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Half dollar (United States coin)
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50-Cent Piece
United States
Value
0.50 U.S. dollar
Mass
11.340 g (0.365 troy oz)
Diameter
30.61 mm (1.205 in)
Thickness
2.15 mm (0.085 in)
Edge
150 reeds
Composition
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
Years of minting
1794–present
Catalog number
–
Obverse
Design
John F. Kennedy
Designer
Gilroy Roberts
Design date
1964
Reverse
Design
Presidential Seal
Designer
Frank Gasparro
Design date
1964
The United States half dollar coin, sometimes referred to as the fifty-cent piece, is a United States coin worth 50 cents, one-half of a dollar, and is the largest United States circulating coin currently produced[1]in both size and weight, being 1.205 inches (30.61 mm) in diameter and .085 inches (2.15 mm) in thickness, and is twice the weight of the quarter. The current half dollar, the Kennedy half dollar, depicts the profile of President John F. Kennedy on the obverse and the Seal of the President of the United States on the reverse, but the design has undergone a number of changes throughout its history.[2] It has been produced every year since the conception of the United States Mint in 1794. The only other U.S. coin that has been minted as consistently is the cent.
Though not commonly used today, half dollar coins have a long history of heavy use alongside other denominations of coinage, but have faded out of general circulation for many reasons. They were produced in fairly large quantities until the year 2002, when the U.S. Mint ceased production of the coin for general circulation. As a result of its decreasing usage, a large amount of pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults, prompting the change in production. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered straight from the U.S. Mint,[2] and pre-2002 circulation half dollars may be ordered through most U.S. banks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Circulation
2 Aspects of early history
3 List of designs
4 List of early commemorative issues
5 See also
6 References
Circulation[edit]
Half dollar coins saw heavy use, particularly in the first half of the twentieth century. For many years, they were commonly used in casinos. Rolls of half dollars may still be kept on hand in cardrooms for games requiring 50-cent antes or bring-in bets, for dealers to pay winning naturals in blackjack, or where the house collects a rake in increments. Additionally, some concession vendors at sporting events distribute half dollar coins as change for convenience.
By the early 1960s, the rising price of silver was nearing the point where the bullion value of U.S. silver coins would exceed face value. In 1965, the U.S. introduced layered composition coins made of a copper core laminated between two cupronickel outer faces. The silver content of dimes and quarters was eliminated, but the Kennedy half dollar composition still contained silver (reduced from 90 to 40 percent) from 1965 to 1970.
Half dollars issued through the end of the 1960s were hoarded as the only precious metal U.S. coins remaining in production, and as the price of silver continued to rise, pre-1964 halves disappeared from circulation as well. By the time that the coin's composition was changed to match that of the clad dimes and quarters in 1971, both businesses and the public had adapted to a country in which the half dollar did not generally circulate. The quarter took over the half's role as the highest-value component of change.
Most coins enter circulation through the change drawers of businesses. Few businesses stock their change drawers with half dollars, and many banks do not stock them or hand them out as normal business practice, so the coins do not see much circulation. Most U.S. vending machines do not accept half dollars, nor do payphones, which further curtails their circulation; however, it is the most common denomination used for U.S. commemorative coins.[3]
Since 2002, half dollars have been minted only for collectors, due to large Federal Reserve and government inventories on hand of pre-2001 pieces; this is mostly due to lack of demand and large quantity returns from casino slot machines that now operate "coinless". If and when the reserve supply runs low, the mint will again fill orders for circulation half dollars.[citation needed] It took about 18 years (1981–1999) for the large inventory stockpile of a similar low-demand circulation coin, the $1 coin, to reach reserve levels low enough to again produce circulation pieces.[citation needed] Modern-date half dollars can be purchased in proof sets, mint sets, rolls, and bags from the U.S. Mint, and existing inventory circulation pieces can be ordered through most U.S. banks. All collector issues since 2001 have had much lower mintages than in previous years. Although intended only for collectors, these post-2001 half dollars sometimes find their way into circulation.[4]
Aspects of early history[edit]
On December 1, 1794, the first half dollars, approximately 5,300 pieces, were delivered. Another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 using dies of 1794, to save the expense of making new ones.[5] Another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801. The coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse.[5] 150,000 were minted in 1804 but struck with dies from 1803, so no 1804 specimens exist, though there were some pieces dated 1805 that carried a "5 over 4" overdate.[5]
In 1838, half dollar dies were produced in the Philadelphia Mint for the newly established New Orleans Mint, and ten test samples of the 1838 half dollars were made at the main Philadelphia mint. These samples were put into the mint safe along with other rarities like the 1804 silver dollar. The dies were then shipped to New Orleans for the regular production of 1838 half dollars. However, New Orleans production of the half dollars was delayed due to the priority of producing half dimes and dimes. The large press for half dollar production was not used in New Orleans until January 1839 to produce 1838 half dollars, but the reverse die could not be properly secured, and only ten samples were produced before the dies failed. Rufus Tyler, chief coiner of the New Orleans mint, wrote to Mint Director Patterson of the problem on February 25, 1839.[6] The Orleans mint samples all had a double stamped reverse as a result of this production problem and they also showed dramatic signs of die rust, neither of which are present on the Philadelphia produced test samples. While eight Philadelphia minted samples survive to this day, there is only one known New Orleans minted specimen with the tell-tale double stamped reverse and die rust. This is the famous coin that Rufus Tyler presented to Alexander Dallas Bache (great grandson of Benjamin Franklin) in the summer of 1839 and was later purchased in June 1894 by A. G. Heaton, the father of mint mark coin collecting.[7] The 1838 Philadelphia-produced half dollars are extremely rare, with two separate specimens having sold for $632,500 in Heritage auctions in 2005 and 2008[8] respectively. The sole surviving Orleans minted 1838 is one of the rarest of all American coins.[9][10] In 1840 this mint produced nearly 180,000 half dollars.[5]
In 1861, the New Orleans mint produced coins for three different governments. A total of 330,000 were struck under the United States government, 1,240,000 for the State of Louisiana after it seceded from the Union, and 962,633 after it joined the Confederacy. Since the same die was used for all strikings, the output looks identical. However the Confederate States of America actually minted four half dollars with a CSA (rather than USA) reverse and the obverse die they used had a small die crack. Thus "regular" 1861 half dollars with this crack probably were used by the Confederates for some of the mass striking.[11]
There are two varieties of Kennedy half dollars in the proof set issues of 1964. Initially, the die was used with accented hair, showing deeper lines than the president's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, liked. New dies were prepared to smooth out some of the details. It is estimated that about 1 to 3% (40,000 to 100,000) of the proof halves are of the earlier type, making them somewhat more expensive for collectors.[12]
List of designs[edit]
Silver half dollars
Flowing Hair 1794–1795[13]
Draped Bust 1796–1807
Draped Bust, Small Eagle 1796–1797[14]
Draped Bust, Heraldic Eagle 1801–1807[15]
Capped Bust 1807–1839
Capped Bust (Large Size), With Motto 1807–1836[16]
Capped Bust (Small Size), No Motto 1836–1839[17]
Seated Liberty 1839–1891
Seated Liberty, No Motto 1839–1866[18]
Seated Liberty, With Motto 1866–1891[19]
Barber 1892–1915[20]
Walking Liberty 1916–1947[21]
Franklin 1948–1963[22]
Kennedy 1964 (General circulation issue)[23] (the last 90% silver half dollar for circulation, contains 0.36169 oz. net silver per coin, or 7.234 oz. silver per roll)
Kennedy 1992–present (silver proof sets available)
40% silver half dollars
Kennedy 1965–1969
Kennedy 1970 (collectors sets only)
Kennedy 1976 (only collectors sets produced with 40% silver)
Copper-nickel clad half dollars
Kennedy 1971–1974, 1977–1986, 1988–2001 (general circulation issues)
Kennedy 1987, 2002–present (collectors only)
Kennedy Bicentennial 1975–1976 (all dated 1776–1976.)
