text:
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
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A cartoon section of skeletal muscle, showing t-tubules running deep into the centre of the cell between two terminal cisternae/junctional SR. The thinner projections, running horizontally between two terminal cisternae are the longitudinal sections of the SR.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a membrane bound structure found within muscle cells, that is similar to the endoplasmic reticulum in other cells. The main function of the SR is to store calcium ions (Ca2+). Calcium ion levels are kept relatively constant, with the concentration of calcium ions within a cell being 100,000 times smaller than the concentration of calcium ions outside the cell.[1] This means that small increases in calcium ions within the cell are easily detected and can bring about important cellular changes (the calcium is said to be a second messenger; see calcium in biology for more details). Calcium is used to make calcium carbonate (found in chalk) and calcium phosphate, two compounds that the body uses to make teeth and bones. This means that too much calcium within the cells can lead to hardening (calcification) of certain intracellular structures, including the mitochondria,[2] leading to cell death. Therefore, it is vital that calcium ion levels are controlled tightly, and can be released into the cell when necessary and then removed from the cell.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Calcium absorption
3 Calcium storage
4 Calcium release
5 References
Structure[edit]
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules that extend throughout muscle cells, wrapping around (but not in direct contact with) the myofibrils (contractile units of the cell). Cardiac and skeletal muscle cells, contain structures called transverse tubules (T-tubules), which are extensions of the cell membrane that travel into the centre of the cell. T-tubules are closely associated with a specific region of the SR, known as the terminal cisternae in cardiac muscle or junctional SR in skeletal muscle, with a distance of roughly 12 nanometers, separating them. This is the primary site of calcium release.[3] The longitudinal SR are thinner projects, that run between the terminal cisternae/junctional SR, and are the location where ion channels necessary for calcium ion absorption are most abundant.[4] These processes are explained in more detail below and are fundamental for the process of excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
Calcium absorption[edit]
The SR contains ion channel pumps, within its membrane that are responsible for pumping Ca2+ into the SR. As the calcium ion concentration within the SR is higher than in the rest of the cell, the calcium ions won't freely flow into the SR, and therefore pumps are required, that use energy, which they gain from a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). These calcium pumps are called Sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum ATPases (SERCA). There are a variety of different forms of SERCA, with SERCA 2a being found primarily in cardiac and skeletal muscle.[5]
SERCA consists of 13 subunits (labelled M1-M10, N, P and A). Calcium ions bind to the M1-M10 subunits (which are located within the membrane), whereas ATP binds to the N,P and A subunits (which are located outside the SR). When 2 calcium ions, along with a molecule of ATP, bind to the cytosolic side of the pump (i.e the region of the pump outside the SR), the pump opens. This occurs because ATP (which contains three phosphate groups) releases a single phosphate group (becoming adenosine diphosphate). The released phosphate group then binds to the pump, causing the pump to change shape. This shape change causes the cytosolic side of the pump to open, allowing the two Ca2+ to enter. The cytosolic side of the pump then closes and the sarcoplasmic reticulum side opens, releasing the Ca2+ into the SR.[6]
A protein found in cardiac muscle, called phospholamban (PLB) has been shown to prevent SERCA from working. It does this by binding to the SERCA and decreasing its attraction (affinity) to calcium, therefore preventing calcium uptake into the SR. Failure to remove Ca2+ from the cytosol, prevents muscle relaxation and therefore means that there is a decrease in muscle contraction too. However, molecules such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, can prevent PLB from inhibiting SERCA. When these hormones bind to a receptor, called a beta 1 adrenoceptor, located on the cell membrane, they produce a series of reactions (known as a cyclic AMP pathway) that produces an enzyme called protein kinase A (PKA). PKA can add a phosphate to PLB (this is known as phosphorylation), preventing it from inhibiting SERCA and allowing for muscle relaxation.[7]
Calcium storage[edit]
Located within the SR is a protein called calsequestrin. This protein can bind to around 50 Ca2+, which decreases the amount of free Ca2+ within the SR (as more is bound to calsequestrin).[8] Therefore more calcium can be stored (the calsequestrin is said to be a buffer). It is primarily located within the junctional SR/terminal cisternae , in close association with the calcium release channel (described below)[9]
Calcium release[edit]
Calcium ion release from the SR, occurs in the junctional SR/terminal cisternae through a ryanodine receptor (RyR) and is known as a calcium spark.[10] There are three types of ryanodine receptor, RyR1 (in skeletal muscle), RyR2 (in cardiac muscle) and RyR3 (in the brain).[11] Calcium release through ryanodine receptors in the SR is triggered differently in different muscles. In cardiac and smooth muscle an electrical impulse (action potential) triggers calcium ions to enter the cell through an L-type calcium channel located in the cell membrane (smooth muscle) or T-tubule membrane (cardiac muscle). These calcium ions bind to and activate the RyR, producing a larger increase in intracellular calcium. In skeletal muscle, however, the L-type calcium channel is bound to the RyR. Therefore activation of the L-type calcium channel, via an action potential, activates the RyR directly, causing calcium release (see calcium sparks for more details).[12] Also, caffeine (found in coffee) can bind to and stimulate RyR. Caffeine works by making the RyR more sensitive to either the action potential (skeletal muscle) or calcium (cardiac or smooth muscle) therefore producing calcium sparks more often (this can result in increased heart rate, which is why we feel more awake after coffee).[13]
Triadin and Junctin are proteins found within the SR membrane, that are bound to the RyR. The main role of these proteins is to anchor calsequestrin (see above) to the ryanodine receptor. At ‘normal’ (physiological) SR calcium levels, calsequestrin binds to the RyR, Triadin and Junctin, which prevents the RyR from opening.[14] If calcium concentration within the SR falls too low, there will be less calcium bound to the calsequestrin. This means that there is more room on the calsequestrin, to bind to the junctin, triadin and ryanodine receptor, therefore it binds tighter. However, if calcium within the SR rises too high, more calcium binds to the calsequestrin and therefore it binds to the junctin-triadin-RyR complex less tightly. The RyR can therefore open and release calcium into the cell.[15]
In addition to the effects that PKA had on phospholamban (see above) that resulted in increased relaxation of the cardiac muscle, PKA (as well as another enzyme called calmodulin kinase II) can also phosphorylate ryanodine receptors. When phosphorylated, RyRs are more sensitive to calcium, therefore they open more often and for longer periods of time. This increases calcium release from the SR, increasing the rate of contraction.[16] Therefore, in cardiac muscle, activation of PKA, through the cyclic AMP pathway, results in increased muscle contraction (via RyR2 phosphorylation) and increased relaxation (via phospholamban phosphorylation), which increases heart rate.
