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Anti-thyroid autoantibodies
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Antithyroid autoantibodies (or simply anti-thyroid antibodies) are autoantibodies targeted against one or more components on the thyroid. The most clinically relevant anti-thyroid autoantibodies are anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies (anti-TPO antibodies), thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAbs) and thyroglobulin antibodies. TRAbs are subdivided into activating, blocking and neutral antibodies, depending on their effect on the TSH receptor. Anti-sodium/Iodide (Anti–Na+/I−) symporter antibodies are a more recent discovery and their clinical relevance is still unknown. Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis are commonly associated with the presence of anti-thyroid autoantibodies. Although there is overlap, anti-TPO antibodies are most commonly associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and activating TRAbs are most commonly associated with Graves' disease. Thyroid microsomal antibodies were a group of anti-thyroid antibodies, they were renamed after the identification of their target antigen (TPO).[1][2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Subtypes
1.1 Anti-TPO antibodies
1.2 TSH receptor antibodies
1.3 Thyroglobulin antibodies
1.4 Anti–Na+/ I− symporter
2 Pathogenesis
3 Effect on human reproduction
4 History
5 References
Subtypes[edit]
Anti-thyroid antibodies can be subdivided into groups according to their target antigen.
Anti-TPO antibodies[edit]
Anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibodies are specific for the autoantigen TPO, a 105kDa glycoprotein that catalyses iodine oxidation and thyroglobulin tyrosyl iodination reactions in the thyroid gland.[5] Most antibodies produced are directed to conformational epitopes of the immunogenic carboxyl-terminal region of the TPO protein, although antibodies to linear epitopes have been seen.[4] Anti-TPO antibodies are the most common anti-thyroid autoantibody, present in approximately 90% of Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 75% of Graves' disease and 10-20% of nodular goitre or thyroid carcinoma. Also, 10-15% of normal individuals can have high level anti-TPO antibody titres.[4][6][7] High serum antibodies are found in active phase chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. Thus, an antibody titer can be used to assess disease activity in patients that have developed such antibodies.[4][7][8] The majority of anti-TPO antibodies are produced by thyroid infiltrating lymphocytes, with minor contributions from lymph nodes and the bone marrow.[9] They cause thyroid cell damage by complement activation and antibody dependent cell cytotoxicity.[7] However, anti-TPO antibodies are not believed to contribute to the destruction of the thyroid.[10]
TSH receptor antibodies[edit]
The thyrotropin receptor (TSH receptor) is the antigen for TSH receptor antibodies (TRAbs). It is a seven transmembrane G protein coupled receptor that is involved in thyroid hormone signalling. TRAbs are grouped depending on their effects on receptor signalling; activating antibodies (associated with hyperthyroidism), blocking antibodies (associated with thyroiditis) and neutral antibodies (no effect on receptor). Activating and blocking antibodies mostly bind to conformational epitopes, whereas neutral antibodies bind to linear epitopes. Binding of the antibody to the amino terminus of the TSH receptor shows stimulatory activity, whereas binding to residues 261-370 or 388-403 block the activity. TRAbs are present in 70-100% of Graves' disease (85-100% for activating antibodies and 75-96% for blocking antibodies) and 1-2% of normal individuals.[1][2][11]
Activating TRAbs are characteristic of Graves' disease (autoimmune hyperthyroidism). TPO antibody is measured more easily than the TSH receptor antibody, and so is often used as a surrogate in the diagnosis of Graves' disease. These antibodies activate adenylate cyclase by binding to the TSH receptor. This causes the production of thyroid hormones and subsequent growth and vascularisation of the thyroid.[1] TRAbs are also useful in the diagnosis of Graves' Ophthalmopathy. Although the exact mechanism of how TRAbs induce Graves' Ophthalmopathy is unknown, it is likely that the antibodies bind to TSH receptors in retro-orbital tissues, causing infiltration of lymphocytes. This inflammatory response leads to cytokine production that causes fibroblasts to produce glycosaminoglycans, leading to ophthalmopathy.[12][13]
Blocking TRAbs (also known as Thyrotropin Binding Inhibitory Immunoglobulins (TBII)) competitively block the activity of TSH on the receptor. This can cause hypothyroidism by reducing the thyrotropic effects of TSH. They are found in Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease and may be cause of fluctuation of thyroid function in the latter. During treatment of Graves' disease they may also become the predominant antibody, which can cause hypothyroidism.[2][13]
The clinical and physiological relevance of neutral antibodies remains unclear. However, they may be involved in prolonging the TSH receptor halflife.[2]
Thyroglobulin antibodies[edit]
Thyroglobulin antibodies are specific for thyroglobulin, a 660kDa matrix protein involved in the process of thyroid hormone production. They are found in 70% of Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 60% of idiopathic hypothyroidism, 30% of Graves' disease, a small proportion of thyroid carcinoma and 3% of normal individuals.[1][3] Anti-TPO antibodies are present in 99% of cases where thyroglobulin antibodies are present, however only 35% of anti-TPO antibody positive cases also demonstrate thyroglobulin antibodies.[14]
Anti–Na+/ I− symporter[edit]
Anti-Na+/I− symporter antibodies are a more recent discovery of possible thyroid autoantibodies and their role in thyroid disease remains uncertain. They are present in approximately 20% of Graves' disease and 24% of Hashimoto's thyroiditis.[1]
Pathogenesis[edit]
The production of antibodies in Graves' disease is thought to arise by activation of CD4+ T-cells, followed by B-cell recruitment into the thyroid. These B-cells produce antibodies specific to the thyroid antigens. In Hashimoto's thyroiditis, activated CD4+ T-cells produce interferon-γ, causing the thyroid cells to display MHC class II molecules. This expands the autoreactive T-cell repertoire and prolongs the inflammatory response.[15]
While anti-thyroid antibodies are used to track the presence of autoimmune thyroiditis, they are generally not considered to contribute directly to the destruction of the thyroid.[10]
Effect on human reproduction[edit]
The presence of anti-thyroid antibodies is associated with an increased risk of unexplained subfertility (odds ratio 1.5 and 95% confidence interval 1.1–2.0), miscarriage (odds ratio 3.73, 95% confidence interval 1.8–7.6), recurrent miscarriage (odds ratio 2.3, 95% confidence interval 1.5–3.5), preterm birth (odds ratio 1.9, 95% confidence interval 1.1–3.5) and maternal Postpartum thyroiditis (odds ratio 11.5, 95% confidence interval 5.6–24).[16]
History[edit]
In 1912 Hashimoto described hypothyroidism and goiter associated with thyroid lymphoid infiltration. In 1956 the anti-Tg antibody was detected in similar cases, elucidating the autoimmune cause of these characteristics. Later the same year, activating TSH receptor antibodies were discovered. Thyroid microsomal antibodies were discovered in 1964, which were subsequently renamed anti-TPO antibodies due to the identification of their autoantigen.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Saravanan P, Dayan CM (June 2001). "Thyroid autoantibodies". Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 30: 315–37, viii. doi:10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70189-4. PMID 11444165.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Orgiazzi, J (Jun 2000). "Anti-TSH receptor antibodies in clinical practice". Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America. 29 (2): 339–55, vii. doi:10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70135-3. PMID 10874533.
