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Prenatal development
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Prenatal development (from Latin natalis, meaning 'relating to birth') is the process in which an embryo and later fetus develops during gestation. Prenatal development starts with fertilization, the first stage in embryogenesis which continues in fetal development until birth.
In human pregnancy, prenatal development, also known as antenatal development, is the development of the embryo following fertilization, and continued as fetal development. By the end of the tenth week of gestational age the embryo has acquired its basic form and is referred to as a fetus. The next period is that of fetal development where many organs become fully developed. This fetal period is described both topically (by organ) and chronologically (by time) with major occurrences being listed by gestational age.
In other animals the very early stages of embryogenesis are the same as those in humans. In later stages, development across all taxa of animals and the length of gestation vary.
Contents
1 Terminology
2 Fertilization
3 Development of the embryo
4 Development of the fetus
5 Development of organ systems
5.1 Fetal blood
5.1.1 Red blood cells
5.1.2 White blood cells
5.2 Fetal hormones
6 Nutrition
7 Growth rate
8 Factors influencing development
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Terminology[edit]
Stages during pregnancy. Embryogenesis is marked in green. Weeks and months are numbered by gestation.
Different terms are used to describe prenatal development, meaning development before birth. A term with the same meaning is the "antepartum" (from Latin ante "before" and parere "to give birth") Sometimes "antepartum" is however used to to the period between the 24th/26th week of gestational age until birth, for example in antepartum hemorrhage.[1][2]
The perinatal period (from Greek peri, "about, around" and Latin nasci "to be born") is "around the time of birth". In developed countries and at facilities where expert neonatal care is available, it is considered from 22 completed weeks (usually about 154 days) of gestation (the time when birth weight is normally 500 g) to 7 completed days after birth.[3] In many of the developing countries the starting point of this period is considered 28 completed weeks of gestation (or weight more than 1000 g).[4]
Fertilization[edit]
Main article: Human fertilization
A sperm fertilizing an ovum.
When semen is released into the vagina, the spermatozoa travel through the cervix and body of the uterus and into the Fallopian tubes. Fertilization of the egg cell (ovum), usually takes place in one of the Fallopian tubes. Many sperm are released with the possibility of just one sperm cell managing to adhere to and enter the thick protective shell-like layer surrounding the ovum. The first sperm that penetrates fully into the egg donates its genetic material (DNA). The egg then polarizes, repelling any additional sperm. The resulting combination is called a zygote, a new and genetically unique organism. The term "conception" refers variably to either fertilization or to formation of the conceptus after its implantation in the uterus, and this terminology is controversial.
Prior to fertilization, each ovum, as a gamete, contains half of the genetic material that will fuse with the male gamete, which carries the other half of the genetic material (DNA). The ovum only carries the X female sex chromosome whilst the sperm carries a single sex chromosome of either an X or a male Y chromosome. The resulting human zygote is similar to the majority of somatic cells because it contains two copies of the genome in a diploid set of chromosomes. One set of chromosomes came from the nucleus of the ovum and the second set from the nucleus of the sperm.
The zygote is male if the egg is fertilized by a sperm that carries a Y chromosome, and it is female if the egg is fertilized by a sperm that carries an X chromosome.[5] The Y chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which will switch on androgen production at a later stage, leading to the development of a male body type. In contrast, the mitochondrial genetic information of the zygote comes entirely from the mother via the ovum.
Development of the embryo[edit]
Main article: Human embryogenesis
The initial stages of human embryogenesis.
The embryonic period in humans begins at fertilization (penetration of the egg by the sperm) and continues until the end of the 10th week of gestation (8th week by embryonic age). The period of two weeks from fertilization is also referred to as the germinal stage.
The embryo spends the next few days traveling down the Fallopian tube. It starts out as a single cell zygote and then divides several times to form a ball of cells called a morula. Further cellular division is accompanied by the formation of a small cavity between the cells. This stage is called a blastocyst. Up to this point there is no growth in the overall size of the embryo, as it is confined within a glycoprotein shell, known as the zona pellucida. Instead, each division produces successively smaller cells.
The blastocyst reaches the uterus at roughly the fifth day after fertilization. It is here that lysis of the zona pellucida occurs. This process is analogous to zona hatching, a term that refers to the emergence of the blastocyst from the zona pellucida, when incubated in vitro. This allows the trophectoderm cells of the blastocyst to come into contact with, and adhere to, the endometrial cells of the uterus. The trophectoderm will eventually give rise to extra-embryonic structures, such as the placenta and the membranes. The embryo becomes embedded in the endometrium in a process called implantation. In most successful pregnancies, the embryo implants 8 to 10 days after ovulation.[6] The embryo, the extra-embryonic membranes, and the placenta are collectively referred to as a conceptus, or the "products of conception".
Rapid growth occurs and the embryo's main features begin to take form. This process is called differentiation, which produces the varied cell types (such as blood cells, kidney cells, and nerve cells). A spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, in the first trimester of pregnancy is usually[7] due to major genetic mistakes or abnormalities in the developing embryo. During this critical period (most of the first trimester), the developing embryo is also susceptible to toxic exposures, such as:
Alcohol, certain drugs, and other toxins that cause birth defects, such as fetal alcohol syndrome
Infection (such as rubella or cytomegalovirus)
Radiation from x-rays or radiation therapy
Nutritional deficiencies such as lack of folate which contributes to spina bifida
Development of the fetus[edit]
From the 10th week of gestation (8th week of development), the developing organism is called a fetus.
All major structures are already formed in the fetus, but they continue to grow and develop.
Since the precursors of all the major organs are created by this time, the fetal period is described both by organ and by a list of changes by weeks of gestational age.
Because the precursors of the organs are now formed, the fetus is not as sensitive to damage from environmental exposure as the embryo was. Instead, toxic exposure often causes physiological abnormalities or minor congenital malformation.
Development of organ systems[edit]
This article is part of a series on the
Development of organ systems
Nervous system
Digestive system
Reproductive system
Urinary system
Endocrine system
Human development
Circulatory system
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Development continues throughout the life of the embryo and fetus and through into life after birth. Significant changes occur to many systems in the period after birth as they adapt to life outside the uterus.
Fetal blood[edit]
Fetal hematopoiesis first takes place in the yolk sac. The function is transferred to liver by 10th week of gestation and to spleen and bone marrow beyond that. The total blood volume is about 125 ml/kg fetal body weight near term.
Red blood cells[edit]
Fetus produces megaloblastic red blood cells early in development, which become normoblastic near term. Life span of fetal RBCs is 80 days. Rh antigen appears at about 40 days of gestation.
