text:
Cardiac muscle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cardiac muscle
Details
Part of
Myocardium of the heart
Identifiers
Latin
Textus muscularis striatus cardiacus
TH
H2.00.05.2.02001, H2.00.05.2.00004
FMA
14068
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is one of the three major types of muscle, the others being skeletal and smooth muscle. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that is found in the walls of the heart. This muscle tissue is known as myocardium, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the epicardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium). Myocardium is composed of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) joined together by intercalated disks, encased by collagen fibres and other substances forming the extracellular matrix.
Cardiac muscle contracts in a similar manner to skeletal muscle, although with some important differences. An electrical stimulation in the form of an action potential triggers the release of calcium from the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The rise in calcium causes the cell's myofilaments to slide past each other in a process called excitation contraction coupling.
Diseases of heart muscle are of major importance. These include conditions caused by a restricted blood supply to the muscle including angina pectoris and myocardial infarction, and other heart muscle disease known as cardiomyopathies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Gross anatomy
1.2 Histology
1.2.1 Cardiac muscle cells
1.2.1.1 T-tubules
1.2.1.2 Intercalated discs
1.2.2 Fibroblasts
1.2.3 Extracellular matrix
2 Physiology
2.1 Regeneration
2.2 Differences between atria and ventricles
3 Clinical significance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
Gross anatomy[edit]
Main article: Heart § Structure
3D rendering showing thick myocardium within heart wall.
Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle tissue or myocardium forms the bulk of the heart. The heart wall is a three layered structure with a thick layer of myocardium sandwiched between the inner endocardium and the outer epicardium (also known as the visceral pericardium). The inner endocardium lines the cardiac chambers, covers the cardiac valves, and joins with the endothelium that lines the blood vessels that connect to the heart. On the outer aspect of the myocardium is the epicardium which forms part of the pericardium, the sack that surrounds, protects, and lubricates the heart.[1] Within the myocardium there are several sheets of cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. The sheets of muscle that wrap around the left ventricle closest to the endocardium are oriented perpendicularly to those closest to the epicardium. When these sheets contract in a coordinated manner they allow the ventricle to squeeze in several direction simultaneously – longitudinally (becoming shorter from apex to base), radially (becoming narrower from side to side), and with a twisting motion (similar to wringing out a damp cloth) to squeeze out the maximum amount of blood with each heartbeat.[2]
Histology[edit]
When looked at microscopically, cardiac muscle can be likened to the wall of a house. Most of the wall is taken up by bricks, which in cardiac muscle are individual cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. The mortar which surrounds the bricks is known as the extracellular matrix, produced by supporting cells known as fibroblasts. In the same way that the walls of a house contain electrical wires and plumbing, cardiac muscle also contains specialised cells for conducting electrical signals rapidly (the cardiac conduction system), and blood vessels to bring nutrients to the muscle cells and take away waste products (the coronary arteries, veins and capillary network).[3]
Cardiac muscle cells[edit]
Main article: Cardiac muscle cells
Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes are the contracting cells which allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighbouring cells to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation.[4]
Viewed through a microscope, cardiac muscle cells are roughly rectangular, measuring 100–150μm by 30–40μm.[5] Individual cardiac muscle cells are joined together at their ends by intercalated disks to form long fibres. Each cell contains myofibrils, specialised protein fibres that slide past each other. These are organised into sarcomeres, the fundamental contractile units of muscle cells. The regular organisation of myofibrils into sarcomeres gives cardiac muscle cells a striped or striated appearance when looked at through a microscope, similar to skeletal muscle. These striations are caused by lighter I bands composed mainly of a protein called actin, and darker A bands composed mainly of myosin.[3]
Cardiomyocytes contain T-tubules, pouches of membrane that run from the surface to the cell's interior which help to which improve the efficiency of contraction. The majority of these cells contain only one nucleus (although they may have as many as four), unlike skeletal muscle cells which typically contain many nuclei. Cardiac muscle cells contain many mitochondria which provide the energy needed for the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), making them highly resistant to fatigue.[5][3]
T-tubules[edit]
Main article: T-tubules
T-tubules are microscopic tubes that run from the cell surface to deep within the cell. They are continuous with the cell membrane, are composed of the same phospholipid bilayer, and are open at the cell surface to the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cell. T-tubules in cardiac muscle are bigger and wider than those in skeletal muscle, but fewer in number.[5] In the centre of the cell they join together, running into and along the cell as a transverse-axial network. Inside the cell they lie close to the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Here, a single tubule pairs with part of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called a terminal cisterna in a combination known as a diad.[6]
The functions of T-tubules include rapidly transmitting electrical impulses known as action potentials from the cell surface to the cell's core, and helping to regulate the concentration of calcium within the cell in a process known as excitation-contraction coupling.[5]
Intercalated discs[edit]
Main article: Intercalated disc
Intercalated discs are part of the cardiac muscle sarcolemma and they contain gap junctions and desmosomes.
The cardiac syncytium is a network of cardiomyocytes connected to each other by intercalated discs that enable the rapid transmission of electrical impulses through the network, enabling the syncytium to act in a coordinated contraction of the myocardium. There is an atrial syncytium and a ventricular syncytium that are connected by cardiac connection fibres.[7] Electrical resistance through intercalated discs is very low, thus allowing free diffusion of ions. The ease of ion movement along cardiac muscle fibers axes is such that action potentials are able to travel from one cardiac muscle cell to the next, facing only slight resistance. Each syncytium obeys the all or none law.[8]
Intercalated discs are complex adhering structures that connect the single cardiomyocytes to an electrochemical syncytium (in contrast to the skeletal muscle, which becomes a multicellular syncytium during mammalian embryonic development). The discs are responsible mainly for force transmission during muscle contraction. Intercalated discs consist of three different types of cell-cell junctions: the actin filament anchoring adherens junctions, the intermediate filament anchoring desmosomes, and gap junctions. They allow action potentials to spread between cardiac cells by permitting the passage of ions between cells, producing depolarization of the heart muscle. However, novel molecular biological and comprehensive studies unequivocally showed that intercalated discs consist for the most part of mixed-type adhering junctions named area composita (pl. areae compositae) representing an amalgamation of typical desmosomal and fascia adhaerens proteins (in contrast to various epithelia).[9][10][11] The authors discuss the high importance of these findings for the understanding of inherited cardiomyopathies (such as arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy).
Under light microscopy, intercalated discs appear as thin, typically dark-staining lines dividing adjacent cardiac muscle cells. The intercalated discs run perpendicular to the direction of muscle fibers. Under electron microscopy, an intercalated disc's path appears more complex. At low magnification, this may appear as a convoluted electron dense structure overlying the location of the obscured Z-line. At high magnification, the intercalated disc's path appears even more convoluted, with both longitudinal and transverse areas appearing in longitudinal section.[12]
Fibroblasts[edit]
Main article: Fibroblasts
Cardiac fibroblasts are vital supporting cells within cardiac muscle. They are unable to provide forceful contractions like cardiomyocytes, but instead are largely responsible for creating and maintaining the extracellular matrix which forms the mortar in which cardiomyocyte bricks are embedded.[3] Fibroblasts play a crucial role in responding to injury, such as a myocardial infarction. Following injury, fibroblasts can become activated and turn into myofibroblasts – cells which exhibit behaviour somewhere between a fibroblast (generating extracellular matrix) and a smooth muscle cell (ability to contract). In this capacity, fibroblasts can repair an injury by creating collagen while gently contracting to pull the edges of the injured area together.[13]
Fibroblasts are smaller but more numerous than cardiomyocytes, and several fibroblasts can be attached to a cardiomyocyte at once. When attached to a cardiomyocyte they can influence the electrical currents passing across the muscle cell's surface membrane, and in the context are referred to as being electrically coupled.[14] Other potential roles for fibroblasts include electrical insulation of the cardiac conduction system, and the ability to transform into other cell types including cardiomyocytes and adipocytes.[13]
Extracellular matrix[edit]
Main article: Extracellular matrix
Continuing the analogy of heart muscle as being like a wall, the extracellular matrix is the mortar which surrounds the cardiomyocyte and fibroblasts bricks. The matrix is composed of proteins such as collagen and elastin along with polysaccharides(sugar chains) known as glycosaminoglycans.[3] Together, these substances give support and strength to the muscle cells, create elasticity in cardiac muscle, and keep the muscle cells hydrated by binding water molecules.
