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Ectoderm
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Ectoderm
Organs derived from ectoderm.
Section through embryonic disk of Vespertilio murinus.
Details
Days
16
Identifiers
MeSH
D004475
FMA
69070
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the mesoderm (middle layer) and endoderm (most proximal layer), with the ectoderm as the most exterior (or distal) layer.[1] It emerges and originates from the outer layer of germ cells. The word ectoderm comes from the Greek ektos meaning "outside", and derma, meaning "skin."[2]
Generally speaking, the ectoderm differentiates to form the nervous system (spine, peripheral nerves and brain),[3][4] tooth enamel and the epidermis (the outer part of integument). It also forms the lining of mouth, anus, nostrils, sweat glands, hair and nails.[4]
In vertebrates, the ectoderm has three parts: external ectoderm (also known as surface ectoderm), the neural crest, and neural tube. The latter two are known as neuroectoderm.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Differentiation
2.1 Initial appearance
2.2 Early development
2.2.1 Gastrulation
2.3 Later development
2.3.1 Neurulation
2.3.2 Organogenesis
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Ectodermal dysplasia
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Heinz Christian Pander, a Baltic German–Russian biologist, has been credited for the discovery of the three germ layers that form during embryogenesis. Pander received his doctorate in zoology from the University of Wurzburg in 1817. He began his studies in embryology using chicken eggs, which allowed for his discovery of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Due to his findings, Pander is sometimes referred to as the "founder of embryology".
Pander's work of the early embryo was continued by a Prussian–Estonian biologist named Karl Ernst von Baer. Baer took Pander's concept of the germ layers and through extensive research of many different types of species, he was able to extend this principle to all vertebrates. Baer also received credit for the discovery of the blastula. Baer published his findings, including his germ layer theory, in a textbook which translates to On the Development of Animals which he released in 1828.[5]
Differentiation[edit]
Initial appearance[edit]
The ectoderm can first be observed in amphibians and fish during the later stages of a process called gastrulation. At the start of this process, the developing embryo has divided into many cells separating the embryo, which is now a hollow sphere of cells called the blastula, into two parts, the animal hemisphere and vegetal hemisphere. It is the animal hemisphere of the blastula that will eventually become the ectoderm.[2]
Early development[edit]
Like the other two germ layers, mesoderm and endoderm, the ectoderm forms shortly after the egg is fertilized, and rapid cell division initiates. The epidermis of the skin originates from the less dorsal ectoderm which surrounds the neuroectoderm at the early gastrula stage of embryonic development. The position of the ectoderm relative to the other germ layers of the embryo is governed by "selective affinity", meaning that the inner surface of the ectoderm has a strong (positive) affinity for the mesoderm, and a weak (negative) affinity for the endoderm layer. This selective affinity changes during different stages of development. The strength of the attraction between two surfaces of two germ layers is determined by the amount and type of cadherin molecules present on the cells' surface. For example, the expression of N-cadherin is crucial to maintaining separation of precursor neural cells from precursor epithelial cells.[2] The ectoderm is instructed to become the nervous system by the notochord, which is typically positioned above it.[2]
Gastrulation[edit]
During the process of gastrulation, a special type of cells called bottle cells invaginates a hole on the surface of the blastula which is called the dorsal lip of the blastopore. Once this lip has been established, the bottle cells will extend inward and migrate along the inner wall of the blastula known as the roof of the blastocoel. The once superficial cells of the animal pole are destined to become the cells of the middle germ layer called the mesoderm. Through the process of radial extension, cells of the animal pole that were once several layers thick divide to from a thin layer. At the same time, when this thin layer of dividing cells reaches the dorsal lip of the blastopore, another process occurs termed convergent extension. During convergent extension, cells that approach the lip intercalate mediolaterally, in such a way that cells are pulled over the lip and inside the embryo. These two processes allow for the prospective mesoderm cells to be placed between the ectoderm and the endoderm. Once convergent extension and radial intercalation are underway, the rest of the vegetal pole, which will become endoderm cells, is completely engulfed by the prospective ectoderm, as these top cells undergo epiboly, where the ectoderm cells divide in a way to form one layer. This creates a uniform embryo composed of the three germ layers in their respective positions.[2]
Later development[edit]
Once there is an embryo with three established germ layers, differentiation among these three layers proceeds. The next event that will take place within the ectoderm is the process of neurulation, which results in the formation of the neural tube, neural crest cells and the epidermis. It is these three components of the ectoderm that will each give rise to a particular set of cells. The neural tube cells will become the central nervous system, neural crest cells will become the peripheral and enteric nervous system, along with melanocytes, facial cartilage and the dentin of teeth, and the epidermal cell region will give rise to epidermis, hair, nails, sebaceous glands, olfactory and mouth epithelium, as well as eyes.[2]
Neurulation[edit]
