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John the Apostle
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Saint John the Apostle[1]
Apostle
Born
c. AD 6
Bethsaida, Galilee, Roman Empire
Died
c. AD 100 (aged 93 or 94)
Patmos, Greece, Roman Empire
Venerated in
Christianity
Canonized
Pre-congregation
Feast
27 December (Roman Catholic, Anglican)
26 September (Orthodox)
Attributes
Book, a serpent in a chalice, cauldron, eagle
Patronage
Love, loyalty, friendships, authors, booksellers, burn-victims, poison-victims, art-dealers, editors, publishers, scribes, examinations, scholars, theologians
John the Apostle (Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ ܫܠܝܚܐ Yohanan Shliha; Hebrew: יוחנן בן זבדי Yohanan ben Zavdi; Koine Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes; c. AD 6-100) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament, which refers to him as Ἰωάννης. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother was James, who was another of the Twelve Apostles. Although Christian tradition holds that he outlived the remaining apostles and that he was the only one to die of natural causes, some Christians, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, hold that John was translated: that is, that he would “live forever,” or until God saw fit to resurrect him (see John 21:20-23, NIV).[2] The Church Fathers considered him the same person as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder and the Beloved Disciple, although modern theologians and scholars have not formed a consensus on the relative identities of these men. The traditions of most Christian denominations have held that John the Apostle is the author of several books of the New Testament.
Contents
[hide]
1 New Testament author
1.1 Book of Revelation
2 References to John in the New Testament
2.1 Sons of thunder
2.2 Other references to John
2.3 The disciple whom Jesus loved
3 Extrabiblical traditions
4 Liturgical commemoration
5 Other views
5.1 Latter-day Saint view
5.2 Islamic view
6 In art
7 Gallery of art
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
New Testament author[edit]
Part of a series of articles on
John in the Bible
Johannine literature
Gospel
Epistles
First
Second
Third
Revelation
Events
Authorship
Apostle
Beloved disciple
Evangelist
Patmos
Presbyter
Related literature
Apocryphon
Acts
Signs Gospel
See also
Johannine Christianity
Logos
Holy Spirit in Johannine literature
John's vision of the Son of Man
New Testament people named John
v
t
e
St. John at the Crucifixion of Jesus in a Stabat Mater by Pietro PeruginoRome, c. 1482
Lamentation of the Virgin. John the Apostle trying to console Mary
Church tradition has held that John is the author of the Gospel of John and four other books of the New Testament — the three Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation. In the Gospel, authorship is internally credited to the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (ὁ μαθητὴς ὃν ἠγάπα ὁ Ἰησοῦς, o mathētēs on ēgapa o Iēsous) in John 20:2. John 21:24 claims that the Gospel of John is based on the written testimony of the "Beloved Disciple". The authorship of some Johannine literature has been debated since about the year 200.[3][4] Some[by whom?] doubt that the "Gospel of John" was even written by an individual named "John" (Ἰωάννης or יוחנן). Nevertheless, the notion of “John the Evangelist” exists, and is still considered by some the same as the Apostle John.
In his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius says that the First Epistle of John and the Gospel of John are widely agreed upon as his. However, Eusebius mentions that the consensus is that the second and third epistles of John are not his but were written by some other John. Eusebius also goes to some length to establish with the reader that there is no general consensus regarding the revelation of John. The revelation of John could only be what is now called the book of Revelation.[5] The Gospel according to John differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, which were likely written decades earlier. The bishops of Asia Minor supposedly requested him to write his gospel to deal with the heresy of the Ebionites, who asserted that Christ did not exist before Mary. John probably knew and undoubtedly approved of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, but these gospels spoke of Jesus primarily in the year following the imprisonment and death of John the Baptist.[6] Around 600, however, Sophronius of Jerusalem noted that “two epistles bearing his name ... are considered by some to be the work of a certain John the Elder” and, while stating that Revelation was written by John of Patmos, it was “later translated by Justin Martyr and Irenaeus,”[7] presumably in an attempt to reconcile tradition with the obvious differences in Greek style.
Until the 19th century, the authorship of the Gospel of John had been attributed to the Apostle John. However, most modern critical scholars have their doubts.[8][9] Some scholars place the Gospel of John somewhere between AD 65 and 85;[10][page needed] John Robinson proposes an initial edition by 50–55 and then a final edition by 65 due to narrative similarities with Paul.[11]:pp.284,307 Other scholars are of the opinion that the Gospel of John was composed in two or three stages.[12]:p.43 Most contemporary scholars consider that the Gospel was not written until the latter third of the first century AD, and with an earliest possible date of AD 75-80.[13] “...a date of AD 75-80 as the earliest possible date of composition for this Gospel.” Other scholars think that an even later date, perhaps even the last decade of the first century AD right up to the start of the 2nd century (i.e. 90 - 100), is applicable.[14]
Nonetheless, today many theological scholars continue to accept the traditional authorship. Colin G. Kruse states that since John the Evangelist has been named consistently in the writings of early church fathers, “it is hard to pass by this conclusion, despite widespread reluctance to accept it by many, but by no means all, modern scholars.”[15]
The Gospel of John was written by an anonymous author.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] According to Paul N. Anderson, the gospel “contains more direct claims to eyewitness origins than any of the other Gospel traditions.”[25] F. F. Bruce argues that 19:35 contains an “emphatic and explicit claim to eyewitness authority.”[26] Bart D. Ehrman, however, does not think the gospel claims to have been written by direct witnesses to the reported events.[18][27][28]
Book of Revelation[edit]
The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself as “Ἰωάννης” (“John” in standard English translation)[29] The early 2nd century writer, Justin Martyr, was the first to equate the author of Revelation with John the Apostle.[30] However, most biblical scholars now contend that these were separate individuals.[8][31]
John the Presbyter, an obscure figure in the early church, has also been identified with the seer of the Book of Revelation by such authors as Eusebius in his Church History (Book III, 39) [32] and Jerome.[33]
John is considered to have been exiled to Patmos, during the persecutions under Emperor Domitian. Revelation 1:9 says that the author wrote the book on Patmos: “I, John, both your brother and companion in tribulation... was on the island that is called Patmos for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ.” Adela Yarbro Collins, a biblical scholar at Yale Divinity School, writes:
Early tradition says that John was banished to Patmos by the Roman authorities. This tradition is credible because banishment was a common punishment used during the Imperial period for a number of offenses. Among such offenses were the practices of magic and astrology. Prophecy was viewed by the Romans as belonging to the same category, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Prophecy with political implications, like that expressed by John in the book of Revelation, would have been perceived as a threat to Roman political power and order. Three of the islands in the Sporades were places where political offenders were banished. (Pliny Natural History 4.69-70; Tacitus Annals 4.30)[34]
Some modern higher critical scholars have raised the possibility that John the Apostle, John the Evangelist, and John of Patmos were three separate individuals.[35] These scholars assert that John of Patmos wrote Revelation but neither the Gospel of John nor the Epistles of John. For one, the author of Revelation identifies himself as “John” several times, but the author of the Gospel of John never identifies himself directly. Some Catholic scholars state that “vocabulary, grammar, and style make it doubtful that the book could have been put into its present form by the same person(s) responsible for the fourth gospel.”[36]
References to John in the New Testament[edit]
Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian, 18th century (Iconostasis from the Church of the Transfiguration, Kizhi Monastery.
