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Languages of Sierra Leone
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Sierra Leone is a multilingual country.[1] English is the de facto official language, and Krio is the most widely spoken and is spoken in different countries.
Other major languages include Mende, which is spoken by 37% of the population as a mother tongue and as a lingua franca in southern Sierra Leone, and Temne, which is spoken by 29.7% as a mother tongue and also as a lingua franca in northern Sierra Leone and some part of the Capital and the Western Area. Other languages include Kono, Kissi, Kuranko, Limba, Fula (Pular) and Susu.
Although English, as the official language, is spoken in schools, government administration and the media, Krio is spoken as a lingua franca in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. Krio, an English-based creole language, is the mother tongue of 10.5% of the population but is spoken by 90% of Sierra Leoneans.[2]
See also[edit]
Sierra Leonean Sign Language
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2014. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. (Page on "Sierra Leone.)
Jump up ^ "Republic of Sierra Leone" (in French). Trésor de la langue française au Québec. 18 June 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
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Corpus callosum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the films, see *Corpus Callosum and Corpus Callosum (2007 film).
Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum from above. (Anterior portion is at the top of the image.)
Median sagittal section of brain (person faces to the left). Corpus callosum visible at center, in light gray
Details
Part of
Human brain
Parts
Genu, trunk, splenium
Identifiers
MeSH
D003337
NeuroNames
191
NeuroLex ID
birnlex_1087
TA
A14.1.09.241
FMA
86464
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
Corpus callosum with Anatomography
The corpus callosum (/ˈkɔːrpəs kəˈloʊsəm/; Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide commissure, a flat bundle of commissural fibers, about 10 cm long[citation needed] beneath the cerebral cortex in the brains of placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, and enables communication between the hemispheres. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, consisting of 200–250 million axonal projections.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Sexual dimorphism
2 Other correlations
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Epilepsy
3.2 Failure to develop
3.3 Other disease
4 History
5 Other animals
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Sagittal post mortem section through the midline brain. The corpus callosum is the curved band of lighter tissue at the center of the brain above the hypothalamus. Its lighter texture is due to higher myelin content, resulting in faster neuronal impulse transmission.
The posterior end of the corpus callosum, near to the cerebellum, is called the splenium. This is the thickest part, and overlaps the tela choroidea of the third ventricle and the midbrain, and ends in a thick, convex, free border. Splenium translates as bandage in Greek. A sagittal section of the brain shows that the posterior end of the corpus callosum is acutely bent forward, the upper and lower parts being applied to each other.
The anterior end near to the frontal lobes is called the genu ("knee"). The genu of the corpus callosum is bent downward and backward in front of the septum pellucidum; diminishing rapidly in thickness. It is prolonged backward under the name of the rostrum, and is connected below with the lamina terminalis, which stretches from the interventricular foramina to the recess at the base of the optic stalk. The rostrum is so named for its resemblance to a bird's beak.
The anterior cerebral arteries are in contact with the under surface of the rostrum; they then arch over the front of the genu, and are carried backward above the body of the corpus callosum.
The body or truncus of the corpus callosum is between the splenium and the genu. A narrowed part between the body and the splenium is known as the isthmus of the corpus callosum.
On either side of the corpus callosum, the fibers radiate in the white matter and pass to the various parts of the cerebral cortex; those curving forward from the genu into the frontal lobe constitute the forceps anterior, and those curving backward into the occipital lobe, the forceps posterior. Between these two parts is the main body of the fibers which constitute the tapetum and extend laterally on either side into the temporal lobe, and cover in the central part of the lateral ventricle. The tapetum and anterior commissure share the function of connecting left and right temporal lobes.