The matrix in immediate contact with the muscle cells is referred to as the basement membrane, mainly composed of type IV collagen and laminin. Cardiomyocytes are linked to the basement membrane via specialised glycoproteins called integrins.[15]
Physiology[edit]
Play media
An isolated cardiac muscle cell, beating
Main article: Excitation-contraction coupling
The physiology of cardiac muscle shares many similarities with that of skeletal muscle. The primary function of both muscle types is to contract, and in both cases a contraction begins with a characteristic flow of ions across the cell membrane known as an action potential. The action potential subsequently triggers muscle contraction by increasing the concentration of calcium within the cytosol.
However, the mechanism by which calcium concentrations within the cytosol rise differ between skeletal and cardiac muscle. In cardiac muscle, the action potential comprises an inward flow of both sodium and calcium ions. The flow of sodium ions is rapid but very short-lived, while the flow of calcium is sustained and gives the plateau phase characteristic of cardiac muscle action potentials. The comparatively small flow of calcium through the L-type calcium channels triggers a much larger release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a phenomenon known as calcium-induced calcium release. In contrast, in skeletal muscle, minimal calcium flows into the cell during action potential and instead the sarcoplasmic reticulum in these cells is directly coupled to the surface membrane. This difference can be illustrated by the observation that cardiac muscle fibres require calcium to be present in the solution surrounding the cell in order to contract, while skeletal muscle fibres will contract without extracellular calcium.
During contraction of a cardiac muscle cell, the long protein myofilaments oriented along the length of the slide over each other in what is known as the sliding filament hypothesis. There are two kinds of myofilaments, thick filaments composed of the protein myosin, and thin filaments composed of the proteins actin, troponin and tropomyosin. As the thick and thin filaments slide past each other the cell becomes shorter and fatter. In a mechanism known as crossbridge cycling, calcium ions bind to the protein troponin, which along with tropomyosin then uncover key binding sites on actin. Myosin, in the thick filament, can then bind to actin, pulling the thick filaments along the thin filaments. When the concentration of calcium within the cell falls, troponin and tropomyosin once again cover the binding sites on actin, causing the cell to relax.
Regeneration[edit]
Dog cardiac muscle (400X)
Until recently, it was commonly believed that cardiac muscle cells could not be regenerated. However, a study reported in the April 3, 2009 issue of Science contradicts that belief.[16] Olaf Bergmann and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm tested samples of heart muscle from people born before 1955 who had very little cardiac muscle around their heart, many showing with disabilities from this abnormality. By using DNA samples from many hearts, the researchers estimated that a 4-year-old renews about 20% of heart muscle cells per year, and about 69 percent of the heart muscle cells of a 50-year-old were generated after he or she was born.
One way that cardiomyocyte regeneration occurs is through the division of pre-existing cardiomyocytes during the normal aging process.[17] The division process of pre-existing cardiomyocytes has also been shown to increase in areas adjacent to sites of myocardial injury. In addition, certain growth factors promote the self-renewal of endogenous cardiomyocytes and cardiac stem cells. For example, insulin-like growth factor 1, hepatocyte growth factor, and high-mobility group protein B1 increase cardiac stem cell migration to the affected area, as well as the proliferation and survival of these cells.[18] Some members of the fibroblast growth factor family also induce cell-cycle re-entry of small cardiomyocytes. Vascular endothelial growth factor also plays an important role in the recruitment of native cardiac cells to an infarct site in addition to its angiogenic effect.
Based on the natural role of stem cells in cardiomyocyte regeneration, researchers and clinicians are increasingly interested in using these cells to induce regeneration of damaged tissue. Various stem cell lineages have been shown to be able to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, including bone marrow stem cells. For example, in one study, researchers transplanted bone marrow cells, which included a population of stem cells, adjacent to an infarct site in a mouse model. Nine days after surgery, the researchers found a new band of regenerating myocardium.[19] However, this regeneration was not observed when the injected population of cells was devoid of stem cells, which strongly suggests that it was the stem cell population that contributed to the myocardium regeneration. Other clinical trials have shown that autologous bone marrow cell transplants delivered via the infarct-related artery decreases the infarct area compared to patients not given the cell therapy.[20]
Differences between atria and ventricles[edit]
Cardiac muscle forms both the atria and the ventricles of the heart. Although this muscle tissue is very similar between cardiac chambers, some differences exist. The myocardium found in the ventricles is thick to allow forceful contractions, while the myocardium in the atria is much thinner. The individual myocytes that make up the myocardium also differ between cardiac chambers. Ventricular cardiomyocytes are longer and wider, with a denser T-tubule network. Although the fundamental mechanisms of calcium handling are similar between ventricular and atrial cardiomyocytes, the calcium transient is smaller and decays more rapidly in atrial myocytes, with a corresponding increase in calcium buffering capacity.[21] The complement of ion channels differs between chambers, leading to longer action potential durations and effective refractory periods in the ventricles. Certain ion currents such as IK(UR) are highly specific to atrial cardiomyocytes, making them a potential target for treatments for atrial fibrillation.[22]
Clinical significance[edit]
Diseases affecting cardiac muscle are of immense clinical significance, and are the leading cause of death in developed nations.[23] The most common condition affecting cardiac muscle is ischaemic heart disease, in which the blood supply to the heart is reduced. In ischaemic heart disease, the coronary arteries become narrowed by atherosclerosis.[24] If these narrowings gradually become severe enough to partially restrict blood flow, the syndrome of angina pectoris may occur.[24] This typically causes chest pain during exertion that is relieved by rest. If a coronary artery suddenly becomes very narrowed or completed blocked, interrupting or severely reducing blood flow through the vessel, a myocardial infarction or heart attack occurs.[25] If the blockage is not relieved promptly by medication, percutaneous coronary intervention, or surgery, then a region of heart muscle may become permanently scarred and damaged.[26]
Heart muscle can also become damaged despite a normal blood supply. The heart muscle may become inflamed in a condition called myocarditis,[27] most commonly caused by a viral infection[28] but sometimes caused by the body's own immune system.[29] Heart muscle can also be damaged by drugs such as alcohol, long standing high blood pressure or hypertension, or persistent abnormal heart racing.[30] Specific diseases of heart muscle called cardiomyopathies can cause heart muscle to become abnormally thick (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy),[31] abnormally large (dilated cardiomyopathy),[32] or abnormally stiff (restrictive cardiomyopathy).[33] Some of these conditions are caused by genetic mutations and can be inherited.[34]
Many of these conditions, if severe enough, can damage the heart so much that the pumping function of the heart is reduced. If the heart is no longer able to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, this is described as heart failure.[30]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cardiac muscle.
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Frank–Starling law of the heart
Regional function of the heart
Nebulette
References[edit]
Jump up ^ S., Sinnatamby, Chummy (2006). Last's anatomy : regional and applied. Last, R. J. (Raymond Jack). (11th ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-443-10032-1. OCLC 61692701.
Jump up ^ Stöhr, Eric J.; Shave, Rob E.; Baggish, Aaron L.; Weiner, Rory B. (2016-09-01). "Left ventricular twist mechanics in the context of normal physiology and cardiovascular disease: a review of studies using speckle tracking echocardiography". American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 311 (3): H633–644. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00104.2016. ISSN 1522-1539. PMID 27402663.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e (Pathologist), Stevens, Alan (1997). Human histology. Lowe, J. S. (James Steven), Stevens, Alan (Pathologist). (2nd ed.). London: Mosby. ISBN 0723424853. OCLC 35652355.
Jump up ^ The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Camm, A. John., Lüscher, Thomas F. (Thomas Felix), Serruys, P. W., European Society of Cardiology. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009. ISBN 9780199566990. OCLC 321015206.
^ Jump up to: a b c d M., Bers, D. (2001). Excitation-contraction coupling and cardiac contractile force (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0792371585. OCLC 47659382.
Jump up ^ Hong, TingTing; Shaw, Robin M. (January 2017). "Cardiac T-Tubule Microanatomy and Function". Physiological Reviews. 97 (1): 227–252. doi:10.1152/physrev.00037.2015. ISSN 1522-1210. PMID 27881552.
Jump up ^ Jahangir Moini; Professor of Allied Health Everest University Indialantic Florida Jahangir Moini (4 April 2011). Anatomy and Physiology for Health Professionals. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 213–. ISBN 978-1-4496-3414-8.
Jump up ^ Khurana (1 January 2005). Textbook Of Medical Physiology. Elsevier India. p. 247. ISBN 978-81-8147-850-4.
Jump up ^ Franke WW, Borrmann CM, Grund C, Pieperhoff S (February 2006). "The area composita of adhering junctions connecting heart muscle cells of vertebrates. I. Molecular definition in intercalated disks of cardiomyocytes by immunoelectron microscopy of desmosomal proteins". Eur. J. Cell Biol. 85 (2): 69–82. doi:10.1016/j.ejcb.2005.11.003. PMID 16406610.
Jump up ^ Goossens S, Janssens B, Bonné S, et al. (June 2007). "A unique and specific interaction between alphaT-catenin and plakophilin-2 in the area composita, the mixed-type junctional structure of cardiac intercalated discs". J. Cell Sci. 120 (Pt 12): 2126–36. doi:10.1242/jcs.004713. PMID 17535849.
