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U.S. Route 11
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U.S. Route 11
Route information
Length:
1,645 mi[2] (2,647 km)
Existed:
November 11, 1926 (1926-11-11)[1] – present
Major junctions
South end:
US 90 in New Orleans, LA
I‑10 in New Orleans, LA
I‑12 in Slidell, LA
I‑20 in Meridian, MS
I‑20 / I‑65 in Birmingham, AL
I‑24 / I‑75 in Chattanooga, TN
I‑40 / I‑75 in Knoxville, TN
I‑64 near Staunton, VA
I‑76 / I‑81 near Carlisle, PA
I‑80 near Bloomsburg, PA
I-87 near Champlain, NY
North end:
Route 223 at the Rouses Point - Lacolle 223 Border Crossing
Location
States:
Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York
Highway system
United States Numbered Highway System
List
Special
Divided
Replaced
U.S. Route 11 (US 11) is a north–south United States highway extending 1,645 miles[2] (2,647 km) across the eastern United States. The southern terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 90 in the Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge in eastern New Orleans, Louisiana. The northern terminus is at the Rouses Point - Lacolle 223 Border Crossing in Rouses Point, New York. The route continues across the border into Canada as Quebec Route 223. US 11, created in 1926, largely follows the route of the original plan.
Until 1929, US 11 ended just south of Picayune, Mississippi at the Pearl River border with Louisiana. It was extended through Louisiana after that.
The Maestri Bridge, which carries US 11 across Lake Ponchartrain, served as the only route to New Orleans from the east for six weeks after Hurricane Katrina due to its sturdy construction. The storm virtually destroyed the Twin Span Bridge on I-10 and damaged the Fort Pike Bridge on US 90.
Interstate 81, constructed in the 1960s, parallels the route of US 11 in many areas. Beyond I-81's southern terminus, other interstates run along corridors paralleling US 11, specifically I-59, which is joined to I-81 by I-40, I-75, and I-24.
Contents
[hide]
1 Route description
1.1 Louisiana
1.2 Mississippi
1.3 Alabama
1.4 Georgia
1.5 Tennessee
1.6 U.S. Route 11E
1.7 U.S. Route 11W
1.8 Virginia
1.9 West Virginia
1.10 Maryland
1.11 Pennsylvania
1.12 New York
2 Major intersections
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Route description[edit]
Louisiana[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Louisiana
US 11 spans 31.2 miles (50.2 km) within the state of Louisiana. Its southern terminus is located in Eastern New Orleans at a junction with US 90 (Chef Menteur Highway). The route begins as a two-lane highway that travels northward through a remote stretch of marshland within both the Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge and the New Orleans city limits. After crossing over I-10 at exit 254, US 11 proceeds across Lake Pontchartrain on the Maestri Bridge, a 4.8-mile-long (7.7 km) span dating from 1928 that parallels the I-10 Twin Span Bridge. Midway across the lake, US 11 enters unincorporated St. Tammany Parish. Upon reaching the north shore, US 11 follows Pontchartrain Drive into the city of Slidell, where it becomes a busy four-lane commercial corridor.[3][4]
After a brief concurrency with Louisiana Highway 433 (LA 433), US 11 turns onto Front Street and travels alongside the Norfolk Southern Railway (NS) line through Slidell's historic district. During this stretch, the route intersects both US 190 Bus. (Fremaux Avenue) and mainline US 190 (Gause Boulevard), both four-lane thoroughfares connecting with nearby I-10. Returning to two-lane capacity, US 11 crosses to the west side of the NSRW line on a narrow overpass built in 1937. At the north end of the city, US 11 intersects I-12 at exit 83, which is located just west of a major interchange with I-10 and I-59.[3][5]
A few miles later, US 11 enters the town of Pearl River and intersects LA 41 (Watts Road). Here, the route turns southeast onto Concord Boulevard and proceeds a short distance to exit 3 on I-59. US 11 turns north onto I-59 and utilizes the four-lane interstate alignment for the remainder of its distance in Louisiana. Following a second interchange serving the small town, I-59 and US 11 cross the West Pearl River into the dense Honey Island Swamp. Along this stretch is an exit connecting to Old US 11, a remnant of the pre-interstate alignment that provides access to the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area. US 11 crosses into the state of Mississippi with I-59 on a bridge spanning the main branch of the Pearl River just south of Nicholson.[3][5]
Mississippi[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Mississippi
U.S. Route 11 enters the state of Mississippi along Interstate 59, passing through several directions of trees. After a short distance, Route 11 and Interstate 59 interchange at Exit 1 with Mississippi Highway 607, where 607 ends and U.S. Route 11 takes over its northeastern alignment away from Interstate 59. Route 11 generally parallels I-59 across Mississippi, serving as a local business route and following city streets through communities such as Hattiesburg, Laurel, and Meridian. It leaves the state east of Meridian concurrent with U.S. Route 80, entering the state of Alabama.
Alabama[edit]
U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 80 split three miles (5 km) into Alabama near Cuba, with U.S. 80 following an eastward track toward Demopolis. US 11, in contrast, continues to parallel the I-20/I-59 freeway through Livingston to Eutaw, where US 11 joins U.S. Route 43. The overlapping routes proceed northeast to Tuscaloosa, where US 43 splits from US 11 and heads north. US 11, however, continues along the I-20/I-59 corridor to Birmingham. US 11 overlaps I-20/59 for approximately 12 miles (19 km) between Woodstock and Bessemer. From Bessemer into Birmingham, the route is locally known as the "Bessemer Superhighway." US 11 is co-signed with Alabama state route 5 between Woodstock and Birmingham. US 11 through the western side of Birmingham is known as the Bessemer Superhighway and 3rd Avenue West. It passes near the Alabama State Fairgrounds, Rickwood Field (one of the oldest baseball stadiums in America) and Legion Field (known for hosting football games). On the east side of Birmingham, US 11 is known locally as 1st Avenue North and as Roebuck Parkway.
