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Food preservation
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Food preservation prevents the growth of microorganisms (such as yeasts), or other microorganisms (although some methods work by introducing benign bacteria or fungi to the food), as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation.
Many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit’s moisture content and to kill bacteria, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). Some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods.[1]
Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as "carcinogenic to humans".[2][3][4]
Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.
Contents
1 Traditional techniques
1.1 Curing
1.2 Cooling
1.3 Freezing
1.4 Boiling
1.5 Heating
1.6 Sugaring
1.7 Pickling
1.8 Lye
1.9 Canning
1.10 Jellying
1.11 Jugging
1.12 Burial
1.13 Fermentation
2 Modern industrial techniques
2.1 Pasteurization
2.2 Vacuum packing
2.3 Artificial food additives
2.4 Irradiation
2.5 Pulsed electric field electroporation
2.6 Modified atmosphere
2.7 Nonthermal plasma
2.8 High-pressure food preservation
2.9 Biopreservation
2.10 Hurdle technology
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Traditional techniques
New techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.
Curing
Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or "pink salt". It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.
Main article: Curing (food preservation)
The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol.[5] Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.[6]
Cooling
Main article: Refrigeration
Cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western world by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather.
Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars and iceboxes. Rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including local food, heirloom crops, traditional home cooking techniques, family farming, frugality, self-sufficiency, organic farming, and others.
Freezing
Main article: Frozen food
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.
Boiling
Main article: Boiling
Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them.
Heating
Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews. Milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms.
Sugaring
See also: Sugaring
The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar.[7] "Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage."[5] Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica, and ginger. Also, sugaring can be used in the production of jam and jelly.
Pickling
Main article: Pickling
Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.
In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil. Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli.
In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence of lactobacillales. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, and surströmming.
Lye
Main article: Sodium hydroxide § Food preparation
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye.
Canning
Preserved food
Main article: Canning
See also: Home canning
Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization. It was invented by the French confectioner Nicolas Appert.[8] By 1806, this process was used by the French Navy to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk. Although Appert had discovered a new way of preservation, it wasn't understood until 1864 when Louis Pasteur found the relationship between microorganisms, food spoilage, and illness.[7]
Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as carrots require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.
Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes gas production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing) and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum, which produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however. Cooked mushrooms, handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating.
Jellying
Main article: Aspic
See also: Potted shrimps and Confit
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include gelatin, agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a protein gel when cooked, such as eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms, which are a delicacy in Xiamen, in the Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the East End of London, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats in aspic (a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied.
A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularly shrimp) is by setting it in a pot and sealing it with a layer of fat. Also common is potted chicken liver; jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional pâtés.
Jugging
Main article: Jugging
Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging is the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a covered earthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.
Burial
Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen.
Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp. Century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones. Cabbage was traditionally buried during Autumn in northern US farms for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut.[citation needed] A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi. Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator. Before burial, meat (pig/boar) can be fatted. The tallow of the animal is heated and poured over meat in a barrel. Once the fat hardens the barrel is sealed and buried in a cold cellar or ground.
In Orissa, India, it is practical to store rice by burying it underground. This method helps to store for three to six months during the dry season.
Butter and similar substances have been preserved as bog butter in Irish peat bogs for centuries.
Fermentation
See also: Fermentation (food)
Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less-benign organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.
Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable. For example, drinking water in the Middle Ages was dangerous because it often contained pathogens that could spread disease. When the water is made into beer, the boiling during the brewing process kills any bacteria in the water that could make people sick. Additionally, the water now has the nutrients from the barley and other ingredients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.[7]
Modern industrial techniques
Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.
Pasteurization
Main article: Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about 70 °C (158 °F) for 15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to 10 °C (50 °F) to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.
Vacuum packing
Main article: Vacuum packing
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.
Artificial food additives
Main article: Preservatives
Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial—which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold—or antioxidant, such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.), and EDTA. Antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Other preservatives include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (insecticide), ethanol, and methylchloroisothiazolinone.
Irradiation
Main article: Food irradiation
Irradiation of food[9] is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation. Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be used, including beta particles (high-energy electrons) and gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137). Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect pests, reduce the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses induce sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called "cold pasteurization", as the product is not heated. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.
