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List of Everybody Loves Raymond characters
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The five principal characters in the episode "The Can Opener"
This is a list of fictional characters from Everybody Loves Raymond, an American sitcom, originally broadcast on CBS from September 13, 1996, to May 16, 2005.
The show revolves around the life of Italian-American Ray Barone, a sportswriter from Long Island, and his wife, Debra Barone. Other main characters include Ray's parents, Frank and Marie, Ray's children Ally, Michael and Geoffrey and Ray's brother Robert, with his wife Amy.
Contents
1 Main characters
1.1 Ray Barone
1.2 Debra Barone
1.3 Barone children
1.4 Marie Barone
1.5 Frank Barone
1.6 Robert Barone
1.7 Amy MacDougall-Barone
2 Recurring
3 Minor
4 References
Main characters
Actor
Role
Seasons
Episodes
Ray Romano Raymond "Ray" Barone All 9 210
Patricia Heaton Debra Barone 209
Brad Garrett Robert Charles Barone
Doris Roberts Marie Barone 210
Peter Boyle Frank Barone 206
Madylin Sweeten Alexandra "Ally" Barone 146
Sullivan and Sawyer Sweeten Michael and Geoffrey Barone 136
Monica Horan Amy MacDougall-Barone 64
Ray Barone
Raymond Albert Barone
First appearance
"Pilot"
Last appearance
"The Finale"
Final character appearance: King of Queens – "Raygin' Bulls"
Created by
Ray Romano & Philip Rosenthal
Portrayed by
Ray Romano
Number of episodes
210
Information
Occupation
Sportswriter
Family
Frank Barone (father)
Marie Barone (mother)
Robert Barone (brother)
Mel Barone (uncle)
Spouse(s)
Debra Barone (since 1988)
Children
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (daughter)
Geoffrey Barone (twin son)
Michael Barone (twin son)
Relatives
Warren Whelan (father-in-law)
Lois Whelan (mother-in-law)
Amy MacDougall-Barone (sister-in-law)
Jennifer Whelan (sister-in-law)
Gerard (maternal cousin)
Raymond Albert "Ray" Barone (Ray Romano) is the protagonist of the sitcom. Most of the series’ storylines revolve around him, hence the title of the show. He lives on Long Island, with his wife Debra and their three children Ally and twin boys, Michael and Geoffrey Barone. He attended St. Johns University (New York) in Queens, New York. Ray is well-known through the community due to his profession as a sportswriter for Newsday. In some episodes, he is seen reviewing a famous sportsperson. However, this is shown to have subsided in the later seasons. Due to the nature of his work, Ray is often seen on the couch, watching sports, rather than assisting Debra with household duties and the children.
At times Raymond appears rather introverted. He often rants in a nasal, whiny voice. His fears include not being liked by everyone and confronting his parents, particularly his mother. He often gets annoyed because he feels that he and Debra lack intimacy. He is also promoted as chief sports writer.
Parts of the backstory of his childhood have explained Raymond’s attitude and personality as an adult. Raymond and Robert were spoiled by their mother. However, their father, who worked long hours, had been neglectful in showing them affection and instead showed verbal abuse. Ray has sometimes shown this pattern of behavior in his reluctance to participate with his own children.
A running gag in the show is how much Ray was mothered and spoiled by his mother, while Robert was neglected. Raymond was pampered by Marie, which in turn, made him lazy and causing him to act like a child, and very often, to defend himself to Debra, he goes to Marie for advice and protection. He is also very scared of her and often sides with her instead of Debra.
In 2004, TV Guide ranked Ray Barone number 10 on its '50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time' list.[1]
The character has made several crossover appearances:
1997: Cosby – "Lucas Raymondicus"
1998: The Nanny – "The Reunion Show"
1998–2005: The King of Queens (4 episodes)
1999: Becker – "Drive, They Said"
Debra Barone
Debra Louise Whelan Barone
First appearance
"Pilot"
Last appearance
"The Finale"
Portrayed by
Patricia Heaton
Number of episodes
209
Information
Occupation
Homemaker
Family
Warren Whelan (father)
Lois Whelan (mother)
Jennifer Whelan (sister)
Spouse(s)
Raymond Barone (since 1988)
Children
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (daughter)
Geoffrey Barone (twin son)
Michael Barone (twin son)
Relatives
Frank Barone (father-in-law)
Marie Barone (mother-in-law)
Robert Barone (brother-in-law)
Amy MacDougall-Barone (sister-in-law)
Mel Barone (uncle-in-law)
Gerard (cousin-in-law)
Debra Louise Whelan-Barone (Patricia Heaton), is the wife of Ray. She was raised by wealthy parents, Lois (Katherine Helmond) and Warren Whelan (Robert Culp), and grew up in an upper-class background, unlike the other major characters in the sitcom. She has a sister, Jennifer Whelan (Ashley Crow), who is seen only once in the entire series. Following her graduation from high school, she traveled a lot and dated many famous sportspeople. Before marrying Ray, she worked in public relations for the New York Rangers hockey team.
Debra is vulnerable and emotionally sensitive. She is unhappy as a housewife, having to put up not only with Ray’s immature jokes and lazy behavior, but more with his intrusive family members, who often barge in uninvited, leaving havoc in their wake. Though Ray's parents frustrate her, she rarely shows her feelings to them, resulting in occasional bursts in private of yelling, stomping, and throwing objects.
Debra has a feud with Marie, who shows a large amount of distaste of her ability to be a mother and a wife. Throughout the series, Debra often finds Robert the most patient of the Barones, and at times she is shown to get along well with Frank, who thinks of her as a daughter and understands Debra's intolerance towards Marie.
She is also depressed about her parents when they were in an argument, and she was distraught when they were divorcing. Even though she grew up in a traditional conservative family, she was a free-spirited and a popular teen in her early years. Ray once noted that, during college, she went to Mardi Gras and flashed her breasts to many people who gave her beads and also ended up topless in the newspaper.
Her main catchphrase is, usually addressed to Ray in an ominous voice when he has done something bad, "What did you do?"
