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Unhappy triad
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Unhappy triad
Synonyms
Terrible triad, horrible triangle, O'Donoghue's triad,[1] blown knee
Knee
Specialty
Emergency medicine
The unhappy triad, also known as a blown knee among others, is an injury to the anterior cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and medial meniscus. Analysis during the 1990s indicated that this 'classic' O'Donoghue triad is actually an unusual clinical entity among athletes with knee injuries. Some authors mistakenly believe that in this type of injury, acute tears of the medial meniscus always present with a concomitant lateral meniscus injury. However, the 1990 analysis showed that lateral meniscus tears are more common than medial meniscus tears in conjunction with sprains of the ACL.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Symptoms
2 Cause
3 Anatomy
3.1 Structures in triad
4 Component injuries
4.1 The anterior cruciate ligament
4.2 Meniscus
4.3 Medial Collateral Ligament
5 Treatments For Unhappy Triad Injury
6 Epidemiology
7 History
8 Terminology
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Symptoms[edit]
Pain in affected knee
Stiffness and swelling in affected knee
Catching or locking of the knee in affected knee
Instability of the knee with twisting or side-to-side movements (The sensation of the knee "giving out").
Inability to move the knee through its full range of motion
Cause[edit]
The unhappy triad occurs due to a lateral blow to the knee causing a rupture in the anterior cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and meniscus. Injury is most often sustained when a lateral (from the outside) force impacts the knee while the foot is fixed on the ground. The strong valgus or rotary force to the knee tears the ACL, MCL, and medial meniscus all together. This type of injury occurs often in contact sports such as football, rugby, or motocross. During the injury, the leg is laterally rotated and over-abducted. In about 10% of cases, the force is applied to the opposite side of the knee, and the lateral and posterolateral ligaments are torn.
Anatomy[edit]
Capsule of right knee-joint (distended). Posterior aspect.
Skeletal components involved in the unhappy triad include: patella, femur, tibia. No muscles are directly involved in this injury, only ligaments; However, strengthening the hip flexor and hip extensor muscles may help alleviate the injury.
The medial collateral ligament, posterior cruciate ligament, anterior cruciate ligament, and lateral collateral ligament are the four primary ligaments of the knee. The medial and lateral collateral ligaments primarily provide support to varus and valgus forces whereas the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments prevent anterior and posterior translation of the tibia on the femur.[3]
Structures in triad[edit]
Superior view of the structures in triad.
The classic O'Donoghue triad is characterized by an injury to three knee structures (in order):
the anterior cruciate ligament
the medial meniscus (however, lateral meniscus[1] injuries are more commonly seen among athletes, leading to the definition of the O'Donoghue triad most commonly used today.) [4][5][6]
the medial collateral ligament (or "tibial collateral ligament")
Component injuries[edit]
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The anterior cruciate ligament[edit]
The anterior cruciate ligament is one of the four crucial ligaments in the knee. It originates from the lateral condyle of the femur and goes to the intercondyloid eminence of the tibia. Its function is to provide stability in the knee and minimize stress across the knee joint. It also restrains excessive forward movement in the leg and limits rotational movements in the knee.
Injury
Anterior cruciate ligament tear seen on MRI.
An anterior cruciate ligament injury results from excess tension on the ligament. This can come from a sudden stop or twisting motion of the knee. A few initial symptoms include swelling, knee instability, and pain. A popping sound or sensation may or may not be heard when the ACL first tears. A following symptom usually includes the feeling of the knee "giving out". Tearing of the ACL is the most significant injury because it leaves the knee unstable, which also causes the knee to lose its normal function.
Epidemiology
It is estimated that 100,000 new anterior cruciate ligament injuries occur in the U.S. each year.[7] Approximately half of the new ACL injuries involve injuries to the ligament, tendon, and or muscle of that affected knee.[8] Women are at greater risk for ACL injuries than men due to their greater Q angle. The Q angle is the angle formed by a line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine to central patella and a second line drawn from central patella to tibial tubercle.