West of downtown Birmingham, US 11 intersects U.S. Route 78. US 78 turns east onto US 11, forming an overlap as the roadway enters the heart of the city. In the midst of the city center, US 78 breaks from US 11, progressing south of US 11 as the two routes exit the city. East of downtown, I-20 splits from I-59, with US 11 following I-59 to the northeast. US 11 passes through Gadsden and Fort Payne before crossing into Georgia ten miles (16 km) northeast of Hammondville.
Throughout Alabama, US 11 is paired with unsigned Alabama State Route 7.
Until 1955, US 11 was routed to Ashville and Gadsden following the current routes of AL 23 and US 411, and followed Third Street and went west on Forrest Avenue in downtown Gadsden. It was relocated to its present route to Attalla, with the original route designated as an alternate route until 1963.
The routes that corresponds to US 11's route in Alabama includes the Bear Meat Cabin Road (Huntsville Road), the Rome and Tuscaloosa Road (also called "Georgia Road") from Birmingham, and the Chattanooga Road (also called Alabama Road) from Attalla.
Georgia[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Georgia
This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
After entering the state from Alabama, US 11 and State Route 58 (SR 58) travel northeast, parallel to Interstate 59 (I-59), through the valley between Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain. The routes travel through the county seat of Dade County, Trenton, where they are briefly concurrent with SR 136. In the community of Wildwood, US 11 and SR 58 intersect the eastern terminus of SR 299 before continuing north into Tennessee.
US 11 and SR 58 see an Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) of 5,000 vehicles or more north of Trenton.[6] However, most of the route's through traffic has been diverted to Interstate 59, which closely parallels the route not only in Georgia, but also in Alabama and Mississippi.
Tennessee[edit]
US 11 along Lee Highway, south of Lenoir City
US 11 enters Tennessee west of Chattanooga. The route, concurrent with SR 38 from the state line north, runs parallel to Interstate 24 for three miles (5 km) to an intersection with Cummings Highway (US 41/US 64/US 72/SR 2). While SR 38 terminates here, US 11 follows the highway east into downtown Chattanooga. At the intersection of Broad Street and East 23rd Street, US 11 and US 64 separate from US 41 and US 72 and follow East 23rd east through downtown. The routes briefly overlap with US 41, here concurrent to US 76, on Dodds Avenue before resuming an easterly progression on Brainerd Road thereafter called Lee Highway. The road is also called Lee Highway in Southwestern Virginia.
East of downtown, I-24 terminates while Interstate 75 continues east along the I-24 right-of-way. US 11 and US 64 continue to the northeast, paralleling I-75 to Cleveland. In downtown Cleveland, US 64 separates from US 11, following US 74 east out of the city.
US 11 remains close to I-75 as it heads north, passing through Athens, Sweetwater, Loudon, and Lenoir City before entering Farragut. On the western edge of town, US 11 merges with US 70 at Dixie Lee Junction to form Kingston Pike. The routes remain joined for just over 20 miles (32 km) as they pass through Farragut and West Knoxville before diverging again in downtown Knoxville.
In eastern Knoxville, US 11 splits into U.S. Route 11W and U.S. Route 11E, with US 70 following US 11E.
U.S. Route 11E[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11E
Traversing 120.9 miles (194.6 km) from Knoxville, Tennessee to Bristol, Virginia, US 11E connects the cities and towns of New Market, Jefferson City, Morristown, Greeneville, Tusculum, Jonesborough, Johnson City, Bluff City and Bristol, all in Tennessee. After crossing into Virginia, it reconnects with US 11W.
U.S. Route 11W[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11W
Traversing 111.2 miles (179.0 km) from Knoxville, Tennessee to Bristol, Virginia, US 11W connects the cities and towns of Blaine, Rutledge, Bean Station, Rogersville, Surgoinsville, Church Hill, Mount Carmel and Kingsport, all in Tennessee. After crossing into Virginia, it reconnects with US 11E.
Virginia[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Virginia
US 11W and US 11E rejoin as US 11 in Bristol less than a mile north of the Tennessee-Virginia state line. As Lee Highway, US 11 proceeds northeastward through Abingdon, Wytheville and Radford. In this area, Interstate 81 was constructed parallel to US 11.
At Christiansburg, US 11 joins US 460 and the two routes overlap for 28 miles (45 km) to Salem, where the two highways split. US 11 winds through Roanoke on several roads, sometimes opposite the signed direction.
Part of the Carolina Road, a colonial trail, follows the roadbed of Route 11, also known as "the Lee Highway", through Virginia. Near Cloverdale, Virginia is the historical marker: "This is the old road from Pennsylvania to the Yadkin Valley, over which in early times settlers passed going south. On it were the Black Horse Tavern and the Tinker Creek Presbyterian Church."[7]
From Roanoke, the highway continues through Buchanan, Lexington, Staunton, Harrisonburg and Winchester in the Shenandoah Valley. (Between Buchanan and Lexington, US 11 passes over the famed Natural Bridge). Interstate 81 was constructed parallel to US 11 through many of these cities, although it generally bypassed the smaller towns. US 11 enters West Virginia about 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Winchester. Through the Valley of Virginia, Route 11 follows much of the former Valley Pike, a former colonial trace and important roadway during the Civil War.[8]
West Virginia[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in West Virginia
US 11 enters West Virginia less than 200 yards (180 m) southeast of I-81. US 11 heads northeast for about 35 miles (56 km) through Berkeley County, passing through Inwood, Martinsburg, and Falling Waters before crossing the Potomac River into Maryland. The road is known as Winchester Pike south of Martinsburg, and as Williamsport Pike north of the city.
Maryland[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Maryland
In Maryland, US 11 passes over the Potomac River into Williamsport and through Hagerstown in Washington County before crossing the Mason–Dixon line into Pennsylvania. Interstate 81 was constructed along much the same route in the 1960s.
