text:
Pharmaceutical Society of GB v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd
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Pharmaceutical Society v Boots
Court
Court of Appeal
Full case name
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd
Decided
5 February 1953
Citation(s)
EWCA Civ 6, [1953] 1 QB 401, [1953] 1 All ER 482, [1953] 2 WLR 427
Court membership
Judge(s) sitting
Somervell LJ, Birkett LJ and Romer LJ
Keywords
offer, invitation to treat, display of goods for sale, self-service
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd [1953] EWCA Civ 6 is a famous English contract law decision on the nature of an offer. The Court held that the display of a product in a store with a price attached is not sufficient to be considered an offer, but rather is an invitation to treat.
Contents
1 Facts
2 Judgment
3 Subsequent legal developments
4 See also
5 Notes
Facts[edit]
Boots Cash Chemists had just instituted a new way for its customers to buy certain medicines. Shoppers could now pick drugs off the shelves in the chemist and then pay for them at the till. Before then, all medicines were stored behind a counter meaning a shop employee would get what was requested. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain objected and argued that under the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933, that was an unlawful practice. Under s 18(1), a pharmacist needed to supervise at the point where "the sale is effected" when the product was one listed on the 1933 Act's schedule of poisons. The Society argued that displays of goods were an "offer" and when a shopper selected and put the drugs into their shopping basket, that was an "acceptance", the point when the "sale is effected"; as no pharmacist had supervised the transaction at this point, Boots was in breach of the Act. Boots argued that the sale was effected only at the till.
Judgment[edit]
Both the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court and the Court of Appeal sided with Boots. They held that the display of goods was not an offer. Rather, by placing the goods into the basket, it was the customer that made the offer to buy the goods. This offer could be either accepted or rejected by the pharmacist at the cash desk. The moment of the completion of contract was at the cash desk, in the presence of the supervising pharmacist. Therefore, there was no violation of the Act.
Somervell LJ said,
“ Whether that is a right view depends on what are the legal implications of this layout, the invitation to the customer. Is it to be regarded as an offer which is completed and both sides bound when the article is put into the receptacle, or is it to be regarded as a more organised way of doing what is done already in many types of shops — and a bookseller is perhaps the best example - namely, enabling customers to have free access to what is in the shop to look at the different articles and then, ultimately, having got the ones which they wish to buy, coming up to the assistant and saying "I want this"? The assistant in 999 times out of 1,000 says "That is all right", and the money passes and the transaction is completed. I agree entirely with what the Lord Chief Justice says and the reasons he gives for his conclusion that in the case of the ordinary shop, although goods are displayed and it is intended that customers should go and choose what they want, the contract is not completed until, the customer having indicated the articles which he needs, the shop-keeper or someone on his behalf accepts that offer. Then the contract is completed. I can see no reason at all, that being I think clearly the normal position, for drawing any different implication as a result of this layout. The Lord Chief Justice, I think, expressed one of the most formidable difficulties in the way of the suggestion when he pointed out that, if the Plaintiffs are right, once an article has been placed in the receptacle the customer himself is bound and he would have no right without paying for the first article to substitute an article which he saw later of the same kind and which he perhaps preferred. I can see no reason for implying from this arrangement which the Defendants have referred to any implication other than that which the Lord Chief Justice found in it, namely, that it is a convenient method of enabling customers to see what there is and choose and possibly put back and substitute articles which they wish to have and then go up to the cashier and offers to buy what they have so far chosen. On that conclusion the case fails, because it is admitted that then there was supervision in the sense required by the Act and at the appropriate moment of time. For these reasons, in my opinion, the appeal should be dismissed. ”
Birkett LJ followed on by saying,
“ The short point of the matter was, at what point of time did the sale in this particular shop at Edgware take place? My Lord has explained the system which has been introduced into that shop (and possibly other shops since) in March 1951. The two ladies in this case, Miss Mainwaring and Miss Marrable, who went into that shop, each took a particular package containing poison from the particular shelf, put it into their basket, came to the exit and there paid. It is said upon the one hand that when the customer takes the package from the poison section and puts it into her basket the sale there and then takes place, On the other hand, it is said the sale does not take place until that customer who has placed that package in the basket comes to the exit.
The Lord Chief Justice dealt with the matter in this way, and I would like to adopt these words:
"It seems to me therefore, applying common sense to this class of transaction, there is no difference merely because a self-service is advertised. It is no different really from the normal transaction in a shop. I am quite satisfied it would be wrong to say the shopkeeper is making an offer to sell every article in the shop to any person who might come in and that he can insist by saying 'I accept your offer'".
Then he goes on to deal with the illustration of the bookshop and continues:
"Therefore, in my opinion, the mere fact that a customer picks up a bottle of medicine from the shelves in this case does not amount to an acceptance of an offer to sell. It is an offer by the customer to buy. I daresay this case is one of great importance, it is quite a proper case for the Pharmaceutical Society to bring, but I think I am bound to say in this case the sale was made under the supervision of a pharmacist. By using the words 'The sale is effected by, or under the supervision of, a registered pharmacist', it seems to me the sale might be effected by somebody not a pharmacist. If it be under the supervision of a pharmacist, the pharmacist can say 'You cannot have that. That contains poison'. In this case I decide, first that there is no sale effected merely by the purchaser taking up the article. There is no sale until the buyer's offer to buy is accepted by the acceptance of the money, and that takes place under the supervision of a pharmacist. And in any case, I think, even if I am wrong in the view I have taken of when the offer is accepted, the sale is by or under the supervision of a pharmacist".
I agree with that and I agree that this appeal ought to be dismissed.