Thinner axons in the genu connect the prefrontal cortex between the two halves of the brain; these fibres arise from a fork-like bundle of fibers from the tapetum, the forceps anterior. Thicker axons in the mid body, or trunk of the corpus callosum, interconnect areas of the motor cortex, with proportionately more of the corpus callosum dedicated to supplementary motor regions including Broca's area. The posterior body of the corpus, known as the splenium, communicates somatosensory information between the two halves of the parietal lobe and the visual cortex at the occipital lobe, these are the fibres of the forceps posterior.[2][3]
In a study of five- to eighteen-year-olds there was found to be a positive correlation between age and callosal thickness.[1]
Sexual dimorphism[edit]
The corpus callosum and its relation to sex has been a subject of debate in the scientific and lay communities for over a century. Initial research in the early 20th century claimed the corpus to be different in size between men and women. That research was in turn questioned, and ultimately gave way to more advanced imaging techniques that appeared to refute earlier correlations. However, advanced analytical techniques of computational neuroanatomy developed in the 1990s showed that sex differences were clear but confined to certain parts of the corpus callosum, and that they correlated with cognitive performance in certain tests.[4] One recent study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) found that the midsagittal corpus callosum cross-sectional area is, after controlling brain size, on average, proportionately larger in females.[5]
Using diffusion tensor sequences on MRI machines, the rate at which molecules diffuse in and out of a specific area of tissue, anisotropy can be measured and used as an indirect measurement of anatomical connection strength. These sequences have found consistent sex differences in human corpus callosal morphology and microstructure.[which?][6][7][8]
Morphometric analysis has also been used to study specific three-dimensional mathematical relationships with MRIs, and have found consistent and statistically significant differences across genders.[9][10] Specific algorithms have found significant differences between the two genders in over 70% of cases in one review.[11]
Other correlations[edit]
The front portion of the human corpus callosum has been reported to be significantly larger in musicians than nonmusicians,[12] and to be 0.75 cm2[13] or 11% larger in left-handed and ambidextrous people than right-handed people.[13][14] This difference is evident in the anterior and posterior regions of the corpus callosum, but not in the splenium.[13] Other magnetic resonance morphometric study showed corpus callosum size correlates positively with verbal memory capacity and semantic coding test performance.[15] Children with dyslexia tend to have smaller and less-developed corpus callosums than their nondyslexic counterparts.[16][17]
Musical training has shown to increase plasticity of the corpus callosum during a sensitive period of time in development. The implications are an increased coordination of hands, differences in white matter structure, and amplification of plasticity in motor and auditory scaffolding which would serve to aid in future musical training. The study found children who had begun musical training before the age of six (minimum 15 months of training) had an increased volume of their corpus callosum and adults who had begun musical training before the age of 11 also had increased bimanual coordination.[18]
Clinical significance[edit]
Epilepsy[edit]
Electroencephalography is used to find the source of electrical activity causing a seizure as part of the surgical evaluation for a corpus callosotomy.
The symptoms of refractory epilepsy can be reduced by cutting the corpus callosum in an operation known as a corpus callosotomy.[19] This is usually reserved for cases in which complex or grand mal seizures are produced by an epileptogenic focus on one side of the brain, causing an interhemispheric electrical storm. The work up for this procedure involves an electroencephalogram, MRI, PET scan, and evaluation by a specialized neurologist, neurosurgeon, psychiatrist, and neuroradiologist before surgery can be considered.[20]
Failure to develop[edit]
Main article: Agenesis of the corpus callosum
The formation of the corpus callosum begins with the first midline crossing of pioneer axons around week 12 of the human prenatal development,[21] or embryonic day 15 of the mouse.[22] Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a rare congenital disorder that is one of the most common brain malformations observed in human beings,[23] in which the corpus callosum is partially or completely absent. ACC is usually diagnosed within the first two years of life, and may manifest as a severe syndrome in infancy or childhood, as a milder condition in young adults, or as an asymptomatic incidental finding. Initial symptoms of ACC usually include seizures, which may be followed by feeding problems and delays in holding the head erect, sitting, standing, and walking. Other possible symptoms may include impairments in mental and physical development, hand-eye coordination, and visual and auditory memory. Hydrocephaly may also occur. In mild cases, symptoms such as seizures, repetitive speech, or headaches may not appear for years. Some syndromes that are often associated with ACC are Aicardi syndrome, Andermann syndrome, Shapiro syndrome, and acrocallosal syndrome.
ACC is usually not fatal. Treatment usually involves management of symptoms, such as hydrocephaly and seizures, if they occur. Although many children with the disorder lead normal lives and have average intelligence, careful neuropsychological testing reveals subtle differences in higher cortical function compared to individuals of the same age and education without ACC. Children with ACC accompanied by developmental delay and/or seizure disorders should be screened for metabolic disorders.[24]
In addition to agenesis of the corpus callosum, similar conditions are hypogenesis (partial formation), dysgenesis (malformation), and hypoplasia (underdevelopment, including too thin).