Pennsylvania[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in Pennsylvania
US 11 and I-81 enter Pennsylvania south of Greencastle. Known as the Molly Pitcher highway, US 11 follows I-81 northeast through the Cumberland Valley, running parallel to each other as they pass through Chambersburg, Shippensburg, and Carlisle. Northeast of Carlisle in Middlesex, US 11 interchanges with the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 76) and I-81 in succession. US 11, now to the south of I-81, continues eastward into the western suburbs of Harrisburg as the Carlisle Pike.
In Camp Hill, a close suburb of Harrisburg, US 11 stops paralleling I-81 and joins U.S. Route 15 northward through the western suburbs of Harrisburg. As the road exits the Harrisburg area, US 11 and US 15 begin to parallel the Susquehanna River as both head northward. The two routes remain overlapped to an intersection in Shamokin Dam, where US 15 branches off to the northwest, following the path of the Susquehanna's West Branch northward. US 11, in contrast, continues to parallel the main Susquehanna River, passing through municipalities such as Danville, Bloomsburg, and Berwick prior to reaching Wilkes-Barre.
In Wilkes-Barre, US 11 breaks from the Susquehanna and begins to run parallel to I-81 once more. From Wilkes-Barre, the highway goes through nearby Scranton, becoming the North Scranton Expressway north of downtown. In Clarks Summit, just north of Scranton, US 11 intersects U.S. Route 6. US 6 joins US 11 westward to Factoryville, where US 11 separates from US 6 and resumes its northerly trek through Susquehanna County to the New York-Pennsylvania border.
New York[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 11 in New York
Northern terminus
US 11 proceeds northwestward through New York from the Pennsylvania border to Binghamton. US 11 and I-81 continue to parallel each other as they head north through Cortland and Syracuse. The route continues northward to Watertown. US 11 heads northeast from Watertown, passing along the northern edge of the Fort Drum Military Reservation and traversing a number of towns and villages, including Canton and Potsdam. US 11 passes north of Adirondack Park passing through Malone. At Rouses Point, US 11 joins New York State Route 9B and heads north to the Rouses Point - Lacolle 223 Border Crossing, becoming QC 223.
Major intersections[edit]
Southern segment
Louisiana
US 90 in New Orleans
I‑10 in New Orleans
US 190 in Slidell
I‑12 in Slidell
I‑59 in Pearl River. The highways travel concurrently to Nicholson, Mississippi.
Mississippi
I‑59 / US 98 in Hattiesburg
US 49 in Hattiesburg
I‑59 in Walters
I‑59 in Laurel
I‑59 northeast of Laurel
I‑20 / I‑59 / US 80 in Meridian. I-20/I-59/US 11 travel concurrently through the city. US 11/US 80 travel concurrently to Cuba, Alabama.
I‑20 / I‑59 east-northeast of Toomsuba
Alabama
US 43 in Eutaw. The highways travel concurrently to Tuscaloosa.
I‑20 / I‑59 in Knoxville
I‑359 / US 43 in Tuscaloosa. I-359/US 11 travel concurrently through the city.
I‑20 / I‑59 / I‑359 in Tuscaloosa
US 82 in Tuscaloosa
I‑20 / I‑59 in Tuscaloosa
I‑20 / I‑59 in Tuscaloosa
I‑20 / I‑59 south of Lake View. The highways travel concurrently to Bessemer.
I‑459 southwest of McCalla
US 78 in Birmingham. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑65 in Birmingham
US 31 / US 280 in Birmingham
I‑20 in Birmingham
I‑59 in Birmingham
I‑459 in Birmingham
US 231 in Ashville
US 278 / US 431 in Attalla. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑59 in Fort Payne
Georgia
No major intersections
Tennessee
US 41 / US 64 / US 72 in Chattanooga. US 11/US 41/US 72 travel concurrently through the city. US 11/US 64 travel concurrently to Cleveland.
US 27 in Chattanooga
US 41 / US 76 in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑75 in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 321 in Lenoir City
US 70 southwest of Farragut. The highways travel concurrently to .
I‑140 in Knoxville
I‑40 / I‑75 in Knoxville
US 129 in Knoxville.
US 441 in Knoxville. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑40 / I‑275 in Knoxville
US 11E / US 11W / US 70 in Knoxville.
Northern segment
Virginia
US 11E / US 11W / US 19 / US 421 in Bristol. US 11/US 19 travel concurrently to Abingdon.
I‑81 / US 58 in Bristol
I‑81 / US 58 northeast of Bristol
I‑81 / US 58 east of Abingdon. US 11/US 58 travel concurrently for approximately 0.3 miles (0.48 km).
I‑81 southeast of Glade Spring
I‑81 in Seven Mile Ford
I‑81 southwest of Marion
I‑81 northeast of Marion
I‑81 west of Wytheville
US 21 in Wytheville. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑77 / I‑81 / US 52 in Wytheville. I-77/US 11/US 52 travel concurrently to Fort Chiswell. I-81/US 11 travel concurrently to south of Pulaski.
US 460 in Christiansburg
I‑81 / US 460 in Christiansburg. US 11/US 460 travel concurrently to Salem.
US 221 in Roanoke. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑581 / US 220 in Roanoke
US 221 / US 460 in Roanoke
I‑81 southwest of Buchanan
I‑81 northeast of Buchanan. The highways travel concurrently to west of Natural Bridge.
I‑81 northeast of Natural Bridge
US 60 in Lexington
I‑64 in East Lexington
I‑64 / I‑81 northeast of East Lexington
US 340 in Greenville
I‑64 / I‑81 in Greenville
US 250 in Staunton. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑81 in Harrisonburg
US 33 in Harrisonburg
I‑81 northeast of Harrisonburg
I‑81 in Mauzy
US 211 in New Market
I‑81 in Strasburg
US 17 / US 50 / US 522 in Winchester. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑81 northeast of Winchester
West Virginia
I‑81 north-northeast of Falling Waters
Maryland
I‑81 in Halfway
US 40 in Hagerstown
Pennsylvania
I‑81 in Antrim Township
US 30 in Chambersburg
I‑76 in Middlesex Township
I‑81 in Middlesex Township
US 15 in Camp Hill. The highways travel concurrently to Shamokin Dam.
