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Who'll Stop the Rain (song)
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"Who'll Stop the Rain"
Single by Creedence Clearwater Revival
from the album Cosmo's Factory
A-side
"Travelin' Band"
Released
January 1970
Format
7" 45 RPM
Genre
Folk rock
Length
2:29
Label
Fantasy
Songwriter(s)
John Fogerty
Producer(s)
John Fogerty
Creedence Clearwater Revival singles chronology
"Down on the Corner"
(1969) "Who'll Stop the Rain"
(1970) "Up Around the Bend"
(1970)
"Down on the Corner"
(1969) "Who'll Stop the Rain"
(1970) "Up Around the Bend"
(1970)
"Who'll Stop the Rain" is a song written by John Fogerty and originally recorded by Creedence Clearwater Revival for their 1970 album Cosmo's Factory. Backed with "Travelin' Band", it was one of three double-sided singles from that album to reach the top five on the Billboard Pop Singles chart and the first of two to reach the #2 spot on the American charts, alongside "Lookin' Out My Back Door". In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked it #188 on its "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" list.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Other versions
3 Appearances in other media
3.1 Film
3.2 Commercials
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Lyrically, "Who'll Stop the Rain" breaks into three verses, with a historical, recent past, and present tense approach. All three verses allude to a sense of unending malaise, pondered by "good men through the ages", "Five Year Plans and New Deals/wrapped in golden chains", and the Woodstock generation. The malaise is not defined, but appears to allude to a sense that man's problems have to be dealt with by those who wish to fix them, and that no ancient philosophers, money-promising government, or Flower Power generation can merely push them off by thought, money, or communal love. There could be no end to warfare and poverty with patchwork economic plans which merely reorganize citizens into new productive forces once the pressures for social change have relaxed. The corrupt leadership within a government continued to wage perpetual war contrary to campaign promises. The song's universal topical appeal made it unusual in the time of its release and gives it a quality that helps it maintain its popularity 40 years later.
Musically, in contrast to the 1950s-Rock-inspired "Travelin' Band", "Who'll Stop the Rain" has more of an acoustic, folk-rock feel to it. Like many folk-rock songs, it starts off with a ringing acoustic guitar riff, though the backing throughout has more of a roots rock sound than that heard on more standard folk-rock recordings.[1] Interpreting the song in its time period (1970), and the resigned but somewhat angry feeling of the song, many see "Who'll Stop the Rain" as a thinly veiled protest against the Vietnam War, with the final verse lyrics and its references to music, large crowds, rain, and crowds trying to keep warm being about the band's experience at the Woodstock Festival in August 1969. There is also a line during the song's second verse about "five-year plans and new deals wrapped in golden chains" that may indicate a general cynicism altogether about self-centered politicians, hollow social movements, and corporate influence within the government. For his part, when asked by Rolling Stone about the meaning of the song's lyrics, John Fogerty was quoted as saying,
“ Certainly, I was talking about Washington, when I wrote the song, but I remember bringing the master version of the song home and playing it. My son Josh was four years old at the time, and after he heard it, he said, 'Daddy stop the rain'. And my wife and I looked at each other and said, 'Well, not quite'." ”
In 2007 during a concert in Shelburne, Vermont, he said the following about the song:
“ Well, this next song has a bit of a fable surrounding it. A lot of folks seem to think I sang this song at Woodstock way back then. No. I was at Woodstock 1969… I think. It was a nice event. I’m a California kid. I went up there and saw a whole bunch of really nice young people. Hairy. Colorful. It started to rain, and got really muddy, and then (yelling) half a million people took their clothes off!!! (Normal voice again) Boomer generation making its presence known I guess. Anyway, then I went home and wrote this song. ”
The half-minute-long fadeout of the song, which reprises the repeating guitar pattern from the intro, seems to reinforce the song's main theme of the 'rain' continuing to go on, interminably.
Other versions[edit]
The song was a concert staple for Bruce Springsteen during 1980-81's River Tour, as well as on the summer 2003 leg of the Rising Tour. Springsteen and the E Street Band opened with "Who'll Stop the Rain" whenever it was raining.[2]
When Creedence Clearwater Revival was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1993, Springsteen performed the song with John Fogerty. The song has also been covered by Rudy Rotta, Rod Stewart, Rise Against, Courtney Jaye, The Ventures, and Vince Neil and was included on John Fogerty's 1998 live CD/DVD Premonition. The Stereophonics have also covered the song as a B-side to their single "Local Boy in the Photograph".