”
Subsequent legal developments[edit]
This case upheld the legal concept of invitation to treat.
The concept continues to apply in many situations, for example for things outside a goods' seller's control (such as a customer switching price tags or product recall) and where it would be illegal to carry out the transaction without supervision such as potentially dangerous goods.
Many jurisdictions have since enacted legislation in consumer protection or fair trading that make advertisements/store price tickets with a product in stock a legally binding offer and/or a trading standards offence for the retailer to refuse to carry out the advertised transaction (bait advertising or misleading/deceptive conduct).
See also[edit]
hide
v
t
e
Cases on agreement
Smith v Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597
Brogden v Metropolitan Rly Co (1876-77) LR 2 App Cas 666
Carlill v Carbolic Smokeball Co [1892]
Chapelton v Barry UDC [1940] 1 KB 532
Errington v Wood [1951]
Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [1955]
Fisher v Bell [1961] 1 QB 394
The Brimnes [1974]
Butler Machine Tool Ltd v Ex-Cell-O Ltd [1977]
Gibson v Manchester City Council [1979]
Blackpool Aero Club v Blackpool BC [1990]
Barry v Davies [2000]
British Steel Co v Cleveland Bridge Ltd [1984] 1 All ER 504
see Agreement in English law
Contract
Offer and acceptance
Invitation to treat
Partridge v Crittenden (an instance of an advertisement as an invitation to treat)
Fisher v Bell (an instance of products being displayed on a shop window as an invitation to treat)
Chapelton v Barry Urban District Council (more difficult to reconcile with these cases, the court refused to incorporate an exclusion clause on the back of a ticket which the court found was a receipt rather than an ordinary ticket)
Notes[edit]
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Umayyad conquest of Hispania
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The Umayyad conquest of Hispania was the initial expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate over Hispania, largely extending from 711 to 788. The conquest resulted in the destruction of the Visigothic Kingdom and the establishment of the independent Emirate of Córdoba under Abd ar-Rahman I, who completed the unification of Muslim-ruled Iberia, or al-Andalus (756–788). The conquest marks the westernmost expansion of both the Umayyad Caliphate and Muslim rule into Europe.
During the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I, forces led by Tariq ibn Ziyad disembarked in early 711 in Gibraltar at the head of an army consisting of Berbers (north-western Africa).[1][2] He campaigned his way northward after the decisive Battle of Guadalete against the usurper Roderic, after which he was reinforced by an Arab force led by his superior wali Musa ibn Nusair. By 717, the combined Arab-Berber force had crossed the Pyrenees into Septimania and Provence (734).
Al-Andalus under the Umayyads
Contents
1 Background
2 Invasion
3 New territorial and civil administration
4 Ethnic groups and internal tensions
5 Aftermath
6 Chronology
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 Sources
10 External links
Background[edit]
See also: Protofeudalism and Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman
The historian al-Tabari transmits a tradition attributed to the Caliph Uthman who stated that the road to Constantinople was through Hispania, "Only through Spain can Constantinople be conquered. If you conquer (Spain) you will share the reward of those who conquer (Constantinople)." The conquest of Hispania followed the conquest of North Africa.[3]
Walter Kaegi calls Tabari's tradition dubious, and states that the conquest of far western reaches of the Mediterranean was motivated by exploiting military, political and religious opportunities. He considers that it was not a shift in direction due to the Muslims failing to conquer Constantinople in 678.[3] Historian Jessica Coope of University of Nebraska considers that the pre-modern Islamic thought believed that the conquest of dar al-harb was motivated by belief that others were better off under Islamic rule and the belief in the superiority of the concept of Islamic society.[4]
Precisely what happened in Iberia in the early 8th century is uncertain. There is one contemporary Christian source, the Chronicle of 754 (which ends on that date), regarded as reliable but often vague.[5] There are no contemporary Muslim accounts, and later Muslim compilations, such as that of Al-Maqqari from the 17th century, reflect later ideological influence.[6] This paucity of early sources means that detailed specific claims need to be regarded with caution.[7]
The manner of King Roderic's ascent to the throne is unclear; there are accounts of a dispute with Achila II, son of his predecessor Wittiza. Later regnal lists, which cite Achila and omit Roderic, are consistent with the contemporary account of civil war.[8] Numismatic evidence suggests a division of royal authority, with several coinages being struck, and that Achila II remained king of the Tarraconsense (the Ebro basin) and Septimania until circa 713.[9] The nearly contemporary Chronicle of 754 describes Roderic as a usurper who earned the allegiance of other Goths by deception, while the less reliable late-ninth century Chronicle of Alfonso III shows a clear hostility towards Oppa, bishop of Seville (or Toledo) and probably a brother of Wittiza, who appears in a unlikely heroic dialogue with Pelagius.[10]
There is also a story of one Julian, count of Ceuta, whose wife or daughter was raped by Roderic and who sought help from Tangier.[11] However, these stories are not included in the earliest accounts of the conquest.[12]
Historical opinion about the initial nature of the expedition takes four directions:[citation needed] that it was sent to aid one side in a civil war in the hope of plunder and future alliance; that it was a reconnaissance force sent to test the military strength of the Visigothic kingdom; that it was the first wave of a full–scale invasion; that it was an unusually large raiding expedition with no direct strategic intentions.
