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Diplomatic protection
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In international law, diplomatic protection (or diplomatic espousal) is a means for a State to take diplomatic and other action against another State on behalf of its national whose rights and interests have been injured by the other State. Diplomatic protection, which has been confirmed in different cases of the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice, is a discretionary right of a State and may take any form that is not prohibited by international law. It can include consular action, negotiations with the other State, political and economic pressure, judicial or arbitral proceedings or other forms of peaceful dispute settlement.
In 2006, the International Law Commission adopted the Articles on Diplomatic Protection, regulating the entitlement and the exercise of diplomatic protection.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The nature of diplomatic protection
3 Legal requirements
3.1 Exhaustion of local remedies
3.2 Effective and continuous nationality
4 Lecture
5 See also
6 External links
History[edit]
Diplomatic protection traces its roots to the eighteenth century. The idea that a state has a right to protect its subjects who are abroad has been expressed by Emmerich de Vattel in his Law of Nations: "Whoever ill-treats a citizen indirectly injures the State, which must protect that citizen." Since this protection could take any form whatsoever, the doctrine has often been misused by Western powers as a pretext to intervene in the affairs of less powerful nations, sometimes resorting to the use of force (for example in China during the Boxer Rebellion and Venezuela in the early twentieth century). As a result, the doctrine of diplomatic protection has attracted much criticism, particularly in former colonies. Specifically, in Latin America, the Calvo Doctrine was devised to avoid the invocation of diplomatic protection by Western nationals. Nevertheless, diplomatic protection has been recognized as customary international law by international courts and tribunals as well as scholars. After the Second World War, with the use of force being outlawed as an instrument of international relations, diplomatic protection usually takes other forms, such as judicial proceedings or economic pressure.
The nature of diplomatic protection[edit]
Traditionally, diplomatic protection has been seen as a right of the state, not of the individual that has been wronged under international law. An injury to an alien is considered to be an indirect injury to his home country and in taking up his case the State is seen as asserting its own rights. This means that a State is in no way obliged to take up its national's case and resort to diplomatic protection if it considers this not to be in its own political or economic interests.
Legal requirements[edit]
Customary international law recognises the existence of certain requirements that must be met before a state can validly espouse its national's interest. The two main requirements are exhaustion of local remedies and continuous nationality.
Exhaustion of local remedies[edit]
Diplomatic espousal of a national's claims will not be internationally acceptable unless the national in question has given the host state the chance to correct the wrong done to him through its own national remedies. Exhaustion of local remedies usually means that the individual must first pursue his claims against the host state through its national courts up to the highest level before he can ask the state of his nationality to take up those claims and that state can validly do so.
Effective and continuous nationality[edit]
The second important requirement is that the individual who has been wronged must maintain the nationality of the espousing state from the moment of injury until at least the presentation of the claim by way of diplomatic espousal. If the nationality of the individual in question changes in the meantime, the state of his former nationality will not be able validly to espouse his claims. The claim by a state on behalf of its national may also be dismissed or declared inadmissible if there is no effective and genuine link between the national concerned and the state that seeks to protect him (see the International Court of Justice judgment in the Nottebohm case).
Lecture[edit]
Lecture by John Dugard entitled Diplomatic Protection in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
See also[edit]
Barcelona Traction
Calvo Doctrine
External links[edit]
A Brief Primer on International Law With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007.
Official UN website on International Law
Official website of the International Court of Justice
Introductory note by John Dugard on the Articles on Diplomatic Protection in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
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Luke the Evangelist
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Saint Luke" redirects here. For other uses, see Saint Luke (disambiguation).
Saint Luke the Evangelist
Miniature of Saint Luke from the Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany (1503–1508) by Jean Bourdichon.
Apostle, Evangelist
Born
Antioch, Syria, Roman Empire
Died
Circa 84 AD
Near Boeotia, Greece
Venerated in
In all Christian Churches
Major shrine
Padua, Italy
Feast
18 October
Attributes
Evangelist, Physician, a bishop, a book or a pen, a man accompanied by a winged ox/winged calf/ox, a man painting an icon of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a brush or a palette (referring to the tradition that he was a painter).
Patronage
Artists, bachelors, physicians, surgeons, farmers and others[1]
Luke the Evangelist (Latin: Lūcās, Ancient Greek: Λουκᾶς, Loukãs, Hebrew: לוקאס, Lūqās, Aramaic: לוקא, Lūqā’) is one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical Gospels. The early church fathers ascribed to him authorship of both the Gospel according to Luke and the book of the Acts of the Apostles, which would mean Luke contributed over a quarter of the text of the New Testament, more than any other author. Prominent figures in early Christianity such as Jerome and Eusebius later reaffirmed his authorship, although the fragile evidence[citation needed] of the identity of the author of the works has led to discussion in scholarly circles, both secular and religious.
The New Testament mentions Luke briefly a few times, and the Pauline epistle to the Colossians refers to him as a physician (from Greek for 'one who heals'); thus he is thought to have been both a physician and a disciple of Paul. Christians since the faith's early years have regarded him as a saint. He is believed to have been a martyr, reportedly having been hanged from an olive tree, though some believe otherwise.