The mechanism behind the termination of calcium release through the RyR is still not fully understood. Some researchers believe it is due to the random closing of ryanodine receptors (known as stochastic attrition), or the ryanodine receptors becoming inactive after a calcium spark,[17] while others believe that a decrease in SR calcium, triggers the receptors to close (see calcium sparks for more details).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bronner, F. (2003) ‘Extracellular and intracellular regulation of calcium homeostasis’, TheScientificWorldJournal., 1, pp. 919–25.
Jump up ^ Trump, B., Berezesky, I., Laiho, K., Osornio, A., Mergner, W. and Smith, M. (1980) ‘The role of calcium in cell injury. A review’, Scanning electron microscopy., , pp. 437–62.
Jump up ^ The anatomy of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in vertebrate skeletal muscle: Its implications for excitation contraction coupling’, Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. Section C, Biosciences., 37, pp. 665–78.
Jump up ^ Arai, M.; Matsui, H.; Periasamy, M. (1994-04-01). "Sarcoplasmic reticulum gene expression in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.". Circulation Research. 74 (4): 555–564. ISSN 0009-7330. PMID 8137493. doi:10.1161/01.RES.74.4.555.
Jump up ^ Periasamy, M. and Kalyanasundaram, A. (2007) ‘SERCA pump isoforms: Their role in calcium ion transport and disease’, Muscle & nerve., 35(4), pp. 430–42.
Jump up ^ Kekenes-Huskey, P.M., Metzger, V.T., Grant, B.J. and McCammon, A.J. (2012b) ‘Calcium binding and allosteric signaling mechanisms for the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase’, 21(10).
Jump up ^ Akin, B., Hurley, T., Chen, Z. and Jones, L. (2013) ‘The structural basis for phospholamban inhibition of the calcium pump in sarcoplasmic reticulum’, The Journal of biological chemistry., 288(42), pp. 30181–91.
Jump up ^ Beard, N. A.; Laver, D. R.; Dulhunty, A. F. (2004-05-01). "Calsequestrin and the calcium release channel of skeletal and cardiac muscle". Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. 85 (1): 33–69. ISSN 0079-6107. PMID 15050380. doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2003.07.001.
Jump up ^ MacLennan, DH; Wong, PT (1971). "Isolation of a calcium-sequestering protein from sarcoplasmic reticulum". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 68 (6): 1231–1235. doi:10.1073/pnas.68.6.1231.
Jump up ^ Cheng, H.; Lederer, W. J.; Cannell, M. B. (1993-10-29). "Calcium sparks: elementary events underlying excitation-contraction coupling in heart muscle". Science. 262 (5134): 740–744. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 8235594. doi:10.1126/science.8235594.
Jump up ^ Lanner, J.T., Georgiou, D.K., Joshi, A.D. and Hamilton, S.L. (2010b) ‘Ryanodine receptors: Structure, expression, molecular details, and function in calcium release’, 2(11).
Jump up ^ Cheng, H. and Lederer, W. (2008) ‘Calcium sparks’, Physiological reviews., 88(4), pp. 1491–545.
Jump up ^ Sitsapesan R, Williams AJ. Mechanisms of caffeine activation of single calcium-release channels of sheep cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. J Physiol (Lond) 1990;423:425– 439]
Jump up ^ Zhang, L; Kelley, J; Schmeisser, G; Kobayashi, YM; Jones, LR (1997). "Complex formation between junctin, triadin, calsequestrin, and the ryanodine receptor: proteins of the cardiac junctional sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane". J Biol Chem. 272 (37): 23389–23397. doi:10.1074/jbc.272.37.23389.
Jump up ^ Györke, I., Hester, N., Jones, L.R. and Györke, S. (2004) ‘The role of Calsequestrin, Triadin, and Junctin in conferring cardiac Ryanodine receptor responsiveness to Luminal calcium’, 86(4).
Jump up ^ Bers, D.M. (2006) ‘Cardiac ryanodine receptor phosphorylation: Target sites and functional consequences’, 396(1).
Jump up ^ Sham, J. S. K.; et al. (1998). "Termination of Ca2+ release by a local inactivation of ryanodine receptors in cardiac myocytes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95 (25): 15096–15101. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.25.15096. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
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History of Australian rules football
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Australian rules football
Statue of Tom Wills umpiring a football match in 1858, believed to be one of the defining moments in the history of Australian rules football
Australian rules football was invented in Melbourne, Australia, in 1858. The first match identified as a direct precursor to the codification of Australian football was organised and umpired by Tom Wills and contested on 31 July between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College, adjacent to the Melbourne Cricket Ground at the Richmond Paddock. The oldest surviving set of rules of Australian rules football were drawn up on 17 May 1859, three days after the formation of the Melbourne Football Club.
The origins of Australian football before 1858 are still the subject of much debate, as there were a multitude of football games in Britain, Ireland and Australia whose rules influenced the early football games played in Melbourne. Teams would have to agree before each match which rules would be followed, and different aspects of association football, Gaelic football, rugby football,[1] Sheffield rules, Cambridge rules[2] Winchester College football and Harrow football[3] were apparent in the early games.
The earliest leagues were the South Australian National Football League at the time called the South Australian Football Association and the Victorian Football Association formed in 1877. The first intercolonial matches were played shortly after in 1879. The game was first known as Melbourne rules football then as the game spread throughout the country it became known as Victorian rules football and then Australian rules football.