Various half dollar designs
List of early commemorative issues[edit]
See also: Early United States commemorative coins § 50 Cents Silver
Columbian half dollar (1892–1893)
Panama–Pacific half dollar (1915)
Illinois Centennial half dollar (1918)
Maine Centennial half dollar (1920)
Pilgrim Tercentenary half dollar (1920–1921)
Missouri Centennial half dollar (1921)
Alabama Centennial half dollar (1921)
Grant Memorial half dollar (1922)
Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar (1923)
Huguenot-Walloon half dollar (1924)
Lexington-Concord Sesquicentennial half dollar (1925)
Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar (1925)
California Diamond Jubilee half dollar (1925)
Fort Vancouver Centennial half dollar (1925)
United States Sesquicentennial half dollar (1926)
Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar (1926–1939)
Vermont Sesquicentennial half dollar (1927)
Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar (1928)
Maryland Tercentenary half dollar (1934)
Texas Centennial half dollar (1934–1938)
Daniel Boone Bicentennial half dollar (1934–1938)
Connecticut Tercentenary half dollar (1935)
Arkansas Centennial half dollar (1935–1939)
Arkansas-Robinson half dollar (1936)
Hudson Sesquicentennial half dollar (1935)
California Pacific International Exposition half dollar (1935–1936)
Old Spanish Trail half dollar (1935)
Rhode Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Cleveland Centennial half dollar (1936)
Wisconsin Territorial Centennial half dollar (1936)
Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar (1936)
Long Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
York County, Maine Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Bridgeport, Connecticut Centennial half dollar (1936)
Lynchburg Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936)
Elgin, Illinois, Centennial half dollar (1936)
Albany Charter half dollar (1936)
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge half dollar (1936)
Columbia, South Carolina Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936)
Delaware Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Battle of Gettysburg half dollar (1936)
Norfolk, Virginia Bicentennial half dollar (1936)
Roanoke Island half dollar (1937)
Battle of Antietam half dollar (1937)
New Rochelle, New York half dollar (1938)
Iowa Centennial half dollar (1946)
Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar (1946–1954)
See also[edit]
United States Mint coin production
References[edit]
Jump up ^ U.S. MINT Catalog
^ Jump up to: a b "kennedy-half-dollars". United States Mint. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ "USA Commemorative Half Dollars". www.commem.com. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
Jump up ^ United States Half Dollars Denver Coin Store. Web. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Julian, R.W. (December 2006). "All About the Half Dollar". Numismatist Magazine. 119 (12): 38.
Jump up ^ U.S. Archives, general correspondence of the Philadelphia Mint box 39
Jump up ^ "Treatise on coinage of The United States Branch Mints " published 1893/ author Augustus Heaton
Jump up ^ [1] Proof-63
Jump up ^ "The Surprising History Of The 1838-O Half Dollar " published Jan 2012 by Ivy Press/ David Stone and Mark Van Winkle authors Heritage
Jump up ^ [2] Proof-64
Jump up ^ The SS Republic Shipwreck Project: the Coin Collection, p.23
Jump up ^ What exactly is an Accented Hair Kennedy?
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1794–95 Half Dollar Flowing Hair". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1796–97 Half Dollar Draped Bust Small Eagle". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1801–07 Half Dollar Draped Bust Heraldic Eagle". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1807–36 Half Dollar Capped Bust Lettered Edge". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1836–39 Half Dollar Capped Bust Reeded Edge". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1839–66 Half Dollar Seated Liberty No Motto". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1866–91 Half Dollar Seated Liberty With Motto". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1892–1915 Half Dollar Barber". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1916–47 Half Dollar Walking Liberty". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1948–63 Half Dollar Franklin". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
Jump up ^ NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1964 – Half Dollar Kennedy". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
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text:
The Story of My Experiments with Truth
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The Story of My Experiments with Truth
Cover page of 1993 reprint by Beacon Press.