The Roman Catholic Church and other major denominations venerate him as Saint Luke the Evangelist and as a patron saint of artists, physicians, bachelors, surgeons, students and butchers; his feast day takes place on 18 October.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 The authorship of Luke and Acts
3 As a historian
4 As an artist
5 Symbol
6 Relics
7 See also
8 References and sources
9 External links
Life[edit]
Many scholars believe that Luke was a Greek physician who lived in the Greek city of Antioch in Ancient Syria, although some other scholars and theologians think Luke was a Hellenic Jew.[2][3] Bart Koet stated that it was widely accepted that the theology of Luke–Acts points to a gentile Christian writing for a gentile audience. Although he concludes that it is more plausible that Luke-Acts is directed to a community made up of both Jewish and gentile Christians, because there is stress on the scriptural roots of the gentile mission (see the use of Isaiah 49,6 in Luke-Acts).[4][5] Gregory Sterling claims that he was either a Hellenistic Jew or a god-fearer.[3]
His earliest notice is in Paul's Epistle to Philemon—Philemon 1:24. He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2Timothy 4:11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul.[6][7][8][9][10] The next earliest account of Luke is in the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century.[citation needed] Helmut Koester, however, claims that the following part, the only part preserved in the original Greek, may have been composed in the late 2nd century:
Luke, was born in Antioch, by profession, was a physician.[11] He had become a disciple of the apostle Paul and later followed Paul until his [Paul's] martyrdom. Having served the Lord continuously, unmarried and without children, filled with the Holy Spirit he died at the age of 84 years. (p. 335)
James Tissot, Saint Luke (Saint Luc), Brooklyn Museum.
Epiphanius states that Luke was one of the Seventy Apostles (Panarion 51.11), and John Chrysostom indicates at one point that the "brother" Paul mentions in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8:18 is either Luke or Barnabas.[citation needed]
If one accepts that Luke was in fact the author of the Gospel bearing his name and also the Acts of the Apostles, certain details of his personal life can be reasonably assumed. While he does exclude himself from those who were eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry, he repeatedly uses the word "we" in describing the Pauline missions in Acts of the Apostles, indicating that he was personally there at those times.[12]
There is similar evidence that Luke resided in Troas, the province which included the ruins of ancient Troy, in that he writes in Acts in the third person about Paul and his travels until they get to Troas, where he switches to the first person plural. The "we" section of Acts continues until the group leaves Philippi, when his writing goes back to the third person. This change happens again when the group returns to Philippi. There are three "we sections" in Acts, all following this rule. Luke never stated, however, that he lived in Troas, and this is the only evidence that he did.[citation needed]
Luke as depicted in the head-piece of an Armenian Gospel manuscript from 1609 held at the Bodleian Library.
The composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, indicate that the author was an educated man. A quote in the Epistle to the Colossians differentiates between Luke and other colleagues "of the circumcision."
10 My fellow prisoner Aristarchus sends you his greetings, as does Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. 11 Jesus, who is called Justus, also sends greetings. These are the only Jews among my co-workers for the kingdom of God, and they have proved a comfort to me. ... 14 Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings. Colossians 4:10–11, 14.
This comment has traditionally caused commentators to conclude that Luke was a gentile. If this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish. However, that is not the only possibility. Although Luke is considered likely to be a gentile Christian, some scholars believe him to be a Hellenized Jew.[2][3][13] The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not.[12]
Luke's presence in Rome with the Apostle Paul near the end of Paul's life was attested by 2 Timothy 4:11: "Only Luke is with me". In the last chapter of the Book of Acts, widely attributed to Luke, we find several accounts in the first person also affirming Luke's presence in Rome including Acts 28:16: "And when we came to Rome..." According to some accounts,[who?] Luke also contributed to the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews.[14]
Luke died at age 84 in Boeotia, according to a "fairly early and widespread tradition".[15] According to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos (Ecclesiastical History 14th century AD., Migne P.G. 145, 876) and others, Luke's tomb was located in Thebes, whence his relics were transferred to Constantinople in the year 357.[citation needed]
The authorship of Luke and Acts[edit]
See also: Authorship of Luke–Acts
The Gospel of Luke does not name its author.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] The Gospel was not written and does not claim to be written by direct witnesses to the reported events, unlike Acts beginning in the sixteenth chapter.[18][25][26]
The earliest manuscript of the Gospel, dated circa AD 200, ascribes the work to Luke; as did Irenaeus, writing circa AD 180, and the Muratorian fragment from AD 170.[27]
The gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution by a single author.[28]
Luke paints the Madonna and the Baby Jesus, by Maarten van Heemskerck
As a historian[edit]
See also: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, Census of Quirinius, and Chronology of Jesus
A medieval Armenian illumination of Luke, by Toros Roslin.
Most scholars understand Luke's works (Luke–Acts) in the tradition of Greek historiography.[29] The preface of The Gospel of Luke[30] drawing on historical investigation identified the work to the readers as belonging to the genre of history.[31] There is some disagreement about how best to treat Luke's writings, with some historians regarding Luke as highly accurate, and others taking a more critical approach.
Based on his accurate description of towns, cities and islands, as well as correctly naming various official titles, archaeologist Sir William Ramsay wrote that "Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy... [he] should be placed along with the very greatest of historians."[32] Professor of Classics at Auckland University, E.M. Blaiklock, wrote: "For accuracy of detail, and for evocation of atmosphere, Luke stands, in fact, with Thucydides. The Acts of the Apostles is not shoddy product of pious imagining, but a trustworthy record... it was the spadework of archaeology which first revealed the truth."[33] New Testament scholar Colin Hemer has made a number of advancements in understanding the historical nature and accuracy of Luke's writings.[34]
On the purpose of Acts, New Testament Scholar Luke Timothy Johnson has noted that "Luke's account is selected and shaped to suit his apologetic interests, not in defiance of but in conformity to ancient standards of historiography."[35] Such a position is shared by most commentators such as Richard Heard who sees historical deficiencies as arising from "special objects in writing and to the limitations of his sources of information."[36]
During modern times, Luke's competence as a historian is questioned, depending upon one's a priori view of the supernatural.[37] Since post-Enlightenment historians work with methodological naturalism,[38][39] such historians would see a narrative that relates supernatural, fantastic things like angels, demons etc., as problematic as a historical source. Mark Powell claims that "it is doubtful whether the writing of history was ever Luke's intent. Luke wrote to proclaim, to persuade, and to interpret; he did not write to preserve records for posterity. An awareness of this, has been, for many, the final nail in Luke the historian’s coffin."[37]
Robert M. Grant has noted that although Luke saw himself within the historical tradition, his work contains a number of statistical improbabilities such as the sizable crowd addressed by Peter in Acts 4:4. He has also noted chronological difficulties whereby Luke "has Gamaliel refer to Theudas and Judas in the wrong order, and Theudas actually rebelled about a decade after Gamaliel spoke (5:36–7)"[29]
As an artist[edit]
Luke the Evangelist painting the first icon of the Virgin Mary.