Invasion[edit]
The Caliphate of Cordova in the early 10th century
According to the later chronicler Ibn Abd-el-Hakem, in 711, Tariq Ibn Ziyad led an approximately 1,700-strong raiding force from North Africa to southern Spain.[13] However, 12,000 seems a more accurate figure.[14] Ibn Abd-el-Hakem reports, one and a half centuries later, that "the people of Andalus did not observe them, thinking that the vessels crossing and recrossing were similar to the trading vessels which for their benefit plied backwards and forwards". They defeated the Visigothic army, led by King Roderic, in a decisive battle at Guadalete in 712. Tariq's forces were then reinforced by those of his superior, the wali Musa ibn Nusair, and both took control of most of Iberia with an army estimated at 10,000–15,000 combatants.[15]
According to the Muslim historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari,[16] Iberia was first invaded some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman (Rashidun era). Another prominent Muslim historian of the 13th century, Ibn Kathir,[17] quoted the same narration, pointing to a campaign led by Abd Allah bin Nafi al Husayn and Abd Allah bin Nafi al Abd al Qays[18] in 32 AH. However, this putative invasion is not accepted by modern historians.
The first expedition led by Tariq was made up mainly of Berbers who had themselves only recently come under Muslim influence. It is probable that this army represented a continuation of a historic pattern of large-scale raids into Iberia dating to the pre–Islamic period, and hence it has been suggested that actual conquest was not originally planned. Both the Chronicle of 754 and later Muslim sources speak of raiding activity in previous years, and Tariq's army may have been present for some time before the decisive battle. It has been argued that this possibility is supported by the fact that the army was led by a Berber and that Musa, who was the Umayyad Governor of North Africa, only arrived the following year – the governor had not stooped to lead a mere raid, but hurried across once the unexpected triumph became clear. The historian Abd al-Wāḥid Dhannūn Ṭāhā mentions that several Arab-Muslim writers mention the fact that Tariq has decided to cross the strait without informing his superior and wali Musa.[19] The Chronicle of 754 states that many townspeople fled to the hills rather than defend their cities, which might support the view that this was expected to be a temporary raid rather than a permanent change of government.
The Chronicle of 754 stated that "the entire army of the Goths, which had come with him [Roderic] fraudulently and in rivalry out of hopes of the Kingship, fled". This is the only contemporary account of the battle and the paucity of detail led many later historians to invent their own. The location of the battle is not totally clear but was probably the Guadalete River.
Roderic was believed to have been killed, and a crushing defeat would have left the Visigoths largely leaderless and disorganized, partly because the ruling Visigoth population is estimated to have been a mere 1 to 2% of the total population.[20] While this isolation is said to have been "a reasonably strong and effective instrument of government"; it was highly "centralised to the extent that the defeat of the royal army left the entire land open to the invaders".[21] The resulting power vacuum, which may have indeed caught Tariq completely by surprise, would have aided the Muslim conquest immensely. It may have been equally welcome to the Hispano-Roman peasants who were probably– as D.W. Lomax claims – disillusioned by the prominent legal, linguistic and social divide between them and the "barbaric" and "decadent" Visigoth royal family.[22]
In 714, Musa ibn Nusayr headed north-west up the Ebro river to overrun the western Basque regions and the Cantabrian mountains all the way to Gallaecia, with no relevant or attested opposition. During the period of the second (or first, depending on the sources) Arab governor Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa (714–716), the principal urban centres of Catalonia surrendered. In 714, his father, Musa ibn Nusair, advanced and overran Soria, the western Basque regions, Palencia, and as far west as Gijón or León, where a Berber governor was appointed with no recorded opposition. The northern areas of Iberia drew little attention to the conquerors and were hard to defend when taken. The high western and central sub-Pyrenean valleys remained unconquered.
At this time, Umayyad troops reached Pamplona, and the Basque town submitted after a compromise was brokered with Arab commanders to respect the town and its inhabitants, a practice that was common in many towns of the Iberian Peninsula.[23] The Umayyad troops met little resistance. Considering that era's communication capabilities, three years was a reasonable time spent almost reaching the Pyrenees, after making the necessary arrangements for the towns' submissions and their future governance.[24]
New territorial and civil administration[edit]
Northwestern al-Andalus, the Pyrenees and southern Gaul at the time of the Berber rebellion (739–742)
In 713, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa subdued the forces of the Visigothic count Theudimer (or Tudmir), who had taken over southeastern Iberia from his base in Murcia after the power vacuum following king Roderic's defeat. Theudimer then signed a conditional capitulation by which his lands were made into an autonomous client state under Umayyad rule ("the rule of God"). His government and the Christian beliefs of his subjects were respected; in exchange, he pledged to pay a tax and to hand over any rebels plotting against Umayyad rule or the Islamic religion. In this way, the life of many inhabitants remained much the same as before Tariq's and Musa's campaigns.[25] The treaty signed with Theudimer set a precedent for the whole of Iberia, and towns surrendering to Umayyad troops experienced a similar fate, including probably the muwallad Banu Qasi based in the Ebro valley, and other counts and landowners.
In exception to this pattern, some towns (Cordova, Toledo, etc.) were stormed and captured unconditionally by the Umayyads, to be governed by direct Arab rule. In the area thought to be part of King Roderic's territory, Mérida also staged a prolonged resistance to the Umayyad advance, but was ultimately conquered in mid-summer 712.[26] As of 713 (or 714), the last Visigothic king, Ardo, took over from Achila II, with effective control just over Septimania, and probably the eastern Pyrenean threshold and coastal areas of the Tarraconense.
Islamic laws did not apply to all the subjects of the new rulers. Christians were ruled by their own Visigothic law code (Forum Iudicum) as before. In most of the towns, ethnic communities remained segregated and newly arriving ethnic groups (Syrians, Yemenites, Berbers and others) would erect new boroughs outside existing urban areas. However, this would not apply to towns under direct Umayyad rule. In Cordova, the Cathedral was partitioned and shared to provide for the religious needs of Christians and Muslims. This situation lasted some 40 years until Abd ar-Rahman's conquest of southern Spain (756).
