text:
Atomic nucleus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nuclear physics
Nucleus · Nucleons (p, n) · Nuclear matter · Nuclear force · Nuclear structure · Nuclear reaction
Models of the nucleus[show]
Liquid drop · Nuclear shell model · Interacting boson model · Ab initio
Nuclides' classification[show]
Isotopes – equal Z
Isobars – equal A
Isotones – equal N
Isodiaphers – equal N − Z
Isomers – equal all the above
Mirror nuclei – Z ↔ N
Stable · Magic · Even/odd · Halo
Nuclear stability[show]
Binding energy · p–n ratio · Drip line · Island of stability · Valley of stability
Radioactive decay[show]
Alpha α · Beta β (2β, β+) · K/L capture · Isomeric (Gamma γ · Internal conversion) · Spontaneous fission · Cluster decay · Neutron emission · Proton emission
Decay energy · Decay chain · Decay product · Radiogenic nuclide
Nuclear fission[show]
Spontaneous · Products (pair breaking) · Photofission
Capturing processes[show]
electron · neutron (s · r) · proton (p · rp)
High energy processes[show]
Spallation (by cosmic ray) · Photodisintegration
Nucleosynthesis and
nuclear astrophysics[show]
Nuclear fusion
Processes: Stellar · Big Bang · Supernova
Nuclides: Primordial · Cosmogenic · Artificial
High energy nuclear physics[show]
Quark–gluon plasma · RHIC · LHC
Scientists[show]
Alvarez · Becquerel · Bethe · A.Bohr · N.Bohr · Chadwick · Cockcroft · Ir.Curie · Fr.Curie · Pi.Curie · Skłodowska-Curie · Davisson · Fermi · Hahn · Jensen · Lawrence · Mayer · Meitner · Oliphant · Oppenheimer · Proca · Purcell · Rabi · Rutherford · Soddy · Strassmann · Szilárd · Teller · Thomson · Walton · Wigner
v
t
e
A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this diagram, protons and neutrons look like little balls stuck together, but an actual nucleus (as understood by modern nuclear physics) cannot be explained like this, but only by using quantum mechanics. In a nucleus which occupies a certain energy level (for example, the ground state), each nucleon can be said to occupy a range of locations.
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko[1] and Werner Heisenberg.[2][3][4][5][6] Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.
The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175000000000000♠1.75 fm (6985175000000000000♠1.75×10−15 m) for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton)[7] to about 6986150000000000000♠15 fm for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).[citation needed]
The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
1.1 History
1.2 Etymology
1.3 Nuclear makeup
2 Composition and shape
3 Forces
4 Halo nuclei and strong force range limits
5 Nuclear models
5.1 Liquid drop model
5.2 Shell models and other quantum models
5.3 Consistency between models
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Introduction[edit]
History[edit]
Main article: Rutherford model
The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's efforts to test Thomson's "plum pudding model" of the atom.[8] The electron had already been discovered earlier by J.J. Thomson himself. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner Hans Geiger and with help of Ernest Marsden, that involved the deflection of alpha particles (helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if Thomson's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.
Etymology[edit]
The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux ("nut"), meaning the kernel (i.e., the "small nut") inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912.[9] The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"[10]
Nuclear makeup[edit]
A figurative depiction of the helium-4 atom with the electron cloud in shades of gray. In the nucleus, the two protons and two neutrons are depicted in red and blue. This depiction shows the particles as separate, whereas in an actual helium atom, the protons are superimposed in space and most likely found at the very center of the nucleus, and the same is true of the two neutrons. Thus, all four particles are most likely found in exactly the same space, at the central point. Classical images of separate particles fail to model known charge distributions in very small nuclei. A more accurate image is that the spatial distribution of nucleons in a helium nucleus is much closer to the helium electron cloud shown here, although on a far smaller scale, than to the fanciful nucleus image.
The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called quarks, that are held in association by the nuclear strong force in certain stable combinations of hadrons, called baryons. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nucleus that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.
Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons explain the phenomenon of isotopes – varieties of the same chemical element which differ only in their atomic mass, not their chemical action.
Composition and shape[edit]
Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the strong isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the nucleon.[11][12] Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integral spin.
