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Land speed record
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For the album by the band Hüsker Dü, see Land Speed Record (album). For the sport of setting land speed records, see Land speed racing.
This article is about records for non-rail vehicles. For rail vehicles, see Land speed record for rail vehicles.
ThrustSSC, driven by Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green, holds the land speed record.
The land speed record (or absolute land speed record) is the highest speed achieved by a person using a vehicle on land. There is no single body for validation and regulation; in practice the Category C ("Special Vehicles") flying start regulations are used, officiated by regional or national organizations under the auspices of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile.[1] The land speed record (LSR) is standardized as the speed over a course of fixed length, averaged over two runs (commonly called "passes").[2] Two runs are required in opposite directions within one hour, and a new record mark must exceed the previous one by at least one percent to be validated.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Women's land speed record
3 Records
3.1 1898–1965 (wheel-driven)
3.2 1963–present (jet and rocket propulsion)
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The first regulators were the Automobile Club de France, who proclaimed themselves arbiters of the record in about 1902.[4]
Ralph DePalma in his Packard '905' Special at Daytona Beach in 1919
Different clubs had different standards and did not always recognise the same world records[5] until 1924, when the Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR) introduced new regulations: two passes in opposite directions (to negate the effects of wind) averaged with a maximum of 30 minutes (later more) between runs, average gradient of the racing surface not more than 1 percent, timing gear accurate within 0.01sec, and cars must be wheel-driven.[6] National or regional auto clubs (such as AAA and SCTA) had to be AIACR members to ensure records would be recognized.[7] The AIACR became the FIA in 1947. Controversy arose in 1963: Spirit of America was not recognised due to its being a three-wheeler (leading the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme to certify it as a three-wheel motorcycle record when the FIA refused) and not wheel-driven so the FIA introduced a special wheel-driven class.[8] No holder of the absolute record since has been wheel-driven
Women's land speed record[edit]
Dorothy Levitt, in a 26hp Napier, at Brooklands, England, in 1908
In 1906 Dorothy Levitt broke the women's world speed record for the flying kilometer, recording a speed of 91 mph (146.25 km/h) and receiving the sobriquet the "Fastest Girl on Earth". She drove a six-cylinder Napier motorcar, a 100 hp (74.6 kW) development of the K5, in a speed trial in Blackpool.[9][10][11] A subsequent record was held by Lee Breedlove, the wife of Craig Breedlove, who piloted her husband's Spirit of America - Sonic 1 to a record of 308.506 mph (496.492 km/h) in 1965, making her the fastest woman alive, as of 1974[update].[12] According to author Rachel Kushner, Craig Breedlove had talked Lee into taking the car out for a record attempt in order to monopolize the salt flats for the day and block one of his competitors from making a record attempt.[13]
The current women's absolute record is held by Kitty O'Neil, in the jet-powered SMI Motivator, set at the Alvord Desert in 1976.[14] O'Neil reached 512.710 mph (825.127 km/h).[15][16]
Records[edit]
1898–1965 (wheel-driven)[edit]
See also: Land speed racing § Records by class
Date
Location
Driver
Vehicle
Power
Speed over
1 km
Speed over
1 mile
Comments
mph
km/h
mph
km/h
December 18, 1898 Achères, Yvelines, France Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat Jeantaud Duc[17] Electric 39.24 63.15 [18]
January 17, 1899 Achères, Yvelines, France Camille Jenatzy[17] GCA Dogcart Electric 41.42 66.66 [18]
January 17, 1899 Achères, Yvelines, France Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat Jeantaud Duc Electric 43.93 70.31 [18]
January 27, 1899 Achères, Yvelines, France Camille Jenatzy GCA Dogcart Electric 49.93 80.35 [18]