Meniscus[edit]
Tear of medial meniscus
The medial meniscus is a C-wedge shaped piece of cartilage that acts as a"shock absorber" between the femur and the tibia. Each knee has two menisci, one at the outer edge and one at the inner edge of the knee. The menisci are tough and rubber-like to help cushion the joint and help keep it stable.
The lateral meniscus is also known as the external semilunar fibrocartilage. It is a fibrocartilage band on the lateral side of the knee joint and can easily be injured with torsional stress or direct force.
Each knee has a medial and lateral meniscus, consisting of connective tissue and collagen fibers. Menisci are needed to distribute the body weight across the knee. Without them, the body weight is distributed unevenly on the femur and tibia, possibly leading to early arthritis in the knee joint. The menisci are nourished by small blood vessels, but each has a large central section which is avascular and does not get a direct blood supply. This poses a problem in a meniscus injury, as blood flow is diminished and the avascular areas tend to not heal.
Injury
The tear of meniscus is among the most common knee injuries. It is usually caused by torsional stress; twisting or turning of the knee too quickly with the foot planted on the ground while the knee is flexed. The feeling of a "pop" in the knee is usually felt when the meniscus is torn. Athletes, particularly those who participate in contact sports, are at a greater risk for meniscal tears. Sports-related meniscal tears often occur with other knee injuries, such as an anterior cruciate ligament tear.
A torn meniscus is commonly referred to as torn cartilage in the knee. Menisci tear in different ways and are noted by how they look, as well as where the tear occurs in the meniscus. Two types of tears include minor, which includes stiffness and swelling within two to three days but usually goes away in two to three weeks. Then there is severe, which without treatment, a piece of meniscus may come loose and drift into the joint space. Tears include longitudinal, parrot-beak, flap, bucket handle, and mixed/complex. Image of meniscal tear
Epidemiology
Injury to the medial meniscus is about five times greater than injury to the lateral meniscus due to its anatomical attachment to the MCL.[9] Lateral meniscal tears are more common in acute ACL injuries, whereas medial mensical injuries are more common in chronic ACL-deficient knees and more amenable to repair.[10]
Meta-analysis shows that in acute injuries of the ACL associated with a meniscus tear, 44% were of the medial meniscus, whereas 56% were of the lateral meniscus; in chronic ACL insufficiency, 70% were medial whereas 30% were lateral.[11]
Medial Collateral Ligament[edit]
Left knee-joint from behind, showing interior ligaments
Injury
Because the medial collateral ligament resists widening of the inside of the knee joint, the ligament is usually injured when the outside of the knee joint is struck. This force causes the outside of the knee to buckle, and the inside to widen. When the MCL is stretched too far, it is susceptible to tearing and injury. This is the injury seen by the action of "clipping" in a football game.
An injury to the MCL may occur as an isolated injury, or it may be part of a complex injury to the knee. Other ligaments ACL, or meniscus, may be torn along with a MCL injury.
Symptoms
The most common symptom following an MCL injury is pain directly over the ligament. Swelling over the torn ligament may appear, and bruising and generalized joint swelling are common 1 to 2 days after the injury. In more severe injuries, patients may complain that the knee feels unstable.
Treatment
Treatment of an MCL tear depends on the severity of the injury. Treatment always begins with allowing the pain to subside, beginning work on mobility, followed by strengthening the knee to return to sports and activities. Bracing can often be useful for treatment of MCL injuries. Fortunately, most often surgery is not necessary for the treatment of an MCL tear.
Treatments For Unhappy Triad Injury[edit]
A patellar autograft is performed to the replace damaged ligament.The grafts are inserted through a tunnel that is drilled through the tibia and femur
Treatment of the unhappy triad usually requires surgery. An ACL surgery is common and the meniscus can be treated during the surgery as well. The MCL is rehabilitated through time and immobilization. Physical therapy after the surgery and the use of a knee brace help speed up the healing process. A typical surgery for a blown knee includes:
Patellar tendon autograft (An autograft is a graft that comes from the patient)
Hamstring tendon autograft
Quadriceps tendon autograft
Allograft (taken from a cadaver) patellar tendon, Achilles tendon, semitendinosus, gracilis, or posterior tibialis tendon
The goal of reconstruction surgery is to prevent instability and restore the function of the torn ligament, creating a stable knee. There are certain factors that the patient must consider when deciding for or against surgery.