Neurulation proceeds by primary and secondary neurulation, both positioning neural crest cells between a superficial epidermal layer and a deep neural tube. During primary neurulation, the notochord cells of the mesoderm signal the adjacent, superficial ectoderm cells to reposition themselves in a columnar pattern to form cells of the ectodermal neural plate.[6] As the cells continue to elongate, a group of cells immediately above the notochord change their shape, forming a wedge in the ectodermal region. These special cells are called medial hinge cells (MHP). Now, as the ectoderm continues to elongate, the ectodermal cells of the neural plate fold inward. The inward folding of the ectoderm by virtue of mainly cell division continues until another group of cells form within the neural plate. These cells are termed dorsolateral hinge cells (DLHP), and once formed, the inward folding of the ectoderm stops. The DLHP cells function in a similar fashion as MHP cells regarding their wedge like shape, however, the DLHP cells result in the ectoderm converging. This convergence is led by ectodermal cells above the DLHP cells known as the neural crest. The neural crest cells eventually pull the adjacent ectodermal cells together, which leaves neural crest cells between the prospective epidermis and hollow, neural tube.[2]
Organogenesis[edit]
Ectodermal specification
All of the organs that rise from the ectoderm such as the nervous system, teeth, hair and many exocrine glands, originate from two adjacent tissue layers: the epithelium and the mesenchyme. [7] Several signals mediate the organogenesis of the ectoderm such as: FGF, TGFβ, Wnt, and regulators from the hedgehog family. The specific timing and manner that the ectodermal organs form is dependent on the invagination of the epithelial cells.[8] FGF-9 is an important factor during the initiation of tooth germ development. The rate of epithelial invagination in significantly increased by action of FGF-9, which is only expressed in the epithelium, and not in the mesenchyme. FGF-10 helps to stimulate epithelial cell proliferation, in order make larger tooth germs. Mammalian teeth develop from ectoderm derived from the mesenchyme: oral ectoderm and neural crest. The epithelial components of the stem cells for continuously growing teeth form from tissue layers called the stellate reticulum and the suprabasal layer of the surface ectoderm.[8]
Clinical significance[edit]
Ectodermal dysplasia[edit]
Ectodermal dysplasia is a rare but severe condition where the tissue groups (specifically teeth, skin, hair, nails and sweat glands) derived from the ectoderm undergo abnormal development. Ectodermal dysplasia is a vague term, as there are over 170 subtypes of ectodermal dysplasia. It has been accepted that the disease is caused by a mutation or a combination of mutations in a number of genes. Research of the disease is ongoing, as only a fraction of the mutations involved with an ectodermal dysplasia subtype have been identified.[9]
Dental abnormalities in a 5-year-old girl from north Sweden family who suffered from various symptoms of autosomal dominant hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) a) Intraoral view. Note that the upper incisors have been restored with composite material to disguise their original conical shape. b) Orthopantomogram showing absence of ten primary and eleven permanent teeth in the jaws of the same individual.
Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) is the most common subtype of the disease. Clinical cases of patients with this condition displayed a range of symptoms. One of the common abnormalities of HED is hypohidrosis, or the inability to sweat, which can be attributed to dysfunctional sweat glands. This aspect can be especially dangerous in warm climates where the patient could potentially suffer from hyperthermia. Facial malformations are also related to HED such as disfigured or absent teeth, wrinkled skin around the eyes, misshaped nose along with scarce and thin hair. Skin problems, like eczema have also been observed in cases.[10] It typically follows an X-linked recessive pattern of inheritance of the EDA genes.[11] This disease typically affects males because they have only one X chromosome, meaning only one copy of the mutated gene is enough to cause abnormal development. For females to be affected, both X chromosomes would need to carry the gene mutation. If a female has a mutated version of the gene on one X chromosome, they are considered carrier of the disease.
See also[edit]
Ectoderm specification
Coelom
Embryology
Endoderm
Gastrulation
Mesoderm
Neural plate
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Langman's Medical Embryology, 11th edition. 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gilbert, Scott F. Developmental Biology. 9th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2010: 333-370. Print.
Jump up ^ http://www.bioethics.gov/reports/stemcell/glossary.html
^ Jump up to: a b http://simple.wikipedia.7val.com/wiki/Mate
Jump up ^ Baer KE von (1986) In: Oppenheimer J (ed.) and Schneider H (transl.), Autobiography of Dr. Karl Ernst von Baer. Canton, MA: Science History Publications.
Jump up ^ O'Rahilly, R; Müller, F (1994). "Neurulation in the normal human embryo". Ciba Found Symp. 181: 70–82. PMID 8005032.
Jump up ^ Pispa, J; Thesleff, I (Oct 15, 2003). "Mechanisms of ectodermal organogenesis". Developmental Biology. 262 (2): 195–205. doi:10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00325-7. PMID 14550785.
^ Jump up to: a b Tai, Y. Y.; Chen, R. S.; Lin, Y.; Ling, T. Y.; Chen, M. H. (2012). "FGF-9 accelerates epithelial invagination for ectodermal organogenesis in real time bioengineered organ manipulation". Cell Communication and Signaling. 10 (1): 34. doi:10.1186/1478-811X-10-34. PMC 3515343  . PMID 23176204.
Jump up ^ Priolo, M.; Laganà, C (September 2001). "Ectodermal Dysplasias: A New Clinical-Genetic Classification". Journal of Medical Genetics. 38 (9): 579–585. doi:10.1136/jmg.38.9.579. PMC 1734928  . PMID 11546825.
Jump up ^ Clarke, A.; Phillips, D. I.; Brown, R.; Harper, P. S. (1987). "Clinical Aspects of X-linked Hypohidrotic Ectodermal Dysplasia". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 62 (10): 989–96. doi:10.1136/adc.62.10.989.
