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Sial
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This article is about the composition of the Earth's crust. For other uses, see Sial (disambiguation).
Typical sial material, a Precambrian granite from St. Francis Mountains, Missouri, showing the potassium feldspar (felsic) matrix.
In geology, the term 'sial' refers to the composition of the upper layer of the Earth's crust, namely rocks rich in silicates and aluminium minerals. It is sometimes equated with the continental crust because it is absent in the wide oceanic basins,[1] but "sial" is a geochemical term rather than a plate tectonic term.[2] As these elements are less dense than the majority of the earth's elements, they tend to be concentrated in the upper layer of the crust.
Geologists often refer to the rocks in this layer as felsic, because they contain high levels of feldspar, an aluminium silicate mineral series. However, the sial "actually has quite a diversity of rock types, including large amounts of basaltic rocks."[3]
The name 'sial' was taken from the first two letters of silica and of alumina. The sial is often contrasted to the 'sima,' the next lower layer in the Earth, which is often exposed in the ocean basins; and the nickel-iron alloy core, sometimes referred to as the "Nife". These geochemical divisions of the Earth's interior (with these names) were first proposed by Eduard Suess in the 19th century. This model of the outer layers of the earth has been confirmed by petrographic, gravimetric, and seismic evidence.[4]
Contents
1 Properties
2 See also
3 Notes and references
4 Sources
Properties[edit]
Sial has a lower density (2700–2800 kg/m3[5]) than sima, which is primarily due to increased amounts of aluminium, and decreased amounts of iron and magnesium. The base of the sial is not a strict boundary, the sial grades into the denser rocks of the sima. The Conrad discontinuity has been proposed as the boundary, but little is known about it, and it doesn't seem to match the point of geochemical change.[6] Instead, the boundary has been arbitrarily set at a mean density of 2800 kg/m3.[3]
Because of the large pressures, over geologic time, the sima flows like a very viscous liquid, so, in a real sense, the sial floats on the sima, in isostatic equilibrium.[7] Mountains extend down as well as up, much like icebergs on the ocean;[7] so that on the continental plates the sial runs between 5 km and 70 km deep.[8]
See also[edit]
Look up sial in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
KREEP
Sima
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Continental crust has been defined as That type of the Earth’s crust which underlies the continents and the continental shelves: it is equivalent to the sial. Neuendorf, Klaus K. E.; Mehl, James P.; Jackson, Julia A., eds. (2005). Glossary of Geology (5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. p. 139. ISBN 978-3-540-27951-8.
Jump up ^ Smith, Frederick Gordon (1963). Physical Geochemistry. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. p. 379. OCLC 253612701.
^ Jump up to: a b Ritter, Michael E. (2006). "Chapter EM: Earth Materials and Structure: The Earth's Interior: The Crust". The Physical Environment: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007.
Jump up ^ Kuenen, Philip Henry (1950). Marine Geology. New York: Wiley. p. 117. OCLC 489742.
Jump up ^ Fairbridge, Rhodes W., ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences and Astrogeology. New York: Reinhold Publishing. p. 323. OCLC 430153.
Jump up ^ Monastersky, Richard (1989). "Inner Space". Science News. 136 (17): 266–268, page 266. doi:10.2307/3973827. JSTOR 3973827.
^ Jump up to: a b Bridges, Edwin Michael (1990). World Geomorphology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-38343-1.
Jump up ^ Lliboutry, Luis (2000). Quantitative Geophysics and Geology. London: Springer-Praxis. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-85233-115-3.
Sources[edit]
Bates, R.L., and Jackson, J.A., (1987) Glossary of geology American Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia.
Dilek, Y. and Newcomb, S. (eds.) (2003) Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geological Thought Geological Society of America Special Paper 373, Boulder, Colorado.
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Myelin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Structure of a typical neuron
Myelin sheath
Dendrite
Soma
Axon
Nucleus
Node of
Ranvier
Axon terminal
Schwann cell
Myelin sheath
Myelin is a fatty white substance that surrounds the axon of some nerve cells, forming an electrically insulating layer. It is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system. It is an outgrowth of a type of glial cell.
The production of the myelin sheath is called myelination or myelinogenesis. In humans, myelination begins early in the 3rd trimester,[1] although little myelin exists in the brain at the time of birth. During infancy, myelination occurs quickly, leading to a child's fast development, including crawling and walking in the first year. Myelination continues through the adolescent stage of life.
Schwann cells supply the myelin for the peripheral nervous system, whereas oligodendrocytes, specifically of the interfascicular type, myelinate the axons of the central nervous system. Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the (gnathostome) vertebrates, but myelin-like sheaths have also been seen in some invertebrates, although they are quite different from vertebrate myelin at the molecular level. Myelin was discovered in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
2 Function
3 Disorders
3.1 Demyelination
3.1.1 Symptoms
3.1.2 Myelin repair
3.2 Dysmyelination
4 Invertebrate myelin
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Composition[edit]
Transmission electron micrograph of a cross-section of a myelinated axon, generated at the Electron Microscopy Facility at Trinity College, Hartford CT
Myelin comprises different cell types and varies in chemical composition and configuration but performs the same insulating function. Myelinated axons are white; hence, the "white matter" of the brain. Myelin insulates axons from electrically charged atoms and molecules. These charged particles (ions) are found in the fluid surrounding the entire nervous system. Under a microscope, myelin looks like strings of sausages.
Cholesterol is an essential component of myelin,[3] which comprises about 40% water; the dry mass comprises between 60% and 75% lipids and between 15% and 25% proteins. Myelin basic protein (MBP) constitutes ~23% of myelin protein,[4] myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, and proteolipid protein (PLP, which makes up ~50% of myelin protein[5]). The primary lipid of myelin is a glycolipid called galactocerebroside. The intertwining hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin strengthen the myelin sheath. In brain, the myelin sheath covers the fibers of the corpus callosum, which constitute the inner part of the cerebral hemisphere.
Function[edit]
Action potential propagation in myelinated neurons is faster than in unmyelinated neurons because of Saltatory conduction.
Cross section of a myelinated axon
1. Axon
2. Nucleus of Schwann Cell
3. Schwann Cell
4. Myelin Sheath
5. Neurilemma
The main purpose of a myelin sheath is to increase the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber. Along unmyelinated fibers, impulses continuously move as waves, but, in myelinated fibers, they "hop" or propagate by saltatory conduction. Myelin decreases capacitance and increases electrical resistance across the cell membrane (the axolemma). Thus, myelination prevents the electric current from leaving the axon. It has been suggested that myelin permits larger body size by maintaining agile communication between distant body parts.[6]
Myelinated fibers lack voltage-gated ion channels (approximately 25 μm−2) along the myelinated internodes, exposing them only at the nodes of Ranvier. Here, they are found far more abundantly (between 2,000 and 12,000 μm−2).[7] Myelinated fibers succeed in reducing sodium leakage into the extracellular fluid (ECF), maintaining a strong separation of charge between the intracellular fluid (ICF) and the ECF. This increases sodium’s ability to travel along the axon more freely. However, the sodium diffuses along the axolemma rapidly, but is decremental by nature. The sodium cannot trigger the opening of the voltage-gated sodium channels as it becomes weaker. The nodes of Ranvier, being exposed to the ECF every 1 mm or so, contain large amounts of voltage-gated sodium channels, and allow enough sodium into the axon to regenerate the action potential.[8] Each time the action potential reaches a node of Ranvier, it is restored to its original action potential (+35 mV).[7]
When a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur. However, the myelin layer does not ensure a perfect regeneration of the nerve fiber. Some regenerated nerve fibers do not find the correct muscle fibers, and some damaged motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system die without regrowth. Damage to the myelin sheath and nerve fiber is often associated with increased functional insufficiency.
Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate.
Some studies have revealed that optic nerve fibers can be regenerated in postnatal rats. This regeneration depends upon two conditions: axonal die-back has to be prevented with appropriate neurotrophic factors, and neurite growth inhibitory components have to be inactivated. These studies may lead to further understanding of nerve fiber regeneration in the central nervous system.[citation needed]
Disorders[edit]
Demyelination[edit]
Further information: Demyelinating disease
Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, transverse myelitis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Guillain–Barré syndrome, central pontine myelinosis, inherited demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophy, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Sufferers of pernicious anaemia can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly. Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system, affecting speech, balance, and cognitive awareness. When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers.[clarification needed] A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called Canavan disease.
The immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases, including inflammation causing demyelination by overproduction of cytokines via upregulation of tumor necrosis factor[9] or interferon.
Symptoms[edit]
Demyelination results in diverse symptoms determined by the functions of the affected neurons. It disrupts signals between the brain and other parts of the body; symptoms differ from patient to patient, and have different presentations upon clinical observation and in laboratory studies.
Typical symptoms include:
blurriness in the central visual field that affects only one eye, may be accompanied by pain upon eye movement
double vision
loss of vision/hearing
odd sensation in legs, arms, chest, or face, such as tingling or numbness (neuropathy)
weakness of arms or legs
cognitive disruption, including speech impairment and memory loss
heat sensitivity (symptoms worsen or reappear upon exposure to heat, such as a hot shower)
loss of dexterity
difficulty coordinating movement or balance disorder
difficulty controlling bowel movements or urination
fatigue
tinnitus[10]
Myelin repair[edit]
Research to repair damaged myelin sheaths is ongoing. Techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies. While results in mice have been encouraging (via stem cell transplantation), whether this technique can be effective in replacing myelin loss in humans is still unknown.[11] Cholinergic treatments, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), may have beneficial effects on myelination, myelin repair, and myelin integrity. Increasing cholinergic stimulation also may act through subtle trophic effects on brain developmental processes and particularly on oligodendrocytes and the lifelong myelination process they support. By increasing oligodendrocyte cholinergic stimulation, AChEIs, and other cholinergic treatments, such as nicotine, possibly could promote myelination during development and myelin repair in older age.[12] Glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors such as lithium chloride have been found to promote myelination in mice with damaged facial nerves.[13] Cholesterol is a necessary nutrient for the myelin sheath.
Dysmyelination[edit]
Dysmyelination is characterized by a defective structure and function of myelin sheaths; unlike demyelination, it does not produce lesions. Such defective sheaths often arise from genetic mutations affecting the biosynthesis and formation of myelin. The shiverer mouse represents one animal model of dysmyelination. Human diseases where dysmyelination has been implicated include leukodystrophies (Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease, Canavan disease, phenylketonuria) and schizophrenia.[14][15][16]
Invertebrate myelin[edit]
Functionally equivalent myelin-like sheaths are found in several invertebrate taxa including Oligochaete, Penaeid, Palaemonid, and Calanoids. These myelin-like sheaths share several structural features with the sheaths found in vertebrates including multiplicity of membranes, condensation of membrane, and nodes.[6] However, the nodes in vertebrates are annular; i.e., they encircle the axon. In contrast, nodes found in the sheaths of invertebrates are either annular or fenestrated; i.e., they are restricted to "spots." It is notable that the fastest recorded conduction speed (across both vertebrates and invertebrates) is found in the ensheathed axons of the Kuruma shrimp, an invertebrate.[6]
See also[edit]
The Myelin Project, project to regenerate myelin
Myelin Repair Foundation, a nonprofit medical research foundation for multiple sclerosis drug discovery.
Myelin protein zero
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pediatric Neurologic Examination Videos & Descriptions: Developmental Anatomy". library.med.utah.edu. Retrieved 2016-08-20.
Jump up ^ Virchow R (1854). "Über das ausgebreitete Vorkommen einer dem Nervenmark analogen Substanz in den tierischen Geweben". Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin (in German). 6 (4): 562–72. doi:10.1007/BF02116709.
Jump up ^ Gesine Saher; Britta Brügger; Corinna Lappe-Siefke; Wiebke Möbius; Ryu-ichi Tozawa; Michael C Wehr; Felix Wieland; Shun Ishibashi; Klaus-Armin Nave (March 2005). "High cholesterol level is essential for myelin membrane growth". Nature Neuroscience. 8: 468–475. doi:10.1038/nn1426.
Jump up ^ Steinman, Lawrence (May 3, 1996). "Multiple Sclerosis: A Coordinated Immunological Attack against Myelin in the Central Nervous System". Cell. 85: 299–302. PMID 8616884. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81107-1. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ Mallucci, Giulia; Peruzzotti-Jametti, Luca; Bernstock, Joshua D.; Pluchino, Stefano (2015-04-01). "The role of immune cells, glia and neurons in white and gray matter pathology in multiple sclerosis". Progress in Neurobiology. 127–128: 1–22. PMC 4578232  . PMID 25802011. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.02.003.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hartline Daniel K (2008). "What is myelin?.". Neuron Glia Biology. 4: 153–163. doi:10.1017/S1740925X09990263.
^ Jump up to: a b Saladin, Kenneth S.. Anatomy & physiology: the unity of form and function. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2012. Print.
Jump up ^ Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, et al., editors. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1999. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20385/
Jump up ^ Ledeen RW, Chakraborty G (March 1998). "Cytokines, signal transduction, and inflammatory demyelination: review and hypothesis". Neurochem. Res. 23 (3): 277–89. PMID 9482240. doi:10.1023/A:1022493013904.
Jump up ^ Mayo Clinic 2007 and University of Leicester Clinical Studies, 2014
Jump up ^ Windrem MS, Nunes MC, Rashbaum WK, Schwartz TH, Goodman RA, McKhann G, Roy NS, Goldman SA (January 2004). "Fetal and adult human oligodendrocyte progenitor cell isolates myelinate the congenitally dysmyelinated brain". Nat. Med. 10 (1): 93–7. PMID 14702638. doi:10.1038/nm974. Lay summary – www.futurepundit.com.
Jump up ^ Bartzokis G (August 2007). "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may improve myelin integrity". Biol. Psychiatry. 62 (4): 294–301. PMID 17070782. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.020.
Jump up ^ Makoukji J, Belle M, Meffre D, Stassart R, Grenier J, Shackleford G, Fledrich R, Fonte C, Branchu J, Goulard M, de Waele C, Charbonnier F, Sereda MW, Baulieu EE, Schumacher M, Bernard S, Massaad C (March 2012). "Lithium enhances remyelination of peripheral nerves". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109 (10): 3973–8. PMC 3309729  . PMID 22355115. doi:10.1073/pnas.1121367109.
Jump up ^ Krämer-Albers EM, Gehrig-Burger K, Thiele C, Trotter J, Nave KA (November 2006). "Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein/DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia: implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia". J. Neurosci. 26 (45): 11743–52. PMID 17093095. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006.
Jump up ^ Matalon R, Michals-Matalon K, Surendran S, Tyring SK (2006). "Canavan disease: studies on the knockout mouse". Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 576: 77–93; discussion 361–3. ISBN 978-0-387-30171-6. PMID 16802706. doi:10.1007/0-387-30172-0_6.