^ Jump up to: a b Boyd, CM; Baker, JR, Jr (March 1996). "The immunology of thyroid cancer". Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America. 25 (1): 159–79. doi:10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70317-0. PMID 8907685.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Utiger, editors, Lewis E. Braverman, Robert D. (2005). Werner & Ingbar's the thyroid : a fundamental and clinical text (9th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0781750474. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Taurog, Alvin (May 1999). "Molecular evolution of thyroid peroxidase**Adapted from Taurog A., Wall M., Thyroid 8 (1998) 185–191, with permission from the publisher, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc". Biochimie. 81 (5): 557–562. doi:10.1016/S0300-9084(99)80110-2. PMID 10403190.
Jump up ^ Saravanan, Ponnusamy; Dayan, Colin M. (June 2001). "THYROID AUTOANTIBODIES". Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America. 30 (2): 315–337. doi:10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70189-4. PMID 11444165.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chardès T, Chapal N, Bresson D, Bès C, Giudicelli V, Lefranc MP, Péraldi-Roux S (June 2002). "The human anti-thyroid peroxidase autoantibody repertoire in Graves' and Hashimoto's autoimmune thyroid diseases". Immunogenetics. 54 (3): 141–57. doi:10.1007/s00251-002-0453-9. PMID 12073143.
Jump up ^ McLachlan SM, Rapoport B (2000). "Autoimmune response to the thyroid in humans: thyroid peroxidase--the common autoantigenic denominator". Int. Rev. Immunol. 19 (6): 587–618. doi:10.3109/08830180009088514. PMID 11129117.
Jump up ^ Trbojević, B; Djurica, S (Oct 2005). "[Diagnosis of autoimmune thyroid disease]". Srpski arhiv za celokupno lekarstvo. 133 Suppl 1: 25–33. doi:10.2298/sarh05s1025t. PMID 16405253.
^ Jump up to: a b Melmed, Shlomo. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology (12th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. p. 355. ISBN 978-1-4377-0324-5.
Jump up ^ Swain, Manorama; Truptirekha Swain; Binoy Kumar Mohanty (2005). "Autoimmune thyroid disorders—An update". Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 20 (1): 9–17. doi:10.1007/BF02893034. PMC 3454167  . PMID 23105486.
Jump up ^ Nayak, B; Hodak, SP (Sep 2007). "Hyperthyroidism". Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America. 36 (3): 617–56, v. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2007.06.002. PMID 17673122.
^ Jump up to: a b Kamath, C; Adlan, MA; Premawardhana, LD (2012). "The role of thyrotrophin receptor antibody assays in graves' disease". Journal of Thyroid Research. 2012: 525936. doi:10.1155/2012/525936. PMC 3345237  . PMID 22577596.
Jump up ^ Ai, J; Leonhardt, JM; Heymann, WR (May 2003). "Autoimmune thyroid diseases: etiology, pathogenesis, and dermatologic manifestations". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 48 (5): 641–59; quiz 660–2. doi:10.1067/mjd.2003.257. PMID 12734493.
Jump up ^ Stassi, G; De Maria, R (Mar 2002). "Autoimmune thyroid disease: new models of cell death in autoimmunity". Nature Reviews Immunology. 2 (3): 195–204. doi:10.1038/nri750. PMID 11913070.
Jump up ^ Van Den Boogaard, E.; Vissenberg, R.; Land, J. A.; Van Wely, M.; Van Der Post, J. A. M.; Goddijn, M.; Bisschop, P. H. (2011). "Significance of (sub)clinical thyroid dysfunction and thyroid autoimmunity before conception and in early pregnancy: A systematic review". Human Reproduction Update. 17 (5): 605–619. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr024. PMID 21622978.
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The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the 1981 movie with the same title, see The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
Single by Vicki Lawrence
from the album The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia
B-side
"Dime a Dance"
Released
February 1972
Format
7" single
Genre
Country pop
Length
3:40
Label
Bell
Songwriter(s)
Bobby Russell
Producer(s)
Snuff Garrett
Vicki Lawrence singles chronology
"No, No"
(1970) "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
(1972) "He Did With Me"
(1973)
"No, No"
(1970) "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
(1972) "He Did With Me"
(1973)
"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia" is a Southern Gothic song, written in 1972 by songwriter Bobby Russell and sung by Vicki Lawrence, an American pop music singer, actress, and comedian. Lawrence's version, from her 1973 Bell Records album of the same name, was a number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 after its release. In addition to several other renditions, the song was again a hit in 1991 when Reba McEntire recorded it for her album For My Broken Heart. McEntire's version was a single, as well, reaching number 12 on Hot Country Songs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 History and original recording
3 Release and reception
4 Musical structure
5 Cover versions
5.1 Tanya Tucker cover
5.2 Reba McEntire cover
6 In popular culture
7 Chart performance
7.1 Vicki Lawrence version
7.2 Year-end charts
7.3 Reba McEntire version
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Returning home from a two-week trip to a place called Candletop, a man, identified only as "Brother", stops for a drink at Webb's Bar before going home to his wife. His friend Andy Woodlow stops in to inform Brother that while he's been away his wife has been having an affair with a man named Seth Amos. Brother is infuriated by this news, but his anger is exacerbated when Andy confesses that he too has been messing around with Brother's wife. Now in fear for his own safety, Andy leaves Webb's Bar and walks back to his house nearby.