Jump up ^ Bayes, M.; Hartung, A. J.; Ezer, S.; Pispa, J.; Thesleff, I.; Srivastava, A. K.; Kere, J. (1998). "The Anhidrotic Ectodermal Dysplasia Gene (EDA) Undergoes Alternative Splicing and Encodes Ectodysplasin-A with Deletion Mutations in Collagenous Repeats". Human Molecular Genetics. 7 (11): 1661–1669. doi:10.1093/hmg/7.11.1661. PMID 9736768.
[show]
v
t
e
Human embryogenesis in the first three weeks
Week 1
Fertilization
Oocyte activation
Zygote
Cleavage
Blastomere
Morula
Blastocoele
Blastocyst
Blastula
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Week 2
(Bilaminar)
Hypoblast
Epiblast
Week 3
(Trilaminar)
Germ layers
Archenteron/Primitive streak
Primitive pit
Primitive knot/Blastopore
Primitive groove
Gastrula
Gastrulation
Regional specification
Embryonic disc
Ectoderm
Surface ectoderm
Neuroectoderm
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
Neurulation
Neural crest
Endoderm
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Mesoderm
Axial mesoderm
Paraxial
Somite
Somitomere
Intermediate
Lateral plate
Intraembryonic coelom
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
[show]
v
t
e
Cells in humans derived from ectoderm
Surface ectoderm
Skin
Trichocyte
Keratinocyte
Anterior pituitary
Gonadotrope
Corticotrope
Thyrotrope
Somatotrope
Lactotroph
Neural crest
Peripheral nervous system
Neuron
Glia
Schwann cell
Satellite glial cell
Neuroendocrine system
Chromaffin cell
Parafollicular cell
Glomus cell
Skin
Melanocyte
Nevus cell
Merkel cell
Teeth
Odontoblast
Cementoblast
Eyes
Corneal keratocyte
Neural tube
Central nervous system
Neuron
Glia (Oligodendrocyte
Astrocyte)
Ependyma
Ependymocytes
Pineal gland
Pinealocyte
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text:
White Christmas (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
White Christmas
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Michael Curtiz
Produced by
Robert Emmett Dolan
Written by
Norman Krasna
Norman Panama
Melvin Frank
Starring
Bing Crosby
Danny Kaye
Rosemary Clooney
Vera-Ellen
Music by
Irving Berlin
Cinematography
Loyal Griggs
Edited by
Frank Bracht
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures
Release date
October 14, 1954 (1954-10-14)
Running time
120 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$30 million[2]
White Christmas is a 1954 American musical romantic comedy film directed by Michael Curtiz and starring Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye, Rosemary Clooney, and Vera-Ellen. Filmed in VistaVision and Technicolor, it features the songs of Irving Berlin, including a new version of the title song, "White Christmas", introduced by Crosby in the film Holiday Inn.[3]
Produced and distributed by Paramount Pictures, the film is notable for being the first to be released in VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount that entailed using twice the surface area of standard 35mm film; this large-area negative was used to yield finer-grained standard-sized 35mm prints.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Songs
4 Production
4.1 Casting
4.2 Filming
4.3 Sound
5 Release and reception
6 Home media releases
7 Stage adaptation
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
On Christmas Eve, 1944, somewhere in Europe, two World War II U.S. Army soldiers, one a Broadway entertainer, Captain Bob Wallace (Bing Crosby), the other an aspiring entertainer, Private Phil Davis (Danny Kaye), perform for the 151st Division. But, word has come down that their beloved commanding officer, Major General Thomas F. Waverly (Dean Jagger), is being relieved of his command. He arrives for the end of the show and delivers an emotional farewell. The men give him a rousing send-off ("The Old Man").
After the war, Bob and Phil make it big in nightclubs, radio, and then on Broadway, eventually becoming successful producers. They mount their newest hit musical titled Playing Around. The same day they receive a letter from "Freckle-Faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy," their mess sergeant from the war, asking them to look at an act that his two sisters are doing.
Bing Crosby and Danny Kaye
When they go to the club to watch the act ("Sisters"), Phil notices that Bob is smitten with Betty (Rosemary Clooney). Phil has eyes for her sister, Judy (Vera-Ellen). Betty and Judy join Bob and Phil at their table, and Phil dances with Judy, so that Bob and Betty can get to know each other. Phil and Judy hit it off ("The Best Things Happen While You're Dancing"). Bob and Betty do not, getting into a minor argument about how Bob thinks that everyone has an angle in show business.
Judy and Betty are headed for the Columbia Inn in Pine Tree, Vermont, where they are booked to perform over the holidays. Due to a disagreement with their landlord, the girls have to leave immediately, so Phil gives the sisters his and Bob's sleeping-room accommodations aboard the train. Bob and Phil board later and Bob is extremely upset that they have to stay up all night in the club car on their way to NYC. They are joined by Betty and Judy, who thank them profusely for the tickets and convince them to come with them to Pine Tree ("Snow").