March 4, 1899 Achères, Yvelines, France Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat Jeantaud Duc Profilée Electric 57.65 92.78 [18]
April 29, 1899 Achères, Yvelines, France Camille Jenatzy CITA No 25 La Jamais Contente Electric 65.79 105.88 First purpose designed land speed racer.[19] First record over 100 km/h (62 mph)[18]
April 13, 1902 Nice, France
Promenade des Anglais Léon Serpollet Gardner-Serpollet
Œuf de Pâques (Easter Egg) Steam[4] 75.06 120.80
August 5, 1902 Albis-St. Arnoult, France William K. Vanderbilt Mors Z Paris-Vienne Internal combustion 77.08 122.438 First internal combustion powered record[4]
November 5, 1902 Dourdan, France Henri Fournier Mors Z Paris-Vienne Internal combustion
4-cylinder, 9.2 litre, 60 bhp 76.60 123.25 [20]
November 17, 1902 Dourdan, France Maurice Augières Mors Z Paris-Vienne Internal combustion 76.13 124.13 [18]
July 17, 1903 Ostend, Belgium Arthur Duray Gobron Brillié Paris-Madrid Internal combustion 83.46 132.32 [18]
Nov 5, 1903 Dourdan, France Pierre de Caters Mercedes Simplex 90 Internal combustion 97.25 156.50 [18]
January 12, 1904 Lake St. Clair, USA Henry Ford Ford 999 Racer Internal combustion — 91.37 147.05 On frozen lake[21] (not recognized by L'Automobile Club de France)
March 31, 1904 Nice, France Louis Rigolly Gobron-Brillié Paris-Madrid Internal combustion 94.78 152.53 [18]
May 25, 1904 Ostend, Belgium Pierre de Caters Mercedes Simplex 90 Internal combustion 97.25 156.50 [18]
November 13, 1904 Ostend, Belgium Louis Rigolly Gobron-Brillié Gordon Bennett Internal combustion 103.56 166.66 First record over 100 mph (161 km/h)[18]
November 13, 1904 Ostend, Belgium Paul Baras Darracq Gordon Bennett Internal combustion 104.53 168.22 [18]
December 30, 1905 Arles, France Victor Hémery Darracq Special Internal combustion 109.59 176.37 [18]
January 26, 1906 Daytona Beach, USA Fred Marriott Stanley Rocket[6] Steam 127.66 205.44 First record over 200 km/h (124 mph). First speed greater than contemporary rail speed record.
Remained the record for steam powered vehicles until 25 August 2009.[22]
November 6, 1909 Brooklands, United Kingdom Victor Hémery Benz No 1
200 hp (150 kW) Internal combustion:
21.5 L (1,310 cu in) inline-4 Benz engine 125.94 202.68 115.93 186.57 First run using electronic timing[6]
June 24, 1914 Brooklands, United Kingdom Lydston Hornsted Benz No 3
200 hp (150 kW) Internal combustion:
21.5 L (1,310 cu in) inline-4 Benz engine — 124.09 199.70 First 2-way record, set at Brooklands under new Association International des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR) 2-way rule[6]
May 17, 1922 Brooklands, United Kingdom Kenelm Lee Guinness Sunbeam 350 hp V12, single o.h.c, 18.3 litre,
350 b.h.p. engine 133.75 215.25 The third and last time the record was set at Brooklands[20]
July 12, 1924 France Ernest Eldridge FIAT Mephistopheles Internal combustion:
21.7 L (1,320 cu in) inline-6 FIAT A.12 aero engine — 145.89 234.98 Fastest land speed record ever on a public road[6]
September 25, 1924 Pendine, United Kingdom Malcolm Campbell Sunbeam 350HP Internal combustion:
18.3 L (1,120 cu in) V12 Sunbeam aero engine — 146.16 235.22 First land speed record by Malcolm Campbell[23]
July 21, 1925 Pendine, United Kingdom Malcolm Campbell Sunbeam 350HP Internal combustion:
18.3 L (1,120 cu in) V12 Sunbeam aero engine — 150.87 242.8 First person to travel over 150 mph (241 km/h)[23]
April 28, 1926 Pendine, United Kingdom Parry Thomas Babs Internal combustion:
27 L (1,600 cu in) V12 Liberty L-12 aero engine — 170 273.6
February 4, 1927 Pendine, United Kingdom Malcolm Campbell Napier-Campbell Blue Bird Internal combustion:
22.3 L (1,360 cu in) W12 Napier Lion aero engine — 174.88 281.44 [23]
March 29, 1927 Daytona Beach, USA Henry Segrave Mystery
(aka "Sunbeam 1000 hp") Internal combustion:
2 x 22.4 L (1,370 cu in) V12 Sunbeam Matabele aero engines 203.79 327.97 The first car to reach a speed over 200 mph (320 km/h)[24]
February 19, 1928 Daytona Beach, USA Malcolm Campbell Napier-Campbell Blue Bird Internal combustion:
23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion aero engine 206.956 333.048 [7]
April 22, 1928 Daytona Beach, USA Ray Keech Triplex Special Internal combustion:
3 x 27 L (1,600 cu in) V12 Liberty L-12 aero engines 207.552 334.007 [25]
March 11, 1929 Daytona Beach, USA Henry Segrave Golden Arrow Internal combustion:
23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion aero engine 231.446 372.459 Segrave was knighted for this effort.[26]
February 5, 1931 Daytona Beach, USA [20] Malcolm Campbell Campbell-Napier-Railton Blue Bird Internal combustion:
23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion supercharged aero engine 246.09 396.025 Campbell was knighted for this effort.[26]
February 24, 1932 Daytona Beach, USA Malcolm Campbell Campbell-Napier-Railton Blue Bird Internal combustion:
23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion supercharged aero engine 253.97 408.73 First 250 mph (400 km/h) pass.[23]
February 22, 1933 Daytona Beach, USA Malcolm Campbell Campbell-Railton Blue Bird Internal combustion:
36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engine 272.46 438.48 [23]
March 7, 1935 Daytona Beach, USA Malcolm Campbell Campbell-Railton Blue Bird Internal combustion:
36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engine 276.816 445.472 [26]
September 3, 1935 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Malcolm Campbell Campbell-Railton Blue Bird Internal combustion:
36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engine 301.129 484.598 First 300 mph (480 km/h) pass, first absolute record set at Bonneville[26]
November 19, 1937 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA George Eyston Thunderbolt Internal combustion:
2 x 36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engines 311.42 501.16 [26]
August 27, 1938 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA George Eyston Thunderbolt Internal combustion:
2 x 36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engines 345.49[26] 556.012
15 September 1938 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA John Cobb Railton Internal combustion:
2 x 23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion supercharged aero engines 350.2 563.566 [26]
September 16, 1938 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA George Eyston Thunderbolt Internal combustion:
2 x 36.7 L (2,240 cu in) V12 Rolls-Royce R supercharged aero engines 357.5 575.314 [26]
August 23, 1939 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA John Cobb Railton Special Internal combustion:
2 x 23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion supercharged aero engines 369.74[26] 595.04 367.91 592.091
September 16, 1947 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA John Cobb Railton Mobil Special Internal combustion:
2 x 23.9 L (1,460 cu in) W12 Napier Lion supercharged aero engines 394.196[6] 634.397 394.19 634.39
1963–present (jet and rocket propulsion)[edit]
Craig Breedlove's mark of 407.447 miles per hour (655.722 km/h),[8][27] set in Spirit of America in September 1963, was initially considered unofficial. The vehicle breached the FIA regulations on two grounds: it had only three wheels, and it was not wheel-driven, since its jet engine did not supply power to its axles. Some time later, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme created a non-wheel-driven category, and ratified Spirit of America's time for this mark.[8] On July 27, 1964, Donald Campbell's Bluebird CN7 posted a speed of 403.10 miles per hour (648.73 km/h) on Lake Eyre, Australia. This became the official FIA LSR, although Campbell was disappointed not to have beaten Breedlove's time.[28] In October, several four-wheel jet-cars surpassed the 1963 mark, but were eligible for neither FIA nor FIM ratification.[28] The confusion of having three different LSRs lasted until December 11, 1964, when the FIA and FIM met in Paris and agreed to recognize as an absolute LSR the higher speed recorded by either body, by any vehicles running on wheels, whether wheel-driven or not.[29] Thus, Art Arfons' Green Monster was belatedly recognized as the absolute LSR holder, Bluebird the holder of the wheel-driven land speed record, and Spirit of America the tricycle record holder. No wheel-driven car has since held the absolute record.
Date
Location
Driver
Vehicle
Power
Speed over
1 km
Speed over
1 mile
Comments
mph
km/h
mph
km/h
August 5, 1963 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Craig Breedlove Spirit of America Turbojet 407.447 655.722 [8][27] Initially considered unofficial since the machine had 3 wheels. Later ratified by FIM.