The character has also appeared in the King of Queens episode "Dire Strayts".
Barone children
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (154 episodes; played by Madylin Sweeten) – Ray and Debra's only daughter. She is six years old at the beginning of the series, and is fourteen by the series finale. She was named for Romano's real-life daughter. In the beginning, she is somewhat mischievous and naughty much like her brothers, but becomes loyal and helpful by the end. However, she still occasionally fibs and answers back to her parents if she doesn't get what she wants, such as a $250 silk dress which would only be worn once.
Geoffrey and Michael Barone (130 episodes; played by Sullivan and Sawyer Sweeten) – Ray and Debra's identical twin sons. They are two years old at the beginning of the series and are ten years old by the series finale. A running joke is Frank's insistence that Geoffrey may have homosexual tendencies, such as when he walks in on the two boys rehearsing to play fairies in a school production. The two are stereotypically playful, energetic, and prone to causing chaos even without trying but in general are well-behaved. (In the pilot episode, they were played by a different set of twins plus a set of triplets and were called "Gregory" and "Matthew" after Romano's real-life twin sons.)
Marie Barone
Marie Janella Barone
First appearance
"Pilot"
Last appearance
"Finale"
Portrayed by
Doris Roberts
Number of episodes
210
Information
Occupation
Homemaker
Spouse(s)
Frank Barone (since 1957)
Children
Raymond "Ray" Barone (son)
Robert Barone (son)
Relatives
Debra Barone (daughter-in-law)
Amy MacDougall-Barone (daughter-in-law)
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (granddaughter)
Geoffrey Barone (grandson)
Michael Barone (grandson)
Mel Barone (brother-in-law)
Gerard (nephew)
Marie Janella Barone (Doris Roberts) is the wife of Frank, and matriarch of the Barone family. As a housewife, she excels in household duties, including cooking, cleaning, and generally keeping and maintaining a good household. Marie appears to have narcissistic personality disorder, and her treatment of people due to this becomes a focal point of several episodes of the show. She is very nosy, snobbish, arrogant, insulting, and has a strong hold over her family due to her penchant for her likely narcissistic abuse, bullying those around her with guilt and a victim complex to get her way. She has very high self-esteem and regards herself as a positive example of what every wife, mother and woman should be, but in reality is responsible for a majority of the misery and conflict within the Barone family. She takes special pride in her Italian background and even arranges a tour of Italy for the whole family out of her own savings.
Throughout the series, she is shown to have favorites with certain people, with her son Raymond being the first and Debra being possibly the last. Other than Frank, everyone has a hard time standing up to Marie due to her ability of making people feel guilty, although Debra does occasionally take a stand. She is well aware of Raymond’s reluctance to stand up to her, and in many situations takes advantage of this to achieve her own interests.
It is established in the flashbacks of "How They Met" that she has never liked Debra ever since Debra asked Ray to fix her futon at dinner time, but Marie has never admitted her dislike of Debra outright and is careful about not saying it out loud, but she never ceases the chance to annoy her or indirectly insult her on many occasions just for her own pleasure.
She has saved a little money on the side every day and admitted to Debra that she collected over $46,000 since her wedding. She also sends money to South America to a fundraiser. She is also shown to actually control the family's finances in front of Frank, who always thought he was the one in charge and remained oblivious to much of her savings or expenses.
As her boys were growing up, she spoiled her younger son while completely cutting Robert out of the picture. However, in a later episode, she claims that this was because Robert was able to take care of himself and was independent, in contrast to Ray who was a sensitive, timid, needy little boy (this was likely said just to manipulate Robert into getting Amy pregnant, as both he and Raymond note and Marie herself winks to Ray, indicating this is another manipulation). In some cases, however, she is shown to care and be overprotective of Robert as well. This includes when he had nightmares growing up, when he was gored by a bull, when he was interviewing for an FBI position, and her frequent attempts to get Robert out of the police force in effort to keep him safe.
Marie is also seen constantly arguing with her husband Frank in nearly every episode, with them constantly fighting and annoying each other. However, in some situations, there have been times when they do evidence their love for one another, despite their reluctance to be open with it. Much to Debra's annoyance, even Debra's parents find them more interesting, since they are honest to each other.
Her catchphrase is "I don't like that, [insert name]." whenever anyone says anything inappropriate.
The final episode reveals that her birthday is December 9 (this was one of Frank's classic "one-liners" as he adds "1802").
The character has also appeared in the King of Queens episode "Rayny Day".
Frank Barone
Frank Oscar Barone
First appearance
"Pilot"
Last appearance
"Finale"
Portrayed by
Peter Boyle
Number of episodes
207
Information
Occupation
Bookkeeper (retired)
Spouse(s)
Marie Barone (since 1957)
Children
Raymond "Ray" Barone (son)
Robert Barone (son)
Relatives
Debra Barone (daughter-in-law)
Amy MacDougall-Barone (daughter-in-law)
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (granddaughter)
Geoffrey Barone (grandson)
Michael Barone (grandson)
Mel Barone (older brother)
Gerard (nephew by marriage)
Francis Oscar "Frank" Barone (Peter Boyle) is the husband of Marie and a retired bookkeeper. In the episode "The Gift" (season 2), it is Frank's 65th birthday, making his year of birth 1932. He can be seen as aggressive, selfish, uncaring, and masculine. Although it is briefly mentioned that he has a sensitive side, Frank refuses to accept it. In episodes like "Pet the Bunny", "Christmas Present", "Fathers Knows Least" and "Frank Goes Downstairs", he indicates that, though capable of patience and kindness, he deliberately cultivates a tough guy persona. However, Frank is sometimes shown to be a good family man, such as taking the fall for Debra when Marie's prized canister goes missing or even trying to console Robert after he becomes morose from a breakup.