When the train arrives in Pine Tree, there's not a snowflake in sight, and chances of it falling appear dim. Bob and Phil discover that the inn is run by their former commanding officer, General Waverly. Waverly has invested all of his savings into the lodge, which is in danger of failing because there's no snow and thus no guests. To bring business to the inn, Bob and Phil bring the entire cast and crew of their musical Playing Around, and add in Betty and Judy. Bob and Betty's relationship blooms ("Count Your Blessings") and they spend a good deal of time together. Meanwhile, Bob discovers the General's request to rejoin the army has been rejected. He decides to prove to the General that he isn't forgotten.
Bob calls Ed Harrison (Johnny Grant), an old army buddy, now a successful variety show host, to arrange a televised invitation to all the men formerly under the command of the General to come to the inn on Christmas Eve as a surprise. In response, Harrison suggests they go all out and put the show on national television to generate free advertising for Wallace and Davis, but Bob insists that it will have nothing to do with their business. Unbeknownst to Bob, nosy housekeeper Emma Allen (Mary Wickes) was eavesdropping, but she only heard the part about free advertising, not Bob's rejection of the idea.
Mistakenly believing that her beloved boss will be portrayed as a pitiable figure in a nationwide broadcast, Emma reveals what she heard to a shocked Betty. The misunderstanding causes Betty to grow suddenly cold towards a baffled Bob. While this is happening, Judy becomes convinced that Betty will never take on a serious relationship until Judy is engaged or married. She pressures a reluctant Phil to announce a phony engagement, but the plan backfires when Betty abruptly departs for New York City to take a job offer since Judy is taken care of.
Phil and Judy reveal to Bob that the engagement was phony. Bob, still unaware of the real reason behind Betty's coldness, goes to New York for The Ed Harrison Show, but decides to stop and try to convince Betty to come back. Bob sees Betty's new act ("Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me") and reveals the truth about the engagement, and Betty starts to warm up to him, but he is called away by Ed Harrison before learning what is really bothering her. Back at the Inn, Phil fakes an injury to distract the General so he won't see the broadcast of Bob's announcement.
On the broadcast, Bob invites veterans of the 151st Division to come to Pine Tree, Vermont, on Christmas Eve ("What Can You Do with a General"). Betty catches Bob's televised pitch and realizes she was mistaken. She returns to Pine Tree in time for the Christmas Eve show, but only tells Judy. The whole division comes into Pine Tree secretly. When the General enters the lodge, he is greeted by his former division, who sing a rousing chorus of "The Old Man." Just as the following number ("Gee, I Wish I Was Back in the Army") ends, he learns that snow is finally falling.
In the finale, Bob and Betty declare their love for one another, as do Phil and Judy. The background of the set is removed to show the snow falling, everyone raises a glass, and toasts, "May your days be merry and bright; and may all your Christmases be white."
Bing Crosby and Danny Kaye
Cast[edit]
Bing Crosby as Bob Wallace
Danny Kaye as Phil Davis
Rosemary Clooney as Betty Haynes
Vera-Ellen as Judy Haynes
Dean Jagger as Major General Tom Waverly
Mary Wickes as Emma Allen
Johnny Grant as Ed Harrison
John Brascia as Joe, Judy Haynes' dance partner
Anne Whitfield as Susan Waverly
Percy Helton as Train conductor
I. Stanford Jolley as Railroad stationmaster
Barrie Chase as Doris Lenz
George Chakiris as Betty Haynes' background dancer
Sig Ruman as Landlord
Grady Sutton as General's guest
Herb Vigran as Novello
Leighton Noble as bandleader (uncredited)
Songs[edit]
"White Christmas" (Crosby)
"The Old Man" (Crosby, Kaye, and Men's Chorus)
Medley: "Heat Wave"/"Let Me Sing and I'm Happy"/"Blue Skies" (Crosby & Kaye)
"Sisters" (Clooney & Vera-Ellen)
"The Best Things Happen While You're Dancing" (Kaye with Vera-Ellen)
"Sisters (reprise)" (lip synced by Crosby and Kaye)
"Snow" (Crosby, Kaye, Clooney & Vera-Ellen)
Minstrel Number: "I'd Rather See a Minstrel Show"/"Mister Bones"/"Mandy" (Crosby, Kaye, Clooney,& Chorus)
"Count Your Blessings (Instead of Sheep)" (Crosby & Clooney)
"Choreography" (Kaye)
"The Best Things Happen While You're Dancing (reprise)" (Kaye & Chorus)
"Abraham" (instrumental)
"Love, You Didn't Do Right By Me" (Clooney)
"What Can You Do with a General?" (Crosby)
"The Old Man (reprise)" (Crosby & Men's Chorus)
"Gee, I Wish I Was Back in the Army" (Crosby, Kaye, Clooney & Stevens)
"White Christmas (finale)" (Crosby, Kaye, Clooney, Stevens & Chorus)
All songs were written by Irving Berlin. The centerpiece of the film is the title song, first used in Holiday Inn, which won that film an Oscar for Best Original Song in 1942. In addition, "Count Your Blessings" earned the picture its own Oscar nomination in the same category.
The song "Snow" was originally written for Call Me Madam with the title "Free," but was dropped in out-of-town tryouts. The melody and some of the words were kept, but the lyrics were changed to be more appropriate for a Christmas movie. For example, one of the lines of the original song is:
Free – the only thing worth fighting for is to be free.
Free – a different world you'd see if it were left to me.