Sons of thunder[edit]
John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James, son of Zebedee (James the Greater). According to Church tradition, their mother was Salome.[37] Zebedee and his sons fished in the Sea of Galilee. The brothers were firstly disciples of John the Baptist. Jesus then called Peter, Andrew and these two sons of Zebedee to follow him. James and John are listed among the Twelve Apostles. Jesus referred to the pair as "Boanerges" (translated "sons of thunder");[9] although their nature was calm and gentle, when their patience was pushed to its limits their anger became wild and thunderous causing them to speak out like an untamed storm. A gospel story relates how the brothers wanted to call down heavenly fire on a Samaritan town, but Jesus rebuked them. [Lk 9:51-6] John lived more than half a century after the martyrdom of James, who was the first Apostle to die a martyr's death.
Other references to John[edit]
John the Evangelist and Peter by Albrecht Dürer
Peter, James and John were the only witnesses of the raising of Daughter of Jairus.[38] All three also witnessed the Transfiguration, and these same three witnessed the Agony in Gethsemane more closely than the other Apostles did.[39] John was the disciple who reported to Jesus that they had 'forbidden' a non-disciple from casting out demons in Jesus' name, prompting Jesus to state that 'he who is not against us is on our side'.[40]
Jesus sent only John and Peter into the city to make the preparation for the final Passover meal (the Last Supper).[Lk 22:8][41] At the meal itself, the "disciple whom Jesus loved" sat next to Jesus. It was customary to lie along upon couches at meals, and this disciple leaned on Jesus.[39] Tradition identifies this disciple as Saint John[Jn 13:23-25]. After the arrest of Jesus, Peter and the "other disciple" (according to Sacred Tradition), John followed him into the palace of the high-priest.[39]
John alone among the Apostles remained near Jesus at the foot of the cross on Calvary alongside myrrhbearers and numerous other women; following the instruction of Jesus from the Cross, John took Mary, the mother of Jesus, into his care as the last legacy of Jesus [Jn 19:25-27]. After Jesus' Ascension and the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, John, together with Peter, took a prominent part in the founding and guidance of the church. He was with Peter at the healing of the lame man at Solomon's Porch in the Temple [Ac 3:1 et seq.] and he was also thrown into prison with Peter.[Acts 4:3] He went with Peter to visit the newly converted believers in Samaria.[Acts 8:14]
While he remained in Judea and the surrounding area, the other disciples returned to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council (about AD 51). Paul, in opposing his enemies in Galatia, recalls that John explicitly, along with Peter and James the Just, were referred to as "pillars of the church" and refers to the recognition that his Apostolic preaching of a gospel free from Jewish Law received from these three, the most prominent men of the messianic community at Jerusalem.[38]
According to the Book of Revelation, its author was on the island of Patmos "for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus", when he was honoured with the vision contained in Revelation.[Rev. 1:9]
The disciple whom Jesus loved[edit]
Jesus and the Beloved Disciple
The phrase the disciple whom Jesus loved (Greek: ὁ μαθητὴς ὃν ἠγάπα ὁ Ἰησοῦς, ho mathētēs hon ēgapā ho Iēsous) or, in John 20:2, the Beloved Disciple (Greek: ὃν ἐφίλει ὁ Ἰησοῦς, hon ephilei ho Iēsous) is used five times in the Gospel of John,[42] but in no other New Testament accounts of Jesus. John 21:24 claims that the Gospel of John is based on the written testimony of this disciple.
The disciple whom Jesus loved is referred to, specifically, six times in John's gospel:
It is this disciple who, while reclining beside Jesus at the Last Supper, asks Jesus, after being requested by Peter to do so, who it is that will betray him.[Jn 13:23-25]
Later at the crucifixion, Jesus tells his mother, "Woman, here is your son", and to the Beloved Disciple he says, "Here is your mother."[Jn 19:26-27]
When Mary Magdalene discovers the empty tomb, she runs to tell the Beloved Disciple and Peter. The two men rush to the empty tomb and the Beloved Disciple is the first to reach the empty tomb. However, Peter is the first to enter.[Jn 20:1-10]
In John 21, the last chapter of the Gospel of John, the Beloved Disciple is one of seven fishermen involved in the miraculous catch of 153 fish.[Jn 21:1-25] [43]
Also in the book's final chapter, after Jesus hints to Peter how Peter will die, Peter sees the Beloved Disciple following them and asks, "What about him?" Jesus answers, "If I want him to remain until I come, what is that to you? You follow Me!"[John 21:20-23]
Again in the gospel's last chapter, it states that the very book itself is based on the written testimony of the disciple whom Jesus loved.[John 21:24]
None of the other Gospels has anyone in the parallel scenes that could be directly understood as the Beloved Disciple. For example, in Luke 24:12, Peter alone runs to the tomb. Mark, Matthew and Luke do not mention any one of the twelve disciples having witnessed the crucifixion.