By Federation in 1901, the game was the main winter sport in Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania, with the Victorian Football League, South Australian National Football League and the West Australian Football League operating as separate competitions. The game was played in New South Wales and Queensland but was second in popularity to rugby union as the main winter sport.
In the 1990s, the VFL became the Australian Football League, a national body and the premier league in Australia and later became the de facto world governing body for the sport.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins of the game
2 History of clubs and competitions
2.1 Historic clubs
2.2 The first leagues
2.3 Leagues outside Victoria
2.4 Formation of the VFL
2.5 Interstate competition
2.6 A national league
2.7 Today's state leagues
2.8 Australian football internationally
2.8.1 International rules football
3 References
4 External links
Origins of the game[edit]
Further information: Origins of Australian rules football
A letter by Tom Wills Wills was published in Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle on 10 July 1858,[4] calling for a "foot-ball club, a rifle club, or other athletic pursuits" to keep cricketers fit during winter. An experimental match was played at the Richmond Paddock (later known as Yarra Park next to the MCG) on 31 July 1858, very few details of the match have survived.
On 7 August 1858, a famous match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College began, umpired by Wills and John Macadam. A second day of play took place on 21 August and a third and final day on 4 September. The two schools have competed annually ever since. However the rules used by the two teams in 1858 were not official since Wills had not yet begun to write them. H.C.A. Harrison Wills's cousin was instrumental in developing the game but not in the very early years.
The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian football.[5] They were drawn up at the Parade Hotel East Melbourne on 17 May by Wills, William Hammersley, J. B. Thompson and Thomas Smith (some sources erroneously include H. C. A. Harrison). The 1859 rules, drawn up three days after the Melbourne club was officially founded did not include some elements that soon became important to the game, such as the requirement to bounce the ball while running. Melbourne's game was not immediately adopted by neighbouring clubs before each match the rules had to be agreed by the two teams involved. By 1866 however several other clubs had agreed to play by an updated version of Melbourne rules.
A game at the Richmond Paddock in the 1860s. A pavilion at the MCG is on the left in the background. (A wood engraving made by Robert Bruce on 27 July 1866.)
The original handwritten rules dated May 1859 were signed by Tom Wills, William Hammersley, J. Sewell, J. B. Thompson, Alex Bruce, T. Butterworth and Thomas Smith:
1 The distance between the goal post shall be decided upon by the captains of the sides playing.
2 The captains on each side shall toss for choice of goal. The side losing the toss has the kick-off from the centre-point between the goals.
3 A goal must be kicked fairly between the posts without touching either of them or a portion of the person of any player of either side.
4 The game shall be played within the space of not more than 200 yards wide, the same to be measured equally upon each side of the line drawn through the centre of the two goals and two posts to be called the kick-off points shall be erected at a distance of 20 yards on each side of the goal posts at both ends and in a straight line with them.
5 In case the ball is kicked behind the goals, anyone of the side behind whose goal it is kicked, may bring it back 20 yards in front of any portion of the space between the kick-off posts and shall kick it as nearly as possible in the line of the opposite goal.
6 Any player catching the ball directly from the boot may call 'mark'. He then has a free kick. No players from the opposite side being allowed to come into the spot marked.
7 Tripping and pushing are both allowed but no hacking when any player is in rapid motion or in possession of the ball except for the case provided by rule 6.
8 The ball may be taken in hand only when caught from the boot or on the hop. In no case shall it be lifted from the ground.
9 When the ball goes out of bounds (the same being indicated by a row of posts) it shall be brought back to the point where it crossed the boundary line and thrown in right angels with that line.
10 The ball while in play may under no circumstances be thrown.
History of clubs and competitions[edit]
Historic clubs[edit]
See also: List of Australian rules football clubs by date of establishment
The modern day Australian Football League (AFL) includes many teams that date back to the beginnings of the game. Apart from the Melbourne FC (1859) other early clubs still in existence in the AFL include: Geelong (1859), Carlton (1864), North Melbourne (aka Hotham) (1869), Port Adelaide (1870), Essendon, and St Kilda (1873), South Melbourne (now Sydney Swans) (1874), Footscray (now the Western Bulldogs) (1877).
Other historic clubs such as the Castlemaine (1859), Melbourne University (1859) also continue to exist in lesser leagues.
The first leagues[edit]
In 1877, the South Australian Football Association (SAFA) was formed followed by 3 days later the Victorian Football Association (VFA). The VFA was formed by: Albert-park, Ballarat, Barwon, Beechworth, Carlton, Castlemaine, East Melbourne, Essendon, Geelong, Hotham (later North Melbourne), Inglewood, Melbourne, Rochester and St Kilda.Six of these clubs were from the Victorian country. At the time, Essendon was regarded as a semi-junior club rather than a full member, and was allowed concessions such as fielding teams of 25 players instead of the standard 20.
The first night football match on Australian soil occurred in 1879 between Collingwood Rifles and East Melbourne Artillery.
First league seasons
SAFA (1877)
VFA (1877)
TFL (1879)
WAFL (1885)
1 South Adelaide Carlton City Fremantle
2 Victorian Melbourne Cricketers Rovers
3 Adelaide Hotham Railway Victorians
4 Port Adelaide Albert Park Newtown High School
5 Woodville St Kilda Richmond
6 South Park High School
7 Kensington Hutchins
8 Bankers
Leagues outside Victoria[edit]
Shortly after the game was invented it began to spread from Victoria into other Australian colonies and over seas, beginning with South Australia (1860), Tasmania (1864), Queensland (1866), New South Wales (1877), New Zealand (1868) and Western Australia (1881). By 1916 the game was first played in the Northern Territory, establishing a permanent presence in all Australian states and Mainland territories.
In Newcastle, New South Wales the Black Diamond league was founded by Victorian goldminers and the Black Diamond Challenge Cup remains Australia's oldest sporting trophy.