Thinking his wife has left town, Brother goes home to find a gun and quietly makes his way through the woods to Andy's house to kill him. On the way there he finds a set of footprints leading up to and back from the house, but they look too small to have been made by Andy. Arriving at Andy's back door, Brother looks through the screen and finds Andy already dead with his blood-soaked body lying on the floor. Without thinking, Brother panics and fires a shot in the air to flag down the Sheriff who was on patrol nearby, but in so doing Brother himself is arrested and charged with the shooting. In a show trial, the judge wastes little time declaring Brother guilty of Andy's murder and then sentencing him to death by hanging, which is carried out in short order.
The story wraps up with the narrator, revealing herself as "Little Sister", admitting that it was she who made the tracks that Brother saw leading to and from Andy's house. She then confesses that she not only killed Andy, but also murdered Brother's unfaithful wife, making extra certain to dispose of her body where nobody would ever find it; the narrator finishes by saying "See, Little Sister don't miss when she aims her gun".
In the song's chorus, Little Sister blames the Georgia criminal justice system for Brother's death, warning the listener "Don't trust your soul to no backwoods Southern lawyer, 'cause the judge in the town's got blood stains on his hands."[1]
History and original recording[edit]
Although Bobby Russell wrote both the lyrics and music for the song, he was reluctant to record even a demonstration because he "didn't like it." According to Lawrence, who was married to Russell at the time, she believed it was destined to be successful and recorded the demo herself. The publishers and the record label did not quite know how to pitch the song, as it was not really a country or a pop song. The first thought was to offer the song to actress/singer Liza Minnelli, but eventually it was offered to singer Cher, but her then-husband and manager Sonny Bono reportedly refused it, as he was said to be concerned that the song might offend Cher's southern fans.[2] Without a singer to record the song, Lawrence went into a studio and recorded it professionally herself, with the instrumental backing of L.A. session musicians from the Wrecking Crew,[3] then pressed the label to release it as a single.
Release and reception[edit]
Released as a single in June 1972, the song would ultimately become a number-one success for Lawrence, topping the Hot 100 chart in early 1973. Lawrence was, at the time, a regular performer on the ensemble variety comedy television show The Carol Burnett Show; on the final episode of the sixth season (March 24, 1973), Burnett surprised Lawrence by presenting her with an RIAA gold record for over a million copies sold. The song also scored number six on the Easy Listening chart,[4] and it peaked at number 36 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles chart.[5] It was number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, and was finally topped by Tony Orlando and Dawn's "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree". Billboard ranked it as the No. 11 song for 1973.
In Canada, the single version scored number one, as well, topping the RPM 100 national singles chart on May 5 of the same year.[6] On the RPM Country Singles chart, it reached #25.[7]
Musical structure[edit]
The lyrics use an AABCCB rhyming pattern on the verses, and ABCB on the chorus. The song's verses are in C Dorian. Verse one consists of four lines, each using the chord pattern Cm-B♭/C-Cm-F/C-Cm-Gm7-Cm. At the chorus, the song modulates to the key of G major, with a chord pattern of Am-D7-G-Em used three times before ending on Am-D7-Gm.[8]
Verse two uses the same structure as verse one, with an additional two lines. The first additional lines also modulate to G major with a chord pattern of Am-D7-G-Em-Am-D-Gm, before returning to C Dorian for another repetition of the original chord pattern. After the second chorus, the third verse consists of only two lines before the chorus is sung a third time. The song then ends with a four-measure riff played in the key of G minor. The overall vocal range is G3-D5.[8]
Cover versions[edit]
"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
Single by Reba McEntire
from the album For My Broken Heart
B-side
"All Dressed Up"
Released
April 1992
Format
7" single
Recorded
1991
Genre
Country
Length
4:17
Label
MCA
Songwriter(s)
Bobby Russell
Producer(s)
Tony Brown, Reba McEntire
Reba McEntire singles chronology
"Is There Life Out There"
(1992) "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
(1992) "The Greatest Man I Never Knew"
(1992)
"Is There Life Out There"
(1992) "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
(1992) "The Greatest Man I Never Knew"
(1992)
Tanya Tucker cover[edit]
In 1981, country singer Tanya Tucker recorded a version (on an album of the same name) with differing lyrics and an altered timeline. These altered lyrics were based on the plot line of the 1981 movie The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia.
Reba McEntire cover[edit]
During 1991, the song was sung as a cover version by Reba McEntire on her album For My Broken Heart. It reached number 12 on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart. While still a commercially successful release, this broke a string of 24 consecutive top 10 country singles by McEntire.
The song also had a successful music video, wherein the older brother of the story is given the name "Raymond Brody"; the video for McEntire's version also contained spoken dialogue that expanded on several of the song's plot points, by suggesting that the judge knew that the narrator's brother did not commit the crime, but was nonetheless anxious to convict him, since he, himself (the judge) had also been having sex with the wife (played by Playboy centerfold/pin up model Barbara Moore) and was worried that a long, involved trial would cause this fact to become known. It also establishes that the little sister (played by McEntire, and portrayed both as a young woman in flashbacks and as a 60-year-old woman using heavy makeup) caught Andy in the act with her brother's wife and that the unfaithful woman also had an affair with the sister's own fiancé.
In popular culture[edit]
For a 1986 Designing Women episode, main character Julia Sugarbaker (Dixie Carter) has one of her famous tirades, defending her beauty queen sister Suzanne against catty remarks made by a young woman, concluding with "And that, just so you will know, and your children will someday know, was the night the lights went out in Georgia!"
It is a prime example of a twist ending in a song, and in the 1992 film Reservoir Dogs, the mobster named Nice Guy Eddie (played by Chris Penn) says, "...this is the first time I ever realized that the girl singin' the song is the one who shot Andy."
The opening motif is sampled in "The Time Is Now", which is currently used as American professional wrestler John Cena's entrance music; specifically, the song samples Pete Schofield and The Canadians' rendition.
In 2011, a book was released titled "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia," written by Jeremy G.T. Reuschling and casually based on the McEntire version of the song and the music video.