In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, containing one or more strange quarks and/or other unusual quark(s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high energy physics experiments.
The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.[13]
Nuclei can be spherical, rugby ball-shaped (prolate deformation), discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.[14][15]
Forces[edit]
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker between neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).
The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short-lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However, bismuth-209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.
The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few femtometres (fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form [NP] deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.
Halo nuclei and strong force range limits[edit]
The effective absolute limit of the range of the strong force is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium-11 or boron-14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about 6986100000000000000♠10 fm (roughly similar to the 6985800000000000000♠8 fm radius of the nucleus of uranium-238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclides—the neutron drip line and proton drip line—and are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of 6997880000000000000♠8.8 ms.
Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons [NN, NNN] or protons [PP, PPP]. Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include 11Be and 19C. A two-neutron halo is exhibited by 6He, 11Li, 17B, 19B and 22C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called Borromean nuclei because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). 8He and 14Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include 8B and 26P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by 17Ne and 27S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton(s).
Nuclear models[edit]
Main article: nuclear structure
Although the standard model of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of particle physics. This is due to two reasons:
In principle, the physics within a nucleus can be derived entirely from quantum chromodynamics (QCD). In practice however, current computational and mathematical approaches for solving QCD in low-energy systems such as the nuclei are extremely limited. This is due to the phase transition that occurs between high-energy quark matter and low-energy hadronic matter, which renders perturbative techniques unusable, making it difficult to construct an accurate QCD-derived model of the forces between nucleons. Current approaches are limited to either phenomenological models such as the Argonne v18 potential or chiral effective field theory.[16]
Even if the nuclear force is well constrained, a significant amount of computational power is required to accurately compute the properties of nuclei ab initio. Developments in many-body theory have made this possible for many low mass and relatively stable nuclei, but further improvements in both computational power and mathematical approaches are required before heavy nuclei or highly unstable nuclei can be tackled.
Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.[17]
The nuclear radius (R) is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:
The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,
R = r 0 A 1 / 3 {\displaystyle R=r_{0}A^{1/3}\,}
where A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons Z, plus the number of neutrons N) and r0 = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10−15 m. In this equation, the "constant" r0 varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.[18]
In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives approximately the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).[19]
Models of nuclear structure include :
Liquid drop model[edit]
Main article: Semi-empirical mass formula
Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.
The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding energy of the nucleus:
Volume energy. When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.
Surface energy. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.
Coulomb Energy. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.
Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli Energy). An energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.
Pairing energy. An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.
Shell models and other quantum models[edit]
Main article: Nuclear shell model
A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.
In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of even/odd Z and N effects well-known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium-4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet, helium-3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen-3 is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen-2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium-6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons.
