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Table tennis
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"Ping-pong" redirects here. For other uses, see Ping-pong (disambiguation).
Table tennis
Table tennis at the highest level
Highest governing body
ITTF
First played
1880s Victorian England[1][2]
Characteristics
Contact
No
Team members
Single or doubles
Type
Racquet sport, indoor
Equipment
Poly, 40 mm (1.57 in),
2.7 g (0.095 oz)
Glossary
Glossary of table tennis
Presence
Olympic
since 1988
Paralympic
since inaugural 1960 Summer Paralympics
Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a table using small bats. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules are generally as follows: players must allow a ball played toward them to bounce one time on their side of the table, and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side at least once. A point is scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving the hitter a great advantage.
Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 226 member associations.[3] The table tennis official rules are specified in the ITTF handbook.[4] Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988,[5] with several event categories. From 1988 until 2004, these were men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played instead of the doubles.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Rule changes
2 Equipment
2.1 Ball
2.2 Table
2.3 Paddle/racket
3 Gameplay
3.1 Starting a game
3.2 Service and return
3.3 Let
3.4 Scoring
3.5 Alternation of services and ends
3.6 Doubles game
3.7 Expedite system
4 Grips
4.1 Penhold
4.2 Shakehand
4.3 Seemiller
5 Types of strokes
5.1 Offensive strokes
5.1.1 Hit
5.1.2 Loop
5.1.3 Counter-hit
5.1.4 Flip
5.1.5 Smash
5.2 Defensive strokes
5.2.1 Push
5.2.2 Chop
5.2.3 Block
5.2.4 Lob
6 Effects of spin
6.1 Backspin
6.2 Topspin
6.3 Sidespin
6.4 Corkspin
7 Competition
8 Notable players
9 Governance
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
History
Parker Brothers Ping-Pong game
The sport originated in Victorian England, where it was played among the upper-class as an after-dinner parlour game.[1][2] It has been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed by British military officers in India in around 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them.[6] A row of books stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball.[7][8]
The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name "ping-pong" then came to describe the game played using the rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change their names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but trademarked, term.[9]
The next major innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British enthusiast of table tennis, who discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing in popularity by 1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written on the subject,[7] and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902.
In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded, and in 1926 renamed the English Table Tennis Association.[10] The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926.[1][11] London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926. In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.[1][12]
In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for the English game of table tennis" which he found "bizarre".[13] On the other hand, the popularity of the sport waned in 1930s Soviet Union, partly because of the promotion of team and military sports, and partly because of a theory that the game had adverse health effects.[14]
In the 1950s, paddles that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed the game dramatically,[1] introducing greater spin and speed.[15] These were introduced to Britain by sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.[16]
Rule changes
Assortment of 40 mm table tennis balls
After the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, the ITTF instituted several rule changes that were aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport.[17][18] First, the older 38 mm (1.50 in) balls were officially replaced by 40 mm (1.57 in) balls in October 2000.[7][19] This increased the ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game. By that time, players had begun increasing the thickness of the fast sponge layer on their paddles, which made the game excessively fast and difficult to watch on television. A few months later, the ITTF changed from a 21-point to an 11-point scoring system (and the serve rotation was reduced from five points to two), effective in September 2001.[7] This was intended to make games more fast-paced and exciting. The ITTF also changed the rules on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball during service, in order to increase the average length of rallies and to reduce the server's advantage, effective in 2002.[20] For the opponent to have time to realize a serve is taking place, the ball must be tossed a minimum of 16 cm in the air. The ITTF states that all events after July 2014 are played with a new poly material ball.[21] [22]
Equipment
Ball
Table Tennis Plastic Ball 40+ mm
The international rules specify that the game is played with a sphere having a mass of 2.7 grams (0.095 oz) and a diameter of 40 millimetres (1.57 in).[23] The rules say that the ball shall bounce up 24–26 cm (9.4–10.2 in) when dropped from a height of 30.5 cm (12.0 in) onto a standard steel block thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92. balls are now made of a polymer instead of celluloid as of 2015, colored white or orange, with a matte finish. The choice of ball color is made according to the table color and its surroundings. For example, a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a grey table. Manufacturers often indicate the quality of the ball with a star rating system, usually from one to three, three being the highest grade. As this system is not standard across manufacturers, the only way a ball may be used in official competition is upon ITTF approval[23] (the ITTF approval can be seen printed on the ball).
The 40 mm ball was introduced after the 2000 Summer Olympics.[19] However, this created some controversy at the time as the Chinese National Team argued that this was merely to give non-Chinese players a better chance of winning since the new type of ball has a slower speed (a 40 mm table tennis ball is slower and spins less than the original 38 mm one, and at that time, most Chinese players were playing with fast attack and smashes).[citation needed] China won all four Olympic gold medals, three silvers and one bronze in 2000.[24]
Table
Diagram of a table tennis table showing the official dimensions
The table is 2.74 m (9.0 ft) long, 1.525 m (5.0 ft) wide, and 76 cm (2.5 ft) high with any continuous material so long as the table yields a uniform bounce of about 23 cm (9.1 in) when a standard ball is dropped onto it from a height of 30 cm (11.8 in), or about 7001770000000000000♠77%.[25][26] The table or playing surface is uniformly dark coloured and matte, divided into two halves by a net at 15.25 cm (6.0 in) in height. The ITTF approves only wooden tables or their derivates. Concrete tables with a steel net or a solid concrete partition are sometimes available in outside public spaces, such as parks.[27]
Paddle/racket
Main article: Table tennis racket
Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides depending on the grip of the player. The ITTF uses the term "racket",[28] though "bat" is common in Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S. and Canada.
The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly features anywhere between one and seven plies of wood, though cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and Kevlar are sometimes used. According to the ITTF regulations, at least 85% of the blade by thickness shall be of natural wood.[29] Common wood types include balsa, limba, and cypress or "hinoki", which is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 17 centimetres (6.7 in) long and 15 centimetres (5.9 in) wide. Although the official restrictions only focus on the flatness and rigidity of the blade itself, these dimensions are optimal for most play styles.
Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket.[30] Various types of surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, and in some cases they nullify spin. For example, a player may have a rubber that provides much spin on one side of their racket, and one that provides no spin on the other. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are possible. To help a player distinguish between the rubber used by his opposing player, international rules specify that one side must be red while the other side must be black.[29] The player has the right to inspect their opponent's racket before a match to see the type of rubber used and what colour it is. Despite high speed play and rapid exchanges, a player can see clearly what side of the racket was used to hit the ball. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the racket cannot be exchanged for another racket at any time during a match.[31]
Gameplay
Competitive table tennis
Starting a game
According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[32] normally a coin toss.[33] It is also common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand, usually hidden under the table, allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in. The correct or incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose which side of the table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players to play the ball back and forth three times and then play out the point. This is commonly referred to as "serve to play", "rally to serve", "play for serve", or "volley for serve".)
Service and return
Service by Alexander Shibaev
In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play.[34] The server first stands with the ball held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the paddle, called the freehand, and tosses the ball directly upward without spin, at least 16 cm (6.3 in) high.[35] The server strikes the ball with the racket on the ball's descent so that it touches first his court and then touches directly the receiver's court without touching the net assembly. In casual games, many players do not toss the ball upward; however, this is technically illegal and can give the serving player an unfair advantage.
The ball must remain behind the endline and above the upper surface of the table, known as the playing surface, at all times during the service. The server cannot use his/her body or clothing to obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all times. If the umpire is doubtful of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a warning to the server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the warning, the receiver scores a point.
If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back before it bounces a second time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and touches the opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly.[36] Thereafter, the server and receiver must alternately make a return until the rally is over. Returning the serve is one of the most difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable and thus most advantageous shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.
Let
A Let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances:[37]
The ball touches the net in service (service), provided the service is otherwise correct or the ball is obstructed by the player on the receiving side. Obstruction means a player touches the ball when it is above or traveling towards the playing surface, not having touched the player's court since last being struck by the player.
When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is delivered.
Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is due to a disturbance outside the control of the player.
Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.
A let is also called foul service, if the ball hits the server's side of the table, if the ball does not pass further than the edge and if the ball hits the table edge and hits the net.
Scoring
Table tennis umpire
A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally:[38]
The opponent fails to make a correct service or return.
After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the net assembly before being struck by the opponent.
The ball passes over the player's court or beyond their end line without touching their court, after being struck by the opponent.
The opponent obstructs the ball.
The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is holding the racket counts as part of the racket and that making a good return off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits one's hand or fingers and then subsequently hits the racket.
The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is not covered with rubber.
The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.
The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.
As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally.[39]
The opponent that has been warned by the umpire commits a second offense in the same individual match or team match. If the third offence happens, 2 points will be given to the player.[40] If the individual match or the team match has not ended, any unused penalty points can be transferred to the next game of that match.[33]
A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points, when the game shall be won by the first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A match shall consist of the best of any odd number of games.[41] In competition play, matches are typically best of five or seven games.
Alternation of services and ends
Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until the end of the game, unless both players score ten points or the expedite system is operated, when the sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each player serves for only one point in turn (Deuce).[42] The player serving first in a game receives first in the next game of the match.
After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for example the seventh game in a best of seven matches, players change ends when the first player scores five points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve. Service is subject to change on game point of the match. Upon the possible last point of the match, the player with the lesser score serves. If the sequence of serving and receiving is out of turn or the ends are not changed, points scored in the wrong situation are still calculated and the game shall be resumed with the order at the score that has been reached.
Doubles game
Service zone in doubles game
In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. Singles and doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games since 1988 and the Commonwealth Games since 2002.[43] In 2005, the ITTF announced that doubles table tennis only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics.
In doubles, all the rules of single play are applied except for the following.
Service
A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects the table. This line's only purpose is to facilitate the doubles service rule, which is that service must originate from the right hand "box" in such a way that the first bounce of the serve bounces once in said right hand box and then must bounce at least once in the opponent side's right hand box (far left box for server), or the receiving pair score a point.[35]
Order of play, serving and receiving
Players must hit the ball in turn. For example, if A is paired with B, X is paired with Y, A is the server and X is the receiver. The order of play shall be A→X→B→Y. The rally proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal return and the other side scores.[44]
At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and the partner of the previous server shall become the receiver. For example, if the previous order of play is A→X→B→Y, the order becomes X→B→Y→A after the change of service.[42]
In the second or the latter games of a match, the game begins in reverse order of play. For example, if the order of play is A→X→B→Y at beginning of the first game, the order begins with X→A→Y→B or Y→B→X→A in the second game depending on either X or Y being chosen as the first server of the game. That means the first receiver of the game is the player who served to the first server of the game in the preceding game. In each game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall choose which of them will do so. The receiving pair, however, can only choose in the first game of the match.
When a pair reaches 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of the table and change the receiver to reverse the order of play. For example, when the last order of play before a pair score 5 points in the final game is A→X→B→Y, the order after change shall be A→Y→B→X if A still has the second serve. Otherwise, X is the next server and the order becomes X→A→Y→B.
Men's doubles. Brothers Dmitry Mazunov and Andrey Mazunov in 1989.
Women's doubles finals, 2013 World Table Tennis Championships.
Mixed doubles finals, 2013 World Table Tennis Championships.
Expedite system
If a game is unfinished after 10 minutes' play and fewer than 18 points have been scored, the expedite system is initiated.[39] The umpire interrupts the game, and the game resumes with players serving for one point in turn. If the expedite system is introduced while the ball is not in play, the previous receiver shall serve first. Under the expedite system, the server must win the point before the opponent makes 13 consecutive returns or the point goes to the opponent. The system can also be initiated at any time at the request of both players or pairs. Once introduced, the expedite system remains in force until the end of the match. A rule to shorten the time of a match, it is mainly seen in defensive players' games.
Grips
Though table tennis players grip their rackets in various ways, their grips can be classified into two major families of styles, penhold and shakehand.[45] The rules of table tennis do not prescribe the manner in which one must grip the racket, and numerous grips are employed.