Melinda Schneider and Beccy Cole covered the song on their album Great Women of Country (2014).
Comedy group The Credibility Gap recorded a parody version, "The Night That The Lights Stayed On In Pittsburgh."
Chart performance[edit]
Vicki Lawrence version[edit]
Chart (1972–73)
Peak
position
Australia KMR 20
Canadian RPM Top Singles 1
Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary 2
Canadian RPM Country Tracks 25
US Billboard Hot 100[9] 1
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[10] 6
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[11] 36
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1973)
Rank
Canada[12] 10
US Billboard Hot 100 [13] 11
Reba McEntire version[edit]
Chart (1992)
Peak
position
Canada Country Tracks (RPM)[14] 7
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[15] 12
Chart (1992)
Position
Canada Country Tracks (RPM)[16] 73
See also[edit]
Murder ballad
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vicki Lawrence - The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia at MetroLyrics
Jump up ^ Bronson, Fred (1988). "The Night The Lights Went Out in Georgia". The Billboard book of number one hits. New York: Billboard Publications. ISBN 0-8230-7545-1. OCLC 17918476. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
Jump up ^ Hartman, Kent (2012). The Wrecking Crew. St. Martin’s Griffin. pp. 261–263. ISBN 978-1-250-03046-7.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2002). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–2001. Record Research. p. 142.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits: 1944–2006, Second edition. Record Research. p. 196.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
^ Jump up to: a b For My Broken Heart: Piano, Vocal, Guitar. Hal Leonard Corporation. 1992. pp. 25–31. ISBN 0-7935-1295-6.
Jump up ^ "Vicki Lawrence Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Vicki Lawrence Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Vicki Lawrence Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ Canada, Library and Archives (February 8, 2017). "Image : RPM Weekly".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1973/Top 100 Songs of 1973". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Country Tracks: Issue 2017." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. August 1, 1992. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Reba McEntire Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "RPM Top 100 Country Tracks of 1992". RPM. December 19, 1992. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Killing Me Softly with His Song" by Roberta Flack US Billboard Hot 100 number-one single (Vicki Lawrence version)
April 7, 1973 (two weeks) Succeeded by
"Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree" by Dawn featuring Tony Orlando
Preceded by
"Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree" by Dawn featuring Tony Orlando Canadian RPM 100 number-one single (Vicki Lawrence version)
May 5, 1973 (one week) Succeeded by
"The First Cut Is The Deepest" by Keith Hampshire
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Reba McEntire 1990s singles
Sweet Sixteen
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Rumor Has It
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"Fallin' Out of Love"
For My Broken Heart
"For My Broken Heart"
"Is There Life Out There"
"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia"
"The Greatest Man I Never Knew"
It's Your Call
"Take It Back"
"The Heart Won't Lie" (with Vince Gill)
"It's Your Call"
Greatest Hits Volume Two
"Does He Love You" (with Linda Davis)
"They Asked About You"
Read My Mind
"Why Haven't I Heard from You"
"She Thinks His Name Was John"
"Till You Love Me"
"The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter"
"And Still"
Starting Over
"On My Own"
"Ring on Her Finger, Time on Her Hands"
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"You Keep Me Hangin' On"
What If It's You
"The Fear of Being Alone"
"How Was I to Know"
"I'd Rather Ride Around with You"
"What If It's You"
If You See Him
"If You See Him/If You See Her" (with Brooks & Dunn)
"Forever Love"
"Wrong Night"
"One Honest Heart"
So Good Together
"What Do You Say"
Other songs
"What If"
Guest singles
"Oklahoma Swing" (with Vince Gill)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Night_the_Lights_Went_Out_in_Georgia&oldid=817580629"
Categories:
1972 singles
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Song recordings produced by Tony Brown (record producer)
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Songs about death
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New York City transit fares
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
MetroCard Vending Machine (MVM)
The fares for services operated under the brands of MTA Regional Bus (New York City Bus, MTA Bus), New York City Subway (NYC Subway), Staten Island Railway (SIR), PATH, Roosevelt Island Tramway, AirTrain JFK, and the suburban bus operators Nassau Inter-County Express (NICE) and Westchester County Bee-Line System (Bee-Line) are listed below.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current fares
1.1 Base fares
1.2 Unlimited ride MetroCard fares
1.3 Transfers
1.4 Transfer restrictions
1.4.1 Subway
1.4.2 Bus
1.4.3 Subway-to-bus
2 Fare history
2.1 Express bus base fare
2.2 Token and change
3 Fare evasion
3.1 Turnstiles
3.2 History
3.3 Station agents
3.4 Prevention techniques
3.4.1 Configuration
3.4.2 Passenger height
3.4.3 Vandalism
3.4.4 Legal framework and enforcement
3.4.5 Evasion prevention hardware
3.4.6 Fines
3.4.7 Other preventative measures
4 See also
5 References
Current fares[edit]
This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
All fare payments must be made using MetroCard or coins (excluding half-dollars).[1] While MetroCard can be used on PATH, SmartLink is also used; however, SmartLink cannot be used on any other transit system in New York City.
Base fares[edit]
All fares are in US dollars. Kids under 6 ride for free with fare-paying rider; limit is 3.
MTA Bus/NYC Bus: Local, Limited-Stop, Select Bus Service,
Bee-Line (except BxM4C bus), NICE, PATH
NYC Subway, SIR, Roosevelt Island Tramway
Express buses
(MTA and
Academy bus X23/X24)
BxM4C bus[2]
Student MetroCard[3]
AirTrain JFK[4]
Access-A-Ride
(NYC paratransit)
Able-Ride[5]
(Nassau County
paratransit)
Full
Reduced
Full
Reduced
(off-peak)
Full
Reduced
(off-peak)
Full
Half-
fare
NICE[5]
$2.75[6]
$3.00 for a Single-Ride MetroCard ticket[6]
$2.75 for a PATH SingleRide Ticket[7]
$2.75 for NICE when paying in coins[5]
$1.35[6]
$1.25 for NICE when
paying in coins [5]
$1 for PATH by using
Senior SmartLink Card.[7]
$6.50 [6] $3.25 [6] $7.50 $3.75 Free $1.25 $2.25 $5 $2.75 $3.75
($75 for a book of 20 tickets)
Transfer restrictions:
All transfers are valid for 2 hours .[8][9][10]
MetroCard transfers are good for one connecting trip on any other NYC Bus/MTA Bus: local, limited-stops, Select Bus Service or express bus services; NYC Subway, Bee-Line, NICE or Roosevelt Island Tramway (restrictions apply).[8][9] Exceptions:
Two transfers are available with MetroCard at several places. The transfers must be made within two hours in order or in reverse order.