Recent studies have also linked possible correlations between corpus callosum malformation and autism spectrum disorders.[25]
Kim Peek, a savant and the inspiration behind the movie Rain Man, was found with agenesis of the corpus callosum.
Other disease[edit]
Anterior corpus callosum lesions may result in akinetic mutism or anomic aphasia. See also:
Alien hand syndrome
Alexia without agraphia (seen with damage to splenium of corpus callosum)
Split-brain
Septo-optic dysplasia (deMorsier syndrome)
Multiple sclerosis with the Dawson's fingers sign
Encephalopathy a mild form with a reversible splenial lesion–a rare encephalopathy of unknown origin with a transient lesion in the splenium, mostly associated with infectious diseases
Marchiafava–Bignami disease a degenerative disease characterised by loss of myelin and necrosis of the corpus callosum
History[edit]
The first study of the corpus with relation to gender was by R. B. Bean, a Philadelphia anatomist, who suggested in 1906 that "exceptional size of the corpus callosum may mean exceptional intellectual activity" and that there were measurable differences between men and women. Perhaps reflecting the political climate of the times, he went on to claim differences in the size of the callosum across different races. His research was ultimately refuted by Franklin Mall, the director of his own laboratory.[26]
Of more mainstream impact was a 1982 Science article by Holloway and Utamsing that suggested sex difference in human brain morphology, which related to differences in cognitive ability.[27] Time published an article in 1992 that suggested that, because the corpus is "often wider in the brains of women than in those of men, it may allow for greater cross-talk between the hemispheres—possibly the basis for women’s intuition."[28]
More recent publications in the psychology literature have raised doubt as to whether the anatomic size of the corpus is actually different. A meta-analysis of 49 studies since 1980 found that, contrary to de Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway, no sex difference could be found in the size of the corpus callosum, whether or not account was taken of larger male brain size.[26] A study in 2006 using thin slice MRI showed no difference in thickness of the corpus when accounting for the size of the subject.[29]
Other animals[edit]
The corpus callosum is found only in placental mammals (the eutherians), while it is absent in monotremes and marsupials,[30] as well as other vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish.[31] (Other groups do have other brain structures that allow for communication between the two hemispheres, such as the anterior commissure, which serves as the primary mode of interhemispheric communication in marsupials,[32][33] and which carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex (also known as the neopallium), whereas in placental mammals, the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers.[34]) In primates, the speed of nerve transmission depends on its degree of myelination, or lipid coating. This is reflected by the diameter of the nerve axon. In most primates, axonal diameter increases in proportion to brain size to compensate for the increased distance to travel for neural impulse transmission. This allows the brain to coordinate sensory and motor impulses. However, the scaling of overall brain size and increased myelination have not occurred between chimpanzees and humans. This has resulted in the human corpus callosum's requiring double the time for interhemispheric communication as a macaque's.[2] The fibrous bundle at which the corpus callosum appears, can and does increase to such an extent in humans that it encroaches upon and wedges apart the hippocampal structures.[35]
Additional images[edit]
Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum
Coronal T2 (grey scale inverted) MRI of the brain at the level of the caudate nuclei emphasizing corpus callosum
Corpus callosum parts on MRI
Play media
DTI Corpus callosum
Ventricles of brain and basal ganglia.Superior view. Horizontal section.Deep dissection
Ventricles of brain and basal ganglia.Superior view. Horizontal section.Deep dissection
Cerebrum. Inferior view.Deep dissection
Corpus callosum
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Luders, Eileen; Thompson, Paul M.; Toga, Arthur W. (18 August 2010). "The Development of the Corpus Callosum in the Healthy Human Brain". Journal of Neuroscience. pp. 10985–10990. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5122-09.2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Caminiti, Roberto; Ghaziri, Hassan; Galuske, Ralf; Hof, Patrick R.; Innocenti, Giorgio M. (2009). "Evolution amplified processing with temporally dispersed slow neuronal connectivity in primates". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (46): 19551–6. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10619551C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0907655106. JSTOR 25593230. PMC 2770441  . PMID 19875694.
Jump up ^ Hofer, Sabine; Frahm, Jens (2006). "Topography of the human corpus callosum revisited—Comprehensive fiber tractography using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging". NeuroImage. 32 (3): 989–94. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.044. PMID 16854598.