There are also two references to an unnamed "other disciple" in John 1:35-40 and John 18:15-16, which may be to the same person based on the wording in John 20:2.[44]
Extrabiblical traditions[edit]
Byzantine illumination depicting John dictating to his disciple, Prochorus (c. 1100).
Tomb of St. John the Apostle, in St. John's Basilica, Ephesus, near modern-day Selçuk, Turkey.
There is no information in the Bible concerning the duration of John's activity in Judea. According to tradition, John and the other Apostles remained some 12 years in this first field of labour. The persecution of Christians under Herod Agrippa I led to the scattering of the Apostles through the Roman Empire's provinces.[cf. Ac 12:1-17]
A messianic community existed at Ephesus before Paul's first labours there (cf. "the brethren"),[Acts 18:27] in addition to Priscilla and Aquila. The original community was under the leadership of Apollos (1 Corinthians 1:12). They were disciples of John the Baptist and were converted by Aquila and Priscilla.[45] According to Church tradition, after the Assumption of Mary, John went to Ephesus. From there he wrote the three epistles attributed to him. John was allegedly banished by the Roman authorities to the Greek island of Patmos, where, according to tradition, he wrote the Book of Revelation. According to Tertullian (in The Prescription of Heretics) John was banished (presumably to Patmos) after being plunged into boiling oil in Rome and suffering nothing from it. It is said that all in the audience of Colosseum were converted to Christianity upon witnessing this miracle. This event would have occurred in the late 1st century, during the reign of the Emperor Domitian, who was known for his persecution of Christians.
When John was aged, he trained Polycarp who later became Bishop of Smyrna. This was important because Polycarp was able to carry John's message to future generations. Polycarp taught Irenaeus, passing on to him stories about John. Similar goes with Ignatius of Antioch, who was a student of John and later appointed by Saint Peter to be the Bishop of Antioch. In Against Heresies, Irenaeus relates how Polycarp told a story of
John, the disciple of the Lord, going to bathe at Ephesus, and perceiving Cerinthus within, rushed out of the bath-house without bathing, exclaiming, "Let us fly, lest even the bath-house fall down, because Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, is within."[46]
It is traditionally believed that John was the youngest of the apostles and survived them. He is said to have lived to an old age, dying at Ephesus sometime after AD 98.[47]
An alternative account of John's death, ascribed by later Christian writers to the early second-century bishop Papias of Hierapolis, claims that he was slain by the Jews.[48][49] Most Johannine scholars doubt the reliability of its ascription to Papias, but a minority, including B.W. Bacon, Martin Hengel and Henry Barclay Swete, maintain that these references to Papias are credible.[50][51] Zahn argues that this reference is actually to John the Baptist.[47] John's traditional tomb is thought to be located at Selçuk, a small town in the vicinity of Ephesus.[52]
Liturgical commemoration[edit]
The feast day of Saint John in the Roman Catholic Church, which calls him "Saint John, Apostle and Evangelist", and in the Anglican Communion and Lutheran Calendars, which call him "Saint John the Apostle and Evangelist", is on 27 December.[53] In the Tridentine Calendar he was commemorated also on each of the following days up to and including 3 January, the Octave of the 27 December feast. This Octave was abolished by Pope Pius XII in 1955.[54] The traditional liturgical color is white.
Until 1960, another feast day which appeared in the General Roman Calendar is that of "Saint John Before the Latin Gate" on May 6, celebrating a tradition recounted by Jerome that St John was brought to Rome during the reign of the Emperor Domitian, and was thrown in a vat of boiling oil, from which he was miraculously preserved unharmed. A church (San Giovanni a Porta Latina) dedicated to him was built near the Latin gate of Rome, the traditional site of this event.[55]
The Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite commemorate the "Repose of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian" on September 26. On May 8 they celebrate the "Feast of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian", on which date Christians used to draw forth from his grave fine ashes which were believed to be effective for healing the sick.
Other Christians highly revere him but do not canonize or venerate saints.
Other views[edit]
Latter-day Saint view[edit]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that John received the promise of immortality from Jesus Christ, as recorded in John 21:21–23 and the seventh chapter of the Doctrine and Covenants. It also teaches that in 1829, along with the resurrected Peter and the resurrected James, John visited Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery and restored the priesthood authority with Apostolic succession to earth.[56] John, along with the Three Nephites, will live to see the Second Coming of Christ as translated beings.[57]
The LDS Church teaches that John the Apostle is the same person as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, and the Beloved Disciple.[57]
Islamic view[edit]
The Quran also speaks of Jesus's disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as "helpers to the work of God".[58] Muslim exegesis and Quran commentary, however, names them and includes John among the disciples.[59] An old tradition, which involves the legend of Habib the Carpenter, mentions that John was one of the three disciples sent to Antioch to preach to the people there.[60]
In art[edit]
St. John the Apostle by Jacques Bellange, c. 1600
As he was traditionally identified with the beloved apostle, the evangelist, and the author of the Revelation and several Epistles, John played an extremely prominent role in art from the early Christian period onward.[61] He is traditionally depicted in one of two distinct ways: either as an aged man with a white or gray beard, or alternatively as a beardless youth.[62][63] The first way of depicting him was more common in Byzantine art, where it was possibly influenced by antique depictions of Socrates;[64] the second was more common in the art of Medieval Western Europe, and can be dated back as far as 4th century Rome.[63]
Legends from the Acts of John contributed much to Medieval iconography; it is the source of the idea that John became an apostle at a young age.[63] One of John's familiar attributes is the chalice, often with a serpent emerging from it.[61] This symbol is interpreted as a reference to a legend from the Acts of John,[65] in which John was challenged to drink a cup of poison to demonstrate the power of his faith (the poison being symbolized by the serpent).[61] Other common attributes include a book or scroll, in reference to the writings traditionally attributed to him, and an eagle,[63] which is argued to symbolize the high-soaring, inspirational quality of these writings.[61]