Jump up ^ Pieperhoff S, Barth M, Rickelt S, Franke WW (2010). Mahoney MG, Müller EJ, Koch PJ, eds. "Desmosomes and Desmosomal Cadherin Function in Skin and Heart Diseases-Advancements in Basic and Clinical Research". Dermatol Res Pract. 2010: 1. doi:10.1155/2010/725647. PMC 2946574  . PMID 20885972.
Jump up ^ Histology image:22501loa from Vaughan, Deborah (2002). A Learning System in Histology: CD-ROM and Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195151732.
^ Jump up to: a b Ivey, Malina J.; Tallquist, Michelle D. (2016-10-25). "Defining the Cardiac Fibroblast". Circulation Journal: Official Journal of the Japanese Circulation Society. 80 (11): 2269–2276. doi:10.1253/circj.CJ-16-1003. ISSN 1347-4820. PMC 5588900  . PMID 27746422.
Jump up ^ Rohr, Stephan (June 2009). "Myofibroblasts in diseased hearts: new players in cardiac arrhythmias?". Heart Rhythm. 6 (6): 848–856. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.02.038. ISSN 1556-3871. PMID 19467515.
Jump up ^ Horn, Margaux A.; Trafford, Andrew W. (April 2016). "Aging and the cardiac collagen matrix: Novel mediators of fibrotic remodelling". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 93: 175–185. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.11.005. ISSN 1095-8584. PMC 4945757  . PMID 26578393.
Jump up ^ Bergmann O, Bhardwaj RD, Bernard S, et al. (April 2009). "Evidence for cardiomyocyte renewal in humans". Science. 324 (5923): 98–102. doi:10.1126/science.1164680. PMC 2991140  . PMID 19342590.
Jump up ^ Senyo SE, Steinhauser ML, Pizzimenti CL, Yang VK, Cai L, Wang M, Wu TD, Guerguin-Kern JL, Lechene CP, Lee RT (January 2013). "Mammalian heart renewal by pre-existing cardiomyocytes". Nature. 493 (7432): 433–6. doi:10.1038/nature11682. PMC 3548046  . PMID 23222518.
Jump up ^ Germani A, Di Rocco G, Limana F, Martelli F, Capogrossi MC (March 2007). "Molecular mechanisms of cardiomyocyte regenerate and therapeutic outlook". Trends Mol Med. 13 (3): 125–33. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2007.01.002. PMID 17257896.
Jump up ^ Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, Jakoniuk I, Anderson SM, Li B, Pickel K, McKay R, Nadal-Ginard B, Bodine DM, Anversa P (April 2001). "Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium". Nature. 410 (6829): 701–5. doi:10.1038/35070587. PMID 11287958.
Jump up ^ Orlic D, Hill JM, Arai AE (December 2002). "Stem cells for myocardial regeneration". Circ Res. 91 (12): 1092–102. doi:10.1161/01.RES.0000046045.00846.B0. PMID 12480809.
Jump up ^ Walden, A. P.; Dibb, K. M.; Trafford, A. W. (April 2009). "Differences in intracellular calcium homeostasis between atrial and ventricular myocytes". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 46 (4): 463–473. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2008.11.003. ISSN 1095-8584. PMID 19059414.
Jump up ^ Ravens, Ursula; Wettwer, Erich (2011-03-01). "Ultra-rapid delayed rectifier channels: molecular basis and therapeutic implications". Cardiovascular Research. 89 (4): 776–785. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvq398. ISSN 1755-3245. PMID 21159668.
Jump up ^ Lozano, Rafael; Naghavi, Mohsen; Foreman, Kyle; Lim, Stephen; Shibuya, Kenji; Aboyans, Victor; Abraham, Jerry; Adair, Timothy; Aggarwal, Rakesh (2012-12-15). "Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2095–2128. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 23245604.
^ Jump up to: a b Kolh, Philippe; Windecker, Stephan; Alfonso, Fernando; Collet, Jean-Philippe; Cremer, Jochen; Falk, Volkmar; Filippatos, Gerasimos; Hamm, Christian; Head, Stuart J. (October 2014). "2014 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on myocardial revascularization: the Task Force on Myocardial Revascularization of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Developed with the special contribution of the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI)". European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery: Official Journal of the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 46 (4): 517–592. doi:10.1093/ejcts/ezu366. ISSN 1873-734X. PMID 25173601.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jennifer N.; Negrelli, Jenna M.; Manek, Megha B.; Hawes, Emily M.; Viera, Anthony J. (March 2015). "Diagnosis and management of acute coronary syndrome: an evidence-based update". Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine: JABFM. 28 (2): 283–293. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2015.02.140189. ISSN 1558-7118. PMID 25748771.
Jump up ^ Roffi, Marco; Patrono, Carlo; Collet, Jean-Philippe; Mueller, Christian; Valgimigli, Marco; Andreotti, Felicita; Bax, Jeroen J.; Borger, Michael A.; Brotons, Carlos (2016-01-14). "2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: Task Force for the Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients Presenting without Persistent ST-Segment Elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)". European Heart Journal. 37 (3): 267–315. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv320. ISSN 1522-9645. PMID 26320110.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Leslie T. (2009-04-09). "Myocarditis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 360 (15): 1526–1538. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0800028. ISSN 1533-4406. PMC 5814110  . PMID 19357408.
Jump up ^ Rose, Noel R. (July 2016). "Viral myocarditis". Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 28 (4): 383–389. doi:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000303. ISSN 1531-6963. PMC 4948180  . PMID 27166925.
Jump up ^ Bracamonte-Baran, William; Čiháková, Daniela (2017). "Cardiac Autoimmunity: Myocarditis". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 1003: 187–221. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57613-8_10. ISSN 0065-2598. PMC 5706653  . PMID 28667560.
^ Jump up to: a b Ponikowski, Piotr; Voors, Adriaan A.; Anker, Stefan D.; Bueno, Héctor; Cleland, John G. F.; Coats, Andrew J. S.; Falk, Volkmar; González-Juanatey, José Ramón; Harjola, Veli-Pekka (August 2016). "2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: The Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC". European Journal of Heart Failure. 18 (8): 891–975. doi:10.1002/ejhf.592. ISSN 1879-0844. PMID 27207191.
Jump up ^ Liew, Alphonsus C.; Vassiliou, Vassilios S.; Cooper, Robert; Raphael, Claire E. (2017-12-12). "Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy-Past, Present and Future". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 6 (12). doi:10.3390/jcm6120118. ISSN 2077-0383. PMC 5742807  . PMID 29231893.
Jump up ^ Japp, Alan G.; Gulati, Ankur; Cook, Stuart A.; Cowie, Martin R.; Prasad, Sanjay K. (2016-06-28). "The Diagnosis and Evaluation of Dilated Cardiomyopathy". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 67 (25): 2996–3010. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.590. ISSN 1558-3597. PMID 27339497.
Jump up ^ Garcia, Mario J. (2016-05-03). "Constrictive Pericarditis Versus Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 67 (17): 2061–2076. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2016.01.076. ISSN 1558-3597. PMID 27126534.
Jump up ^ Towbin, Jeffrey A. (2014). "Inherited cardiomyopathies". Circulation Journal: Official Journal of the Japanese Circulation Society. 78 (10): 2347–2356. ISSN 1347-4820. PMC 4467885  . PMID 25186923.
External links[edit]
Cardiac muscle histology
[show]
v
t
e
Muscular system
Tissue
Muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle
Fascia
Superficial
Deep
Visceral
Fascial compartment
Tendon/Aponeurosis
Shape
Fusiform
Pennate muscle
Unipennate
Bipennate
Other
Anatomical terms of muscle
Origin
Insertion
List of muscles of the human body
Composite muscle
[show]
v
t
e
Muscle tissue
Smooth
muscle
Calmodulin
Vascular smooth muscle
Striated
muscle
Skeletal
muscle
Costamere/
DAPC
Membrane/
extracellular
DAP:
Sarcoglycan
SGCA
SGCB
SGCD
SGCE
SGCG
SGCZ
Dystroglycan
Sarcospan
Laminin, alpha 2
Intracellular
Dystrophin
Dystrobrevin
A
B
Syntrophin
A
B1
B2
G1
G2
Syncoilin
Dysbindin
Synemin/desmuslin
related:
NOS1
Caveolin 3
Sarcomere/
(a, i, and h bands;
z and m lines)
Myofilament
thin filament/actin
thick filament/myosin
elastic filament/titin
nebulin
Tropomyosin
Troponin
T
C
I
Connective tissue
Epimysium
Fascicle
Perimysium
Endomysium
Connective tissue in skeletal muscle
General
Neuromuscular junction
Motor unit
Muscle spindle
Excitation–contraction coupling
Sliding filament mechanism
Cardiac
muscle
Myocardium
Intercalated disc
Nebulette
Both
Fiber
Muscle fiber
intrafusal
extrafusal
Myofibril
Microfilament/Myofilament
Sarcomere
Cells
Myoblast/Myocyte
Myosatellite cell
Other
Desmin
Sarcoplasm
Sarcolemma
T-tubule
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Other/
ungrouped
Myotilin
Telethonin
Dysferlin
Fukutin
Fukutin-related protein
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the heart
General
Surface
base
apex
sulci
coronary
interatrial
anterior interventricular
posterior interventricular
borders
right
left
Internal
atria
interatrial septum
pectinate muscles
terminal sulcus
ventricles
interventricular septum
trabeculae carneae
chordae tendineae
papillary muscle
valves
cusps
atrioventricular septum
cardiac skeleton
intervenous tubercle
Chambers
Right heart
(venae cavae, coronary sinus) → right atrium (atrial appendage, fossa ovalis, limbus of fossa ovalis, crista terminalis, valve of inferior vena cava, valve of coronary sinus) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle (infundibulum, moderator band/septomarginal trabecula, crista supraventricularis), → pulmonary valve → (pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation)
Left heart
(pulmonary veins) → left atrium (atrial appendage) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve (aortic sinus) → (aorta and systemic circulation)
Layers
Endocardium
heart valves
Myocardium
Conduction system
cardiac pacemaker
SA node
Bachmann's bundle
AV node
bundle of His
bundle branches
Purkinje fibers
Pericardial cavity
pericardial sinus
Pericardium
fibrous pericardium
sternopericardial ligaments
serous pericardium
epicardium/visceral layer
fold of left vena cava
Blood supply
Circulatory system
Coronary circulation
Coronary arteries
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cardiac_muscle&oldid=835653049"
Categories:
Cardiac anatomy
Muscular system
Cardiac electrophysiology
Muscle tissue
Histology
Hidden categories:
Pages with unresolved properties
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Bahasa Indonesia
Kiswahili
日本語
Português
Simple English
Edit links
This page was last edited on 9 April 2018, at 23:52.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: /wiki/Myocardium mw-redirect Myocardium