The first intercolonial match was held between Victoria and South Australia in 1879.
Factors such as intercolonial (and later interstate) rivalry and the denial of access to grounds in Sydney by the dominant rugby codes caused the code to struggle in New South Wales and Queensland.
Formation of the VFL[edit]
Essendon, first VFL premiers in 1897.
A rift in the VFA led to the formation of the Victorian Football League (VFL), which commenced play in 1897 as an eight-team breakaway of the stronger clubs in the VFA competition: Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda and South Melbourne. The first season concluded with Essendon finishing as the premiers (winners).
Another five VFA clubs joined the VFL later: Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, although University withdrew in 1915 due to the war. Footscray, Hawthorn and North Melbourne joined in 1925, by which time VFL had become the most prominent league in the game.
Interstate competition[edit]
Main article: Interstate matches in Australian rules football
Players contest a mark at the 1933 Australian Football Carnival at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The teams are Victoria and Tasmania. (Photographer: Sam Hood.)
For most of the 20th century, the absence of a national club competition - and the inability of players to compete internationally – meant that matches between state representative teams were regarded with great importance. The first intercolonial match was first played in 1879 between Victoria and South Australia. VFL clubs increasingly recruited the best players in other states, one of the reasons Victoria dominated these games. However, State of Origin rules were introduced in 1977, and in the first such game, at Subiaco Oval in Perth, Western Australia defeated Victoria, 23.13 (151) to 8.9 (57), a huge reversal of the results in most previous games. Western Australia and South Australia began to win a lot more of their games against Victoria. However, during the 1990s, following the emergence of the Australian Football League and the game becoming full professional State of Origin games declined in importance especially after an increasing number of withdrawals who were under increasing pressure from clubs concerned by the risk of injuries. Australian football State of Origin matches ceased in 1999. The second-tier state and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches.
A national league[edit]
In 1982, in a move which heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs South Melbourne Football Club relocated to the rugby league stronghold of Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s strong interstate interest in the VFL led to a more national competition; two more non-Victorian clubs, the West Coast Eagles and the Brisbane Bears began playing in 1987.
The league changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) following the 1989 season. In 1991, it gained its first South Australian team, Adelaide. West Coast's local derby rival Fremantle was admitted in 1995. The Fitzroy Lions merged with Brisbane Bears after 1996 due to financial difficulties to form the Brisbane Lions and the proud old SANFL club, Port Adelaide joined in 1997 as Port Adelaide Power, immediately becoming fierce local rivals to Adelaide. In 2011 The Gold Coast Suns were admitted into the league followed by the Greater Western Sydney Giants (GWS) in 2012. The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and the most powerful body in the world of Australian rules football.
Today's state leagues[edit]
For much of the 20th century, the SANFL and the WAFL were considered peers of the VFL. Although the VFL was generally accepted as the strongest league, they frequently played each other on an even footing in challenge matches and occasional nationwide club competitions. The other states and territories also infrequently participated in interstate matches when they were able to field a strong side.
With the introduction of the AFL the SANFL, WAFL and other state leagues rapidly declined to a secondary status. Apart from these there are many semi-professional and amateur leagues around Australia, where they play a very important role in the community, and particularly so in rural areas.
The VFA, still in existence a century after the original schism, merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998. The new entity adopted the VFL name.
Australian football internationally[edit]
Main article: Australian football around the world
Action from an Aussie Rules game in Nauru at the Linkbelt Oval
Almost as soon as the game was becoming established in Australia, it had spread to New Zealand in 1878. South Africa followed in the 1880s, with the help of Australian goldminers; they were augmented by soldiers during the Second Boer War.
In 1888, a touring British rugby team played 19 games of Australian rules against clubs in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia. The tourists, who had been hastily trained in the local code, played Carlton in front of 25,000 people — a substantial crowd at the time — in their first game. They even had a win over Port Adelaide. However, the tourists returned to rugby once they left Australia and the foundation of Australian rules clubs overseas was still many years away.
As the game spread to New Zealand the national governing body the Australian Football Council became known as the Australasian Football Council then changed back after the game declined in popularity in New Zealand.
In 1908, New Zealand was home to a formidable league of 115 clubs, and their national team defeated both New South Wales and Queensland at the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival, an event held to celebrate 50 years of Australian Football. The game was also introduced to England, Scotland and Japan. The profound effects of World War I caused the gradual demise in the game in countries outside Australia, including New Zealand.
The first nation outside of Australia to take the sport up seriously was the former Australian territory of Nauru, which began playing in the 1930s. The game is now the national sport of the country. Another former territory, Papua New Guinea began playing in the 1950s. For a time at least, it was the most popular sport in the country, and still remains popular. New Zealand resumed a local competition in 1974.
The first ever international match involving Australia was played in 1977 at under 17 level between Australia and Papua New Guinea in Adelaide, with Australia taking the honours [1]. Since then, Australia have been peerless in the sport and seldom compete at international level.
In the late 1980s, as distance became less of an obstacle, amateur teams were established in Japan (1987) and England, Denmark and Canada (1989). In the 1990s, amateur competition has grown in countries such as Sweden (1993), Germany (1995), USA (1996), Argentina, Spain and Samoa (1997), South Africa (1998), as well as a number of solely expatriate teams, mainly based in South East Asia.
Since 2000, fledgeling competitions have been established in countries such as Ireland (2000), Tonga (2002), Scotland, France and China (2005), Pakistan, Indonesia (2006), Catalonia, Norway and East Timor. Many of these were initially established by Australian expatriates but collecting growing numbers of native players. In other countries, it grew out of AFL exhibition matches, cult television following or Internet communication. North American fans formed an organization, AFANA, specifically to work for improved media coverage of Australian football.
Since the 1990s, the AFL and other development bodies have contributed to the development the game overseas. There are now youth development programs in several of these countries; since 1998, the Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament, endorsed by the AFL as part of its International Policy, has hosted several of junior teams from other countries.