In Medieval works of painting, sculpture and literature, Saint John is often presented in an androgynous or femininized manner.[66] Historians have related such portrayals to the circumstances of the believers for whom they were intended.[67] For instance, John's feminine features are argued to have helped to make him more relatable to women.[68] Likewise, Sarah McNamer argues that because of his status as an androgynous saint, John could function as an 'image of a third or mixed gender'[69] and 'a crucial figure with whom to identify'[70] for male believers who sought to cultivate an attitude of affective piety, a highly emotional style of devotion that, in late-medieval culture, was thought to be poorly compatible with masculinity.[71] After the Middle Ages, feminizing portrayals of Saint John continued to be made; a case in point is an etching by Jacques Bellange, shown to the right, described by art critic Richard Dorment as depicting 'a softly androgynous creature with a corona of frizzy hair, small breasts like a teenage girl, and the round belly of a mature woman.'[72]
Gallery of art[edit]
John the Apostle
A portrait from the Book of Kells, c. 800
St John at Patmos by Pieter Paul Rubens
John the Apostle and St Francis by El Greco
Martyrdom of Saint John the Evangelist by Master of the Winkler Epitaph
Valentin de Boulogne, John and Jesus
St. John the Evangelist in meditation by Simone Cantarini (1612-1648), Bologna
Saint John and the Poisoned Cup by El Greco
The Last Supper, anonymous painter
See also[edit]
Book: Apostle (Christian)
See also: Acts of John
Basilica of St. John
Four evangelists
Names of John
St. John the Evangelist on Patmos
Vision of St. John on Patmos, frescos by Antonio da Correggio
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Thomas Patrick Halton, On illustrious men, Volume 100 of The Fathers of the Church, CUA Press, 1999. P. 19.
Jump up ^ Saint Sophronius of Jerusalem (2007) [c. 600], "The Life of the Evangelist John", The Explanation of the Holy Gospel According to John, House Springs, Missouri, United States: Chrysostom Press, pp. 2–3, ISBN 1-889814-09-1
^ Jump up to: a b Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) p. 355
^ Jump up to: a b Foley OFM, Leonard. "Saint of the Day: Lives, Lessons and Feast", (revised by Pat McCloskey, OFM), American Catholic.org
Jump up ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 978-0-07-296548-3
Jump up ^ Robinson, John A.T. (1977). Redating the New Testament. SCM Press. ISBN 978-0-334-02300-5.
Jump up ^ Mark Allan Powell. Jesus as a figure in history. Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. ISBN 0-664-25703-8 / 978-0664257033
Jump up ^ Gail R O'Day, introduction to the Gospel of John in New Revised Standard Translation of the Bible, Abingdon Press, Nashville, 2003, p.1906
Jump up ^ Reading John, Francis J. Moloney, SDB, Dove Press, 1995
Jump up ^ Kruse, Colin G.The Gospel According to John: An Introduction and Commentary, Eerdmans, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-2771-3, p. 28.
Jump up ^ E P Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, (Penguin, 1995) page 63 - 64.
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman (2000:43) The New Testament: a historical introduction to early Christian writings. Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Bart D. Ehrman (2005:235) Lost Christianities: the battles for scripture and the faiths we never knew Oxford University Press, New York.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1995:287) International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: K-P MATTHEW, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. Quote: "Matthew, like the other three Gospels is an anonymous document."
Jump up ^ Donald Senior, Paul J. Achtemeier, Robert J. Karris (2002:328) Invitation to the Gospels Paulist Press.
Jump up ^ Keith Fullerton Nickle (2001:43) The Synoptic Gospels: an introduction Westminster John Knox Press.
Jump up ^ Ben Witherington (2004:44) The Gospel code: novel claims about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Da Vinci InterVarsity Press.
Jump up ^ F.F. Bruce (1994:1) The Gospel of John Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
Jump up ^ Patrick J. Flannagan (1997:16) The Gospel of Mark Made Easy Paulist Press
Jump up ^ Paul N. Anderson, The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel, p. 48.
Jump up ^ F. F. Bruce, The Gospel of John, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman (2004:110) Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman(2006:143) The lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot: a new look at betrayer and betrayed. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ "Revelation, Book of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
Jump up ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 81.4
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford. p. 468. ISBN 0-19-515462-2.
Jump up ^ "Church History, Book III, Chapter 39". The Fathers of the Church. NewAdvent.org. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
Jump up ^ saint, Jerome. "De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) Chapter 9 & 18". newadvent.org. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Adela Collins. "Patmos." Harper's Bible Dictionary. Paul J. Achtemeier, gen. ed. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985. p755.
Jump up ^ Griggs, C. Wilfred. "John the Beloved" in Ludlow, Daniel H., ed. Selections from the Encyclopedia of Mormonism: Scriptures of the Church (Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book, 1992) p. 379. Griggs favors the "one John" theory but mentions that some modern scholars have hypothesized that there are multiple Johns.
Jump up ^ Introduction. Saint Joseph Edition of the New American Bible: Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources : including the Revised New Testament and the Revised Psalms. New York: Catholic Book Pub., 1992. 386. Print.
Jump up ^ By comparing Matthew 27:56 to Mark 15:40
^ Jump up to: a b "Fonck, Leopold. "St. John the Evangelist." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 6 Feb. 2013". Newadvent.org. 1910-10-01. Retrieved 2013-05-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Butler, Alban. The Lives or the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints, Vol.IV
Jump up ^ Luke 9:49-50 NKJV
Jump up ^ While Luke states that this is the Passover,[Lk 22:7-9] the Gospel of John specifically states that the Passover meal is to be partaken of on Friday[Jn 18:28]
Jump up ^ John 13:23, 19:26, 20:2, 21:7, 21:20
Jump up ^ James D. G. Dunn and John William Rogerson, Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, p. 1210, ISBN 0-8028-3711-5.
Jump up ^ Brown, Raymond E. 1970. "The Gospel According to John (xiii-xxi)". New York: Doubleday & Co. Pages 922, 955.