values:
/wiki/Excitation_contraction_coupling
mw-redirect
Excitation contraction coupling

values:
/wiki/Cardiac_muscle_cells
mw-redirect
Cardiac muscle cells

values:
/wiki/Phospholipid_bilayer
mw-redirect
Phospholipid bilayer

values:
/wiki/All_or_none_law
mw-redirect
All or none law

values:
/wiki/Adherens_junctions
mw-redirect
Adherens junctions

values:
/wiki/Gap_junctions
mw-redirect
Gap junctions

values: Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy

values:
/wiki/Light_microscopy
mw-redirect
Light microscopy

values: Electrical conduction system of the heart

values: File:A single cardiomyocyte beating, five days after purification from cell culture.ogv

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating%2C_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv/274px--A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating%2C_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:274px;height:206px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="13.365013365013" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating,_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating%2C_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-title="Original Ogg file, 274 × 206 (43 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="274" data-height="206" data-bandwidth="43083" data-framerate="30.303"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating%2C_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv/A_single_cardiomyocyte_beating%2C_five_days_after_purification_from_cell_culture.ogv.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="212" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="112544" data-framerate="30.303"/></video>

values:
/wiki/Excitation-contraction_coupling
mw-redirect
Excitation-contraction coupling

values:
/wiki/Skeletal_striated_muscle
mw-redirect
Skeletal striated muscle

values: Edit section: Differences between atria and ventricles

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61692701

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61692701

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpheart.00104.2016

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1522-1539

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27402663

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35652355

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/35652355

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/321015206

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/321015206

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47659382

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47659382

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysrev.00037.2015

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1522-1210

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27881552

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejcb.2005.11.003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16406610

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1242%2Fjcs.004713

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17535849

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1155%2F2010%2F725647

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20885972

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1253%2Fcircj.CJ-16-1003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1347-4820

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27746422

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.hrthm.2009.02.038

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1556-3871

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19467515

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yjmcc.2015.11.005

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1095-8584

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26578393

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1164680

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19342590

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11682

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222518

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17257896

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F35070587

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11287958

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12480809

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yjmcc.2008.11.003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19059414

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fcvr%2Fcvq398

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1755-3245

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21159668

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1474-547X

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23245604

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fejcts%2Fezu366

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-734X

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25173601

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1558-7118

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25748771

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Feurheartj%2Fehv320

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1522-9645

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26320110

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra0800028

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1533-4406

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19357408

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1531-6963

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27166925

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0065-2598

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28667560

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fejhf.592

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1879-0844

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27207191

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3390%2Fjcm6120118

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/2077-0383

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29231893

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jacc.2016.03.590

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1558-3597

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27339497

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jacc.2016.01.076

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27126534

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25186923

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Smooth_muscle
mw-redirect
Smooth muscle

values:
/wiki/Superficial_fascia
mw-redirect
Superficial fascia

values:
/wiki/Visceral_fascia
mw-redirect
Visceral fascia

values:
/wiki/Fusiform_muscle
mw-redirect
Fusiform muscle

values:
/wiki/Unipennate_muscle
mw-redirect
Unipennate muscle

values:
/wiki/Bipennate_muscle
mw-redirect
Bipennate muscle

values:
/wiki/Origin_(anatomy)
mw-redirect
Origin (anatomy)

values:
/wiki/Insertion_(anatomy)
mw-redirect
Insertion (anatomy)

values:
/wiki/List_of_muscles_of_the_human_body
mw-redirect
List of muscles of the human body