White blood cells[edit]
Fetus starts producing leukocytes at 2 months gestation mainly from thymus and spleen. Lymphocytes derived from thymus are called T lymphocytes, whereas the ones derived from bone marrow are called B lymphocytes. Both these populations of lymphocytes have short-lived and long-lived groups. Short-lived T lymphocytes usually reside in thymus, bone marrow and spleen; whereas long-lived T lymphocytes reside in blood stream. Plasma cells are derived from B lymphocytes and their life in fetal blood is 0.5 to 2 days.
Fetal hormones[edit]
Main article: Development of the endocrine system
Thyroid gland is the first to develop in fetus at 4th week of gestation. Insulin secretion in fetus starts around 12th week of gestation.
Nutrition[edit]
The fetus passes through 3 phases of acquisition of nutrition from mother:[8]
Absorption phase: Zygote is nourished by cellular cytoplasm and secretions in fallopian tubes and uterine cavity.
Histoplasmic transfer: After nidation and before establishment of uteroplacental circulation, fetal nutrition is derived from decidual cells and maternal blood pools that open up as a result of eroding activity of trophoblasts.
Hematotrophic phase: After third week of gestation, substances are transported passively via intervillous space.
Growth rate[edit]
Growth rate of fetus is linear up to 37 weeks of gestation, after which it plateaus.[8] The growth rate of an embryo and infant can be reflected as the weight per gestational age, and is often given as the weight put in relation to what would be expected by the gestational age. A baby born within the normal range of weight for that gestational age is known as appropriate for gestational age (AGA). An abnormally slow growth rate results in the infant being small for gestational age, and, on the other hand, an abnormally large growth rate results in the infant being large for gestational age. A slow growth rate and preterm birth are the two factors that can cause a low birth weight. Low birth weight (below 2000 grams) can ultimately increase the likelihood of schizophrenia by almost four times. [9]
The growth rate can be roughly correlated with the fundal height which can be estimated by abdominal palpation. More exact measurements can be performed with obstetric ultrasonography.
Factors influencing development[edit]
Further information: Alcohol and pregnancy and Smoking and pregnancy
Intrauterine growth restriction is one of the causes of low birth weight associated with over half of neonatal deaths.[10]
Poverty
Poverty has been linked to poor prenatal care and has been an influence on prenatal development. Women in poverty are more likely to have children at a younger age, which results in low birth weight. Many of these expecting mothers have little education and are therefore less aware of the risks of smoking, drinking alcohol, and drug use – other factors that influence the growth rate of a fetus. Women in poverty are more likely to have diseases that are harmful to the fetus.
Mother's age
Women between the ages of 16 and 35 have a healthier environment for a fetus than women under 16 or over 35.[11] Women between this age gap are more likely to have fewer complications. Women over 35 are more inclined to have a longer labor period, which could potentially result in death of the mother or fetus. Women under 16 and over 35 have a higher risk of preterm labor (premature baby), and this risk increases for women in poverty, African Americans, and women who smoke. Young mothers are more likely to engage in high risk behaviors, such as using alcohol, drugs, or smoking, resulting in negative consequences for the fetus.[12] Premature babies from young mothers are more likely to have neurological defects that will influence their coping capabilities – irritability, trouble sleeping, constant crying for example. There is a risk of Down syndrome for infants born to those aged over 40 years. Young teenaged mothers (younger than 16) and mothers over 35 are more exposed to the risks of miscarriages, premature births, and birth defects.
Drug use
An estimated 5 percent of fetuses in the United States are exposed to illicit drug use during pregnancy.[13] Maternal drug use occurs when drugs ingested by the pregnant woman are metabolized in the placenta and then transmitted to the fetus. When using drugs (narcotics), there is a greater risk of birth defects, low birth weight, and a higher rate of death in infants or stillbirths. Drug use will influence extreme irritability, crying, and risk for SIDS once the fetus is born. The chemicals in drugs can cause an addiction in the babies once they are born. Marijuana will slow the fetal growth rate and can result in premature delivery. It can also lead to low birth weight, a shortened gestational period and complications in delivery. Heroin will cause interrupted fetal development, stillbirths, and can lead to numerous birth defects. Heroin can also result in premature delivery, creates a higher risk of miscarriages, result in facial abnormalities and head size, and create gastrointestinal abnormalities in the fetus. There is an increased risk for SIDS, dysfunction in the central nervous system, and neurological dysfunctions including tremors, sleep problems, and seizures. The fetus is also put at a great risk for low birth weight and respiratory problems. Cocaine use results in a smaller brain, which results in learning disabilities for the fetus. Cocaine puts the fetus at a higher risk of being stillborn or premature. Cocaine use also results in low birthweight, damage to the central nervous system, and motor dysfunction.
Alcohol
Maternal alcohol use leads to disruptions of the fetus's brain development, interferes with the fetus's cell development and organization, and affects the maturation of the central nervous system. Even small amounts of alcohol use can cause lower height, weight and head size at birth and higher aggressiveness and lower intelligence during childhood. [14] Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is a developmental disorder that is a consequence of heavy alcohol intake by the mother during pregnancy. Children with FASD have a variety of distinctive facial features, heart problems, and cognitive problems such as developmental disabilities, attention difficulties, and memory deficits. [14]
Smoking and nicotine
When a mother smokes during pregnancy the fetus is exposed to nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide. Nicotine results in less blood flow to the fetus because it constricts the blood vessels. Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen flow to the fetus. The reduction of blood and oxygen flow may result in miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight, and premature births.[15] Exposure to secondhand smoke leads to higher risks of low birth weight and childhood cancer.[16]
Diseases
If a mother is infected with a disease, the placenta cannot always filter out pathogens. Babies can be born with venereal diseases transmitted by the mother.
Mother's diet and physical health
Adequate nutrition is needed for a healthy fetus. Mothers who gain less than 20 pounds during pregnancy are at increased risk for having a preterm or low birth weight infant.[17] . Iron and iodine are especially important during prenatal development. Mothers who are deficient in iron are at risk for having a preterm or low birth weight infant. [18] Iodine deficiencies increase the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, and fetal brain abnormalities Adequate prenatal care gives an improved result in the newborn.[19]
Low birth weight
Low birth weight increases an infants risk of long-term growth and cognitive and language deficits. It also results in a shortened gestational period and can lead to prenatal complications.
