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Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now
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Not to be confused with Nothing's Gonna Stop Us or Nothing's Gonna Stop Me Now.
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now"
Single by Starship
from the album No Protection
B-side
"Layin' It on the Line"
Released
January 30, 1987[1]
Format
7" single & 12" single
Recorded
1986
Genre
Rock
Length
4:30
Label
Grunt/RCA
Songwriter(s)
Albert Hammond, Diane Warren
Producer(s)
Narada Michael Walden for Perfection Light Productions
Starship singles chronology
"Before I Go"
(1986) "Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now"
(1987) "It's Not Over Til It's Over"
(1987)
"Before I Go"
(1986) "Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now"
(1987) "It's Not Over Til It's Over"
(1987)
Music video
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" on YouTube
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" is a 1987 song co-written by Albert Hammond and Diane Warren,[2] recorded by the American rock band Starship in 1986. It is a duet featuring Starship vocalists Grace Slick and Mickey Thomas. Featured as the theme to the romantic comedy film Mannequin,[3][4] it hit No. 1 in the Billboard Hot 100 on April 4, 1987 and reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart for four weeks the following month and became the UK's 2nd biggest selling single of 1987. The song also reached the top 10 in six European countries. The single became the first number one single by songwriter Diane Warren.[5] At the time, it made Grace Slick (aged 47) the oldest woman to have a number one single in the United States[6] though the record was later broken by Cher's "Believe" in 1999 (aged 52).
The power ballad[7] also received an Academy Award nomination for "Best Original Song" at the 60th Academy Awards. In addition to appearing on the Mannequin soundtrack, the song was also released on Starship's album No Protection in July 1987. The music video was released in late 1986 to promote Mannequin.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and writing
2 Music video
3 In popular culture
4 Track listing
5 Charts and certifications
5.1 Weekly charts
5.2 Year-end charts
5.3 Certifications
5.4 Chart successions
6 Personnel
7 References
8 External links
Background and writing[edit]
In a radio interview, Albert Hammond said that the idea for the song came from his impending marriage to his live-in girlfriend of seven years, after his divorce from his previous wife was finalized. He had said to Diane Warren, "It's almost like they've stopped me from marrying this woman for seven years, and they haven't succeeded. They're not gonna stop me doing it."[8] The song has been considered "feel good" propelled by a strong synthesizer beat.[9]
Music video[edit]
A music video (released in 1986) was produced for the song. It shows Mickey Thomas pursuing a mannequin come to life, played by Grace Slick, wrapped around footage from the film. Meshach Taylor, who plays window dresser Hollywood Montrose in the film, makes a cameo. It has more than 25 million views on YouTube as of October 20, 2017.
In popular culture[edit]
The song had played a major role in 1993 for the Montreal Canadiens NHL team during their 24th conquest of the Stanley Cup. While driving home after a lost game, head coach Jacques Demers heard the song playing on the radio and realized it was an empowering song. The next day, he brought to the Montreal Forum a cassette tape with the song on it and distributed among players a small card saying "We're on a mission, nothing's gonna stop us". They soon started to win. He played the song throughout all the playoff games and they eventually won the Stanley Cup that year, over Wayne Gretzky and the Los Angeles Kings in the Finals.[10]
The song was featured in 1987 episodes of the US daytime soap operas Another World and The Young and the Restless, as well as a 1988 episode of General Hospital
The song was also used frequently during the Portland Trail Blazers' 1990 NBA playoff run to the NBA Finals. It was usually played during critical time outs during the 4th quarter of home games at the Portland Memorial Coliseum.
In 2011, the song was used during a training montage in the Futurama episode Cold Warriors.
In 2013, the song was used in an advertising campaign by UK telecommunication company Talk Talk. As a result, on September 8, 2013 (Sunday), it charted at number 39 on the Official UK Chart.[11]
In the 2014 film, The Skeleton Twins, a brother and sister, Milo and Maggie (played by Bill Hader and Kristen Wiig) lip-sync the song together.[12][13]
It was also featured in the 2015 Filipino movie Crazy Beautiful You starring Kathryn Bernardo and Daniel Padilla.