Microdisney performed the song live, frequently in 1984 and on at least one occasion in 1985. Their version of the song was rearranged in their style, at a faster tempo with additional instrumental parts. Usually the song had guitarist Sean O'Hagan performing vocals on it, but regular singer Cathal Coughlan sang on the 1985 version.
Engelbert Humperdinck included "Who'll Stop the Rain" on his 2009 album A Taste of Country.
On Fogerty's 2013 album Wrote a Song for Everyone, he re-recorded the song as a duet with Bob Seger.
Garth Brooks recorded the song for the 2013 The Melting Pot album in the "Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences" compilation.
Dwight Yoakam released a version of the song as a single in 2014, after his character, Lyle Chumley, sang a fragment of the song in the "Force Majeure" episode of Under the Dome.[3]
Bill Haley and the Comets recorded a version of this song on their album "Rock Around the Country".
It was also recorded by Ronnie Hawkins and The Hawks in 1986. In '86 they would have been called The Band but they paired up with Hawkins again for one album.
Versions of the song with altered lyrics do exist - especially in regions of the USA experiencing e.g. the Texas Gulf Coast (primarily the Third Coast from the upper Texas Gulf Coast to the Florida Panhandle) where the absence of sunny weather is a way of life.
The song has became the unofficial anthem of Houston, Texas since 2014 (inclusive of the 2015 and 2016 floods) as a result of the sea breeze showers known to locals as the Gulf of Mexico Monsoon.
Appearances in other media[edit]
The song became available as a playable song for the Rock Band series of music video games as downloadable content on July 6 as part of Creedence Clearwater Revival Pack 01.
Film[edit]
In 1978, the song was used in the film Who'll Stop the Rain. The movie starred Nick Nolte as a Vietnam veteran. It was originally going to be called Dog Soldiers after the source novel, but when the producers got the rights to use the song, they changed the title to it.[2] The song also appeared in the 1989 film Powwow Highway. Both the original song and a softer, slower cover version sung by Courtney Jaye are included in the soundtrack of December Boys. A clip of the song appears in the film The War. The song was also included in the movie Philadelphia. In 1990 it was also used in a third-season episode of Tour Of Duty, a TV action-drama series that followed the fortunes of a U.S. Army platoon during the Vietnam War. The song features in Haruki Murakami's novel "Hear the Wind Sing" which was later made into a film.
Commercials[edit]
Creedence Clearwater Revival songs appeared in many films and commercials, in part because John Fogerty "long ago signed away legal control of his old recordings to Creedence's record label, Fantasy Records."[4] Fogerty objected to what he regarded as a misuse of his music in an NPR interview:
Folks will remember Forrest Gump and that was a great movie, but they don't remember all the really poor movies that Fantasy Records stuck Creedence music into: car commercials, tire commercials. I'm remembering a paint thinner ad at one point (actually, it was Thompson's Water Seal), the song "Who'll Stop the Rain". Oh, boy. That's clever, isn't it?[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Who'll Stop the Rain at AllMusic
^ Jump up to: a b "Who'll Stop The Rain? by Creedence Clearwater Revival Songfacts". Songfacts.com. Retrieved September 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dwight Yoakam singing "Who'll stop the rain". 2x03 Under the dome". YouTube. 2014-08-09. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
Jump up ^ Baker, Bob (November 1, 2002). "Fogerty to Wrangler: Song in ad 'ain't me' - SFGate". Articles.sfgate.com. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Fogerty, John (December 16, 2005). "John Fogerty Travels 'The Long Road Home'". NPR. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
External links[edit]
John Fogerty Performs "Who'll Stop The Rain" at the 1993 Hall of Fame Inductions on YouTube
Lyrics of "Who'll Stop the Rain"
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
hide
v
t
e
Creedence Clearwater Revival
Doug Clifford
Stu Cook
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Tom Fogerty
Studio albums
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Bayou Country
Green River
Willy and the Poor Boys
Cosmo's Factory
Pendulum
Mardi Gras
Live albums
Live in Europe
The Concert
Compilations
Creedence Gold
More Creedence Gold
Pre-Creedence
Chronicle, Vol. 1
The Best of Creedence Clearwater Revival
20 Golden Greats
Creedence Country
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At the Movies
Chronicle, Vol. 2
Rollin' on the River
Heartland Music Presents Creedence Clearwater Revival
Keep On Chooglin'
Creedence Clearwater Revival: Box Set
Bad Moon Rising: The Best of Creedence Clearwater Revival