A composer's demo of the original song can be found on the CD Irving Sings Berlin.
The song "What Can You Do with a General?" was originally written for an un-produced project called Stars on My Shoulders.
Trudy Stevens provided the singing voice for Vera-Ellen, except for "Sisters", where Rosemary Clooney sang both parts. It was not possible to issue an "original soundtrack album" of the film, because Decca Records controlled the soundtrack rights, but Clooney was under exclusive contract with Columbia Records. Consequently, each company issued a separate "soundtrack recording": Decca issuing Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas, while Columbia issued Irving Berlin's White Christmas. On the former, the song "Sisters" (as well as all of Clooney's vocal parts) was recorded by Peggy Lee, while on the latter, the song was sung by Rosemary Clooney and her own sister, Betty.[5]
Berlin wrote "A Singer, A Dancer" for Crosby and his planned co-star Fred Astaire but when he was unavailable, Berlin re-wrote it as "A Crooner – A Comic" for Crosby and Donald O'Connor, but when O'Connor left the project so did the song. Another song written by Berlin for the film was "Sittin' in the Sun (Countin' My Money)" but because of delays in production Berlin decided to publish it independently.[6] Crosby and Kaye also recorded another Berlin song ("Santa Claus") for the opening WWII Christmas Eve show scene, but it was not used in the final film. Their recording of the song survives, however, and can be found on the Bear Family Records 7-CD set called Come On-A My House.[7]
Production[edit]
Casting[edit]
Danny Kaye and Vera-Ellen
White Christmas was intended to reunite Crosby and Fred Astaire for their third Irving Berlin showcase musical. Crosby and Astaire had previously co-starred in Holiday Inn (1942) – where the song 'White Christmas' first appeared – and Blue Skies (1946). Astaire declined the project after reading the script[8] and asked to be released from his contract with Paramount.[9] Crosby also left the project shortly thereafter, to spend more time with his sons after the death of his wife, Dixie Lee.[9] Near the end of January 1953, Crosby returned to the project, and Donald O'Connor was signed to replace Astaire.[9] Just before shooting was to begin, O'Connor had to drop out due to illness and was replaced by Danny Kaye, who asked for and received a salary of $200,000 and 10% of the gross.[8] Financially, the film was a partnership between Crosby and Irving Berlin, who shared half the profits, and Paramount, which got the other half.[9]
Within the film, a number of soon-to-be famous performers appear. Dancer Barrie Chase appears un-billed, as the character Doris Lenz ("Mutual, I'm sure!"). Future Academy Award winner George Chakiris also appears[10] as one of the stone-faced black-clad dancers surrounding Rosemary Clooney in "Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me". John Brascia leads the dance troupe and appears opposite Vera-Ellen throughout much of the movie, particularly in the "Mandy" and "Choreography" numbers. The photo Vera-Ellen shows of her brother Benny (the one Phil refers to as "Freckle-faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy") is actually a photo of Carl Switzer, who played Alfalfa in The Little Rascals, in an army field jacket and helmet liner. A scene from the film featuring Crosby and Kaye was broadcast the year after the film's release, on Christmas Day 1955, in the final episode of the NBC TV show Colgate Comedy Hour (1950–1955).
Filming[edit]
Principal photography took place between September and December 1953. The film was the first to be shot using Paramount's new VistaVision process, with color by Technicolor, and also introduced the Perspecta directional sound system which used three inaudible tones in order to pan the monaural sound into either left, center or right.
Sound[edit]
As with Easter Parade but unlike many other musicals of the 1950s which have been able to be remixed to stereo or 5.1, it is impossible to do this for White Christmas, due to the fact that although the picture was released in an extremely limited fashion with a full three-channel stereo mix carried on 4-track mag release prints, no complete true stereo print has ever been able to be assembled from all known elements.
All the original separate recording angles for both the pre-records and post-records for the picture were destroyed in a fire, and all that remains is a magnetic high-fidelity monaural music master, prepared for international release, and a low-fidelity optical mono composite master which includes all dialogue, sound effects and other elements. These were restored and combined for the Criterion Collection LaserDisc release; however, on the newer releases the monaural composite occupies the front center and the magnetic music-only track is fattened up a bit and placed in the surrounds by itself.
Release and reception[edit]
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times was not impressed: "...the use of VistaVision, which is another process of projecting on a wide, flat screen, has made it possible to endow White Christmas with a fine pictorial quality. The colors on the big screen are rich and luminous, the images are clear and sharp, and rapid movements are got without blurring—or very little—such as sometimes is seen on other large screens. Director Michael Curtiz has made his picture look good. It is too bad that it doesn’t hit the eardrums and the funnybone with equal force."[11]
Variety liked it: "White Christmas should be a natural at the boxoffice, introducing as it does Paramount’s new VistaVision system with such a hot combination as Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye and an Irving Berlin score...Crosby and Kaye, along with VV, keep the entertainment going in this fancifully staged Robert Emmett Dolan production, clicking so well the teaming should call for a repeat...Certainly he (Crosby) has never had a more facile partner than Kaye against whom to bounce his misleading nonchalance."[12]
White Christmas was enormously popular with audiences, earning $12 million in theatrical rentals[13] – $102.7 million in 2012 dollars, adjusted for inflation[14] – making it the top moneymaker of 1954 by a wide margin. The second highest moneymaker of that year, The Caine Mutiny, earned $8.7 million.[15] Overall, the film grossed $30 million at the domestic box office.[2]
There was also a US theatrical re-release by Paramount in 1961. [16]
Six decades after its release, White Christmas still features in popular culture, as in neo burlesque routines.[17]
Home media releases[edit]
White Christmas was released on VHS in 1986 and again in 1997.