An early governor (wali) of al-Andalus, al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi, spread the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate up to the Ebro valley and the northeastern borders of Iberia, pacifying most of the territory and initiating in 717 the first forays across the Pyrenees into Septimania. In addition, he laid out the foundations of Umayyad civil administration in Iberia, by sending civil administration officials (judges) to conquered towns and lands guarded by garrisons established usually next to the population nuclei.[27] Moreover, al-Hurr restored lands to their previous Christian landowners, which may have added greatly to the revenue of the Umayyad governors and the caliph of Damascus, since only non-Muslims were subject to taxation. The task of establishing a civil administration in conquered al-Andalus was essentially completed by the governor Yahya ibn Salama al-Kalbi 10 years later.
The period following al-Hurr's office saw the establishment of the Arabs in southern Septimania during Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani's tenure as wali. Narbonne fell (720), and no sooner had he garrisoned it than the Arab commander led an offensive against Toulouse. During this Umayyad thrust or its aftermath, King Ardo died (721).
Ethnic groups and internal tensions[edit]
Northeast of Iberia, Duchy of Vasconia, and Septimania just after its conquest by Pepin (760)
In the first stage of the invasion, the armies were made up of Berbers and different Arab groups. These peoples, clustered around the banner of the Umayyads, did not mix together, remaining in separate towns and boroughs. The Berbers, recently subdued and superficially Islamized, were usually in charge of the most difficult tasks and the most rugged terrains, similar to the ones found in their north African homeland, while the Arabs occupied the gentler plains of southern Iberia.[28]
Consequently, the Berbers went on to stations in Galicia (possibly including Asturias) and the Upper Marches (Ebro basin), but these lands remained unpleasant, humid and cold. The grievances resented by the Berbers under Arab rulers (attempts to impose a tax on Muslim Berbers, etc.) sparked rebellions in north Africa that expanded into Iberia. An early uprising took place in 730, when Uthman ibn Naissa (Munuza), master of the eastern Pyrenees (Cerretanya), allied with the duke Odo of Aquitaine and detached from Cordova.
Those internal frictions continually threatened (or sometimes may have spurred) the ever-expanding Umayyad military effort in al-Andalus during the conquest period. Around 739, on learning the news of Charles Martel's second intervention in Provence, Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj had to call off an expedition to the Lower Rhone in order to deal with the Berber revolt in the south instead. The following year, the Berber garrisons stationed in León, Astorga and other north-western outposts gave up their positions, and some of them even embraced the Christian religion.[29] The Muslim settlement was thereafter established permanently south of the Douro's banks.
The Berber rebellions swept the whole of al-Andalus during Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri's term as governor. Reinforcements were then called from the other end of the Mediterranean in a military capacity: the "Syrian" junds (actually Yemeni Arabs). The Berber rebellions were quelled in blood, and the Arab commanders came up reinforced after 742. Different Arab factions reached an agreement to alternate in office, but this did not last long, since Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri (opposed to the Umayyads) remained in power up to his defeat by Abd-ar-Rahman I in 756, and the establishment of the independent Umayyad Emirate of Cordova. It was in this period of unrest that the Frankish king Pepin finally captured Narbonne from the Andalusians (759).
In Yusuf's and Abd-ar-Rahman's fight for power in al-Andalus, the "Syrian" troops, a mainstay of the Umayyad Caliphate, split. For the most part, Arabs from the Mudhar and Qais tribes sided with Yusuf, as did the indigenous (second or third generation) Arabs from northern Africa, while Yemeni units and some Berbers sided with Abd-ar-Rahman, probably born to a north African Berber mother himself. In 756, south and central al-Andalus (Cordova, Sevilla) were in the hands of Abd-ar-Rahman, but it took still 25 years for him to hold sway over the Upper Marches (Pamplona, Zaragoza and all the northeast).[30]
Aftermath[edit]
The Iberian Peninsula was the westernmost tip of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus and was under the rule of the governor of Ifriqiya. In 720, the caliph even considered abandoning the territory. The conquest was followed by a period of several hundred years during which most of the Iberian peninsula was known as Al-Andalus, dominated by Muslim rulers. Only a handful of new small Christian realms managed to reassert their authority across the faraway mountainous north of the peninsula.
In 756, Abd ar-Rahman I, a survivor of the recently overthrown Umayyad Dynasty, landed in al-Andalus and seized power in Cordova and Seville, and proclaimed himself emir or malik, removing any mentions of the Abbasid Caliphs from the Friday prayers.[31] In the wake of these events, southern Iberia became de jure and de facto independent from the Abbasid Caliphate. Although this was not accepted outside al-Andalus and those North African territories with which it was affiliated, Abd ar-Rahman, and especially his successors, considered that they were the legitimate continuation of the Umayyad caliphate, i.e. that their rule was more legitimate than that of the Abbasids. It seems that Abd ar-Rahman never considered establishing a separate principality. (See Caliphate of Córdoba.)
During the unification of al-Andalus in the reign of Abd ar-Rahman before his death in 788, al-Andalus underwent centralization and slow but steady homogenization. The autonomous status of many towns and regions negotiated in the first years of the conquest was reversed by 778,[32] in some cases much earlier (Pamplona by 742, for example). The Hispanic Church based in Toledo, whose status remained largely undiminished under the new rulers, fell out with the Roman Church during the Adoptionist controversy (late 8th century). Rome relied on an alliance with Charlemagne (in war with the Cordovan emirs) to defend its political authority and possessions, and went on to recognize the northern Asturian principality (Gallaecia) as a kingdom apart from Cordova, and Alfonso II as king.