Author
Satyam yadav
Original title
સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા
Translator
Mahadev Desai
Cover artist
Beacon PressMone
Country
India
Language
Gujarati
Series
None
ISBN
81-7229-008-X (India)
ISBN 0-8070-5909-9 (United States – authorised edition with forward by Sissela Bok, Beacon Press 1993 reprint)
ISBN 0-486-24593-4 (Dover Publications 1983 reprint of 1948 Public Affairs Press edition)
Original text
[[s:gu:સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા|સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા]] at Gujarati Wikisource
Translation
The Story of My Experiments with Truth at Wikisource
The Story of My Experiments with Truth is the autobiography of Mohandas K. Gandhi, covering his life from early childhood through to 1921. It was written in weekly instalments and published in his journal Navjivan from 1925 to 1929. Its English translation also appeared in installments in his other journal Young India.[1] It was initiated at the insistence of Swami Anand and other close co-workers of Gandhi, who encouraged him to explain the background of his public campaigns. In 1999, the book was designated as one of the "100 Best Spiritual Books of the 20th Century" by a committee of global spiritual and religious authorities.[2]
Contents
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1 Contents
1.1 Translator's preface
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Part I
1.4 Part II
1.5 Part III
1.6 Part IV
1.7 Part V
2 First publication and later editions
3 Influences
3.1 Editions in print
3.2 Online editions
4 References
Contents[edit]
Translator's preface[edit]
This section is written by Mahadev Desai who translated the book from Gujarati to English in 1940. In this preface Desai notes that the book was originally published in two volumes, the first in 1927 and second in 1929. He also mentions that the original was priced at ₹1 (1.6¢ US) and had a run of five editions by the time of the writing of his preface. 50,000 copies had been sold in Gujarati but since the English edition was expensive it prevented Indians from purchasing it. Desai notes the need to bring out a cheaper English version. He also mentions that the translation has been revised by an English scholar who did not want his name to be published. Chapters XXIX-XLIII of Part V were translated by Desai's friend and colleague Pyarelal.[3]
Introduction[edit]
The introduction is written by Gandhi himself mentioning how he has resumed writing his autobiography at the insistence of Jeramdas, a fellow prisoner in Yerwada Central Jail with him. He mulls over the question a friend asked him about writing an autobiography, deeming it a Western practice, something "nobody does in the east".[1] Gandhi himself agrees that his thoughts might change later in life but the purpose of his story is just to narrate his experiments with truth in life.[3] He also says that through this book he wishes to narrate his spiritual and moral experiments rather than political.
Part I[edit]
The first part narrates incidents of Gandhi's childhood, his experiments with eating meat, smoking, drinking, stealing and subsequent atonement.[4] There are two texts that had a lasting influence on Gandhi, both of which he read in childhood. He records the profound impact of the play Harishchandra and says,"I read it with intense interest...It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number."[5] Another text he mentions reading that deeply affected him was Shravana Pitrabhakti Nataka, a play about Shravana's devotion to his parents. Gandhi got married at the age of 13.[3] In his words, "It is my painful duty to have to record here my marriage at the age of thirteen...I can see no moral argument in support of such a preposterously early marriage." Another important event documented in this part is the demise of Gandhi's father Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi wrote the book to deal with his experiment for truth. His disdain for physical training at school, particularly gymnastics has also been written about in this part.[6]
Part II[edit]
After a long history of antagonism, the British and the Dutch shared power in South Africa, with Britain ruling the regions of Natal and Cape Colony, while the Dutch settlers known as the Boers taking charge in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, two independent republics. The white settler and the independent Boer states continued to engage in volatile interactions with the British so a threat of violent eruptions always loomed large. In order to placate both the Boer and other white settlers, the British adopted a number of racist policies, and while the Indians, most of them working on sugar and coffee plantations, did not suffer as much as the black population, they clearly experienced a treatment as second-class citizens. The initial story of Gandhi’s travails in South Africa and of his systematic struggle against oppression is well known. Gandhi repeatedly experienced the sting of humiliation during his long African sojourn. The incident at Maritzburg, where Gandhi was thrown off the train has become justly famous. When Gandhi, as a matter of principle, refused to leave the first class compartment, he was thrown off the train.[7] Later, Gandhi also had difficulty being admitted to hotels, and saw that his fellow-Indians, who were mostly manual laborers, experienced even more unjust treatment.
Very soon after his arrival, Gandhi's initial bafflement and indignation at racist policies turned into a growing sense of outrage and propelled him into assuming a position as a public figure at the assembly of Transvaal Indians, where he delivered his first speech urging Indians not to accept inequality but instead to unite, work hard, learn English and observe clean living habits. Although Gandhi's legal work soon start to keep him busy, he found time to read some of Tolstoy's work, which greatly influenced his understanding of peace and justice and eventually inspired him to write to Tolstoy, setting the beginning of a prolific correspondence. Both Tolstoy and Gandhi shared a philosophy of non-violence and Tolstoy's harsh critique of human society resonated with Gandhi's outrage at racism in South Africa.
Both Tolstoy and Gandhi considered themselves followers of the Sermon on the Mount from the New Testament, in which Jesus Christ expressed the idea of complete self-denial for the sake of his fellow men. Gandhi also continued to seek moral guidance in the Bhagavad-Gita, which inspired him to view his work not as self-denial at all, but as a higher form of self-fulfillment. Adopting a philosophy of selflessness even as a public man, Gandhi refused to accept any payment for his work on behalf of the Indian population, preferring to support himself with his law practice alone.
But Gandhi's personal quest to define his own philosophy with respect to religion did not rely solely on sacred texts. At the time, he also engaged in active correspondence with a highly educated and spiritual Jain from Bombay, his friend Raychandra, who was deeply religious, yet well versed in a number of topics, from Hinduism to Christianity. The more Gandhi communicated with Raychandra, the more deeply he began to appreciate Hinduism as a non violent faith and its related scriptures. Yet, such deep appreciation also gave birth to a desire to seek inner purity and illumination, without solely relying on external sources, or on the dogma within every faith. Thus, although Gandhi sought God within his own tradition, he espoused the idea that other faiths remained worthy of study and contained their own truths.
Not surprisingly, even after his work assignment concluded, Gandhi soon found a reason to remain in South Africa. This pivotal reason involved the "Indian Franchise Bill", with which the Natal legislature intended to deprive Indians of the right to vote. No opposition existed against this bill, except among some of Gandhi's friends who asked him to stay in South Africa and work with them against this new injustice against Indians, who white South Africans disparagingly called "coolies." He found that racist attitudes had become deeply entrenched, especially in the Dutch-ruled regions, where they lived in the worst urban slums and could not own property or manage agricultural land. Even in Natal, where Indians had more influence, they were not allowed to go out after 9 p.m. without a pass, while in Cape Colony, another British territory, they were not allowed to walk on the sidewalk. The new bill which prohibited Indians from voting in Natal only codified existing injustice in writing.