Penhold
The penhold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds a writing instrument.[46] The style of play among penhold players can vary greatly from player to player. The most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese penhold style, involves curling the middle, ring, and fourth finger on the back of the blade with the three fingers always touching one another.[46] Chinese penholders favour a round racket head, for a more over-the-table style of play. In contrast, another style, sometimes referred to as the Japanese/Korean penhold grip, involves splaying those three fingers out across the back of the racket, usually with all three fingers touching the back of the racket, rather than stacked upon one another.[46] Sometimes a combination of the two styles occurs, wherein the middle, ring and fourth fingers are straight, but still stacked, or where all fingers may be touching the back of the racket, but are also in contact with one another. Japanese/Korean penholders will often use a square-headed racket for an away-from-the-table style of play. Traditionally these square-headed rackets feature a block of cork on top of the handle, as well as a thin layer of cork on the back of the racket, for increased grip and comfort. Penhold styles are popular among players originating from East Asian regions such as China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea.
Traditionally, penhold players use only one side of the racket to hit the ball during normal play, and the side which is in contact with the last three fingers is generally not used. This configuration is sometimes referred to as "traditional penhold" and is more commonly found in square-headed racket styles. However, the Chinese developed a technique in the 1990s in which a penholder uses both sides of the racket to hit the ball, where the player produces a backhand stroke (most often topspin) known as a reverse penhold backhand by turning the traditional side of the racket to face one's self, and striking the ball with the opposite side of the racket. This stroke has greatly improved and strengthened the penhold style both physically and psychologically, as it eliminates the strategic weakness of the traditional penhold backhand.
Shakehand grip
Forehand
Backhand
Shakehand
The shakehand grip is so-named because the racket is grasped as if one is performing a handshake.[47] Though it is sometimes referred to as the "tennis" or "Western" grip, it bears no relation to the Western tennis grip, which was popularized on the West Coast of the United States in which the racket is rotated 90°, and played with the wrist turned so that on impact the knuckles face the target. In table tennis, "Western" refers to Western nations, for this is the grip that players native to Europe and the Americas have almost exclusively employed.
The shakehand grip’s simplicity and versatility, coupled with the acceptance among top-level Chinese trainers that the European style of play should be emulated and trained against, has established it as a common grip even in China.[48] Many world class European and Asian players currently use the shakehand grip, and it is generally accepted that shakehands is easier to learn than penholder, allowing a broader range of playing styles both offensive and defensive.[49]
Seemiller
The Seemiller grip is named after the American table tennis champion Danny Seemiller, who used it. It is achieved by placing your thumb and index finger on either side of the bottom of the racquet head and holding the handle with the rest of your fingers. Since only one side of the racquet is used to hit the ball, two contrasting rubber types can be applied to the blade, offering the advantage of "twiddling" the racket to fool the opponent. Seemiller paired inverted rubber with anti-spin rubber; many players today combine inverted and long-pipped rubber. The grip is considered exceptional for blocking, especially on the backhand side, and for forehand loops of backspin balls.[50] The Seemiller grip's popularity reached its apex in 1985 when four (Danny Seemiller, Ricky Seemiller, Eric Boggan and Brian Masters) of the United States' five participants in the World Championships used it.[50]
Shakehand grip (Vladimir Samsonov)
Chinese penhold (Ma Lin)
Traditional penhold (Ryu Seung-min)
Types of strokes
Table tennis strokes generally break down into offensive and defensive categories.
Offensive strokes
Hit
A direct hit on the ball propelling it forward back to the opponent. This stroke differs from speed drives in other racket sports like tennis because the racket is primarily perpendicular to the direction of the stroke and most of the energy applied to the ball results in speed rather than spin, creating a shot that does not arc much, but is fast enough that it can be difficult to return. A speed drive is used mostly for keeping the ball in play, applying pressure on the opponent, and potentially opening up an opportunity for a more powerful attack.
Loop
Perfected during the 1960s,[1] the loop is essentially the reverse of the speed drive. The racket is much more parallel to the direction of the stroke ("closed") and the racket thus grazes the ball, resulting in a large amount of topspin. A good loop drive will arc quite a bit, and once striking the opponent's side of the table will jump forward, much like a kick serve in tennis.
Counter-hit
The counter-hit is usually a counterattack against drives, normally high loop drives. The racket is held closed and near to the ball, which is hit with a short movement "off the bounce" (immediately after hitting the table) so that the ball travels faster to the other side. A well-timed, accurate counter-drive can be as effective as a smash.
Flip
When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, the player does not have the room to wind up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked, however, and the resulting shot is called a flip because the backswing is compressed into a quick wrist action. A flip is not a single stroke and can resemble either a loop drive or a loop in its characteristics. What identifies the stroke is that the backswing is compressed into a short wrist flick.
Smash
The offensive trump card is the smash. A player will typically execute a smash when his or her opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the net. Smashing consists of using a large backswing and rapid acceleration to impart as much speed on the ball as possible. The goal of a smash is to get the ball to move so quickly that the opponent simply cannot return it. Because the ball speed is the main aim of this shot, often the spin on the ball is something other than topspin. Sidespin can be used effectively with a smash to alter the ball's trajectory significantly, although most intermediate players will smash the ball with little or no spin. An offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning smash.
Defensive strokes
Push
The push (or "slice" in Asia) is usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive opportunities. A push resembles a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of the table. While not obvious, a push can be difficult to attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the table upon striking the opponent's racket. In order to attack a push, a player must usually loop the ball back over the net. Often, the best option for beginners is to simply push the ball back again, resulting in pushing rallies. Against good players, it may be the worst option because the opponent will counter with a loop, putting the first player in a defensive position. Another response to pushing is flipping the ball when it is close to the net. Pushing can have advantages in some circumstances, such as when the opponent makes easy mistakes.
Chop
A chop is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive.[51] A chop is essentially a bigger, heavier push, taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily horizontally, perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of the stroke is straight down. The object of a defensive chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with backspin. A good chop will float nearly horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that the ball actually rises. Such a chop can be extremely difficult to return due to its enormous amount of backspin. Some defensive players can also impart no-spin or sidespin variations of the chop.