The population of al-Andalus, especially local nobles who aspired to a share in power, began to embrace Islam and the Arabic language. However, the majority of the population remained Christian (using the Mozarabic Rite), and Latin (Mozarabic) remained the principal language until the 11th century.
Abd ar-Rahman I founded an independent dynasty that survived until the 11th century. That line was succeeded by a variety of short and small emirates (taifas) unable to stop the push of the expanding northern Christian kingdoms. The Almoravids (1086–1094) and the Almohads (1146–1173) occupied al-Andalus next, and the Marinids in 1269, but that could not prevent the fragmentation of Muslim-ruled territory. The last Muslim emirate, Granada, was defeated by the armies of Castile (successor to Asturias) and Aragon under Isabella and Ferdinand in 1492. The last wave of expulsions of Spaniards of Muslim descent took place in 1614.
Chronology[edit]
History of Al-Andalus
Muslim conquest
(711–732)
Battle of Guadalete
Battle of Toulouse
Battle of Tours
Umayyads of Córdoba
(756–1031)
Emirate of Córdoba
Caliphate of Córdoba
Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
First Taifa period
(1009–1110)
Almoravid rule
(1085–1145)
Conquest
Battle of Sagrajas
Second Taifa period
(1140–1203)
Almohad rule
(1147–1238)
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
Third Taifa period
(1232–1287)
Emirate of Granada
(1238–1492)
Nasrid dynasty
Granada War
Related articles
Iberia
Reconquista
v
t
e
Part of a series on the
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Reconquista
First Siege of Gibraltar
Second Siege of Gibraltar
Third Siege of Gibraltar
Fourth Siege of Gibraltar
Fifth Siege of Gibraltar
Sixth Siege of Gibraltar
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Eighth Siege of Gibraltar
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Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar
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Modern Gibraltar[show]
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See also[show]
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Political development in modern Gibraltar
Fortifications of Gibraltar
Timeline
Gibraltar portal
v
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As discussed above, much of the traditional narrative of the Conquest is more legend than reliable history. Some of the key events and the stories around them are outlined below.
710 – Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Berber freedman, lands with 400 men and 100 horses on the tiny peninsula now called Gibraltar (Jebel al Tarik : Mountain of Tariq), after his name.
711 – Musa ibn Nusair, Governor of Ifriqiya in North Africa, dispatches Tariq into the Iberian Peninsula.
711 (July 19) – King Roderick's army utterly routed in the Battle of Guadalete somewhere in the Guadalquivir valley.
712 – Musa ibn Nusair joins Tariq after the Battle of Guadalete and both go on to attack towns and strongholds previously avoided. Abu Zora Tarif lands in Algeciras.[33]
713 – Theudimer's conditional surrender, allowing him to remain lord of his south-eastern region around Murcia (Tudmir).
715 – Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa announces first wali of Andalus and marries the widow of King Roderick, Egilona. Seville becomes the capital.
717–18 – Al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi starts the first military campaigns into Gothic Septimania.
719 – Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, 4th wali, transfers the seat of Governor from Seville to Cordova. Barcelona and Narbonne captured.
721 – An Umayyad army led by Al-Samh crushed by duke Odo's Aquitanian army at the Battle of Toulouse ("Balat Al Shuhada" of Toulouse).
722 – An Umayyad patrol defeated by Pelagius at the Battle of Covadonga in the mountains of Asturias.
725 – Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi subdues all Septimania, raids the Lower Rhone, and captures Autun.
731 – Munuza defeated in Cerdanya by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi.
Spring 732 – An expedition led by the wali Al Ghafiqi vanquishes duke Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne.
October 732 – Al Ghafiqi totally routed by Charles Martel (Mayor of the Palace at the Merovingian court) at the Battle of Tours ("Balat Al Shuhada" of Poitiers).
734 – Count Maurontus calls Umayyad forces on a military capacity into Arles, Avignon, and probably Marseille.
740–42 – Berbers in northern Iberia (Galicia, Leon, Astorga, upper Ebro) give up their positions to join the Berber Revolts.
743–757 – Alfonso I of Asturias raids the territory between the rivers Duero and Ebro but doesn't retain it.
743 – Mudarites and Yemenites agree on choosing alternately one of their numbers each year to rule Al–Andalus.
747 – Governor Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, a Mudarite and descendant of Uqbah ibn Nafia, refuses to give turn to the Yemenite candidate and rules autonomously.
755 – Rebellion in Zaragoza quashed, and Yusuf's detachment annihilated by the Basques near Pamplona.
755 – Abd Al-Rahman Al Dakhel ("Saqr Quraysh") lands on the southern coast, taking in a quick succession Granada, Seville and Cordova.
756 – After refusing to compromise with Yusuf, Abd ar-Rahman I independent Umayyad emir of Córdova. Yusuf defeated.
759 – Narbonne captured by the Frankish king Pepin the Short.
763 – Pro-Abbasid army defeated by Abd ar-Rahman I in Carmona.
778 – Charlemagne repelled in Zaragoza by Muslim local lords.
779 – Abd ar-Rahman I campaigns to the Upper Marches and subdues its main city, Zaragoza.
781 – Pamplona and the Basque lords south of the Pyrenean fringes subdued. All of Al Andalus unified.
788 – Abd ar-Rahman I dies.