Epidemiology[edit]
A study containing 100 consecutive patients with a recent anterior cruciate ligament injury were examined with respect to type of sports activity that caused the injury. Of the 100 consecutive ACL injuries, there were also 53 medial collateral ligament injuries, 12 medial, 35 lateral and 11 bicompartmental meniscal lesions. 59/100 patients were injured during contact sports, 30/100 in downhill skiing and 11/100 in other recreational activities, traffic accidents or at work.[12]
An associated medial collateral ligament tear was more common in skiing (22/30) than during contact sports (23/59), whereas a bicompartmental meniscal lesion was found more frequently in contact sports (9/59) than in skiing (0/30). Weightbearing was reported by 56/59 of the patients with contact sports injuries whereas 8/30 of those with skiing injuries. Non-weightbearing in the injury situation led to the same rate of MCL tears (18/28) as weightbearing (35/72) but significantly more intact menisci (19/28 vs 23/72). Thus, contact sports injuries were more often sustained during weightbearing, with a resultant joint compression of both femuro-tibial compartments as shown by the higher incidence of bicompartmental meniscal lesions. The classic "unhappy triad" was a rare finding (8/100) and Fridén T, Erlandsson T, Zätterström R, Lindstrand A, and Moritz U. suggest that this entity should be replaced by the "unhappy compression injury".[12]
History[edit]
MRI images of Unhappy triad from left to right: ACL, MCL, medial meniscus.
In 1936, Cambell stated that an "impairment of the anterior crucial and medial ligaments is associated with injuries of the internal cartilage". In 1950, O'Donoghue described the unhappy triad as: (1) rupture of the medial collateral ligament, (2) damage to the medial meniscus and (3) rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament. O'Donoghue estimated the incidence rate in the traumatic sports knee to be 25%.[4]
In 1991, Shelbourne and Nitz questioned the validity of O'Donoghue's terrible triad study. A review of all arthroscopically confirmed acute injuries of second degree or worse to the ACL and MCL was performed. Of the 52 knees reviewed, 80% of group 1 had lateral meniscus tears and 29% had associated medial meniscus tears. None of the medial meniscus tears were isolated; medial meniscus tears were not present in the absence of a lateral meniscus tear.[4] From this study, it was concluded that the structures more typically involved in a triad were the anterior cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and the lateral (not medial) meniscus.
Terminology[edit]
The term "unhappy triad" was coined by O'Donoghue in 1950.[4][13][14] However, since then, this term and the term "terrible triad" have also been used to describe several other combinations of joint injuries, including the terrible triad of the elbow[15] and shoulder.[16]
The term "terrible triad" is also sometimes used in the popular press to describe conditions relating to pain, or even to refer to the MacDonald triad of sociopathic behavior.
See also[edit]
Anterior cruciate ligament injury
Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Shelbourne K, Nitz P (1991). "The O'Donoghue triad revisited. Combined knee injuries involving anterior cruciate and medial collateral ligament tears". Am J Sports Med. 19 (5): 474–7. doi:10.1177/036354659101900509. PMID 1962712.
Jump up ^ Shelbourne, K. Donald; Nitz, Paul A. (1991-09-01). "The O'Donoghue triad revisited Combined knee injuries involving anterior cruciate and medial collateral ligament tears". The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19 (5): 474–477. doi:10.1177/036354659101900509. ISSN 0363-5465. PMID 1962712.
Jump up ^ Winterstein, Andrew P. (2009). Athletic training student primer : a foundation for success (2nd ed.). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-1-55642-804-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Barber, FA (1992). "What is the terrible triad?". Arthroscopy. 8 (1): 19–22. doi:10.1016/0749-8063(92)90130-4. PMID 1550645.
Jump up ^ Balmer K, Gunst M, Rüedi T (January 1983). "[The "unhappy triad" (UT): slogan or reality in fresh knee injuries?]". Helv Chir Acta (in German). 49 (5): 675–7. PMID 6687587.
