57–81. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(89)90184-3.
External links
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
USGS Crustal Thickness Map
"Crust of the Earth". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Geology". 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.
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Outer core
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Discontinuities
Conrad (continental crust)
Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)
Lehmann (upper mantle)
Gutenberg (mantle–core)
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Arguments
Plate tectonics
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Sourdough Sam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sourdough Sam in February 2009
Sourdough Sam is a mascot for the NFL's San Francisco 49ers. According to his official biography, he has four nicknames: Sam, Sammy, Samster, Samarama.[1]
Sourdough Sam's birthday is April 9, likely coinciding with the month-date format of the day, 4/9.[2] In 2015, a video of Sourdough Sam making his own birthday cake was released on this date.[3] He has a Facebook page with over 80,000 likes and a Twitter page with username @SourdoughSam49, both of which release posts referring to him in the first person. These social media outlets are often used for promotional advertising content portrayed as being endorsed by Sam himself, such as the Fathful 49 Loyalty Program and the 49ers' Kids Club.[4][5][6]
An original collage art piece of Sourdough Sam hangs in Levi Stadium and is located in the players' family room.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Outfit
3 Outside appearances
4 References
History[edit]
Before the introduction of Sourdough Sam, the first mascot[8] for the 49ers was a mule wearing a red blanket named Clementine, appearing in the 1950s and 60s.[9] A gold rush prospector-themed character first appeared in the 1970s,[10] designed to reflect the cover art for programs created between 1946 and 1949 by William Kay when the 49ers were a part of the All-America Football Conference,[11] which depicted a bushy-mustached prospector with two pistols. The first mascot with the miner theme, a theme retained for all future mascots, was depicted as a large man with an oversized football helmet and plaid shirt directly referencing the shirt worn in the original William Kay images. Several elements, such as a bushy beard and suspenders, remained part of the image in later iterations.[12] This version of Sourdough Sam appeared on a cookbook titled 49er Fixens.[13]
His next design switched his helmet for a wide-brimmed ten-gallon hat with a chunk taken out of its brim, as well as a longer brown beard and brown eyes.[14] Just prior to the 2006 NFL Season, Sam's appearance was altered somewhat, appearing as a clean-shaven gold panner with blue eyes and a hat without any imperfections. A bearded Sourdough Sam returned for the 2011 season, retaining the blue eye color.
Outfit[edit]
Sourdough Sam typically wears a cardinal football jersey, despite the 49ers' current selection of team color being 49ers Red, and his jersey number is 49. He wears a white long-sleeved shirt underneath the jersey and sports light brown gloves as well as a gold handkerchief around his neck. He also wears a large, dark brown cowboy hat emblazoned with the logo for the 49ers and dark brown boots. His jeans are held up by suspenders, and in 2014 he was outfitted with a new pair of Levi's jeans after 60 years of wearing a non-branded pair, with promotional images of his entering Levi's Taylor Shop and watching his custom pair be produced.[15][16] He sometimes carries a large pickax.