October 2, 1964 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Tom Green Wingfoot Express Turbojet 413.2 665.0 [8]
October 5, 1964 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Art Arfons Green Monster Turbojet 434.03 698.50 [8]
October 13, 1964 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Craig Breedlove Spirit of America Turbojet 468.719 754.330 [18]
October 15, 1964 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Craig Breedlove Spirit of America Turbojet 526.277 846.961 [18]
October 27, 1964 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Art Arfons Green Monster Turbojet 536.710 863.751 [18]
November 2, 1965 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Craig Breedlove Spirit of America - Sonic 1 Turbojet 555.485 893.966 555.485 893.966 [30]
November 7, 1965 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Art Arfons Green Monster Turbojet 576.553 927.872 576.553 927.872 [18]
November 15, 1965 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Craig Breedlove Spirit of America - Sonic 1 Turbojet 594 955.950 600.601 966.574 [31]
October 23, 1970 Bonneville Salt Flats, USA Gary Gabelich Blue Flame Rocket 630.478 1014.656 622.407 1001.667 [32]
October 4, 1983 Black Rock Desert, USA Richard Noble Thrust2 Turbojet: 1 x Rolls-Royce Avon 634.051 1020.406 633.47 1019.47 [32]
September 25, 1997 Black Rock Desert, USA Andy Green ThrustSSC Turbofan: 2 x Rolls-Royce Spey 713.990 1149.055 714.144 1149.303 [32]
October 15, 1997 Black Rock Desert, USA Andy Green ThrustSSC Turbofan: 2 x Rolls-Royce Spey 760.343 1223.657 763.035 1227.986[33] First supersonic LSR
See also[edit]
List of vehicle speed records
British land speed record
Production car speed record
Land speed record for rail vehicles
Motorcycle land speed record
Aero-engined car
Pioneer 2M – Soviet Union attempt at the land speed record in early 1960s
Budweiser Rocket – Claimed but not verified to have reached 739.666 miles per hour (1,190.377 km/h) and to have broken the sound barrier in 1979
North American Eagle Project – Aiming for 808 mph (1,300 km/h) to break current record.
Bloodhound SSC – Project aiming for 1,050 mph (1,690 km/h).
Rosco McGlashan – Australia's fastest man on the land. His Aussie Invader team is building a fully rocket-powered LSR car with an attempt at the record currently on hold pending funding.[34]
The Bullet Project – Australia's land speed record challenger
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "FIA land speed records". FIA. Archived from the original on 2008-10-11. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ Regulations for Record Attempts - CHAPTER 2 Archived November 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. - FIA
Jump up ^ "§105. Conditions for the recognition of international or world records". Sporting Code: Chapter 7: Records. FIA. Archived from the original on 2008-12-21. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Northey, Tom (1974). "Land Speed Record: The Fastest Men on Earth". In Ian Ward. World of Automobiles. Vol. 10. London: Orbis. p. 1162.
Jump up ^ Martin, James A.; Thomas F. Saal (2004). "Ch 17: Land Speed Record to 1939". American Auto Racing: The Milestones and Personalities of a Century of Speed. McFarland. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7864-1235-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Northey, p.1163.
^ Jump up to: a b Northey, p.1164.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Northey, p.1166.
Jump up ^ Hull, Peter G. "Napier: The Stradivarius of the Road", in Northey, Tom, ed. The World of Automobiles (London: Orbis, 1974), Volume 13, p.1483.
Jump up ^ G.N. Georgano Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985).
Jump up ^ "Women in Motorsport - Timeline". Btinternet.com. Archived from the original on 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2010-10-17.
Jump up ^ Twite, Mike. (1974), "Breedlove: Towards the sound barrier", World of Automobiles, Orbis Publishing, 2: 231
Jump up ^ "Knowingly Navigating the Unknown Archived October 31, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.", Maria Russo, The New York Times, May 7, 2013
Jump up ^ Ellen Jares, Sue. "The Renaissance Woman of Danger—That's Tiny Kitty O'Neil". People. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Phinizy, Coles. "A Rocket Ride To Glory And Gloom". SI Vault. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Deaf stuntwoman Kitty O'Neil sets women's land-speed record". History. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Northey, p.1161.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r http://www.landspeedrecord.org/speed-records/
Jump up ^ http://gizmodo.com/the-blazing-fast-evolution-of-land-speed-record-cars-1604716513
^ Jump up to: a b c Posthumus, Cyril. Land Speed Record: A complete history of the record-breaking cars from 39 to 600+ mph (Osprey Publishing, Reading, 1971)
Jump up ^ Cars Against the Clock, The World Land Speed Record, Robert B. Jackson (New York, Henry Z. Walck, Inc.), p.19, ISBN 0-8098-2078-1
Jump up ^ [1] - The British Steam Car Challenge
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Scott A. G. M. Crawford, "Campbell, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 20 April 2013
Jump up ^ Holthusen, Peter J.R. (1986). The Land Speed Record ISBN 0-85429-499-6
Jump up ^ Northey, Tom (1974). "Land Speed Record: The Fastest Men on Earth". In Tom Northey. World of Automobiles. Vol. 10 (London: Orbis), pp.1164-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Northey, p.1165.