Christian tradition, starting from the 8th century, states that he was the first icon painter. He is said to have painted pictures of the Virgin Mary and Child, in particular the Hodegetria image in Constantinople (now lost). Starting from the 11th century a number of painted images were venerated as his autograph works, including for example, the Black Madonna of Częstochowa and Our Lady of Vladimir. He was also said to have painted Saints Peter and Paul, and to have illustrated a gospel book with a full cycle of miniatures.[40][41]
Late medieval Guilds of St Luke in the cities of Late Medieval Europe, especially Flanders, or the "Accademia di San Luca" (Academy of Saint Luke) in Rome—imitated in many other European cities during the 16th century—gathered together and protected painters. The tradition that Luke painted icons of Mary and Jesus has been common, particularly in Eastern Orthodoxy. The tradition also has support from the Saint Thomas Christians of India who claim to still have one of the Theotokos icons that Saint Luke painted and which St. Thomas brought to India.[42]
Symbol[edit]
Luke and the Madonna, Altar of the Guild of Saint Luke, Hermen Rode, Lübeck 1484.
In traditional depictions, such as paintings, evangelist portraits and church mosaics, Saint Luke is often accompanied by an ox or bull, usually having wings. Sometimes only the symbol is shown, especially when in a combination of those of all Four Evangelists.[43][44]
Relics[edit]
Despot George of Serbia bought the relics from the Ottoman sultan Murad II for 30,000 gold coins.[45][46][not in citation given] After the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, the kingdom's last queen, George's granddaughter Mary, who had brought the relics with her from Serbia as her dowry, sold them to the Venetian Republic.[47]
In 1992, the then Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Ieronymos of Thebes and Levathia (the current Archbishop of Athens and All Greece) requested from Bishop Antonio Mattiazzo of Padua the return of "a significant fragment of the relics of St. Luke to be placed on the site where the holy tomb of the Evangelist is located and venerated today". This prompted a scientific investigation of the relics in Padua, and by numerous lines of empirical evidence (archeological analyses of the Tomb in Thebes and the Reliquary of Padua, anatomical analyses of the remains, Carbon-14 dating, comparison with the purported skull of the Evangelist located in Prague) confirmed that these were the remains of an individual of Syrian descent who died between 416 BC and AD 72.[48] The Bishop of Padua then delivered to Metropolitan Ieronymos the rib of Saint Luke that was closest to his heart to be kept at his tomb in Thebes, Greece.[45][46]
Thus, nowadays, the relics of Saint Luke are so divided:
The body, in the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua;
The head, in the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague;
A rib, at his tomb in Thebes.
See also[edit]
Book: Gospel
John the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist
Matthew the Evangelist
References and sources[edit]
References
Jump up ^ http://catholicsaints.info/saint-luke-the-evangelist/
^ Jump up to: a b Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" pp. 266–68
^ Jump up to: a b c Strelan, Rick. Luke the Priest – the Authority of the Author of the Third Gospel – Was Luke a Jew or Gentile? Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., May 1, 2013, pp. 102–10.
Jump up ^ Koet, Bart J., Five Studies on Interpretation of Scripture in Luke-Acts. Leuven University Press, 1989. pp. 157-158
Jump up ^ Koet, Bart J., Dreams and Scripture in Luke-Acts. Leuven University Press, 2006. pp. 4-5
Jump up ^ The New Testament Documents: Their Origin and Early History, George Milligan, 1913, Macmillan and Co., p. 149
Jump up ^ Saints: A Visual Guide, Edward Mornin, Lorna Mornin, 2006, Eerdmans Books, p. 74
Jump up ^ "Gospel of Saint Luke", Aherne, Cornelius, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 24 Feb. 2013
Jump up ^ New Outlook, Alfred Emanuel Smith, 1935, Outlook Pub. Co., p. 792
Jump up ^ New Testament Studies. I. Luke the Physician: The Author of the Third Gospel, Adolf von Harnack, 1907, Williams & Norgate; G.P. Putnam's Sons, p. 5
Jump up ^ A Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles, Horatio Balch Hackett, 1858, Gould and Lincoln; Sheldon, Blakeman & Co., p. 12
^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopædia Britannica, Micropædia vol. 7, pp. 554–55. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc, 1998. ISBN 0-85229-633-9.
Jump up ^ Thomas S. McCall, Th.D. Was Luke a Gentile?
Jump up ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Epistle to the Hebrews". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
Jump up ^ Michael Walsh, ed. "Butler's Lives of the Saints." (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), p. 342.
Jump up ^ E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, (Penguin, 1995) pp. 63–64.