Stress
Stress during pregnancy can impact the development of the embryo. Reilly (2017) states that stress can come from many forms of life events such as community, family, financial issues, and natural causes. While a woman is pregnant, stress from outside sources can take a toll on the growth in the womb that may affect the child’s learning and relationships when born. For instance, they may have behavioral problems and might be antisocial. The stress that the mother experiences affects the fetus and the fetus’ growth which can include the fetus’ nervous system (Reilly, 2017). Stress can also lead to low birth weight. Even after avoiding other factors like alcohol, drugs, and being healthy, stress can have its impacts whether families know it or not. Many women who deal with maternal stress do not seek treatment. Similar to stress, Reilly stated that in recent studies, researchers have found that pregnant women who show depressive symptoms are not as attached and bonded to their child while it is in the womb (2017). [20]
Environmental toxins
Exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy lead to higher rates of miscarriage, sterility, and birth defects. Toxins include fetal exposure to lead, mercury, and ethanol or hazardous environments.
See also[edit]
Fetal pig
References[edit]
Jump up ^ patient.info » PatientPlus » Antepartum Haemorrhage Last Updated: 5 May 2009
Jump up ^ The Royal Women’s Hospital > antepartum haemorrhage Archived 8 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on Jan 13, 2009
Jump up ^ Definitions and Indicators in Family Planning. Maternal & Child Health and Reproductive Health. By European Regional Office, World Health Organization. Revised March 1999 & January 2001. In turn citing: WHO Geneva, WHA20.19, WHA43.27, Article 23
Jump up ^ Singh, Meharban (2010). Care of the Newborn. p. 7. Edition 7. ISBN 9788170820536
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel (2009). "11-Development". Psychology Second Edition. United States of America: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
Jump up ^ Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999). "Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy". N. Engl. J. Med. 340 (23): 1796–9. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.
Jump up ^ Moore L. Keith. (2008). Before We Are Born: Essentials of Embryology and Birth Defects. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4160-3705-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Daftary, Shirish; Chakravarti, Sudip (2011). Manual of Obstetrics, 3rd Edition. Elsevier. pp. 1-16. ISBN 9788131225561.
Jump up ^ [1], "Prenatal Factors in Schizophrenia", 2012-07-10
Jump up ^ Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J (2005). "4 million neonatal deaths: when? Where? Why?". The Lancet. 365: 891–900. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)71048-5. PMID 15752534.
Jump up ^ Centers for Disease Control (2018). "Pregnancy Complications". Centers for Disease Control. Archived from the original on 2018.
Jump up ^ "About Teenage Pregnancy". Centers for Disease Control. 2018. Archived from the original on 2018.
Jump up ^ Wendell, A. D. (2013). [doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e31827feeb9 "Overview and epidemiology of substance abuse in pregnancy"] Check |url= value (help). Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology. 56: 91–96 – via Google Scholar.
^ Jump up to: a b Mattson, S (2010). "Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 34: 1640–1650 – via PubMed.
Jump up ^ Espy, K (2011). "Prenatal tobacco exposure: Developmental outcomes in the neonatal period". Developmental Psychology. 47: 153–169 – via EBSCO.
Jump up ^ Ruckinger, S (2010). "Growth in utero and body mass index at age 5 years in children of smoking and non-smoking mothers". Early Human Development. 86: 773–777 – via EBSCO.
Jump up ^ Ehrenberg, H (2003). "Low maternal weight, failure to thrive in pregnancy, and adverse pregnancy outcomes". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 189: 1726–1730 – via PubMED.
Jump up ^ "Micronutrient deficiencies". World Health Organization. 2002.
Jump up ^ "What is prenatal care and why is it important?". www.nichd.nih.gov.
Jump up ^ Reilly, Nicole (2017). "Stress, depression and anxiety during pregnancy: How does it impact on children and how can we intervene early?". International Journal of Birth & Parent Education. 5 (1): 9-12.
Further reading[edit]
MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Fetal development
Moore, Keith L. The Developing Human (3rd ed.). Philadelphia PA: W.B. Saunders Company.
Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (June 1999). "Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy". N. Engl. J. Med. 340 (23): 1796–9. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.
Ljunger E, Cnattingius S, Lundin C, Annerén G (November 2005). "Chromosomal anomalies in first-trimester miscarriages". Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 84 (11): 1103–7. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00882.x. PMID 16232180.
Newman, Barbara; Newman, Philip (10 March 2008). "The Period of Pregnancy and Prenatal Development". Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-55341-7.
"Prenatal Development - Prenatal Environmental Influences - Mother, Birth, Fetus, and Pregnancy." Social Issues Reference. Version Child Development Vol. 6. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2012. <http://social.jrank.org/pages/515/Prenatal-Development-Prenatal-Environmental-Influences.html>.
Niedziocha, Laura. "The Effects Of Drugs And Alcohol On Fetal Development | LIVESTRONG.COM." LIVESTRONG.COM - Lose Weight & Get Fit with Diet, Nutrition & Fitness Tools | LIVESTRONG.COM. N.p., 4 Sept. 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2012. <http://www.livestrong.com/article/535499-the-effects-of-drugs-and-alcohol-on-fetal-development/>.
Jaakkola, JJ; Gissler, M (January 2004). "Maternal smoking in pregnancy, fetal development, and childhood asthma". American Journal of Public Health. 94 (1): 136–40. doi:10.2105/ajph.94.1.136. PMC 1449839  . PMID 14713711.
Gutbrod, T (1 May 2000). "Effects of gestation and birth weight on the growth and development of very low birthweight small for gestational age infants: a matched group comparison". Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 82 (3): 208F–214. doi:10.1136/fn.82.3.F208. PMC 1721075  . PMID 10794788.
Brady, Joanne P., Marc Posner, and Cynthia Lang. "Risk and Reality: The Implications of Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol and Other Drugs ." ASPE. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2012. <http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/cyp/drugkids.htm>.
Pregnancy Approach (eBook ed.). Lauren Lee. 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Embryology.
Chart of human fetal development, U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM)
U.K. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA), regulatory agency overseeing the use of gametes and embryos in fertility treatment and research
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For other uses, see Declination (disambiguation).
In astronomy, declination (abbreviated dec; symbol δ) is one of the two angles that locate a point on the celestial sphere in the equatorial coordinate system, the other being hour angle. Declination's angle is measured north or south of the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question.[1]
Right ascension and declination as seen on the inside of the celestial sphere. The primary direction of the system is the vernal equinox, the ascending node of the ecliptic (red) on the celestial equator (blue). Declination is measured northward or southward from the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question.