Block
The block is a simple shot, but nonetheless can be devastating against an attacking opponent. A block is executed by simply placing the racket in front of the ball right after the ball bounces; thus, the ball rebounds back toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with. This requires precision, since the ball's spin, speed, and location all influence the correct angle of a block. It is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or smash, only to have the blocked shot come back at him just as fast. Due to the power involved in offensive strokes, often an opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough, and will be unable to return the blocked shot. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was received, many times topspin. Depending on the spin of the ball, the block may be returned to an unexpected side of the table. This may come to your advantage, as the opponent may not expect this.
Lob
The defensive lob is possibly the most impressive shot, since it propels the ball about five metres in height, only to land on the opponent's side of the table with great amounts of spin.[52] To execute, a defensive player first backs-off the table 4–6 meters; then, the stroke itself consists of lifting the ball to an enormous height before it falls back to the opponent's side of the table. A lob is inherently a creative shot, and can have nearly any kind of spin. Top-quality players use this to their advantage in order to control the spin of the ball. For instance, though the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good defensive lob could be more difficult to return due to the unpredictability and heavy amounts of the spin on the ball.[52] Thus, though backed off the table by tens of feet and running to reach the ball, a good defensive player can still win the point using good lobs. However, at the professional level, lobbers will lose the point most of the time, so the lob is not used unless it is really necessary.
Effects of spin
Adding spin onto the ball causes major changes in table tennis gameplay. Although nearly every stroke or serve creates some kind of spin, understanding the individual types of spin allows players to defend against and use different spins effectively.[53]
4 phases in a backspin curve
Backspin
Backspin is where the bottom half of the ball is rotating away from the player, and is imparted by striking the base of the ball with a downward movement.[53] At the professional level, backspin is usually used defensively in order to keep the ball low.[54] Backspin is commonly employed in service because it is harder to produce an offensive return, though at the professional level most people serve sidespin with either backspin or topspin. Due to the initial lift of the ball, there is a limit on how much speed with which one can hit the ball without missing the opponent's side of the table. However, backspin also makes it harder for the opponent to return the ball with great speed because of the required angular precision of the return. Alterations are frequently made to regulations regarding equipment in an effort to maintain a balance between defensive and offensive spin choices.[citation needed] It is actually possible to smash with backspin offensively, but only on high balls that are close to the net.
4 phases in a topspin curve
Topspin
The topspin stroke has a smaller influence on the first part of the ball-curve. Like the backspin stroke, however, the axis of spin remains roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball thus allowing for the Magnus effect to dictate the subsequent curvature. After the apex of the curve, the ball dips downwards as it approaches the opposing side, before bouncing. On the bounce, the topspin will accelerate the ball, much in the same way that a wheel which is already spinning would accelerate upon making contact with the ground. When the opponent attempts to return the ball, the topspin causes the ball to jump upwards and the opponent is forced to compensate for the topspin by adjusting the angle of his or her racket. This is known as "closing the racket".
The speed limitation of the topspin stroke is minor compared to the backspin stroke. This stroke is the predominant technique used in professional competition because it gives the opponent less time to respond. In table tennis topspin is regarded as an offensive technique due to increased ball speed, lower bio-mechanical efficiency and the pressure that it puts on the opponent by reducing reaction time. (It is possible to play defensive topspin-lobs from far behind the table, but only highly skilled players use this stroke with any tactical efficiency.) Topspin is the least common type of spin to be found in service at the professional level, simply because it is much easier to attack a top-spin ball that is not moving at high speed.
Sidespin
This type of spin is predominantly employed during service, wherein the contact angle of the racket can be more easily varied. Unlike the two aforementioned techniques, sidespin causes the ball to spin on an axis which is vertical, rather than horizontal. The axis of rotation is still roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball. In this circumstance, the Magnus effect will still dictate the curvature of the ball to some degree. Another difference is that unlike backspin and topspin, sidespin will have relatively very little effect on the bounce of the ball, much in the same way that a spinning top would not travel left or right if its axis of rotation were exactly vertical. This makes sidespin a useful weapon in service, because it is less easily recognized when bouncing, and the ball "loses" less spin on the bounce. Sidespin can also be employed in offensive rally strokes, often from a greater distance, as an adjunct to topspin or backspin. This stroke is sometimes referred to as a "hook". The hook can even be used in some extreme cases to circumvent the net when away from the table.
Corkspin
Players employ this type of spin almost exclusively when serving, but at the professional level, it is also used from time to time in the lob. Unlike any of the techniques mentioned above, corkspin (or "drill-spin") has the axis of spin relatively parallel to the ball's trajectory, so that the Magnus effect has little or no effect on the trajectory of a cork-spun ball: upon bouncing, the ball will dart right or left (according to the direction of the spin), severely complicating the return. In theory this type of spin produces the most obnoxious effects, but it is less strategically practical than sidespin or backspin, because of the limitations that it imposes upon the opponent during their return. Aside from the initial direction change when bouncing, unless it goes out of reach, the opponent can counter with either topspin or backspin. A backspin stroke is similar in the fact that the corkspin stroke has a lower maximum velocity, simply due to the contact angle of the racket when producing the stroke. To impart a spin on the ball which is parallel to its trajectory, the racket must be swung more or less perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball, greatly limiting the forward momentum that the racket transfers to the ball. Corkspin is almost always mixed with another variety of spin, since alone, it is not only less effective but also harder to produce.
Competition
Competitive table tennis is popular in East Asia and Europe, and has been[vague] gaining attention in the United States.[55] The most important international competitions are the World Table Tennis Championships, the Table Tennis World Cup, the Olympics and the ITTF World Tour. Continental competitions include the following:
European Championships
Europe Top-16
the Asian Championships
the Asian Games
Chinese players have won 60% of the men's World Championships since 1959;[56] in the women's competition for the Corbillin Cup, Chinese players have won all but three of the World Championships since 1971.[57] Other strong teams come from East Asia and European countries, including Austria, Belarus, Germany, Hong Kong, Portugal, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Sweden, and Taiwan.[58]
There are also professional competitions at the clubs level; the respective leagues of Austria, Belgium, China (specifically, the China Table Tennis Super League), France, Germany and Russia are examples of the highest level. There are also some important international club teams competitions such as the European Champions League and its former competitor,[vague] the European Club Cup, where the top club teams from European countries compete.