He is always seen at Ray and Debra’s house on the black armchair with his pants unbuttoned and zipper open watching sports or at home ordering Marie to prepare his meals while sitting and reading the paper. During his sons’ childhood, Frank was virtually absent and had refused to show any sign of affection and love to either boy. He was constantly at loggerheads with his wife Marie to how the boys were to be raised. He is very opinionated, outspoken, and has no problem insulting family members and strangers out in the open (this applies in particular to his wife, Marie). He calls men names like "Nancy", "Shirley", "Peaches", and "Mary" who do not live up to his standards to what it takes to be a man. His main catchphrase on the show is "Holy crap".
Throughout the sitcom, Frank is shown to have socially conservative values, particularly regarding minority groups such as gays and lesbians, and ethnic groups such as the Koreans and Japanese to which he occasionally mutters "Japanese crap". He doesn’t follow or accept anything outside the social norms, to which Marie proclaims "Frank lives in blissful ignorance". Despite Marie’s constant self-regard, she is accepting of these minority groups. Much to other characters' dismay, he's not above engaging in illegal or dubious activities such as gambling or stealing cable from Ray.
In his spare time, Frank is a skilled handyman and a history buff, with a particular interest in the American Civil War. He's frequently seen making repairs in Ray and Debra's house, and in "Frank Goes Downstairs" is injured while fixing their staircase. His regular get-away activity is having naked pool bath with his elderly friends at a community center referred to as "the lodge". On every other Saturday, he takes Raymond's children to The Happy Zone.
Frank is also a war veteran. He fought in the Korean War and he uses this as a reference for recounting stories of survival and how he came to be a "man". In one particular incident, where all three Barone men were pretending to go to counseling sessions it was revealed that Ray and Robert had a long line of physically disciplinarian grandparents. However, Frank vowed to never be physically abusive towards his sons, never enforcing corporal punishment on them and never engaging in anything more than yelling at them.
Though for the most part largely anti-social and honest in his relationships with others, he is often depicted as the only member of the family who is not only unafraid of Marie, but the only one who will put his foot down and stand up to her, much to the combined relief and horror of the other characters. Many of their arguments revolve around trivial and even irrational subjects, such as who invented the lawn and literally comparing apples and oranges.
They also come into conflict over Debra, whom Frank, unlike Marie, overwhelmingly loves, and even tends to be more affectionate with than he is with either of his sons. True to his blunt personality, in one episode in which the entire family (the adults) were at a counseling session with their church priest Father Hubley, he yelled out in front of everyone that the main reason why Marie looks down on Debra – "She [Debra] married him [Raymond], and [Marie] still can't deal with it."
Robert Barone
For the American economist, see Robert N. Barone.
Robert Charles Barone
First appearance
"Pilot"
Last appearance
"Finale"
Portrayed by
Brad Garrett
Number of episodes
209
Information
Gender
Male
Occupation
Police Officer (NYPD)
Family
Frank Barone (father)
Marie Barone (mother)
Raymond "Ray" Barone (brother)
Mel Barone (uncle)
Spouse(s)
Joanne Glotz (1994–1995; divorced)
Amy MacDougall-Barone (since 2003)
Relatives
Debra Barone (sister-in-law)
Hank MacDougall (father-in-law)
Pat MacDougall (mother-in-law)
Peter MacDougall (brother-in-law)
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (niece)
Geoffrey Barone (nephew)
Michael Barone (nephew)
Gerard (maternal cousin)
Robert Charles Barone (Brad Garrett) is Raymond's older brother (4 years older than Ray) and the first-born son of Frank and Marie. His birthday is April 6 and his birth weight was 12 pounds (5443 g). Standing at 6' 8½" (204 cm), he is the tallest Barone, and has several quirks, the biggest being a nervous habit of touching food to his chin before eating it, commonly known as the "Crazy Chin", which he developed to cope with anxiety which started when Raymond was born and all of Marie's attention turned to Raymond. Robert is a loving uncle and still deeply cares for his little brother Raymond. Robert has been a police officer with the N.Y.P.D for 27 years, eventually attaining the rank of Sergeant and then, by the end of the series, Lieutenant. His height, appearance and demeanor are the source of much humor, but despite his imposing size, Robert is a very skilled dancer.
After divorcing his first wife Joanne in 1995, Robert moved back in with his parents, became a workaholic, and was acknowledged by the NYPD for never being absent one day of his career for three years straight. Robert's advanced skills as a police officer even got him an interview with the FBI, but his mother intentionally interfered in the interview process. Robert was passed over but simply because the other candidates were more qualified. He was injured on the job when he was gored in the bottom by a bull. When he returned, he left the police force out of a lack of self-confidence, and became a telemarketer. Later, he took a side job as an alarm salesman for a brief time (one episode) but returned to the NYPD, mainly with Raymond's help.
Robert dated Debra's best friend Amy MacDougall for several years, despite a number of breakups. After a bad date with yet another woman, Robert ran into Amy in a bar and they soon got back together and married in 2003. In 2004, they purchased Frank and Marie's home for $26,000, but they had to welcome them back in when the elder Barones were kicked out of a retirement community in New Jersey in the episode "Not So Fast."