^ Jump up to: a b Twite, Mike. "Craig Breedlove: Toward the Sound Barrier", in World of Automobiles (Volume 2, p.231).
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.bloodhound-risbridger.com/Land-Speed-Record-History/
Jump up ^ "from our motoring correspondent" (December 12, 1964). "Land Speed Record Agreement". The Times (Issue 56193). p. 7, col E.
Jump up ^ Cars Against the Clock, The Fastest Men on Earth, Clifton, Paul, New York, The John Day Company, page 238, L.C. 66-15097
Jump up ^ Spirit of America, Breedlove, Craig, Chicago, Illinois, Henry Regnery Company, pages 183-184, L.C. 71-143833
^ Jump up to: a b c "FIA land speed records, Cat C" (PDF). FIA. Retrieved 2009-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Introduction". FIA. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "June 2016 Newsletter". Retrieved 4 July 2016.
External links[edit]
Autoracing Speed Records at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Aussie Invader official website - Australian challengers to the supersonic showdown
The UK Land Speed Racing Association
Speed Record Club - The Speed Record Club seeks to promote an informed and educated enthusiast identity, reporting accurately and impartially to the best of its ability on record-breaking engineering, events, attempts and history.
The Land Speed Record in the Sixties: an on-line collection
Land speed Record site for dedicated enthusiasts
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Exxon Valdez oil spill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Exxon Valdez oil spill
Three days after Exxon Valdez ran aground
Location
Prince William Sound, Alaska
Coordinates
60°50′27″N 146°51′45″W / 60.8408°N 146.8625°W / 60.8408; -146.8625Coordinates: 60°50′27″N 146°51′45″W / 60.8408°N 146.8625°W / 60.8408; -146.8625
Date
March 24, 1989; 29 years ago (1989-03-24)
Cause
Cause
Grounding of the Exxon Valdez oil tanker
Operator
Exxon Shipping Company
Spill characteristics
Volume
10.8×10^6 US gal (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m3)(or a mass of 35,000 metric tonnes)
Area
11,000 sq mi (28,000 km2)
Shoreline impacted
1,300 mi (2,100 km)
The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company, bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef, 1.5 miles west of Tatitlek, Alaska at 12:04 am[1][2] local time and spilled 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl)(or a mass of 35,000 metric tonnes) of crude oil over the next few days.[3] It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters.[4] The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume released.[5] Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing response plans. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of coastline,[3] and 11,000 square miles (28,000 km2) of ocean.[6][7]
According to official reports, the ship was carrying 53,094,510 gallons (1,264,155 barrels) of oil, of which about 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m3) were spilled into the Prince William Sound.[3][1][8] An approximate figure of 11 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 42,000 m3) was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council,[3] the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club.[5][9][10]
During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.
Multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident:
Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil on to the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain.[11] In this photograph, pooled black oil is shown stranded in the rocks
Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was widespread throughout the industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the industry.[12]
The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.[12]
Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly maintain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would have indicated to the third mate an impending collision with the Bligh Reef by detecting the "radar reflector", placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef for the purpose of keeping ships on course. This cause has only been identified by Greg Palast (without evidentiary support) and is not present in the official accident report.[13]
Captain Joseph Hazelwood, who was widely reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. However, as the senior officer, he was in command of the ship even though he was asleep in his bunk. In light of the other findings, investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008, "Forget the drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood, he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm, the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on. In fact, the tanker's radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was just too expensive to fix and operate."[14] Exxon blamed Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.[13]
Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled "Software System Safety" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson,[15] included:
Ships were not informed that the previous practice of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reef had ceased.[16]
The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.[17]
Exxon Valdez was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.[17]
The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 crew, worked 12- to 14-hour shifts, plus overtime. The crew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of oil.[18]
Coast Guard vessel inspections in Valdez were not performed, and the number of staff was reduced.[18]
Lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup.[16]
This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions. The rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules, the ships are being operated with a common objective of "safer ships and cleaner oceans".[19]
In 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood offered a "heartfelt apology" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: "The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story," he said. Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.[20]
Contents
1 Clean-up and environmental impact
2 Litigation and cleanup costs
3 Political consequences and reforms
3.1 Coast Guard report
3.2 Oil Pollution Act of 1990
3.3 Alaska regulations
4 Economic and personal impact
5 Reactions
5.1 In popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Clean-up and environmental impact[edit]
Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline
Chemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick by a private company on March 24 with a helicopter. But the helicopter missed the target area. Scientific data on its toxicity were either thin or incomplete. In addition, public acceptance of a new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking. Landowners, fishing groups, and conservation organizations questioned the use of chemicals on hundreds of miles of shoreline when other alternatives may have been available."[21][22][22][23]
According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, the main component of the Corexit formulation used during cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identified as "one of the agents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system, and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill.[24]
Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment. Despite civilian insistence for a complete clean, only 10% of total oil was actually completely cleaned.[1] Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.[25] More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.
Clean-up efforts after the Exxon Valdez oil spill
Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanup attempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recovered and a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of early 2007 more than 26 thousand U.S. gallons (98 m3) of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.[26][27]
Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill.
Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied.[28] Immediate effects included the deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.[8][29]
In 2003, fourteen years after the spill, a team from the University of North Carolina found that the remaining oil was lasting far longer than anticipated, which in turn had resulted in more long-term loss of many species than had been expected. The researchers found that at only a few parts per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons caused a long-term increase in mortality rates. They reported that "species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin ducks and killer whales suffered large, long-term losses and that oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats will take an estimated 30 years to recover."[30]
In 2006, a study done by the National Marine Fisheries Service in Juneau found that about 6 miles (9.7 km) of shoreline around Prince William Sound was still affected by the spill, with 101.6 tonnes of oil remaining in the area. Exxon Mobil denied any concerns over any remaining oil, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of the studies they had done: "We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that Prince William Sound has recovered, it's healthy and it's thriving."[31] However, in 2007 a NOAA study concluded that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination is heavy, and decrease the "wilderness character" of the area.[27]
The effects of the spill continued to be felt for many years afterwards. As of 2010 there were an estimated 23,000 US gallons (87 m3) of Valdez crude oil still in Alaska's sand and soil, breaking down at a rate estimated at less than 4% per year.[32]
On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem to have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creature to return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with fears that one pod may eventually die out.[33] Federal scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 US gallons (61 to 79 m3) of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound and up to 450 miles (725 km) away. Some of the oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist who analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that it remains among rocks and between tide marks. "The oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out, the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise – or mousse."[34] Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand that the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the final $92 million (£57 million) still owed from the court settlement. The major part of the money would be spent to finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population.[34]
Litigation and cleanup costs[edit]
Eagles rescued from the oil spill