For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.
There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Two such cluster models are the Close-Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.[17]
Consistency between models[edit]
Main article: Nuclear structure
As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose–Einstein condensation. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave-like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, Bose-Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in Erwin Schrödinger's quantum orbitals.
See also[edit]
Giant resonance
List of particles
James Rainwater, modelled non-spherical nuclei
Nuclear medicine
Radioactivity
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Iwanenko, D.D. (1932). "The neutron hypothesis". Nature. 129 (3265): 798. Bibcode:1932Natur.129..798I. doi:10.1038/129798d0.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I". Z. Phys. 77: 1–11. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...77....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01342433.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II". Z. Phys. 78 (3–4): 156–164. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...78..156H. doi:10.1007/BF01337585.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1933). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. III". Z. Phys. 80 (9–10): 587–596. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..587H. doi:10.1007/BF01335696.
Jump up ^ Miller A. I. Early Quantum Electrodynamics: A Sourcebook, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, ISBN 0521568919, pp. 84–88.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, Bernard & Ripka, Georges (2012). "Nuclear Theory After the Discovery of the Neutron". Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus: A Sixty Year Journey 1896 — 1956. Springer. p. 263. ISBN 9781461441809.
Jump up ^ Brumfiel, Geoff (July 7, 2010). "The proton shrinks in size". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.337.
Jump up ^ "The Rutherford Experiment". Rutgers University. Retrieved February 26, 2013. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Harper, D. "Nucleus". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ Lewis, G.N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 38 (4): 4. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002.
Jump up ^ Sitenko, A.G. & Tartakovskiĭ, V.K. (1997). Theory of Nucleus: Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Interaction. Kluwer Academic. p. 3. ISBN 0-7923-4423-5.
Jump up ^ Srednicki, M.A. (2007). Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. pp. 522–523. ISBN 978-0-521-86449-7.
Jump up ^ Basdevant, J.-L.; Rich, J. & Spiro, M. (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics. Springer. p. 155. ISBN 0-387-01672-4.
Jump up ^ Battersby, Stephen. "Pear-shaped nucleus boosts search for new physics". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12952. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Gaffney, L. P.; Butler, P A; Scheck, M; Hayes, A B; Wenander, F; et al. (2013). "Studies of pear-shaped nuclei using accelerated radioactive beams". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 497 (7448): 199–204. Bibcode:2013Natur.497..199G. doi:10.1038/nature12073. ISSN 0028-0836. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Machleidt, R.; Entem, D.R. (2011). "Chiral effective field theory and nuclear forces". Physics Reports. 503 (1): 1–75. arXiv:1105.2919v1  . Bibcode:2011PhR...503....1M. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2011.02.001.
^ Jump up to: a b Cook, N.D. (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.
Jump up ^ Krane, K.S. (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
Jump up ^ Serway, Raymond; Vuille, Chris; Faughn, Jerry (2009). College Physics (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p. 915. ISBN 9780495386933.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Atomic nucleus
The Nucleus – a chapter from an online textbook
The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA in Java or HTML
Article on the "nuclear shell model," giving nuclear shell filling for the various elements. Accessed Sept. 16, 2009.
Timeline: Subatomic Concepts, Nuclear Science & Technology.
[show]
v
t
e
Particles in physics
Elementary
Fermions
Quarks
Up (quark
antiquark)
Down (quark
antiquark)
Charm (quark
antiquark)
Strange (quark
antiquark)
Top (quark
antiquark)
Bottom (quark
antiquark)
Leptons
Electron
Positron
Muon
Antimuon
Tau
Antitau
Electron neutrino
Electron antineutrino
Muon neutrino
Muon antineutrino
Tau neutrino
Tau antineutrino
Bosons
Gauge
Photon
Gluon
W and Z bosons
Scalar
Higgs boson
Others
Ghosts
Hypothetical
Superpartners
Gauginos
Gluino
Gravitino
Photino
Others
Higgsino
Neutralino
Chargino
Axino
Sfermion (Stop squark)
Others
Planck particle
Axion
Dilaton
Dual graviton
Graviton