Although a last-minute petition drive failed to the Indian Franchise Bill from passing, Gandhi remained active and organized a much larger petition, which he sent to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London, and distributed to the press in South Africa, Britain and India. The petition raised awareness of the plight of Indians and generating discussions in all three continents to the point where both the Times of London and the Times of India published editorials in support of the Indian right to the vote. Gandhi also formed a new political organization called the Natal Indian Congress (a clear reference to the Indian National Congress), which held regular meetings and soon, after some struggles with financing, started its own library and debating society. They also issued two major pamphlets, An Appeal to Every Briton in South Africa, and The Indian Franchise–An Appeal, which offered a logical argument against racial discrimination. He was also thrown of the Train when he didn't agree to move from his first class seat which he paid for.
Though, at first, Gandhi intended to remain in South Africa for a month, or a year at most, he ended up working in South Africa for about twenty years. After his initial assignment was over, he succeeded in growing his own practice to about twenty Indian merchants who contracted manage their affairs. This work allowed him to both earn a living while also finding time to devote to his mission as a public figure. During his struggle against inequality and racial discrimination in South Africa, Gandhi became known among Indians all around the world as "Mahatma," or "Great Soul."
Part III[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2012)
In South Africa with the Family, the Boer War, Bombay and South Africa Again.
In 1896, Gandhi made a brief return to India and returned with his wife and children. In India, he published another pamphlet, known as the Green Pamphlet, on the plight of Indians in South Africa. For the first time, Gandhi realized that Indians had come to admire his work greatly and experienced a taste of his own popularity among the people, when he visited Madras, an Indian province, where most manual laborers had originated. Although his fellow-Indians greeted him in large crowds with applause and adulation, he sailed back to South Africa with his family in December 1896.
Gandhi had become very well known in South Africa as well, to the point where a crowd of rioters awaited him at Port Natal, determined that he should not be allowed to enter. Many of them also mistakenly believed that all the dark-skinned passenger on the ship that took Gandhi to Natal were poor Indian immigrants he had decided to bring along with him, when, in reality, these passengers were mostly returning Indian residents of Natal. Fortunately, Gandhi was able to establish a friendly relationship with the British in South Africa so the Natal port's police superintendent and his wife escorted him to safety. After this incident, local white residents began to actually regard him with greater respect.
As Gandhi resumed his work at the Natal Indian Congress, his loyalty to the British guided him to assist them in the Boer War, which started three years later. Because Gandhi remained a passionate pacifist, he wanted to participate in the Boer War without actually engaging in violence so he organized and led an Indian Medical Corps which served the British in a number of battles, including the important battle of Spion Kop in January 1900.
At the time, Gandhi believed that the British Empire shared the values of liberty and equality that he himself embraced and that, by virtue of defending those principles, the British constitution deserved the loyalty of all British subjects, including Indians. He viewed racist policy in South Africa as a temporary characteristic aberration, rather than a permanent tendency. With respect to the British in India, at this point in his life, Gandhi considered their rule beneficial and benevolent.
The armed conflict between the British and Dutch raged on for over three years of often brutal fighting with the British conquering the Transvaal and Orange Free state territories. Gandhi expected that the British victory would establish justice in South Africa and present him with an opportunity to return to India. He wanted to attend the 1901 meeting of the Indian National Congress, whose mission was to provide a social and political forum for the Indian upper class. Founded in 1885 by the British, the Congress had no real political power and expressed pro-British positions. Gandhi wanted to attend its meeting nevertheless, as he was hoping to pass a resolution in support of the Indian population in South Africa. Before he left for Bombay, Gandhi promised the Natal Indian Congress that he would return to support their efforts, should they need his help.
As Gandhi attended the 1901 Indian National Congress, his hopes came true. G.K. Gokhale, one of the most prominent Indian politicians of the time, supported the resolution for the rights of Indians in South Africa and the resolution passed. Through Gokhale, in whose house Gandhi stayed for a month, Gandhi met many political connections that would serve him later in life.
However, his promise to always aid his friends in Natal soon prompted him to return to South Africa, when he received an urgent telegram informing him that the British and Boers had now formed a peaceful relationship and often acted together to the detriment of the Indian population, as Britain was planning to live local white individuals in power in South Africa, much like it had done in Canada and Australia.
Gandhi travelled back to South Africa immediately and met with Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and presented him with a paper on the injustice against the Indian population but Chamberlain indicated that the Indians would have to obey the new rulers of South Africa, now called the "Afrikaners," which included both Dutch and British local settlers.
Gandhi began to organize a fast response to this new South African political configuration. Instead of working in Natal, he now established a camp in the newly conquered Transvaal region and began helping Indians who had escaped from the war in that region, and now had to purchase overly expensive re-entry passes. He also represented poor Indians whose dwellings in a shantytown the authorities had dispossessed. Gandhi also started a new magazine, Indian Opinion, that advocated for political liberty and equal rights in South Africa. The magazine, which initially included several young women from Europe, expanded its staff around the country, increasing both Gandhi's popularity and the public support for his ideas.
At round same time, Gandhi read John Ruskin's book Unto This Last, which maintained that the life of manual labor was superior to all other ways of living. As he adopted this belief, Gandhi chose to abandon Western dress and habits, and he moved his family and staff to a Transvaal farm called the Phoenix, where he even gave renounced the use of an oil-powered engine and printed Indian Opinion by hand-wheel, and performed agriculture labor using old, manual farming equipment. He began to conceive of his public work as a mission to restore old Indian virtue and civilization, rather than fall prey to modern Western influence, which included electricity and technology.
Between 1901 and 1906, he also changed another aspect of his personal life by achieving Brahmacharya, or the voluntary abstention from sexual relations. He made this choice as part of his philosophy of selflessness and self-restraint. Finally, he also formulated his own philosophy of political protest, called Satyagraha, which literally meant "truth-force" in Sanskrit. In practice, this practice meant protesting injustice steadfastly, but in a non-violent manner.