It was used in an episode of Brooklyn Nine-Nine in late 2016.
The song was licensed for use in a commercial for Chick-fil-A that first aired during the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2017. Grace Slick later wrote that she agreed to the licensing so she could donate her proceeds to Lambda Legal "in direct opposition to Chick-fil-A’s causes" against the LGBTQ community.[14]
In June 2017, the song was used in the Season 6 finale of Veep in a flashback scene depicting Selina Meyer's concession speech ending her first campaign for president.
Track listing[edit]
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" – 4:29
"Layin' It on the Line" (live at Stopher Gym, Louisiana State University) – 4:15
Charts and certifications[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1987)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[15] 3
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[16] 3
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[17] 5
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[18] 1
France (SNEP)[19] 16
Germany (Official German Charts)[20] 3
Ireland (IRMA)[21] 1
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[22] 8
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[23] 21
Norway (VG-lista)[24] 2
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[25] 2
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[26] 4
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[27] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[28] 1
US Radio & Records CHR/Pop Airplay Chart[29] 1
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[30] 1
US Album Rock Tracks (Billboard)[30] 16
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1987)
Position
Austrian Singles Chart[31] 17
Canadian RPM Top Singles 5
Dutch Top 40[32] 9
French Top 50[33] 16
Swiss Singles Chart[34] 8
UK Singles Chart[35] 2
US Billboard Hot 100[36] 5
Certifications[edit]
Country
Certification
Date
Sales certified
Canada[37] Gold April 22, 1987 50,000
Sweden[38] Gold September 7, 1987 10,000
UK[39] Gold June 1, 1987 500,000
U.S.[40] Gold February 24, 1989 500,000
Chart successions[edit]
Preceded by
"Lean on Me" by Club Nouveau Billboard Hot 100 number-one single
April 4 – 11, 1987 Succeeded by
"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)"
by George Michael and Aretha Franklin
Preceded by
"Mandolin Rain" by Bruce Hornsby and The Range Billboard Adult Contemporary number-one single
April 11, 1987 Succeeded by
"The Finer Things" by Steve Winwood
Preceded by
"The Irish Rover" by The Pogues and The Dubliners Irish IRMA number-one single
May 2 – 9, 1987 Succeeded by
"Hold Me Now" by Johnny Logan
Preceded by
"La Isla Bonita" by Madonna UK Singles Chart number-one single
May 10 – 31, 1987 Succeeded by
"I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)"
by Whitney Houston
Personnel[edit]
Mickey Thomas – Vocals
Grace Slick – Vocals
Donny Baldwin – Drums, Vocals
Craig Chaquico – Guitar
Pete Sears - Bass
Additional personnel
Walter Afanasieff – keyboards, additional synth bass
Narada Michael Walden – additional drums
Corrado Rustici – charvel MIDI guitar synthesizer
Robert "Bongo Bob" Smith – drum sampling and percussion
Karen "Kitty Beethoven" Brewington, Jim Gilstrap – additional background vocals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - May 02, 2014". RIAA. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Nothing's gonna stop us now and the hit songs of Diane Warren MUSIC SCORE.D WARREN – 1991
Jump up ^ King, Alex P. (2004). Hit-parade – 20 ans de tubes (in French). Paris: Pascal. p. 340. ISBN 2-35019-009-9.
Jump up ^ theguardian, 28 March 2014, Dave Eggers article, [1]
Jump up ^ Hung, Steffen. "Starship - Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now - hitparade.ch". hitparade.ch.
Jump up ^ Gotta revolution, 1987: Grace slick, Paul Kantner, and "volunteers of America" W Glausser – Popular Music & Society, 1988 – Taylor & Francis
Jump up ^ "The 21 best power ballads".