Leptoquark
Majoron
Majorana fermion
Magnetic monopole
Preon
Sterile neutrino
Tachyon
W′ and Z′ bosons
X and Y bosons
Composite
Hadrons
Baryons / hyperons
Nucleon
Proton
Antiproton
Neutron
Antineutron
Delta baryon
Lambda baryon
Sigma baryon
Xi baryon
Omega baryon
Mesons / quarkonia
Pion
Rho meson
Eta and eta prime mesons
Phi meson
J/psi meson
Omega meson
Upsilon meson
Kaon
B meson
D meson
Exotic hadrons
Tetraquark
Pentaquark
Others
Atomic nuclei
Atoms
Exotic atoms
Positronium
Muonium
Tauonium
Onia
Superatoms
Molecules
Hypothetical
Hypothetical baryons
Hexaquark
Skyrmion
Hypothetical mesons
Glueball
Theta meson
T meson
Others
Mesonic molecule
Pomeron
Diquarks
Quasiparticles
Davydov soliton
Dropleton
Exciton
Hole
Magnon
Phonon
Plasmaron
Plasmon
Polariton
Polaron
Roton
Trion
Lists
Baryons
Mesons
Particles
Quasiparticles
Timeline of particle discoveries
Related
History of subatomic physics
timeline
Standard Model
mathematical formulation
Subatomic particles
Particles
Antiparticles
Nuclear physics
Eightfold Way
Quark model
Exotic matter
Massless particle
Relativistic particle
Virtual particle
Wave–particle duality
Wikipedia books
Hadronic Matter
Particles of the Standard Model
Leptons
Quarks
Physics portal
[show]
v
t
e
Nuclear technology
Science
Chemistry
Engineering
Physics
Atomic nucleus
Fission
Fusion
Radiation
ionizing
braking
Fuel
Tritium
Deuterium
Helium-3
Fertile material
Fissile material
Isotope separation
Nuclear material
Uranium
enriched
depleted
Plutonium
Thorium
Neutron
Activation
Capture
Poison
Cross section
Generator
Radiation
Reflector
Temperature
Thermal
Fast
Fusion
Power
by country
Power plant
Economics
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
Accidents and incidents
Policy
Fusion
Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
Propulsion
rocket
Safety and security
Medicine
Imaging
RadBall
Scintigraphy
Single-photon emission (SPECT)
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
Therapy
Fast-neutron
Neutron capture therapy of cancer
Targeted alpha-particle
Proton-beam
Tomotherapy
Brachytherapy
Radiation therapy
Radiosurgery
Radiopharmacology
Weapons
Topics
Arms race
Delivery
Design
Disarmament
Ethics
Explosion
effects
History
Proliferation
Testing
high-altitude
underground
Warfare
Yield
TNTe
Lists
Estimated death tolls from attacks
States with nuclear weapons
Tests
United States
WMD treaties
Weapon-free zones
Weapons
Waste
Products
Actinide
Reprocessed uranium
Reactor-grade plutonium
Minor actinide
Activation
Fission
LLFP
Actinide chemistry
Disposal
Fuel cycle
High-level (HLW)
Low-level (LLW)
Repository
Reprocessing
Spent fuel
pool
cask
Transmutation
Debate
Nuclear power
Nuclear weapons
Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
Anti-nuclear movement
Uranium mining
Nuclear power phase-out
[hide]
Nuclear reactors
[show]
Fission
Moderator
Light water
Aqueous homogeneous
Boiling
BWR
ABWR
ESBWR
Kerena
Pressurized
ACPR-1000
AP1000
APR-1400
APR+
APWR
ATMEA1
CAP1400
CPR-1000
EPR
HPR-1000
VVER
many others
Supercritical (SCWR)
Natural fission
Heavy water
Pressurized (PHWR)
CANDU
CANDU 6
CANDU 9
EC6
AFCR
ACR-1000
AHWR
Steam-generating (SGHWR)
WR-1
Graphite
by coolant
Water
H2O
RBMK
EGP-6
Gas
CO2
Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)
Magnox
Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
He
Ultra-high-temperature experiment (UHTREX)
Pebble-bed (PBMR) (HTR-PM)
Gas-turbine modular-helium (GTMHR)
Very-high-temperature (VHTR)
Molten-salt
Fluorides
Fuji MSR
Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
None
(fast-neutron)
Breeder (FBR)
Integral (IFR)
Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
Traveling-wave (TWR)
Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
Generation IV
Sodium (SFR)
BN-600
BN-800
BN-1200
PFBR
CEFR
Lead (LFR)
Helium gas (GFR)
Others
Organically moderated and cooled reactor
Aircraft Reactor Experiment
[show]
Fusion
by confinement
Magnetic
Field-reversed configuration
Levitated dipole
Reversed field pinch
Spheromak
Stellarator
Tokamak
Inertial
Bubble (acoustic)
Fusor
electrostatic
Laser-driven
Magnetized-target
Z-pinch
Other
Dense plasma focus
Migma
Muon-catalyzed
Polywell
Pyroelectric
Category
Portal
Commons
Authority control
GND: 4068924-4
NDL: 00562376
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomic_nucleus&oldid=825573042"
Categories:
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear physics
Subatomic particles
Radiochemistry
Proton
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from January 2018
Articles with permanently dead external links
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013
Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters
Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Bân-lâm-gú
Basa Banyumasan
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lingála
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Novial
Occitan
Олык марий
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Võro
Winaray
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 February 2018, at 04:41.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: th