National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the United Nations, such as the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation.[10][11] Consumers may have a negative view of irradiated food based on the misconception that such food is radioactive;[12] in fact, irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive. Activists have also opposed food irradiation for other reasons, for example, arguing that irradiation can be used to sterilize contaminated food without resolving the underlying cause of the contamination.[13] International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to a full ban.[14]
Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.[15][16]
Pulsed electric field electroporation
Main article: Electroporation
Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases their contents. PEF for food processing is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices. To date, several PEF treated juices are available on the market in Europe. Furthermore, for several years a juice pasteurization application in the US has used PEF. For cell disintegration purposes especially potato processors show great interest in PEF technology as an efficient alternative for their preheaters. Potato applications are already operational in the US and Canada. There are also commercial PEF potato applications in various countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, India, and China.[17]
Modified atmosphere
Main article: Modified atmosphere
Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops that are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that, although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrients, especially vitamins. There are two methods for preserving grains with carbon dioxide. One method is placing a block of dry ice in the bottom and filling the can with the grain. Another method is purging the container from the bottom by gaseous carbon dioxide from a cylinder or bulk supply vessel.
Carbon dioxide prevents insects and, depending on concentration, mold and oxidation from damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can remain edible for approximately five years.[18]
Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher is also used effectively to kill insects in the grain through hypoxia.[19] However, carbon dioxide has an advantage in this respect, as it kills organisms through hypercarbia and hypoxia (depending on concentration), but it requires concentrations of above 35%,[20] or so. This makes carbon dioxide preferable for fumigation in situations where a hermetic seal cannot be maintained.
Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA): "CA storage is a non-chemical process. Oxygen levels in the sealed rooms are reduced, usually by the infusion of nitrogen gas, from the approximate 21 percent in the air we breathe to 1 percent or 2 percent. Temperatures are kept at a constant 0–2 °C (32–36 °F). Humidity is maintained at 95 percent and carbon dioxide levels are also controlled. Exact conditions in the rooms are set according to the apple variety. Researchers develop specific regimens for each variety to achieve the best quality. Computers help keep conditions constant." "Eastern Washington, where most of Washington’s apples are grown, has enough warehouse storage for 181 million boxes of fruit, according to a report done in 1997 by managers for the Washington State Department of Agriculture Plant Services Division. The storage capacity study shows that 67 percent of that space—enough for 121,008,000 boxes of apples—is CA storage." [21]
Air-tight storage of grains (sometimes called hermetic storage) relies on the respiration of grain, insects, and fungi that can modify the enclosed atmosphere sufficiently to control insect pests. This is a method of great antiquity,[22] as well as having modern equivalents. The success of the method relies on having the correct mix of sealing, grain moisture, and temperature.[23]
A patented process uses fuel cells to exhaust and automatically maintain the exhaustion of oxygen in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.[24]
Nonthermal plasma
Main article: Nonthermal plasma
This process subjects the surface of food to a "flame" of ionized gas molecules, such as helium or nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface.[25]
High-pressure food preservation
Main article: Pascalization
High-pressure food preservation or pascalization refers to the use of a food preservation technique that makes use of high pressure. "Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square inch (480 MPa) or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful microorganisms and slowing spoilage." By 2005, the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.[26]
Biopreservation
3D stick model of nisin. Some lactic acid bacteria manufacture nisin. It is a particularly effective preservative.
Main article: Biopreservation
Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life.[27] Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food.[28] It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention.[27]
Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic properties that make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effective preservative.[29][30]
These days, LAB bacteriocins are used as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.[27]
Hurdle technology
Main article: Hurdle technology
Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as "hurdles" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product.[31]
Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of hurdles that secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and nutritional quality and the economic viability of food products.[32] The organoleptic quality of the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell, and texture.
Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, and the presence of preservatives or biopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the product.[31]
Principal hurdles used for food preservation (after Leistner, 1995)[33][34]
Parameter
Symbol
Application
High temperature F Heating
Low temperature T Chilling, freezing
Reduced water activity aw Drying, curing, conserving
Increased acidity pH Acid addition or formation
Reduced redox potential Eh Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate
Biopreservatives Competitive flora such as microbial fermentation
Other preservatives Sorbates, sulfites, nitrites
See also
Food portal
Blast chilling
Food engineering
Food microbiology
Food packaging
Food rheology
Food science
Food spoilage
Freeze-drying
Fresherized
List of dried foods
List of pickled foods
List of smoked foods
Refrigerate after opening
Shelf life
Notes
Jump up ^ "Preserving Food without Freezing or Canning, Chelsea Green Publishing, 1999"
Jump up ^ Stacy Simon (26 October 2015). "World Health Organization Says Processed Meat Causes Cancer". Cancer.org.
Jump up ^ James Gallagher (26 October 2015). "Processed meats do cause cancer - WHO". BBC.
Jump up ^ "IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 26 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Msagati, T. (2012). "The Chemistry of Food Additives and Preservatives"
Jump up ^ Nummer, Brian; Andress, Elizabeth (June 2015). "Curing and Smoking Meats for Home Food Preservation". National Center for Home Food Preservation.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nummer, B. (2002). "Historical Origins of Food Preservation" http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html. (Accessed on 5 May 2014)
Jump up ^ Nicolas Appert inventeur et humaniste by Jean-Paul Barbier, Paris, 1994 and http://www.appert-aina.com
Jump up ^ anon., Food Irradation – A technique for preserving and improving the safety of food, WHO, Geneva, 1991
Jump up ^ World Health Organization. Wholesomeness of irradiated food. Geneva, Technical Report Series No. 659, 1981
Jump up ^ World Health Organization. High-Dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of Food Irradiated With Doses Above 10 kGy. Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. WHO Technical Report Series No. 890
Jump up ^ Conley, S.T., What do consumers think about irradiated foods, FSIS Food Safety Review (Fall 1992), 11-15
Jump up ^ Hauter, W. & Worth, M., Zapped! Irradiation and the Death of Food, Food & Water Watch Press, Washington, DC, 2008
Jump up ^ NUCLEUS – Food Irradiation Clearances Archived 26 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Food irradiation – Position of ADA J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:246-253 Archived 16 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ C.M. Deeley, M. Gao, R. Hunter, D.A.E. Ehlermann, The development of food irradiation in the Asia Pacific, the Americas and Europe; tutorial presented to the International Meeting on Radiation Processing, Kuala Lumpur, 2006. http://www.doubleia.org/index.php?sectionid=43&parentid=13&contentid=494[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Elea Pulsed Electric Field Technology - Homepage". www.elea-technology.com. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
Jump up ^ Navarro, Shlomo; Timlick, Blaine; Demianyk, Colin; White, Noel (March 2012). "Controlled or Modified Atmospheres" (PDF). k-state.edu. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Annis, P.C. and Dowsett, H.A. 1993. Low oxygen disinfestation of grain: exposure periods needed for high mortality. Proc. International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation. Winnipeg, June 1992, Caspit Press, Jerusalem, pp 71-83.
Jump up ^ Annis, P.C. and Morton, R. 1997. The acute mortality effects of carbon dioxide on various life stages of Sitophilus oryzae. J. Stored Prod.Res. 33. 115-124
Jump up ^ Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA) :: Washington State Apple Commission
Jump up ^ Various authors, Session 1: Natural Air-Tight Storage In: Shejbal, J., ed., Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Grains, Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1-33
Jump up ^ Annis P.C. and Banks H.J. 1993. Is hermetic storage of grains feasible in modern agricultural systems? In "Pest control and sustainable agriculture" Eds S.A. Corey, D.J. Dall and W.M. Milne. CSIRO, Australia. 479-482
Jump up ^ Laine Welch (18 May 2013). "Laine Welch: Fuel cell technology boosts long-distance fish shipping". Anchorage Daily News. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
Jump up ^ NWT magazine, December 2012
Jump up ^ "High-Pressure Processing Keeps Food Safe". Military.com. Archived from the original on 2008-02-02. Retrieved 2008-12-16. Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square inch or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful microorganisms and slowing spoilage.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ananou S, Maqueda M, Martínez-Bueno M and Valdivia E (2007) "Biopreservation, an ecological approach to improve the safety and shelf-life of foods" In: A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.) Communicating Current Research and Educational Topics and Trends in Applied Microbiology, Formatex. ISBN 978-84-611-9423-0.