I‑81 in Summerdale
US 22 / US 322 in Penn Township
US 522 in Monroe Township
I‑80 in South Centre Township
I‑81 in Moosic
I‑81 / I‑476 / US 6 in South Abington Township. US 6/US 11 travel concurrently to northwest of Factoryville.
New York
I‑81 in Dickinson
I‑81 in Chenango
I‑81 in Chenango
I‑81 in Chenango
I‑81 northwest of Whitney Point
I‑81 in Cortlandville
I‑81 northwest of Tully
US 20 south of LaFayette
I‑81 south of Nedrow
I‑81 in Salina
I‑81 south-southwest of Mannsville
I‑781 in Calcium
I-87 in the Town of Champlain
US 9 in the Town of Champlain
US 2 in Rouses Point
Route 223 at the Canada–United States border north of Rouses Point
See also[edit]
U.S. Roads portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bureau of Public Roads & American Association of State Highway Officials (November 11, 1926). United States System of Highways Adopted for Uniform Marking by the American Association of State Highway Officials (Map). 1:7,000,000. Washington, DC: United States Geological Survey. OCLC 32889555. Retrieved December 6, 2016 – via University of North Texas Libraries.
^ Jump up to: a b "U.S. Route Number Database". American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. December 2009. Retrieved December 6, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Google (December 6, 2016). "Overview Map of US 11 in Louisiana" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development Office of Multimodal Planning (February 2012). District 02: Official Control Section Map / Construction and Maintenance (PDF) (Map). Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development Office of Multimodal Planning (February 2012). District 62: Official Control Section Map / Construction and Maintenance (PDF) (Map). Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived September 25, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Department of Historic Resources".
Jump up ^ Valley Pike
External links[edit]
Endpoints of US 11
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Routes in italics are no longer a part of the system. Highlighted routes are considered main routes of the system.
[show]
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U.S. Routes related to US 11
US 11E
US 11W
US 111
defunct
US 211
US 311
US 411
US 511
defunct
US 611
defunct
US 711
defunct
Special

Browse numbered routes
← LA 10 LA I-12 →
← I-10 MS MS 12 →
← I‑10 AL SR 12 →
← MD 10 MD MD 12 →
← PA 10 PA PA 12 →
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Natural resource economics
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This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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The three pillars of sustainability.
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Three circles enclosed within one another showing how both economy and society are subsets of our planetary ecological system. This view is useful for correcting the misconception, sometimes drawn from the previous "three pillars" diagram, that portions of social and economic systems can exist independently from the environment.[1][unreliable source?]
Natural resource economics deals with the supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth's natural resources. One main objective of natural resource economics is to better understand the role of natural resources in the economy in order to develop more sustainable methods of managing those resources to ensure their availability to future generations. Resource economists study interactions between economic and natural systems, with the goal of developing a sustainable and efficient economy.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Areas of discussion
2 Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility
2.1 Background and introduction
2.2 Comprehensive natural resource models
2.3 Trend towards perpetual resources
2.4 Transitioning: perpetual resources to paleoresources
3 Global geochemical cycles
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Areas of discussion[edit]
Natural resource economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research within economics that aims to address the connections and interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Its focus is how to operate an economy within the ecological constraints of earth's natural resources.[3] Resource economics brings together and connects different disciplines within the natural and social sciences connected to broad areas of earth science, human economics, and natural ecosystems.[4] Economic models must be adapted to accommodate the special features of natural resource inputs. The traditional curriculum of natural resource economics emphasized fisheries models, forestry models, and minerals extraction models (i.e. fish, trees, and ore). In recent years, however, other resources, notably air, water, the global climate, and "environmental resources" in general have become increasingly important to policy-making.
Academic and policy interest has now moved beyond simply the optimal commercial exploitation of the standard trio of resources to encompass management for other objectives. For example, natural resources more broadly defined have recreational, as well as commercial values. They may also contribute to overall social welfare levels, by their mere existence.
The economics and policy area focuses on the human aspects of environmental problems. Traditional areas of environmental and natural resource economics include welfare theory, land/location use, pollution control, resource extraction, and non-market valuation, and also resource exhaustibility,[5] sustainability, environmental management, and environmental policy. Research topics could include the environmental impacts of agriculture, transportation and urbanization, land use in poor and industrialized countries, international trade and the environment, climate change, and methodological advances in non-market valuation, to name just a few.
Hotelling's rule is a 1938 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable economic conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resource. Nonaugmentable resources of inorganic materials (i.e. minerals) are uncommon; most resources can be augmented by recycling and by the existence and use of substitutes for the end-use products (see below).
Vogely has stated that the development of a mineral resource occurs in five stages: (1) The current operating margin (rate of production) governed by the proportion of the reserve (resource) already depleted. (2) The intensive development margin governed by the trade-off between the rising necessary investment and quicker realization of revenue. (3) The extensive development margin in which extraction is begun of known but previously uneconomic deposits. (4) The exploration margin in which the search for new deposits (resources) is conducted and the cost per unit extracted is highly uncertain with the cost of failure having to be balanced against finding usable resources (deposits) that have marginal costs of extraction no higher than in the first three stages above. (5) The technology margin which interacts with the first four stages. The Gray-Hotelling (exhaustion) theory is a special case, since it covers only Stages 1–3 and not the far more important Stages 4 and 5.[6]
Simon has stated that the supply of natural resources is infinite (i.e. perpetual) [7]
These conflicting views will be substantially reconciled by considering resource-related topics in depth in the next section, or at least minimized.
Furthermore, Hartwick's rule provides insight to the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources.
Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility[edit]
Background and introduction[edit]
The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a strategic and critical material (an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors.