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: td

value: b

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_model
mw-redirect
Nuclear model

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Neutron_excess
mw-redirect
Neutron excess

values:
/wiki/Stable_isotope
mw-redirect
Stable isotope

values:
/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio
mw-redirect
Proton–neutron ratio

values:
/wiki/Isomeric_transition
mw-redirect
Isomeric transition

values:
/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd
mw-redirect
Leó Szilárd

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Electron_cloud
mw-redirect
Electron cloud

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/J.J._Thomson
mw-redirect
J.J. Thomson

values:
/wiki/Strong_isospin
mw-redirect
Strong isospin

values: Edit section: Halo nuclei and strong force range limits

values:
/wiki/Standard_model
mw-redirect
Standard model

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_size
mw-redirect
Nuclear size

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.794ex; height:3.176ex;

values: Edit section: Shell models and other quantum models

values: Close-Packed Spheron Model (page does not exist)

values: Edit section: Consistency between models

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F129798d0

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01342433

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01337585

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01335696

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2010.337

values: Journal of the American Chemical Society

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002

values:
/wiki/Kluwer_Academic
mw-redirect
Kluwer Academic

values:
/wiki/Springer_(publisher)
mw-redirect
Springer (publisher)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2013.12952

values:
nofollow
external text
https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12073

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12073

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/1105.2919v1

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.halexandria.org/dward472.htm

values:
row
navbox-group
text-align: center;;width:1%

values:
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: center;

values:
/wiki/Up_antiquark
mw-redirect
Up antiquark

values:
/wiki/Down_antiquark
mw-redirect
Down antiquark

values:
/wiki/Charm_antiquark
mw-redirect
Charm antiquark

values:
/wiki/Strange_antiquark
mw-redirect
Strange antiquark

values:
/wiki/Top_antiquark
mw-redirect
Top antiquark

values:
/wiki/Bottom_antiquark
mw-redirect
Bottom antiquark

values: width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;

values:
/wiki/Hypothetical_particles
mw-redirect
Hypothetical particles

values: width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;

values: Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

values: Standard Model (mathematical formulation)

values:
/wiki/Subatomic_particles
mw-redirect
Subatomic particles

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Thermal_neutron
mw-redirect
Thermal neutron

values:
/wiki/Fast_neutron
mw-redirect
Fast neutron

values:
/wiki/Fusion_neutron
mw-redirect
Fusion neutron

values: Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

values: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

values: Single-photon emission computed tomography

values: List of estimated death tolls from nuclear attacks on cities

values: List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States

values: List of weapons of mass destruction treaties

values: Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future

values: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor

values:
/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor
mw-redirect
Kerena boiling water reactor

values:
/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor
mw-redirect
Heavy-water reactor

values:
/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor
mw-redirect
Advanced gas-cooled reactor

values:
/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor
mw-redirect
Fast breeder reactor

values: Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor

values: Organically moderated and cooled reactor

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4068924-4

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2018

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Atomic_nucleus
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoomkern
Atoomkern – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: نواة الذرة – Arabic

values: Атамнае ядро – Belarusian

values: Атамнае ядро – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Атомно ядро – Bulgarian

values: Нуклонсар – Chuvash

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomkerne
Atomkerne – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomkern
Atomkern – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ατομικός πυρήνας – Greek

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomkerno
Atomkerno – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: هسته اتم – Persian

values: Միջուկ (ատոմ) – Armenian

values: परमाणु नाभिक – Hindi

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_atom
Inti atom – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: גרעין האטום – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_Atom
Inti Atom – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಬೈಜಿಕ ಕೇಂದ್ರ – Kannada

values: ატომის ბირთვი – Georgian

values: Атом ядросы – Kazakh

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nwayo
Nwayo – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navok
Navok – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoamkaen
Atoamkaen – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atommag
Atommag – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Атомско јадро – Macedonian

values: അണുകേന്ദ്രം – Malayalam

values: अणुकेंद्र – Marathi

values: Атомын цөм – Mongolian

values: နျူကလိယ – Burmese

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoomkern
Atoomkern – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleus
Nukleus – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

values: ਪਰਮਾਣੂ ਨਾਭ – Punjabi

values: Атомное ядро – Russian

values: ايٽمي نيوڪليس – Sindhi

values: Атомско језгро – Serbian

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_atom
Inti atom – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomiydin
Atomiydin – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values: அணுக்கரு – Tamil

values: అణు కేంద్రకం – Telugu

values: นิวเคลียสของอะตอม – Thai

values: Ядро атома – Ukrainian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: جوہری نویہ – Urdu

values: אטאמקערן – Yiddish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Atomic_nucleus rootpage-Atomic_nucleus skin-vector action-view