Jump up ^ Tkachev D, Mimmack ML, Huffaker SJ, Ryan M, Bahn S (August 2007). "Further evidence for altered myelin biosynthesis and glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia". Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 10 (4): 557–63. PMID 17291371. doi:10.1017/S1461145706007334.
External links[edit]
The Myelin Project
Athabasca University Biological Psychology Website
The MS Information Sourcebook, Myelin
The Myelin Repair Foundation
H & E Histology
Luxol Fast Blue: Modified Kluver's Method to stain for Myelin Sheath
Radiology and Pathology of Myelin the MedPix Medical Image Database
[1] Archives of Neurology
American Society for Neurochemistry
[show]
v
t
e
Nervous tissue
CNS
Tissue Types
Grey matter
White matter
Projection fibers
Association fiber
Commissural fiber
Lemniscus
Funiculus
Fasciculus
Nerve tract
Decussation
Commissure
Neuropil
Meninges
Cell Types
Neuronal
Pyramidal
Purkinje
Granule
Glial
insulating:
Myelination: Oligodendrocyte
other
Astrocyte
Radial glial cell
Ependymal cells
Tanycyte
Microglia
PNS
General
Dorsal
Root
Ganglion
Ramus
Ventral
Root
Ramus
Ramus communicans
Gray
White
Autonomic ganglion (Preganglionic nerve fibers
Postganglionic nerve fibers)
Connective tissues
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
Nerve fascicle
Neuroglia
Myelination: Schwann cell
Neurolemma
Myelin incisure
Node of Ranvier
Internodal segment
Satellite glial cell
Neurons/
nerve fibers
Parts
Soma
Axon hillock
Axon
Telodendron
Axon terminals
Axoplasm
Axolemma
Neurofibril/neurofilament
Dendrite
Nissl body
Dendritic spine
Apical dendrite/Basal dendrite
Types
Bipolar
Unipolar
Pseudounipolar
Multipolar
Interneuron
Renshaw
Afferent nerve fiber/
Sensory neuron
GSA
GVA
SSA
SVA
fibers
Ia
Ib or Golgi
II or Aβ
III or Aδ or fast pain
IV or C or slow pain
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GSE
GVE
SVE
Upper motor neuron
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α motorneuron
β motorneuron
γ motorneuron
Termination
Synapse
Electrical synapse/Gap junction
Chemical synapse
Synaptic vesicle
Active zone
Postsynaptic density
Autapse
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Neuromuscular junction
Sensory receptors
Meissner's corpuscle
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Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini ending
Muscle spindle
Free nerve ending
Nociceptor
Olfactory receptor neuron
Photoreceptor cell
Hair cell
Taste bud
[show]
v
t
e
Structures of the cell membrane
Membrane lipids
Lipid bilayer
Phospholipids
Proteolipids
Sphingolipids
Sterols
Membrane proteins
Membrane glycoproteins
Integral membrane proteins/transmembrane protein
Peripheral membrane protein/Lipid-anchored protein
Other
Caveolae/Coated pits
Cell junctions
Glycocalyx
Lipid raft/microdomains
Membrane contact sites
Membrane nanotubes
Myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Nuclear envelope
Phycobilisomes
Porosomes
[show]
v
t
e
Protein: cell membrane proteins (other than Cell surface receptor, enzymes, and cytoskeleton)
Arrestin
SAG
ARRB1
ARRB2
ARR3
Membrane-spanning 4A
MS4A1
MS4A2
MS4A3
MS4A4A
MS4A4E
MS4A5
MS4A6A
MS4A6E
MS4A7
MS4A8B
MS4A9
MS4A10
MS4A12
MS4A13
MS4A14
MS4A15
MS4A18
Myelin
Myelin basic protein
PMP2
Myelin proteolipid protein
PLP1
Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein
Myelin-associated glycoprotein
Myelin protein zero
Pulmonary surfactant
Pulmonary surfactant-associated protein B
Pulmonary surfactant-associated protein C
Tetraspanin
TSPAN1
TSPAN2
TSPAN3
TSPAN4
TSPAN5
TSPAN6
TSPAN7
TSPAN8
TSPAN9
TSPAN10
TSPAN11
TSPAN12
TSPAN13
TSPAN14
TSPAN15
TSPAN16
TSPAN17
TSPAN18
TSPAN19
TSPAN20
TSPAN21
TSPAN22
TSPAN23
TSPAN24
TSPAN25
TSPAN26
TSPAN27
TSPAN28
TSPAN29
TSPAN30
TSPAN31
TSPAN32
TSPAN33
TSPAN34
Other/ungrouped
Calnexin
LDL-receptor-related protein-associated protein
Neurofibromin 2
Presenilin
PSEN1
PSEN2
HFE
Phospholipid transfer proteins
Dysferlin
STRC
OTOF
see also other cell membrane protein disorders
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text:
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Los Angeles Stadium
at Hollywood Park
Turner's artist's rendering.
Location
Inglewood, California, U.S.
Coordinates
33°57′00″N 118°20′17″W / 33.95°N 118.338°W / 33.95; -118.338Coordinates: 33°57′00″N 118°20′17″W / 33.95°N 118.338°W / 33.95; -118.338
Owner
Kroenke Sports & Entertainment
Hollywood Park Land Company, LLC. (A joint venture of The Flesher Group and Stockbridge Capital)
City of Inglewood
Executive suites
69
Capacity
70,240[1] expandable to 100,000[2][3] for Super Bowls, Final Fours, FIFA World Cups, Summer Olympics and other major events.[4]
Acreage
298 acres (121 ha)
Surface
Artificial turf
Construction
Broke ground
November 17, 2016
Construction cost
$2.66 billion (estimated)
Architect
HKS, Inc.
Project manager
Legends Global Planning[5]
Structural engineer
Walter P Moore Engineers and Consultants[6]
Services engineer
Henderson Engineers, Inc.[7]
General contractor
Turner/Hunt JV[8]
Tenants
Los Angeles Rams (NFL) (2020–) planned
Los Angeles Chargers (NFL) (2020–) planned
Inglewood
Location in the United States
Inglewood
Location in L.A. metro area
The Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park / City of Champions Stadium[10] is an open-air stadium and entertainment complex district under construction in Inglewood, California, United States. Formerly the site of Hollywood Park Racetrack, it is approximately three miles (5 km) from Los Angeles International Airport, and is located immediately south of The Forum.
Planned to open in 2020, the stadium will serve as the home to the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League (NFL), it is also scheduled to host Super Bowl LVI in February 2022 and the College Football Playoff National Championship in January 2023. During the 2028 Summer Olympics, the stadium is expected to host the opening ceremonies and soccer. Archery will be held on the grounds outside the stadium.
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park will be the third stadium since the AFL–NFL merger to be shared by two NFL teams. MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, is home to the New York Giants and New York Jets, as was its predecessor, Giants Stadium. It will be the second facility in the Los Angeles area to host multiple teams from the same league as Staples Center is home to both of the city's National Basketball Association (NBA) teams, the Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers.