The Federal Government suddenly became compellingly interested in resource issues on December 7, 1941, shortly after which Japan cut the U.S. off from tin and rubber and made some other materials very difficult to obtain, such as tungsten. This was the worst case for resource availability, becoming a strategic and critical material. After the war a government stockpile of strategic and critical materials was set up, having around 100 different materials which were purchased for cash or obtained by trading off U.S. agricultural commodities for them. In the longer term, scarcity of tin later led to completely substituting aluminum foil for tin foil and polymer lined steel cans and aseptic packaging substituting for tin electroplated steel cans.
Resources change over time with technology and economics; more efficient recovery leads to a drop in the ore grade needed. The average grade of the copper ore processed has dropped from 4.0% copper in 1900 to 1.63% in 1920, 1.20% in 1940, 0.73% in 1960, 0.47% in 1980, and 0.44% in 2000.[8]
Cobalt had been in an iffy supply status ever since the Belgian Congo (world's only significant source of cobalt) was given a hasty independence in 1960 and the cobalt-producing province seceded as Katanga, followed by several wars and insurgencies, local government removals, railroads destroyed, and nationalizations. This was topped off by an invasion of the province by Katangan rebels in 1978 that disrupted supply and transportation and caused the cobalt price to briefly triple. While the cobalt supply was disrupted and the price shot up, nickel and other substitutes were pressed into service.[9]
Following this, the idea of a "Resource War" by the Soviets became popular. Rather than the chaos that resulted from the Zairean cobalt situation, this would be planned, a strategy designed to destroy economic activity outside the Soviet bloc by the acquisition of vital resources by noneconomic means (military?) outside the Soviet bloc (Third World?), then withholding these minerals from the West.[10]
An important way of getting around a cobalt situation or a "Resource War" situation is to use substitutes for a material in its end-uses. Some criteria for a satisfactory substitute are (1) ready availability domestically in adequate quantities or availability from contiguous nations, or possibly from overseas allies, (2) possessing physical and chemical properties, performance, and longevity comparable to the material of first choice, (3) well-established and known behavior and properties particularly as a component in exotic alloys, and (4) an ability for processing and fabrication with minimal changes in existing technology, capital plant, and processing and fabricating facilities. Some suggested substitutions were alunite for bauxite to make alumina, molybdenum and/or nickel for cobalt, and aluminum alloy automobile radiators for copper alloy automobile radiators.[11] Materials can be eliminated without material substitutes, for example by using discharges of high tension electricity to shape hard objects that were formerly shaped by mineral abrasives, giving superior performance at lower cost,[12] or by using computers/satellites to replace copper wire (land lines).
An important way of replacing a resource is by synthesis, for example, industrial diamonds and many kinds of graphite, although a certain kind of graphite could be almost replaced by a recycled product. Most graphite is synthetic, for example, graphite electrodes, graphite fiber, graphite shapes (machined or unmachined), and graphite powder.
Another way of replacing or extending a resource is by recycling the material desired from scrap or waste. This depends on whether or not the material is dissipated or is available as a no longer usable durable product. Reclamation of the durable product depends on its resistance to chemical and physical breakdown, quantities available, price of availability, and the ease of extraction from the original product.[13] For example, bismuth in stomach medicine is hopelessly scattered (dissipated) and therefore impossible to recover, while bismuth alloys can be easily recovered and recycled. A good example where recycling makes a big difference is the resource availability situation for graphite, where flake graphite can be recovered from a renewable resource called kish, a steelmaking waste created when carbon separates out as graphite within the kish from the molten metal along with slag. After it is cold, the kish can be processed.[14]
Several other kinds of resources need to be introduced. If strategic and critical materials are the worst case for resources, unless mitigated by substitution and/or recycling, one of the best is an abundant resource. An abundant resource is one whose material has so far found little use, such as using high-aluminous clays or anorthosite to produce alumina, and magnesium before it was recovered from seawater. An abundant resource is quite similar to a perpetual resource.[15] The reserve base is the part of an identified resource that has a reasonable potential for becoming economically available at a time beyond when currently proven technology and current economics are in operation. Identified resources are those whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence. Reserves are that part of the reserve base that can be economically extracted at the time of determination;[16] reserves should not be used as a surrogate for resources because they are often distorted by taxation or the owning firm's public relations needs.