He put this theory into practice on September 8, 1906, when, at a large gathering of the Indian community in Transvaal, he asked the whole community to take a vow of disobedience to the law, as the Transvaal government had started an effort to register every Indian child over the age of eight, which would make them an official part of the South African population.
Setting a personal example, Gandhi became the first Indian to appear before a magistrate for his refusal to register, and he was sentenced to two months in prison. He actually asked for a heavier sentence, a request, consistent with his philosophy of self-denial. After his release, Gandhi continued his campaign and thousands of Indians burned their registration cards, crossing the Transvaal-Natal border without passes. Many went to jail, including Gandhi, who went to jail again in 1908.
Gandhi did not waiver when a South African General by the name of Jan Christiaan Smuts promised to eliminate the registration law, but broke his word. Gandhi went all the way to London in 1909 and gathered enough support among the British to convince Smuts to eliminate the law in 1913. Yet, the Transvaal Prime Minister continued to regard Indians as second-class citizens while the Cape Colony government passed another discriminatory law making all non-Christian marriages illegal, which meant that all Indian children would be considered born out of wedlock. In addition, the government in Natal continued to impose crippling poll tax for entering Natal only upon Indians.
In response to these strikingly unjust rules, Gandhi organized a large-scale satyagraha, which involved women crossing the Natal-Transvaal border illegally. When they were arrested, five thousand Indian coal miners also went on strike and Gandhi himself led them across the Natalese border, where they expected arrest.
Although Smuts and Gandhi did not agree on many points, they had respect for each other. In 1913, Smuts relented due to the sheer number of Indians involved in protest and negotiated a settlement which provided for the legality of Indian marriages and abolished the poll tax. Further, the import of indentured laborers from India was to be phased out by 1920. In July 1914, Gandhi sailed for Britain, now admired as "Mahatma," and known throughout the world for the success of satyagraha.
Part IV[edit]
Part IV. Mahatma in the Midst of World Turmoil
Gandhi was in England when World War I started and he immediately began organizing a medical corps similar to the force he had led in the Boer War, but he also faced health problems that caused him to return to India, where he met the applauding crowds with enthusiasm once again. Indians continued to refer to him as "Mahatma" or "Great Soul," an appellation reserved only for the holiest men of Hinduism. While Gandhi accepted the love and admiration of the crowds, he also insisted that all souls were equal and did not accept the implication of religious sacredness that his new name carried.
In order to retreat into a life of humility and restraint, as his personal principles mandated, he decided to withdraw from public life for a while spending his first year in India focusing on his personal quest for purity and healing. He also lived in a communal space with untouchables, a choice which many of his financial supporters resented, because they believed that the very presence of untouchables defiled higher-caste Indians. Gandhi even considered moving to a district in Ahmedabad inhabited entirely by the untouchables when a generous Muslim merchant donated enough money to keep up his current living space for another year. By that time, Gandhi's communal life with the untouchables had become more acceptable.
Although Gandhi had withdrawn from public life, he briefly met with the British Governor of Bombay (and future Viceroy of India), Lord Willington, whom Gandhi promised to consult before he launched any political campaigns. Gandhi also felt the impact of another event, the passing of G.K. Gokhale, who had become his supporter and political mentor. He stayed away from the political trend of Indian nationalism, which many of the members of the Indian National Congress embraced. Instead, he stayed busy resettling his family and the inhabitants of the Phoenix Settlement in South Africa, as well as the Tolstoy Settlement he had founded near Johannesburg. For this purpose, on May 25, 1915, he created a new settlement, which came to be known as the Satyagraha ashram (from the Indian word for "communal") near the town of Ahmedabad and close to his place of birth in the western Indian province of Gujarati. All the inhabitants of the ashram, which included one family of untouchables, swore to poverty and chastity.
After a while, Gandhi became influenced by the idea of Indian independence from the British, but he dreaded the possibility that a westernized Indian elite would replace the British government. He developed a strong conviction that Indian independence should take place as a large-scale sociopolitical reform, which would remove the old plagues of extreme poverty and caste restrictions. In fact, he believed that Indians could not become worthy of self-government unless they all shared a concern for the poor.
As Gandhi resumed his public life in India in 1916, he delivered a speech at the opening of the new Hindu University in the city of Benares, where he discussed his understanding of independence and reform. He also provided specific examples of the abhorrent living conditions of the lower classes that he had observed during his travels around India and focused specifically on sanitation.
Although the Indians of the higher-castes did not readily embrace the ideas in the speech, Gandhi had now returned to public life and he felt ready to convert these ideas to actions. Facing the possibility of arrest, just like he always did in South Africa, Gandhi first spoke for the rights of impoverished indigo-cultivators in the Champaran district. His efforts eventually led to the appointment of a government commission to investigate abuses by the indigo planters.
He also interefered whenever he saw violence. When a group of Ahmedabad mill workers went on strike and became violent, he resolved to fast until they returned to peace. Though some political commentators condemned Gandhi's behavior as a form of blackmail, the fast only lasted three days before the workers and their employers negotiated an agreement. Through this situation, Gandhi discovered the fast as one of his most effective weapons in late years and set a precedent for later action as part of satyagraha.
As the First World War continued, Gandhi also became involved in recruiting men for the British Army, an involvement which his followers had a difficult time accepting, after listening to his passionate speeches about resisting injustice in a non-violent manner. Not surprisingly, at this point, although Gandhi still remained loyal to Britain and enamored with the ideals of the British constitution, his desire to support and independent home rule became stronger. As time passed, Gandhi became exhausted from his long journey around the country and fell ill with dysentery. He refused conventional treatment and chose to practice his own healing methods, relying on diet and spending a long time bedridden, while in recovery in his ashram.
In the meantime, India’s unrest was overwhelming at the prospect of the British destroying the world's only Muslim power, the Ottoman Empire. While the British alleged that they fought to protect the rights of small states and independent peoples from tyranny, in India, an increasing number of people found this alleged commitment less than genuine.
After the end of the war, the British government decided to follow the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee, which advocated the retention of various wartime restrictions in India, including curfews and measures to suppress free speech. Gandhi was still sick when these events took place and, although he could not protest actively, he felt his loyalty to the British Empire weaken significantly.