Robert is very jealous of his brother Raymond, who was favored by their mother, and though Robert is four years older than Ray and much taller, he constantly feels as if he's stuck in Ray's shadow. Despite the obvious favoring of Ray, Marie has claimed that there was never any favoritism. He has a very dark sense of humor and will make fun of Raymond to no end to get a little belated revenge. He is also known for being very passive-aggressive.
While he enjoys taunting Ray himself, Robert is very protective of his younger brother; in one episode, he overhears a radio sports show host insulting Ray at length and angrily humiliates the man in retaliation. He also respects Ray as a well-meaning, if generally absent, father, in the pattern of Frank. Robert serves as the moral conscience in the family, as the most virtuous of the characters, and often pleads with others when they are considering doing something questionable.
Robert's catchphrase in the show is when he finds the family gathered together silent and says: "Is this about me?"
Robert also appears in the King of Queens episode "Road Rayge".
Amy MacDougall-Barone
Amy Louise MacDougall-Barone
First appearance
"Who's Handsome?"
Last appearance
"The Finale"
Portrayed by
Monica Horan
Number of episodes
66
Information
Gender
Female
Family
Hank MacDougall (father)
Pat MacDougall (mother)
Peter MacDougall (brother)
Spouse(s)
Robert Barone (since 2003)
Relatives
Frank Barone (father-in-law)
Marie Barone (mother-in-law)
Ray Barone (brother-in-law)
Debra Whelan-Barone (sister-in-law)
Alexandra "Ally" Barone (niece by marriage)
Geoffrey Barone (nephew by marriage)
Michael Barone (nephew by marriage)
Mel Barone (uncle-in-law)
Gerard (cousin in-law)
Amy Louise MacDougall (Monica Horan) is Robert's on-and-off girlfriend, and eventual wife. They met because Amy is Debra's best friend. She and Debra share the same middle name. Although Amy marries Robert in Season 7, Episode 24: "Robert's Wedding", she also appears in the previous seasons. Many issues have caused Amy and Robert to break up in the first six seasons, with one being caused by Raymond and another being that Robert had sex with another woman. Frequently, Amy apologizes to someone even if she didn't do anything wrong.
She is a confident woman who was raised in a family of devout Protestants, who live in Pennsylvania. She describes her parents as "people who wouldn't yell if they were on fire." Amy was a virgin when she met Robert, which Ray had a hard time understanding, as Amy was 33 at the time. She eventually lost her virginity to Robert before they were married, but they were spotted having sex by their neighbors, causing Robert's neighbors to sign a sheet mandating bedroom curtains in the apartment building.
Recurring
Hank and Pat MacDougall (13 episodes; played by Fred Willard and Georgia Engel) are Amy's parents. They first appear in "Just a Formality" (episode 7.14). Devout conservative Presbyterians, they oppose their daughter's marriage because of Robert's previous marital status and Catholic faith. These matters are not helped as they soon learn that the MacDougalls and the Barones are not the most compatible of families; the two sides still do not like each other after many tries at truce, although the Barones have always loved Amy, and the MacDougalls come to tolerate Robert.
Hank is a former professor and is now a high school principal. He is known to be opposed to smoking, and his line when he sees someone smoking is "Why don't you just drink poison?". Pat is a housewife, and has a high-pitched, gentle voice. She is shown to be a protective and loving mother.
Peter MacDougall (10 episodes; played by Chris Elliott) is Amy's older brother. He has a strange, psychologically unstable personality (Robert once stated that "There are squirrels juggling knives in his head") and a duplicitous, quick-witted mind. Opposed to his sister's marriage, he insists that he will keep trying to break it up, which explains the reason why during Robert's wedding that Robert and Ray looked at him when the pastor asked if anyone objected to Robert and Amy's marriage. Peter is single but lives with his pet house cat, Miss Puss. At first, Peter and Robert hate each other, but in "Peter on the Couch," the two find common ground in the fact that they both suffered from being the overshadowed older sibling and living with their parents. He is fond of Ray, although the feeling isn't mutual. Peter was originally introduced as "Russell", the owner of a comic book shop (played by comedian Paul Reubens) in a one-time appearance. Russell abruptly became Peter because in "Just a Formality" (episode 7.14), Peter mentions meeting Ray at the comic book store (which was Russell).
Lois and Warren Whelan (14 and 11 episodes, played by Katherine Helmond and Robert Culp) are Debra's parents. Even though they are an authoritarian conservative family, they are shown to have a breakdown and actually hate their marriage and hobbies. They are from Connecticut. They are also upper class, and have different beliefs from the middle class Barones. However, the Whelans have a huge amount of respect towards them for their bluntness and start to imitate them, angering Debra.
Lois is a housewife, and traveled around on fundraisers. Her line of work was not mentioned. She is friendly and patient, but easily insulted. She also appears to be nervous around Robert, who feels the same way. She has a struggling relationship with Warren, and even though she suggested and went to counseling in New Jersey, he eventually files in for a divorce, which she accepts, since she cannot find love in her marriage anymore.
Warren is a businessman, achieving success at a young age, and a caring, happy-go-lucky father. He is very passionate about antiques, and, in a running joke on the show, is often referred to as having a problem with alcohol. He had problems with Lois about their marriage. They agreed to go on counseling in New Jersey, but they eventually divorced. Debra was distraught and furious with Lois because she thought that she filed it, but Warren tells her the truth.
Andy (26 episodes; played by Andy Kindler) – A fellow sportswriter and friend of Raymond's, and a bachelor. He is known to have bad luck with women.