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Sliding_filament_mechanism
mw-redirect
Sliding filament mechanism

values:
/wiki/Base_of_the_heart
mw-redirect
Base of the heart

values:
/wiki/Apex_of_the_heart
mw-redirect
Apex of the heart

values:
/wiki/Cusps_of_heart_valves
mw-redirect
Cusps of heart valves

values:
/wiki/Right_heart
mw-redirect
Right heart

values:
/wiki/Right_atrium
mw-redirect
Right atrium

values:
/wiki/Right_atrial_appendage
mw-redirect
Right atrial appendage

values:
/wiki/Limbus_of_fossa_ovalis
mw-redirect
Limbus of fossa ovalis

values:
/wiki/Right_ventricle
mw-redirect
Right ventricle

values:
/wiki/Left_atrium
mw-redirect
Left atrium

values:
/wiki/Left_atrial_appendage
mw-redirect
Left atrial appendage

values:
/wiki/Left_ventricle
mw-redirect
Left ventricle

values:
/wiki/Systemic_circulation
mw-redirect
Systemic circulation

values:
/wiki/Fibrous_pericardium
mw-redirect
Fibrous pericardium

values:
/wiki/Serous_pericardium
mw-redirect
Serous pericardium

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:Pages with unresolved properties

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Cardiac_muscle
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miokard
Miokard – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cardiac_muscle rootpage-Cardiac_muscle skin-vector action-view