Platinum
Creedence Clearwater Revival Covers the Classics
Singles
"Porterville"/"Call It Pretending"
"Suzie Q. (Part 1)"/"Suzie Q. (Part 2)"
"I Put a Spell on You"/"Walk on the Water"
"Proud Mary"/"Born on the Bayou"
"Bad Moon Rising"/"Lodi"
"Green River"/"Commotion"
"Down on the Corner"/"Fortunate Son"
"Travelin' Band"/"Who'll Stop the Rain"
"Run Through the Jungle"/"Up Around the Bend"
"Lookin' Out My Back Door"/"Long As I Can See the Light"
"Have You Ever Seen the Rain?"/"Hey Tonight"
"Sweet Hitch-Hiker"/"Door to Door"
"Someday Never Comes"/"Tearin' up the Country"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"/"Good Golly Miss Molly"
Related articles
Discography
Song list
The Blue Velvets
The Golliwogs
Creedence Clearwater Revisited
Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc.
Saul Zaentz
Fantasy Records
Book:Creedence Clearwater Revival
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Our House (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the song performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. For the song with the same title, see Our House (Madness song).
"Our House"
Single by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
from the album Déjà Vu
B-side
"Deja Vu"
Released
September 1970
Format
Single
Recorded
November 5, 1969
Genre
Baroque pop, soft rock, folk rock
Length
2:59
Label
Atlantic
Songwriter(s)
Graham Nash
Producer(s)
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young singles chronology
"Ohio"
(1970) "Our House"
(1970)
"Ohio"
(1970) "Our House"
(1970)
"Our House" is a song written by British singer-songwriter Graham Nash and recorded by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young on their album Déjà Vu (1970). The single reached #30 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100[1]and #20 on the Cash Box Top 100.[2] The song, "an ode to countercultural domestic bliss",[3] was written while Nash was living with Joni Mitchell, recording both Crosby, Stills & Nash and Déjà Vu.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Legacy and adaptations
3 Chart performance
3.1 Weekly charts
3.2 Year-end charts
4 Personnel
5 Additional musicians
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Bibliography
Origins[edit]
The song originates in a domestic event that took place while Graham Nash was living with Joni Mitchell (and her two cats[4]) in her house on Laurel Canyon (Los Angeles), after they had gone out for breakfast and had bought an inexpensive vase on Ventura Boulevard.[5] Nash wrote the song in an hour, on Mitchell's piano.[6]
In October 2013, in an interview with Terry Gross on NPR's "Fresh Air", Nash elaborated: “Well, it's an ordinary moment. What happened is that Joni [Mitchell] and I – I don't know whether you know anything about Los Angeles, but on Ventura Boulevard in the Valley, there's a very famous deli called Art's Deli. And we'd been to breakfast there. We're going to get into Joan's car, and we pass an antique store. And we're looking in the window, and she saw a very beautiful vase that she wanted to buy... I persuaded her to buy this vase. It wasn't very expensive, and we took it home.
It was a very grey, kind of sleety, drizzly L.A. morning. And we got to the house in Laurel Canyon, and I said – got through the front door and I said, you know what? I'll light a fire. Why don't you put some flowers in that vase that you just bought? Well, she was in the garden getting flowers. That meant she was not at her piano, but I was... And an hour later 'Our House' was born, out of an incredibly ordinary moment that many, many people have experienced".[7]
In the same interview, Nash was asked about the harmonies in the song: "It's me and David [Crosby] and Stephen [Stills] doing our best. That's all we ever do. You know, we're lucky enough to be able to do, you know, anything that we want to do, musically. And, you know, these two guys are incredible musicians. Crosby is one of the most unique musicians I know, and Stephen Stills has got this blues-based, South American kind of feeling to his music. And I'm this, you know, Henry VIII guy from England... You know, it's not supposed to work, but it does, somehow".[7]
Legacy and adaptations[edit]
Graham Nash once admitted that he was "bored with 'Our House' the day after [he] recorded it", but will play it occasionally "because it does mean so much to so many people".[8] It is praised for its "innocent elegance",[9] though Barney Hoskyns called it a "trite ditty" and wondered what Neil Young, whose protest song "Ohio" was recorded and released by CSNY in June 1970, would have thought of it: "the journey from 'Ohio' back to 'Our House' seemed to sum up a general failure of nerve in the LA music scene".[10]
The song has been covered by a number of artists, including Helen Reddy, The Onyx, Phantom Planet, Sheena Easton, Kidsongs and Sharon, Lois & Bram.