Gianni (25 episodes; played by Jon Manfrellotti) – A contractor, ex-futon repairman, and friend of Raymond's. He briefly dated Amy, much to Robert's consternation, and is disliked by Debra as immature. He worked with Ray when they were younger. He also appeared on The King of Queens. Jon Manfrellotti first appeared as a cable guy from Lynbrook cable in "The Game" (episode 1.17).
Bernie and Linda Gruenfelder (17 and 11 episodes; played by Tom McGowan and Maggie Wheeler) – Married couple, friends of Ray and Debra. They are very happy together and express their love in public.
Kevin Daniels (9 episodes; played by Kevin James) – Announcer for the Mets, and friend and golf buddy of Raymond. He also hosts "Sports Talk with Roy Firestone" in "Ray's on TV" (episode 2.1).
Stan (9 episodes; played by Victor Raider-Wexler) – Friend of Marie and Frank.
Garvin (9 episodes; played by Len Lesser) – A friend of Frank's. A running gag is that when he sees Raymond, he shouts, "Hey, Ray's here! Ha-ha-ha!" while shaking his arms in the air. Lesser used a similar gag on Seinfeld when he portrayed Uncle Leo, enthusiastically saying "Jerry! Hello!" while holding out his arms every time he greeted his nephew Jerry.
Sgt. Judy Potter (9 episodes; played by Sherri Shepherd) – Robert's NYPD patrol partner.
Minor
Nemo (7 episodes; played by Joseph V. Perry, Robert Ruth) – Pizza restaurant owner. Disappears when Marco takes over his pizzeria and calls it Marco's.
Gerard (7 episodes; played by Fred Stoller) – Ray and Robert's annoying, unintelligent and hypochondriacal cousin who makes several appearances. He plays the accordion (mostly the first notes of Deep Purple's Smoke on the Water or The Carpenters' (They Long to Be) Close to You).
Father Hubley (6 episodes; played by Charles Durning) – The local parish priest. He loves Marie's lasagna. Very wary of the Barones, his long-time parishioners, but usually has helpful advice to offer.
Stefania Fogagnolo (6 episodes; played by Alex Meneses) – Robert's hot and jilted Italian ex-girlfriend he met while vacationing with the Barone clan in Italy. He had a fling with her in Italy while he was still with Amy, which later causes breakups with both girlfriends.
Marco Fogagnolo (6 episodes; played by David Proval) – The intimidating and threatening Italian father of Stefania, who takes over Nemo's Pizza after the family moves to America, jokingly implying that he "did away with" Nemo. Although he dislikes Robert, he befriends Frank and Marie but the two end up fighting for his friendship.
Molly Ardolino (6 episodes; played by Ray Romano's actual daughter, Alexandra Romano) – Daughter of Peggy Ardolino (Ray's archenemy and Debra's friend) and Ally's best friend. However, she was first seen as a flower girl in a flashback of Ray and Debra's wedding.
Max (5 episodes; played by executive producer and main writer Phil Rosenthal's real-life father, Max Rosenthal) – A lodge friend of Frank, seen in various lodge-related episodes.
Angelina (4 episodes; played by Tina Arning) – a very attractive waitress from Nemo's. Ray often goes to the restaurant just to fantasize about her beauty. She appears in four episodes.
Uncle Mel Barone (4 episodes; played by Phil Leeds) – Frank's older brother. Mel is mean and always seems agitated. A running gag is since he was never married, and sometimes shows up at family events with other men, he mentions at least once in every episode he is in fact, not gay.
Bill Parker (3 episodes; played by David Hunt) – Ray's nemesis neighbor. Parker is often seen showing-up Ray as a father, and Ray often makes jokes that Debra wishes she had married him instead, (the in-joke being that he is played by Patricia Heaton's real-life husband). Ray's character has said lines that has him thinking out loud that his kids are possibly Bill Parker's doing, because all the kids playing his children on the show are blond, like Bill Parker.
Albert (3 episodes; played by Ray Romano's real-life father, Albert Romano) – A lodge friend of Frank, seen in various lodge-related episodes.
Lee (3 episodes; played by Debra Mooney) – Friend of Marie and Frank's
Dave (2 episodes; played by Dave Attell) – A friend of Raymond and a member of the Nemo's sponsored basketball team in "Captain Nemo" (episode 1.11).
Joanne Glotz (2 episodes; played by Suzie Plakson) – Robert's first wife, who is depicted very negatively. She and Robert divorced before the beginning of the series. She formerly worked as a stripper in Atlantic City named Cinnamon. Marie knew about her former job since she appeared on the show, but kept quiet for Robert's sake until Joanne asked for a divorce.
Bryan Trenberth (2 episodes; played by Dan Castellaneta) – The T-ball "healthy snacks" overseer that Debra tangled with and Ray finally blew up on in "T-Ball" (episode 2.42). He was also Coach Bryan in "It's Supposed To Be Fun" (episode 6.8).
Harriet Lichtman – Marie's bridge partner, and Frank's fantasy woman. Often talked about but only appears in Season 7, Episode 20: "Who's Next".
Abe Warchiser aka "Bullethead" (John David Conti) – Frank's worst enemy at his lodge, seen in various lodge-related episodes. He proved he hated Frank in the episode "Franks Tribute" by telling Robert and Raymond "I don't like Frank Barone!"
Peggy Ardolino (Amy Aquino) – Single mother of Ally's best friend who has bullied Ray and later becomes Peter's girlfriend. Referred to as "The Cookie Lady" and "Peggy Hitler" by Ray. Whenever they see each other, Peggy says, "Hello, Ally's dad," while he just says "Hello... Peggy," in a very intimidating way. Debra ends up scaring Peggy off so she would leave Ray alone saying, "Nobody beats up my husband." Her characteristics are similar to Hitler, according to Ray.
Shamsky II – the bulldog Robert gets in Season 1, Episode 19: "The Dog" after having him neutered and later finding out he was a pure bred used for breeding stock. Shamsky II, named for Robert's favourite baseball player Art Shamsky, makes brief cameos in other episodes.
Jennifer Whelan (Ashley Crow) – Debra's wayward sister who finally becomes a nun in "The Sister" (episode 4.6).
References
Jump up ^ TV Guide Book of Lists. Running Press. 2007. p. 198. ISBN 978-0061010910.
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Rainforest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Rainforest (disambiguation).
The Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, Australia
The Daintree Rainforest near Cairns, in Queensland, Australia