Later, when the Rowlatt Act actually became law, Gandhi proposed that the entire country observe a day of prayer, fasting, and abstention from physical labor as a peaceful protest against the injustice of the oppressive law. Gandhi's plea generated an overwhelming response as millions of Indians did not go to work on April 6, 1919.
As the entire country stood still, the British arrested Gandhi, which provoked angry crowds to fill the streets of India's cities and, much to Gandhi's dislike, violence erupted everywhere. Gandhi could not tolerate violence so he called off his campaign and asked that everyone return to their homes. He acted in accordance with his firm belief that if satyagraha could not be carried out without violence, it should not take place at all.
Unfortunately, not all protesters shared Gandhi's conviction as ardently. In Amritsar, capital of the region known as the Punjab, where the alarmed British authorities had deported the local Hindu and Muslim members of the Congress, the street mobs became very violent and the British summoned Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer to restore order. Dyer prohibited all public meetings and instituted public whippings for Indians who approached British policemen. Despite these new regulations, a crowd of over ten thousand protesters gathered in the center of Armitsar, and Dyer responded with bringing his troops there and opening fire without warning. Tightly packed together, the protesters had nowhere to run from the fire, even when they threw themselves down on the ground the fire was then directed on the ground, ceasing only when the British troops no longer had ammunition. Hundreds died and many more were wounded.
This unfortunate occurrence became known as the Amritsar Massacre, it outraged the British public almost as much as Indian society. The authorities in London eventually condemned Dyer's conduct, forcing him to resign in disgrace. The effect the massacre had on Indian society became even more profound as more moderate politicians, like Gandhi, now began to wholeheartedly support the idea of Indian independence, creating an intense climate of mutual hostility. After the massacre, Gandhi eventually obtained permission to travel to Amritsar and conduct his own investigation. He produced a report months later and his work on the report motivated him to contact a number of Indian politicians, who advocated for the idea of independence from British rule.
After Amritsar, Gandhi attended the Muslim Conference being held in Delhi, where Indian Muslims discussed their fears that the British would suppress Caliphs of Turkey. Muslims considered the Caliphs as heirs of Mohammed and spiritual heads of Islam. While the British considered such suppression a necessary effort to restore order after World War I, the Muslim populations viewed it as slap in the face. Gandhi urged them not to accept the actions of the British. He proposed a boycott of British goods, and stated that if the British continued to insist on the elimination of the Caliphate, Indian Muslims should take even more drastic measures of non-cooperation, involving areas such as government employment and taxes.
During the months that followed, Gandhi continued to advocate for peace and caution, however, since Britain and Turkey were still negotiating their peace terms. Unlike more nationalistic politicians, he also supported the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms for India, as they laid the foundation for constitutional self-government. Eventually, other politicians who thought the reforms did not go far enough had to agree with Gandhi simply because his popularity and influence had become so great that the Congress could accomplish little without him.
As the British remained determined to put an end to the Muslim Caliphate, they enforced the Rowlatt Act resolutely. Even Gandhi became less tolerant towards British practices and in April 1920, he urged all Indians, Muslim and Hindu, to begin a "non-cooperation" protest against the British rule by giving up their Western clothing and British jobs. As a personal example, on August 1, he returned the medals for valor that he had received in the Boer War in South Africa. He also became the first president of the Home Rule League, a largely symbolic position which confirmed his position as an advocate for Indian Independence.
In September 1920, Gandhi also passed an official constitution for the Congress, which created a system of two national committees and numerous local units, all working to mobilize a spirit of non-cooperation across India. Gandhi and other volunteers traveled around India further establishing this new grass roots organization, which achieved great success. The new British Viceory in India, Lord Reading, did not dare to interfere because of Gandhi's immense popularity.
By 1922, Gandhi decided that the initiative of non-cooperation had to transform into open civil disobedience, but in March 1922, Lord Reading finally ordered Gandhi's arrest after a crowd in the city of Chauri Chaura attacked and killed the local representatives of British authority. Gandhi, who had never encouraged or sanctioned this type of conduct, condemned the actions of the violent crowds and retreated into a period of fasting and prayer as a response to this violent outburst. However, the British saw the event as a trigger point and a reason for his arrest.
Part V[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2012)
The British authorities placed Gandhi on trial for sedition and sentenced him to six years in prison, marking the first time that he faced prosecution in India. Because of Gandhi's fame, the judge, C.N. Broomfield, hesitated to impose a harsher punishment. He considered Gandhi clearly guilty as charged, despite the fact that Gandhi admitted his guilt and even went as far as requesting the heaviest possible sentence. Such willingness to accept imprisonment conformed to his philosophy of satyagraha, so Gandhi felt that his time in prison only furthered his commitment and goals. The authorities allowed him to use a spinning wheel and receive reading materials while in prison, so he felt content. He also wrote most of his autobiography while serving his sentence.
However, in Gandhi's absence, Indians returned to their British jobs and their every day routines. Even worse, the unity between Muslims and Hindu, which Gandhi advocated so passionately, had already begun to fall apart to the point where the threat of violence loomed large over many communities with mixed population. The fight for Indian independence could not continue while Indians themselves suffered disunity and conflict, all the more difficult to overcome in a huge country like India, which had always suffered religious divisions, as well as divisions by language, and even caste.
Gandhi realized that Independence and that the British had lost the will and power to sustain their empire, but he always acknowledged that Indians could not rely simply on the weakening of Britain in order to achieve independence. He believed that Indians had to become morally ready for Independence. He planned to contribute to such readiness through his speeches and writing, advocating humility, restraint, good sanitation, as well as an end to child marriages. He acknowledged that he had changed his position on many issues, like child marriages, and that he had not always managed to discern the most moral course of action in his life.
After his imprisonment ended, he resumed his personal quest for purification and truth. He ends his autobiography by admitting that he continues to experience and fight with "the dormant passion" that lie within his own soul. He felt ready to continue the long and difficult path of taming those passions and putting himself last among his fellow human beings, the only way to achieve salvation, according to him.