text:
Window
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the part of a building. For the graphical user interface element, see Window (computing). For other uses, see Window (disambiguation) and Windows (disambiguation).
Window of traditional design in Porto Covo, Portugal
Cylindrical lattice window of Sumburgh Head Lighthouse (Shetland).
A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof or vehicle that allows the passage of light, sound, and air. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material, a sash set in a frame[1] in the opening; the sash and frame are also referred to as a window.[2] Many glazed windows may be opened, to allow ventilation, or closed, to exclude inclement weather. Windows often have a latch or similar mechanism to lock the window shut or to hold it open by various amounts.
Types include the eyebrow window, fixed windows, single-hung and double-hung sash windows, horizontal sliding sash windows, casement windows, awning windows, hopper windows, tilt and slide windows (often door-sized), tilt and turn windows, transom windows, sidelight windows, jalousie or louvered windows, clerestory windows, skylights, roof windows, roof lanterns, bay windows, oriel windows, thermal, or Diocletian, windows, picture windows, emergency exit windows, stained glass windows, French windows, panel windows, and double - and triple paned windows.
The Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt, in Alexandria ca. 100 AD. Paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows came to be used by itinerant groups. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were fully perfected.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Types
3.1 Cross
3.2 Eyebrow
3.3 Fixed
3.4 Single-hung sash
3.5 Double-hung sash
3.6 Horizontal sliding sash
3.7 Casement
3.7.1 Awning
3.7.2 Hopper
3.8 Pivot
3.9 Tilt and slide
3.9.1 Tilt and turn
3.10 Transom
3.11 Side light
3.12 Jalousie window
3.13 Clerestory
3.14 Skylight
3.15 Roof
3.16 Roof lantern
3.17 Bay
3.17.1 Oriel
3.18 Thermal
3.19 Picture
3.20 Multi-lite
3.21 Emergency exit/egress
3.22 Stained glass
3.23 French
3.24 Double-paned
3.25 Hexagonal window
4 Terms
4.1 Labeling
5 Construction
5.1 Grids or muntins
5.2 Frame and sash construction
5.3 Glazing and filling
5.4 Other construction details
6 Impact of the sun
6.1 Sun incidence angle
6.2 Solar window
6.3 Passive solar
6.4 Coverings
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The English language-word window originates from the Old Norse 'vindauga', from 'vindr – wind' and 'auga – eye', i.e., wind eye.[3] In Norwegian Nynorsk and Icelandic the Old Norse form has survived to this day (in Icelandic only as a less used synonym to gluggi), in Swedish the word vindöga remains as a term for a hole through the roof of a hut, and in the Danish language 'vindue' and Norwegian Bokmål 'vindu', the direct link to 'eye' is lost, just like for 'window'. The Danish (but not the Bokmål) word is pronounced fairly similarly to window.
Window is first recorded in the early 13th century, and originally referred to an unglazed hole in a roof. Window replaced the Old English eagþyrl, which literally means 'eye-hole,' and 'eagduru' 'eye-door'. Many Germanic languages however adopted the Latin word 'fenestra' to describe a window with glass, such as standard Swedish 'fönster', or German 'Fenster'. The use of window in English is probably because of the Scandinavian influence on the English language by means of loanwords during the Viking Age. In English the word fenester was used as a parallel until the mid-18th century. Fenestration is still used to describe the arrangement of windows within a façade, as well as defenestration, meaning to throw something out of a window.
History[edit]
Fragment of a Roman window glass plate dated to 1st to 4th century A.D.
Note the obvious curvature, this is not a flat pane.
Alabaster 'mullion' divided decorative windows in Santa Maria La Major church (Morella, Spain).
Alabaster window in the Valencia Cathedral. Note the asymmetrical, slanted left side of the wall-frame, which lets sun rays reach the chancel.
In the 13th century BC, the earliest windows were unglazed openings in a roof to admit light during the day. Later,[when?] windows were covered with animal hide, cloth, or wood. Shutters that could be opened and closed came next.[when?] Over time, windows were built that both protected the inhabitants from the elements and transmitted light, using multiple small pieces of translucent material, such as flattened pieces of translucent animal horn, thin slices of marble, for example fengite, or pieces of glass, set in frameworks of wood, iron or lead. In the Far East, paper was used to fill windows.[1] The Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt. Namely, in Alexandria ca. 100 AD cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical properties, began to appear, but these were small thick productions, little more than blown glass jars (cylindrical shapes) flattened out into sheets with circular striation patterns throughout. It would be over a millennium before a window glass became transparent enough to see through clearly, as we think of it now.
Over the centuries techniques were developed to shear through one side of a blown glass cylinder and produce thinner rectangular window panes from the same amount of glass material. This gave rise to tall narrow windows, usually separated by a vertical support called a mullion. Mullioned glass windows were the windows of choice among European well-to-do, whereas paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century.[4]
Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were perfected. Modern windows are usually filled with glass, although a few are transparent plastic.[1]
Types[edit]
Cross[edit]
A cross-window is a rectangular window usually divided into four lights by a mullion and transom that form a Latin cross.[5]
Eyebrow[edit]
The term eyebrow window is used in two ways: a curved top window in a wall or in an eyebrow dormer; and a row of small windows usually under the front eaves such as the James-Lorah House in Pennsylvania.[6]
Fixed[edit]
A fixed window is a window that cannot be opened,[7] whose function is limited to allowing light to enter (unlike an unfixed window, which can open and close). Clerestory windows in church architecture are often fixed. Transom windows may be fixed or operable. This type of window is used in situations where light or vision alone is needed as no ventilation is possible in such windows without the use of trickle vents or overglass vents.
Single-hung sash[edit]
A single-hung sash window is a window that has one sash that is movable (usually the bottom one) and the other fixed. This is the earlier form of sliding sash window, and is also cheaper.[1]
Double-hung sash[edit]
A sash window is the traditional style of window in the United Kingdom, and many other places that were formerly colonized by the UK, with two parts (sashes) that overlap slightly and slide up and down inside the frame. The two parts are not necessarily the same size; where the upper sash is smaller (shorter) it is termed a cottage window. Currently most new double-hung sash windows use spring balances to support the sashes, but traditionally, counterweights held in boxes on either side of the window were used. These were and are attached to the sashes using pulleys of either braided cord or, later, purpose-made chain. Three types of spring balances are called a tape or clock spring balance; channel or block-and-tackle balance; and a spiral or tube balance.
Double-hung sash windows were traditionally often fitted with shutters. Sash windows can be fitted with simplex hinges that let the window be locked into hinges on one side, while the rope on the other side is detached—so the window can be opened for fire escape or cleaning.
Horizontal sliding sash[edit]
A horizontal sliding sash window has two or more sashes that overlap slightly but slide horizontally within the frame. In the UK, these are sometimes called Yorkshire sash windows, presumably because of their traditional use in that county.
Casement[edit]
Main article: Casement window
Casement window
A casement window is a window with a hinged sash that swings in or out like a door comprising either a side-hung, top-hung (also called "awning window"; see below), or occasionally bottom-hung sash or a combination of these types, sometimes with fixed panels on one or more sides of the sash.[2] In the USA, these are usually opened using a crank, but in parts of Europe they tend to use projection friction stays and espagnolette locking. Formerly, plain hinges were used with a casement stay. Handing applies to casement windows to determine direction of swing; a casement window may be left-handed, right-handed, or double. The casement window is the dominant type now found in modern buildings in the UK and many other parts of Europe.
Awning[edit]
Awning window
An awning window is a casement window that is hung horizontally, hinged on top, so that it swings outward like an awning. In addition to be used independently, they can be stacked, several in one opening, or combined with fixed glass. They are particularly useful for ventilation.[8]
Hopper[edit]
A hopper window is a bottom-pivoting casement window that opens by tilting vertically, typically to the inside.[9]
Pivot[edit]
A pivot window is a window hung on one hinge on each of two opposite sides which allows the window to revolve when opened. The hinges may be mounted top and bottom (Vertically Pivoted) or at each jamb (Horizontally Pivoted). The window will usually open initially to a restricted position for ventilation and, once released, fully reverse and lock again for safe cleaning from inside. Modern pivot hinges incorporate a friction device to hold the window open against its own weight and may have restriction and reversed locking built in. In the UK, where this type of window is most common, they were extensively installed in high-rise social housing.
Tilt and slide[edit]
A tilt and slide window is a window (more usually a door-sized window) where the sash tilts inwards at the top and then slides horizontally behind the fixed pane.
Tilt and turn[edit]
A tilt and turn window can both tilt inwards at the top or open inwards from hinges at the side. This is the most common type of window in Germany, its country of origin. It is also widespread in many other European countries. In Europe it is usual for these to be of the "turn first" type. i.e. when the handle is turned to 90 degrees the window opens in the side hung mode. With the handle turned to 180 degrees the window opens in bottom hung mode. Most usually in the UK the windows will be "tilt first" i.e. bottom hung at 90 degrees for ventilation and side hung at 180 degrees for cleaning the outer face of the glass from inside the building.[10]
Transom[edit]
A window above a door; in an exterior door the transom window is often fixed, in an interior door it can open either by hinges at top or bottom, or rotate on hinges. It provided ventilation before forced air heating and cooling. A fan-shaped transom is known as a fanlight, especially in the British Isles.
Side light[edit]
Windows beside a door or window are called side-, wing-, and margen-lights and flanking windows.[11]
Jalousie window[edit]
Jalousie or louvered window
Also known as a louvered window, the jalousie window consists of parallel slats of glass or acrylic that open and close like a Venetian blind, usually using a crank or a lever. They are used extensively in tropical architecture. A jalousie door is a door with a jalousie window.
Clerestory window
Clerestory[edit]
Main article: Clerestory
A clerestory window is a window set in a roof structure or high in a wall, used for daylighting.
Skylight[edit]
Main article: Daylighting
Sidewalk skylight (also named 'pavement light') outside Burlington House, London
A skylight is a window built into a roof structure.[12] This type of window allows for natural daylight and moonlight.
Roof[edit]
Hexagonal external cladding panels of roof in Eden Project Biomes (Cornwall, England,)
A sloped window used for daylighting, built into a roof structure. It is one of the few windows that could be used as an exit. Larger roof windows meet building codes for emergency evacuation.
Roof lantern[edit]
Main article: Cupola
A roof lantern is a multi-paned glass structure, resembling a small building, built on a roof for day or moon light. Sometimes includes an additional clerestory. May also be called a cupola.
Bay[edit]
Main article: Bay window
A bay window is a multi-panel window, with at least three panels set at different angles to create a protrusion from the wall line.[2]
Oriel[edit]
Main article: Oriel window
This form of bay window most often appears in Tudor-style houses and monasteries. It projects from the wall and does not extend to the ground. Originally a form of porch, they are often supported by brackets or corbels.
Thermal[edit]
Main article: Diocletian window
Thermal, or Diocletian, windows are large semicircular windows (or niches) which are usually divided into three lights (window compartments) by two mullions. The central compartment is often wider than the two side lights on either side of it.
Picture[edit]
A picture window is a large fixed window in a wall, typically without glazing bars, or glazed with only perfunctory glazing bars near the edge of the window. Picture windows provide an unimpeded view, as if framing a picture.[13]
Multi-lite[edit]
A multi-lite window is a window glazed with small panes of glass separated by wooden or lead glazing bars, or muntins, arranged in a decorative glazing pattern often dictated by the building's architectural style. Due to the historic unavailability of large panes of glass, the multi-lit (or lattice window) was the most common window style until the beginning of the 20th century, and is still used in traditional architecture.
Emergency exit/egress[edit]
An emergency exit window is a window big enough and low enough so that occupants can escape through the opening in an emergency, such as a fire. In many countries, exact specifications for emergency windows in bedrooms are given in many building codes. Specifications for such windows may also allow for the entrance of emergency rescuers. Vehicles, such as buses and aircraft, frequently have emergency exit windows as well.[14]
Stained glass[edit]
Visual effect Sunlight shining through stained glass
Main article: stained glass
A Stained glass window is a window composed of pieces of colored glass, transparent, translucent or opaque, frequently portraying persons or scenes. Typically the glass in these windows is separated by lead glazing bars. Stained glass windows were popular in Victorian houses and some Wrightian houses, and are especially common in churches.[15]
French[edit]
A "French Window" (two French doors on an exterior wall hinged to open outward together without a mullion separating them) at the Embassy of France in Lisbon, early twentieth century.
A French door [16] has two rows of upright rectangular glass panes (lights) extending its full length and two of these doors on an exterior wall and without a mullion separating them, that open outward with opposing hinges to a terrace or porch, are referred to as a French Window.[17] Sometimes these are set in pairs or multiples thereof along the exterior wall of a very large room, but often, one French window is placed centrally in a typically-sized room, perhaps among other fixed windows flanking the feature. French windows are known as porte-fenêtre in France and portafinestra in Italy, and frequently are used in modern houses.
Double-paned[edit]
Main article: Insulated glazing
Double-paned windows have two parallel panes (slabs of glass) with a separation of typically about 1 cm; this space is permanently sealed and filled at the time of manufacture with dry air or other dry nonreactive gas. Such windows provide a marked improvement in thermal insulation (and usually in acoustic insulation as well) and are resistant to fogging and frosting caused by temperature differential. They are widely used for residential and commercial construction in intemperate climates. Triple-paned windows have been commercially manufactured and marketed with claims of additional benefit but have not become common. In the UK double-paned and triple-paned are referred to as double-glazing and triple-glazing.