In the case of Exxon v. Baker, an Anchorage jury awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion for punitive damages. To protect itself in case the judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit line from J.P. Morgan & Co., who created the first modern credit default swap so that they would not have to hold as much money in reserve against the risk of Exxon's default.[35]
Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the trial judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, Holland announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to Holland to be reconsidered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case. Holland increased the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.[citation needed]
After more appeals, in December 2006 the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion. The court of appeals cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages.[36]
Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owed $2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.[37] On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments. Justice Samuel Alito, who at the time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case.[38] In a decision issued June 25, 2008, written by Justice David Souter, the court vacated the $2.5 billion award and remanded the case back to the lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law. Exxon's actions were deemed "worse than negligent but less than malicious."[39] The punitive damages were further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million.[40] The Court's ruling was that maritime punitive damages should not exceed the compensatory damages,[40] supported by a precedent dating from 1818.[41] Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy has decried the ruling as "another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations."[42]
Exxon's official position was that punitive damages greater than $25 million were not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound."[43]
Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the Exxon Valdez.[44][45] Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement,[46] and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay.[47]
As of December 15, 2009, Exxon had paid the entire $507.5 million in punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus interest, which were further distributed to thousands of plaintiffs.[48]
In October 1989, Exxon filed suit against the State of Alaska, charging that the state had interfered with Exxon's attempts to clean up the spill by refusing to approve the use of dispersant chemicals until the night of the 26th. The state disputed the claim, stating that there was a long-standing agreement to allow the use of dispersants to clean up spills, thus Exxon did not require permission to use them, and that in fact Exxon had not had enough dispersant on hand to effectively handle a spill of the size created by the Valdez.[49] Exxon filed claims in October 1990 against the Coast Guard, asking to be reimbursed for cleanup costs and damages awarded to plaintiffs in any lawsuits filed by the State of Alaska or the federal government against Exxon. The company claimed that the Coast Guard was "wholly or partially responsible" for the spill, because they had granted mariners' licenses to the crew of the Valdez, and because they had given the Valdez permission to leave regular shipping lanes to avoid ice. They also reiterated the claim that the Coast Guard had delayed cleanup by refusing to give permission to immediately use chemical dispersants on the spill.[50]
Political consequences and reforms[edit]
The Oil Spill Recovery Institute was formed after United States Congress approved it to seek a solution. Collaborating with InnoCentive they found a partial solution for the flow of oil.[51]
Coast Guard report[edit]
A report by the US National Response Team summarized the event and made a number of recommendations, such as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order to address the causes of the accident.[1]
Oil Pollution Act of 1990[edit]
In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 million US gallons (3,800 m3) in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound.[52]
In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the Federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone.[53] In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound.[54]
OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent.[55]
The Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately 1,600 short tons (1,500 t) of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 million of repairs.[54] It was still sailing as of January 2010, registered in Panama. The vessel was then owned by a Hong Kong company, who operated it under the name Oriental Nicety. In August 2012, it was beached at Alang, India and dismantled.
Alaska regulations[edit]
In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). Tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled. Congress enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled as of 2015.[56]
Economic and personal impact[edit]
In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring and seals) the Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. It has since recovered.[57]
According to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of recreational sports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call "existence value", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.[58][59][60][61]
The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in the area.[62][63] The village of Chenega was transformed into an emergency base and media outlet.The local villagers had to cope with a tripling of their population from 80 to 250. When asked how they felt about the situation, a village councillor noted that they were too shocked and busy to be depressed; others emphasized the human costs of leaving children unattended while their parents worked to clean up.[64] Many Native Americans were worried that too much time was spent on the fishery and not enough on the land that supports subsidence hunting.
In 2010, a CNN report alleged that many oil spill cleanup workers involved in the Exxon Valdez response had subsequently become sick. Anchorage lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true of 6,722 of 11,000 worker files he was able to inspect. Access to the records was controlled by Exxon. Exxon responded in a statement to CNN:
After 20 years, there is no evidence suggesting that either cleanup workers or the residents of the communities affected by the Valdez spill have had any adverse health effects as a result of the spill or its cleanup.[65][66]
Reactions[edit]
In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill, to be distributed to schools. Dr. Michael Fry called it a piece of "corporate propaganda".[67]
In December 1994, the Unabomber assassinated Burson-Marsteller executive Thomas Mosser, accusing him of having "helped Exxon clean up its public image after the Exxon Valdez incident". The PR company claimed not to have been contracted during the actual crisis.[68]
In popular culture[edit]
Several weeks after the spill, Saturday Night Live aired a pointed sketch featuring Kevin Nealon, Phil Hartman, and Victoria Jackson as cleanup workers struggling to scrub the oil off of animals and rocks on a beach in Prince William Sound.
In the 1995 film Waterworld, the Exxon Valdez is the flagship of the movie's villain, "The Deacon," the leader of a band of scavenging raiders. In the ship is a portrait of their patron saint, Joseph Hazelwood.