The stadium is a component of the City of Champions Revitalization Initiative, the working title of the development on the site of the former Hollywood Park Racetrack. Hollywood Park Casino opened on the lot in 2016, becoming the first establishment to open on the property on October 21.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Hollywood Park Racetrack
1.2 2014
1.3 2015
1.4 Construction and design
1.5 2016
1.6 2017
2 Funding
3 Tenants and events
3.1 2028 Summer Olympics
3.2 Other events
4 Entertainment district
5 Defeated rival proposals
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Hollywood Park Racetrack[edit]
Main article: Hollywood Park Racetrack
The stadium site was previously home to Hollywood Park, later sold and referred to as Betfair Hollywood Park, which was a thoroughbred race course from 1938 until it was shut down for racing and training in December 2013. The casino remained open, containing a poker card room. Most of the complex was demolished in 2014 to make way for new construction with the rest demolished in late 2016 after the new Hollywood Park Casino was opened. The current stadium project was not the first stadium proposed for the site. The site was almost home to a NFL stadium two decades earlier. In May 1995 after the departure of the Rams for St. Louis, the National Football League teams approved by a 27-1 vote with two abstentions, a resolution supporting a plan to build a $200 million, privately financed stadium on property owned by Hollywood Park for the Los Angeles Raiders. Al Davis, who was then the Raiders owner balked and refused the deal over a stipulation that he would have had to accept a second team at the stadium.[12]
2014[edit]
On January 31, 2014, the Los Angeles Times reported that Stan Kroenke, owner of the St. Louis Rams, purchased a 60-acre parcel of land just north of the Hollywood Park site in an area that had been studied by the National Football League in the past and at one point attempted to purchase.[13] This set off immediate speculation as to what Kroenke's intentions were for the site: it was originally planned to be a Walmart Supercenter; however, in 2014, most of the speculation centered around the site as a possible stadium site or training facility for the Rams.[14] NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell represented that Kroenke informed the league of the purchase. As an NFL owner, any purchase of land in which a potential stadium could be built must be disclosed to the league. Speculation about the Rams' returning to their home of nearly fifty years had already been discussed when Kroenke was one of the finalists in bidding for ownership in the Los Angeles Dodgers, but speculation increased when the news broke that the Rams owner had a possible stadium site in hand.[15][16]
2015[edit]
2015 aerial view of former racetrack and complex site, with the Downtown Los Angeles skyline in background.
Nearly a year went by without a word from Kroenke about his intentions for the land, as he failed to ever address the St. Louis media, or the Hollywood Land Company, about what the site may be used for. There was, however, speculation about the future of the Rams franchise until it was reported that the National Football League would not be allowing any franchise relocation for the 2015 season.[17]
Construction and design[edit]
On January 5, 2015, Stokbridge Capital the owners of the Hollywood Park Land Company announced that it had partnered with Kroenke Sports & Entertainment to add the northern 60-acre parcel to the rest of the development project and build a multi-purpose 80,000-seat stadium designed for the NFL.[18] The project will include the stadium of up to 100,240 seats (including standing room-only seats) and a performance entertainment venue of up to 6,000 seats while reconfiguring the previously approved Hollywood Park plan for up to 900,000 square feet of retail, 800,000 square feet of office space, 2,500 new residential and condo units, a luxury 300-room hotel and 25 acres of public parks, playgrounds, open space, a lake and pedestrian, bicycle and mass-transit access. The stadium would be ready by 2019. On February 24, 2015, the Inglewood City Council approved the stadium plan and the initiative with construction on the stadium planned to begin in December 2015.[13][19]
On February 24, 2015, the Inglewood City Council approved plans with a 5–0 unanimous vote to combine the 60-acre plot of land with the larger Hollywood Park development and rezone the area to include sports and entertainment capabilities. This essentially cleared the way for developers to begin construction on the venue as planned in December 2015.[20][21][22]
It was also reported, in early February 2015, that "earth was being moved" and the site was being graded to be prepared for the construction that would begin later in the year.[23]
2016[edit]
2016 aerial view of the stadium construction site, adjacent to The Forum. The new Hollywood Park Casino is in the foreground.
The NFL approved the Inglewood proposal and the Rams' relocation back to Los Angeles, 30–2, on January 12, 2016. On July 14, 2016, it was announced that Turner Construction and AECOM would oversee construction of the stadium.[24]
On October 19, 2016, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) determined that a 110-foot-tall LB 44 rotary drill rig would not pose a hazard to air navigation, so it approved the first of several pieces of heavy equipment to be used during construction. The stadium design had been under review by the FAA for more than a year because of concerns about how the structure would interact with radar at nearby Los Angeles International Airport.[25] On December 16, 2016, it was reported in Sports Business Journal that the FAA had declined to issue permits for cranes needed to build the structure. “We’re not going to evaluate any crane applications until our concerns with the overall project are resolved,” said FAA spokesman Ian Gregor.[26] The FAA had previously recommended building the stadium at another site due to the risks posed to LAX—echoing concerns raised by former United States Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge.[27]
The Rams held the groundbreaking construction ceremony at the future Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park site on November 17, 2016. The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell and Rams' owner Stan Kroenke.[28][29]
On December 23, 2016, the FAA approved the large cranes to build the stadium.[30]
2017[edit]
It was announced on May 18, 2017, that due to record rainfall in the area leading to construction holdups, the stadium completion and opening will be delayed until the 2020 NFL season.[31][32]
On August 8, 2017, the LA Stadium Premiere Center in Playa Vista, California opened as a place for suite buyers and season ticket holders to be able to preview the stadium. The center contains a massive replica model of the stadium which will include: ribbon-like LED high definition jumbotron and LED ribbon boards that go from the field to the ceiling, giving potential buyers a preview of what they can expect when the stadium opens.[33][34][35]
Funding[edit]
The stadium is being built privately, but the developer is seeking significant tax breaks from Inglewood.[36]
Tenants and events[edit]
The Los Angeles Rams have committed to moving to the stadium, as NFL approval for their relocation was obtained on January 12, 2016. The approval also gave the San Diego Chargers the first option to relocate to Los Angeles and share the stadium with the Rams, conditioned on a negotiated lease agreement between the two teams. The option would have expired on January 15, 2017, at which time the Oakland Raiders would have acquired the same option.[37]
On January 29, 2016, the Rams and Chargers came to an agreement in principle to share the stadium. The Chargers would contribute a $200 million stadium loan from the NFL and personal seat license fees to the construction costs and would pay $1 per year in rent to the Rams.[38] The same day, Chargers chairman-CEO Dean Spanos announced the team would remain in San Diego for the 2016 NFL season, while continuing to work with local government on a new stadium.[39] Measure C (the Chargers stadium proposal) did not receive the requisite number of votes required for passage.
On January 12, 2017, the Chargers exercised their option and announced plans to relocate to Los Angeles for the 2017 season, making the Chargers the second tenant at the stadium and returning them to the market where they played their inaugural season in 1960.[40][41]
When the Rams and Chargers move into the stadium, projected for August 2020, it will mark the return of major professional sports to Inglewood for the first time since the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings left The Forum for Staples Center in May 1999.
2028 Summer Olympics[edit]
During the 2028 Summer Olympics, the stadium is expected to host the opening ceremonies and Soccer. Archery will be held on the grounds outside the stadium.[42]
Other events[edit]
In addition to Rams and Chargers games, the stadium will host Super Bowl LVI in 2022.[43] It was initially to host Super Bowl LV in 2021, but construction delays mentioned above have pushed back the Super Bowl hosting duties by one year (NFL owners voted to move Super Bowl LV to Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida).