It was also used as a commercial jingle for Eckrich sausage in the 1980s, and has appeared in various television shows and films, most notably in the 1996 Only Fools and Horses Christmas special, "Time on Our Hands", which was watched by 24.3 million viewers when it was broadcast in the United Kingdom. It was also used in an advert for Halifax Building Society in the 1990s.
A portion of the song's lyrics were spoken in The Simpsons episode "Bart After Dark", by Reverend Lovejoy. The song was featured in the fifth season of How I Met Your Mother, in an episode called "Home Wreckers". It also appeared as a cover in a Target commercial from 2013, for its "Threshold" brand for house and home. It was also featured as the closing song on The Blacklist, season 3 episode 2 ("Marvin Gerard"), which aired on October 9, 2015.
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Peak
position
Canada RPM [11] 13
Netherlands 9
New Zealand (Listener)[12] 19
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[13] 30
U.S. Cash Box Top 100 [14] 20
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Rank
U.S. (Joel Whitburn's Pop Annual)[15] 196
Personnel[edit]
David Crosby–harmony vocals
Stephen Stills–harmony vocals
Graham Nash–lead vocals, keyboards
Additional musicians[edit]
Dallas Taylor–drums
Greg Reeves–bass
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Lonergan 169.
Jump up ^ http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s_files/19701031.html
Jump up ^ Walker xii.
Jump up ^ Bego 65.
Jump up ^ Walker 112-13.
Jump up ^ Bego 65.
^ Jump up to: a b "Graham Nash Has 'Wild Tales' To Spare". NPR. 2013-10-15. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ Zimmer 222.
Jump up ^ Perone 76.
Jump up ^ Hoskyns 204.
Jump up ^ http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/image.aspx?Image=nlc008388.3712&URLjpg=http%3a%2f%2fwww.collectionscanada.gc.ca%2fobj%2f028020%2ff4%2fnlc008388.3712.gif&Ecopy=nlc008388.3712
Jump up ^ Flavour of New Zealand, 7 Dec 1970
Jump up ^ [Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2002]
Jump up ^ http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s_files/19701031.html
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (1999). Pop Annual. Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. ISBN 0-89820-142-X.
Bibliography[edit]
Bego, Mark (2005). Joni Mitchell. Taylor Trade. ISBN 9781461662020.
Hoskyns, Barney (2009). Waiting for the Sun: A Rock 'n' Roll History of Los Angeles. Backbeat Books. ISBN 9780879309435.
Lonergan, David F. (2005). Hit Records, 1950-1975. Scarecrow. ISBN 9780810851290.
Perone, James E. (2006). The Words and Music of Carole King. Greenwood. ISBN 9780275990275.
Walker, Michael (2010). Laurel Canyon: The Inside Story of Rock-and-Roll's Legendary Neighborhood. Faber & Faber. ISBN 9781429932936.
Zimmer, Dave (2004). Four Way Street: The Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young Reader. Da Capo. ISBN 9780786748532.
[hide]
v
t
e
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
David Crosby
Stephen Stills
Graham Nash
Neil Young
Studio albums
Crosby, Stills & Nash
Déjà Vu
CSN
Daylight Again
American Dream
Live It Up
After the Storm
Looking Forward
Live albums
4 Way Street
Allies
Déjà Vu Live
CSN 2012
CSNY 1974
Compilation albums
So Far
Replay
CSN
Carry On
Greatest Hits
Demos
Songs
"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes"
"Marrakesh Express"
"Guinnevere"
"Wooden Ships"
"Lady of the Island"
"Helplessly Hoping"
"Woodstock"
"Helpless"
"Teach Your Children"
"Almost Cut My Hair"
"Our House"
"Ohio"
"Just a Song Before I Go"
"Wasted on the Way"
"Southern Cross"
Related bands
The Byrds
Buffalo Springfield
The Hollies
CPR
Crosby & Nash
The Stills-Young Band
Manassas
Crazy Horse
Related people
Joni Mitchell
Judy Collins
Chris Hillman
Cass Elliot
Timothy B. Schmit
Greg Reeves
Dallas Taylor
Other related articles
Discography
CSNY/Déjà Vu
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Our_House_(Crosby,_Stills,_Nash_%26_Young_song)&oldid=801252976"
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Marine pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that cause most harm.