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with annual rainfall in the case of tropical rainforests between 250 and 450 centimetres (98 and 177 in),[1] and definitions varying by region for temperate rainforests. The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth's tropical rainforests.
Around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests.[2] There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth" and the "world's largest pharmacy", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there.[3] Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover, sometimes misnamed oxygen production,[4] processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and consuming it through respiration.
The undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, called a jungle. The term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally.
Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Tropical
2 Temperate
3 Layers
3.1 Emergent layer
3.2 Canopy layer
3.3 Understory layer
3.4 Forest floor
4 Flora and fauna
5 Soils
6 Effect on global climate
7 Human uses
7.1 Native peoples
8 Deforestation
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Tropical
Main article: Tropical rainforest
Worldwide tropical rainforest zones.
Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year.[6] Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).[7]
Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone.[8] The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, the southern Yucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), Australia, and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis.[9][10]
Temperate
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Temperate rainforest
General distribution of temperate rainforests
Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Highlands of Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also in Australia and New Zealand.[11]
Layers
Main article: Stratification (vegetation)
A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy, understory and forest floor layers.
Emergent layer
The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall.[12][13] They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.
The canopy at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia showing crown shyness
Canopy layer
Main article: Canopy (biology)
The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." True exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows. Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics.[14]
Understory layer
Main article: Understory
The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.
Forest floor
Main article: Forest floor
Rainforest in the Blue Mountains, Australia
The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.
Flora and fauna
West Usambara Two-Horned Chameleon (Bradypodion fischeri) in the Usambara Mountains, Tanzania.
More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest.[15] Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals.
Soils
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008)
Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible.
Effect on global climate
A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels,[16] though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed.[17] Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide,[18][19] as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought.[20] Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide.[21] Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight).[22] The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures.[22]
Human uses
Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, taken from a plane.
Further information: Tropical rainforest § Human dimensions
Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest.[23] Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.[24] At the same time, rainforests are usually not used sustainably by non-native peoples but are being exploited or removed for agricultural purposes.
Native peoples
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008)
On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[25] The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[26] The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil.
Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies, one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study by Colin Turnbull, The Forest People, in 1962.[27] Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as “Negrito”.
Deforestation
Further information: Deforestation in Southeast Asia, Deforestation in Madagascar, and Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest
Satellite photograph of the haze above Borneo and Sumatra on 24 September 2015.
Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy legal and illegal logging for their valuable hardwoods and agricultural clearance (slash-and-burn, clearcutting) throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking.[28] Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years)[29] due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.
Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.[30]
Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace.[31][32][33] Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed.[34] Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest.[35] At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.[36] According to Rainforest Rescue, an important reason for the increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world’s palm oil.[37][unreliable source?]
Several countries,[38] notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency.[39] Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data.[40]
However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics..." The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-called degraded forest.[41]
See also
Environment portal
Ecology portal
Cloud forest
Ecology
Inland rainforest
Intact forest landscape
Jungle
Rainforest Foundation Fund
Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary
Stratification (vegetation)
Tapiche Ohara's Reserve
References
Jump up ^ The Tropical Rain Forest. Marietta College. Marietta, Ohio. Retrieved 14 August 2013,
Jump up ^ "Rainforests.net – Variables and Math". Archived from the original on 2008-12-05. Retrieved 2009-01-04.