The stadium also allows other potential NFL opportunities on the complex such as an NFL retail store, an NFL Network studio, the NFL Honors ceremony, NFL Films premieres, other NFL-themed events, a West Coast wing of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, and NFL-themed hotels.[44]
On November 1, 2017, it was announced that the stadium will host the 2023 College Football Playoff National Championship.[45]
The stadium could serve as a FIFA World Cup venue if the North America 2026 FIFA World Cup bid is successful.[46]
Entertainment district[edit]
The surrounding development around the stadium will include a new entertainment center with 8.5 million square feet (790,000 m2) for business parks and condominiums, it will also include a 6,000-seat music and theatre venue, ballrooms, indoor and outdoor room, a multiplex movie theater, a lake with a waterfall fountain, luxury hotels, high-scale dining, an open-air shopping center and an NFL Network Flagship Campus,[47] studio for the league's digital properties. There will also be team stores for the Chargers and Rams.[44] The first new establishment to open service on the site was the new and modern Hollywood Park Casino, which opened on October 21, 2016.[11]
Defeated rival proposals[edit]
Main article: Proposed Los Angeles NFL stadiums
The Hollywood Park stadium project plan competed directly with a rival proposal. On February 19, 2015, the Oakland Raiders, and the San Diego Chargers announced plans for a privately financed $1.85 billion stadium that the two teams would build in Carson, California if they were to move to the Los Angeles market. Both teams stated that they would continue to attempt to get stadiums built in their respective cities.[48]
On April 21, 2015, Carson City Council bypassed the option to put the stadium to a public vote and approved the plan 3-0.[49] The NFL approved the Rams' relocation on January 12, 2016, with 30 of the 32 owners voting their approval to relocate, effectively ending the Carson proposal.[50]
See also[edit]
National Football League portal
Los Angeles portal
History of the Los Angeles Rams
History of the Los Angeles Chargers
History of the National Football League in Los Angeles
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fenno, Nathan; Farmer, Sam (November 17, 2016). "Los Angeles Rams break ground on $2.6-billion Inglewood stadium, 'new era' of NFL". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ http://edition.cnn.com/style/article/new-nfl-stadium-los-angeles/index.html
Jump up ^ https://archpaper.com/2016/11/los-angeles-rams-stadium-breaks-ground/#gallery-0-slide-0
Jump up ^ "Kroenke Sports & Entertainment Breaks Ground on HKS-Designed L.A. Stadium". November 17, 2016. Retrieved January 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Muret, Don (April 13, 2016). "Rams Tab Legends Global Planning As Owner's Rep For Stadium". SportsBusiness Daily. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Lee Slade". SportsBusiness Journal. April 18, 2016. p. 22. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Busta, Hallie (August 8, 2016). "LEDs Shed New Light on Sports". Architectural Lighting Reports. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Muret, Don (July 14, 2016). "Turner, Hunt Construction Win Bid To Build Rams' $2.5B L.A. Stadium". SportsBusiness Daily. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://theramswire.usatoday.com/2017/06/01/los-angeles-rams-renderings-city-of-champions-stadium-that-will-host-super-bowl-lvi/
Jump up ^ https://www.stadiaworld.com/index.php?head=City-of-Champions-Stadium&folder=sites&site=renderings-view&gal_id=146
^ Jump up to: a b "Hollywood Park Casino's Grand Opening Oct. 21 - Poker News". CardPlayer.com. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Springer, Steve (September 23, 2011). "The day Al Davis walked away". ESPN. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Wagoner, Nick (February 1, 2014). "St. Louis Rams owner Stan Kroenke buys 60 acres of land in Los Angeles". ESPN. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Reed, Scott M. (November 9, 2014). "Will Stan Kroenke bring the Rams west?". Orange County Register. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ozanian, Mike (January 26, 2012). "Kroenke's Bid For Dodgers Implies Rams Are Headed To L.A." Forbes. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Sam (January 30, 2014). "A return of L.A. Rams? Owner is said to buy possible stadium site". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Schwab, Frank (December 20, 2014). "No NFL team moving to Los Angeles for 2015, report says". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Robert (2015). "Text of the Measure - City of Champions Revitalization Project". Champions Initiative. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Piper, Brandie (January 31, 2014). "Report: Rams owner bought 60 acres of land in Calif". KSDK. St. Louis. Archived from the original on February 21, 2014. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Larkin, Michael; Schwartz, Gadi (February 25, 2015). "Inglewood Council Rams Through NFL Stadium Proposal". KNBC. Los Angeles. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Crabtree, Curtis (February 25, 2015). "Inglewood unanimously approves stadium plan at Hollywood Park". NBC Sports. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Logan, Tim; Jennings, Angel; Fenno, Nathan (February 24, 2015). "Inglewood council approves NFL stadium plan amid big community support". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Florio, Mike (February 8, 2015). "Inglewood stadium construction begins, sort of". NBC Sports. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Michaud, Stephanie (July 14, 2016). "Stadium Contractors". MyNewsLA. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Fenno, Nathan (October 19, 2016). "Excavation for the Rams' stadium could begin in just weeks". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "FAA declines to allow cranes at Inglewood construction site". NBCSports.com. December 12, 2016. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bott, Michael (August 26, 2016). "LAX INGL UPDATE (F) 26AUG2016". DocumentCloud.org. NBC Bay Area. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fenno, Nathan; Farmer, Sam (November 10, 2016). "Rams to break ground on Inglewood stadium next week, source says". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez, Alden (November 11, 2016). "Rams to break ground on $2.6 billion Inglewood stadium Thursday". ESPN. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fenno, Nathan (December 23, 2016). "FAA approves first cranes for new Rams stadium". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fenno, Nathan; Farmer, Sam (May 18, 2017). "Inglewood football stadium's opening will be delayed a year because of record rainfall". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Orr, Conor (May 18, 2017). "Opening of Inglewood stadium delayed until 2020". National Football League. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ DaSilva, Cameron. "Take a virtual tour of the Rams' $2.6 billion stadium". MSN. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lago, Kristen (August 9, 2017). "L.A. Stadium Premiere Center Opens in Playa Vista". Los Angeles Rams. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Elwood, Hayley (August 8, 2017). "Bolts Buzz: First Look Inside L.A. Stadium". Los Angeles Chargers. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gross, Benjamin (January 12, 2015). "High Public Cost of the Proposed Inglewood NFL Stadium". Curbed. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hanzus, Dan (January 12, 2016). "Rams to relocate to L.A.; Chargers first option to join". NFL.com. National Football League. Retrieved January 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Acee, Kevin; Garrick, David; Wilkens, John (January 29, 2016). "Chargers here for a year -- then what?". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wesseling, Chris (January 29, 2016). "Chargers announce they will stay in San Diego for 2016". National Football League. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Chargers announce decision to relocate to Los Angeles". National Football League. January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Sam; Fenno, Nathan (January 12, 2016). "NFL will return to Los Angeles for 2016 season". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://la24-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdf/LA2024-canditature-part2_english.pdf
Jump up ^ Schrotenboer, Brent (January 14, 2016). "With NFL back in Los Angeles, Super Bowl becomes a hot topic". USA Today. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Gantt, Darin (January 6, 2016). "Rams' L.A. proposal includes offer to host Pro Bowl, Combine". NBC Sports. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "College Football Playoff annouces sites for 2021-2024". SI.com. Retrieved 2017-12-02.
Jump up ^ "United Bid Committee Moves to Next Stage of Bid Process for 2026 FIFA World Cup". www.ussoccer.com. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Green, Nick (January 27, 2016). "Could a new light rail line connect Torrance with the NFL stadium in Inglewood?". Daily Breeze. Los Angeles. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Sam (February 20, 2015). "Chargers, Raiders will jointly pursue an NFL stadium in Carson". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Logan, Tim; Fenno, Nathan (April 21, 2016). "Carson City Council gives unanimous approval to NFL stadium". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Logan, Tim; Fenno, Nathan (January 13, 2016). "NFL will return to Los Angeles for 2016 season". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park.