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman (2000:43) The New Testament: a historical introduction to early Christian writings. Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Bart D. Ehrman (2005:235) Lost Christianities: the battles for scripture and the faiths we never knew Oxford University Press, New York.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1995:287) International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: K-P Matthew, Gospel According To. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. Quote: "Matthew, like the other three Gospels is an anonymous document."
Jump up ^ Donald Senior, Paul J. Achtemeier, Robert J. Karris (2002:328) Invitation to the Gospels Paulist Press.
Jump up ^ Keith Fullerton Nickle (2001:43) The Synoptic Gospels: an introduction Westminster John Knox Press.
Jump up ^ Ben Witherington (2004:44) The Gospel code: novel claims about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Da Vinci InterVarsity Press.
Jump up ^ F. F. Bruce (1994:1) The Gospel of John Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
Jump up ^ Patrick J. Flannagan (1997:16) The Gospel of Mark Made Easy Paulist Press
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman (2004:110) Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Bart D. Ehrman (2006:143) The lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot: a new look at betrayer and betrayed. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 267. Anchor Bible; 1st edition (October 13, 1997). ISBN 978-0-385-24767-2.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 556.
^ Jump up to: a b Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) Archived 2010-06-21 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Luke 1:1–4".
Jump up ^ Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses. 117.
Jump up ^ Ramsay, The Bearing Of Recent Discovery On The Trustworthiness Of The New Testament, 222, 1915
Jump up ^ Blaiklock, The Archaeology of the New Testament, p. 96, Zondervan Publishing Houst, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1970.
Jump up ^ Hemer, "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenic History", 104–07, as summarized by MacDowell.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Luke Timothy (1992). The Acts of the Apostles. The Liturgical Press. pp. 474–76.
Jump up ^ Heard, Richard (1950). "13: The Acts of the Apostles". An Introduction to the New Testament. Harper & Brothers.
^ Jump up to: a b Powell, Mark (1989). What are they saying about Luke?. Paulist Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8091-3111-0.
Jump up ^ McGrew, Timothy, "Miracles", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/miracles/
Flew, Antony, 1966, God and Philosophy, London: Hutchinson.
Ehrman, Bart D., 2003, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, 3rd ed., New York: Oxford University Press.
Bradley, Francis Herbert, 1874, “The Presuppositions of Critical History,” in Collected Essays, vol. 1, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1935.
McGrew's conclusion: historians work with methodological naturalism, which precludes them from establishing miracles as objective historical facts (Flew 1966: 146; cf. Bradley 1874/1935; Ehrman 2003: 229).
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart; Craig, William Lane (March 28, 2006). "William Lane Craig and Bart Ehrman "Is There Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus?"". College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Massachusetts: bringyou.to. Retrieved August 11, 2010. Historians can only establish what probably happened in the past, and by definition a miracle is the least probable occurrence. And so, by the very nature of the canons of historical research, we can't claim historically that a miracle probably happened. By definition, it probably didn't. And history can only establish what probably did.
Jump up ^ Grigg, Robert, "Byzantine Credulity as an Impediment to Antiquarianism", Gesta, Vol. 26, No. 1 (1987), pp. 5–6, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the International Center of Medieval Art, JSTOR
Jump up ^ The basic study on the legends concerning Saint Luke as a painter is Michele Bacci, Il pennello dell'Evangelista. Storia delle immagini sacre attribuite a san Luca (Pisa: Gisem, 1998).
Jump up ^ Father H. Hosten in his book Antiquities notes the following "The picture at the mount is one of the oldest, and, therefore, one of the most venerable Christian paintings to be had in India. Other traditions hold that St. Luke painted two icons which currently are in Greece: the "Theotokos Mega Spileotissa" (Our Lady of the Great Cave, where supposedly Saint Luke lived for a period of time in asceticism) and the "Panagia Soumela", and "Panagia Kykkou" which are in Cyprus."
Jump up ^ Stefano Zuffi (2003). "The Evangelists and their symbols". Gospel Figures in Art. Getty Publications. ISBN 0-89236-727-X.
Jump up ^ George Ashdown Audsley; William Audsley (1865). "Chapter VI. Symbols and emblems of the Evangelists and the Apostles". Handbook of Christian Symbolism. Reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7661-5437-7.
^ Jump up to: a b The Beloved Physician Archived 2009-06-07 at the Wayback Machine. St Luke, Padua.
^ Jump up to: a b Wade, Nicholas. "Body of St. Luke Gains Credibility." New York Times, October 16, 2001.
Jump up ^ Van Antwerp Fine, John, The Bosnian Church: a new interpretation: a study of the Bosnian Church and its place in state and society from the 13th to the 15th centuries, p. 331, East European quarterly, 1975.
Jump up ^ Olga Craig (21 October 2001). "DNA test pinpoints St Luke the apostle's remains to Padua". Telegraph.co.uk.
Sources
Michele Bacci, Il pennello dell'Evangelista. Storia delle immagini sacre attribuite a san Luca, Pisa: Gisem-Ets, 1998.
I. Howard Marshall. Luke: Historian and Theologian. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press.
Boring, M. Eugene (2012). An Introduction to the New Testament: History, Literature, Theology. Westminster John Knox Press.
F. F. Bruce, The Speeches in the Acts of the Apostles. London: The Tyndale Press, 1942.[1]
Helmut Koester. Ancient Christian Gospels. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International, 1999.
Burton L. Mack. Who Wrote the New Testament?: The Making of the Christian Myth. San Francisco, California: HarperCollins, 1996.
J. Wenham, "The Identification of Luke", Evangelical Quarterly 63 (1991), 3–44
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Luke the Evangelist
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Luke the Evangelist.