text:
Human Rights Day
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Human Rights Day
Human Rights Logo, unveiled in New York on 23 September 2011
Also called
HRD
Observed by
UN Members
Celebrations
United Nations
Begins
1948; 70 years ago (1948)
Date
10 December
Next time
10 December 2018 (2018-12-10)
Frequency
annual
Human Rights Day is celebrated annually across the world on 10 December every year.
The date was chosen to honour the United Nations General Assembly's adoption and proclamation, on 10 December 1948, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the first global enunciation of human rights and one of the first major achievements of the new United Nations. The formal establishment of Human Rights Day occurred at the 317th Plenary Meeting of the General Assembly on 4 December 1950, when the General Assembly declared resolution 423(V), inviting all member states and any other interested organizations to celebrate the day as they saw fit.[1][2]
The day is normally marked both by high-level political conferences and meetings and by cultural events and exhibitions dealing with human rights issues. In addition it is traditionally on 10 December that the five-yearly United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights and Nobel Peace Prize are awarded. Many governmental and non-governmental organizations active in the human rights field also schedule special events to commemorate the day, as do many civil and social-cause organizations.
Contents
1 History
2 Past observances
3 Date variance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Turkish journalists protesting imprisonment of their colleagues, 10 December 2016
Human Rights Day is the day in 1948 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[3]
The formal inception of Human Rights Day dates from 1950, after the Assembly passed resolution 423(V) inviting all States and interested organizations to adopt 10 December of each year as Human Rights Day.[4] The popularity of the day can be shown by the fact that the commemorative Human Rights Day stamp issued by the United Nations Postal Administration in 1952, received approximately 200,000 advance orders.[5]
A 1963 postage stamp from Soviet Union, commemorating the 15th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
A 1998 postage stamp from Germany, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
When the General Assembly adopted the Declaration, with 48 states in favor and eight abstentions, it was proclaimed as a "common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations", towards which individuals and societies should "strive by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance". The measure was received by both advocates and critics alike as "being more declarative than legislative, more suggestive than binding."[6]
Although the Declaration with its broad range of political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights is not a binding document, it inspired more than 60 human rights instruments which together constitute an international standard of human rights. Today the general consent of all United Nations Member States on the basic Human Rights laid down in the Declaration makes it even stronger and emphasizes the relevance of Human Rights in our[who?] daily lives.[according to whom?]
The High Commissioner for Human Rights, as the main United Nations rights official, and his Office play a major role in coordinating efforts for the yearly observation of Human Rights Day:
Today, poverty prevails as the gravest human rights challenge in the world. Combating poverty, deprivation and exclusion is not a matter of charity, and it does not depend on how rich a country is. By tackling poverty as a matter of human rights obligation, the world will have a better chance of abolishing this scourge in our lifetime... Poverty eradication is an achievable goal.
—  UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Louise Arbour, 10 December 2006
The 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights occurred on 10 December 2008, and the UN Secretary-General launched a year-long campaign leading up to this anniversary.[7] Because the UDHR holds the world record as the most translated document (except for the Bible), organizations around the globe used the year to focus on helping people everywhere learn about their rights.
On 9 December 2001, President George W. Bush made a Presidential proclamation that Human Rights Week began on 9 December.[8] He also made the same proclamation on 10 December 2008.[9]
Past observances[edit]
A 1998 postage stamp from Faroe Islands
Year
Actions
1979 Shih Ming-teh organized a human rights campaign in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. This led to the Kaohsiung Incident characterized by three rounds of arrests and mock trials of political opponents of the ruling Kuomintang party and their subsequent imprisonment.
1983 President Raúl Alfonsin, of Argentina, decided to assume office on 10 December 1983, ending the military dictatorship that had ruled the country since 1976. The election of that day for his inauguration was related to human rights violations committed during the dictatorship. From then on, all presidential inaugurations have taken place on 10 December.
2004
International PEN announced the launch of a new campaign to secure the release from prison of "cyber-dissidents" in PR China, Maldives and Vietnam.[10]
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the UN's Special Representative for Human Rights Defenders and the African Union's Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights issued a joint communiqué in which they commended the European Union for its recent adoption of a set of guidelines for protecting human rights defenders and urged the world's other regions to take similar steps in that direction.[11]
The American Association for the Advancement of Science organised a seminar in New York City on academic freedom in Iraq.[12]
Human Rights Day is endorsed by the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) as an official day of Humanist celebration.
2006 In an interesting coincidence, former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet, known for human rights violations committed during his authoritarian rule, died of a heart attack on 10 December 2006, at the age of 91.[13]
2008
Gay rights activists in the U.S. state of California urged people to support equal rights by "calling in 'gay'" to work.[14] This was in response to the renewed ban on gay marriage when Proposition 8 passed earlier in the year.
Several people were detained in China after around 300 people signed an online petition titled Charter 08 for the government to improve human rights in the country. In Beijing, a small protest was broken up that took place outside the foreign ministry.[15]
UNYA Australia celebrated Human Rights Day with the write4rights campaign, asking young people to contribute a message about human rights by phone or on a website for display in Australian State capital cities.[16]
Amnesty International organised a large event in Paris, France, to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the UN resolution.[17]
Celebrations took place in Phnom Penh and around Cambodia, including a march by 5000 people, and a further 1000 people releasing balloons, organised by NGOs.[18]
Other celebrations and events took place in Russia[19] and India.[20]
2009 10 December 2009 marked as 61st anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Tom Malinowsky from Human Rights Watch in the U.S. state of Washington commented that there had been progress in human rights over the last 40 years" "I think there is greater awareness around the world that people have fundamental rights and that those rights are enshrined in both law domestically and internationally".[21]