"That is why the worlds' praise fails to move me; indeed it very often stings me. To conquer the subtle passions is far harder than the physical conquest of the world by the force of arms,"
Gandhi writes in his "Farewell" to the readers, a suitable conclusion for an autobiography that he never intended to be an autobiography, but a tale of experiments with life, and with truth.
First publication and later editions[edit]
After its initiation, The Story of My Experiments with Truth remained in the making for 4–5 years (including the time while Gandhi was imprisoned at Yerwada Central Jail near Pune, Maharashtra), and then it first appeared as a series in the weekly Gujarati magazine Navjivan during 1925–28, which was published from Ahmedabad, India.
Influences[edit]
Gandhi wrote in his autobiography that the three most important modern influences in his life were Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You, John Ruskin's Unto This Last and the poet Shrimad Rajchandra (Raychandbhai).[8][9]
Book Reviews
Development in Action (UK): Book Review by Joni Hillman
South Asian Women's Forum: Book Review
Editions in print[edit]
India – ISBN 81-7229-008-X
United States – authorized edition with forward by Sissela Bok, Beacon Press 1993 reprint: ISBN 0-8070-5909-9
Dover Publications 1983 reprint of 1948 Public Affairs Press edition: ISBN 0-486-24593-4
Online editions[edit]
The Story of My Experiments with Truth – Google books
National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode: Nalanda Digital Lib.
An Autobiography or The Story of my Experiments with Truth, full text
Read online The Story of My Experiments with Truth - Gandhi Heritage Portal
Mahatma Gandhi Autobiography
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, edited by Richard L. (2006). Gandhi's experiments with truth : essential writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. p. 388. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Spiritual books of the century". USA Today. 2 December 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b c Desai, M. K. Gandhi. Transl. from the original Gujarati by Mahadev (1987). An autobiography : or the story of my experiments with truth (reprint. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-14-006626-5.
Jump up ^ Men of Turmoil – Biographies by Leading Authorities of the Dominating Personalities of Our Day. Hesperides Press. 2007. p. 384. ISBN 1-4067-3625-2.
Jump up ^ Post, Pitirim A. Sorokin ; introduction by Stephen G. (2002). The ways and power of love : types, factors, and techniques of moral transformation (Timeless classic pbk. ed.). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7.
Jump up ^ Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber; R, Lloyd I. (1983). Gandhi : the traditional roots of charisma ([Pbk. ed.]. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-226-73136-0.
Jump up ^ Narrain, Arvind (April 1, 2013). " """MY EXPERIMENTS WITH LAW": GANDHI'S EXPLORATION OF LAW'S POTENTIAL". NUJS Law Review. Retrieved January 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Singh, Purnima (2004). Indian cultural nationalism (Ed. 1st. ed.). New Delhi: India First Foundation. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-89072-03-2.
Jump up ^ editor, Wendy Doniger, consulting (1999). Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions ; Wendy Doniger, consulting editor. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster. p. 1181. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
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Psychiatrist
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Psychiatrist (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Psychologist.
Psychiatrist
Occupation
Names
Psychiatrist
alienist (archaic)
Occupation type
Profession
specialization
Activity sectors
Medicine
psychiatry
Description
Competencies
Analytical mind
patience
Education required
Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) (MBBS/MBChB)
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.)
Fields of
employment
Psychiatric clinics
Related jobs
Psychologist
psychotherapist
A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry, the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are medical doctors, unlike psychologists, and must evaluate patients to determine whether their symptoms are the result of a physical illness, a combination of physical and mental ailments, or strictly psychiatric.
As part of the clinical assessment process, psychiatrists may employ a mental status examination; a physical examination; brain imaging such as a computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or positron emission tomography (PET) scan; and blood testing. Psychiatrists prescribe medicine, and may also use psychotherapy, although the vast majority do medical management and refer to a psychologist or other specialized therapist for weekly to bi-monthly psychotherapy.
Contents
[hide]
1 Subspecialties
2 Consultant psychiatrist
3 Professional requirements
3.1 US and Canada
3.2 United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland
3.3 Netherlands
3.4 India
3.5 Pakistan
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Subspecialties[edit]
The field of psychiatry has many subspecialties (also known as fellowships) that require additional training which are certified by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) and require Maintenance of Certification Program (MOC) to continue. These include the following:[1]
Clinical neurophysiology
Forensic psychiatry
Addiction psychiatry
Child and adolescent psychiatry
Geriatric psychiatry
Hospice and palliative medicine
Pain management
Psychosomatic medicine (also known as consultation-liaison psychiatry)
Sleep medicine
Brain injury medicine
Further, other specialties that exist include:[2]
Cross-cultural psychiatry
Emergency psychiatry
Learning disability
Neurodevelopmental disorder
Cognition diseases as in various forms of dementia
Biological psychiatry
Community psychiatry
Global mental health
Military psychiatry
Social psychiatry
Sports psychiatry
The United Council for Neurologic Subspecialties in the United States offers certification and fellowship program accreditation in the subspecialty 'Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry' (BNNP) - which is open to both neurologists and psychiatrists.
Some psychiatrists specialize in helping certain age groups. Pediatric psychiatry is the area of the profession working with children in addressing psychological problems.[2] Psychiatrists specializing in geriatric psychiatry work with the elderly and are called geriatric psychiatrists or geropsychiatrists.[2] Those who practice psychiatry in the workplace are called occupational psychiatrists in the United States and occupational psychology is the name used for the most similar discipline in the UK.[2] Psychiatrists working in the courtroom and reporting to the judge and jury, in both criminal and civil court cases, are called forensic psychiatrists, who also treat mentally disordered offenders and other patients whose condition is such that they have to be treated in secure units.[2][3]
Other psychiatrists and mental health professionals in the field of psychiatry may also specialize in psychopharmacology, psychotherapy, psychiatric genetics, neuroimaging, dementia-related disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sleep medicine, pain medicine, palliative medicine, eating disorders, sexual disorders, women's health, global mental health, early psychosis intervention, mood disorders, and anxiety disorders such as obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[2][3]
Consultant psychiatrist[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The psychiatric consultant supports treating patients with behavioral health problems. This role can be performed by a team of experts that include mental health specialists (specialists with Ph.D in Neuroscience and/or Psychology ) who can assist the psychiatrist to relay proper recommendations to the primary care team in treatment planning. The psychiatric consultant may suggest treatment modifications for the primary team to consider, recommend or see the patient for an in-person consultation, and consult patients who are clinically challenging or who need specialty mental health services.