Wikisource has the text of an 1879 American Cyclopædia article about Luke the Evangelist.
Biblical Interpretation of Texts of Saint Luke
Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Luke e-texts, introductions
National Academy of Sciences on Luke the Evangelist
Patron Saint Luke
Photo of the grave of Luke in Padua (in German)
DNA testing of the Saint Luke corpse
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VIAF: 128165029
LCCN: n50082065
GND: 118575198
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luke_the_Evangelist&oldid=832910475"
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Technology integration
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Technology integration is the use of technology tools[citation needed] in general content areas in education in order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills to learning and problem-solving. Generally speaking, the curriculum drives the use of technology and not vice versa.[1][2] Technology integration is defined as the use of technology to enhance and support the educational environment. Technology integration in the classroom can also support classroom instruction by creating opportunities for students to complete assignments on the computer rather than with normal pencil and paper.[3]
"Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting... Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally to an authentic audience. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions—as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology."[4]
Integrating technology with standard curriculum can not only give students a sense of power, but also allows for more advanced learning among broad topics. However, these technologies require infrastructure, continual maintenance and repair – one determining element, among many, in how these technologies can be used for curricula purposes and whether or not they will be successful.[5] Examples of the infrastructure required to operate and support technology integration in schools include at the basic level electricity, Internet service providers, routers, modems, and personnel to maintain the network, beyond the initial cost of the hardware and software.[6]
Standard education curriculum with an integration of technology can provide tools for advanced learning among a broad range of topics. Integration of information and communication technology is often closely monitored and evaluated due to the current climate of accountability, outcome based education, and standardization in assessment.[7]
Technology integration can in some instances be problematic. A high ratio of students to technological device has been shown to impede or slow learning and task completion.[8] In some, instances dyadic peer interaction centered on integrated technology has proven to develop a more cooperative sense of social relations.[9] Success or failure of technology integration is largely dependent on factors beyond the technology. The availability of appropriate software for the technology being integrated is also problematic in terms of software accessibility to students and educators.[8] Another issue identified with technology integration is the lack of long-range planning for these tools within the educative districts they are being used.[10]
Technology contributes to global development and diversity in classrooms while helping to develop upon the fundamental building blocks needed for students to achieve more complex ideas. In order for technology to make an impact within the educational system, teachers and students must access to technology in a contextual matter that is culturally relevant, responsive and meaningful to their educational practice and that promotes quality teaching and active student learning.[11]
Contents
1 History
2 Technology education standards
3 Pedagogy
3.1 Paradigms
3.2 Constructivism
3.3 Counter argument to computers in the classroom
4 Tools
4.1 Interactive whiteboards
4.2 Student response systems
5 Mobile learning
5.1 Benefits
6 Project-based activities
7 Elements
8 Examples of activities
8.1 CyberHunt
8.2 WebQuests
8.3 WISE
8.4 Virtual field trip
8.5 ePortfolio
9 References
History[edit]
The term 'educational technology' was used during the post World War II era in the United States for the integration of implements such as film strips, slide projectors, language laboratories, audio tapes, and television.[12] Presently, the computers, tablets, and mobile devices integrated into classroom settings for educational purposes are most often referred to as 'current' educational technologies. It is important to note that educational technologies continually change, and once referred to slate chalkboards used by students in early schoolhouses in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The phrase 'educational technology', a composite meaning of technology + education, is used to refer to the most advanced technologies that are available for both teaching and learning in a particular era.[12]
In 1994 federal legislation for both the Educate America Act and the Improving America's School's Act (IASA) authorized funds for state and federal educational technology planning.[12] One of the principal goals listed in the Educate America Act is to promote the research, consensus building, and systemic changes needed to ensure equitable educational opportunities and high levels of educational achievement for all students (Public Law 103-227).[13] In 1996 the Telecommunications Act provided a systematic change necessary to ensure equitable educational opportunities of bringing new technology into the education sector.[14] The Telecomm Act requires affordable access and service to advanced telecom services for public schools and libraries. Many of the computers, tablets, and mobile devices currently used in classrooms operate through Internet connectivity; particularly those that are application based such as tablets. Schools in high-cost areas and disadvantaged schools were to receive higher discounts in telecom services such as Internet, cable, satellite television, and the management component.[14]
A chart of "Technology Penetration in U.S. Public Schools" report states 98% percent of schools reported having computers in the 1995–1996 school year, with 64% Internet access, and 38% working via networked systems.[12] The ratio of students to computers in the United States in 1984 stood at 15 students per 1 computer, it now stands at an average all-time low of 10 students to computer.[12] From the 1980s on into the 2000s, the most substantial issue to examine in educational technology was school access to technologies according to the 1997 Policy Information Report for Computers and Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools. These technologies included computers, multimedia computers, the Internet, networks, cable TV, and satellite technology amongst other technology-based resources.[12]
More recently ubiquitous computing devices, such as computers and tablets, are being used as networked collaborative technologies in the classroom.[6] Computers, tablets and mobile devices may be used in educational settings within groups, between people and for collaborative tasks.[15] These devices provide teachers and students access to the World Wide Web in addition to a variety of software applications.
Technology education standards[edit]
National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) served as a roadmap since 1998 for improved teaching and learning by educators. As stated above, these standards are used by teachers, students, and administrators to measure competency and set higher goals to be skillful.