Jump up ^ "Rainforests at Animal Center". Animalcorner.co.uk. 2004-01-01. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ Killer Inhabitants of the Rainforests. "Killer Inhabitants of the Rainforests". Trendsupdates.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Impact of Deforestation – Extinction". Rainforests.mongabay.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ Susan Woodward. Tropical broadleaf Evergreen Forest: The rainforest. Archived 2008-02-25 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2008-03-14.
Jump up ^ Newman, Arnold. The Tropical Rainforest : A World Survey of Our Most Valuable Endangered Habitat : With a Blueprint for Its Survival. New York: Checkmark, 2002. Print.
Jump up ^ Hobgood (2008). Global Pattern of Surface Pressure and Wind. Archived 2009-03-18 at the Wayback Machine. Ohio State University. Retrieved on 2009-03-08.
Jump up ^ Broeker, Wallace S. (2006). "Breathing easy: Et tu, O2." Columbia University Columbia.edu
Jump up ^ Moran, E.F., "Deforestation and Land Use in the Brazilian Amazon," Human Ecology, Vol 21, No. 1, 1993"
Jump up ^ "The Temperate Rainforest".
Jump up ^ Bourgeron, Patrick S. (1983). "Spatial Aspects of Vegetation Structure". In Frank B. Golley. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems. Structure and Function. Ecosystems of the World (14A ed.). Elsevier Scientific. pp. 29–47. ISBN 0-444-41986-1.
Jump up ^ "Sabah". Eastern Native Tree Society. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ Dendronautics – Introduction Archived June 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Rainforest Facts". Rain-tree.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Grida.no" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ Lewis, S.L., Phillips, O.L., Baker, T.R., Lloyd, J. et al. 2004 “Concerted changes in tropical forest structure and dynamics: evidence from 50 South American long-term plots” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 359
Jump up ^ Malhi, Yadvinder; Grace, John (2000). "Tropical forests and atmospheric carbon dioxide". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 15 (8): 332–337. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01906-6. ISSN 0169-5347.
Jump up ^ Malhi, Yadvinder; Phillips, Oliver, eds. (2005). Tropical Forests and Global Atmospheric Change. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198567066.001.0001. ISBN 9780198567066. OCLC 77178196.
Jump up ^ "Drought may turn forests into carbon producers". The Age. Melbourne. 2004-03-06.
Jump up ^ Cox, P. M.; Betts, R. A.; Collins, M.; Harris, P. P.; Huntingford, C.; Jones, C. D. (2004). "Amazonian forest dieback under climate-carbon cycle projections for the 21st century" (PDF). Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 78: 137. Bibcode:2004ThApC..78..137C. doi:10.1007/s00704-004-0049-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 9, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b The Future is Wild television program
Jump up ^ Myers, N. (1985). The primary source. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, pp. 189–193.
Jump up ^ "Final Paper: The Medicinal Value of the Rainforest May 15, 2003. Amanda Haidet May 2003". Jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Brazil sees traces of more isolated Amazon tribes". Reuters.com. 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ BBC: First contact with isolated tribes? Archived 2008-02-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The Tribal Peoples Archived 2012-10-20 at the Wayback Machine., ThinkQuest
Jump up ^ Entire rainforests set to disappear in next decade, The Independent 5 July 2003
Jump up ^ Talks Seek to Prevent Huge Loss of Species, New York Times 3 March 1992
Jump up ^ "Littoral Rainforest-Why is it threatened?". Pittwater.nsw.gov.au. 2012-08-09. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ Thomas Marent: Out of the woods, The Independent 28 September 2006
Jump up ^ Brazil: Amazon Forest Destruction Rate Has Tripled, FoxNews.com, September 29, 2008
Jump up ^ "Papua New Guinea's rainforests disappearing faster than thought". News.mongabay.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-08. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Rainforests & Agriculture". Csupomona.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-09-30. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Science: Satellite monitors Madagascar's shrinking rainforest, 19 May 1990, New Scientist". Newscientist.com. 1990-05-19. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Jump up ^ China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, AsiaNews.it, 24 March 2008
Jump up ^ Rainforest Rescue: Facts about palm oil
Jump up ^ Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, Usatoday.com, January 24, 2008
Jump up ^ Vidal, John (20 May 2005). "Rainforest loss shocks Brazil". guardian.co.uk. London. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Brazil: Amazon deforestation worsens, Msnbc.com, August 30, 2008
Jump up ^ New Jungles Prompt a Debate on Rain Forests, The New York Times, January 30, 2009
Further reading
Part of the Illawarra Brush, in New South Wales, Australia.
Butler, R. A. (2005) A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face. Published online: Rainforests.mongabay.com
Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rain forest. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-42194-2
Whitmore, T. C. (1998) An introduction to tropical rain forests. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850147-1
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rainforest.
Look up rainforest in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Animals in a rainforest
Rainforest Action Network
The Sabah Biodiversity Experiment on rainforest restoration
Rainforest Portal
EIA forest reports: Investigations into illegal logging.
EIA in the USA Reports and info.
The Coalition for Rainforest Nations
The Prince's Rainforests Project
United Nations Forum on Forests
Dave Kimble's Rainforest Photo Catalog (Wet Tropics, Australia)
Rainforest Plants
Tropical rainforest for children
What is a rainforest
National Geographic: Rain forest
Tropical rainforests
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This page was last edited on 23 April 2018, at 22:25.
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/wiki/Rainforest_(disambiguation)
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Rainforest (disambiguation)