Comprehensive natural resource models[edit]
Harrison Brown and associates stated that humanity will process lower and lower grade "ore". Iron will come from low-grade iron-bearing material such as raw rock from anywhere in an iron formation, not much different from the input used to make taconite pellets in North America and elsewhere today. As coking coal reserves decline, pig iron and steel production will use non-coke-using processes (i.e. electric steel). The aluminum industry could shift from using bauxite to using anorthosite and clay. Magnesium metal and magnesia consumption (i.e. in refractories), currently obtained from seawater, will increase. Sulfur will be obtained from pyrites, then gypsum or anhydrite. Metals such as copper, zinc, nickel, and lead will be obtained from manganese nodules or the Phosphoria formation (sic!). These changes could occur irregularly in different parts of the world. While Europe and North America might use anorthosite or clay as raw material for aluminum, other parts of the world might use bauxite, and while North America might use taconite, Brazil might use iron ore. New materials will appear (note: they have), the result of technological advances, some acting as substitutes and some with new properties. Recycling will become more common and more efficient (note: it has!). Ultimately, minerals and metals will be obtained by processing "average" rock. Rock, 100 tonnes of "average" igneous rock, will yield eight tonnes of aluminum, five tonnes of iron, and 0.6 tonnes of titanium.[17][18]
The USGS model based on crustal abundance data and the reserve-abundance relationship of McKelvey, is applied to several metals in the Earth's crust (worldwide) and in the U.S. crust. The potential currently recoverable (present technology, economy) resources that come closest to the McKelvey relationship are those that have been sought for the longest time, such as copper, zinc, lead, silver, gold and molybdenum. Metals that do not follow the McKelvey relationship are ones that are byproducts (of major metals) or haven't been vital to the economy until recently (titanium, aluminum to a lesser degree). Bismuth is an example of a byproduct metal that doesn't follow the relationship very well; the 3% lead reserves in the western U.S. would have only 100 ppm bismuth, clearly too low-grade for a bismuth reserve. The world recoverable resource potential is 2,120 million tonnes for copper, 2,590 million tonnes for nickel, 3,400 million tonnes for zinc, 3,519 BILLION tonnes for aluminum, and 2,035 BILLION tonnes for iron.[19]
Diverse authors have further contributions. Some think the number of substitutes is almost infinite, particularly with the flow of new materials from the chemical industry; identical end products can be made from different materials and starting points. Plastics can be good electrical conductors. Since all materials are 100 times weaker than they theoretically should be, it ought to be possible to eliminate areas of dislocations and greatly strengthen them, enabling lesser quantities to be used. To summarize, "mining" companies will have more and more diverse products, the world economy is moving away from materials towards services, and the population seems to be levelling, all of which implies a lessening of demand growth for materials; much of the materials will be recovered from somewhat uncommon rocks, there will be much more coproducts and byproducts from a given operation, and more trade in minerals and materials.[20]
Trend towards perpetual resources[edit]
As radical new technology impacts the materials and minerals world more and more powerfully, the materials used are more and more likely to have perpetual resources. There are already more and more materials that have perpetual resources and less and less materials that have nonrenewable resources or are strategic and critical materials. Some materials that have perpetual resources such as salt,stone, magnesium, and common clay were mentioned previously. Thanks to new technology, synthetic diamonds were added to the list of perpetual resources, since they can be easily made from a lump of another form of carbon. Synthetic graphite, is made in large quantities (graphite electrodes, graphite fiber) from carbon precursors such as petroleum coke or a textile fiber. A firm named Liquidmetal Technologies, Inc. is utilizing the removal of dislocations in a material with a technique that overcomes performance limitations caused by inherent weaknesses in the crystal atomic structure. It makes amorphous metal alloys, which retain a random atomic structure when the hot metal solidifies, rather than the crystalline atomic structure (with dislocations) that normally forms when hot metal solidifies. These amorphous alloys have much better performance properties than usual; for example, their zirconium-titanium Liquidmetal alloys are 250% stronger than a standard titanium alloy. The Liquidmetal alloys can supplant many high performance alloys.[21]
Exploration of the ocean bottom in the last fifty years revealed manganese nodules and phosphate nodules in many locations. More recently, polymetallic sulfide deposits have been discovered and polymetallic sulfide "black muds" are being presently deposited from "black smokers" [22] The cobalt scarcity situation of 1978 has a new option now: recover it from manganese nodules. A Korean firm plans to start developing a manganese nodule recovery operation in 2010; the manganese nodules recovered would average 27% to 30% manganese, 1.25% to 1.5% nickel, 1% to 1.4% copper, and 0.2% to 0.25% cobalt (commercial grade) [23] Nautilus Minerals Ltd. is planning to recover commercial grade material averaging 29.9% zinc, 2.3% lead, and 0.5% copper from massive ocean-bottom polymetallic sulfide deposits using an underwater vacuum cleaner-like device that combines some current technologies in a new way. Partnering with Nautilus are Tech Cominco Ltd. and Anglo-American Ltd., world-leading international firms.[24]
There are also other robot mining techniques that could be applied under the ocean. Rio Tinto is using satellite links to allow workers 1500 kilometers away to operate drilling rigs, load cargo, dig out ore and dump it on conveyor belts, and place explosives to subsequently blast rock and earth. The firm can keep workers out of danger this way, and also use fewer workers. Such technology reduces costs and offsets declines in metal content of ore reserves.[25] Thus a variety of minerals and metals are obtainable from unconventional sources with resources available in huge quantities.
Finally, what is a perpetual resource? The ASTM definition for a perpetual resource is "one that is virtually inexhaustible on a human time-scale". Examples given include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy,[26] to which should be added salt, stone, magnesium, diamonds, and other materials mentioned above. A study on the biogeophysical aspects of sustainability came up with a rule of prudent practice that a resource stock should last 700 years to achieve sustainability or become a perpetual resource, or for a worse case, 350 years.[27]
If a resource lasting 700 or more years is perpetual, one that lasts 350 to 700 years can be called an abundant resource, and is so defined here. How long the material can be recovered from its resource depends on human need and changes in technology from extraction through the life cycle of the product to final disposal, plus recyclability of the material and availability of satisfactory substitutes. Specifically, this shows that exhaustibility does not occur until these factors weaken and play out: the availability of substitutes, the extent of recycling and its feasibility, more efficient manufacturing of the final consumer product, more durable and longer-lasting consumer products, and even a number of other factors.
The most recent resource information and guidance on the kinds of resources that must be considered is covered on the Resource Guide-Update [1]
Transitioning: perpetual resources to paleoresources[edit]
Perpetual resources can transition to being a paleoresource. A paleoresource is one that has little or no demand for the material extracted from it; an obsolescent material, humans no longer need it. The classic paleoresource is an arrowhead-grade flint resource; no one makes flint arrowheads or spearheads anymore—making a sharpened piece of scrap steel and using it is much simpler. Obsolescent products include tin cans, tin foil, the schoolhouse slate blackboard, and radium in medical technology. Radium has been replaced by much cheaper cobalt-60 and other radioisotopes in radiation treatment. Noncorroding lead as a cable covering has been replaced by plastics.
Pennsylvania anthracite is another material where the trend towards obsolescence and becoming a paleoresource can be shown statistically. Production of anthracite was 70.4 million tonnes in 1905, 49.8 million tonnes in 1945, 13.5 million tonnes in 1965, 4.3 million tonnes in 1985, and 1.5 million tonnes in 2005. The amount used per person was 84 kg per person in 1905, 7.1 kg in 1965, and 0.8 kg in 2005.[28] [2] Compare this to the USGS anthracite reserves of 18.6 billion tonnes and total resources of 79 billion tonnes;[29] the anthracite demand has dropped so much that these resources are more than perpetual.