Jump up ^ Yousef AE and Carolyn Carlstrom C (2003) Food microbiology: a laboratory manual Wiley, Page 226. ISBN 978-0-471-39105-0.
Jump up ^ FAO: Preservation techniques Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Alzamora SM, Tapia MS and López-Malo A (2000) Minimally processed fruits and vegetables: fundamental aspects and applications Springer, Page 266. ISBN 978-0-8342-1672-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Alasalvar C (2010) Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications John Wiley and Sons, Page 203. ISBN 978-1-4051-8070-2.
Jump up ^ Leistner I (2000) "Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology" International Journal of Food Microbiology, 55:181–186.
Jump up ^ Leistner L (1995) "Principles and applications of hurdle technology" In Gould GW (Ed.) New Methods of Food Preservation, Springer, pp. 1-21. ISBN 978-0-8342-1341-8.
Jump up ^ Lee S (2004) "Microbial Safety of Pickled Fruits and Vegetables and Hurdle Technology" Internet Journal of Food Safety, 4: 21–32.
References
Riddervold, Astri. Food Conservation. ISBN 978-0-907325-40-6.
Abakarov, Nunes. "Thermal food processing optimization: algorithms and software" (PDF). Food Engineering.
Abakarov, Sushkov, Mascheroni. "Multi-criteria optimization and decision-making approach for improving of food engineering processes" (PDF). International Journal of Food Studies.
Further reading
Marx de Salcedo, Anastacia (2015). Combat-ready Kitchen: How the U.S. military shapes the way you eat. New York: Current/Penguin. ISBN 9781101601648.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Food preservation.
A ca. 1894 Gustav Hammer & Co. commercial cooking machinery catalogue.
Preserving foods ~ from the Clemson Extension Home and Garden Information Center
National Center for Home Food Preservation
BBC News Online – US army food... just add urine
Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH)
An e-book collection of over 1,000 classic books on home economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library.
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text:
List of countries by level of military equipment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (February 2016)
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2018)
This is a list of countries by level of military equipment, including naval ships, fighter aircraft and nuclear weapons. This list is indicative only, as strict comparisons cannot accurately be made.
Contents
[hide]
1 List
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 Further reading
7 External links
List[edit]
Country[note 1]
Military budget (US$ BN)[note 2]
Main battle tanks
Aircraft carriers
AWS
Cruisers
Destroyers
Frigates
Corvettes
Nuclear submarines
Non-nuclear Submarines
Military aircraft[note 3]
Attack helicopters[note 4]
Nuclear weapons[1]
Military satellites
Total 1,778.5 104,476 23 86 29 218 368 262 146 363 20,089 9,641 15,913 320
Afghanistan[2] 3.29 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 83 0 0
Albania[3] 0.163 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Algeria[4] 12.0 1,195 0 1 0 0 5 6 0 6 120 77 0 1
Angola[5] 6.83l 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 83 70 0 0
Antigua and Barbuda[6] 0.027 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Argentina[7] 4.26 213 0 0 0 5 6 3 0 3 123 44 0 0
Armenia[8] 0.47 109 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 17 0 0
Australia[9] 22.5 59 2 3 0 0 12 0 0 6 146 39 TC 1
Austria[10] 3.32 56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 24 TC 0
Azerbaijan[11] 2.11 433 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 44 50 0 0
Bahamas[12] 0.087 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bahrain[13] 1.33 180 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 39 30 0 0
Bangladesh[14] 3 534[15] 0 0 0 0 6 4 0 2[16] 166[17] 70 0 0
Barbados[18] 0.033 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Belarus[19] 0.681 515 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 72 49 0 0
Belgium[20] 5.04 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 88 8 NATO shared 0
Belize[21] 0.018 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Benin[22] 0.086 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bolivia[23] 0.405 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 7 0 0
Bosnia and Herzegovina[24] 0.227 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0
Botswana[25] 0.346 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 7 0 0
Brazil[26] 31.9 393 1 1 0 3 11 4 0 5 292 78 TC 0
Brunei[27] 0.573 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bulgaria[28] 0.736 80 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 42 15 0 0
Burkina Faso[29] 0.164 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4 0 0
Burundi[30] 0.061 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0
Cambodia[31] 0.446 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 14 0 0
Cameroon[32] 0.41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 8 0 0
Canada[33] 15.9 120 0 0 0 1 12 0 0 4 95 115 0 1
Cape Verde[34] 0.012 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Central African Republic[35] N/A 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chad[36] 0.209 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 14 0 0