Jump up ^ "Vailhé, Siméon. "Ephesus." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 6 Feb. 2013". Newadvent.org. 1909-05-01. Retrieved 2013-05-03.
Jump up ^ Irenaeus, Against Heresies, III.3.4.
^ Jump up to: a b Zahn, T. "John the Apostle", in Schaff, Philip. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VI: Innocents - Liudger, p.203
Jump up ^ Cheyne, Thomas Kelly (1901). Encyclopaedia Biblica, Volume 2. Adam and Charles Black. pp. 2509–11. Although Papias' works are no longer extant, the fifth century ecclesiastical historian Philip of Side and the ninth-century monk George Hamartolos both stated that Papias had written that John was "slain by the Jews."
Jump up ^ Rasimus, Tuomas (2010). The Legacy of John: Second-Century Reception of the Fourth Gospel. BRILL. p. 5. ISBN 9789004176331. Rasimus finds corroborating evidence for this tradition in "two martyrologies from Edessa and Carthage" and writes that "Mark 10:35-40//Matt. 20:20-23 can be taken to portray Jesus predicting the martyrdom of both the sons of Zebedee."
Jump up ^ Culpepper, R. Alan (2000). John, the Son of Zebedee: The Life of A Legend. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 9780567087423.
Jump up ^ Swete, Henry Barclay (1911). The Apocalypse of St. John (3 ed.). Macmillan. pp. 179–180.
Jump up ^ Procopius of Caesarea, On Buildings. General Index, trans. H. B. Dewing and Glanville Downey, vol. 7, Loeb Classical Library 343 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1940), 319
Jump up ^ "The Calendar". 16 October 2013.
Jump up ^ General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII
Jump up ^ Saint Andrew Daily Missal with Vespers for Sundays and Feasts by Dom. Gaspar LeFebvre, O.S.B., Saint Paul, MN: The E.M. Lohmann Co., 1952, p.1325-1326
Jump up ^ Doctrine and Covenants 27:12
^ Jump up to: a b "John", KJV (LDS): Bible Dictionary, LDS Church, 1979
Jump up ^ Qur'an 3:49-53
Jump up ^ Historical Dictionary of Prophets In Islam And Judaism, Brandon M. Wheeler, Disciples of Christ: "Muslim exegesis identifies the disciples as Peter, Andrew, Matthew, Thomas, Philip, John, James, Bartholomew, and Simon"
Jump up ^ Hughes Dictionary of Islam, Habib the Carpenter
^ Jump up to: a b c d James Hall, "John the Evangelist," Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1979)
Jump up ^ Sources:
James Hall, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 129, 174-75.
Carolyn S. Jerousek, "Christ and St. John the Evangelist as a Model of Medieval Mysticism," Cleveland Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 6 (2001), 16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Saint John the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
Jump up ^ Jadranka Prolović, "Socrates and St. John the Apostle: the interchangеable similarity of their portraits" Zograf, vol. 35 (2011), 9: "It is difficult to locate when and where this iconography of John originated and what the prototype was, yet it is clearly visible that this iconography of John contains all of the main characteristics of well-known antique images of Socrates. This fact leads to the conclusion that Byzantine artists used depictions of Socrates as a model for the portrait of John."
Jump up ^ J.K. Elliot (ed.), A Collection of Apocryphal Christian Literature in an English Translation Based on M.R. James (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993/2005), 343-345.
Jump up ^
James Hall, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 129, 174-75.
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, St. John the Divine: The Deified Evangelist in Medieval Art and Theology. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), xxi-xxii; ibidem, 159-160.
Carolyn S. Jerousek, "Christ and St. John the Evangelist as a Model of Medieval Mysticism," Cleveland Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 6 (2001), 16.
Annette Volfing, John the Evangelist and Medieval Writing: Imitating the Inimitable. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 139.
Jump up ^
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, St. John the Divine: The Deified Evangelist in Medieval Art and Theology. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), xxi-xxii.
Carolyn S. Jerousek, "Christ and St. John the Evangelist as a Model of Medieval Mysticism" Cleveland Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 6 (2001), 20.
Sarah McNamer, Affective Meditation and the Invention of Medieval Compassion, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 142-148.
Annette Volfing, John the Evangelist and Medieval Writing: Imitating the Inimitable. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 139.
Jump up ^
Carolyn S. Jerousek, "Christ and St. John the Evangelist as a Model of Medieval Mysticism" Cleveland Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 6 (2001), 20.
Annette Volfing, John the Evangelist and Medieval Writing: Imitating the Inimitable. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 139.
Jump up ^ Sarah McNamer, Affective Meditation and the Invention of Medieval Compassion, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 142.
Jump up ^ Sarah McNamer, Affective Meditation and the Invention of Medieval Compassion, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 145.
Jump up ^ Sarah McNamer, Affective Meditation and the Invention of Medieval Compassion, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 142-148.
Jump up ^ Richard Dorment (15 February 1997). "The Sacred and the Sensual". The Daily Telegraph.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: John the Evangelist
Wikimedia Commons has media related to John the Evangelist.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article John, the Apostle.
The Life and Miracles of St. John the Evangelist and Apostle
Eastern Orthodox icon and Synaxarion of Saint John the Apostle and Evangelist (May 8)
John the Apostle at Find a Grave
John the Apostle in Art
John in Art
Repose of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian Orthodox icon and synaxarion for September 26
Works by John the Apostle at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about John the Apostle at Internet Archive
Works by or about Saint John at Internet Archive
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Quigley Down Under
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Quigley Down Under
Theatrical release poster by Steven Chorney
Directed by
Simon Wincer
Produced by
Stanley O'Toole
Alexandra Rose
Megan Rose
Written by
John Hill
Starring
Tom Selleck
Laura San Giacomo
Alan Rickman
Music by
Basil Poledouris
Cinematography
David Eggby
Edited by
Peter Burgess
Production
company
Pathé Entertainment
Distributed by
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Release date
17 October 1990
Running time
119 minutes
Country
Australia/United States
Language
English
Budget
$18 million[1]
Box office
$21,413,105
Quigley Down Under is a 1990 Australian-American Western film directed by Simon Wincer and starring Tom Selleck, Alan Rickman and Laura San Giacomo.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Accolades
5 Quigley Sharps rifle
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Matthew Quigley (Tom Selleck) is an American cowboy and sharpshooter with a specially modified rifle with which he can shoot accurately at extraordinary distances. He answers a newspaper advertisement that asks for a man with a special talent in long-distance shooting, using just four words, "M. Quigley 900 yards," written on a copy of the advertisement that is punctured by five closely spaced bullet holes.