Between Staten Island bus routes crossing the Staten Island Railway, through St. George Ferry Terminal, and then any NYCT local bus or NYC Subway service below Fulton Street in Lower Manhattan.[11]
Between the B61, the B62, and any bus route connecting with the B62.[12]
Between any bus route connecting with the B61, the B61, and the B62.[12]
Between the Q29, the Q33, and the Q72 to LaGuardia Airport only.[13]
Between the S59 or S78, the S79-SBS, and any connecting bus or subway route in Brooklyn.[14]
Between any NICE route connecting to the n20H or n21, the n20H or n21, and then the n20G.
Transfers with nickels, dimes, or quarters are usually good for use on one connecting local bus route.[8]
Customers transferring to suburban buses from another system with a lower base fare must pay the difference between the fare on the first bus and the fare on the second bus.
No free transfer between PATH and NYCTA operations.[7]
PATH does not accept reduced fare MetroCard.[7]
Staten Island Railway fares are collected at St. George and Tompkinsville stations (in both directions).[11]
Unlimited ride MetroCard fares[edit]
All fares are in US dollars. There is a $1 purchase fee for all new MetroCard purchases within the subway system or at railroad stations (except for expiring or damaged MetroCards or MetroCards bought as part of a UniTicket).[15]
7-Day Unlimited[16]
30-Day Unlimited[17]
7-Day Express Bus Plus[18]
10-Trip AirTrain JFK[4][19]
30-Day AirTrain JFK[4][19]
Full fare
$32 $121 $59.50 $25 $40
Reduced fare
$16.00 $60.50
Notes:
The 7 Day Express Bus Plus MetroCard is the only Unlimited-Ride MetroCard accepted on Academy Bus Routes X23/X24 and MTA express buses.
The 30-Day AirTrain JFK MetroCard is the only Unlimited-Ride MetroCard accepted on AirTrain JFK. This MetroCard is not valid on any other services.
No Unlimited MetroCards are accepted on the BxM4C and PATH trains.[2][7]
Transfers[edit]
All transfers with MetroCard are free from bus to subway, local bus to local bus, and subway to local bus. For transfers to express buses from local buses (except for the BxM4C), an additional US$3.75 is deducted from a Pay-Per-Ride MetroCard.[20] With coins, transfers are available to different local buses only, with some restrictions. All transfers are good for two hours. Transfers are available upon request when boarding only.[8][9][10]
There are no transfers to the BxM4C, but one may transfer from the BxM4C.[2]
SingleRide tickets are valid for one ride within two hours after purchase on local buses and the subway. One bus-to-bus transfer is allowed;[21] however, transfer between buses and subways in either direction are not allowed.[22]
On the Select Bus Service routes except S79: customers paying with coins requiring a transfer must board via the front door and request a transfer from the operator. All other customers may board via any of the three doors on Select Bus Service buses only.[23]
Bee-Line customers needing to transfer to Connecticut Transit (I-Bus and route 11),[24] Transport of Rockland (Tappan ZEExpress),[25] Putnam Transit (PART 2),[26] or Housatonic Area Regional Transit (Ridgefield-Katonah Shuttle)[27] services must ask for a transfer, even if paying with MetroCard. The BxM4C does not accept paper or MetroCard transfers, but it does issue transfers to/from other buses and the subway.[2]
NICE customers needing to transfer to City of Long Beach N69, Suffolk County Transit, or Huntington Area Rapid Transit[28] services must ask for a transfer, even if paying with MetroCard.
Transfer restrictions[edit]
There are restrictions on transfers, as noted below:
Subway[edit]
There are no out-of-system subway-to-subway transfers allowed (i.e. exiting the turnstile and entering again), except between Lexington Avenue/59th Street ( 4 5 6 <6> N R W trains) and Lexington Avenue–63rd Street ( F N Q trains).[29]
Until 2011, an extra out-of-system subway-to-subway transfer was allowed between 23rd Street–Ely Avenue/Long Island City–Court Square ( E M G trains) and 45th Road–Court House Square ( 7 <7> trains). An enclosed transfer passageway was opened between the three stations in 2011, rendering this transfer unnecessary.
Additional exceptions may be added on a case by case basis, usually due to construction making a regular transfer unavailable.
Bus[edit]
For Pay-per-Ride customers, there is no free transfer back onto the same route on which the fare was paid, or between the following buses:
Manhattan:
M1, M2, M3, M4: No transfer between uptown Madison Avenue and downtown Fifth Avenue buses.[30]
M31 and M57: No transfer between eastbound and westbound buses along 57th Street. Transfers are available between buses traveling in the same direction, however.[30]
M96 and M106: No transfer between eastbound and westbound buses along 96th Street, even between buses traveling in the same direction.[30]
M101, M102, M103: No transfer between uptown 3rd Avenue and downtown Lexington Avenue buses.[30]
The Bronx:
Bx1 and Bx2: No transfer between southbound and northbound buses on the Grand Concourse.[30]
Bx40 and Bx42: No transfer between eastbound and westbound buses along Tremont Avenue.[30]
Nassau:
No transfers between bus routes that are not listed on the timetable of the route on which the fare was paid. In essence, one cannot transfer between bus routes that do not intersect.[9]
Subway-to-bus[edit]
There are no subway-to-bus or bus-to-subway transfers without a MetroCard allowed, except for B42 customers traveling from south of Flatlands Avenue in Brooklyn to the Rockaway Parkway subway station. B42 customers are transported directly into the subway system without having to pass through turnstiles (as the former trolley line had a loop installed within fare control). Likewise, the B42 Rockaway Parkway Line departs the Rockaway Parkway subway station within subway fare control.