Chile[37] 3.88 245 0 1 0 1 7 0 0 4 96 25 0 1
People's Republic of China[38] 216.4 9,151 1 4 0 29 49 36 14 60 3,720 579 260[1] 68
Colombia[39] 13.4 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 4 86 49 0 0
Costa Rica[40] 0.42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Croatia[41] 0.774 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 11 0 0
Cuba[42] N/A 900 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 17 0 0
Cyprus[43] 0.432 482 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0
Czech Republic[44] 2.09 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 32 0 0
Ivory Coast[45] 0.812 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Democratic Republic of the Congo[46] 0.456 149 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 9 0 0
Denmark[47] 4.81 55 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 45 15 0 0
Djibouti[48] 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Dominican Republic[49] 0.397 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0
Ecuador[50] 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 0 2 42 34 0 0
Egypt[51] 5.45 2,540 0 0 0 0 8 2 0 4 569 132 0 0
El Salvador[52] 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 16 0 0
Equatorial Guinea[53] 0.008 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 6 0 0
Eritrea[54] 0.078 270 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 8 0 0
Estonia[55] 0.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ethiopia[56] 0.375 446 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 25 0 0
Fiji[57] 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Finland[58] 3.72 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 107 12 0 0
France[59] 53.1 200 1 4 0 11 11 0 10 0 395 293 300[1] 8
Gabon[60] 0.183 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 0
Gambia[61] 0.005 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Georgia[62] 0.393 123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 6 0 0
Germany[63] 43.9 410 0 0 0 0 11 5 0 5 245 43 NATO shared 7
Ghana[64] 0.277 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 6 0 0
Greece[65] 5.64 1,354 0 0 0 0 13 4 0 8 244 48 0 0
Guatemala[66] 0.264 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 2 0 0
Guinea[67] 0.04 38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0
Guinea-Bissau[68] 0.026 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Guyana[69] 0.037 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Haiti[70] N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Honduras[71] 0.216 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 7 0 0
Hungary[72] 1.0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 18 0 0
Iceland[73] 0.039 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
India[74] 53.2 6,464 2 1 0 11 14 26 2[75][76] 14 2,086 809 110[1] 7
Indonesia[77] 7.09 378 0 5 0 0 11 18 0 2 97 45 0 0
Iran[78] 14.8 1,663 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 21 337 62 0 0
Iraq[79] 18.9 270 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 17 0 0
Ireland[80] 1.22 14 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 24 6 0 0
Israel[81] 20.1 1,560 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 440 84 80[note 5][1] 8
Italy[82] 24.3 160 2 3 0 4 10 5 0 6 258 211 NATO shared 6
Jamaica[83] 0.12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Japan[84] 47.7 688 0 3 0 34 9 0 0 18 777 207 TC 4
Jordan[85] 2.5 1,323 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 134 126 0 0
Kazakhstan[86] 2.03 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 122 60 0 0
Kenya[87] 1.04 78 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 37 0 0
North Korea[88] N/A 3,500 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 72 563 100 8[1] 0
South Korea[89] 34.4 2,514 0 1 0 12 14 36 0 23 587 273 TC 0
Kuwait[90] 4.84 293 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 29 0 0
Kyrgyzstan[91] 0.095 150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 2 0 0
Laos[92] 0.024 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0
Latvia[93] 0.21 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
Lebanon[94] 1.2 324 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 0 0
Lesotho[95] 0.054 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Liberia[96] 0.024 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Libya[97] 4.66 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 8 3 0 0
Lithuania[98] 0.436 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Luxembourg[99] 0.255 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Macedonia[100] 0.131 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0
Madagascar[101] 0.074 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
Malawi[102] 0.042 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Malaysia[103] 5.03 48 0 0 0 0 10 4 0 2 67 32 0 0
Mali[104] 0.365 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 0
Malta[105] 0.061 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
Mauritania[106] 0.149 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 0
Mauritius[107] 0.084 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0
Mexico[108] 6.55 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 81 65 TC 1