Hexagonal window[edit]
Main article: hexagonal window
A hexagonal window is a hexagon-shaped window, resembling a bee cell or crystal lattice of graphite. The window can be vertically or horizontally oriented, openable or dead. It can also be regular or elongately-shaped and can have a separator (mullion). Typically, the cellular window is used for an attic or as a decorative feature, but it can also be a major architectural element to provide the natural lighting inside buildings.
Terms[edit]
EN 12519 is the European norm that describes windows terms officially used in EU Member States. The main terms are:
Casement window, with latticed lights
Light, or Lite, is the area between the outer parts of a window (transom, sill and jambs), usually filled with a glass pane. Multiple panes are divided by mullions when load-bearing, muntins when not.[18]
Lattice light is a compound window pane madeup of small pieces of glass held together in a lattice.
Fixed window is a unit of one non-moving lite. The terms single-light, double-light, etc., refer to the number of these glass panes in a window.
Sash unit is a window consisting of at least one sliding glass component, typically composed of two lites (known as a double-light).
Replacement window in the United States means a framed window designed to slip inside the original window frame from the inside after the old sashes are removed. In Europe it usually means a complete window including a replacement outer frame.
New construction window, in the US, means a window with a nailing fin that is inserted into a rough opening from the outside before applying siding and inside trim. A nailing fin is a projection on the outer frame of the window in the same plane as the glazing, which overlaps the prepared opening, and can thus be 'nailed' into place.
In the UK and mainland Europe, windows in new-build houses are usually fixed with long screws into expanding plastic plugs in the brickwork. A gap of up to 13 mm is left around all four sides, and filled with expanding polyurethane foam. This makes the window fixing weatherproof but allows for expansion due to heat.
Lintel is a beam over the top of a window, also known as a transom.
Window sill is the bottom piece in a window frame. Window sills slant outward to drain water away from the inside of the building.
Secondary glazing is an additional frame applied to the inside of an existing frame, usually used on protected or listed buildings to achieve higher levels of thermal and sound insulation without compromising the look of the building
Decorative millwork is the moulding, cornices and lintels often decorating the surrounding edges of the window.
Labeling[edit]
The United States NFRC Window Label lists the following terms:
Thermal transmittance (U-factor), best values are around U-0.15 (equal to 0.8 W/m2/K)
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), ratio of solar heat (infrared) passing through the glass to incident solar heat
Visible transmittance (VT), ratio of transmitted visible light divided by incident visible light
Air leakage (AL), measured in cubic foot per minute per linear foot of crack between sash and frame
Condensation resistance (CR), measured between 1 and 100 (the higher the number, the higher the resistance of the formation of condensation)[19]
The European harmonised standard hEN 14351-1, which deals with doors and windows, defines 23 characteristics (divided into essential and non essential. Two other, preliminary European Norms that are under development deal with internal pedestrian doors (prEN 14351-2), smoke and fire resisting doors, and openable windows (prEN 16034).[20]
Construction[edit]
5-chamber plastic window profile
Examples of modern plastic and wooden window profiles with insulated glazing
Modern wooden framed window fitted in the 14th century Lyme Regis watermill, UK.
Windows can be a significant source of heat transfer.[21] Therefore, insulated glazing units consist of two or more panes to reduce the transfer of heat.
Grids or muntins[edit]
These are the pieces of framing that separate a larger window into smaller panes. In older windows, large panes of glass were quite expensive, so muntins let smaller panes fill a larger space. In modern windows, light-colored muntins still provide a useful function by reflecting some of the light going through the window, making the window itself a source of diffuse light (instead of just the surfaces and objects illuminated within the room). By increasing the indirect illumination of surfaces near the window, muntins tend to brighten the area immediately around a window and reduce the contrast of shadows within the room.
Frame and sash construction[edit]
Frames and sashes can be made of the following materials:
Material
Thermal resistance
Durability
Maintenance
Cost
Recycled content
Comment
Wood very good variable low average high
uPVC ("vinyl") very good very good* very low average very low has a life span of 50 years in average
Aluminum very good** good very low low typically > 95% mostly thermally broken by a thermal insulation profile
composites very good good very low high high used in modern buildings
Steel medium superior very low high > 98% typically welded at corner joints
Fiberglass very good very good* very low high medium
*PVC and fiberglass frames perform well in accelerated weathering tests. Because PVC is not as strong as other materials, some PVC frames are reinforced with metal or composite materials to improve their structural strength.
**Modern aluminium window frames are typically separated by a thermal break made of a glass fibre reinforced polyamide. With a 34 mm thermal insulation profile it is possible to reach Uf= 1.3 W/m²K for a metal window. This greatly increases thermal resistance, while retaining virtually all of the structural strength.
Composites (also known as Hybrid Windows) are start since early 1998 and combine materials like aluminium + pvc or wood to obtain aesthetics of one material with the functional benefits of another.
A typical installation of insulated glazing windows with uPVC window frames.
A special class of PVC window frames, uPVC window frames, became widespread since the late 20th century, particularly in Europe: there were 83.5 million installed by 1998[22] with numbers still growing as of 2012.[23]
Glazing and filling[edit]
Low-emissivity coated panes reduce heat transfer by radiation, which, depending on which surface is coated, helps prevent heat loss (in cold climates) or heat gains (in warm climates).
High thermal resistance can be obtained by evacuating or filling the insulated glazing units with gases such as argon or krypton, which reduces conductive heat transfer due to their low thermal conductivity. Performance of such units depends on good window seals and meticulous frame construction to prevent entry of air and loss of efficiency.
Modern double-pane and triple-pane windows often include one or more low-e coatings to reduce the window's U-factor (its insulation value, specifically its rate of heat loss). In general, soft-coat low-e coatings tend to result in a lower solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) than hard-coat low-e coatings.
Modern windows are usually glazed with one large sheet of glass per sash, while windows in the past were glazed with multiple panes separated by glazing bars, or muntins, due to the unavailability of large sheets of glass. Today, glazing bars tend to be decorative, separating windows into small panes of glass even though larger panes of glass are available, generally in a pattern dictated by the architectural style at use. Glazing bars are typically wooden, but occasionally lead glazing bars soldered in place are used for more intricate glazing patterns.
Other construction details[edit]
Many windows have movable window coverings such as blinds or curtains to keep out light, provide additional insulation, or ensure privacy. Windows allow natural light to enter, but too much can have negative effects such as glare and heat gain. Additionally, while windows let the user see outside, there must be a way to maintain privacy on in the inside.[24] Window coverings are practical accommodations for these issues.
Impact of the sun[edit]
Main article: Daylighting
Sun incidence angle[edit]
Historically, windows are designed with surfaces parallel to vertical building walls. Such a design allows considerable solar light and heat penetration due to the most commonly occurring incidence of sun angles. In passive solar building design, an extended eave is typically used to control the amount of solar light and heat entering the window(s).
An alternative method is to calculate an optimum window mounting angle that accounts for summer sun load minimization, with consideration of actual latitude of the building. This process has been implemented, for example, in the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California—in which most of the fenestration is designed to reflect summer heat load and help prevent summer interior over-illumination and glare, by canting windows to nearly a 45 degree angle.
Solar window[edit]
Main article: Photovoltaics
Photovoltaic windows not only provide a clear view and illuminate rooms, but also convert sunlight to electricity for the building.[25] In most cases, translucent photovoltaic cells are used.
Passive solar[edit]
Passive solar windows allow light and solar energy into a building while minimizing air leakage and heat loss. Properly positioning these windows in relation to sun, wind, and landscape—while properly shading them to limit excess heat gain in summer and shoulder seasons, and providing thermal mass to absorb energy during the day and release it when temperatures cool at night—increases comfort and energy efficiency. Properly designed in climates with adequate solar gain, these can even be a building's primary heating system.
Coverings[edit]
A window covering is a shade or screen that provides multiple functions. Some coverings, such as drapes and blinds provide occupants with privacy. Some window coverings control solar heat gain and glare. There are external shading devices and internal shading devices.[26] Low-e window film is a low-cost alternative to window replacement to transform existing poorly-insulating windows into energy-efficient windows. For high-rise buildings, smart glass can provide an alternative.
Gallery[edit]
Woven bamboo window in Japan
Church window
Factory site in Berlin-Spindlersfeld: window with letter S for Spindler
Classical Chinese window in Lan Su Chinese Garden
Arab-style windows in Jerusalem
Romanesque/Gothic window from Abbey of St. Maria d'Arles
Desay Madu Jhya traditional carved wooden window in Kathmandu, Nepal
A half-glazed window of the 17th century from Scotland
Windows of a brick building in Washington DC
Window, Villa Majorelle, France
Asymmetrical windows at a building in the backyard of an arts museum in Osnabrück, Germany
An old decorated wooden window
A Russian Revival-style window
Windows of various types, Prague Castle
Belvedere Lightwell of Big Palace (Arkhangelskoye Estate Museum)
See also[edit]
Airflow window
Demerara window
Display window
Glass mullion system
Insulated glazing
Porthole
Rose window
Window tax
Window treatment
Witch window
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Window". Britannica. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Window". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "New Oxford American Dictionary". 2010.
Jump up ^ Langley, Andrew (2011). Medieval Life. Eyewitness. Dorling Kindersley. p. 16. ISBN 1-4053-4545-4.
Jump up ^ Curl, James Stevens (2006). Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 2nd ed., OUP, Oxford and New York, p. 214. ISBN 978-0-19-860678-9.
Jump up ^ Harris, Cyril M.. American architecture: an illustrated encyclopedia. New York: W.W. Norton, 1998. Print.
Jump up ^ Association), NKBA (National Kitchen and Bath (2013-10-29). Kitchen & Bath Residential Construction and Systems. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118711040.
Jump up ^ Nielson, Karla J. (Sep 15, 1989). Window Treatments. John Wiley & Sons. p. 45. ISBN 0471289469.
Jump up ^ Allen, Edward; Thallon, Rob (2011). Fundamentals of Residential Construction (3 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 654. ISBN 978-0-470-54083-1.
Jump up ^ "Will Tilt-and-Turn Windows Gain Market Share in North America? | Window & Door". Windowanddoor.com. March 29, 2010. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Curl, James Stevens. "Flanking window". A dictionary of architecture and landscape architecture. 2nd ed. Oxford England: Oxford University Press, 2006. 285. Print.
Jump up ^ Sarviel, Ed (1993). Construction Estimating Reference Data. Craftsman Book Company. ISBN 9780934041843.
Jump up ^ "Picture window". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Dept. of Transportation: Safety information for bus/motorcoach passengers" (PDF). Retrieved February 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Stained glass". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ French Door, The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, access date July 4, 2017
Jump up ^ French Window, The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, access date July 4, 2017
Jump up ^ Brett, Peter (2004). Carpentry and Joinery (2, illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 255. ISBN 9780748785025.
Jump up ^ Windows and Heat Loss, NFRC Heat Loss Fact Sheet
Jump up ^ CPR guideline
Jump up ^ Carmody, J., Selkowitz, S., Lee, E. S., Arasteh, D., & Willmert, T. (2004). Window Systems for High-Performance Buildings. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Jump up ^ Pritchard, Geoffrey (1999). Novel and Traditional Fillers for Plastics: Technology and Market Developments. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 95. ISBN 9781859571835.
Jump up ^ "Global Vinyl Windows Market to Reach 163 Million Units by 2017, According to a New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc". PRWeb. April 18, 2012. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Howell, Sandra C. (1976). Designing for the Elderly; Windows. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Architecture. Design Evaluation Project.
Jump up ^ "MIT opens new 'window' on solar energy". Web.mit.edu. July 10, 2008. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Beckett, H. E., & Godfrey, J. A. (1974). Windows: Performance, design and installation. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
External links[edit]
Look up window in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Windows.
European Aluminium Association's publications dedicated to Buildings
Roman Glass from Metropolitan Museum of Art
Authority control
GND: 4016740-9
NDL: 00567377
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Window&oldid=857103413"
Categories:
Windows
Architectural elements
Glass
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Use mdy dates from July 2015
All articles with vague or ambiguous time
Vague or ambiguous time from October 2016
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
አማርኛ
Ænglisc
العربية
Aragonés
ܐܪܡܝܐ
Armãneashti
Asturianu
Atikamekw
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Cebuano
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Emiliàn e rumagnòl
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Lingála
Lumbaart
Magyar
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Napulitano
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Nouormand
Occitan
Олык марий
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
پښتو
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Sardu
Scots
Sicilianu
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
West-Vlams
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
104 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 August 2018, at 15:56 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Window_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Window (disambiguation)