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills is a national organization that advocates for 21st century readiness for every student. Their most recent Technology Plan was released in 2010, "Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology".[16] This plan outlines a vision "to leverage the learning sciences and modern technology to create engaging, relevant, and personalized learning experiences for all learners that mirror students' daily lives and the reality of their futures. In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, this requires that students be put at the center and encouraged to take control of their own learning by providing flexibility on several dimensions."[16] Although tools have changed dramatically since the beginnings of educational technology, this vision of using technology for empowered, self-directed learning has remained consistent.[16]
Pedagogy[edit]
The integration of electronic devices into classrooms has been cited as a possible solution to bridge access for students, to close achievement gaps, that are subject to the digital divide, based on social class, economic inequality, or gender where and a potential user does not have enough cultural capital required to have access to information and communication technologies.[17] Several motivations or arguments have been cited for integrating high-tech hardware and software into school, such as (1) making schools more efficient and productive than they currently are, (2) if this goal is achieved, teaching and learning will be transformed into an engaging and active process connected to real life, and (3) is to prepare the current generation of young people for the future workplace.[18] The computer has access to graphics and other functions students can use to express their creativity. Technology integration does not always have to do with the computer. It can be the use of the overhead projector, student response clickers, etc. Enhancing how the student learns is very important in technology integration. Technology will always help students to learn and explore more.[3]
Paradigms[edit]
Most research in technology integration has been criticized for being atheoretical and ad hoc driven more by the affordances of the technology rather than the demands of pedagogy and subject matter. Armstrong (2012) argued that multimedia transmission turns to limit the learning into simple content, because it is difficult to deliver complicated content through multimedia.[19]
One approach that attempts to address this concern is a framework aimed at describing the nature of teacher knowledge for successful technology integration. The technological pedagogical content knowledge or TPACK framework has recently received some positive attention.[20]
Another model that has been used to analyze tech integration is the SAMR framework, developed by Ruben Puentedura. This model attempts to measure the level of tech integration with 4 the levels that go from Enhancement to Transformation: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition.[21]
Constructivism[edit]
Constructivism is a crucial component of technology integration. It is a learning theory that describes the process of students constructing their own knowledge through collaboration and inquiry-based learning. According to this theory, students learn more deeply and retain information longer when they have a say in what and how they will learn. Inquiry-based learning, thus, is researching a question that is personally relevant and purposeful because of its direct correlation to the one investigating the knowledge. As stated by Jean Piaget,[22] constructivist learning is based on four stages of cognitive development. In these stages, children must take an active role in their own learning and produce meaningful works in order to develop a clear understanding. These works are a reflection of the knowledge that has been achieved through active self-guided learning. Students are active leaders in their learning and the learning is student-led rather than teacher–directed.[23]
Many teachers use a constructivist approach in their classrooms assuming one or more of the following roles: facilitator, collaborator, curriculum developer, team member, community builder, educational leader, or information producer.
Counter argument to computers in the classroom[edit]
Is technology in the classroom needed, or does it hinder students' social development? We've all seen a table of teenagers on their phones, all texting, not really socializing or talking to each other. How do they develop social and communication skills? Neil Postman (1993) concludes:
The role of the school is to help students learn how to ignore and discard information so that they can achieve a sense of coherence in their lives; to help students cultivate a sense of social responsibility; to help students think critically, historically, and humanely; to help students understand the ways in which technology shapes their consciousness; to help students learn that their own needs sometimes are subordinate to the needs of the group. I could go on for another three pages in this vein without any reference to how machinery can give students access to information. Instead, let me summarize in two ways what I mean. First, I'll cite a remark made repeatedly by my friend Alan Kay, who is sometimes called "the father of the personal computer." Alan likes to remind us that any problems the schools cannot solve without machines, they cannot solve with them. Second, and with this I shall come to a close: If a nuclear holocaust should occur some place in the world, it will not happen because of insufficient information; if children are starving in Somalia, it's not because of insufficient information; if crime terrorizes our cities, marriages are breaking up, mental disorders are increasing, and children are being abused, none of this happens because of a lack of information. These things happen because we lack something else. It is the "something else" that is now the business of schools.[24]
Tools[edit]
Interactive whiteboards[edit]
Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools as replacements for standard whiteboards and provide a way to allow students to interact with material on the computer. In addition, some interactive whiteboards software allow teachers to record their instruction.[25]
3D virtual environments are also used with interactive whiteboards as a way for students to interact with 3D virtual learning objects employing kinetics and haptic touch the classroom. An example of the use of this technique is the open-source project Edusim.
Research has been carried out[citation needed] to track the worldwide Interactive Whiteboard market by Decision Tree Consulting (DTC), a worldwide research company. According to the results, interactive Whiteboards continue to be the biggest technology revolution in classrooms, across the world there are over 1.2 million boards installed, over 5 million classrooms are forecast to have Interactive Whiteboards installed by 2011, Americas are the biggest region closely followed by EMEA, and Mexico's Enciclomedia project to equip 145,000 classrooms is worth $1.8 billion and is the largest education technology project in the world.
Interactive whiteboards can accommodate different learning styles, such as visual, tactile, and audio.[26]
Interactive Whiteboards are another way that technology is expanding in schools. By assisting the teacher to helping students more kinestically as well as finding different ways to process there information throughout the entire classroom.
Student response systems[edit]
Student response systems consist of handheld remote control units, or response pads, which are operated by individual students. An infrared or radio frequency receiver attached to the teacher's computer collects the data submitted by students. The CPS (Classroom Performance System),[27] once set, allows the teacher to pose a question to students in several formats. Students then use the response pad to send their answer to the infrared sensor. Data collected from these systems is available to the teacher in real time and can be presented to the students in a graph form on an LCD projector. The teacher can also access a variety of reports to collect and analyze student data. These systems have been used in higher education science courses since the 1970s and have become popular in K-12 classrooms beginning in the early 21st century.