Jump up ^ [2] Archived October 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The when, where, and who of pop lyrics: the listener's prerogative. T Murphey. Popular Music, 1989 – Cambridge Univ Press
Jump up ^ Leclerc, Mario (2005) (in French). Jacques Demers – En toutes lettres. Quebec: Stanké. p. 472. ISBN 2-7604-0976-7
Jump up ^ "Starship’s sales rocket following X Factor ad campaign". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
Jump up ^ Buchanan, Kyle (2014-04-14). "Bill Hader and Kristen Wiig’s Epic Lip-Synch". Vulture. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Sundance 2014: Bill Hader & Kristen Wiig Make 'Skeleton Twins' a Hit". FirstShowing.net. 2014-01-19. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Jefferson Airplane's Grace Slick Diverts Earnings From Chick-fil-A Commercial to LGBTQ Cause".
Jump up ^ "Forum – ARIA Charts: Special Occasion Charts – CHART POSITIONS PRE 1989". Australian-charts.com. Hung Medien. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 0796." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". VG-lista. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Starship – Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Starship – Chart history" Billboard Hot 100 for Starship. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "starship". wweb.uta.edu.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now (song by Starship) ••• Music VF, US & UK hits charts". www.musicvf.com.
Jump up ^ 1987 Austrian Singles Chart Austriancharts.at (Retrieved September 3, 2008)
Jump up ^ "Single top 100 over 1987" (PDF) (in Dutch). Top40. Retrieved September 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hung, Steffen. "lescharts.com - Starship - Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now". www.lescharts.com.
Jump up ^ Hung, Steffen. "Schweizer Jahreshitparade 1987". hitparade.ch. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "1980s Singles Chart Archive". everyHit.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "1987". Longbored Surfer. Archived from the original on January 4, 2016. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Gold and Platinum". Cria.ca. 2014-04-01. Archived from the original on April 12, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ [3] Archived February 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [4] Archived September 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - May 02, 2014". RIAA. Archived from the original on June 26, 2007. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
External links[edit]
"Starship - Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" on YouTube
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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Jefferson Airplane (discography, members) · Jefferson Starship (discography, members) · Starship (discography, members)
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[show]
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Albert Hammond
Studio albums
It Never Rains in Southern California
The Free Electric Band
Albert Hammond
Other albums
It Never Rains in Southern California
Singles
"Down by the River"
"It Never Rains in Southern California"
"The Free Electric Band"
"I'm a Train"
"99 Miles From L.A."
"When I'm Gone"
"Your World and My World"
Songwriting
"Be Tender with Me Baby"
"Don't Turn Around"
"Gimme Dat Ding"
"I Don't Wanna Live Without Your Love"
"I Don't Wanna Lose You"
"I Need to Be in Love"
"It Isn't, It Wasn't, It Ain't Never Gonna Be"
"Just Walk Away"
"Little Arrows"
"Lonely Is the Night"
"Love Thing"
"Make Me an Island"
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now"
"One Moment in Time"
"Room in Your Heart"
"Tall, Dark Handsome Stranger"
"The Air That I Breathe"
"To All the Girls I've Loved Before"
"Way of the World"
"When I Need You"
"When You Tell Me That You Love Me"
"Where Were You"
"You're Such a Good Looking Woman"
Languages
"Cantaré, cantarás"
"Sensualité"
"Y Tú También Llorarás"
Related articles
Albert Hammond, Jr.
John Bettis
Mike Hazlewood
Holly Knight
Carole Bayer Sager
The Family Dogg
Diane Warren
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Overexploitation
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Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.[1]
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource. The term applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests, and water aquifers.
In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.[2] Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species. In conservation biology the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand.[3] The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.
Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinctions. However it is also possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. In the context of fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and endangered species in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans. Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Overview
3 Tragedy of the commons
4 Fisheries
5 Water resources
6 Forest resources
7 Biodiversity
8 Endangered species
9 Cascade effects
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
History[edit]
When the giant flightless birds called moa were overexploited to the point of extinction,[4] the giant Haast's eagle that preyed on them also became extinct.[5]
Concern about overexploitation is relatively recent, though overexploitation itself is not a new phenomenon. It has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by the Hawaiian kings were made from the mamo bird; a single cloak used the feathers of 70,000 birds of this now-extinct species. The dodo, a flightless bird from Mauritius, is another well-known example of overexploitation. As with many island species, it was naive about certain predators, allowing humans to approach and kill it with ease.[6]
From the earliest of times, hunting has been an important human activity as a means of survival. There is a whole history of overexploitation in the form of overhunting. The overkill hypothesis (Quaternary extinction events) explains why the megafaunal extinctions occurred within a relatively short period of time. This can be traced with human migration. The most convincing evidence of this theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the western hemisphere continents.[7] The fastest ever recorded extinction of megafauna occurred in New Zealand, where by 1500 AD, just 200 years after settling the islands, ten species of the giant moa birds were hunted to extinction by the Māori.[4] A second wave of extinctions occurred later with European settlement.
In more recent times, overexploitation has resulted in the gradual emergence of the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development, which has built on other concepts, such as sustainable yield,[8] eco-development[9][10] and deep ecology.[11][12]
Overview[edit]
Overexploitation doesn't necessarily lead to the destruction of the resource, nor is it necessarily unsustainable. However, depleting the numbers or amount of the resource can change its quality. For example, footstool palm is a wild palm tree found in Southeast Asia. Its leaves are used for thatching and food wrapping, and overharvesting has resulted in its leaf size becoming smaller.
Tragedy of the commons[edit]
Cows on Selsley Common. The tragedy of the commons is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur.
The tragedy of the commons refers to a dilemma described in an article by that name written by Garrett Hardin and first published in the journal Science in 1968.[13]
Central to Hardin's essay is an example which is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur. This example was first sketched in an 1833 pamphlet by William Forster Lloyd, as a hypothetical and simplified situation based on medieval land tenure in Europe, of herders sharing a common on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze. In Hardin's example, it is in each herder's interest to put each succeeding cow he acquires onto the land, even if the carrying capacity of the common is exceeded and it is temporarily or permanently damaged for all as a result. The herder receives all of the benefits from an additional cow, while the damage to the common is shared by the entire group. If all herders make this individually rational economic decision, the common will be overexploited or even destroyed to the detriment of all. However, since all herders reach the same rational conclusion, overexploitation in the form of overgrazing occurs, with immediate losses, and the pasture may be degraded to the point where it gives very little return.
"Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit—in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons." (Hardin, 1968)[13]
In the course of his essay, Hardin develops the theme, drawing in many examples of latter day commons, such as national parks, the atmosphere, oceans, rivers and fish stocks. The example of fish stocks had led some to call this the "tragedy of the fishers".[14] A major theme running through the essay is the growth of human populations, with the Earth's finite resources being the general common.
The tragedy of the commons has intellectual roots tracing back to Aristotle, who noted that "what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it",[15] as well as to Hobbes and his Leviathan.[16] The opposite situation to a tragedy of the commons is sometimes referred to as a tragedy of the anticommons: a situation in which rational individuals, acting separately, collectively waste a given resource by underutilizing it.
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided if it is appropriately regulated. Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading Hardin to later remark that he should have titled his work "The tragedy of the unregulated commons".[17]
Fisheries[edit]
The Atlantic bluefin tuna is currently seriously overexploited. Scientists say 7,500 tons annually is the sustainable limit, yet the fishing industry continue to harvest 60,000 tons.
In wild fisheries, overexploitation or overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term maximum sustainable yield of the fishery".[18] However, overexploitation can be sustainable.