It was first released on DVD in 2000. It was subsequently released in 2009 and again in 2014 as a 4-disc "Diamond Anniversary Edition". This four-disc collection contains a Blu-ray disc, with a commentary by Clooney, as well as two copies of the DVD and a fourth disc of Christmas songs on compact disc. These songs are performed individually by Crosby, Clooney, and Kaye.
It was first released on Blu-ray in 2010 and again in 2014 in the "Diamond Anniversary Edition".
Stage adaptation[edit]
Main article: White Christmas (musical)
A stage adaptation of the musical, titled Irving Berlin's White Christmas premiered in San Francisco in 2004[18] and has played in various venues in the US, such as Boston, Buffalo, Los Angeles, Detroit and Louisville.[19][20][21][22][23][24] The musical played a limited engagement on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre, from November 14, 2008 until January 4, 2009. The musical also toured the United Kingdom in 2006 - 2008. It headed to the Sunderland Empire in Sunderland from November 2010 to January 2011 after a successful earlier run in Manchester and has continued in various cities with a London West End run at the end of 2014.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "WHITE CHRISTMAS (U)". British Board of Film Classification. September 13, 1954. Retrieved December 4, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Box Office Information for White Christmas. The Numbers. Retrieved April 15, 2013
Jump up ^ Curtiz, Michael (1954-10-14), White Christmas, retrieved 2016-05-07
Jump up ^ "The VistaVision Story". www.widescreenmuseum.com. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
Jump up ^ "Discogs". Discogs.com. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Fred (1986). Road to Hollywood. Gateshead, UK: John Joyce. p. 231.
Jump up ^ "Barnes & Noble". Barnes & Noble. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Arnold, Jeremy. "White Christmas". TCM. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "White Christmas (1954) - Notes - TCM.com". Turner Classic Movies.
Jump up ^ "Biography for George Chakiris". Turner Classic Movies.
Jump up ^ Crowther, Bosley. "The New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Variety". September 1, 1954.
Jump up ^ "The Top Box-Office Hits of 1954", Variety Weekly, January 5, 1955.
Jump up ^ "CPI Inflation Calculator".
Jump up ^ Steinberg, Cobbett (1980). Film Facts. New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 22. ISBN 0-87196-313-2.
Jump up ^ (www.imdb.com/title/tt0047673/combined)
Jump up ^ Mimi MaShuga & Dottie Minx (2015-01-15). "Mimi MaShuga Sisters". YouTube. Retrieved 2016-10-02.
Jump up ^ Jones, Kenneth."Merry and Bright? Producers Hope White Christmas Will Play Broadway This Year", playbill.com, June 25, 2008
Jump up ^ Jones, Kenneth."White Christmas Will Make Broadway Debut in November, Playing to Early 2009" playbill.com August 4, 2008
Jump up ^ Review of San Francisco production talkingbroadway.com November 14, 2004
Jump up ^ Byrne, Terry. Review of Boston production The Boston Globe November 30, 2007
Jump up ^ Snow in L.A.! Irving Berlin's White Christmas Begins Nov. 22 in City of Angels playbill.com November 22, 2005
Jump up ^ "Berlin musical comes to life: 'White Christmas' stays true to form" Louisville Courier-Journal, November 15, 2008
Jump up ^ White Christmas theatrelouisville.org
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to White Christmas (film).
White Christmas on IMDb
White Christmas at the TCM Movie Database
White Christmas at the American Film Institute Catalog
White Christmas at AllMovie
White Christmas at Rotten Tomatoes
"White Christmas heads to Marquis" Variety August 4, 2008
Official site White Christmas the Musical
Internet Broadway Database listing
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"Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho"
American folk song
Native language(s)
English
Notable songs book(s)
Jubilee Songs, as Sung by Slayton's Jubilee Singers by M. G. Slayton (1882); A Collection of Revival Hymns and Plantation Melodies by Marshall W. Taylor (1882)
Composer(s)
Marshall Bartholomew (1930); Ralph Flanagan (1950)
In music
Jericho Rhapsody by Morton Gould (1941)
Notable performer(s)
Paul Robeson, Mahalia Jackson; etc.
Genre
African-American spiritual
"Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho" (or alternatively "Joshua Fought the Battle of Jericho" or "Joshua Fit de Battle of Jericho") is a well-known African-American spiritual.[1]
The song is believed to have been composed by slaves in the first half of the 19th century. Some references suggest that it was copyrighted by Jay Roberts in 1865, [2]. In 1882, the song was published in Jubilee Songs by M. G. Slayton and in A Collection of Revival Hymns and Plantation Melodies by Marshall W. Taylor. The first recorded version was by Harrod's Jubilee Singers, on Paramount Records No. 12116 in 1922 [3] (though some sources[who?] suggest 1924). The Online 78 Discography entry for this record credits Jay Roberts as the author. Later recordings include those by Paul Robeson[4] (1925), Mahalia Jackson[4] (1958), Clara Ward, and Hugh Laurie (2011) among many others.