However, Sourdough Sam has made appearances with other outfits for special occasions. He has appeared with black boots and a black third jersey that was introduced in 2015,[17][18][19] a camouflage shirt and jacket with camouflage headband for military related appearances,[20][21][22] a red and white Santa suit-esqe top for holiday promotion,[23] and a pink shirt with purple handkerchief for breast cancer awareness efforts.[24] When meeting Snoop Dogg, Sourdough Sam wore shutter shades and a massive gold chain around his neck with the words "SOUR DIZZLE".[25]
Outside appearances[edit]
He has appeared on Fox, Monday Night Football, ESPN's SportsCenter, Extra, MTV, Evening Magazine, and Nickelodeon.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "49ers.com | Mascot". www.49ers.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam birthday cake image | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ dcbeatbox650 (2015-04-09), Let's Make a Cake!, retrieved 2016-02-06
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam - Looking to take your young 49ers Faithful... | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam with children | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam signed shirt promotion | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam collage image | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Team mascots of the past scored big points with fans". SFGate. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Our SF: Crazy Crab leads the mascot hall of fame". SFGate. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Team mascots of the past scored big points with fans". SFGate. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ Faulk, Steven (1 February 2011). "Before the NFL: Sourdough Sam's Swagger". Collector's Weekly. Market Street Media LLC. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam Throwback Thursday image | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam 49er Fixens | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam Throwback Thursday 1995 | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "LOOK: 49ers Sourdough Sam mascot gets new pair of Levi's". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "PHOTO GALLERY: SOURDOUGH SAM RECEIVES BRAND NEW LEVI'S JEANS - Levi's® Stadium". Levi's® Stadium. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "49ers will wear alternate black uniforms in Monday night opener". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Image of Sourdough Sam and Jerry Rice | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Image of Sourdough Sam celebrating with pickax | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam aboard U.S.S. Somerset with military | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam standing among cheerleeders and players | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam saluting with military | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam with cheerleaders for holiday photo | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam with #FindACure poses | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Sourdough Sam with Snoop Dog | Facebook". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
[show]
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San Francisco 49ers
Founded in 1946
Based and headquartered in Santa Clara, California
Franchise
Franchise
Team history
Coaches
Players
Seasons
Logo and uniform history
Starting quarterbacks
Draft history
Broadcasters
Stadiums
Kezar Stadium
Candlestick Park
Levi's Stadium
Culture
Sourdough Sam
San Francisco Gold Rush
West Coast offense
KGO
KNBR
Lore
The Catch
Joe Cool
Million Dollar Backfield
Snowball Game
Harbaugh Bowl
Rivalries
Los Angeles Rams
Seattle Seahawks
Dallas Cowboys
New York Giants
Key figures
Eddie DeBartolo
Denise DeBartolo York
Jed York
John York
Gideon Yu
Division championships (19)
1970
1971
1972
1981
1983
1984
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
2002
2011
2012
Conference championships (6)
1981
1984
1988
1989
1994
2012
League championships (5)
1981 (XVI)
1984 (XIX)
1988 (XXIII)
1989 (XXIV)
1994 (XXIX)
Retired numbers
8
12
16
34
37
39
70
58
70
80
87
BW
Mr. D
Current league affiliations
League: National Football League (1950–present)
Conference: National Football Conference
Division: West Division
Former league affiliation
All-America Football Conference (1946–1949)
Seasons (72)
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Championship seasons in bold
[show]
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List of National Football League mascots
American Football Conference
AFC East AFC North AFC South AFC West
Billy Buffalo (Buffalo Bills)
T. D. (Miami Dolphins)
Pat Patriot (New England Patriots)
None (New York Jets)
Poe, Rise & Conquer (Baltimore Ravens)
Who Dey (Cincinnati Bengals)
Chomps (Cleveland Browns)
Steely McBeam (Pittsburgh Steelers)
Toro (Houston Texans)
Blue (Indianapolis Colts)
Jaxson de Ville (Jacksonville Jaguars)
T-Rac (Tennessee Titans)
Miles, Thunder (Denver Broncos)
K. C. Wolf, Warpaint (Kansas City Chiefs)
Boltman (Los Angeles Chargers)
Raider Rusher (Oakland Raiders)
National Football Conference
NFC East NFC North NFC South NFC West
Rowdy (Dallas Cowboys)
None (New York Giants)
Air Swoop, Swoop (Philadelphia Eagles)
None (Washington Redskins)
Staley Da Bear (Chicago Bears)
Roary (Detroit Lions)
None (Green Bay Packers)
Ragnar, Viktor (Minnesota Vikings)
Freddie Falcon (Atlanta Falcons)
Sir Purr (Carolina Panthers)
Gumbo, Sir Saint (New Orleans Saints)
Captain Fear (Tampa Bay Buccaneers)
Big Red (Arizona Cardinals)
Rampage (Los Angeles Rams)
Sourdough Sam (San Francisco 49ers)
Blitz, Taima (Seattle Seahawks)

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