See also[edit]
Islamic invasion of Gaul
Crusades
History of Portugal
History of Spain
Muslim conquests
Reconquista
Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
Timeline of Portuguese history
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Nagy, Luqman (2008). The book of Islamic dynasties: a celebration of Islamic history and culture. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. p. 9. ISBN 9781842000915.
Jump up ^ "Maroc et Espagne: une histoire commune publié par Fundación El Legado Andalusí". Books google. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Walter E. Kaegi (2010). Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 260. ISBN 9780521196772.
Jump up ^ Jessica Coope (2017). The Most Noble of People: Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Identity in Muslim Spain. University of Michigan Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780472130283.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 25–26.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 32–33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 17, 32–33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ Rucquoi notes that the tale of Count Julian's wife or daughter does not appear in the Chronicle of 754 and considers it to be "probably a legend", but considers there may be more truth in the stories concerning Wittiza's family; Rucquoi, Adèle (1993), Histoire médiéval de la Péninsule ibérique, Éditions du Seuil, p. 71, ISBN 2-02-012935-3
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 151. ISBN 0-312-22464-8.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 97.
Jump up ^ "El País". 2008-12-05.
Jump up ^ See: History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Tabari)
Jump up ^ See: Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah (Tarikh ibn Kathir)
Jump up ^ Humphreys, R. Stephen (1990). The History of al-Tabari Vol. 15. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Ṭāhā, Abd al-Wāḥid Dhannūn (1989-01-01). The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain. Routledge. p. 85. ISBN 9780415004749. The historian Abd al-Wāḥid Dhannūn Ṭāhā mentions that several Arab-Muslim writers mention the fact that Tariq has decided to cross the strait without informing his superior.
Jump up ^ Ripoll López, Gisela (1989). "Características generales del poblamiento y la arqueología funeraria visigoda de Hispania". Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, S. I, Prehist. y Arqueol., t. 2. pp. 389–418. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 12, 2010. Retrieved 27 November 2017. En resumen se puede considerar que el pueblo visigodo – sin diferenciar la población civil de la militar – representó de un uno a un dos por ciento sobre la totalidad de la población de Hispania.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Hugh (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A political history of al-Andalus. Longman. pp. 1–14.
Jump up ^ Lomax, D.W. (1978). The Reconquest of Spain. Longman. pp. 15–16.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. p. 116. ISBN 0-631-17565-2.
Jump up ^ Collins 1990, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 39–40.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 42–43.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 45–46.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 49–50.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 158.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 174.
Jump up ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 208. ISBN 1851096728. Retrieved August 6, 2015.
Sources[edit]
Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797. Oxford, UK / Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19405-3.
Kennedy. Muslim Spain and Portugal.
AD Taha. The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain.

External links[edit]
Gibbon, Edward. "51". History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Archived from the original on 2005-07-21.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania&oldid=855217985"
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TVG2
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
TVG2
Launched
January 8, 2003
Owned by
Betfair
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
HDTV
Slogan
The Network for Horse Sports
Country
United States
Broadcast area
National
Headquarters
Los Angeles, California
Formerly called
HRTV (2003-2015)
Sister channel(s)
TVG Network
Website
tvg2.com
Availability
Satellite
Dish Network
Channel 398
C-Band - H2H/4DTV
AMC 18 - Channel 217
Cable
Verizon FiOS
Channel 316
AT&T U-Verse
Channel 672
Insight
Channel 564
TVG2 (formerly HRTV) is an American sports-oriented digital cable and satellite television network. It is part of the TVG Network and is owned by Paddy Power Betfair. Dedicated to horse racing, it broadcasts events from U.S. and international racetracks, as well as a range of English and Western horse competitions, news, original programming and documentaries
The network was previously known as HRTV, and owned by the Stronach Group. In February 2015, HRTV was acquired by Betfair, owner of the competing TVG Network. HRTV was consolidated into TVG Network's Los Angeles facilities, and re-branded as TVG2 on October 28, 2015. The move to TVG's facilities also allowed the network to begin broadcasting in high definition.[1][2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 List of HRTV commentators
2 Programming
2.1 Racing programming
2.2 English programming
2.3 Western Programming
3 References
List of HRTV commentators[edit]
Scott Hazelton, Kurt Hoover, Christina Blacker, Matt Carothers, Todd Schrupp, Dave Weaver, Mike Joyce, Rich Perloff, Simon Bray, Donna Brothers, Nick Hines, Frank Miramahdi, Tom Cassidy, Joaquin Jaime, Paul Lo Duca, Peter Lurie, and Britney Eurton.
Programming[edit]
Racing programming[edit]
Programming on HRTV includes regular and special stakes races from Santa Anita Park, Churchill Downs, Gulfstream Park, Arlington Park, Pimlico Race Course, NYRA, and numerous other top U.S. and international racetracks.
Inside Information
Clubhouse Turn
Drive Time
Horse Racing All-Access
Horseracing Today
International Racing
Morning Line
Pick 6 Central
Race Night
Racing Coast to Coast
Starting Gate
Television Games
The Quarters
The Works
Trackside Live
TVG Classic
English programming[edit]
HRTV also features events in the world of English riding, such as show jumping, dressage, eventing and carriage driving. Coverage includes the Aachen World Horse Festival, FEI World Cup Jumping, Dressage events, and the Horse Shows in the Sun (HITS) $1,000,000 Grand Prix Triple Crown of Show jumping.
CHIO Aachen
For the Love of Horses
Polo Masters
Alltech National Horse Show
HITS AIG $1 Million Grand Prix
HITS Great American $1 Million Grand Prix
HITS Saugerties Zoetis $1 Million Grand Prix
The Hampton Classic
Ridin' High America
A Rider's Story[4]
The Saddle Club
Western Programming[edit]
Western horse-related programming includes rodeos sanctioned by the Professional Rodeo Cowboy Association, National Reining Horse Association events from around the world, US- based Cutting, Roping, and Barrel Racing competitions, and programming on recreational activities such as trail riding.