Official website
Hollywood Park Land Company stadium website
Stadium webcam
Construction page for stadium from Turner/Hunt
Stadium presentation from HKS
Preceded by
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Home of the Los Angeles Rams
2020–beyond Succeeded by
none
Preceded by
StubHub Center Home of the Los Angeles Chargers
2020–beyond Succeeded by
none
Preceded by
Raymond James Stadium Host of the Super Bowl
LVI 2022 Succeeded by
TBD
Preceded by
Stade de France
Paris Summer Olympics
Opening Ceremony (Olympic Stadium)
2028 Succeeded by
TBD
[show]
Links to related articles
[show]
v
t
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Los Angeles Rams
Founded in 1936
Played in Cleveland (1936–45) and St. Louis (1995–2015)
Based in Los Angeles, California
Headquartered in Thousand Oaks, California
Franchise
Franchise
History
in Cleveland
in St. Louis
Seasons
Players
Coaches
First-round draft picks
Starting quarterbacks
Statistics
Broadcasters
Awards
Stadiums
Cleveland Stadium
League Park
Shaw Stadium
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
Anaheim Stadium
Busch Stadium
Edward Jones Dome
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park (under construction)
Culture
Rampage
Cheerleaders
Heaven Can Wait (film)
Melonheads
Carroll Rosenbloom
John Ramsey
Lore
The Greatest Show on Turf
Bull Elephant backfield
Fearsome Foursome
"The Tackle"
Rivalries
San Francisco 49ers
Kansas City Chiefs
Retired numbers
7
28
29
74
75
78
80
85
Media
Broadcasters
Radio network
KCBS-FM
J.B. Long
D'Marco Farr
Dick Enberg
Wild card berths (8)
1980
1983
1984
1986
1988
1989
2000
2004
Division championships (16)
1945
1949
1967
1969
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1985
1999
2001
2003
2017
Conference championships (6)
1950
1951
1955
1979
1999
2001
League championships (3)
1945
1951
1999 (XXXIV)
Current league affiliations
League: National Football League (1937–present)
Conference: National Football Conference
Division: West Division
Former league affiliation
League: American Football League (1936)
Seasons (82)
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Championship seasons in bold
[show]
v
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Los Angeles Chargers
Founded in 1960
Played in San Diego (1961–2016)
Based in Carson, California
Headquartered in Costa Mesa, California
Franchise
Franchise
History
in San Diego
Seasons
Retired numbers
14
19
21
55
Hall of Fame
Anniversary teams
40th
50th
First-round draft picks
Starting quarterbacks
Coaches
History
Broadcasters
Stadiums
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
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Fearsome Foursome
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"San Diego Super Chargers"
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Rivalries
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Kansas City Chiefs
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Lore
Holy Roller
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Freezer Bowl
Wild card berths (2)
1995
2013
Division championships (15)
1960
1961
1963
1964
1965
1979
1980
1981
1992
1994
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
Conference championships (1)
1994
League championships (1)
1963
Current league affiliations
League: National Football League (1970–present)
Conference: American Football Conference
Division: West Division
Former league affiliation
League: American Football League (1960–1969)
Seasons (59)
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Championship seasons in bold
[show]
v
t
e
Summer Olympic stadiums
Panathenaic Stadium (Athens 1896)
Vélodrome de Vincennes (Paris 1900)
Francis Field (St Louis 1904)
White City Stadium (London 1908)
Stockholm Olympic Stadium (Stockholm 1912)
Olympisch Stadion (Antwerp 1920)
Stade Olympique Yves-du-Manoir (Paris 1924)
Olympic Stadium (Amsterdam 1928)
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (Los Angeles 1932)
Olympiastadion (Berlin 1936)
Wembley Stadium (London 1948)
Helsinki Olympic Stadium (Helsinki 1952)
Melbourne Cricket Ground (Melbourne 1956)
Stadio Olimpico (Rome 1960)
National Stadium (Tokyo 1964)
Estadio Olímpico Universitario (Mexico City 1968)
Olympiastadion (Munich 1972)
Olympic Stadium (Montreal 1976)
Grand Arena, Lenin Stadium (Moscow 1980)
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (Los Angeles 1984)
Seoul Olympic Stadium (Seoul 1988)
Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys (Barcelona 1992)
Centennial Olympic Stadium (Atlanta 1996)
Sydney Olympic Stadium (Sydney 2000)
Olympic Stadium (Athens 2004)
Beijing National Stadium (Beijing 2008)
Olympic Stadium (London 2012)
Maracanã Stadium (Rio de Janeiro 2016)
New National Olympic Stadium (Tokyo 2020)
Stade de France (Paris 2024)
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum/Los Angeles Stadium (Los Angeles 2028)
[show]
v
t
e
Super Bowl stadiums
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (I)
Miami Orange Bowl (II)
Miami Orange Bowl (III)
Tulane Stadium (IV)
Miami Orange Bowl (V)
Tulane Stadium (VI)
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (VII)
Rice Stadium (VIII)
Tulane Stadium (IX)
Miami Orange Bowl (X)
Rose Bowl (XI)
Louisiana Superdome (XII)
Miami Orange Bowl (XIII)
Rose Bowl (XIV)
Louisiana Superdome (XV)
Pontiac Silverdome (XVI)
Rose Bowl (XVII)
Tampa Stadium (XVIII)
Stanford Stadium (XIX)
Louisiana Superdome (XX)
Rose Bowl (XXI)
San Diego–Jack Murphy Stadium (XXII)
Joe Robbie Stadium (XXIII)
Louisiana Superdome (XXIV)
Tampa Stadium (XXV)
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome (XXVI)
Rose Bowl (XXVII)
Georgia Dome (XXVIII)
Joe Robbie Stadium (XXIX)
Sun Devil Stadium (XXX)
Louisiana Superdome (XXXI)
Qualcomm Stadium (XXXII)
Pro Player Stadium (XXXIII)
Georgia Dome (XXXIV)
Raymond James Stadium (XXXV)
Louisiana Superdome (XXXVI)
Qualcomm Stadium (XXXVII)
Reliant Stadium (XXXVIII)
Alltel Stadium (XXXIX)
Ford Field (XL)
Dolphin Stadium (XLI)
University of Phoenix Stadium (XLII)
Raymond James Stadium (XLIII)
Sun Life Stadium (XLIV)
Cowboys Stadium (XLV)
Lucas Oil Stadium (XLVI)
Mercedes-Benz Superdome (XLVII)
MetLife Stadium (XLVIII)
University of Phoenix Stadium (XLIX)
Levi's Stadium (50)
NRG Stadium (LI)
U.S. Bank Stadium (LII)
Mercedes-Benz Stadium (LIII)
Hard Rock Stadium (LIV)
Raymond James Stadium (LV)
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park (LVI)
[show]
v
t
e
Olympic venues in association football
1900
Vélodrome de Vincennes
1904
Francis Field
1908
White City Stadium
1912
Råsunda IP, Stockholm Olympic Stadium (final), Tranebergs Idrottsplats
1920
Jules Ottenstadion, Olympisch Stadion (final), Stade Joseph Marien, Stadion Broodstraat
1924
Stade Bergeyre, Stade de Colombes (final), Stade de Paris, Stade Pershing
1928
Monnikenhuize, Olympic Stadium (final), Sparta Stadion Het Kasteel
1936
Hertha-BSC Field, Mommsenstadion, Olympiastadion (final), Poststadion
1948
Arsenal Stadium, Champion Hill, Craven Cottage, Empire Stadium (medal matches), Fratton Park, Goldstone Ground, Green Pond Road, Griffin Park, Lynn Road, Selhurst Park, White Hart Lane
1952
Helsinki Football Grounds, Kotka, Lahti, Olympic Stadium (final), Tampere, Turku
1956
Melbourne Cricket Ground (final), Olympic Park Stadium
1960
Florence Communal Stadium, Grosseto Communal Stadium, L'Aquila Communal Stadium, Livorno Ardenza Stadium, Naples Saint Paul's Stadium, Pescara Adriatic Stadium, Stadio Flaminio (final)
1964
Komazawa Olympic Park Stadium, Mitsuzawa Football Field, Nagai Stadium, Tokyo National Stadium (final), Nishikyogoku Athletic Stadium, Ōmiya Football Field, Prince Chichibu Memorial Football Field
1968
Estadio Azteca (final), Estadio Cuauhtémoc, Estadio Nou Camp, Jalisco Stadium
1972
Dreiflüssestadion, ESV-Stadion, Jahnstadion, Olympiastadion (final), Rosenaustadion, Urban Stadium
1976