In 1930, Marshall Bartholomew created his arrangement of the song.[5]
Composer and conductor Morton Gould used the song as the basis for his 1941 composition for concert band, Jericho Rhapsody[6][5]
Ralph Flanagan adapted it under the title "Joshua". Ralph Flanagan and His Orchestra recorded the spiritual in New York City on March 1, 1950. It was released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 20-3724 (in USA)[7] and by EMI on the His Master's Voice label as catalog numbers B 9938 and IP 604.
Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961)
Early published versions include some parts in dialect, such as "fit" for "fought". The lyrics allude to the biblical story of the Battle of Jericho, in which Joshua led the Israelites against Canaan (Joshua 6:15-21).[1] However, like those of many other spirituals, the words may also be alluding to eventual escape from slavery - in the case of this song, "And the walls came tumblin' down."[8][9] The lively melody and rhythm also provided energy and inspiration.[10] Critic Robert Cummings wrote: "The jaunty, spirited theme hardly sounds like the product of the pre-Civil War era, and would not sound out of place in a ragtime or even jazz musical from the early 20th century. The closing portion of the tune, sung to the words quoted above, is its most memorable portion: the notes plunge emphatically and impart a glorious sense of collapse, of triumph."[9]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ Elvis Presley:original versions of songs he sang Archived 2010-05-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Paramount Race Series Catalogue
^ Jump up to: a b Melvyn Bragg (7 April 2011). The Book of Books: The Radical Impact of the King James Bible. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-1-84894-909-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Belwin 21st Century Band Method, Level 2: Conductor. Alfred Music Publishing. pp. 394–. ISBN 978-1-4574-4706-8.
Jump up ^ The Heritage Encyclopedia of Band Music by William H. Rehrig, ed by Paul Bierley. Westerville OH: Integrity Press, 1991, vol. I p. 293
Jump up ^ RCA Victor Records in the 20-3500 to 20-3999 series
Jump up ^ "Spirituals as a Source of Inspiration and Motivation". The Spirituals Project. 2014. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Article by Robert Cummings at Allmusic
Jump up ^ Sweet Chariot: Spirituals as a Source of Inspiration and Motivation Archived 2007-10-23 at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Lyrics
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City manager
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about city managers in the United States. For county and city managers in the Republic of Ireland, see Chief executive (Irish local government). For County managers in the United States, see County executive.
A city manager is an official appointed as the administrative manager of a city, in a council–manager form of city government. Local officials serving in this position are sometimes referred to as the chief executive officer (CEO) or chief administrative officer (CAO) in some municipalities.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
3 Responsibilities
4 Profile
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Description[edit]
Dayton, Ohio suffered a great flood in 1913, and responded with the innovation of a paid, non-political city manager, hired by the commissioners to run the bureaucracy; civil engineers were especially preferred. Other small or middle sized American cities, especially in the West, adopted the idea.
In Europe, smaller cities in the Netherlands were specially attracted by the plan.[2]
By 1940 there were small cities with city managers that grew enormously by the end of the century: Austin, Texas; Charlotte, North Carolina; Dallas, Texas; Dayton, Ohio; Rochester, New York; and San Diego, California.[3]
In a technical sense, the term "city manager," as opposed to CAO, implies more discretion and independent authority that is set forth in a charter or some other body of codified law, as opposed to duties being assigned on a varying basis by a single superior such as a mayor.[4]
History[edit]
Municipal government diagram.
Most sources trace the first city manager to Staunton, Virginia in 1908. Some of the other cities that were among the first to employ a manager were Sumter, South Carolina (1912) and Dayton, Ohio (1914); Dayton was featured in the national media, and became a national standard. The first "City Manager's Association" meeting of eight city managers was in December 1914.[5] The city manager, operating under the council-manager government form, was created in part to remove city government from the power of the political parties, and place management of the city into the hands of an outside expert who was usually a business manager or engineer, with the expectation that the city manager would remain neutral to city politics. By 1930 200 American cities used a city manager form of government.[6]
Responsibilities[edit]
As the top appointed official in the city, the city manager is typically responsible for most if not all of the day-to-day administrative operations of the municipality, in addition to other expectations.[7][8]
Some of the basic roles, responsibilities, and powers of a city manager include:
Supervision of day-to-day operations of all city departments and staff through department heads;
Oversight of all recruitment, dismissal, disciplining and suspensions;
Preparation, monitoring, and execution of the city budget, which includes submitting each year to the council a proposed budget package with options and recommendations for its consideration and possible approval;
Main technical advisor to the council on overall governmental operations;
Public relations, such as meeting with citizens, citizen groups, businesses, and other stakeholders (the presence of a mayor may alter this function somewhat);
Operating the city with a professional understanding of how all city functions operate together to their best effect;
Attends all council meetings, but does not have any voting rights[9]
Additional duties that may be assigned by the council[7][8]