In the second Forrest Gump novel, Gump and Co. by Winston Groom, Gump commandeers the Exxon Valdez and accidentally crashes it.[69]
See also[edit]
List of oil spills
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
Ixtoc I oil spill
Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster, 1992 HBO movie
Martin County coal slurry spill
Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill
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Jump up ^ "News and Information". Exxon Qualified Settlement Fund. Retrieved March 21, 2013. December 15, 2009 [...] Exxon has now paid to the EQSF all monies owed in the EVOS litigation pursuant to the punitive damages judgment
Jump up ^ "Exxon Sues Alaska, Charging Cleanup Delay". New York Times. October 25, 1989. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Exxon, Blaming Coast Guard, Says U.S. Is Liable in Alaska Spill". New York Times. October 2, 1990. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Travis, J. (March 28, 2008). "SCIENCE AND COMMERCE: Science by the Masses". Science. 319 (5871): 1750–1752. doi:10.1126/science.319.5871.1750.
Jump up ^ "Oil Pollution Act of 1990 – Summary". Federal Wildlife and Related Laws Handbook. August 18, 1990. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Carrigan, Alison. "The bill of attainder clause: a new weapon to challenge the Oil Pollution Act of 1990". Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review (Fall 2000). Archived from the original on April 29, 2005. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Exxon Valdez Is Barred From Alaska Sound". The New York Times. November 2, 2002. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Kizzia, Tom (May 13, 1999). "Double-hull tankers face slow going". Anchorage Daily News. Archived from the original on February 3, 2008. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Fargo Balliett, James (2014). Oceans: Environmental Issues, Global Perspectives. Routledge. p. 51. ISBN 9781317463665.
Jump up ^ Loshbaugh, Doug (2000). "School of Hard Knocks". Juneau Empire. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ 1994, Victor Goldberg, The Journal of Legal Studies, Recovery for Economic Loss Following the Exxon ‘Valdez’ Oil Spill"
Jump up ^ Carson, Richard; Hanemann, W. Michael (December 18, 1992). "A Preliminary Economic Analysis of Recreational Fishing Losses Related to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill" (PDF). Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "An Assessment of the Impact of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill on the Alaska Tourism Industry" (PDF). Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. August 1990. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Economic Impacts of Spilled Oil". Publications. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "25 Years After Spill, Alaska Town Struggles Back From 'Dead Zone'". NPR.org. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Native Alaskans Still Reeling 25 Years After Exxon-Valdez Oil Spill". www.wbur.org. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Daley, Patrick; O'Neill, Dan (December 1, 1991). ""Sad Is Too Mild a Word": Press Coverage of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill". Journal of Communication. 41 (4): 42–57. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1991.tb02330.x. ISSN 0021-9916.
Jump up ^ "Critics call Valdez cleanup a warning for Gulf workers - CNN.com". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Warning To Gulf Volunteers: Almost Every Cleanup Worker From The 1989 Exxon Valdez Disaster Is Now Dead". Business Insider Australia. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ D. Michael Fry (November 19, 1992). "How Exxon's "Video for Students" Deals in Distortions". The Textbook Letter. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Pierre; Weiser, Benjamin (April 13, 1996). "Reputed 'Manifesto' Recovered". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Hiaasen, Rob (12 August 1995). "Remaking history with Gump sequel". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Lee, Douglas B. (August 1989). "Tragedy in Alaska Waters". National Geographic. Vol. 176 no. 2. pp. 260–263. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links[edit]
NTSB safety recommendation to address crew management deficiencies at Exxon and in industry
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council
ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez
Images from the Exxon Valdez oil spill from the National Ocean Service Office of Response and Restoration
EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration at National Marine Fisheries Service
Oil Spill Profiles: Exxon Valdez at United States Environmental Protection Agency
US National Response Team
Exxon Valdez oil spill at Encyclopedia of Earth
The story behind the oil spill verdict – originally published in San Diego Union-Tribune
Alaskan Regional Response Team report on the Exxon Valdez disaster
BP Played Central Role in Botched Containment of 1989 Exxon Valdez Disaster – video report by Democracy Now!
The short film Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Assessment (April 24, 1990) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film Exxon Valdez: One Year Later (March 22, 1990) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Photos related to the oil spill from the Alaska Resources Library and Information Services (ARLIS)
"25 Years After Exxon Valdez, BP Was the Hidden Culprit" at Truthdig (March 23, 2014)
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15 Feb: Maassluis
8 Apr: K-278 Komsomolets
25 Apr: USS Parsons
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Other incidents
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