Audience response systems (ARS) can help teachers analyze, and act upon student feedback more efficiently. For example, with polleverywhere.com, students text in answers via mobile devices to warm-up or quiz questions. The class can quickly view collective responses to the multiple-choice questions electronically, allowing the teacher to differentiate instruction and learn where students need help most.[28]
Combining ARS with peer learning via collaborative discussions has also been proven to be particularly effective. When students answer an in-class conceptual question individually, then discuss it with their neighbors, and then vote again on the same or a conceptually similar question, the percentage of correct student responses usually increases, even in groups where no student had given the correct answer previously.[28]
Among other tools that have been noted as being effective as a way of technology integration are podcasts, digital cameras, smart phones, tablets, digital media, and blogs.
Mobile learning[edit]
Mobile learning is defined as "learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices".[29] A mobile device is essentially any device that is portable and has internet access and includes tablets, smart phones, cell phones, e-book readers, and MP3 players.[30] As mobile devices become increasingly common personal devices of K-12 students, some educators seek to utilize downloadable applications and interactive games to help facilitate learning. This practice can be controversial because many parents and educators are concerned that students would be off-task because teachers cannot monitor their activity.[30] This is currently being troubleshooted by forms of mobile learning that require a log-in, acting as a way to track engagement of students.[30]
Benefits[edit]
According to findings from four meta analyses, blending technology with face-to-face teacher time generally produces better outcomes than face-to-face or online learning alone. Research is currently limited on the specific features of technology integration that improve learning. Meanwhile, the marketplace of learning technologies continues to grow and vary widely in content, quality, implementation, and context of use.[28]
Research shows that adding technology to K-12 environments, alone, does not necessarily improve learning. What matters most to implementing mobile learning is how students and teachers use technology to develop knowledge and skills and that requires training.[31] Successful technology integration for learning goes hand in hand with changes in teacher training, curricula, and assessment practices.[32]
An example of teacher professional development is profiled in Edutopia's Schools That Work series on eMints, a program that offers teachers 200 hours of coaching and training in technology integration over a two-year span.[33] In these workshops teachers are trained in practices such as using interactive whiteboards and the latest web tools to facilitate active learning. In a 2010 publication of Learning Point Associates, statistics showed that students of teachers who had participated in eMints had significantly higher standardized test scores than those attained by their peers.[33]
It can keep students focused for longer periods of time. The use of computers to look up information/ data is a tremendous time saver, especially when used to access a comprehensive resource like the Internet to conduct research. This time-saving aspect can keep students focused on a project much longer than they would with books and paper resources, and it helps them develop better learning through exploration and research.[34]
Project-based activities[edit]
Definition: Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and complex question, problem, or challenge.
Project Based Activities is a method of teaching where the students gain knowledge and skills by involving themselves for the more period of time to research and respond to the engaging and complex questions, problems, or challenges. the students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging.The students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging, real, curriculum based and frequently relating to more than one branch of knowledge. Therefore, a well designed project based learning activity is one which addresses different student learning styles and which does not assume that all students can demonstrate their knowledge in a single standard way.[35]
Elements[edit]
The project based learning activities involves four basic elements.
An extended time frame.
Collaboration.
Inquiry, investigation and research.
The construction of an artifact or performance of a consequential task.
Examples of activities[edit]
CyberHunt[edit]
The term "hunt" refers to finding or searching for something. "CyberHunt" means an online activity which learners use the internet as tool to find answers to the question's based upon the topics which are assigned by someone else. Hence learners also can design the CyberHunt on some specific topics.[36] a CyberHunt, or internet scavenger hunt, is a project-based activity which helps students gain experience in exploring and browsing the internet. A CyberHunt may ask students to interact with the site (e.g.: play a game or watch a video), record short answers to teacher questions, as well as read and write about a topic in depth. There are basically two types of CyberHunt:
A simple task, in which the teacher develops a series of questions and gives the students a hypertext link to the URL that will give them the answer.
A more complex task, intended for increasing and improving student internet search skills. Teachers ask questions for students to answer using a search engine.
WebQuests[edit]
It is an inquiry oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by the learners which are drawn out by the internet/web. It is designed to use learner 'time well', to focus on using information rather than on looking for it and to support the learners to think at the level of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. It is the wonderful way of capturing student's imagination and allowing them to explore in a guided, meaningful manner. It allow the students to explore issues and find their own answers.
There are six building blocks of webQuests:
The introduction – capturing the student's interest.
The task-describing the activities end product.
The resources-web sites, students will use to complete the task.
The evaluation-measuring the result of the activity.
The conclusion-summing up of the activity.
WebQuests are student-centered, web-based curricular units that are interactive and use Internet resources. The purpose of a webQuest is to use information on the web to support the instruction taught in the classroom. A webQuest consists of an introduction, a task (or final project that students complete at the end of the webQuest), processes (or instructional activities), web-based resources, evaluation of learning, reflection about learning, and a conclusion.
WISE[edit]
The Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) provides a platform for creating inquiry science projects for middle school and high school students using evidence and resources from the Web. Funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, WISE has been developed at the University of California, Berkeley from 1996 until the present. WISE inquiry projects include diverse elements such as online discussions, data collection, drawing, argument creation, resource sharing, concept mapping and other built-in tools, as well as links to relevant web resources.It is the research-focused, open-source inquiry-based learning management system that includes the student- learning environment project authoring environment, grading tool, and tool and user/ course/ content management tools.