Fare history[edit]
Below are the fares charged for single boardings on the transit lines and predecessors of the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA). Different combinations of transfer privileges and the abolition of double fares to the Rockaways have altered these fares from time to time. Since July 4, 1997, massively increased transfer privileges and pass discounts have lowered the average real fare significantly.[31] According to MTA figures, only 2.1% of rides are single-ride fares.[32]
$0.05 (1904 – July 1, 1948)[33]
$0.10 (July 1, 1948 – July 1, 1953)[33]
Bus fare: $0.07 from 1948[33] until 1950 and $0.10 from 1950 til 1953
$0.15 (July 2, 1953 – 1966)
Bus fare: $0.13 from 1954 til 1955 and $0.15 from 1956 til 1966; 5th Avenue Bus line fare raised to 15 cents on 1 January 1954
$0.20 (1966 – January 3, 1970)[34]
$0.30 (January 4, 1970 – December 31, 1971)[34]
$0.35 (January 1, 1972 – August 31, 1975) (MSBA/Long Island Bus from 1973)
$0.50 (September 2, 1975 – June 27, 1980)[35]
$0.60 (June 28, 1980 – July 2, 1981)[36]
$0.75 (July 3, 1981 – January 1, 1984)
$0.90 (January 2, 1984 – December 31, 1985)[37]
$1.00 (January 1, 1986 – December 31, 1989)
$1.15 (January 1, 1990 – December 31, 1991)
$1.25 (January 1, 1992 – November 11, 1995)
$1.50 (November 12, 1995 – May 3, 2003)[31]
$2.00 (May 4, 2003 – June 27, 2009)[38][39]
$2.25 (June 28, 2009 – December 29, 2010)[40]
$2.25 base fare (December 30, 2010 – March 2, 2013)[41]
$2.50 SingleRide MetroCard ticket fare[41]
$2.50 base fare (March 3, 2013 – March 21, 2015)[42]
$2.75 SingleRide MetroCard ticket fare[42]
$2.75 base fare (March 22, 2015 – present)[43][44]
$3.00 SingleRide MetroCard ticket fare[43][44]
Express bus base fare[edit]
$1.50 (1975 - June 27, 1980)[36]
$2.00 (June 28, 1980 - ?)[36]
$3.00 (? - December 31, 1985)
$3.50 (January 1, 1986 - December 31, 1989)
$4.00 (January 1, 1990 - February 28, 1998)
$3.00 (March 1, 1998 - May 3, 2003)[45]
$4.00 (May 4, 2003 – February 26, 2005)[39]
$5.00 (February 27, 2005 – December 29, 2010)[46]
$5.50 (December 30, 2010 – March 2, 2013)[41]
$6.00 (March 3, 2013 – March 21, 2015)[42]
$6.50 (March 22, 2015 – present)[43][44]
Token and change[edit]
NYCTA tokens; usage dates from left to right: 1953–1970; 1970–1980; 1979–1980; 1980–1986; 1986–1995; 1995–2003
From the inauguration of IRT subway services in 1904[47] until the unified system of 1948 (including predecessor BMT and IND subway services), the fare for a ride on the subway of any length was 5 cents ($.05 in 1904 equivalent to $1.33 in 2016; $.05 in 1948 equivalent to $0.50 in 2016). On July 1, 1948, the fare was increased to 10 cents (equivalent to $1.00 in 2016), and since then has steadily risen.[48] When the New York City Transit Authority was created in July 1953, the fare was raised to 15 cents (equivalent to $1.34 in 2016) and a token was issued.[49] Until April 13, 2003, riders could pay the fare with tokens purchased from a station attendant.[50] The tokens were changed periodically as prices changed. For the 75th anniversary of the subway in 1979 (also called the Diamond Jubilee), a special token with a small off-center diamond cutout and engraved images of a 1904 subway car and kiosk were issued.[51] Many were purchased for keepsakes and were not used for rides. The last iteration of tokens featured a hole in the middle and they started to be issued in 1995, being called the "Five Borough Token".[31] These tokens were phased out in 2003 when the fare rose to $2 (equivalent to $2.60 in 2016).[38][52]
There were issues with the tokens, however. It was a common scam to circumvent the payment of fares by jamming the token slot in an entrance gate with paper. A passenger would insert a token into the turnstile, be frustrated when it did not open the gate, and have to spend another token to enter at another gate. A token thief would then suck the token from the jammed slot with their mouth. This could be repeated many times as long as no police officers spotted the activity. Some token booth attendants sprinkled chili powder in the slots to discourage "token sucking".[53] Token sucking (also known as stuff 'n' suck) was charged under theft of services, criminal tampering and criminal mischief.[54]
Token issues were compounded when transit riders discovered in the early 1980s that tokens purchased for use in the Connecticut Turnpike toll booths were of the same size and weight as New York City subway tokens. Since they cost less than one third as much, they began showing up in subway collection boxes regularly.[55] Connecticut authorities initially agreed to change the size of their tokens,[56] but later reneged and the problem went unsolved until 1985, when Connecticut discontinued the tolls on its turnpike.[57] At that time, the MTA was paid 17.5 cents for each of more than two million tokens that had been collected during the three-year "token war".[57]
Fare evasion[edit]
Turnstiles[edit]
The New York City Subway has four basic types of fare control equipment: low turnstiles (including agent-operated special entry turnstiles, SETs), high entrance-exit turnstiles (HEETs), high exit turnstiles (HXTs), and gates (including emergency exit gates (EXG), agent-operated gates (AOG), and Autonomous Farecard Access System (AFAS) gates for wheelchair access). Passengers enter the subway by swiping farecards to unlock the turnstiles. Typical control areas feature low turnstiles, one or more EXGs, and a token booth. Unstaffed entrances that were remodeled before the late 2000s featured only HEETs and EXGs. Exit-only locations have only HXTs and EXGs. All control areas must have at least one EXG, as per State emergency regulations.[58]
Systemwide EXG installations since 2006 [59] introduced a weakness into otherwise secure AFC systems. Gates were originally only unlocked via booths' buzzers or employees’ keys. After London Underground’s 2005 terrorism attacks, fire codes required “panic bars”, allowing each gate to be opened from the paid side, expediting emergency evacuation. While a loud, piercing, and warbling alarm sounds whenever EXGs are opened, general public took to using gates for exiting (substantially reducing queues), especially at unstaffed locations. It happened so often that in January 2015, the MTA silenced all exit alarms.[60]
Per NYCS fare tariff, exceptions to normal turnstile operations abound. Children under 44 inches (110 cm) (turnstile machines’ top height) must crawl under when entering with fare-paying adults (not permissible when travelling alone). Those with bulk items (bicycles, strollers, packages) must request station agent witness their swiping farecard, rotating turnstile without entering, then enter through an AOG with their items. Passengers with paper half-fare or “block” tickets must relinquish them to the agent and enter through a SET. School groups traveling with authorization letters may be admitted through an AOG.