When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the biomass of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased, then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the maximum sustainable yield, and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.[19]
It is possible to fish the stock down further to, say, 15% of the pre-harvest biomass, and then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.
Fish stocks are said to "collapse" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of their maximum historical biomass. Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.[1] Even though fishing has ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover.[1] The absence of cod as the apex predator in many areas has led to trophic cascades.[1]
About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.[20] These depleted fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum sustainable yield.[21]
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided within the context of fisheries if fishing effort and practices are regulated appropriately by fisheries management. One effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of individual transferable quotas (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that didn't, provided strong evidence that ITQs help prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline.[22][23]
Water resources[edit]
Further information: Overdrafting
Overexploitation of groundwater from an aquifer can result in a peak water curve.[24]
Water resources, such as lakes and aquifers, are usually renewable resources which naturally recharge (the term fossil water is sometimes used to describe aquifers which don't recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be overdrafted or depleted. Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of aquifer depletion.[25][26] Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as nitrates, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the ocean.
This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to oil.[27][28] These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is also water resource intensive.[29] A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.[24] Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a Hubbert-like peak. This has led to the concept of peak water.
Forest resources[edit]
Further information: Overlogging
Clear cutting of old growth forests in Canada.
Forests are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster than reforestation takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth. Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.[30] Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.[31]
Biodiversity[edit]
The rich diversity of marine life inhabiting coral reefs attracts bioprospectors. Many coral reefs are overexploited; threats include coral mining, cyanide and blast fishing, and overfishing in general.
Overexploitation is one of the main threats to global biodiversity.[2] Other threats include pollution, introduced and invasive species, habitat fragmentation, habitat destruction,[2] uncontrolled hybridization,[32] global warming,[33] ocean acidification[34] and the driver behind many of these, human overpopulation.[35]
One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.[36] A significant proportion of drugs are natural products derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources. Marine ecosystems are of particular interest in this regard.[37] However unregulated and inappropriate bioprospecting could potentially lead to overexploitation, ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity.[38][39][40]
Endangered species[edit]
It is not just humans that overexploit their resources. Overgrazing can occur naturally, caused by native fauna, as shown in the upper right.
Overexploitation threatens one-third of endangered vertebrates, as well as other groups. Excluding edible fish, the illegal trade in wildlife is valued at $10 billion per year. Industries responsible for this include the trade in bushmeat, the trade in Chinese medicine, and the fur trade.[41] The Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES was set up in order to control and regulate the trade in endangered animals. It currently protects, to a varying degree, some 33,000 species of animals and plants. It is estimated that a quarter of the endangered vertebrates in the United States of America and half of the endangered mammals is attributed to overexploitation.[2][42]
All living organisms require resources to survive. Overexploitation of these resources for protracted periods can deplete natural stocks to the point where they are unable to recover within a short time frame. Humans have always harvested food and other resources they have needed to survive. Human populations, historically, were small, and methods of collection limited to small quantities. With an exponential increase in human population, expanding markets and increasing demand, combined with improved access and techniques for capture, are causing the exploitation of many species beyond sustainable levels.[43] In practical terms, if continued, it reduces valuable resources to such low levels that their exploitation is no longer sustainable and can lead to the extinction of a species, in addition to having dramatic, unforeseen effects, on the ecosystem.[44] Overexploitation often occurs rapidly as markets open, utilising previously untapped resources, or locally used species.
The Carolina parakeet was hunted to extinction.