Lansdowne Park, Olympic Stadium (final), Sherbrooke Stadium, Varsity Stadium
1980
Dinamo Stadium, Dynamo Central Stadium, Grand Arena, Grand Arena (final), Kirov Stadium, Republican Stadium
1984
Harvard Stadium, Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium, Rose Bowl (final), Stanford Stadium
1988
Busan Stadium, Daegu Stadium, Daejeon Stadium, Dongdaemun Stadium, Olympic Stadium (final)
1992
Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta, Camp Nou (final), Estadio Luís Casanova, La Romareda, Sarrià Stadium
1996
Florida Citrus Bowl, Legion Field, Orange Bowl, RFK Memorial Stadium, Sanford Stadium (both finals)
2000
Stadium Australia, Brisbane Cricket Ground, Bruce Stadium, Hindmarsh Stadium, Melbourne Cricket Ground, Olympic Stadium (men's final), Sydney Football Stadium (women's final)
2004
Kaftanzoglio Stadium, Karaiskakis Stadium (women's final), Olympic Stadium (men's final), Pampeloponnisiako Stadium, Pankritio Stadium, Panthessaliko Stadium
2008
Beijing National Stadium (men's final), Qinhuangdao Olympic Sports Center Stadium, Shanghai Stadium, Shenyang Olympic Sports Center Stadium, Tianjin Olympic Center Stadium, Workers' Stadium (women's final)
2012
City of Coventry Stadium, Hampden Park, Millennium Stadium, St James' Park, Old Trafford, Wembley Stadium (both finals)
2016
Estádio Nacional de Brasília, Arena Fonte Nova, Mineirão, Arena Corinthians, Arena da Amazônia, Estádio Olímpico João Havelange, Maracanã (both finals)
2020
International Stadium Yokohama, Kashima Soccer Stadium, Miyagi Stadium, National Stadium, Saiama Stadium, Sapporo Dome, Tokyo Stadium
2024
Parc des Princes (both finals), Parc Olympique Lyonnais, Stade de la Beaujoire, Stade de Nice, Stade Geoffroy-Guichard, Stade Matmut Atlantique, Stadium Municipal, Stade Pierre-Mauroy, Stade Vélodrome
2028
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, Banc of California Stadium, Rose Bowl, Levi's Stadium, Avaya Stadium, Stanford Stadium, California Memorial Stadium
[show]
v
t
e
Olympic venues in archery
1900: Bois de Vincennes
1904: Francis Field
1908: White City Stadium
1920: Nachtegalen Park
1972: Bogenschießlage
1976: Olympic Archery Field, Joliette
1980: Krylatskoye Sports Complex Archery Field
1984: El Dorado Park
1988: Hwarang Archery Field
1992: Olympic Archery Field
1996: Stone Mountain Park Archery Center and Velodrome
2000: Sydney International Archery Park
2004: Panathenaic Stadium
2008: Olympic Green Archery Field
2012: Lord's
2016: Sambódromo
2020: Dream Island Archery Field
2024: Les Invalides
2028: Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park
[show]
v
t
e
Inglewood, California
Government
Agencies
Inglewood Police Department
Geography
Neighborhoods
Morningside Park
Downtown Inglewood
Century Heights
Education
Primary and secondary schools
Inglewood Unified School District
Inglewood High School
Morningside High School
City Honors High School
Los Angeles Unified School District
Ánimo Inglewood Charter High School
Ánimo Leadership Charter High School
St. Mary's Academy
Good Shepherd Lutheran School (closed)
Other
Landmarks
The Forum
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park (under construction)
Inglewood City Hall
Inglewood Park Cemetery
Edward Vincent Jr. Park
Veterans Memorial Building
Randy's Donuts
Hollywood Park Casino
Centinela Hospital Medical Center
Centinela Adobe (physically in Westchester, Los Angeles)]
Centinela Freeman Regional Medical Center, Centinela Campus (demolished)
Centinela Freeman Regional Medical Center, Memorial Campus (demolished)
Hollywood Park Racetrack (demolished)
Transportation
Inglewood Transit Center
Fairview Heights Metro station (under construction)
Downtown Inglewood Metro station (under construction)
[show]
v
t
e
Kroenke Sports & Entertainment
Founded in 1999
Teams
Los Angeles Rams (NFL) (1999–present)
Denver Nuggets (NBA) (2000–present)
Colorado Avalanche (NHL) (2000–present)
Colorado Mammoth (NLL) (2004–present)
Colorado Rapids (MLS) (2004–present)
Arsenal F.C. (Premier League) (2011–present)
Los Angeles Gladiators (Overwatch League) (2017-present)
Venues
Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park
Pepsi Center
Dick's Sporting Goods Park
Paramount Theatre
1stBank Center (operator)
People
Stan Kroenke
Ann Walton Kroenke
Josh Kroenke
Media
Television
Altitude Sports and Entertainment
Outdoor Sportsman Group
Sportsman Channel
Outdoor Channel
MyOutdoorTV.com
World Fishing Network
US
Canada (JV)
Radio
KSE Radio Ventures, LLC
KKSE
KXKL-FM
KIMN
KWOF
Magazines
Outdoor Sportsman Group
Bowhunter
Bass Fan
Firearms News
Florida Sportsman
Fly Fisherman
Game & Fish
Guns & Ammo
Gun Dog
Guns & Ammo: Handguns
In-Fisherman
North American Whitetail
Petersen's Bowhunting
Petersen's Hunting
Rifle Shooter
Shallow Water Angler
Shooting Times
Shotgun News
Walleye In-Sider
Wildfowl
Miscellaneous
Skycam
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Los_Angeles_Stadium_at_Hollywood_Park&oldid=826069820"
Categories:
Kroenke Sports & Entertainment
Sports venues in the Greater Los Angeles Area
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American football venues in California
Hollywood Park
Los Angeles Rams stadiums
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The Seekers of Truth and Justice
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The Seekers of Truth and Justice (Arabic: الباحثين عن الحقيقة والعدالة) were a political-action group operating from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s in Sudan.[1] The group was founded by Khalil Ibrahim and eventually evolved into the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in the early 2000s, marked by their creation and distribution of a controversial document entitled “The Black Book.” Their relationship with the government in Khartoum was hostile at best and has only increased in tension as the organization developed.[2]
Flag of Sudan
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 The Influence of the Muslim Brothers
2 Purpose
3 The Black Book
3.1 Role in the Darfuri Rebellion
4 The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)
5 Current State
6 References
Origins[edit]
Khalil Ibrahim organized the Seekers of Truth and Justice that originally supported the National Islamic Front (NIF) and famous Islamist, Hassan al-Turabi.[3] After the NIF took power and continued to marginalize the Darfur region in the same way which the previous administration had, Ibrahim distanced himself from the group and took on a new independence in his organization.[4] The members were mostly men who began looking to Islam in their youth as an answer to their nation’s political issues. The Muslim Brotherhood advocated that political Islam would bring honest and equal commitment to all Muslims.[5] The group’s core support consisted of Zaghawa tribe members, specifically of the Kobe branch to which Ibrahim belonged.[6] It is also speculated that many Zaghawa decided to join militias after the government failed to enforce a peace agreement from years earlier, requiring Arab nomads to “pay blood money for the Zaghawa they had killed.” [7] Possible original members of the group based on their seniority positions in JEM include Zakaria Abbas, Omar Karma, Hamid Yusef El Mahil, Salih El Tom Abbas, and Hamid Musabil.[8]
The Influence of the Muslim Brothers[edit]
The strategy of the Muslim Brotherhood in Khartoum was to target students at Khartoum University through their created “Students Unity Front.” [9] Hassan al Turabi was one of the primary Muslim Brotherhood leaders in Sudan, who advocated a restructuring of the group’s organization as opposed to an armed struggle. Under Turabi, the Sudanese Brothers founded the NIF as an alternative to the existing regime in the 1970s. It was through this movement that Khalil Ibrahim was able to gain enough momentum to form the Seekers of Truth and Justice.[10]