The root of the word declination (Latin, declinatio) means "a bending away" or "a bending down". It comes from the same root as the words incline ("bend toward") and recline ("bend backward").[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Explanation
2 Effects of precession
3 Stars
4 Sun
5 Relation to latitude
6 See also
7 Notes and references
8 External links
Explanation[edit]
Main article: Equatorial coordinate system
Declination in astronomy is comparable to geographic latitude, projected onto the celestial sphere, and hour angle is likewise comparable to longitude.[3] Points north of the celestial equator have positive declinations, while those south have negative declinations. Any units of angular measure can be used for declination, but it is customarily measured in the degrees ( ° ), minutes ( ' ), and seconds ( " ) of sexagesimal measure, with 90° equivalent to 1/4 circle. Declinations with magnitudes greater than 90° do not occur, because the poles are the northernmost and southernmost points of the celestial sphere.
An object at the
celestial equator has a declination of 0°
north celestial pole has a declination of +90°
south celestial pole has a declination of −90°
The sign is customarily included whether positive or negative.
Effects of precession[edit]
Right ascension (blue) and declination (green) as seen from outside the celestial sphere.
Main article: Axial precession
The Earth's axis rotates slowly westward about the poles of the ecliptic, completing one circuit in about 26,000 years. This effect, known as precession, causes the coordinates of stationary celestial objects to change continuously, if rather slowly. Therefore, equatorial coordinates (including declination) are inherently relative to the year of their observation, and astronomers specify them with reference to a particular year, known as an epoch. Coordinates from different epochs must be mathematically rotated to match each other, or to match a standard epoch.[4]
The currently used standard epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1, 2000 at 12:00 TT. The prefix "J" indicates that it is a Julian epoch. Prior to J2000.0, astronomers used the successive Besselian Epochs B1875.0, B1900.0, and B1950.0.[5]
Stars[edit]
A star's direction remains nearly fixed due to its vast distance, but its right ascension and declination do change gradually due to precession of the equinoxes and proper motion, and cyclically due to annual parallax. The declinations of Solar System objects change very rapidly compared to those of stars, due to orbital motion and close proximity.
As seen from locations in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere, celestial objects with declinations greater than 90° − φ (where φ = observer's latitude) appear to circle daily around the celestial pole without dipping below the horizon, and are therefore called circumpolar stars. This similarly occurs in the Southern Hemisphere for objects with declinations less (i.e. more negative) than −90° − φ (where φ is always a negative number for southern latitudes). An extreme example is the pole star which has a declination near to +90°, so is circumpolar as seen from anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere except very close to the equator.
Circumpolar stars never dip below the horizon. Conversely, there are other stars that never rise above the horizon, as seen from any given point on the Earth's surface (except extremely close to the equator. On flat terrain, the distance has to be within about 2km, but this varies based on observer altitude and surrounding terrain). Generally, if a star whose declination is δ is circumpolar for some observer (where δ is either positive or negative), then a star whose declination is −δ never rises above the horizon, as seen by the same observer. (This neglects the effect of atmospheric refraction.) Likewise, if a star is circumpolar for an observer at latitude φ, then it never rises above the horizon as seen by an observer at latitude −φ.
Neglecting atmospheric refraction, declination is always 0° at east and west points of the horizon. At the north point, it is 90° − |φ|, and at the south point, −90° + |φ|. From the poles, declination is uniform around the entire horizon, approximately 0°.
Stars visible by latitude
Observer's latitude (°) Declination
of circumpolar stars (°) of non-circumpolar stars (°) of stars not visible (°)
+ for north latitude, − for south − for north latitude, + for south
90 (Pole) 90 to 0 N/A 0 to 90
66.5 (Arctic/Antarctic Circle) 90 to 23.5 +23.5 to −23.5 23.5 to 90
45 (midpoint) 90 to 45 +45 to −45 45 to 90
23.5 (Tropic of Cancer/Capricorn) 90 to 66.5 +66.5 to −66.5 66.5 to 90
0 (Equator) N/A +90 to −90 N/A
Non-circumpolar stars are visible only during certain days or seasons of the year.
The night sky, divided into two halves. Declination (green) begins at the equator (green) and is positive northward (towards the top), negative southward (towards the bottom). The lines of declination (green) divide the sky into small circles, here 15° apart.
Sun[edit]
Main article: Position of the Sun
The Sun's declination varies with the seasons. As seen from arctic or antarctic latitudes, the Sun is circumpolar near the local summer solstice, leading to the phenomenon of it being above the horizon at midnight, which is called midnight sun. Likewise, near the local winter solstice, the Sun remains below the horizon all day, which is called polar night.
Relation to latitude[edit]
When an object is directly overhead its declination is almost always within 0.01 degree of the observer's latitude; it would be exactly equal except for two complications.[6][citation needed]
The first complication applies to all celestial objects: the object's declination equals the observer's astronomic latitude, but the term "latitude" ordinarily means geodetic latitude, which is the latitude on maps and GPS devices. In the continental United States and surrounding area, the difference (the vertical deflection) is typically a few arcseconds (1 arcsecond = 1/3600 degree) but can be as great as 41 arcseconds.[7]
The second complication is that, assuming no deflection of the vertical, "overhead" means perpendicular to the ellipsoid at observer's location, but the perpendicular line does not pass through the center of the earth; almanacs give declinations measured at the center of the Earth. (An ellipsoid is an approximation to sea level that is mathematically manageable).[8] For the moon this discrepancy can reach 0.003 degree; the Sun and planets are hundreds of times more distant and for them the discrepancy is proportionately smaller (and for the stars is unmeasurable).
See also[edit]
Celestial coordinate system
Ecliptic
Equatorial coordinate system
Geographic coordinates
Lunar standstill
Right ascension
Setting circles
Position of the Sun
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory, Nautical Almanac Office (1992). P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA. p. 724. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Jump up ^ Barclay, James (1799). A Complete and Universal English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Moulton, Forest Ray (1918). An Introduction to Astronomy. New York: Macmillan Co. p. 125, art. 66. , at Google books
Jump up ^ Moulton (1918), pp. 92–95.
Jump up ^ see, for instance, U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office, Nautical Almanac Office; U.K. Hydrographic Office, H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (2008). "Time Scales and Coordinate Systems, 2010". The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010. U.S. Govt. Printing Office. p. B2,.
Jump up ^ "Celestial Coordinates". www.austincc.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
Jump up ^ "USDOV2009". Silver Spring, Maryland: U.S. National Geodetic Survey. 2011.
Jump up ^ P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed. (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. pp. 200–5.