Ridin' Horses with Kerry Kuhn
Riding to Win
Join Up
Palm Partnership Training
Charles Wilhelm Ultimate Foundation Horsemanship
America's Favorite Trail Horse
Diamonds & Dirt
Richard Winters Horsemanship
Cactus Reining Classic
[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "TVG Makes Changes, Rebrands HRTV as TVG2". Blood-Horse. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "TVG re-brands HRTV, promises more live racing". Courier-Journal. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Ron (February 18, 2015). "TVG Acquiring HRTV; Operations to Merge". Blood-Horse. Retrieved February 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Equestrian Life - Luxury Desert Homes - Equestrian Life - Luxury Desert Homes". equestrianlife.com. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "HRTV Shows - HRTV.com". HRTV.com. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
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Jind
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the municipality in India. For its namesake district, see Jind district.
Jind
City
Jind
Jind
Show map of Haryana Show map of India Show all
Coordinates: 29°19′N 76°19′E / 29.317°N 76.317°E / 29.317; 76.317Coordinates: 29°19′N 76°19′E / 29.317°N 76.317°E / 29.317; 76.317
Country
India
State
Haryana
District
Jind
Municipality
Jind
Division
Hisar
Named for
Jayanti Devi
Talukas
Jind Sadar
Government
• Body
Municipal Committee, Jind
• Member of Legislative Assembly
Hari Chand Middha
Elevation
227 m (745 ft)
Population (2011)
• Total
167,592
• Density
440/km2 (1,100/sq mi)
Languages
• Official
Hindi, Haryanvi, Punjabi
• Regional
Haryanvi (Western Hindi)
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
PIN
126102
Railway station code
JIND
Telephone code
91-1681
ISO 3166 code
IN-HR
Vehicle registration
HR-31, HR-56 (Commercial)
Nearest capitals
New Delhi, Chandigarh
Sex ratio
877 ♂/♀
Literacy
83.63 %
Lok Sabha constituency
Sonipat
Vidhan Sabha constituency
Jind City
Planning agency
HUDA(Haryana Urban Development Authority)
Civic agency
Municipal Committee, Jind
Climate
Cw (Köppen)
Precipitation
550 millimetres (22 in)
Website
www.jind.nic.in
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
Jind is a city in Jind District in the Indian state of Haryana. It is the heart of Haryana. It is one of the oldest districts of Haryana. Rani Talab is the major tourist place Pandu-Pindara and Ramrai are the main devotional places attracting devotees for Amavasya bath. The fort of Jind was built by King Ganpat Singh in 1775 AD. CBI judge Jagjeet Singh Lohan belong to Jind
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and etymology
2 History
3 Geography
4 Demographics
5 Industry
6 Education
7 Railways and Roadways
8 Visitor attractions
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Origin and etymology[edit]
Jind name came up from Jaintapuri. It is also said that this town had been founded at the time of the Mahabharata. According to an old saying, the Pandavas built the Jayanti Devi Temple in honour of Jainti Devi (the goddess of victory), offered prayers for success, and then launched the battle with the Kauravas. The town grew up around the temple and was named Jaintapuri (Abode of Jainti Devi) which later on came to be known as Jind.
History[edit]
Raja Gajpat Singh, a great grandson of Phul, the founder of the Phulkian Misl, established an independent Sikh kingdom by seizing with Sikh armed forces a large tract of country which included the territory occupied by the present district of Jind from the Afghan invader and governor Zain Khan in 1763 and made Jind city, the capital of the state in 1776. He made a fort here in 1775. Later, Sangrur was chosen as capital of Jind State by Raja Sangat Singh (reigned 1822 to 1834). After independence, Jind State was merged with the Indian union and the territory of the present district became part of Sangrur district of Patiala and East Punjab States Union on 15 July 1948. At the time of its creation of Haryana state on 1 November 1966, Sangrur district was bifurcated and its Jind and Narwana tehsils were merged to form Jind district, one of the seven districts of the newly formed state. Jind tehsil was bifurcated to two tehsils: Jind and Safidon in 1967.
Geography[edit]
Jind is located at 29°19′N 76°19′E / 29.32°N 76.32°E / 29.32; 76.32.[1] It has an average elevation of 227 metres (744 feet).
Demographics[edit]
As of 2011[update] India census,[2] Jind city had a population of 166,225. Males constituted 53.3% and females 46.7% of the population respectively. Sex ratio is measured at 877 compared to national average 940. The sex ratio for the 0 to 6 year age-group is worse at 831 compared to national average 918. Jind had an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 64.3%. Male literacy was 80%, and female literacy was 67% . In Jind, children under six years of age numbered 18,825 and were 11.3% of the population in 2011.[2][3] Haryanavi, Hindi and Punjabi are the languages spoken by most of the people.
Industry[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
With the emergence of Haryana as a separate State in 1966, the process of industrialization in the district began. Several small-scale industrial units for the manufacture of radio and electrical good, fabrication of cement jallis, soap and candles, etc., were set up in urban areas. Some more important units manufacturing agricultural implements, chemicals, thermometers, surgical cotton, foundries, screws, plastic products, paper-board, coke briquettes, etc. The biggest Industry is saint gobain gyproc india ltd, were established after 1968. The first large-scale industrial unit was the Milk Plant at Jind, which came into existence in 1970. Another unit for the manufacture of steel products was set up in 1973. Industry in the district received a further fillip with the establishment of a cattle feed plant in 1974.[citation needed]
Education[edit]
There are numerous schools, and colleges in Jind. These include specialist institutions for subjects such as engineering and Management, Professional Institute in Jind
CHAUDHARY RANBIR SINGH UNIVERSITY (JIND). Website http://crsujind.org/
Jind Institute of Engineering & Technology.