Purpose[edit]
The purpose of the group of the Seekers of Truth and Justice is evident in both their name and in the legend of their most successful operation, the Black Book. “Political, economic, and social marginalization of the region” was their explicit reason for resistance.[11] Their overarching goal had a national agenda attached to it. Not only did Ibrahim and his followers want Darfuris to have equal representation, but they wanted full-blown regime change. In order to accomplish this goal, they conducted a series of information operations that would eventually lead to the widespread distribution of their propaganda.[12]
They attempted to gather information regarding power-holders in Khartoum, despite the government’s non-transparent and censored history.[13] Due to their leader, Khalil Ibrahim’s, past involvement with both the government and Hassan al-Turabi (an Islamist leader in Sudan) the group was able to access more government documents than an average citizen.[14] By informing the population of their underrepresentation backed by concrete evidence, the group hoped to empower the people and consequently, spark a rebellion.[15]
The Black Book[edit]
The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan, premiering in May 2000, compiled statistics revealing inconsistencies in Sudan’s government system.[16] For one, it explained that the vast majority of official government positions were occupied by members of three tribes that made up only 5.4% of Sudan’s total population. The Seekers of Truth and Justice included this information to show that most Sudanese people were not being properly represented in the government apparatus due to this disparity.[17] Secondly, it criticized the National Islamic Front (NIF) who had overthrown the government over a decade earlier. The Black Book accused NIF of committing the same injustices of the preceding regime, despite promises to end them.[18] The overarching message of the book was that the government in Khartoum was dominated by an Arab minority, resulting in the disadvantage and marginalization of non-Arab Sudanese elsewhere throughout the country.
Role in the Darfuri Rebellion[edit]
The group made and disseminated over 1,600 copies of the Black Book. The majority of the copies were circulated outside Mosques after Friday’s evening prayer to local people. A few hundred were spread abroad, and the rest were left on the desks of Khartoum government officials for them to see upon returning from their prayers as well.[19] : Their choice of distribution was strategic: (1) dispersing the document abroad alerted the rest of the world the situation Sudan was in, (2) spreading the greatest amount to locals informed them all at once that they were the majority and therefore a formidable force against a minority government, and (3) providing a copy for government officials alerted Khartoum that there was a new level of transparency into their inner-workings that just went public.[20] Rebellion finally broke out in Darfur less than two years from when the Black Book was released.
The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)[edit]
After mounting their massive and successful “Black Book” operation, the Seekers of Truth and Justice evolved into the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM): a larger and more militant Darfuri rebel group. In conjunction with the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA), JEM would go on to launch several violent attacks against the government in Khartoum in an attempt to further their national agenda of seeing regime change.[21] Despite their formidable force, they have been unsuccessful in ousting President al-Bashir from his position as the head of Sudan’s government.
Current State[edit]
The Seekers of Truth and Justice no longer exist as they originally did; employing tools of soft power and psychological warfare to mobilize the masses. The Justice and Equality Movement – the more violent and militant evolvement of the Seekers - however, is still existent and active in Sudan today as a Darfuri rebel group.[22]
One of the largest alternative rebel assemblies in Darfur is the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA), which has split into two factions according to their leaders: Abdul Wahid and Minni Minawi.[23] Both groups employ tools of hard power in their offensives. The Sudanese Bloc to Liberate the Republic (SBLR) as well as the Liberation and Justice Movement (LJM) used to be independent organizations but have recently joined forces with JEM. As the Northern counter to the already existing SPLA, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement-North (SPLM-N) was created. In 2011, all of these have combined to form the Sudan Revolutionary Front (DRF).[24]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 18-19.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Rebecca. Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Dafur-based JEM Rebels South Sudan-wide Reform. Radio Netherlands Worldwide: Africa, December 25, 2011. http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/darfur-based-jem-rebels-sought-sudan-wide-reform
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 19
Jump up ^ Al Jazeera: News, Africa. Profile: Khalil Ibrahim. December 25, 2011. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/12/2011122515414353256.html
Jump up ^ Plaut, Martin. Who are Sudan’s Darfur Rebels? BBC News: Africa, May 5, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3702242.stm
Jump up ^ Dabanga, Radio. Splinter group accuses JEM of arresting 12 leaders. Relief Web, , Jan 13, 2012. http://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/splinter-group-accuses-jem-arresting-12-leaders
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 19.
Jump up ^ Warburg, Gabriel. The Muslim Brotherhood in Sudan: From Reforms to Radicalism. The Project for the Research of Islamist Movements (PRISM) Global Research in International Affairs Center: Islam in Africa Research Project, August 2006. p. 3. http://www.e-prism.org/images/Muslim_BROTHERS.PRISM.pdf
Jump up ^ Heleta, Savo. “Evolution of the Darfur Rebellion: A Revolution in the Making.” October 1, 2008. p. 5. http://www.cmi.no/file/Darfur_Rebellion_Revolution_in_the_Making_by_Savo_Heleta.pdf
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Rebecca. Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. p. 169.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 17.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 18.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Rebecca. Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 17.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 19.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 18.
Jump up ^ Flint, Julie and Alex and de Waal Darfur. (2005) (Paperback). A Short History of a Long War. New York, NY: Zed Books. p. 17.
Jump up ^ El-Tom, Abdullahi. The Black Book of Sudan: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan. Journal of African National Affairs, 2003. Vol. 1, 2:25-35, p. 26. http://darfur-tribune.up.seesaa.net/image/Black20Book20of20Sudan20-20Imbalance20of20power20and20wealth20in20Sudan.pdf
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Rebecca. Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. p. 23.
Jump up ^ Bartlett, Anne. Darfur: Truth or Fiction? The Sudan Tribune: Comment and Analysis, June 15, 2008. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article27523
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Rebecca. Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Sudan Human Security Baseline Assessment. Darfur Rebel Groups. Sudan Tribune: Darfur Conflict. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?mot421
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