The Arafura Games, held in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia is a Multi-sport event for South East Asia and East Asian island nations, northern Australia and the Pacific Islands which has Australian football as a permanent competition sport, rather than a demonstration sport. Papua New Guinea won the gold medal and retained it in subsequent games. Other teams that have competed at Australian Rules in the games include Japan, Nauru and a Northern Territory indigenous team.
The International Australian Football Council (IAFC) was formed after the 1995 Arafura Games. Following internal divisions in the IAFC, another organization, Aussie Rules International was set up in London. The AFL did not recognise the IAFC as anything more than a promotional body, and is itself considered the keeper of the code. Hence the AFL is primarily responsible for funding and governance and provides around A$500,000 annually for international development, especially junior programs. The code is not large enough outside Australia for an international governing body made up of national bodies.
Inspired by successful Arafura Games competitions, the inaugural Australian Football International Cup was held in Melbourne in 2002, an initiative of the IAFC and the AFL. With the closure of the IAFC subsequent cups are staged by the AFL. The 2002 cup was contested by 11 teams from around the world made up exclusively of non-Australians. Ireland won the 2002 cup, defeating Papua New Guinea in the final. (See also: Australian football leagues outside Australia.)
Today, Australian football is a major spectator sport in Australia and Nauru, although occasional exhibition games are staged in other countries. Some local grand final and carnival type events in Papua New Guinea, Nauru, England and the United States have occasionally drawn attendances that number in the thousands.
On 3 July 2006 the AFL announced that it had formed an International Development Committee to support overseas (non-Australian) football leagues. The AFL also hope to develop the game in other countries to the point where Australian football is played at an international level by top-quality sides from around the world. The AFL has hosted an International Cup regularly every three years, beginning in 2002, with the third game in 2008 corresponding to the 150th anniversary of the code.[6]
International rules football[edit]
Main article: International rules football
Since 1967, there have been many matches between Australian and Irish teams, under various sets of hybrid, compromise rules drawn from both Australian and Gaelic football. The current rules use the round ball and the rectangular field and cross-bar posts of Gaelic football. The fierce tackling and marking of the Australian code is allowed.
In 1984, the first official representative matches of International Rules football were played, and these are now played annually each October.
In 1999, a record Australian International Rules crowd of 65,000 at the MCG attended a game that saw Ireland defeat Australia but Australia win the series. In 2002, a record Irish International Rules crowd of 71,532 at Croke Park, Dublin witnessed a draw which also saw Australia win the series.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.150years.com.au/history/historyarticle/tabid/11383/newsid/67490/default.aspx
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ1DMNm4PsoC&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false
Jump up ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 June 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2006.
Jump up ^ http://150years.com.au/portals/0/flash/originschronology/index.html
Jump up ^ AFL International Development plans at www.worldfootynews.com.
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Hammersley, Harrison
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Attorney General of California
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Attorney General of California
Seal of the Attorney General of California
Incumbent
Xavier Becerra
since January 24, 2017
Department of Justice
Style
The Honorable
Term length
Four years, two term limit
Inaugural holder
Edward J. C. Kewen
1849
Formation
California Constitution
Salary
$151,127
Website
Office of the Attorney General
The Attorney General of California is the state attorney general of the Government of California. The officer's duty is to ensure that "the laws of the state are uniformly and adequately enforced" (Constitution of California, Article V, Section 13.) The Attorney General carries out the responsibilities of the office through the California Department of Justice. The Department employs over 1,100 attorneys (meaning that the AG supervises the governmental equivalent of a law firm much larger than the vast majority of U.S. private law firms) and 3,700 non-attorney employees.
The California Attorney General is elected to a four-year term, with a maximum of two terms. The election is held at the same statewide election as the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Controller, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Insurance Commissioner.
Contents
[hide]
1 Duties
2 History
3 Notable attorneys general from California
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Duties[edit]
The California Attorney General's main office in Sacramento is housed in this building
According to the state Constitution and the California Government Code, the Attorney General:
As the state’s chief law officer, ensures that the laws of the state are uniformly and adequately enforced.[1]
Heads the Department of Justice, which is responsible for providing state legal services and support for local law enforcement.[2]
Acts as the chief counsel in state litigation.
Oversees law enforcement agencies, including District Attorneys and Sheriffs.[1]
History[edit]
Although the office of Attorney General dates to the admission of California to the Union, the office in its modern form dates to Proposition 4 of 1934,[3] sponsored by Alameda County District Attorney Earl Warren as one of four initiatives he sponsored to substantially reform law enforcement and the judiciary. Previously, the attorney general lacked jurisdiction over matters in the jurisdiction of locally elected district attorneys and sheriffs.[4] Warren went on to become Attorney General himself in 1938 where he reorganized state's law enforcement into districts.
Notable attorneys general from California[edit]
For a comprehensive list, see List of Attorneys General of California.
Jerry Brown – 2007-2011, Governor of California (1975–1983; 2011–present), Mayor of Oakland (1999–2007); Presidential candidate (1976; 1992).
George Deukmejian – 1979-1983, Governor of California (1983–91)
Stanley Mosk – 1959-1964, Associate Justice of the California Supreme Court (1964-2001)
Pat Brown – 1951-1959, Governor of California (1959–1967)
Earl Warren – 1939-1943, Chief Justice of the United States (1953–1969); Governor of California (1943–1953); District Attorney of Alameda County (1925-1939)
Ulysses S. Webb – 1902-1939, longest serving at 37 years
Recent
Xavier Becerra – 2017-present, U.S. Representative (1993-2017)
Kamala Harris – 2011-2017, U.S. Senator (2017-present); District Attorney of San Francisco (2004-2011)
Dan Lungren – 1991-1999, U.S. Representative (1979–89; 2005–13)
See also[edit]
Attorney general
List of Attorneys General of California
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b California Constitution, Article V, Section 13 Archived 2011-01-08 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ California Government Code §15000
Jump up ^ https://ballotpedia.org/History_of_Initiative_and_Referendum_in_California. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Proposition 4 (1934)".