2011 Following a year of protest in many countries, from Tunisia to Cairo to the Occupy movement, the theme of 2011 recognized the significance of social media and technology in assisting human rights defenders in new ways.[22]
2012 Inclusion and the right to participate in public life was the theme of 2012 Human Rights Day. The focus in 2012 was on all people to make their voices heard and be included in political decision making. ″ My Voice Counts″ slogan was seen in the occupy movement around the world in protest of economic, political and social inequality.[23]
2013 Celebrating twenty years working for your rights was the theme of the 2013 Human Rights Day celebration. Twenty Years ago the creation of the position of the High Commissioner for Human Rights was established which empowered an official, independent voice to speak worldwide for human rights.[24]
2014 Every day is Human Rights Day is the slogan for the year 2014. Human Rights 365 celebrates the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which states that everyone, everywhere, at all times are entitled to their human rights. Human Rights belong to everyone equally and “binds us together as a global community with the same ideals and values.”[25]
2015 The theme for 2015 is "Our Rights, Our Freedoms, Always."[3]
2016 The theme for 2016 is "Stand up for someone's rights today!" [26]
2017 The theme for 2017 is "Let's stand up for equality, justice and human dignity"[27]
Date variance[edit]
In South Africa, Human Rights Day is celebrated on 21 March, in remembrance of the Sharpeville massacre which took place on 21 March 1960. This massacre occurred as a result of protests against the Apartheid regime in South Africa.[28] South African Human Rights Day was declared a national holiday when the ANC was elected as the government with Nelson Mandela as the first democratically elected leader.[29] Parliament's role on this day is to empower the people so that the democratic processes becomes known to all South Africans.[30]
It is celebrated on 11 December in Kiribati.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
HumanLight
International observance
International Day in Support of Victims of Torture
World Humanitarian Day
World Humanist Day
References[edit]
Jump up ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 5 Resolution 423(V). A/RES/423(V) 4 December 1950. Retrieved 29 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Office of the High Commission for Human Rights (2009). "The History of Human Rights Day". Retrieved 29 October 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b James, Anu (9 December 2015). "Human Rights Day: Best Quotes By Famous Personalities to Mark UN Day". International Business Times. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Lawson, Edward (1996). Encyclopedia of Human Rights. Research and contributing editor, Jan K. Dargel (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 722–724. ISBN 9781560323624.
Jump up ^ Green, James Frederick (1956). United Nations and Human Rights. The Brookings Institution. p. 676.
Jump up ^ Cohen, G. Daniel (2011). "The 'Human Rights Revolution' at Work: Displaced Persons in Postwar Europe". In Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig. Human Rights in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9780521194266.
Jump up ^ "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 1948–2008". United Nations. 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Office of the Press Secretary (12 December 2001). "Human Rights Day, Bill of Rights Day, and Human Rights Week, 2001" (PDF). Federal Register. Washington, D.C.: Federal Government of the United States. Archived from the original on 12 December 2001. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Office of the Press Secretary (19 December 2008). "Human Rights Day, Bill of Rights Day, and Human Rights Week, 2008" (PDF). Federal Register. Washington, D.C.: Federal Government of the United States. Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "A global campaign against Internet censorship and the long-term imprisonment of journalists in Asia". PEN American Center. Archived from the original on 9 December 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "On the occasion of Human Rights Day, the UN, Inter-American and African protection mechanisms call on governments to protect human rights defenders" (Press release). Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. 10 December 2004. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "Satellite Imagery for Conflict Prevention and Human Rights: An Event in Honor of Human Rights Day 2006". The American Association for the Advancement of Science, Science and Human Rights Program. 16 June 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Catan, Thomas; Crooks, Nathan (11 December 2006). "General Pinochet, 91, dies awaiting trial for murder". The Times. London. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "" Calling in 'Gay' to Work Is Latest Form of Protest" ABC News". Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Chinese police detain protesters", BBC, 10 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Write4Rights". Archived from the original on 9 February 2009. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Abuses persist as UN rights declaration turns 60", AFP, 10 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Inequality is fuelling rights violations, UN warns govt", 10 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "International Human Rights Day marked in Russia" Archived 15 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine., ITAR-TASS, 10 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Students celebrate Human Rights Day", Times of India, 10 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "International Human Rights Day Marks Progress and Setbacks". VOA.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011. "Human Rights Day 2011"
Jump up ^ United Nations. "Human Rights Day, 10 December". United Nations Department of Public Information. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). "HUMAN RIGHTS DAY 2013". United Nations Human Rights. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). "Human Rights Day 2014 #Rights 365". United Nations Human Rights. OHCHR. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stand up for someone's rights today". ohchr.org. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Human Rights Day 2017
Jump up ^ "Human Rights Day". South African Human Rights Commission. Archived from the original on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights Day – 21 March – South Africa". www.mypublicholidays.co.za. Archived from the original on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights Day". www.parliament.gov.za. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
External links[edit]
Human rights portal
Holidays portal
Official website
Vice Chancellor Sangam University Bhilwara Speaks on Human Rights Day at JMA Pilani Rajasthan
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_Rights_Day&oldid=853376564"
Categories:
Human rights
Civil awareness days
United Nations days
December observances
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Use dmy dates from December 2017
Use British English Oxford spelling from December 2017
Infobox holiday with missing field
Infobox holiday fixed day (2)
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from December 2017
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Català
Čeština
Davvisámegiella
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
한국어
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Latina
Lietuvių
Magyar
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Slovenščina
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
42 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 August 2018, at 09:48 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