External links[edit]
MEASURING THE SKY A Quick Guide to the Celestial Sphere James B. Kaler, University of Illinois
Celestial Equatorial Coordinate System University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Celestial Equatorial Coordinate Explorers University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Merrifield, Michael. "(α,δ) – Right Ascension & Declination". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Declination&oldid=797154276"
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Celestial coordinate system
Angle
Technical factors of astrology
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One pound (British coin)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"£1" redirects here. For other uses, see List of £1.
One pound
United Kingdom
Value
1 pound sterling
Mass
8.75 g
Diameter
23.03-23.43 mm
Thickness
2.8 mm
Edge
Alternately milled and plain
Composition
(Outer ring)
Nickel-brass
(76% Cu, 20% Zn, and 4% Ni)
(Inner planchet)
Nickel-plated alloy
Obverse
Design
Queen Elizabeth II
Designer
Jody Clark
Design date
2016
Reverse
Design
Rose, leek, thistle, and shamrock encircled by a coronet
Designer
David Pearce
Design date
2016
The British one pound (£1) coin is a denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse bears the Latin engraving ELIZABETH II D G REG “Dei Gratia Regina” meaning, “Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen” and F D meaning Fidei defensor,[1] Defender of the Faith.[2] It has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the original coin's introduction on 21 April 1983.[3] Four different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the latest design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The design on the reverse side of the current, 12-sided coin features four emblems to represent each of the nations of the United Kingdom – the English rose, the leek for Wales, the Scottish thistle, and the shamrock for Northern Ireland – emerging from a single stem within a crown.
The original, round £1 coin replaced the Bank of England £1 note, which ceased to be issued at the end of 1984 and was removed from circulation on 11 March 1988, though still redeemable at the Bank's offices, like all English banknotes. One-pound notes continue to be issued in Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and by the Royal Bank of Scotland, but the pound coin is much more widely used. A new, dodecagonal (12-sided) design of coin was introduced on 28 March 2017 [4] and both new and old versions of the one pound coin circulated together until the older design was withdrawn from circulation on 15 October 2017. After that date, the older coin could only be redeemed at banks,[5] although some retailers announced they would continue to accept it for a limited time.[6] The original round pound remains legal tender on the Isle of Man.[7]
The main purpose of redesigning the coin was to combat counterfeiting. As of March 2014 there were an estimated 1,553 million of the original nickel-brass coins in circulation,[8] of which the Royal Mint estimated in 2014 that just over 3% were counterfeit.[9][10] The new coin, in contrast, is bimetallic like the current £2 coin, and features an undisclosed hidden security feature called 'iSIS' (Integrated Secure Identification Systems).[11][12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Design
2 Mintage figures
2.1 Round coin
2.2 12-sided coin
3 Counterfeiting
4 Other pound coins in circulation
5 Further reading
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Design[edit]
Original round pound coin with Dent's 2008 reverse design
To date, four different portraits of Elizabeth II have appeared on the obverse. For the first three of these, the inscription was ELIZABETH II D.G.REG.F.D. 2013,[13] where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. The fourth design, unveiled in March 2015,[14] expanded the inscription slightly to ELIZABETH II DEI.GRA.REG.FID.DEF. 2015. The 12-sided design, introduced in March 2017, reverted to D.G.REG.F.D.
In summary:
In 1983 and 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse,[15] in which the Queen wears the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used,[15] in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem.
Between 1998 and 2015 the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used,[15] again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark IRB below the portrait.
In 2015 the portrait by Jody Clark was introduced,[16] in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem,[17] with a signature-mark JC below the portrait.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin.[18] The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008.[19] The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the £1 coin. The coin's obverse remained unchanged.
The design of the reverse of the original coin was changed each year from 1983 to 2008 to show, in turn, an emblem representing the UK, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and England, together with an appropriate edge inscription. This edge inscription could frequently be "upside-down" (when obverse is facing upward).[20] From 2008, national-based designs were still minted, but alongside the new standard version and no longer in strict rotation. The inscription ONE POUND appeared on all reverse designs.
In common with non-commemorative £2 coins, the round £1 coin (except 2004–07 and the 2010–11 'capital cities' designs) had a mint mark: a small crosslet found on the milled edge that represents Llantrisant in South Wales, where the Royal Mint has been based since 1968.[21]
The reverse of the new 12-sided, bimetallic pound coin, introduced on 28 March 2017,[4] was chosen by a public design competition.[22] The competition to design the reverse of this coin was opened in September 2014.[23] It was won in March 2015 by 15-year-old David Pearce from Walsall, and unveiled by Chancellor George Osborne during his Budget announcement. The design features a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock bound by a crown.[14]
Mintage figures[edit]
Round coin[edit]
Images: Royal Mint
Year
Design
Nation represented
Edge inscription
Translation
Mintage[24]
1983 Ornamental royal arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 443,053,510
1984 Thistle and royal diadem Scotland NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT No one attacks me with impunity 146,256,501
1985 Leek and royal diadem Wales PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD True am I to my country 228,430,749
1986 Flax plant and royal diadem Northern Ireland DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 10,409,501
1987 Oak tree and royal diadem England DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 39,298,502
1988 Crown over the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 7,118,825
1989 Thistle and royal diadem Scotland NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT No one attacks me with impunity 70,580,501
1990 Leek and royal diadem Wales PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD True am I to my country 97,269,302
1991 Flax plant and royal diadem Northern Ireland DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 38,443,575
1992 Oak tree and royal diadem England DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 36,320,487
1993 Ornamental royal arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 114,744,500
1994 Lion rampant within a double tressure flory counter-flory Scotland NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT No one attacks me with impunity 29,752,525
1995 Dragon passant Wales PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD True am I to my country 34,503,501
1996 Celtic cross, Broighter collar and pimpernel Northern Ireland DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 89,886,000
1997 Three lions passant guardant England DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 57,117,450
1998 Ornamental royal arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard not circulated