Jind Polytechnic College.
Indus Institute of Engineering & Technology. Website www.iietjind.com/
Haryana Agriculture and Training Institute.
Some other Institute
Government P.G College.
Priyadarshini Women College.
C.R Kishan College.
Hindu Girls College.
Govt College Alewa,Jind
Govt College Julana,Jind
School
Government senior secondary school
S D School
Maharaja Senior secondary School
DAV senior secondary School
MLN senior secondary School
Ekta High School
Indus public school
Railways and Roadways[edit]
Jind Junction railway station is a railway junction on Delhi-Rohtak-Narwana-Jakhal section of Delhi-Fazilka line that connects Delhi to Punjab. Another railway line connects it to safidon- Panipat. A new railway line is being constructed from Jind to Gohana. A new upcoming railway line is jind-narnaul-hansi. Trains that stop at Jind Junction, Jind City, Narwana Junction railway stations connect it to many Indian cities. Some of the trains are:
11449/11450 Jabalpur Jammu Tawi Express (Jabalpur — Jammu Tawi)
12137/12138 Punjab Mail (Mumbai Cst — Firozpur Cantt)
12455/12456 Shri Ganganagar - Delhi S Rohilla AC SF (Shri Ganganagar — Delhi)
12481/12482 Intercity Exp (Old Delhi – Shri Ganganagar)
13007/13008 U A Toofan Exp (Shri Ganganagar — Howrah)
14035/14036 Dhauladhar Exp (Pathankot — Delhi)
15609/15610 Avadh Assam Exp (Lalgarh Junction — Gauhati)
16031/16032 Andaman Exp (Chennai Central — Jammu Tawi)
16317/16318 Himsagar Exp (Jammu Tawi — Kanyakumari)
16687/16688 Navyug Exp (Mangalore Central — Jammu Tawi)
19023/19024 Janata Exp (Mumbai Central — Firozpur Cantt)
12033/12034 New Delhi - Ludhiana
12043/12044 New Delhi - Moga
12047/12048 New Delhi - Bathinda
It is well connected by the road services as well. Privately owned buses run for short routes like jind to Narwana, Panipat, bhiwani, rohtak, safidon. Long route buses also originate and suspend here. It is situated on the busy route of delhi to patiala and on National Highway 71. Few bus routes are as: Jind to Hisar Jind to ISBT DELHI Jind to Amritsar Jind to Panipat Jind to Gurgaon Jind to Chandigarh
Nearest airport is IGI Airport, New Delhi which is at a distance of somewhat 3 or 3½ hours ride of car.
Visitor attractions[edit]
Bhuteshwar Temple at Rani Talab in Jind.
Religious places in Jind include:
Ramrai Popular Village In Jind , [ Ramhardyh Tirth ] [ Parsuraam Mandir ] [ Baba Gudad Temple ]
Baba Gaibi Sahab Mandir Bhongra
BABA MANSNATH TEMPLE AT CHHATTAR
Rani Talab
Asvini Kumara Tirtha Assan
Bhuteshwara Temple
Baba Ponkar Temple(Ponkar Kheri)
Ekahamsa
Jayanthi Devi Temple
Munjavata Tirth
Pindara Tirtha (in series of 48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra)
Pushkara Tirtha(Ponkar Kheri)
Ramsar Tirtha(Kuchrana Kalan)
Tirtha
Vanshmoolak Tirtha (Barsola)
Varaha Tirtha
Yakshini Tirtha
Dada Khera (Jajwan)
Bitha Mandir-Naguran
muana Village Mata Mandir
Jamni jamdgni rishi mandir(prachin tirth sathal)
Gurudwara Shri Guru TegBahadur Sahib
Baba Samadh Wala (Dhanda Kheri)
Dada Khera (Dhanda Kheri)
SHIV Ji Mandir (Dhanda Kheri)
Rajpura (Bhain)
This village is located 8 kilometers west of Jind. It is a well organized and clean village in the village "Dr. BR Ambedkar Community Center, Rural Secretariat, Government School, Hospital etc. Public Institute. Here is the famous Parshuram Tirtha temple of Ramrai, like the Pushkar Temple of Pankari Khedi, the Gobind Kund of Mahabharata, where "Baba Gulab Giri Mandir" is located on its shore. Govind Kund is of the opinion that Shri Krishna stayed here for 21 days from Krishna Pandavas who came to discover Duryodhana. Manashakumas are fulfilled here and it is situated in the Devbhoomi of Kurukshetra, where after the rituals of the bones do not have to be immersed.(Rakesh Goriya)
Google map- https://goo.gl/maps/zgri2xRoguG2
See also[edit]
Jind city
Alewa
Rohtak
Safidon
Julana
meham
gohana
Sonipat
Alewa Jind
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Maps, Weather, Videos, and Airports for Jind, India". Fallingrain.com. Retrieved 2012-10-19.
^ Jump up to: a b "View Population". Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2012-10-19.
Jump up ^ "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
www.technicalrevolution.in
External links[edit]
Official Jind Web site
Jind City - Photographs, Event and more about Jind
Official Technical Revolution Newspaper Web site
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jind&oldid=814740652"
Categories:
Forts in Haryana
Cities and towns in Jind district
Jind
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