An added complication is several unofficial system entry methods resulting in no revenue loss but forbidden by tariff are frequently practiced. At unstaffed locations, fellow passengers often open EXGs for entry by customers with bulk packages after witnessing them rotate turnstiles without entering. Children often squeeze through HEETs with paying adults (if under 44”, no revenue loss occurs). At token booths, agents often admit passengers through an AOG or SET for operational reasons. Police in uniform, construction workers, contractors in safety vests, employees, and concession vendors often enter with keys or agent’s permission. Police officers sometimes allow student groups to enter through gates.
History[edit]
See also: History of the New York City Subway § Decline, and Crime in New York City
New York City’s transit system in the 1970s was in disarray. Subway ridership was spiraling downwards, while private express buses mushroomed, exacerbating Transit Authority’s (TA) problems. Crime was rampant; derailments, fires, breakdowns, and assaults were commonplace. Trains and stations were covered in graffiti. Passengers were actually afraid to ride the subway. To attract passengers, TA even introduced a premium fare “Train to the Plane” – staffed by a Transit police officer at all times. Comparatively, fare evasion seemed a small problem. However, fare evasion was causing the TA to lose revenue.[61]
TA’s strategy for restoring riders’ confidence took a two-pronged approach. In 1981, MTA’s first capital program started system’s physical restoration to a State-of-Good-Repair. Improving TA’s image in riders’ minds is as important as overcoming deferred maintenance. Prompt removal of graffiti [62] and prevention of blatant fare evasion would become central pillars of the strategy to assure customers that the subway is “fast, clean, and safe”:[63] The graffiti came off the last subway cars in 1989.[64]
Similarly, fare evasion was taken seriously. The TA began formally measuring evasion in November 1988. When TA’s Fare Abuse Task Force (FATF) was convened in January 1989, evasion was 3.9%. After a 15-cent fare increase to $1.15 in August 1990, a record 231,937 people per day, or 6.9%, didn’t pay. This continued through 1991.[65]
To combat the mounting problem, FATF designated 305 “target stations” with most evaders for intensive enforcement and monitoring. Teams of uniformed and undercover police officers randomly conducted “mini-sweeps”, swarming and arresting groups of evaders.[66] Special “mobile booking centers” in converted citybuses allowed fast-track offender processing.[67] Fare abuse agents covered turnstiles in shifts and issued citations. Plainclothes surveyors collected data for five hours per week at target locations, predominantly during morning peak hours. Finally, in 1992, evasion began to show a steady and remarkable decline, dropping to about 2.7% in 1994.[68]
The dramatic decrease in evasion during this period coincided with a reinvigorated Transit Police, a 25% expansion of City police, and a general drop in crime in U.S. cities. In the city, crime rate decline begun in 1991 under Mayor David Dinkins and continued through next two decades under Mayors Rudolph Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg. Some observers credited the “broken windows” approach of law enforcement [69] where minor crimes like evasion are routinely prosecuted, and statistical crimefighting tools, whereas others have indicated different reasons for crime reduction.[70][71] Regardless of causality, evasion checks resulted in many arrests for outstanding warrants or weapons charges, likely contributing somewhat to public safety improvements. Arrests weren’t the only way to combat evasions, and by the early 1990s NYCTA was examining methods to improve fare control passenger throughputs, reduce fare collection costs, and maintain control over evasions and general grime. The AFC system was being designed, and evasion-preventing capability was a key consideration.
TA’s queuing studies concluded that purchasing tokens from clerks was not efficient. Preventing ‘slug’ use required sophisticated measures like tokens with metal alloy centers and electronic token verification devices. To provide better access control, the NYCTA experimented with floor-to-ceiling gates and “high wheel” turnstiles. Prototypes installed at 110th Street/Lexington Avenue station during a “target hardening” trial reduced evasions compared to nearby “control” stations.[72] However, controls consisting entirely of “high-wheels” created draconian, prison-like environments, with detrimental effects on station aesthetics. Compromises with more secure low-turnstile designs were difficult, as AFC did not prevent fare evasion.[73]
Production Automated Fare Collection (AFC) implementation began on January 6, 1994.[31] New turnstiles, including unstaffed high wheels, and floor-to-ceiling service gates, featured lessons learned from trials. As AFC equipment was rolled out, evasion plummeted. Fare abuse agents, together with independent monitoring, were eliminated.
Station agents[edit]
The MTA had tried to reduce station agent positions since full MetroCard vending machine (MVM) deployment in 1997.[31] Agents, whose primary responsibility was selling tokens, now sell MetroCards. However, AFC eliminated long token booth queues, so fewer clerks were needed. Passengers now interact with agents only for requests like mutilated farecards, concessionary fares, or travel directions. Clerks were not cross-trained for AFC maintenance; that function was assigned to turnstile maintainers. The MTA determined that each station required only one full-time booth, serving dominant (or both) travel directions. Some booths were removed altogether because it was felt that MVMs would be sufficient.[74]
Some thought the station destaffing plan would lead to potential evasion increases, and consequently more general crime. The original FATF (1988–1997) was reconvened in 2009 to review trends and coordinate mitigation strategies between MTA and New York City Police Department (NYPD)’s Transit Bureau. Further confusing the issue, agents themselves historically provided evasion counts in their normal course of duty.
Decision to eliminate agents turned out controversial with both riding public and elected officials. Representatives were concerned about constituents’ jobs, whereas riders were concerned about susceptibility to crime.[75]
A 2004 compromise converted low-volume booths to high-wheels, high-volume booths to part-time entrances called “kiosks” (51) staffed by Station Customer Assistants (SCAs). Affectionately called “burgundy jackets”, SCAs do not sell farecards, instead they walk around solving customers issues, including fare machine usage.