1999 Lion rampant within a double tressure flory counter-flory Scotland NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT No one attacks me with impunity not circulated
2000 Dragon passant Wales PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD True am I to my country 109,496,500
2001 Celtic cross, Broighter collar and pimpernel Northern Ireland DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 63,968,065
2002 Three lions passant guardant England DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 77,818,000
2003 Ornamental royal arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 61,596,500
2004 Forth Railway Bridge surrounded by railway tracks Scotland An incuse decorative feature symbolising bridges and pathways N/A 39,162,000
2005 Menai Suspension Bridge surrounded by railing and stanchions Wales 99,429,500
2006 Egyptian Arch Railway Bridge surrounded by railway station canopy dags Northern Ireland 38,938,000
2007 Gateshead Millennium Bridge surrounded by struts England 26,180,160
2008 Ornamental royal arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 3,910,000
2008 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 43,827,300
2009 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 27,625,600
2010 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 57,120,000
2010 Coat of arms of the City of London England DOMINE DIRIGE NOS Lord, guide us 2,635,000
2010 Coat of arms of Belfast Northern Ireland PRO TANTO QUID RETRIBUAMUS For so much, what shall we give in return? 6,205,000
2011 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 25,415,000
2011 Coat of arms of Cardiff Wales Y DDRAIG GOCH DDYRY CYCHWYN The red dragon will give the lead 1,615,000
2011 Coat of arms of Edinburgh Scotland NISI DOMINUS FRUSTRA In vain without the Lord 400,000
2012 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 35,700,030
2013 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 13,090,500
2013 Oak and rose England DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 5,270,000
2013 Leek and daffodil Wales PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD True am I to my country 5,270,000
2014 Shamrock and flax plant[25] Northern Ireland DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 5,780,000
2014 Thistle and bluebell[25] Scotland NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT No one attacks me with impunity 900,000
2014 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 79,305,200
2015 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms (4th portrait)[26] United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 29,580,000
2015 The Royal Coat of Arms (5th portrait)[27] United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 131,250,000[27]
2016 The shield from the Royal Coat of Arms (5th portrait)[28][29] United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard 30,000 (only in BU sets)
2016 Four heraldic beasts[30] United Kingdom DECUS ET TUTAMEN An ornament and a safeguard not circulated
All years except 1998 and 1999 have been issued into circulation, although the number issued has varied enormously – 1983, 1984 and 1985 in particular had large mintages to facilitate the changeover from paper notes, while some years such as 1988 are only rarely seen (although 1988 is more noticeable as it has a unique reverse). Production since 1997 has been reduced, thanks to the introduction of the circulating two pound coin.
The final round coins minted for 2016 did not enter circulation, as they were only available through commemorative sets.[31] These were the shield from the Royal Coat of Arms by Matthew Dent, and a design by Gregory Cameron, Bishop of St Asaph, of four heraldic beasts.[30][32]
12-sided coin[edit]
Year
Design
Nation represented
Mintage[24]
2016 Nations of the Crown United Kingdom 300,000,000 (initial launch in March 2017)[33]
2017 Nations of the Crown United Kingdom TBA
2018 Nations of the Crown United Kingdom TBA
Counterfeiting[edit]
Royal Mint surveys estimate the proportion of counterfeit £1 coins in circulation. This was estimated at 3.04% in 2013, a rise from 2.74%.[9][10] The figure previously announced in 2012 was 2.86%, following the prolonged rise from 0.92% in 2002–2003 to 0.98% in 2004, 1.26% in 2005, 1.69% in 2006, 2.06% in 2007, 2.58% in 2008, 2.65% in 2009, 3.07% in 2010 and 3.09% in 2011.[34][35] Figures have generally been reported in the following year; in 2008 (as reported in 2009), the highest levels of counterfeits were in Northern Ireland (3.6%) and the South East and London (2.97%), with the lowest being in Northwest England.[36][37][38] Coin testing companies estimated in 2009 that the actual figure was about twice the Mint's estimate, suggesting that the Mint was underplaying the figures so as not to undermine confidence in the coin.[39] It is illegal to pass on counterfeit currency knowingly; the official advice is to hand it in, with details of where received, to the police, who will retain it and investigate.[40][41] One article suggested "given that fake coins are worthless, you will almost certainly be better off not even looking".[39] The recipient has recourse against the supplier, as in any such case.
Counterfeits are put into circulation by dishonest people, then circulated inadvertently by others who are unaware; in many cases banks do not check, and circulate counterfeits. A 2011 BBC television programme withdrew 1,000 £1 coins from each of five major banks and found that each batch contained between 32 and 38 counterfeits; the Mint estimated that about 31 per 1,000 £1 coins were counterfeit.[40] Some of the counterfeits were found by automated machinery, others could be detected only by expert visual inspection.
In July 2010, following speculation that the Royal Mint would have to consider replacing £1 coins with a new design because of the fakes, bookmakers Paddy Power offered odds of 6/4 (bet £4 to win £6, plus the £4 stake back; decimal odds of 2.5), that the £1 coin would be removed from circulation.[37][42]
Real and fake pound coin, showing poor-quality edge inscription and milling
Some counterfeits are of poor quality, with obviously visible differences (less sharply defined, lacking intricate details, edge milling and markings visibly wrong). Many better counterfeits can be detected by comparing the orientation of the obverse and reverse—they always match in genuine coins, but very often not in counterfeits.[40][41] The design on the reverse must be correct for the stamped year (e.g., a 1996 coin should have a Celtic cross).[43] It is difficult to manufacture coins with properly-produced edges; the milling (grooves) may be incomplete or poor and the inscription (often "DECUS ET TUTAMEN") may be poorly produced and sometimes in the wrong typeface.[40] A shiny coin with less wear than its date suggests is also suspect, although it may be a genuine coin that has rarely been used.[41]
Counterfeit coins are made by different processes including casting, stamping, electrotyping, and copying with a pantograph or spark erosion.[44] In a 2009 survey, 99% of fake £1 coins found in cash centres were made of a nickel-brass, of which three fifths contained some lead and a fifth were of a very similar alloy to that used by the Royal Mint. The remaining 1% were made of simple copper-zinc brass, or lead or tin, or both.[45] Those made of lead or tin may have a gold-coloured coating; counterfeits made of acrylic plastic containing metal powder to increase weight have occasionally been found.[44]
The final "round coins" were minted in December 2015; the replacement, a new 12-sided design, was introduced in 2017.[46] The coin has a 12-edged shape, similar to the pre-decimal brass threepence coin; it has roughly the same size as the previous £1 coin, and is bi-metallic like the current £2 coin. The new design is intended to make counterfeiting more difficult, and also has an undisclosed hidden security feature called "iSIS" (Integrated Secure Identification Systems).[22][47]
Current two-pound coins are made from two metals of different colour, and are much harder to counterfeit; counterfeited coins are often easily seen to be the wrong colour.