Moldova[109] 0.025 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
Mongolia[110] 0.108 420 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Montenegro[111] 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0
Morocco[112] 3.86 434 0 0 0 1 5 1 0 0 92 33 0 0
Mozambique[113] 0.035 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Myanmar[114] 2.43 185 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 155 27 TC 0
Namibia[115] 0.41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 7 0 0
Nepal[116] 0.312 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0
Netherlands[117] 10.7 16 0 2 0 4 2 0 0 4 74 48 NATO shared 0
New Zealand[118] 3.19 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 6 5 TC 0
Nicaragua[119] 0.083 62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0
Niger[120] 0.072 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0
Nigeria[121] 2.25 276 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 53 16 0 0
Norway[122] 6.98 52 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 6 63 26 0 0
Oman[123] 9.62 117 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 44 15 0 0
Pakistan[124] 8.31 3,010 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 5 923 394 120[1] 0
Panama[125] 0.717 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0
Papua New Guinea[126] 0.099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Paraguay[127] 0.313 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0
Peru[128] 2.59 165 0 0 0 0 7 6 0 6 78 264 0 0
Philippines[129] 2.09 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 22 27 0 0
Poland[130] 10.4 926 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 5 113 106 TC 0
Portugal[131] 2.63 56 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 2 42 18 0 0
Qatar[132] 4.35 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 34 0 0
Republic of the Congo[133] 0.72 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Romania[134] 2.88 437 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 94 22 TC 0
Russia[135][136][137] 70.0 15,398 1 0 6 18 13 48 45 22 3,547 1,438 7,700[1] 74
Rwanda[138] 0.081 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0
Saudi Arabia[139] 80.8 600 0 0 0 3 4 4 0 0 313 85 TC 0
Senegal[140] 0.254 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0
Serbia[141] 0.711 212 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 83 53 0 0
Seychelles[142] 0.013 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sierra Leone[143] 0.015 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Singapore[144] 10.0 96 0 4 0 0 6 6 0 6 126 25 0 0
Slovakia[145] 1.06 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 29 0 0
Slovenia[146] 0.455 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 0 0
Somalia[147] N/A 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
South Africa[148] 4.01 34 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 3 50 15 0 0
South Sudan[149] 1.04 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0
Spain[150] 15.1 343 1 3 0 5 6 0 0 3 166 81 0 2
Sri Lanka[151] 1.79 62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 29 0 0
Sudan[152] 1.89 465 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 45 0 0
Suriname[153] 0.041 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0
Sweden[154] 7.05 132 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 5 134 0 0 0
Switzerland[155] 5.26 134 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 86 0 0 0
Syria[156] N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 277 91 0 0
Republic of China[note 6][157] 10.1 566 0 1 0 4 22 0 0 4 485 154 0 1
Tajikistan[158] 0.186 37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
Tanzania[159] 0.396 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 1 0 0
Thailand[160] 5.69 288 1 1 0 0 10 7 0 0 143 47 0 0
Timor-Leste[161] 0.072 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Togo[162] 0.089 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 4 0 0
Trinidad and Tobago[163] 0.436 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Tunisia[164] 0.911 84 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 18 0 0
Turkey[165] 10.0 2,504 0 0 0 0 18 6 0 14 335 339 NATO shared 2 [166]
Turkmenistan[167] 0.612 680 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 94 10 0 0
Uganda[168] 0.405 239 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 6 0 0
Ukraine[169] 3.59 700 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 203 137 0 0
United Arab Emirates[170] 13.9 471 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 175 89 0 2
United Kingdom[171] 61.8 227 1 6 0 6 13 0 11 0 278 285 225[1] 7
United States[172] 615.5 8,850 11[173] 42[174] 22 65 11[note 7][175][176] 0 70[177] 0 3,680 1,830 7,100[1] 123
Uruguay[178] 0.427 15 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 17 8 0 0
Uzbekistan[179] 1.59 340 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 135 29 0 0
Venezuela[180] 4.65 173 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 2 98 293 0 0
Vietnam[181] 6.2 1,800 0 0 0 0 2 6 0 6 97 47 0 0
Yemen[182] 1.89 880 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 19 0 0
Zambia[183] 0.422 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 5 0 0
Zimbabwe[184] 0.389 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 16 0 0