Professional requirements[edit]
While requirements to become a psychiatrist differ from country to country, all require a medical degree.[2][4]
US and Canada[edit]
In the U.S. and Canada one must first attain the degree of M.D. or D.O., followed by practice as a psychiatric resident for another four years (five years in Canada). This extended period involves comprehensive training in psychiatric diagnosis, psychopharmacology, medical care issues, and psychotherapies. All accredited psychiatry residencies in the United States require proficiency in cognitive-behavioral, brief, psychodynamic, and supportive psychotherapies. Psychiatry residents are required to complete at least four post-graduate months of internal medicine or pediatrics, plus a minimum of two months of neurology during their first year of residency, referred to as an "internship".[4] After completing their training, psychiatrists are eligible to take a specialty board examination to become board-certified.[4] The total amount of time required to complete educational and training requirements in the field of psychiatry in the United States is 12 years after high school. Subspecialists in child and adolescent psychiatry are required to complete a two-year fellowship program, the first year of which can run concurrently with the fourth year of the general psychiatry residency program. This adds one to two years of training.
United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland[edit]
In the United Kingdom, psychiatrists must hold a medical degree.[5] These degrees are often abbreviated MB BChir, MB BCh, MB ChB, BM BS, or MB BS. Following this, the individual will work as a Foundation House Officer for two additional years in the UK, or one year as Intern in the Republic of Ireland to achieve registration as a basic medical practitioner. Training in psychiatry can then begin and it is taken in two parts: three years of Basic Specialist Training culminating in the MRCPsych exam followed by three years of Higher Specialist Training, referred to as "ST4-6" in the UK and "Senior Registrar Training" in the Republic of Ireland. Candidates with MRCPsych degree and complete basic training must reinterview for higher specialist training. At this stage, the development of speciality interests such as forensic, child/adolescent take place. At the end of 3 years of higher specialist training, candidates are awarded a CCT (UK) or CCST (Ireland), both meaning Certificate of Completion of (Specialist) Training. At this stage, the psychiatrist can register as a specialist and the qualification of CC(S)T is recognized in all EU/EEA states. As such, training in the UK and Ireland is considerably longer than in the US or Canada and frequently takes around 8–9 years following graduation from medical school. Those with a CC(S)T will be able to apply for Consultant posts. Those with training from outside the EU/EEA should consult local/native medical boards to review their qualifications and eligibility for equivalence recognition (for example, those with a US residency and ABPN qualification).
Netherlands[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the Netherlands one must complete medical school after which one is certified as a medical doctor. After a strict selection program one can specialize in psychiatry: a 4.5 year specialization. During this specialization, the resident has to do a 6-month residency in the field of social psychiatry, a 12-month residency in a field of their own choice (which can be child psychiatry, forensic psychiatry, somatic medicine or medical research). To become an adolescent psychiatrist, one has to do an extra specialization period of 2 more years. In short this means that it takes at least 10.5 years of study to become a psychiatrist which can go up to 12.5 years if one becomes a children's and adolescent psychiatrist.
India[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In India MBBS degree is the basic qualification needed to do Psychiatry. After completing MBBS (including internship) one can attend various PG Medical Entrance Exams and take MD in psychiatry which is a 3-year course. Diploma Course in Psychiatry or DNB Psychiatry can also be taken to become a Psychiatrist.
Pakistan[edit]
In Pakistan one must complete basic medical education, an MBBS, then get registered with Pakistan Medical and Dental Council as a General Practitioner after one year mandatory internship, House Job. After registration with PMDC, one has to go for FCPS-I exam, after that four-year training in Psychiatry under College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan.[6] Training includes rotations in General Medicine, Neurology, and Clinical Psychology for 3 months each, during first two years. There is a mid-exam IMM (Intermediate Module) and a final exam after 4 years.
See also[edit]
List of famous figures in psychiatry
List of psychiatrists
Medicine
Mental health
Mental health professional
Mental illness
Psychiatry
Psychiatric nursing
Clinical psychology
Psychologist
Psychology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Taking a Subspecialty Exam - American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology". Retrieved 2015-09-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The Royal College of Psychiatrists. (2005). Careers info for School leavers. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/training/careersinpsychiatry/careerbooklet.aspx
^ Jump up to: a b American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, Inc. (5 March 2007). ABPN Certification - Subspecialties. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.abpn.com/cert_subspecialties.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c Psychiatry.com (Unknown last update). Student Information. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.psychiatry.com/student.php
Jump up ^ Careers info for School leavers
Jump up ^ Training Programs
Further reading[edit]
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1. OCLC 830807378.
Frances, Allen; First, Michael B. (1999). Your Mental Health: A Layman's Guide to the Psychiatrist's Bible. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83720-8. OCLC 605729701.
Hafner, H. (January 2002). "Psychiatrie als Beruf" [Psychiatry as a profession]. Der Nervenarzt (in German). 73 (1): 33–40. PMID 11975061.
Stout, Chris E. (1993). From the Other Side of the Couch: Candid Conversations with Psychiatrists and Psychologists. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-27765-8. OCLC 27897880.
[hide]
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykiater
Psykiater – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ψυχίατρος – Greek

values: روانپزشک – Persian

values: मनोविकारविज्ञानी – Hindi

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikiater
Psikiater – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: פסיכיאטר – Hebrew

values: ಮನೋರೋಗ ಚಿಕಿತ್ಸಕ – Kannada

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykiater
Psykiater – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykiater
Psykiater – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihiatru
Psihiatru – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Психиатр – Russian

values: මනෝ වෛද්‍ය – Sinhala

values: Психијатар – Serbian

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykiatri
Psykiatri – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykiater
Psykiater – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: మనోరోగ వైద్యుడు – Telugu

values: จิตแพทย์ – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikiyatr
Psikiyatr – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: פסיכיאטער – Yiddish

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