Notable players
For a more comprehensive list, see List of table tennis players.
An official hall of fame exists at the ITTF Museum.[59] A Grand Slam is earned by a player who wins singles crowns at the Olympic Games, World Championships, and World Cup.[60] Jan-Ove Waldner of Sweden first completed the grand slam at 1992 Olympic Games. Deng Yaping of China is the first female recorded at the inaugural Women's World Cup in 1996. The following table presents an exhaustive list of all players to have completed a grand slam.
Name
Gender
Nationality
Times won
Olympics
World Championships
World Cup
Jan-Ove Waldner Male SWE 1 (1992) 2 (1989, 1997) 1 (1990) [61]
Deng Yaping Female China 2 (1992, 1996) 3 (1991, 1995, 1997) 1 (1996) [62]
Liu Guoliang Male China 1 (1996) 1 (1999) 1 (1996) [63]
Kong Linghui Male China 1 (2000) 1 (1995) 1 (1995) [64]
Wang Nan Female China 1 (2000) 3 (1999, 2001, 2003) 4 (1997, 1998, 2003, 2007) [65]
Zhang Yining Female China 2 (2004, 2008) 2 (2005, 2009) 4 (2001, 2002, 2004, 2005) [66]
Zhang Jike Male China 1 (2012) 2 (2011, 2013) 2 (2011, 2014) [67]
Li Xiaoxia Female China 1 (2012) 1 (2013) 1 (2008) [68]
Ding Ning Female China 1 (2016) 3 (2011, 2015, 2017) 2 (2011, 2014) [69]
Ma Long Male China 1 (2016) 2 (2015, 2017) 2 (2012, 2015)
Jean-Philippe Gatien (France) and Wang Hao (China) won both the World Championships and the World Cup, but lost in the gold medal matches at the Olympics. Jörgen Persson (Sweden) also won the titles except the Olympic Games. Persson is one of the three table tennis players to have competed at seven Olympic Games. Ma Lin (China) won both the Olympic gold and the World Cup, but lost (three times, in 1999, 2005, and 2007) in the finals of the World Championships.
Governance
Main category: Table tennis organizations
Founded in 1926, the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) is the worldwide governing body for table tennis, which maintains an international ranking system in addition to organizing events like the World Table Tennis Championships.[12] In 2007, the governance for table tennis for persons with a disability was transferred from the International Paralympic Committee to the ITTF.[70]
On many continents, there is a governing body responsible for table tennis on that continent. For example, the European Table Tennis Union (ETTU) is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Europe.[71] There are also national bodies and other local authorities responsible for the sport, such as USA Table Tennis (USATT), which is the national governing body for table tennis in the United States.[12]
See also
International Table Tennis Federation
List of ITTF Pro Tour winners
List of table tennis players
Glossary of table tennis
Disability table tennis classification
Table squash
Pingpongo
Headis
Pong
References
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^ Jump up to: a b Letts, Greg. "A Brief History of Table Tennis/Ping-Pong". About.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
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Jump up ^ Hamilton, Fiona (2 September 2008). "Inventors of ping-pong say Mayor Boris Johnson is wrong". The Times. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Clockwork.net. "Practices & Industries · Fredrikson & Byron, P.A." www.fredlaw.com.
Jump up ^ M. Itoh. The Origin of Ping-Pong Diplomacy: The Forgotten Architect of Sino-U.S. Rapprochement. p. 1. ISBN 9780230339354.
Jump up ^ "International Table Tennis Federation Archives". www.ittf.com. ITTF. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "About USATT". United States Olympic Committee. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China, Grove Press, New York, 1938 (revised 1968), p 281.
Jump up ^ "Отечественная История настольного тенниса". ttfr.ru.
Jump up ^ "Thick Sponge Bats 1950s". www.ittf.com. ITTF. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Table Tennis in the Olympic Games". www.ittf.com. ITTF. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Clemett, Colin. "Evolution of the Laws of Table Tennis and the Regulations for International Competitions" (PDF). ITTF Museum. ITTF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bigger ball after Olympics". New Straits Times. Malaysia. 24 February 2000. p. 39.
^ Jump up to: a b "Board of Directors Passes Use of 40mm Ball". USA Table Tennis. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Sport takes plunge with new rule". New Straits Times. Malaysia. 27 April 2001. p. 40.
Jump up ^ "BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING" (PDF). ITTF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "What Are the Origins of Table Tennis?".