Agents' presence in the stations is disputed. A civil suit concerning the 2005 sexual assault at 21st Street station, which occurred despite alarm having been raised by the agent.[76] However, an agent saved a life in Cathedral Parkway–110th Street in 2010.[77]
The 2009 fiscal crisis necessitated more agent reductions, leaving only one 24-hour booth per station complex. Planned attrition program was converted to layoffs when fiscal situation deteriorated further in 2010.
Prevention techniques[edit]
Configuration[edit]
In studies, gate evasion rate was found to be 1.5% unlocked, and only 0.8% when locked. Interestingly, unlocked gates also invite more “questionable” entries; rate was 1.8% unlocked, but only 0.9% locked. Keeping gates locked potentially halves gate-related evasions. Following this finding, NYCS reinstructed station supervisors and agents on importance and revenue impacts of keeping gates locked. Questionable gate entries decreased from 1.5% to 0.4% following this change, but illegal gate entries did not show statistically significant decrease when seasonality effects were accounted for. This measure seems to target mostly casual evasions.
Originally fare control hardware and staff presence was thought to affect evasions. Unstaffed HEETs (with emergency exits), a generally unsupervised environment, might invite rampant evasions. However, pilot studies indicated these locations had similar gate evasions (0.9%) to staffed locations (1.0%). At least in New York, agents do not seem to deter evaders. Unsupervised HEETs had similar turnstile evasions (1.2%) to staffed locations (1.0%). Unsupervised exit-only locations have lower gate evasions (0.6%) than elsewhere, suggesting evasion is a crime of opportunity. Exit-only gates are only opened when trains arrive and passengers open them from the paid side; evaders likely find it more time-efficient to evade through entrances. Only the most determined evaders would wait at exit-only locations for others to exit, to enter.
Passenger height[edit]
Passengers may be unaware of height guidelines determining when children must begin to pay, which were posted at booths that many customers no longer use.[78][79] Prototype signs are being tested near turnstiles at the Bowling Green station, and a sign also exists at the 81st Street–Museum of Natural History station.[citation needed]
Vandalism[edit]
MVM vandalism costs NYCS both in lost revenues and repair expenses. NYCS provides MVM vandalism intelligence to NYPD, which utilizes hidden portable wireless digital video cameras in “sting” operations to gather evidence against organized fare abuse rings and identify leaders. These “professional swipers” can be difficult to apprehend because they are very mobile and require strategic and determined law enforcement efforts to monitor MVM vandalism patterns, prioritizing stations with the highest vandalism rates.
In years past, theft-of-service crimes were often dismissed with time served (several days in Riker's Island), but by working with the Manhattan District Attorney’s Office and Midtown Community Court, FATF achieved escalating sentences for recidivists. The coordinated efforts resulted in a five-swiper ring being disbanded and sentences of over one year being imposed. Measuring impacts of taking down fare abuse operations is difficult, because even large swiper rings ‘sell’ very few fares compared to natural day-to-day fluctuations of the 8.0 million riders on NYC’s system due to reasons like weather or special events.
Legal framework and enforcement[edit]
The most important evasion fighting tool is arguably comprehensive and functioning legal frameworks to deal with evaders and counterfeiters. NYCS’s Rule of Conduct (62) has banned evasions since the 1980s, rules having been established mainly for arresting persons likely to commit other crimes (assault, graffiti). With appropriate legal framework, like traffic stops, evasion checks can be effective in identifying and arresting criminals wanted on outstanding warrants.[80]
To round-up evaders, MTA fare inspectors continue to use the “surge” strategy first developed by Transit police. Renewed enforcement interests led to several high-profile cases. Swiss tourists with allegedly valid passes were ticketed for bumping turnstiles.[81] One passenger was arrested for exiting, not entering, through an emergency gate.[82]
Legal framework is more than prohibition of illegal acts and prescription of fines. Complete regulations should address issues like: arrests versus summonses; arresting/summons issuing powers; whether undercover enforcement is permitted; disputes/appeals process (e.g. “my monthly MetroCard isn’t working, so I went through the gate”); dealing with genuinely confused tourists (e.g. “I flashed my pass, so going through the gate is okay?”); required evidence for conviction (e.g. whether video evidence are admissible). New York allows certain non-police employees to issue evasion citations, and utilizes both uniformed and undercover police enforcement.
Contextual security – expressly forbidding nonpayment and offering ways to punish rulebreakers – is potentially as important as having secure hardware. In Boston, students used well-known methods [83][84] to defeat MIFARE Classic farecard’s proprietary encryption, publicly demonstrating proof-of-concept forgeries.[85] However, they did not acknowledge the highly illegal nature of using forged cards, making cloning not worthwhile for $1.70 fares. Chips implementing stronger open-standard encryption algorithms have now largely superseded MIFARE Classic.
Evasion prevention hardware[edit]
Video recording equipment may deter criminal activity, including evasion. Cameras are widely deployed in modern Asian and European transit systems.
Like other US agencies, New York City Subway installed counter-terrorism cameras at key stations. PIDs[further explanation needed] cover fare controls from every conceivable angle with high fidelity video, positively identifying terror suspects. They also produce clear pictures of entering and exiting passengers, including evaders.
On Port Authority Trans-Hudson (and some New York City Subway stations), hidden rooms with half-silvered glass or surveillance portals are provided for covert police observation. Perpetrators are apprehended by police that suddenly appear from behind closed doors when illegal acts occur.
Fines[edit]
MTA’s $60 penalty was internally set by Transit Adjudication Bureau (TAB) with delegated powers.[86] NYCT increased fines to $100 in July 2008, the maximum TAB can levy without further approvals, to support conversion to Proof-of-Payment (POP) fare collection for the Select Bus Service.
Other preventative measures[edit]
There are also uniformed guards, undercover police officers, and ticket barriers to prevent fare evasion on the subway. On Select Bus Service, a penalty fare may need to be paid.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fare control systems in the New York City Subway.
MetroCard (New York City)
Pizza Principle, the connection between single-ride fares and a slice of pizza in New York City
References[edit]
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