Virtual field trip[edit]
A virtual field trip is a website that allows the students to experience places, ideas, or objects beyond the constraints of the classroom[why?]. A virtual field trip is a great way to allow the students to explore and experience new information. This format is especially helpful and beneficial in allowing schools to keep the cost down. Virtual field trips may also be more practical for children in the younger grades, due to the fact that there is not a demand for chaperones and supervision. Although, a virtual field trip does not allow the children to have the hands on experiences and the social interactions that can and do take place on an actual field trip. An educator should incorporate the use of hands on material to further their understanding of the material that is presented and experienced in a virtual field trip.It is a guided exploration through the www that organizes a collection of pre- screened, its thematically based web pages into a structure online learning experience
ePortfolio[edit]
An ePortfolio is a collection of student work that exhibits the student's achievements in one or more areas over time. Components in a typical student ePortfolio might contain creative writings, paintings, photography, math explorations, music, and videos. And it is a collection of work developed across varied contexts over time. The portfolio can advance learning by providing students and/or faculty with a way to organize, archive and display pieces of work.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jolene Dockstader (December 8, 2008). "Teachers of the 21st Century Know the What, Why, and How of Technology Integration".
Jump up ^ "Why Do We Need Technology Integration?". Edutopia. November 5, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Using technology to increase student participation". techparticipation.blogspot. September 1, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 7: Technology Integration, U.S. Department of Education". National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). December 9, 2008.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Steven; Pompe, Alex; Krieshok, Gabriel (8–11 September 2011), "Things Fall Apart: Maintenance, Repair, and Technology for Education Initiatives in Rural Namibia", Proceedings of the 2011 iConference, Seattle, Washington, pp. 283–90
^ Jump up to: a b Grinter, Rebecca; Edwards, W. Keith (18–22 September 2005), "The Work to Make a Home Network Work", Proceedings of the Ninth European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, Paris, France, pp. 469–488
Jump up ^ Kervin, Lisa; Mantei, Jessica (2010). "Supporting educators with the inclusion of technology within literacy classrooms: A framework for "action"". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 2 (3): 43–54.
^ Jump up to: a b Yu, Chien (2013). "The Integration of Technology in the 21st Century Classroom: Teachers' Attitudes and Pedagogical Beliefs Toward Emerging Technologies". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 5 (1): 6.
Jump up ^ Mehan, Hugh (March 1989). "Microcomputers in Classrooms: Educational Technology or Social Practice". Anthropology & Education Quarterly. 20 (1): 4–22. doi:10.1525/aeq.1989.20.1.05x1208l. JSTOR 3195700.
Jump up ^ Anderson, L. S. (1996), K–12 technology planning at state, district, and local levels, National Center for Technology Planning, Mississippi State University
Jump up ^ Song, Shin-Cheol; Owens, Emiel (2011). "Rethinking Technology Disparities and Instructional Practices within Urban Schools: Recommendations for School Leadership and Teacher Training". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 3 (2): 23–36.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Coley, R. DJ.; Cradler, J.; Engel, P. K. (1997), Computers and Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools, Policy Information Report, pp. 1–67
Jump up ^ Goals 2000: Educate America Act , House of Representatives 1804 Amendment U.S. Congress 103 (8 February 1994).
^ Jump up to: a b TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996 – 110 STAT. 56. , House of Representatives 1804 Amendment U.S. Congress 104 (8 February 1996).
Jump up ^ Dourish, Paul (2001), Where the action is (1st ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, p. 245, ISBN 9780262541787
^ Jump up to: a b c Boss, Suzie (8 September 2011). "Technology Integration: A Short History".
Jump up ^ Buckingham, David (2007), Beyond technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Polity, p. 209, ISBN 9780745638812
Jump up ^ Cuban, Larry (2003), Oversold and underused, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, p. 256, ISBN 9780674011090
Jump up ^ J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
Jump up ^ "TPACK.ORG". www.tpack.org. Retrieved 2015-11-03.
Jump up ^ "Ruben R. Puentedura's Blog". hippasus.com. Retrieved 2015-11-03.
Jump up ^ Wanda Y. Ginn. "JEAN PIAGET – INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT".
Jump up ^ Kay C. Wood; Harlan Smith; Daurice Grossniklaus. "Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development". Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia.
Jump up ^ Postman, N. (1993). Of Luddites, learning, and life. Technos Quarterly, 2(4)
Jump up ^ "Interactive Whiteboards Enhance Classroom Instruction and Learning". www.neamb.com. NEA Member Benefits. Retrieved 2018-04-04.
Jump up ^ Alfred N. Basilicato. "Interactive Whiteboards: Assistive Technology for Every Classroom" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Ward, Darrel W. (April 30, 2003). "The Classroom Performance System: The Overwhelming Research Results Supporting This Teacher Tool and Methodology". eInstruction. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vega, Vanessa (5 February 2013). "Technology Integration Research Review: Additional Tools and Programs".
Jump up ^ "Mobile learning".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mobile Devices for Learning: What You Need to Know". Edutopia.
Jump up ^ Vega, Vanessa (February 5, 2013). "Technology Integration Research Review". Edutopia.
Jump up ^ Zucker, A.; Light, D. (2009). "Laptop programs for students" (PDF). Science. 323 (5910): 82–85. doi:10.1126/science.1167705.
^ Jump up to: a b Markus, David (July 25, 2012). "High-Impact Professional Development for Rural Schools". Edutopia.
Jump up ^ Huneycutt, Timothy. "Technology in the Classroom: the Benefits of Blended Learning". National Math + Science Initiative. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "A Project-Based Learning Activity About Project-Based Learning". resources.sun-associates.com. June 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ "What Is a Cyberhunt?". nmmu.ac.za.
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//doi.org/10.1126/science.1167705

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