External links[edit]
California Attorney General official website
California Attorney General articles at Legal Newsline Legal Journal
California Attorney General articles at ABA Journal
News and Commentary at FindLaw
[show]
v
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Attorneys General of the United States
United States Attorney General: Jeff Sessions (R)
AL
Steve Marshall (R)
AK
Jahna Lindemuth (I)
AZ
Mark Brnovich (R)
AR
Leslie Rutledge (R)
CA
Xavier Becerra (D)
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Cynthia Coffman (R)
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Matthew Denn (D)
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HI
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Derek Schmidt (R)
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Andy Beshear (D)
LA
Jeff Landry (R)
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Janet Mills (D)
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MA
Maura Healey (D)
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Lori Swanson (D)
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Jim Hood (D)
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Hector Balderas (D)
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Eric Schneiderman (D)
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Josh Stein (D)
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Mike Hunter (R)
OR
Ellen Rosenblum (D)
PA
Josh Shapiro (D)
RI
Peter Kilmartin (D)
SC
Alan Wilson (R)
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Marty Jackley (R)
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Herbert Slatery (R)
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T. J. Donovan (D)
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Mark Herring (D)
WA
Bob Ferguson (D)
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DC
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Territories:
AS
Talauega Ale (D)
GU
Elizabeth Barrett-Anderson (R)
MP
Edward Manibusan (D)
PR
Wanda Vázquez Garced (D)
VI
Claude Walker (I)
Political party affiliations:
28 Republicans
26 Democrats
2 Independents
*Acting Attorney General
[show]
v
t
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Attorneys General of California
Kewen
McDougall
Hastings
McConnell
Stewart
Wallace
Williams
Pixley
McCullough
Hamilton
Love
Hamilton
A. Hart
Marshall
Johnson
W. Hart
Fitzgerald
Ford
Webb
Warren
Kenny
Howser
P. Brown
Mosk
Lynch
Younger
Deukmejian
Van de Kamp
Lungren
Lockyer
J. Brown
Harris
Kenealy (Acting)
Becerra
[show]
v
t
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California statewide elected officials
Governor
Lieutenant Governor
Attorney General
Secretary of State
Treasurer
Controller
Insurance Commissioner
Superintendent of Public Instruction
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attorney_General_of_California&oldid=823255906"
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Soweto uprising
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Hector Pieterson being carried by Mbuyisa Makhubo after being shot by South African police. His sister, Antoinette Sithole, runs beside them. Pieterson was rushed to a local clinic and declared dead on arrival. This photo by Sam Nzima became an icon of the Soweto uprising.
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The Soweto uprising was a series of demonstrations and protests led by black school children in South Africa that began on the morning of 16 June 1976.[1]
Students from numerous Sowetan schools began to protest in the streets of Soweto in response to the introduction of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in local schools.[2] It is estimated that 20,000 students took part in the protests. They were met with fierce police brutality. The number of protesters killed by police is usually given as 176, but estimates of up to 700 have been made.[3][4][5] In remembrance of these events, 16 June is now a public holiday in South Africa, named Youth Day.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes of the protests
2 Uprising
2.1 Casualties
3 Aftermath
3.1 International reaction
4 In the media
4.1 Radio
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Causes of the protests[edit]
Black South African high school students in Soweto protested against the Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974, which forced all black schools to use Afrikaans and English in a 50–50 mix as languages of instruction.[7] The Regional Director of Bantu Education (Northern Transvaal Region), J.G. Erasmus, told Circuit Inspectors and Principals of Schools that from 1 January 1975, Afrikaans had to be used for mathematics, arithmetic, and social studies from standard five (7th grade), according to the Afrikaans Medium Decree; English would be the medium of instruction for general science and practical subjects (homecraft, needlework, woodwork, metalwork, art, agricultural science).[7] Indigenous languages would only be used for religious instruction, music, and physical culture.[8]
The association of Afrikaans with apartheid prompted black South Africans to prefer English. Even the Bantustan regimes chose English and an indigenous African language as official languages. In addition, English was gaining prominence as the language most often used in commerce and industry. The 1974 decree was intended to forcibly reverse the decline of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Union of South Africa Act that recognised only English and Dutch (the latter being replaced by Afrikaans in 1925) as official languages as the pretext to do so.[9] While all schools had to provide instruction in both Afrikaans and English as languages, white South African students learned other subjects in their home language.
Punt Janson, the Deputy Minister of Bantu Education at the time, was quoted as saying: "A Black man may be trained to work on a farm or in a factory. He may work for an employer who is either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking and the man who has to give him instructions may be either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking. Why should we now start quarrelling about the medium of instruction among the Black people as well? ... No, I have not consulted them and I am not going to consult them. I have consulted the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa …"[10]
The decree was resented deeply by blacks, because Afrikaans was widely viewed—in the words of Desmond Tutu, bishop of Lesotho and later Dean of Johannesburg—as "the language of the oppressor". Teacher organisations, such as the African Teachers Association of South Africa, objected to the decree.[11] A change in language of instruction forced the students to focus on understanding the language instead of the subject material. This made critical analysis of the content difficult and discouraged critical thinking.[12]
The resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike, refusing to go to school. Their rebellion then spread to many other schools in Soweto. Black South African students protested because they believed that they deserved to be treated and taught equally to white South Africans. A student from Morris Isaacson High School, Teboho "Tsietsi" Mashinini, proposed a meeting on 13 June 1976 to discuss what should be done. Students formed an Action Committee (later known as the Soweto Students' Representative Council),[13] which organised a mass rally for 16 June, to make themselves heard.
Uprising[edit]
On the morning of 16 June 1976, between 10,000 and 20,000[14] black students walked from their schools to Orlando Stadium for a rally to protest against having to learn through Afrikaans in school. Many students who later participated in the protest arrived at school that morning without prior knowledge of the protest, yet agreed to become involved. The protest was planned by the Soweto Students' Representative Council's (SSRC) Action Committee,[15] with support from the wider Black Consciousness Movement. Teachers in Soweto also supported the march after the Action Committee emphasised good discipline and peaceful action.