Other pound coins in circulation[edit]
Also legally circulating but not legal tender in the UK are some £1 coins of British Crown Dependencies, Gibraltar and UK South Atlantic Overseas Territories, being of the same size and composition as their UK equivalent and mostly bearing the same portraits of the UK monarch (as with most other coins of the same territories).[48][49]
Further reading[edit]
In an April 1993 The New Yorker article "Real Britannia", Julian Barnes describes the meetings to choose the 1994–1997 reverse designs.[50] This is reprinted in his book Letters from London as "Britannia's New Bra Size".
See also[edit]
Numismatics portal
Banknotes of the pound sterling
Coin counterfeiting
Coins of the pound sterling
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "No. 39873". The London Gazette (11th supplement). 26 May 1953. p. 3023. Proclamation of 28 May 1953 made in accordance with the Royal Titles Act 1953.
Jump up ^ "Project Britain-British Coins". 2013. Retrieved 2016-10-27.
Jump up ^ "One Pound Coin". Royal Mint. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "New 12-sided pound coin to enter circulation in March". BBC News. 1 January 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Giedroyc, Richard (23 May 2017). "'Most secure coin in world' launched". numismaticsnews.net. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Race on to spend old £1 coins as deadline looms". BBC News. 13 October 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Manx round pound coins to remain 'legal tender'". BBC News. 7 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mintage Figures". Royal Mint. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "£1 Counterfeit Coins". royalmint.com. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "How can I spot a fake £1 coin?". London: The Telegraph. 19 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "New pound coin: Firms told to prepare for redesign". BBC News. 2016-10-31. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Specification of the £1 coin: a technical consultation" (PDF). HM Treasury. September 2014.
Jump up ^ Clayton, Tony. "Decimal Coins of the UK – Bronze". tclayton.demon.co.uk. Retrieved 24 May 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Allen, Katie (17 March 2015). "New 12-sided pound coin to be unveiled ahead of budget announcement". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "1p Coin". British Royal Mint. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 23 May 2006.
Jump up ^ "Royal Mint unveils new coinage portrait of the Queen". BBC News. 2 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "The reveal of the Queen's fifth coin portrait". Royal Mint. 2 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Royal Mint seeks new coin designs", BBC News, 17 August 2005
Jump up ^ "Royal Mint unveils new UK coins" Archived 18 January 2010 at WebCite, dofonline.co.uk, 2 April 2008
Jump up ^ Royal Mint. "Why does the edge inscription on the £2 and £1 coins sometimes appear "upside down"?". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "History of the Royal Mint". 24carat.co.uk. Retrieved 9 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "The New One Pound Coin". royalmint.com. 19 March 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
Jump up ^ New One Pound Coin Royal Mint
^ Jump up to: a b "Decimal coins issued £2 – 20p". The Royal Mint Limited. 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "New coin designs for 2014 unveiled by The Royal Mint". BBC News. 31 December 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Decimal coins issued up to 31 December 2015 £2 - 20p". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "Decimal coins issued up to 31 December 2015 £2 - 20p". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
Jump up ^ "2016 One Pound | Check Your Change". www.checkyourchange.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
Jump up ^ "2013 Dated UK Collector Coin Sales". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 28 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Last Round Pound 2016 United Kingdom £1 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
Jump up ^ "2016 One Pound". www.checkyourchange.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
Jump up ^ Powell, Anna (16 May 2016). "Behind the design: the last 'round pound'". The Royal Mint blog. The Royal Mint. Retrieved 19 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Anthony, Sebastian (28 March 2017). "New "impossible" to fake £1 coin enters circulation today". Ars Technica. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Clive Kahn (17 December 2012). "43.5 Million Fake Pound Coins in Circulation". BusinessReport.
Jump up ^ [1] HM Treasury FOI response relating to a period 2008–2009. hm-treasury.gov.uk(PDF)
Jump up ^ Josie Ensor (1 April 2012). "Three pound coins in every 100 are fake". London: The Telegraph.
^ Jump up to: a b Rosie Murray-West and Harry Wallop (27 July 2010). "Record number of fake £1 coins could force reissue". London: The Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Chris Irvine (29 January 2009). "One £1 coin in 40 is a fake". London: The Telegraph.
^ Jump up to: a b Ben Ando (8 April 2009). "Fake £1 coin estimate 'doubled'". BBC News.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Fake Britain, Series 2 episode 1, first broadcast on BBC1 TV on 16 May 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c Hilary Osborne (2 April 2012) How to spot a fake £1 coin Guardian. Retrieved 24 January 2016
Jump up ^ Sarah Preece (28 July 2010). "£1 coin under threat". London: Live Odds and Scores.
Jump up ^ [2][3][4] Three blog entries analyzing counterfeits the author has been passed. blog.alism.com
^ Jump up to: a b The types of counterfeit one-pound coins and identifying them. coinauthentication.co.uk. February 2006. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Report on UK £1 counterfeit survey" (PDF). Royal Mint. May 2009.
Jump up ^ Royal Mint Presses Last Batch of Round Pound Coins The Guardian
Jump up ^ Svenja O'Donnell (18 March 2014). "U.K. to Replace 1-Pound Coin With Secure 12-Edged Design". Bloomberg.
Jump up ^ Can I use coinage from the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man?, Royal Mint. Retrieved 24 January 2016
Jump up ^ Can I use coinage from United Kingdom Overseas Territories?, Royal Mint. Retrieved 24 January 2016
Jump up ^ "Letter From London: Real Britannia". The New Yorker (paid registration required for the full article).
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft. ISBN 0-9526228-8-2
External links[edit]
Royal Mint – £1 coin
Royal Mint - the new pound coin
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Hole in one
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the golf shot. For other uses, see Hole in one (disambiguation).
In golf, a hole in one or hole-in-one (also known as an ace, mostly in American English) occurs when a ball hit from a tee finishes in the cup. This awards the player a score of one for the hole, but not if the player is making a second shot from the tee due to a lost ball, out of bounds or water hazard.
Holes in one most commonly occur on par 3 holes, the shortest distance holes on a standard size golf course. Longer hitters have also accomplished this feat on longer holes, though nearly all par 4 and par 5 holes are too long for golfers to reach in a single shot. While well known outside of golf and often requiring a well hit shot and significant power, holes in one needs also a significant element of luck.[1][2] As such, they are more common and considered less impressive than other hole accomplishments such as completing a par 5 in two shots (an albatross).[3] As of October 2008[update], a condor (four under par) hole-in-one on a par 5 hole had been recorded on four occasions, aided by thin air at high altitude, or by cutting the corner on a doglegged or horseshoe-shaped hole.[4][5]
Holes-in-one ("aces") are also recorded in disc golf. The current world record for disc golf's longest hole in one is held by Brent Bell, who set the record at the 2002 Big Sky State Games at the Diamond X Disc Golf Course in Billings, Montana.