Today, overexploitation and misuse of natural resources is an ever-present threat for species richness. This is more prevalent when looking at island ecology and the species that inhabit them, as islands can be viewed as the world in miniature. Island endemic populations are more prone to extinction from overexploitation, as they often exist at low densities with reduced reproductive rates.[45] A good example of this are island snails, such as the Hawaiian Achatinella and the French Polynesian Partula. Achatinelline snails have 15 species listed as extinct and 24 critically endangered[46] while 60 species of partulidae are considered extinct with 14 listed as critically endangered.[47] The WCMC have attributed over-collecting and very low lifetime fecundity for the extreme vulnerability exhibited among these species.[48]
As another example, when the humble hedgehog was introduced to the Scottish island of Uist, the population greatly expanded and took to consuming and overexploiting shorebird eggs, with drastic consequences for their breeding success. Twelve species of avifauna are affected, with some species numbers being reduced by 39%.[49]
Where there is substantial human migration, civil unrest, or war, controls may no longer exist. With civil unrest, for example in the Congo and Rwanda, firearms have become common and the breakdown of food distribution networks in such countries leaves the resources of the natural environment vulnerable.[50] Animals are even killed as target practice, or simply to spite the government. Populations of large primates, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, ungulates and other mammals, may be reduced by 80% or more by hunting, and certain species may be eliminated altogether.[51] This decline has been called the bushmeat crisis.
Overall, 50 bird species that have become extinct since 1500 (approximately 40% of the total) have been subject to overexploitation,[52] including:
Great Auk – the penguin-like bird of the north, was hunted for its feathers, meat, fat and oil.
Carolina parakeet – The only parrot species native to the eastern United States, was hunted for crop protection and its feathers.
Other species affected by overexploitation include:
The international trade in fur: chinchilla, vicuña, giant otter and numerous cat species
Insect collectors: butterflies
Horticulturists: New Zealand mistletoe (Trilepidia adamsii), orchids, cacti and many other plant species
Shell collectors: Marine molluscs
Aquarium hobbyists: tropical fish
Chinese medicine: bears, tigers, rhinos, seahorses, Asian black bear and saiga antelope[53]
Novelty pets: snakes, parrots, primates and big cats
Cascade effects[edit]
Overexploiting sea otters resulted in cascade effects which destroyed kelp forest ecosystems.
Overexploitation of species can result in knock-on or cascade effects. This can particularly apply if, through overexploitation, a habitat loses its apex predator. Because of the loss of the top predator, a dramatic increase in their prey species can occur. In turn, the unchecked prey can then overexploit their own food resources until population numbers dwindle, possibly to the point of extinction.
A classic example of cascade effects occurred with sea otters. Starting before the 17th century and not phased out until 1911, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their exceptionally warm and valuable pelts, which could fetch up to $2500 US. This caused cascade effects through the kelp forest ecosystems along the Pacific Coast of North America.[54]
One of the sea otters’ primary food sources is the sea urchin. When hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an ecological release of sea urchin populations occurred. The sea urchins then overexploited their main food source, kelp, creating urchin barrens, areas of seabed denuded of kelp, but carpeted with urchins. No longer having food to eat, the sea urchin became locally extinct as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary extinctions.[55]
In 1911, when only one small group of 32 sea otters survived in a remote cove, an international treaty was signed to prevent further exploitation of the sea otters. Under heavy protection, the otters multiplied and repopulated the depleted areas, which slowly recovered. More recently, with declining numbers of fish stocks, again due to overexploitation, killer whales have experienced a food shortage and have been observed feeding on sea otters, again reducing their numbers.[56]
See also[edit]
Biodiversity
Carrying capacity
Common-pool resource
Conservation biology
Critical depensation
Defaunation
Deforestation
Ecosystem management
Enclosure
Exploitation of natural resources
Extinction
Huffaker's mite experiment
Inverse commons
Jevons's paradox
Myth of superabundance
Occupancy-abundance relationship
Our Plundered Planet
Over-consumption
Overfishing
Overgrazing
Overpopulation in wild animals
Planetary boundaries
Social dilemma
Social trap
Sustainability
Tragedy of the commons
Tragedy of the anticommons
Tyranny of small decisions
Notes[edit]
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FAO (2005) Overcoming factors of unsustainability and overexploitation in fisheries Fisheries report 782, Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-105449-9
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