^ Jump up to: a b "ITTF Technical Leaflet T3: The Ball" (PDF). ITTF. December 2009. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Table Tennis at the 2000 Sydney Summer Games | Olympics at Sports-Reference.com". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.1
Jump up ^ "ITTF Technical Leaflet T1: The Table" (PDF). ITTF. May 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Kaminer, Ariel (27 March 2011). "The Joys of Ping-Pong in the Open". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ 2013 ITTF Branding Guidelines Archived 28 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 24 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.4
Jump up ^ "ITTF Technical Leaflet T4: Racket Coverings" (PDF). ITTF. August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 December 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 3.4.2.4
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.13.1
^ Jump up to: a b "ITTF Handbook for Match Officials 13th edition" (PDF). ITTF. August 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.5
^ Jump up to: a b International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.6
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.7
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.5.3 and 2.9
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.5.4 and 2.10
^ Jump up to: a b International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.15
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 3.5.2
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.11 and 2.12
^ Jump up to: a b International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.13 and 2.14
Jump up ^ "ITTF statistics by event". ITTF. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
Jump up ^ International Table Tennis Federation 2011, index 2.8
Jump up ^ McAfee, Richard (2009). Table Tennis Steps to Success. Human Kinetics. p. 1. ISBN 0-7360-7731-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hodges 1993, p. 13
Jump up ^ Hodges 1993, p. 10
Jump up ^ Hodges; Yinghua. "The Secrets of Chinese Table Tennis". Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hodges, Larry (1993). Table Tennis: Steps to Success. Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. p. 10. ISBN 0-87322-403-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Hodges, Larry. "Playing the Seemiller or American Grip". blog.paddlepalace.com. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Hodges 1993, p. 89
^ Jump up to: a b Hodges 1993, p. 96
^ Jump up to: a b Hodges 1993, p. 20
Jump up ^ Hodges 1993, p. 21
Jump up ^ Somaiya, Ravi (26 November 2007). "Back-and-Forth Sport Is Back Again". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "World Championships Finalists - Men's Singles". ITTF. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "World Championships Finalists - Women's Singles". ITTF. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "ITTF Team Ranking". ITTF. Archived from the original on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "ITTF Hall of Fame" (PDF). www.ittf.com. ITTF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Cao Jianjie (13 December 2003). "Liu Guoliang needs to prove he is good as coach". ITTF. Archived from the original on 18 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Jan-Ove Waldner's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Deng Yaping's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Liu Guoliang's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Kong Linghui's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Wang Nan's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Zhang Yining's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Zhang Jike's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Li Xiaoxia's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ding Ning's results of tournaments". ITTF. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "The ITTF Classification Code" (PDF). ITTF. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "ETTU - European Table Tennis Union". European Table Tennis Union. Archived from the original on 21 September 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
Bibliography
Uzorinac, Zdenko (2001). ITTF 1926 - 2001 Table Tennis Legends. ITTF. ISBN 2-94031-200-1. OCLC 248920627.
Charyn, Jerome (2002). Sizzling Chops & Devilish Spins: Ping-Pong and the Art of Staying Alive. Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-242-0.
Hodges, Larry (1993). Table Tennis: Steps to Success. Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-87322-403-5.
International Table Tennis Federation (2011). ITTF Handbook 2011/2012. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
Seemiller, Dan (1996). Winning Table Tennis: Skills, Drills, and Strategies. Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-88011-520-3.
External links
Look up table tennis or ping-pong in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Table tennis.
Official ITTF website
Official website of USA Table Tennis
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text:
What's My Line (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"What's My Line"
Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode
The two vampire slayers: Buffy and Kendra
Episode no.
Season 2
Episode 9 & 10
Directed by
David Solomon (Part 1)
David Semel (Part 2)
Written by
Marti Noxon (Part 1 & 2)
Howard Gordon (Part 1)
Production code
5V09 & 5V10
Original air date
November 17, 1997 (Part 1)
November 24, 1997 (Part 2)
Guest appearance(s)
Seth Green as Oz
James Marsters as Spike
Juliet Landau as Drusilla
Armin Shimerman as Principal Snyder
Bianca Lawson as Kendra Young
Saverio Guerra as Willy the Snitch
Kelly Connell as Norman Pfister
Eric Saiet as Dalton
Michael Rothhaar as Suitman
P.B. Hutton as Mrs. Kalish
Danny Strong as Jonathan Levinson
Spice Williams-Crosby as Patrice
Episode chronology
← Previous
"The Dark Age" Next →
"Ted"
List of Buffy the Vampire Slayer episodes
"What's My Line" is a two-episode story in season two of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.
In part one, Buffy endures Career Week at school while Spike hires assassins to kill her; a fierce fighter who identifies herself as "Kendra the Vampire Slayer" shows up in Sunnydale. In part two, Angel is taken by Spike for a ritual in which Drusilla is restored to health.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
1.1 Part one
1.2 Part two
2 Production
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Part one[edit]
Spike works on a cure for Drusilla. Dalton, a vampire transcriber, is unable to decipher the book stolen from the library which contains a cure. Drusilla informs Spike that they need a key because the book is in code.
Buffy witnesses Dalton stealing an object from a mausoleum, but he escapes when she is distracted by another vampire. She enters her bedroom and finds Angel waiting to warn her of grave danger. Buffy reports to Giles, and he is concerned when she tells him about the theft from the mausoleum.
Spike and Drusilla examine the key stolen by Dalton, a gold cross. Spike decides to call the Order of Taraka, an ancient guild of assassins, to rid himself of Buffy once and for all. Back at school, Willow is taken into a secluded lounge area to be recruited by a leading software company, along with Oz, the boy who has been watching her for weeks. At the mausoleum, Giles realizes that Josephus du Lac, the author of the book stolen from the library, is buried there and that the book's key was taken from the mausoleum.
The assassins begin to arrive. A large, intimidating man exits a bus, and a door-to-door beauty salesman attacks Buffy's next-door neighbor. A young woman attacks an airplane worker in the cargo hold of a plane, escaping with little difficulty.
Giles tells Buffy, Xander, and Willow about the "du Lac Cross" which can be used as the key, and he enlists their help with further research. Buffy arrives at the ice skating stadium for a date with Angel. She is attacked, but Angel arrives in time to help her fight off the assassin whom she kills with the blade of her skate. Angel, recognizing the assassin's ring, warns Buffy that she should leave Sunnydale and hide. The female from the plane watches from the shadows.
The assassin next-door to Buffy's house feeds on the neighbors's body by disintegrating into hundreds of writhing mealworms which can reshape themselves into limbs at will. Buffy is paranoid and jittery, suspicious of each person who passes by in the hallways at school, including Oz. Buffy arrives at Angel's empty home and falls asleep in his bed. Angel goes to Willy's bar for information, and Willy finally confirms Angel's suspicions that Spike is behind the assassins. Before Angel can leave, he is attacked by the mysterious female. She locks him in a metal cage in front of an eastern window, with only a few hours until sunrise.
Giles reveals that the missing manuscript contains a ritual to restore a weakened vampire back to health. Xander and Cordelia enter Buffy's house, and Xander searches for her while Cordelia waits downstairs. She hears a knock at the door and lets in the mealworm assassin. In Angel's bedroom, Buffy is attacked by the mysterious woman. They fight, and the woman tells Buffy that her name is Kendra the Vampire Slayer.