Tsietsi Mashinini led students from Morris Isaacson High School to join up with others who walked from Naledi High School.[16] The students began the march only to find out that police had barricaded the road along their intended route. The leader of the action committee asked the crowd not to provoke the police and the march continued on another route, eventually ending up near Orlando High School.[17] The crowd of between 3,000 and 10,000 students made their way towards the area of the school. Students sang and waved placards with slogans such as, "Down with Afrikaans", "Viva Azania" and "If we must do Afrikaans, Vorster must do Zulu".[18]
The police set their dog on the protesters, who responded by killing it.[19] The police then began to shoot directly at the children.
Among the first students to be shot dead were 15 year old Hastings Ndlovu and 13 year old Hector Pieterson, who were shot at Orlando West High School.[20] The photographer Sam Nzima took a photograph of a dying Hector Pieterson as he was carried away by Mbuyisa Makhubo and accompanied by his sister, Antoinette Sithole. The photograph became the symbol of the Soweto uprising. The police attacks on the demonstrators continued and 23 people died on the first day in Soweto. Among them was Dr Melville Edelstein, who had devoted his life to social welfare among blacks He was stoned to death by the mob and left with a sign around his neck proclaiming "Beware Afrikaners".[21]
The violence escalated, as bottle stores and beer halls—seen as outposts of the apartheid government—were targeted, as were the official outposts of the state. The violence abated by nightfall. Police vans and armoured vehicles patrolled the streets throughout the night.
Emergency clinics were swamped with injured and bloody children. The police requested that the hospital provide a list of all victims with bullet wounds to prosecute them for rioting. The hospital administrator passed this request to the doctors, but the doctors refused to create the list. Doctors recorded bullet wounds as abscesses.[13][20]
The 1,500 heavily armed police officers deployed to Soweto on 17 June carried weapons including automatic rifles, stun guns, and carbines.[13] They drove around in armoured vehicles with helicopters monitoring the area from the sky. The South African Army was also ordered on standby as a tactical measure to show military force. Crowd control methods used by South African police at the time included mainly dispersement techniques.
Casualties[edit]
The number of people who died is usually given as 176 with estimates up to 700.[4] The original government figure claimed only 23 students were killed;[22] the number of wounded was estimated to be over a thousand people.
Aftermath[edit]
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The aftermath of the uprising established the leading role of the ANC in the anti-apartheid struggle, as it was the body best able to channel and organise students seeking the end of apartheid. So, although the BCM's ideas had been important in creating the climate that gave the students the confidence to strike out, it was the ANC's non-racialism which came to dominate the discourse of the anti-apartheid movement amongst blacks. The perspectives set out in Joe Slovo's essay No Middle Road – written at just this time and predicting the apartheid government had only the choice between more repression and overthrow by the revolutionaries – were highly influential.[23]
The clashes also occurred at a time when the South African Government was being forced to "transform" apartheid in international eyes towards a more "benign" form. In October 1976, Transkei, the first Bantustan, was proclaimed "independent" by the South African Government. This attempt to showcase supposed South African "commitment" to self-determination backfired, however, when Transkei was internationally derided as a puppet state.
For the state the uprising marked the most fundamental challenge yet to apartheid and the economic (see below) and political instability it caused was heightened by the strengthening international boycott. It was a further 14 years before Nelson Mandela was released, but at no point was the state able to restore the relative peace and social stability of the early 1970s as black resistance grew.
Many white South African citizens were outraged at the government's actions in Soweto, and about 300 white students from the University of the Witwatersrand marched through Johannesburg's city centre in protest of the killing of children. Black workers went on strike as well and joined them as the campaign progressed. Riots also broke out in the black townships of other cities in South Africa.
Student organisations directed the energy and anger of the youth toward political resistance. Students in Thembisa organised a successful and non-violent solidarity march, but a similar protest held in Kagiso led to police stopping a group of participants and forcing them to retreat, before killing at least five people while waiting for reinforcements. The violence only died down on 18 June. The University of Zululand's records and administration buildings were set ablaze, and 33 people died in incidents in Port Elizabeth in August. In Cape Town 92 people died between August and September.
Most of the bloodshed had abated by the close of 1976, but by that time the death toll stood at more than 600.
The continued clashes in Soweto caused economic instability. The South African rand devalued fast and the government was plunged into a crisis.
The African National Congress printed and distributed leaflets with the slogan "Free Mandela, Hang Vorster", immediately linking the language issue to its revolutionary heritage and programme and helping establish its leading role (see Baruch Hirson's "Year of Fire, Year of Ash" for a discussion of the ANC's ability to channel and direct the popular anger).
International reaction[edit]
The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 392 which strongly condemned the incident and the apartheid government.[24]
A week after the uprising began, Henry Kissinger, the United States Secretary of State, met the South African State President, B. J. Vorster in West Germany to discuss the situation in Rhodesia, but the Soweto uprising did not feature in their discussions.[25] Kissinger and Vorster met again in Pretoria in September 1976, with students in Soweto and elsewhere protesting his visit, and being fired on by police.[26]
African National Congress (ANC) exiles called for international action and more economic sanctions against South Africa.[citation needed]
In the media[edit]
Images of the riots spread all over the world, shocking millions. The photograph of Hector Pieterson's dead body, as captured by photojournalist Sam Nzima, caused outrage and brought down international condemnation on the Apartheid government.