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Intertropical convergence zone

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/wiki/Biotic_community
mw-redirect
Biotic community

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/wiki/Canopy_(forest)
mw-redirect
Canopy (forest)

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/wiki/Habitat_loss
mw-redirect
Habitat loss

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/wiki/Tropical_moist_forests
mw-redirect
Tropical moist forests

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/wiki/Congolian_forests
mw-redirect
Congolian forests

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mw-redirect
Earth's atmosphere

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Balloon (aircraft)

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Shrub layer

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/wiki/Blue_Mountains_(Australia)
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Blue Mountains (Australia)

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Bradypodion fischeri

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Water vapour

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West Papua (Indonesian province)

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/wiki/Deforestation_in_Southeast_Asia
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Deforestation in Southeast Asia

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/wiki/New_York_Times
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New York Times

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Degraded forest

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Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary

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Tapiche Ohara's Reserve

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https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00890069

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http://www.dendronautics.org/
external text

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external text
http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm

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//www.worldcat.org/issn/0169-5347

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//www.worldcat.org/oclc/77178196

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Fox News Channel

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http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26472726/
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external text
http://rainforests.mongabay.com

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external text
http://www.ran.org

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http://www.rainforestportal.org/
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external text
https://www.un.org/esa/forests

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external text
http://wikis.wheatonma.edu/rainforest

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http://kids.mongabay.com/
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mw-redirect
Sustainable forestry

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/wiki/Even_aged_timber_management
mw-redirect
Even aged timber management

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/wiki/Forest_governance
mw-redirect
Forest governance

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mw-redirect
Ecological services

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Forest fragmentation

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Wildland firefighter

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external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4131965-5

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View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
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Selva – Spanish
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Silva – Interlingua
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Regenwoud – Dutch
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Regnskog – Norwegian
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Regnskog – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Regnskog – Swedish
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