Contents
1 Rarity
2 Competitions
3 Holes-in-one on par 5 (or higher) holes
4 Kim Jong-il myth
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Rarity[edit]
Holes in one are rare, and, although skill definitely increases the probability, there is a great element of luck involved.[6] It is traditional for a player who has scored a hole in one to buy a round of drinks for everyone at the clubhouse bar.[7]
Among the memorable holes in one, one occurred in the 1973 British Open when at age 71, Gene Sarazen made a hole in one. Earl Dietering of Memphis, Tennessee, 78 years old at the time, is believed to hold the record for the eldest person to make a hole-in-one twice during one round.[8]
During the second round of the 1971 Martini International tournament, held at the Royal Norwich Golf Club in England, John Hudson had two consecutive holes in one. Teeing off, using a 4-iron, at the par-three, 195-yard 11th hole, Hudson holed his tee shot for a hole-in-one. At the next hole, the downhill 311-yard, par-four 12th, and this time using a driver, he once again holed his tee shot, for another ace. This is believed to be the only time a player has scored holes-in-one at consecutive holes in a major professional tournament.[9][10]
Despite the relative rarity of holes in one, there have been a total of six in Ryder Cup matches. Peter Butler scored the first in 1973 at Muirfield followed by a 20-year gap before Nick Faldo scored a hole in one in 1993. Two years later, Costantino Rocca and Howard Clark both scored holes in one before an 11-year gap to 2006 saw Paul Casey and Scott Verplank both hole out in one on the 14th hole.[11]
On August 11, 2016, Justin Rose shot a hole in one during the first round of the golf tournament of the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, which is considered to be the first in Olympic history. For the 189 yards 3-par hole, he used a 7-iron.[12]
Competitions[edit]
Occasionally special events host a hole in one contest, where prizes as expensive as a new car, or cash awards sometimes reaching $4 million are offered if a contestant records a hole in one.[13] Usually such expensive prizes are backed by an insurance company who offers prize indemnification services. Actuaries at such companies have calculated the chance of an average golfer making a hole in one at approximately 12,500 to 1, and the odds of a tour professional at 2,500 to 1.[6]
Holes-in-one on par 5 (or higher) holes[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2016)
As of October 2008, a condor (four under par) hole-in-one on a par 5 hole had been recorded on four occasions, aided by thin air at high altitude, or by cutting the corner on a doglegged or horseshoe-shaped hole.[4][5] A horseshoe-shaped par 5 hole once enabled a condor hole in one to be achieved with a 3-iron club.[4][5] The longest recorded straight drive hole-in-one is believed to be 517 yards or 473 metres, on the par 5 No. 9 hole at Green Valley Ranch Golf Club in Denver in 2002, aided by the thin air due to the high altitude.[4][5] None of these four par 5 holes-in-one were achieved during a professional tournament.[4] A condor is also known as a double albatross, or a triple eagle.[4][5]
Kim Jong-il myth[edit]
Over a period of several years, many U.S. and European media outlets – including ESPN and the New York Times[14] – reported that former North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-il was claimed to have shot five holes in one during his first attempt at playing golf (an alternate version of the story claims North Korean media once reported Kim had shot 18 holes in one). This is explained as a case of the North Korean government assigning supernatural feats of heroism to its leaders as part of an effort to perpetuate a cult of personality. This myth was originally published by Eric Ellis, a reporter for the Australian Financial Review, as having been told by a Pyongyang Golf Club professional in 1994.[15] NK News reports that "informal surveys of North Koreans themselves revealed that no one in Pyongyang was aware of this legendary feat, unless told it by a tourist."[16] Richard Seers, a British journalist who played at the Pyongyang Golf Club asked officials there, who revealed it was nothing more than an urban myth.[17]
See also[edit]
Golf glossary
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Halley, Jim. "With holes in one, no matter how you slice them luck is vital". USA Today. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Oscarson, Paul. "Top 10 Craziest Holes-in-One". The Bleacher Report. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Fields, Bill (April 2, 2004). "The Rarest Bird: The albatross took flight at the 1935 Masters, but golf's most unlikely shot isn't easy to find". Golf World. Archived from the original on March 5, 2007. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Condor", GolfToday.co.uk, 2010, webpage (dated October 2008): GT-condor.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kelley, Brent. "Has There Ever Been a Hole-in-One on a Par-5 Hole?". About.com Golf. Retrieved August 24, 2014. One was even recorded with a 3-iron! That one was made by Shaun Lynch, playing at Teign Valley Golf Club in Christow, England, in 1995, on the 496-yard No. 17. According to a 2004 article in Golf World magazine, Lynch aimed straight toward the green on a horseshoe par-5, clearing a 20-foot-high hedge, then hitting a downslope on the other side. The downslope carried his ball to the green and into the cup.
^ Jump up to: a b "What Are The Odds of Making a Hole In One?". US Hole In One. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Golfers Hit Hole-In-Ones Within Seconds of Each Other". ABC News. July 19, 2012. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Stukenborg, Phil (April 20, 2012). "It's a pair of aces for senior golfer". The Commercial Appeal. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Steel, Donald (1987). Golf: Records, Facts and Champions. Guinness Superlatives Ltd. p. 222. ISBN 0-85112-847-5.
Jump up ^ Alliss, Peter (1983). The Who's Who of Golf. Orbis Publishing. p. 250. ISBN 0-85613-520-8.
Jump up ^ "6 Ryder Cup Hole In Ones". Retrieved October 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Myers, Alex. "Justin Rose makes the first hole-in-one in Olympics golf history - Golf Digest". Retrieved 2016-08-12.
Jump up ^ Harris, Chris (February 26, 2006). "Hole-in-one insurance policies provide safety net for glitzy tournament contests". Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Longman, Jere (20 December 2011). "Kim Jong-il, the Sportsman". New York Times. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Eric (22 October 2012). "Dear Leader and The Golf War". ericellis.com. Eric Ellis. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Abrahamian, Andray (6 December 2012). "The top ten most bizarre rumours to spread about North Korea". nknews.org. NK News. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Dunsmuir, Alistair (December 20, 2011). "Kim Jong Il's golf feat an 'urban myth'". Golf Club Management. Retrieved October 26, 2012.
External links[edit]
Hole-In-One FAQs United States Golf Association
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hole_in_one&oldid=862210023"
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values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Hole_in_one
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
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p-cactions-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

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values: ホールインワン – Japanese

values:
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values:
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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