values:
/wiki/Windows_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Windows (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: p

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Transparency_(optics)
mw-redirect
Transparency (optics)

values:
/wiki/Window_sash
mw-redirect
Window sash

values:
/wiki/Latch_(hardware)
mw-redirect
Latch (hardware)

values:
/wiki/Animal_horn
mw-redirect
Animal horn

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Norwegian_Language
mw-redirect
Norwegian Language

values:
/wiki/Icelandic_Language
mw-redirect
Icelandic Language

values:
/wiki/Old_English_language
mw-redirect
Old English language

values: The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (October 2016)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values:
/wiki/Glass_blowing
mw-redirect
Glass blowing

values:
/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)
mw-redirect
Cylinder (geometry)

values:
/wiki/Latin_cross
mw-redirect
Latin cross

values:
/wiki/Venetian_blind
mw-redirect
Venetian blind

values:
/wiki/Building_codes
mw-redirect
Building codes

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Glazing_in_architecture
mw-redirect
Glazing in architecture

values:
/wiki/Polyurethane_foam
mw-redirect
Polyurethane foam

values:
/wiki/Solar_heat_gain_coefficient
mw-redirect
Solar heat gain coefficient

values:
/wiki/Visible_transmittance
mw-redirect
Visible transmittance

values: Edit section: Frame and sash construction

values:
/wiki/Heat_conduction
mw-redirect
Heat conduction

values: Edit section: Other construction details

values:
/wiki/Desay_Madu_Jhya_(window)
mw-redirect
Desay Madu Jhya (window)

values:
/wiki/Russian_Revival
mw-redirect
Russian Revival

values: Arkhangelskoye Estate Museum (page does not exist)

values: -moz-column-width: 11em; -webkit-column-width: 11em; column-width: 11em;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.oxfordreference.com

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4016740-9

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous time from October 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Window
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Window&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venster
Venster – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ang
display: none;

values: نافذة – Arabic

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finestra
Finestra – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup
display: none;

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventana
Ventana – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-atj
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: জানালা – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Акно – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bh
display: none;

values: Прозорец – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenestr
Prenestr – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finestra
Finestra – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bintana
Bintana – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okno
Okno – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffenestr
Ffenestr – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindue
Vindue – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenster
Fenster – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wokno
Wokno – Lower Sorbian
dsb
dsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aken
Aken – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Παράθυρο – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eml
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventana
Ventana – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestro
Fenestro – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiho
Leiho – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finster
Finster – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuinneog
Fuinneog – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uinneag
Uinneag – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiestra
Fiestra – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xal
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Պատուհան – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: खिड़की – Hindi

values:
https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wokno
Wokno – Upper Sorbian
hsb
hsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb
display: none;

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prozor
Prozor – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestro
Fenestro – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jendela
Jendela – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifestile
Ifestile – Xhosa
xh
xh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xh
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluggi
Gluggi – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finestra
Finestra – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: ფანჯარა – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirisha
Dirisha – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencere
Pencere – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Терезе – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestra
Fenestra – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logs
Logs – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langas
Langas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ln
display: none;

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestra
Fenestra – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tingkap
Tingkap – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: झ्याः – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AA%93
窓 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenesta
Fenesta – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindu
Vindu – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindauge
Vindauge – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okno
Okno – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janela
Janela – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wintana
Wintana – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventana
Ventana – Sardinian
sc
sc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windae
Windae – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finestra
Finestra – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okno
Okno – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okno
Okno – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariishad
Dariishad – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Прозор – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prozor
Prozor – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikkuna
Ikkuna – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values: சாளரம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Тәрәзә – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: కిటికీ – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: หน้าต่าง – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Тиреза – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencere
Pencere – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: کھڑکی – Urdu

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestra
Fenestra – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veister
Veister – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vls
display: none;

values: פענסטער – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AA%97
窗 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Window rootpage-Window skin-vector action-view