Since anthracite resources are so far into the perpetual resource range and demand for anthracite has dropped so far, is it possible to see how anthracite might become a paleoresource? Probably by customers continuing to disappear (i.e. convert to other kinds of energy for space heating), the supply network atrophy as anthracite coal dealers can't retain enough business to cover costs and close, and mines with too small a volume to cover costs also close. This is a mutually reinforcing process: customers convert to other forms of cleaner energy that produce less pollution and carbon dioxide, then the coal dealer has to close because of lack of enough sales volume to cover costs. The coal dealer's other customers are then forced to convert unless they can find another nearby coal dealer. Finally the anthracite mine closes because it doesn't have enough sales volume to cover its costs.
Global geochemical cycles[edit]
Global geochemical cycles critical for life
Nitrogen Cycle
Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
See also[edit]
Bioeconomics
C. Arden Pope
Calculation in kind
Earth Economics (policy think tank)
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Economics portal
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ Willard, B. (2011). "3 Sustainability Models" citing The Power of Sustainable Thinking by Bob Doppelt, and The Necessary Revolution by Peter Senge et al. Retrieved on: 2011-05-03.
Jump up ^ http://www.uri.edu/cels/enre/ University of Rhode Island Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics Retrieved October-22-09
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Earth. Article Topic: ecological economics
Jump up ^ Wordnet Search: Earth science
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Heal (2008). "exhaustible resources," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract
Jump up ^ Vogely, William A. "Nonfuel Minerals and the World Economy", Chapter 15 in "The Global Possible" by Repetto, Robert, World Resources Institute Book Yale University Press
Jump up ^ Simon, Julian. "Can the Supply of Natural Resources Really be Infinite? Yes!", "The Ultimate Resource" 1981, Chapter 3
Jump up ^ "Domestic Reserves vis-a-vis Resources","Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance & Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 19-21
Jump up ^ U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1978-79 Minerals Yearbook, "Cobalt" and "The Mineral Industry of Zaire" chapters, Vol. I pp. 249-258, Vol. III pp. 1061-1066
Jump up ^ "THE RESOURCES WAR", "Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 160-174
Jump up ^ "SUBSTITUTION", "Congressional Handbook on U.S. Material Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 242-254
Jump up ^ Charles W. Merrill "Mineral Obsolescence and Substitution" "Mining Engineering", AIME, Society of Mining Engineers, September 1964, pp. 55-59
Jump up ^ Peter T. Flawn. "Mineral Resources (Geology, Engineering, Economics, Politics, Law)" Rand McNally, Chicago, 1966, pp. 374-378
Jump up ^ P. D. Laverty, L. J. Nicks, and L. A. Walters "Recovery of Flake Graphite from Steelmaking Kish" , U.S. Bureau of Mines RI9512, 1994, 23 p.
Jump up ^ Charles W. Merrill "Introduction" U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 630, 1965, p. 2
Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey "Mineral Commodity Summary", Appendix C, 2008, p. C1-C3
Jump up ^ Harrison Brown. "The Challenge of Man's Future" The Viking Press, New York, 1954, pp. 187-219
Jump up ^ Harrison Brown, James Bonner, and John Weir. "The Next Hundred Years" The Viking Press, 1955, pp. 17-26, 33-42, 89-94, and 147-154
Jump up ^ R. L. Erickson "Crustal Abundance of Elements, and Mineral Reserves and Resources", "United States Mineral Resources" U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973, pp. 21-25
Jump up ^ Harold A. Taylor. "The Future of the Mineral Industry" University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1968, 15 p.
Jump up ^ U.S. Securities and Exchange Comm. Form 10-K "Liquidmetal Technologies, Inc." December 2008, p.3
Jump up ^ F. M. Herzig and M. Hannington "Polymetallic Sulfides at the Modern Seafloor-A Review" Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 10 (Elsevier) 1995, pp. 95-115
Jump up ^ [|http://minerals.usgs.gov/pubs/commodity/manganese/mangamyb04.pdf]
Jump up ^ Platts Metals Week "Underseas Mining Finds Richer Grades at Lower Cost: Nautilus", "Platts Metals Week", September 22, 2008, p. 14-15
Jump up ^ Wall Street Journal "Miner Digs for Ore in the Outback With Remote-Controlled Robots", March 2, 2010, pp. D1
Jump up ^ ASTM E60 "E2114-08 Standard Terminology for Sustainability", ASTM, 2008, pp. 615-618 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2
Jump up ^ http://www.dieoff.org/page 113.htm
Jump up ^ U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1956 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 120-165, and 1971 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 378-404
Jump up ^ Paul Averitt "Coal", "United States Mineral Resources" U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973, p.137
External links[edit]
The International Society for Ecological Economics (ISEE)
The International Journal of Green Economics
Curated bibliography at IDEAS/RePEc
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National symbols of India
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The Republic of India has several official national symbols including a historical document, a flag, an emblem, an anthem, a memorial tower as well as several national heroes. All the symbols were picked up at various times. The design of the national flag was officially adopted by the Constituent Assemblyman just before independence, on the 22nd of July in 1947.[1] There are also several other symbols including the national animal, bird, flower, fruit and tree and game.[2]
Contents
1 National symbols
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
National symbols[edit]
Title
Symbol
Image
Notes
National Flag Flag of India A horizontal rectangular tricolour with equally sized deep saffron at the top, white in the middle and India green at the bottom. In the center is a navy blue wheel with twenty-four spokes, known as the Ashoka Chakra. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag designed by Pingali Venkayya.[1]
National emblem National Emblem of India An adaptation of Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath was adopted as the National Emblem of India on 26 January 1950, the day India became a republic. Forming an integral part of the emblem is the motto inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script: "Satyameva jayate" (English: Truth Alone Triumphs), a quote taken from Mundaka Upanishad, the concluding part of the sacred Hindu Vedas.[3]
National calendar Saka calendar Saka calendar was introduced by the Calendar Committee in 1957. Usage officially started at 1 Chaitra 1879 Saka Era, or 22 March 1957.[4]
National anthem Jana Gana Mana Jana Gana Mana by Rabindranath Tagore was officially adopted by the Constituent Assembly as the Indian national anthem on 24 January 1950.[5]
National song Vande Mataram The first two verses of Vande Mataram by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee was adopted as the National song of India in 1950. "Vande Mataram" was sung during the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress by Rabindranath Tagore.[6]
Oath of allegiance National Pledge It was written in Telugu by Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao in 1962. Central Advisory Board on Education directed that the pledge to be sung in Schools and that this practice to be introduced by 26 January 1965.[7]
National fruit Mango Mango (Mangifera indica) originated in India and the country is home to more than 100 varieties of the fruit.[8]
National river Ganga Ganga is the longest river of India with the most heavily populated river basin in the world. The river is revered by Hindus as the most sacred river on earth.[9]
National Flower Lotus Lotus (Nelumbo Nucifera Gaertn) is the National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and occupies a unique position in the art and mythology of ancient India and has been an auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial.