The responsibilities may vary depending upon charter provisions and other local or state laws, rules, and regulations. In addition, many states, such as the states of New Hampshire and Missouri, have codified in law the minimum functions a local "manager" must perform.[10] The City Manager position focuses on efficiency and providing a certain level of service for the lowest possible cost.[11] The competence of a city manager can be assessed using composite indicators.[12]
Manager members of the ICMA are bound by a rather rigid and strongly enforced code of ethics that was originally established in 1924. Since that time the code had been up-dated/revised on seven occasions, the latest taking place in 1998. The updates have taken into account the evolving duties, responsibilities, and expectations of the profession; however the core dictate of the body of the code--“to integrity; public service; seek no favor; exemplary conduct in both personal and professional matters; respect the role and contributions of elected officials; exercise the independence to do what is right; political neutrality; serve the public equitably and governing body members equally; keep the community informed about local government matters; and support and lead our employ-ees”—have not changed since the first edition.[13]
Profile[edit]
In the early years of the profession, most managers came from the ranks of the engineering professions.[14] Today the typical and preferred background and education for the beginning municipal manager is a master's degree in Public Administration (MPA) and at least several years’ experience as a department head in local government or as an assistant city manager. As of 2005 more than 60% of those in the profession had a MPA, MBA, or other related higher-level degree.[15]
The average tenure of a manager is now 7–8 years and has risen gradually over the years. Tenures tend to be less in smaller communities and higher in larger ones, and they tend to vary as well depending on the region of the country.[15][16]
Educational Level of Local Government Managers (MYB = Municipal Yearbook; SOP = State of the Profession survey):[9]
1935
1964
1974
1984
1995
2000
2006
2012
High school or less 42% 14% 6% 2% 4% 2% 4% 1%
Some college, no degree 21% 22% 18% 10% — 9% 11% 6%
Bachelor's degree 35% 41% 38% 30% 24% 26% 27% 23%
MPA degree — 18% — — 44% — 37% 43%
Other graduate degree 2% 5% 38% 58% 28% 63% 21% 27%
Source 1940 MYB 1965 MYB 1990 MYB 1996 MYB 2001 MYB 2006 SOP survey 2012 SOP Survey
Sample size n = 449 n = 1,582 n not reported n =2 65 n = 3,175 n = 2,752 n = 1,816
See also[edit]
Local government
Local government in the United States
council-manager government
Clerk (municipal official)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ City of Naperville
Jump up ^ Stefan Couperus, "The managerial revolution in local government: municipal management and the city manager in the USA and the Netherlands 1900–1940." Management & Organizational History (2014) 9#4 pp: 336-352.
Jump up ^ Harold A. Stone et al., City Manager Government in Nine Cities (1940); Frederick C. Mosher et al., City Manager Government in Seven Cities (1940)
Jump up ^ Svara, James H. and Kimberly L. Nelson. (2008, August). Taking Stock of the Council-Manager Form at 100. Public Management Magazine, pp 6-14, at: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-08-31. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
Jump up ^ "City managing, a new profession". The Independent. Dec 14, 1914. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Robert Bruce Fairbanks; Patricia Mooney-Melvin; Zane L. Miller (2001). Making Sense of the City: Local Government, Civic Culture, and Community Life in Urban America. Ohio State University Press. p. 85.
^ Jump up to: a b Council Manager Form of Government, ICMA publication
^ Jump up to: a b Sample Ordinance, ICMA.[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, Kimberly L.; Svara, James H. (2015-01-01). "The Roles of Local Government Managers in Theory and Practice: A Centennial Perspective". Public Administration Review. 75 (1): 49–61. doi:10.1111/puar.12296. ISSN 1540-6210.
Jump up ^ MRS NH RSA
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Lynn. "The Impact Of Government Structure On Local Public Expenditures." Public Choice 136.3/4 (2008): 457-473. Political Science Complete. Web. 25 Sept. 2015.
Jump up ^ Marozzi, Marco; Bolzan, Mario (2015). "Skills and training requirements of municipal directors: A statistical assessment". Quality and Quantity. doi:10.1007/s11135-015-0192-2.
Jump up ^ ICMA Code of Ethics page
Jump up ^ Stillman, Richard J. (1974). The Rise of the City Manager: A Public Professional in Local Government. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
^ Jump up to: a b ICMA statistics[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Ammons, David M and Matthew J. Bosse. (2005). “Tenure of City Managers: Examining the Dual Meanings of ‘Average Tenure’.” State & Local Government Review, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 61-71. at: [1]
Further reading[edit]
Kemp, Roger L. Managing America's Cities: A Handbook for Local Government Productivity, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK 1998(ISBN 0-7864-0408-6).
_______, Model Government Charters: A City, County, Regional, State, and Federal Handbook, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-7864-3154-0)
_______, Forms of Local Government: A Handbook on City, County and Regional Options, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-7864-3100-7).
Stillman, Richard Joseph. The rise of the city manager: A public professional in local government. (University of New Mexico Press, 1974)
Weinstein, James. "Organized business and the city commission and manager movements." Journal of Southern History (1962): 166-182. in JSTOR
White, Leonard D. The city manager (1927)
External links[edit]
International City/County Management Association, ICMA is the professional and educational organization for chief appointed managers, administrators, and assistants in cities, towns, counties, and regional entities throughout the world.
Staunton, Virginia: Birthplace Of City Manager Form Of Government, a history on the city manager system of government.
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