Part two[edit]
Realising that they are both slayers, Buffy and Kendra go to Giles for assistance in explaining the situation. They learn that Kendra was called when Buffy temporarily died in her fight with The Master in "Prophecy Girl". Meanwhile, Willy has saved Angel from certain death, but sold him out to Spike. Spike takes Angel back to the warehouse, where he will be held until he can be sacrificed to restore Drusilla to full strength.
Xander and Cordelia run and hide in the basement, although before long they are arguing with each other. After an unexpected kiss, they rush to escape, running past the attacking mealworm assassin. At school, Buffy, whose test results recommend a career in law enforcement, attends a career seminar. The police officer leading the seminar tries to shoot Buffy. Oz is shot and slightly injured as he pushes Willow out of harm's way. Kendra comes to Buffy's rescue, and they fight off the attacker. The Scoobies then gather in the library, where Giles announces that Spike intends for Angel to die in the ritual to restore Drusilla.
Angel is tortured by Drusilla, both emotionally and physically; she pours holy water on him as she reminds him about how he killed her whole family. Angel taunts Spike with insinuations that Spike is unable to satisfy Drusilla, in the hope that Spike will kill him before he can be used to cure Drusilla. Meanwhile, Kendra gains a newfound respect for Buffy's qualities as a slayer. Later, the slayers go after Willy to learn what happened to Angel; they force Willy to take them to the location of Spike and Angel. However, Willy leads them to the assassins, and the ritual has already begun. Buffy attacks Spike to save Angel, and Kendra and the Scooby Gang arrive to back her up. Xander and Cordelia lure the mealworm assassin underneath a door into a liquid glue trap. Willow and Giles stake a vampire while Buffy and Kendra fight several of their own. Spike starts a fire and rushes to rescue the unconscious Drusilla, hoping that the ritual has had time to cure her. Buffy prevents their exit, crushing them in falling rubble. She helps the weakened Angel to exit the building.
With the danger over, it is time for Kendra to leave. Buffy and Kendra discuss their position as slayer. Kendra remarks that Buffy considers slaying to be a job when it is actually a part of who she is. The two, now friends, say their goodbyes and Buffy is left with a new outlook on her position as the slayer, as well as the knowledge that she is no longer alone in her calling.
At the remains of the church, Spike lies seriously injured under the rubble. Drusilla rises, the ritual having worked and restored her to full power. She carries her partner out of the debris, promising to return the favor and make him as powerful as her.
Production[edit]
The hold of the plane in which Kendra arrived in Sunnydale was turned upside down and used as a sewer tunnel in later episodes.[1] The ice rink, called Iceland, is found in Paramount, California, around 25 miles from where Buffy was filmed.[2]
Sarah Michelle Gellar is a fan of ice skating in real life, and lists ice skating as one of her hobbies,[3] which, according to writer Marti Noxon in the DVD commentary for the episode, is the reason ice skating was incorporated into part one.
Seth Green mentioned in an Ultimate TV talk that the line "I mock you with my monkey pants" was initially dreamt by Alyson Hannigan. Joss Whedon decided to insert it in the episode. Marti Noxon said in her DVD commentary for the episode that all the lines after Oz's compliment about Willow's smile were ad-libbed by Seth and Alyson.
Reception[edit]
Part one pulled in 3.5 million households on its original airing, while part two had an audience of 3.9 million households.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Golden, Christopher; Holder, Nancy, The Watcher's Guide, Volume 1 (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Simon & Schuster, p. 95
Jump up ^ Golden, Christopher; Holder, Nancy, The Watcher's Guide, Volume 1 (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Simon & Schuster, p. 96
Jump up ^ Episode Guide: What's My Line Part One, BBC
Jump up ^ "Nielsen Ratings for Buffy's Second Season Archived 2006-08-23 at the Wayback Machine.."
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: What's My Line, Part One
Wikiquote has quotations related to: What's My Line, Part Two
"What's My Line (Part 1)" on IMDb
"What's My Line (Part 1)" at TV.com
"What's My Line (Part 2)" on IMDb
"What's My Line (Part 2)" at TV.com
[hide]
v
t
e
Buffy the Vampire Slayer episodes
Season 1
"Welcome to the Hellmouth"
"The Harvest"
"Witch"
"Teacher's Pet"
"Never Kill a Boy on the First Date"
"The Pack"
"Angel"
"I, Robot... You, Jane"
"The Puppet Show"
"Nightmares"
"Out of Mind, Out of Sight"
"Prophecy Girl"
Season 2
"When She Was Bad"
"Some Assembly Required"
"School Hard"
"Inca Mummy Girl"
"Reptile Boy"
"Halloween"
"Lie to Me"
"The Dark Age"
"What's My Line, Parts One and Two"
"Ted"
"Bad Eggs"
"Surprise"
"Innocence"
"Phases"
"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered"
"Passion"
"Killed by Death"
"I Only Have Eyes for You"
"Go Fish"
"Becoming, Parts One and Two"
Season 3
"Anne"
"Dead Man's Party"
"Faith, Hope & Trick"
"Beauty and the Beasts"
"Homecoming"
"Band Candy"
"Revelations"
"Lovers Walk"
"The Wish"
"Amends"
"Gingerbread"
"Helpless"
"The Zeppo"
"Bad Girls"
"Consequences"
"Doppelgangland"
"Enemies"
"Earshot"
"Choices"
"The Prom"
"Graduation Day, Parts One and Two"
Season 4
"The Freshman"
"Living Conditions"
"The Harsh Light of Day"
"Fear, Itself"
"Beer Bad"
"Wild at Heart"
"The Initiative"
"Pangs"
"Something Blue"
"Hush"
"Doomed"
"A New Man"
"The I in Team"
"Goodbye Iowa"
"This Year's Girl"
"Who Are You"
"Superstar"
"Where the Wild Things Are"
"New Moon Rising"
"The Yoko Factor"
"Primeval"
"Restless"
Season 5
"Buffy vs. Dracula"
"Real Me"
"The Replacement"
"Out of My Mind"
"No Place Like Home"
"Family"
"Fool for Love"
"Shadow"
"Listening to Fear"
"Into the Woods"
"Triangle"
"Checkpoint"
"Blood Ties"
"Crush"
"I Was Made to Love You"
"The Body"
"Forever"
"Intervention"
"Tough Love"
"Spiral"
"The Weight of the World"
"The Gift"
Season 6
"Bargaining, Parts One and Two"
"After Life"
"Flooded"
"Life Serial"
"All the Way"
"Once More, with Feeling"
"Tabula Rasa"
"Smashed"
"Wrecked"
"Gone"
"Doublemeat Palace"
"Dead Things"
"Older and Far Away"
"As You Were"
"Hell's Bells"
"Normal Again"
"Entropy"
"Seeing Red"
"Villains"
"Two to Go"
"Grave"
Season 7
"Lessons"
"Beneath You"
"Same Time, Same Place"
"Help"
"Selfless"
"Him"
"Conversations with Dead People"
"Sleeper"
"Never Leave Me"
"Bring On the Night"
"Showtime"
"Potential"
"The Killer in Me"
"First Date"
"Get It Done"
"Storyteller"
"Lies My Parents Told Me"
"Dirty Girls"
"Empty Places"
"Touched"
"End of Days"
"Chosen"
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Photosystem
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane
Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in photosynthesis that together carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons. Photosystems are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria (in plants and algae these are located in the chloroplasts), or in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria. There are two kinds of photosystems: II and I, respectively.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reaction centers
2 Structure
3 Relationship between photosystems I and II
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Reaction centers[edit]
At the heart of a photosystem lies the reaction center, which is an enzyme that uses light to reduce molecules (provide with electrons). This reaction center is surrounded by light-harvesting complexes that enhance the absorption of light.