India is rich in flora. Currently available data place India in the tenth position in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From about 70 per cent geographical area surveyed so far, 47,000 species of plants have been described by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI).
National tree Indian banyan Indian banyan (Ficus bengalensis) root themselves to form new trees and grow over large areas. Because of this characteristic and its longevity, this tree is considered immortal and is an integral part of the myths and legends of India.[10]
National animal Royal Bengal tiger The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is found only in the Indian subcontinent and can be found in most regions of the country.[11]
National aquatic animal Ganges river dolphin The river dolphin is a freshwater or river dolphin found in the Indian subcontinent which is split into two subspecies, the Ganges river dolphin and the Indus river dolphin. The Ganges river dolphin has a sturdy, yet flexible, body with large flippers and a low triangular dorsal fin. It weighs up to 150kg. The calves are chocolate brown at birth and become grayish brown in adulthood with a smooth and hairless skin. Females are larger than males. It can only survive in pure and fresh water.[12]
National bird Indian peacock Indian peacock (Pavo cristatus) is designated as the national bird of India. A bird indigenous to the subcontinent, peacock represents the unity of vivid colours and finds references in Indian culture.[13] On February 1, 1963, The Government of India have decided to have the Peacock as the national bird of India. The decision has been taken after considering the views of the State Governments and the opinions expressed in the Press.
The question of selecting a national bird has been under consideration since the Tokyo conference of the International Council for Bird Preservation held in May 1960. This matter was taken up by the Indian Board for Wild Life and the State Governments were also asked to give their views. Some of the other birds considered for the honour were the Great Indian Bustard, the Sarus crane, the "Garuda" and the Swan (Hamsa), the strongest contender being the Great Indian Bustard.[14]
National currency Indian Rupee Indian Rupee (ISO code: INR) is the official currency of the Republic of India. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Indian rupee symbol is derived from the Devanagari consonant "र" (ra) and the Latin letter "R" was adopted in 2010.[15]Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam born 10 October 1978 in Kallakurichi, Tamil Nadu is the designer of the Indian rupee sign. His design was selected from among five short listed symbols. According to Udaya Kumar the design is based on the Indian tricolour.
He is an assistant professor at IIT Guwahati.
National Microbe Lactobacillus delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus
Lactobacillus delbrueckii (subsp. bulgaricus) has been announced as the National Microbe for India by Jayanthi Natarajan, India's Minister of State for Environment and Forests on October 18, 2012 during the International Conference on "Biodiversity Conservation and Education for Sustainable Development - Learning to Conserve Biodiversity in a Rapidly Changing World" held at Hyderabad during CoP-11. The microbe was selected by children who had visited the Science Express Biodiversity Special, a train which has been visiting various stations across the country.
National Reptile King Cobra King Cobra is the national reptile of India. It is consider a sacred animal in Indian culture. They are found almost every part of Indian subcontinent. [16]
National Heritage Animal Indian Elephant Indian Elephant is the national heritage animal of India since October 22, 2010. India's Environment Ministry has declared the elephant a National Heritage Animal in order to increase protective measures for the country's nearly 29,000 elephants."Declaring it the National Heritage Animal will give it due place as emblem of ecological sensitivity. It will also mark recognition for its centrality in our plural cultures, traditions and oral lore," the task force wrote in its report.[17]
See also[edit]
Symbols of Indian states
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "National Flag". Government of India. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "National Identity Elements of India". knowindia.gov.in. Retrieved Jan 2014. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "State Emblem". Government of India. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Calendar". Government of India. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Anthem". Government of India. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Song". Government of India. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Biswas, Arabinda; Agrawal, S. P. (1 January 1986). Development of education in India: a historical survey of educational documents before and after independence. Concept Publishing Company. p. 140. ISBN 978-81-7022-066-4. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Fruit". Government of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National River". Government of India. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Tree". Government of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Animal". Government of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Aquatic Animal". Government of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Bird". Government of India. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "This day, That Age Article". The Hindu. The Hindu Newspaper.
Jump up ^ "Currency Symbol". Government of India. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
Jump up ^ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals&ved=2ahUKEwjhmrSFuMbcAhUMTI8KHepoBpkQFjACegQIDBAO&usg=AOvVaw0Td1gxXJRLD9MTmm2g9FXC
Jump up ^ http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/oct2010/2010-10-22-03.html&ved=2ahUKEwi_oceww8bcAhVLN48KHf3rCewQFjAFegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw0AJMDBSYryeFJlO3EZieCg
External links[edit]
National Symbols
National Symbols Govt. of India Official website.
National Symbols of India Quiz
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National symbols of India.
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