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural, and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats.[1]
The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrates or phosphates, stimulate algae growth. Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthic animals, most of which are either deposit feeders or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.
When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Pathways of pollution
2.1 Direct discharge
2.2 Land runoff
2.3 Ship pollution
2.4 Atmospheric pollution
2.5 Deep sea mining
3 Types of pollution
3.1 Acidification
3.2 Eutrophication
3.3 Plastic debris
3.4 Toxins
3.5 Underwater noise
4 Adaptation and mitigation
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution
Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were only enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.
Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[2]
Pathways of pollution[edit]
See also: Water pollution § Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants
Septic river.
There are many ways to categorize and examine the inputs of pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants released from the atmosphere.
One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan in New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before toxins are taken up by the plankton.[3]
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.
Direct discharge[edit]
Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River.
See also: Sewerage, Industrial waste, and Environmental impact of mining
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes.
Inland mining for copper, gold, etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps.[4] Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the western continental US.[5] Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.
Land runoff[edit]
Main article: Surface runoff
See also: Urban runoff, Stormwater, and Nutrient pollution
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen.
Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[6]
Ship pollution[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of shipping
See also: Ballast water discharge and the environment
A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side.
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.[7]
Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the world's seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.[8]
Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways, and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[9] Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.[10]
Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian, and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[11] Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship's ballast water. The population of the jellyfish grew exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993."[10] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem.
Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter underwater seascapes, and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.[12]
Atmospheric pollution[edit]
Graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida[13]
Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Wind-blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[14] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year;[15] however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[16] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[17]
Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[18] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[19] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish distributions,[20] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.[21]
Deep sea mining[edit]
Main article: Deep sea mining
Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 – 3,700 meters below the ocean's surface.[22] The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[23][24] The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas
Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full-scale mining operations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, increased toxicity of the water column, and sediment plumes from tailings.[23] Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances.[22] Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills, and corrosion would alter the mining area's chemical makeup.
Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near-bottom plumes and surface plumes.[22] Near-bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms.[25] Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas.[22][26] The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.[22][26]
Types of pollution[edit]
Acidification[edit]
Main article: Ocean acidification
Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[27]
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic.[28][29] The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there are concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.[30]
Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the anthropogenic CO2 released since the start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get weaker,[31] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[32] and Manado[33] Declarations.
A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of relatively acidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of North America. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.[34]
A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These trap large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the global inventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic kilometres.[35] If all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translate to a thickness between three and fourteen metres.[36] This estimate corresponds to 500–2500 gigatonnes carbon (Gt C), and can be compared with the 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.[35][37]
Eutrophication[edit]
Main article: Eutrophication
See also: Nutrient pollution
Polluted lagoon.
Effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations.
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[3]
Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.[38] In the ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms[39] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore.
In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean's external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[40] It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[41]
One proposed solution to eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters. Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducing the likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.[42] Filter feeding activity is considered beneficial to water quality[43] by controlling phytoplankton density and sequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost through denitrification.[44][45] Foundational work toward the idea of improving marine water quality through shellfish cultivation to was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in Sweden.[46]
Plastic debris[edit]
Main article: Marine debris
See also: Plastic pollution § Ocean
A mute swan builds a nest using plastic garbage.