States marked 'TC' are widely considered technologically capable of wielding, operating or developing nuclear weapons, however are signatories of the NPT and are not known to possess any at the current moment. Japan, South Korea and Poland are generally considered de facto nuclear states due to their believed ability to wield nuclear weapons within 1 to 3 years.[185][186][187]
See also[edit]
List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel
List of countries by military expenditures
List of countries by military expenditure per capita
List of countries by Military Strength Index
List of countries by Global Militarization Index
List of militaries by country
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ All data apart from the number of nuclear weapons is taken from IISS 'Military Balance 2015'
Jump up ^ Budget is annual
Jump up ^ Fixed-wing aircraft with combat capability
Jump up ^ Includes helicopters that have some attacking capabilities i.e. 'multi-role helicopters'
Jump up ^ Israel neither confirms nor denies possession of nuclear weapons
Jump up ^ Taiwan's political status is disputed.
Jump up ^ For the US Navy, Littoral combat ships are redesignated as "Frigates"
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ http://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/india-defence-budget-2017-18_lkbehera_030217
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Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 412–413. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 139–142. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 142–144. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 352–354. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 287–290. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 198–199. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 473–475. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 290–293. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 293–293. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 475–476. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 413–413. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 354–355. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 144–147. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ http://aa.com.tr/en/science-technology/turkey-launches-second-military-surveillance-satellite-/699730
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 199–200. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 476–477. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 200–203. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 355–358. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
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Jump up ^ http://www.navy.mil/navydata/ships/carriers/carriers.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.navy.mil/navydata/ships/amphibs/amphib.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4200&tid=1650&ct=4
Jump up ^ http://news.usni.org/2015/09/04/navy-renames-three-ship-classes-creates-expeditionary-designator-in-naming-system
Jump up ^ http://www.navy.mil/navydata/ships/subs/subs.asp
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Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 203–205. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 415–418. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 293–296. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 358–360. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
Jump up ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) (11 February 2015). "The Military Balance 2015". Routledge: 477–478. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996334.
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Jump up ^ Nuclear proliferation special: We have the technology, nature.com, 24 November 2004
Jump up ^ Saudi defends Gulf Arab atom plans, criticizes Iran, reuters.com, Mar 5, 2007
Jump up ^ Nuclear Capabilities And Potential Around The World, npr.org, Updated April 13, 2010
Bibliography[edit]
Cordesman, Anthony H. (2002-01-23). "Western Military Balance and Defense Efforts" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Cordesman, Anthony H. (2005-03-25). "The Middle East Military Balance: Definition, Regional Developments and Trends" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Smith, Larry J. (editor) (2006-07-25). "Condensed World Paramilitary Forces 2006" (PDF). Orders of Battle (ORBAT). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-27. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database, SIPRI, archived from the original on 2010-03-28
South African Navy official website
Further reading[edit]
A. H. Cordesman, A. A. Burke, The Balance of Western Conventional Forces: A Comparative Summary of Military Expenditures; Manpower; Land, Air, Naval Forces; and National Force Trends, CSIS, January 2001, retrieved 14 November 2008.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military equipment by country.
Global security website
World Military Guide
PRC official website
Indian Ministry of Defence
The World Fact Book - South Africa
Canada's Budget 2008: Taxes and the Forward March of Neoliberalism
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