attrs: colspan class style

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

attrs: colspan style

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/UN_Members
mw-redirect
UN Members

values:
/wiki/10_December
mw-redirect
10 December

values:
/wiki/Non-governmental_organizations
mw-redirect
Non-governmental organizations

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Turkey's media purge after the failed July 2016 coup d'état

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2017)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values: The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (December 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/United_States_President
mw-redirect
United States President

values:
/wiki/Presidential_proclamation
mw-redirect
Presidential proclamation

values:
/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Alfonsin
mw-redirect
Raúl Alfonsin

values:
/wiki/International_PEN
mw-redirect
International PEN

values:
/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
mw-redirect
People's Republic of China

values: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

values: Special Representative of the Secretary General for Human Rights Defenders

values: African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights

values:
/wiki/Human_rights_defender
mw-redirect
Human rights defender

values:
/wiki/Secular_humanist
mw-redirect
Secular humanist

values:
/wiki/Non-government_organisations
mw-redirect
Non-government organisations

values:
/wiki/Tunisian_revolution
mw-redirect
Tunisian revolution

values:
/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution
mw-redirect
2011 Egyptian revolution

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/International_observance
mw-redirect
International observance

values: White House Office of the Press Secretary

values:
nofollow
http://shr.aaas.org/hrday/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.unya.asn.au/write4rights.php

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Use dmy dates from December 2017

values: Category:Use British English Oxford spelling from December 2017

values: Category:Infobox holiday with missing field

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from December 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Human_Rights_Day
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: يوم حقوق الإنسان – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: মানবাধিকার দিবস – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values: Olmmošvuoigatvuođaid beaivi – Northern Sami

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-se
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: Παγκόσμια Ημέρα Ανθρωπίνων Δικαιωμάτων – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: Giza Eskubideen Nazioarteko Eguna – Basque

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: روز حقوق بشر – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Journée internationale des droits de l'homme – French

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: मानवाधिकार दिवस – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values: Giornata mondiale dei diritti umani – Italian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: יום זכויות האדם – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: လူ့အခွင့်အရေးနေ့ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: मानव अधिकार दिवस – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values: ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਅਧਿਕਾਰ ਦਿਵਸ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: انسانی حقوق دیہاڑا – Western Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Ano Internacional dos Direitos Humanos – Portuguese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: День прав человека – Russian

values: Svetovni dan človekovih pravic – Slovenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: Internationella dagen för mänskliga rättigheter – Swedish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: மனித உரிமைகள் நாள் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: మానవ హక్కుల దినోత్సవం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: วันสิทธิมนุษยชน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: День прав людини – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: یوم انسانی حقوق – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Human_Rights_Day rootpage-Human_Rights_Day skin-vector action-view