The Soweto riots are depicted in the 1987 film by director Richard Attenborough, Cry Freedom, and in the 1992 musical film Sarafina!. The riots also inspired the novel A Dry White Season by Andre Brink, and a 1989 movie of the same title. The Soweto uprising also featured in the 2003 film Stander about notorious bank robber and former police captain, Andre Stander. The lyrics of the song "Soweto Blues" by Hugh Masekela and Miriam Makeba describe the Soweto Uprising and the children's part in it.[27]
Radio[edit]
20 years after the uprising, in June 1996, the Ulwazi Educational Radio Project of Johannesburg compiled an hour-long radio documentary portraying the events of 16 June entirely from the perspective of people living in Soweto at the time.[28] Many of the students who planned or joined the uprising took part, as did other witnesses, including photographer Peter Magubane, reporter Sophie Tema, and Tim Wilson, the white doctor who pronounced Hector Pieterson dead in Baragwanath hospital. The programme was broadcast on SABC and on a number of local radio stations throughout South Africa. The following year, BBC Radio 4 and BBC World Service broadcast a revised version containing fresh interviews and entitled The Day Apartheid Died.[29] The programme was runner-up at the 1998 European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) TV & Radio Awards and also at the 1998 Media Awards of the One World International Broadcasting Trust, and was highly commended at the 1998 Prix Italia radio awards. In May 1999, it was re-broadcast by BBC Radio 4 as The Death of Apartheid with a fresh introduction, providing added historical context for a British audience, by Anthony Sampson, former editor of Drum magazine and author of the authorised biography (1999) of Nelson Mandela. Sampson linked extracts from the BBC Sound Archive that charted the long struggle against apartheid from the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, through the riots of 1976 and the murder of Steve Biko, and right up to Mandela's release from prison in 1990 and the future president's speech in which he acknowledged the debt owed by all black South Africans to the students who gave their lives in Soweto on 16 June 1976.[30]
See also[edit]
1970s portal
Hastings Ndlovu
History of South Africa
Liberation before education
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The birth and death of apartheid". Retrieved 17 June 2002.
Jump up ^ "The Youth Struggle". South African History Online.
Jump up ^ Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto". africanhistory.about.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Harrison, David (1987). The White Tribe of Africa.
Jump up ^ (Les Payne of Newsday said at least 850 murders were documented) Elsabe Brink; Gandhi Malungane; Steve Lebelo; Dumisani Ntshangase; Sue Krige, Soweto 16 June 1976, 2001, 9
Jump up ^ "16 June 1976: 'This is our day'". Brand South Africa. 14 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu. "The Soweto Uprising". The Road to Democracy in South Africa (PDF). 2. South African Democracy Education Trust. p. 327. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Alistair Boddy-Evans. "The Afrikaans Medium Decree". About.
Jump up ^ Giliomee, Hermann (2003), The Rise and Possible Demise of Afrikaans as a Public Language (PDF), Cape Town: PRAESA, retrieved 17 March 2013
Jump up ^ Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu. "The Soweto Uprising". The Road to Democracy in South Africa (PDF). 2. South African Democracy Education Trust. pp. 331–32. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
Jump up ^ The Youth Struggle, "The 1976 Students' Revolt". South African History Online.
Jump up ^ Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu. "The Soweto Uprising". The Road to Democracy in South Africa (PDF). 2. South African Democracy Education Trust. pp. 327–328. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The 1976 Students' Revolt". South African History Online.
Jump up ^ Allen, John. Rabble-Rouser For Peace.
Jump up ^ "The Soweto uprising 1976". socialistworld.net.
Jump up ^ Davie, Lucille (12 June 2006). "The homecoming that wasn't". City of Johannesburg. Johannesburg News Agency. Archived from the original on 14 June 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Davie, Lucille (23 May 2006). "Soweto's red brick route to 16 June 1976". City of Johannesburg. Johannesburg News Agency. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
Jump up ^ F.I.J. van Rensburg. "Soweto, 1976: 'n Inklusiewe herbegin 30 jaar later?" (in Afrikaans). Die Vrye Afrikaan.
Jump up ^ "Policemen involved in June 16 Shootings have to Explain: Morobe". SAPA. 23 July 1996. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu. "The Soweto Uprising". The Road to Democracy in South Africa (PDF). 2. South African Democracy Education Trust. p. 344. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Colin Martin Tatz; Peter Arnold; Gillian Heller (2007). Worlds apart: the re-migration of South African Jews. Rosenberg Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-877058-35-6.
Jump up ^ April Francis; Vanessa Marchese. "Apartheid South Africa and the Soweto Rebellion" (PDF). hofstra.edu. Hofstra University.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Basil (1976). Southern Africa: the new politics. Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ "Resolution 392(1976) of 19 June 1976". Retrieved 16 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Nancy (2016). Jimmy Carter in Africa: Race and the Cold War. Stanford University Press.
Jump up ^ "Talks opened by Kissinger as riots flare". The Spokesman - Review. 18 September 1976.
Jump up ^ Cheyney, Tom (1 March 1990). "Miriam Makeba Welela". Musician (137): 84. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ The producers of this documentary included Keketso Semoko, Jeffrey Molawa, Moferefere Lekorotsoana and Andrew Ntsele of Ulwazi, working together with Peter Griffiths of BBC Radio 4.
Jump up ^ Extra material collected by Peter Griffiths and Andrew Ntsele of the Ulwazi Educational Radio Project
Jump up ^ All details from Peter Griffiths of BBC Radio 4 in London
Further reading[edit]
Baines, Gary. "The Master Narrative of South Africa's Liberation Struggle: Remembering and Forgetting June 16, 1976, International Journal of African Historical Studies (2007) 40#2 pp. 283–302 in JSTOR
Brewer, John D. After Soweto: an unfinished journey (Oxford University Press, 1986)
External links[edit]
External audio
Guardian Unlimited audio recording of Antoinette Sithole on the Soweto uprising
External video
Soweto Uprising (2007) at the Internet Archive
BBC video of the Soweto uprisings
"S. Africa marking Soweto uprising" – BBC
Guardian Unlimited audio recording of Antoinette Sithole (Pieterson) on the Soweto uprising
An extensive mashup with info on the events on 16 June 1976
Youth and the National Liberation Struggle 1894–1994 South African History Online
Helena Pohlandt-McCormick. "I Saw a Nightmare…" Doing Violence to Memory: The Soweto Uprising, 16 June 1976 Columbia University Press, 2005
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