Jump up ^ Davatzikos, C; Resnick, S. M. (1998). "Sex differences in anatomic measures of interhemispheric connectivity: Correlations with cognition in women but not men". Cerebral Cortex. 8 (7): 635–40. doi:10.1093/cercor/8.7.635. PMID 9823484.
Jump up ^ Ardekani, B. A.; Figarsky, K.; Sidtis, J. J. (2012). "Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Corpus Callosum: An MRI Study Using the OASIS Brain Database". Cerebral Cortex. 23 (10): 2514–20. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs253. PMC 3767965  . PMID 22891036.
Jump up ^ Dubb, Abraham; Gur, Ruben; Avants, Brian; Gee, James (2003). "Characterization of sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum". NeuroImage. 20 (1): 512–9. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00313-6. PMID 14527611.
Jump up ^ Westerhausen, René; Kreuder, Frank; Sequeira, Sarah Dos Santos; Walter, Christof; Woerner, Wolfgang; Wittling, Ralf Arne; Schweiger, Elisabeth; Wittling, Werner (2004). "Effects of handedness and gender on macro- and microstructure of the corpus callosum and its subregions: A combined high-resolution and diffusion-tensor MRI study". Cognitive Brain Research. 21 (3): 418–26. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.07.002. PMID 15511657.
Jump up ^ Shin, Yong-Wook; Jin Kim, Dae; Hyon Ha, Tae; Park, Hae-Jeong; Moon, Won-Jin; Chul Chung, Eun; Min Lee, Jong; Young Kim, In; Kim, Sun I.; et al. (2005). "Sex differences in the human corpus callosum: Diffusion tensor imaging study". NeuroReport. 16 (8): 795–8. doi:10.1097/00001756-200505310-00003. PMID 15891572.
Jump up ^ Kontos, Despina; Megalooikonomou, Vasileios; Gee, James C. (2009). "Morphometric analysis of brain images with reduced number of statistical tests: A study on the gender-related differentiation of the corpus callosum". Artificial Intelligence in Medicine. 47 (1): 75–86. doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2009.05.007. PMC 2732126  . PMID 19559582.
Jump up ^ Spasojevic, Goran; Stojanovic, Zlatan; Suscevic, Dusan; Malobabic, Slobodan (2006). "Sexual dimorphism of the human corpus callosum: Digital morphometric study". Vojnosanitetski pregled. 63 (11): 933. doi:10.2298/VSP0611933S.
Jump up ^ Yokota, Y.; Kawamura, Y.; Kameya, Y. (2005). "Callosal Shapes at the Midsagittal Plane: MRI Differences of Normal Males, Normal Females, and GID". 2005 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 27th Annual Conference: 3055–8. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2005.1617119. ISBN 0-7803-8741-4.
Jump up ^ Levitin, Daniel J. "This is Your Brain on Music", '
^ Jump up to: a b c Witelson, S. (1985). "The brain connection: The corpus callosum is larger in left-handers". Science. 229 (4714): 665–8. Bibcode:1985Sci...229..665W. doi:10.1126/science.4023705. PMID 4023705.
Jump up ^ Driesen, Naomi R.; Raz, Naftali (1995). "The influence of sex, age, and handedness on corpus callosum morphology: A meta-analysis". Psychobiology. 23 (3): 240–7.
Jump up ^ Kozlovskiy, S.A.; Vartanov, A.V.; Pyasik, M.M.; Nikonova, E.Y. (2012). "Functional role of corpus callosum regions in human memory functioning". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 85 (3): 396–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.07.092.
Jump up ^ Hynd, G. W.; Hall, J.; Novey, E. S.; Eliopulos, D.; Black, K.; Gonzalez, J. J.; Edmonds, J. E.; Riccio, C.; Cohen, M. (1995). "Dyslexia and Corpus Callosum Morphology". Archives of Neurology. 52 (1): 32–8. doi:10.1001/archneur.1995.00540250036010. PMID 7826273.
Jump up ^ Von Plessen, K; Lundervold, A; Duta, N; Heiervang, E; Klauschen, F; Smievoll, AI; Ersland, L; Hugdahl, K (2002). "Less developed corpus callosum in dyslexic subjects—a structural MRI study". Neuropsychologia. 40 (7): 1035–44. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00143-9. PMID 11900755.