When he arrives in Australia, he gets into a fight with employees of the man who hired him, who are trying to force "Crazy Cora" (Laura San Giacomo) onto their wagon. After he identifies himself, he is taken to the station of Elliot Marston (Alan Rickman), who informs Quigley his sharpshooting skills will be used to eradicate the increasingly elusive Aborigines. Quigley turns down the offer and throws Marston out of his own house.
The aborigine manservant knocks Quigley over the head and Marston's men beat him and Cora unconscious and dump them in the outback with no water and little chance of survival. However, they are rescued by Aborigines. Cora now reveals that she comes from Texas. When her home was attacked by Comanches, she hid in the cellar and accidentally suffocated her child while trying to prevent him from crying. Her husband had then put her alone on a ship to Australia. Now Cora consistently calls Quigley by her husband’s name (Roy), much to his annoyance.
When Marston's men attack the Aborigines who helped them, Quigley kills three. Escaping on a single horse, they encounter more of the men driving Aborigines over a cliff. Quigley drives them off with his deadly shooting and Cora rescues an orphaned baby she finds among the dead Aborigines. Leaving Cora and the infant in the desert with food and water, Quigley rides alone to a nearby town. There he obtains new ammunition from a local German gunsmith, who hates Marston for his murdering ways. Quigley also learns that he has become a legendary hero among the Aborigines.
Marston's men are also in town and recognize Quigley's horse. When they attack, cornering him in a burning building, he escapes through a skylight and kills all but one of them. The injured survivor is sent back to say he will be following. First Quigley returns to Cora and the baby, which she has just saved from an attack by dingoes. At first she had tried to stop it crying, but then told it to make as much noise as it liked as she gunned the animals down. Back in town, she gives the baby to Aborigines living there after Quigley tells her that the child has 'a right to happiness'.
The next morning, Quigley rides away to confront Marston at his station. At first he shoots the defenders from his location in the hills but is eventually shot in the leg and captured by Marston's last two men. Marston, who has noticed that Quigley only ever carries a rifle, decides to give him a lesson in the "quick-draw" style of gunfighting. As the two face off, Marston makes the first move, but is beaten to the draw by Quigley, who shoots the two remaining men as well. As Marston lies dying, Quigley refers to an earlier conversation, telling him, "I said I never had much use for one [a revolver]; I never said I didn't know how to use it."
Marston's servant comes out of the house and gives Quigley his rifle back, then walks away from the ranch, stripping off his western-style clothing as he goes. An army troop now arrives to arrest Quigley for murder until they notice the surrounding hills are lined with Aborigines and decide to withdraw. Later he and Cora book a passage back to America in the name of Roy Cobb, Cora’s husband, since Quigley is still wanted. On the wharf she reminds him that he once told her that she had to say two words before he would make love to her. Smiling broadly, she calls him "Matthew Quigley" and the two embrace for the first time.
Cast[edit]
Tom Selleck as Matthew Quigley
Laura San Giacomo as Crazy Cora
Alan Rickman as Elliott Marston
Chris Haywood as Major Ashley-Pitt
Ron Haddrick as Grimmelman
Tony Bonner as Dobkin
Jerome Ehlers as Coogan
Conor McDermottroe as Hobb
Roger Ward as Brophy
Ben Mendelsohn as O'Flynn
Steve Dodd as Kunkurra
Karen Davitt as Slattern
Kylie Foster as Slattern
William Zappa as Reilly
Jonathan Sweet as Sergeant Thomas
Ollie Hall as Carver
Production[edit]
John Hill first began writing Quigley Down Under in 1978, and both Steve McQueen and Clint Eastwood were considered for the lead, but by the time production began in 1980, McQueen was too ill and the project was scrapped.[2] In the mid-1980s Tom Selleck heard of it and UAA got involved; the film was almost set up at Warner Bros with Lewis Gilbert as director but it fell over during pre-production. Simon Wincer then became director, who felt a good story had been ruined by numerous rewrites from people who knew little about Australian history, so he brought on Ian Jones as writer. They went back to the original draft, re-set it from the 1880s to the 1860s and made it more historically accurate.[3]
The film was made by the newly formed Pathé Group, then under Alan Ladd, Jr. It was Ladd's enthusiasm for the project which helped get it financed.[3]
The firearm used by Quigley (Selleck) is a custom 13.5 pound (6 kg), single-shot, 1874 Sharps Rifle, with a 34-inch (860 mm) barrel.[4] The rifle used for filming was a replica manufactured for the film by the Shiloh Rifle Manufacturing Company of Big Timber, Montana.[5] In 2002 Selleck donated the rifle, along with six other firearms from his other films, to the National Rifle Association, as part of the NRA's exhibit "Real Guns of Reel Heroes" at the National Firearms Museum in Fairfax, Virginia.[6]
The movie was filmed entirely in Australia. Scenes were filmed in and around Warrnambool and Apollo Bay, Victoria.[7]
Although several scenes of the story depict violence and cruelty toward and involving animals, a film spokesperson explained that no animal was harmed, and special effects were used. For example, Quigley and Cora are reduced to consuming "grub worms" (actually blobs of dough) for survival. A pack of dingoes attacks Cora, and she finally saves herself by shooting the animals. Those animals were specially trained, and were actually "playing" for that scene, which was later enhanced by visual and sound effects. Several scenes involve falling horses; they were performed by specially-trained animals and were not hurt. When a horse falls off a cliff, the "horse" was a mechanical creation. The film's producer stated that a veterinarian was on the set whenever animals were being used in filming.[8]
Reception[edit]
Critical responses were mixed, with Quigley having a 56% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[9] Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half out of four stars, arguing that it was a flawed but respectable neo-western, and particularly praising San Giacomo's performance: "[T]his may be the movie that proves her staying power. [...] She has an authority, a depth of presence, that is attractive, and her voice is deep and musical."[10]
The film, however, was not a financial success in theaters, roughly recouping its budget.