Two families of reaction centers in photosystems exist: type I reaction centers (such as photosystem I (P700) in chloroplasts and in green-sulphur bacteria and type II reaction centers (such as photosystem II (P680) in chloroplasts and in non-sulphur purple bacteria.
Each photosystem can be identified by the wavelength of light to which it is most reactive (700 and 680 nanometers, respectively for PSI and PSII in chloroplasts), the amount and type of light-harvesting complexes present and the type of terminal electron acceptor used.
Type I photosystems use ferredoxin-like iron-sulfur cluster proteins as terminal electron acceptors, while type II photosystems ultimately shuttle electrons to a quinone terminal electron acceptor. Both reaction center types are present in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, and work together to form a unique photosynthetic chain able to extract electrons from water, creating oxygen as a byproduct.
Structure[edit]
A reaction center comprises several (>10 or >11) protein subunits, that provide a scaffold for a series of cofactors. The cofactors can be pigments (like chlorophyll, pheophytin, carotenoids), quinones, or iron-sulfur clusters.[1]
Relationship between photosystems I and II[edit]
For oxygenic photosynthesis, both photosystems I and II are required. Oxygenic photosynthesis can be performed by plants and cyanobacteria; cyanobacteria are believed to be the progenitors of the photosystem-containing chloroplasts of eukaryotes. Photosynthetic bacteria that cannot produce oxygen have a single photosystem called BRC, bacterial reaction center.
The photosystem I was named "I" since it was discovered before photosystem II, but this does not represent the order of the electron flow.
When photosystem II absorbs light, electrons in the reaction-center chlorophyll are excited to a higher energy level and are trapped by the primary electron acceptors. To replenish the deficit of electrons thus created, electrons are extracted from water by a cluster of four Manganese ions in photosystem II and supplied to the chlorophyll via a redox-active tyrosine.
Photoexcited electrons travel through the cytochrome b6f complex to photosystem I via an electron transport chain set in the thylakoid membrane. This energy fall is harnessed, (the whole process termed chemiosmosis), to transport hydrogen (H+) through the membrane, into the thylakoid lumen, to provide a potential energy difference between the thylakoid lumen space and the chloroplast stroma, which amounts to a proton-motive force that can be used to generate ATP. The protons are transported by the plastoquinone. If electrons only pass through once, the process is termed noncyclic photophosphorylation.
When the electron reaches photosystem I, it fills the electron deficit of the reaction-center chlorophyll of photosystem I. The deficit is due to photo-excitation of electrons that are again trapped in an electron acceptor molecule, this time that of photosystem I.
ATP is generated when the ATP synthase transports the protons present in the lumen to the stroma, through the membrane. The electrons may either continue to go through cyclic electron transport around PS I or pass, via ferredoxin, to the enzyme NADP+ reductase. Electrons and hydrogen ions are added to NADP+ to form NADPH. This reducing agent is transported to the Calvin cycle to react with glycerate 3-phosphate, along with ATP to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, the basic building-block from which plants can make a variety of substances.
See also[edit]
Light reaction
Photoinhibition
Photosynthetic reaction centre
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jagannathan, B; Golbeck, JH (2009). "Photosynthesis:Microbial". Encyclopedia of Microbiology, 3rd Ed: 325–341. doi:10.1016/B978-012373944-5.00352-7.
External links[edit]
Photosystems I + II: Imperial College, Barber Group
Photosystem I: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank
Photosystem II: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank
Photosystem II: ANU
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-2 – Calculated spatial positions of photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems in membrane
Rutherford AW, Faller P (January 2003). "Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 358 (1429): 245–53. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1186. PMC 1693113  . PMID 12594932.
[hide]
v
t
e
Enzymes: multienzyme complexes
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins
Photosystem
I
II
Dehydrogenase
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
E1
E2
E3
Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase
OGDH
DLST
DLD
Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
BCKDHA
BCKDHB
DBT
DLD
Other
CAD
Carbamoyl phosphate synthase II
Aspartate carbamoyltransferase
Dihydroorotase
Cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme
Cytochrome b6f complex
Electron transport chain
Fatty acid synthetase complex
Glycine decarboxylase complex
Mitochondrial trifunctional protein
HADHA
HADHB
Phosphoenolpyruvate sugar phosphotransferase system
Polyketide synthase
Sucrase-isomaltase complex
Tryptophan synthase
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