Jump up ^ Steele, C. J.; Bailey, J. A.; Zatorre, R. J.; Penhune, V. B. (2013). "Early Musical Training and White-Matter Plasticity in the Corpus Callosum: Evidence for a Sensitive Period". Journal of Neuroscience. 33 (3): 1282–90. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3578-12.2013. PMID 23325263.
Jump up ^ Clarke, Dave F.; Wheless, James W.; Chacon, Monica M.; Breier, Joshua; Koenig, Mary-Kay; McManis, Mark; Castillo, Edward; Baumgartner, James E. (2007). "Corpus callosotomy: A palliative therapeutic technique may help identify resectable epileptogenic foci". Seizure. 16 (6): 545–53. doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2007.04.004. PMID 17521926.
Jump up ^ "WebMd Corpus Callotomy". Web MD. July 18, 2010. Retrieved July 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rakic, P; Yakovlev, PI (January 1968). "Development of the corpus callosum and cavum septi in man". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 132 (1): 45–72. doi:10.1002/cne.901320103. PMID 5293999.
Jump up ^ Rash, BG; Richards, LJ (28 May 2001). "A role for cingulate pioneering axons in the development of the corpus callosum". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 434 (2): 147–57. doi:10.1002/cne.1170. PMID 11331522.
Jump up ^ Dobyns, W. B. (1996). "Absence makes the search grow longer". American Journal of Human Genetics. 58 (1): 7–16. PMC 1914936  . PMID 8554070.
Jump up ^ "NINDS Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum Information Page: NINDS". RightDiagnosis.com. Retrieved Aug 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Autism May Involve A Lack Of Connections And Coordination In Separate Areas Of The Brain, Researchers Find". Medical News Today.
^ Jump up to: a b Bishop, Katherine M.; Wahlsten, Douglas (1997). "Sex Differences in the Human Corpus Callosum: Myth or Reality?". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 21 (5): 581–601. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(96)00049-8. PMID 9353793.
Jump up ^ Delacoste-Utamsing, C; Holloway, R. (1982). "Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum". Science. 216 (4553): 1431–2. Bibcode:1982Sci...216.1431D. doi:10.1126/science.7089533. PMID 7089533.
Jump up ^ C Gorman (20 January 1992). "Sizing up the sexes". Time: 36–43. As cited by Bishop and Wahlsten.
Jump up ^ Luders, Eileen; Narr, Katherine L.; Zaidel, Eran; Thompson, Paul M.; Toga, Arthur W. (2006). "Gender effects on callosal thickness in scaled and unscaled space". NeuroReport. 17 (11): 1103–6. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000227987.77304.cc. PMID 16837835.
Jump up ^ Keeler, Clyde E. (1933). "Absence of the Corpus callosum as a Mendelizing Character in the House Mouse". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 19 (6): 609–11. Bibcode:1933PNAS...19..609K. doi:10.1073/pnas.19.6.609. JSTOR 86284. PMC 1086100  . PMID 16587795.
Jump up ^ Sarnat, Harvey B., and Paolo Curatolo (2007). Malformations of the Nervous System: Handbook of Clinical Neurology, p. 68
Jump up ^ Ashwell, Ken (2010). The Neurobiology of Australian Marsupials: Brain Evolution in the Other Mammalian Radiation, p. 50
Jump up ^ Armati, Patricia J., Chris R. Dickman, and Ian D. Hume (2006). Marsupials, p. 175
Jump up ^ Butler, Ann B., and William Hodos (2005). Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation, p. 361
Jump up ^ Morris, H., & Schaeffer, J. P. (1953). The Nervous system-The Brain or Encephalon. Human anatomy; a complete systematic treatise. (11th ed., pp. 920–921, 964–965). New York: Blakiston.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corpus callosum.
Stained brain slice images which include the "corpus callosum" at the BrainMaps project
Comparative Neuroscience at Wikiversity
NIF Search – Corpus callosum via the Neuroscience Information Framework
National Organization for Disorders of the Corpus Callosum
A 3D model of corpus callosum
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Commissural fibers in the human brain
Corpus callosum
Genu
Splenium
Tapetum
Rostrum
Archicortex
Supracallosal gyrus
Lamina terminalis
Vascular organ of lamina terminalis
Anterior commissure
Fornix
Fornix
Septum pellucidum
Septal nuclei
Medial septal nucleus
Subfornical organ
Cave of septum pellucidum
Other
Posterior commissure
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