The film, and more specifically the protagonist's skill with his rifle, has led snipers to refer to the act of killing two targets with a single bullet as 'a Quigley'.[11]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Category
Subject
Result
London Film Critics' Circle Award British Actor of the Year Alan Rickman Won
Motion Picture Sound Editors Award Best Sound Editing - Foreign Feature Tim Chau Won
Frank Lipson Won
Political Film Society Award Human Rights Nominated
Quigley Sharps rifle[edit]
Quigley says of his gun:
"It’s a lever-action, breech loader. Usual barrel length’s thirty inches. This one has an extra four. It’s converted to use a special forty-five caliber, hundred and ten grain metal cartridge, with a five-hundred and forty grain paper-patched bullet. It’s fitted with double set triggers, and a Vernier sight. It’s marked up to twelve-hundred yards. This one shoots a mite further."
Three fully functional .45-110 rifles matching the above description were built for the film in 1989 by the Shiloh Rifle Co. of Big Timber, Montana, United States. They also had a 15 1⁄4 inch length of pull to fit Selleck's tall frame, a full octagon heavy barrel with a blue finish, and weighed 13 1⁄2 pounds. Due to the weight, one of the rifles was sent back to Shiloh to be refitted with an aluminum barrel so it could be swung faster (as a club) in fight scenes.
Though Quigley calls it a lever-action rifle, this is actually an error. While it is operated with a lever, the Sharps rifle is actually a falling-block action, loading only one round of ammunition at a time, as shown repeatedly throughout the film.[citation needed]
After the filming concluded, Selleck kept all three rifles, and had two of them reconditioned by Shiloh Rifle Co.[citation needed] In 2006 Selleck donated one of the rifles used in filming to the NRA for a fundraising raffle. In March 2008 that rifle was sold for $69,000 through the James D. Julia auction house.[12]
An annual Matthew Quigley Buffalo Rifle Match is held in Forsyth, Montana (180 miles from Big Timber) on Father's Day weekend. The shoot is the largest of its kind in America, attended by around 600 shooters, with targets out to 800 yards.[13]
See also[edit]
Cinema of Australia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greg Kerr, "Quigley", Australian Film 1978-1992, Oxford Uni Press, 1993 p323
Jump up ^ Persico Newhouse, Joyce J. "'Perfect Hero' Selleck Takes Aim at Action". Times Union. 18 October 1990.
^ Jump up to: a b Scott Murray, "Simon Wincer: Trusting His Instincts", Cinema Papers, November 1989 pp. 6–12, 78
Jump up ^ Sharp, Eric. "Shooting Star - Antique Black-Powder Rifle Still Scene-Stealer". Detroit Free Press. 18 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Names and Faces: "On Target". Orlando Sentinel. 6 August 1989.
Jump up ^ "Tom Selleck Donates Seven Guns To NRA National Firearms Museum". National Rifle Association
Jump up ^ GreatSouthCoast website
Jump up ^ AHA Film website Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Quigley Down Under at Rotten Tomatoes
Jump up ^ "Quigley Down Under". Chicago Sun-Times.
Jump up ^ Harnden, Toby (13 March 2011). "Dead Men Risen: The snipers' story". The Daily Telegraph. London.
Jump up ^ "Firearms: Spring 2009 - Selected Highlights". James D. Julia. March 2008. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Matthew Quigley Buffalo Rifle Match". Montana Office of Tourism. 2010.
External links[edit]
Quigley Down Under at Oz Movies
Quigley Down Under at AllMovie
Quigley Down Under at Box Office Mojo
Quigley Down Under on IMDb
Quigley Down Under at the TCM Movie Database
Quigley Down Under at the American Film Institute Catalog
"IMFDB.org Quigley Down Under Weapons Identification Page".
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Simon Wincer
Snapshot (1979)
Harlequin (1980)
Phar Lap (1983)
D.A.R.Y.L. (1985)
The Lighthorsemen (1987)
Lonesome Dove (1989)
Quigley Down Under (1990)
Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man (1991)
Free Willy (1993)
Lightning Jack (1994)
Operation Dumbo Drop (1995)
The Phantom (1996)
Flash (1997)
The Echo of Thunder (1998)
Crossfire Trail (2001)
Crocodile Dundee in Los Angeles (2001)
Monte Walsh (2003)
The Young Black Stallion (2003)
The Cup (2011)
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text:
Gas laws
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article outlines the historical development of the laws describing ideal gases. For a detailed description of the ideal gas laws and their further development, see ideal gas law.
The gas laws were developed at the end of the 18th century, when scientists began to realize that relationships between pressure, volume and temperature of a sample of gas could be obtained which would hold to approximation for all gases. Gases behave in a similar way over a wide variety of conditions because they all have molecules which are widely spaced, and the equation of state for an ideal gas is derived from kinetic theory. The earlier gas laws are now considered as special cases of the ideal gas equation, with one or more variables held constant.
Contents
[hide]
1 Boyle's Law
2 Charles' law
3 Gay-Lussac's law
4 Avogadro's law
5 Combined and ideal gas laws
6 Other gas laws
7 References
Boyle's Law[edit]
Main article: Boyle's law
In 1662 Robert Boyle studied the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature. He observed that volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure provided the temperature remains constant. Boyle's law, published in 1662, states that, at constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume of a given mass of an ideal gas in a closed system is always constant. It can be verified experimentally using a pressure gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be derived from the kinetic theory of gases: if a container, with a fixed number of molecules inside, is reduced in volume, more molecules will strike a given area of the sides of the container per unit time, causing a greater pressure.