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic – a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II.[47] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as 100,000,000 tonnes (98,000,000 long tons; 110,000,000 short tons).[48]
Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings, and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries.[49] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion.[50][51][52] Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration, infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.[53]
Remains of an albatross containing ingested flotsam
Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.[54] Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals. Especially when evolutionary adaptions make it impossible for the likes of turtles to reject plastic bags, which resemble jellyfish when immersed in water, as they have a system in their throat to stop slippery foods from otherwise escaping.[55] Thereby blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.[56][57]
Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process.[58] In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever-smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain.[59][60] Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals,[61] including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.[62]
Marine debris on Kamilo Beach, Hawaii, washed up from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In particular, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samples taken in 1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (the dominant animal life in the area) by a factor of six.[47][63] Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts of debris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway where it becomes a hazard to the bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross.[64] Nearly all of these albatross have plastic in their digestive system[65] and one-third of their chicks die.[66]
Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris,[48] thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land.[47] Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates.[63] Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT, and PAHs.[67] Aside from toxic effects,[68] when ingested some of these affect animal brain cells similarly to estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.[62]
A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are little beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants.[69] These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use natural, environmentally safe exfoliates.
Toxins[edit]
See also: Mercury in fish
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.
Specific examples
Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[70]
Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish.
Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[71][72][73][74][75]
Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[76]
Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.[77] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used as a food.[78][79]
Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[80]
Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills – such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast – or from other natural or anthropogenic sources.
In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets.[81]
Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination.[82][83]
The damaging of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant in 2011 caused radioactive toxins to leak into the air and ocean. There are still many isotopes in the ocean, which directly affects the benthic food web and also affects the whole food chain. The concentration of 137Cs in the bottom sediment that was contaminated by water with high concentrations in April–May 2011 remains quite high and is showing signs of very slow decrease with time.[84]
Underwater noise[edit]
See also: Noise pollution, Acoustic ecology, The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life, and Marine mammals and sonar
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[85] Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in the Pacific Ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase in intensity).[86]
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[87] Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on.[88] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.[89]
According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[90]
Noise from ships and human activity can damage Cnidarians and Ctenophora, which are very important organisms in the marine ecosystem. They promote high diversity and they are used as models for ecology and biology because of their simple structures. When there is underwater noise, the vibrations in the water damage the cilia hairs in the Coelenterates. In a study, the organisms were exposed to sound waves for different numbers of times and the results showed that damaged hair cells were extruded or missing or presented bent, flaccid or missed kinocilia and stereocilia.[91]
Adaptation and mitigation[edit]
Aerosol can polluting a beach
Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011 edition of the United Nations Environment Programme Year Book identifies as the main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed to feed a growing global population", and the impact billions of pieces of plastic waste are having globally on the health of marine environments.[92] Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, "Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources".[93] There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world ecosystems falter.
The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it.[94] At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed.[95] It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as enforce.[96]
Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag's research,[97] one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted.
See also[edit]
Book: Pollution
Aquatic toxicology
Environmental impact of pesticides
Garbage Patch State – environmental artwork intended to raise awareness
Marine debris
Mercury pollution in the ocean
Nutrient pollution
Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish
Plastic pollution
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
United Nations Ocean Conference
References[edit]
Jump up ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
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Further reading[edit]
Cookson, Clive (Feb. 2015). Oceans choke as plastic waste pours in at 8 million tonnes a year (free registration required), The Financial Times
Ahn, YH; Hong, GH; Neelamani, S; Philip, L and Shanmugam, P (2006) Assessment of Levels of coastal marine pollution of Chennai city, southern India. Water Resource Management, 21(7), 1187–1206
Daoji, L and Dag, D (2004) Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China sea. AMBIO – A Journal of the Human Environment, 33(1/2), 107–113
Dowrd, BM; Press, D and Los Huertos, M (2008) Agricultural non-point sources: water pollution policy: The case of California's central coast. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(3), 151–161
Laws, Edward A (2000) Aquatic Pollution John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-34875-7
Slater, D (2007) Affluence and effluents. Sierra 92(6), 27
UNEP/GPA (2006) The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes United Nations Environment Programme, Global Programme of Action, The Hague. 2006 ISBN 92-807-2708-7
UNEP (2007) Land-based Pollution in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No 10
Judith S. Weis: Marine pollution: what everyone needs to know. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-999668-1
External links[edit]
Coastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Mercury pollution
How Oil Spill Absorbent Products Work
Facts about Marine Mercury Pollution from Oceana.org
Science News / Marine Pollution Spawns 'wonky Babies'
Plastics at SEA: North Atlantic Expedition
Plastic Trash Plagues the Ocean, Trashing the Ocean, Oil's Impact on Marine Invertebrates on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
How the oceans can clean themselves – TED Talk
Which Countries Create the Most Ocean Trash?—Wall Street Journal (February 12, 2015)
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