A statement of Boyle's law is as follows:
The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely related to the pressure exerted on it at a given temperature and given number of moles.
The concept can be represented with these formulae:
V ∝ 1 P {\displaystyle V\propto {\frac {1}{P}}} , meaning "Volume is directly proportional to 1 divided by Pressure", or
P ∝ 1 V {\displaystyle P\propto {\frac {1}{V}}} , meaning "Pressure is directly proportional to 1 divided by Volume", or
P V = k 1 {\displaystyle PV=k_{1}} , or
P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 {\displaystyle P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}\,}
where P is the pressure, and V is the volume of a gas, and k1 is the constant in this equation (and is not the same as the proportionality constants in the other equations below).
Charles' law[edit]
Main article: Charles's law
Charles's law, or the law of volumes, was found in 1787 by Jacques Charles. It states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, assuming in a closed system.
The statement of Charles' law is as follows: the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas, at constant pressure (Pa), is directly proportional to its temperature (K). As a mathematical equation, Charles's law is written as either:
V ∝ T {\displaystyle V\propto T\,} , or
V / T = k 2 {\displaystyle V/T=k_{2}} , or
V 1 / T 1 = V 2 / T 2 {\displaystyle V_{1}/T_{1}=V_{2}/T_{2}} ,
where V is the volume of a gas, T is the absolute temperature and k2 is a proportionality constant (which is not the same as the proportionality constants in the other equations in this article).
Gay-Lussac's law[edit]
Main article: Gay-Lussac's law
Gay-Lussac's law, Amontons' law or the pressure law was found by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1809. It states that, for a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the pressure exerted on the sides of its container is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
As a mathematical equation, Gay-Lussac's law is written as either:
P ∝ T {\displaystyle P\propto T\,} , or
P / T = k {\displaystyle P/T=k} , or
K=P divided by T
P 1 / T 1 = P 2 / T 2 {\displaystyle P_{1}/T_{1}=P_{2}/T_{2}} ,
where P is the pressure, T is the absolute temperature, and k is another proportionality constant.
Avogadro's law[edit]
Main article: Avogadro's law
Avogadro's law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the gas present in the container. This gives rise to the molar volume of a gas, which at STP (273.15 K, 1 atm) is about 22.4 L. The relation is given by
V 1 n 1 = V 2 n 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{n_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{n_{2}}}\,}
where n is equal to the number of molecules of gas (or the number of moles of gas).
Combined and ideal gas laws[edit]
Main article: Ideal gas law
The Combined gas law or General Gas Equation is obtained by combining Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law. It shows the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature for a fixed mass (quantity) of gas:
p V = k 5 T {\displaystyle pV=k_{5}T\,}
This can also be written as:
p 1 V 1 T 1 = p 2 V 2 T 2 {\displaystyle \qquad {\frac {p_{1}V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {p_{2}V_{2}}{T_{2}}}}
With the addition of Avogadro's law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal gas law:
p V = n R T {\displaystyle pV=nRT\,}
where
p is pressure
V is volume
n is the number of moles
R is the universal gas constant
T is temperature (K)
where the proportionality constant, now named R, is the universal gas constant with a value of 8.3144598 (kPa∙L)/(mol∙K). An equivalent formulation of this law is:
p V = k N T {\displaystyle pV=kNT\,}
where
P is the pressure
V is the volume
N is the number of gas molecules
k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23 J·K−1 in SI units)
T is the temperature (K)
These equations are exact only for an ideal gas, which neglects various intermolecular effects (see real gas). However, the ideal gas law is a good approximation for most gases under moderate pressure and temperature.
This law has the following important consequences:
If temperature and pressure are kept constant, then the volume of the gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of gas.
If the temperature and volume remain constant, then the pressure of the gas changes is directly proportional to the number of molecules of gas present.
If the number of gas molecules and the temperature remain constant, then the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
If the temperature changes and the number of gas molecules are kept constant, then either pressure or volume (or both) will change in direct proportion to the temperature.
Other gas laws[edit]
Graham's law states that the rate at which gas molecules diffuse is inversely proportional to the square root of its density at constant temperature.Combined with Avogadro's law (i.e. since equal volumes have equal number of molecules) this is the same as being inversely proportional to the root of the molecular weight.
Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the pressure of a mixture of gases simply is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual components. Dalton's law is as follows:
P t o t a l = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + . . . + P n ≡ ∑ i = 1 n P i {\displaystyle P_{total}=P_{1}+P_{2}+P_{3}+...+P_{n}\equiv \sum _{i=1}^{n}P_{i}\,} ,
or
P t o t a l = P g a s + P H 2 O {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {total} }=P_{\mathrm {gas} }+P_{\mathrm {H_{2}O} }\,}
where PTotal is the total pressure of the atmosphere,
PGas is the pressure of the gas mixture in the atmosphere,
and PH2O is the water pressure at that temperature.
Amagat's law of partial volume states that the volume of a mixture of gases (or the volume of the container) simply is the sum of the partial volumes of the individual components. Amagat's law is as follows:
V t o t a l = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + . . . + V n ≡ ∑ i = 1 n V i {\displaystyle V_{total}=V_{1}+V_{2}+V_{3}+...+V_{n}\equiv \sum _{i=1}^{n}V_{i}\,} ,
where VTotal is the total volume of the gas mixture, or the volume of the container,
Vi is the partial volume of the gas in the gas mixture at that pressure and that temperature.
Henry's law states that:
At constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.
p = k H c {\displaystyle p=k_{\rm {H}}\,c}
Real gas law, formulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1873).
References[edit]
Castka, Joseph F.; Metcalfe, H. Clark; Davis, Raymond E.; Williams, John E. (2002). Modern Chemistry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-056537-5.
Guch, Ian (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Chemistry. Alpha, Penguin Group Inc. ISBN 1-59257-101-8.
Zumdahl, Steven S (1998). Chemical Principles. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-83995-5.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_laws&oldid=834299743"
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