Jump up ^ Staron RB, Haramati N, Feldman F, et al. (November 1994). "O'Donoghue's triad: magnetic resonance imaging evidence". Skeletal Radiol. 23 (8): 633–6. doi:10.1007/BF02580384. PMID 7886473.
Jump up ^ Nedeff DD, Bach BR (2001). "Arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using patellar tendon autografts: a comprehensive review of contemporary literature". Am J Knee Surg. 14 (4): 243–58. PMID 11703038.
Jump up ^ Alford, J. Winslow; Bernard R. Bach Jr (July 2001). "Managing ACL tears: evaluation and diagnosis". The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine: 381–390.
Jump up ^ Imaging of Orthopedic Sports Injuries (Medical Radiology / Diagnostic Imaging). Berlin: Springer. 2006. ISBN 3-540-26014-5.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Glen O.; Starkey, Chad (2005). Athletic training and sports medicine. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0536-5.
Jump up ^ Bellabarba C, Bush-Joseph CA, Bach BR (January 1997). "Patterns of meniscal injury in the anterior cruciate-deficient knee: a review of the literature". Am J. Orthop. 26 (1): 18–23. PMID 9021030.
^ Jump up to: a b Fridén T, Erlandsson T, Zätterström R, Lindstrand A, Moritz U (1995). "Compression or distraction of the anterior cruciate injured knee. Variations in injury pattern in contact sports and downhill skiing". Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 3 (3): 144–7. doi:10.1007/bf01565473. PMID 8821269.
Jump up ^ O'Donoghue D (1950). "Surgical treatment of fresh injuries to the major ligaments of the knee". J Bone Joint Surg Am. 32 (A:4): 721–38. PMID 14784482.
Jump up ^ O'Donoghue D (1964). "The unhappy triad: Etiology, diagnosis and treatment". Am J Orthop. 6: 242–7 PASSIM. PMID 14237439.
Jump up ^ Pugh D, McKee M (2002). "The "terrible triad" of the elbow". Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg. 6 (1): 21–9. doi:10.1097/00130911-200203000-00005. PMID 16520629.
Jump up ^ Simonich S, Wright T (2003). "Terrible triad of the shoulder". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 12 (6): 566–8. doi:10.1016/S1058-2746(03)00216-7. PMID 14671520.
External links[edit]
Classification
D
ICD-10: S83.7
External resources
MedlinePlus: 001074

MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury
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Saadat Hasan Manto
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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NI
Saadat Hasan Manto
Native name
سعادت حسن منٹو
Born
Saadat Hasan Manto
(1912-05-11)May 11, 1912
Samrala, Ludhiana, Punjab, British India
Died
18 January 1955(1955-01-18) (aged 42)
Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Cause of death
Multiple organ failure due to alcohol consumption
Occupation
Novelist, playwright, essayist, screenwriter, short story writer
Nationality
Pakistani
Period
1934–1955
Genre
Drama, nonfiction, satire, screenplays, personal correspondence
Notable works
Toba Tek Singh; Thanda Gosht; Bu; Khol Do; Kaali Shalwar; Hattak
Notable awards
Nishan-e-Imtiaz Award (Order of Excellence) in 2012 (posthumous)
Relatives
Ayesha Jalal
Saadat Hasan Manto (/mɑːn, -tɒ/; Urdu: سعادت حسن منٹو, pronounced [sa'ādat 'hasan 'maṅṭō]; 11 May 1912 – 18 January 1955) was an Indo-Pakistani writer, playwright and author considered among the greatest writers of short stories in South Asian history. He produced 22 collections of short stories, 1 novel, 5 series of radio plays, 3 collections of essays, 2 collections of personal sketches and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics.[1] Manto was known to write about the atrocious truths that no one dared to talk about. Manto is best known for his stories about the partition of the subcontinent immediately following independence in 1947.[2]
Manto was tried for obscenity six times; thrice before 1947 in British India, and thrice after independence in 1947 in Pakistan, but never convicted.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Writings
2 Biography
2.1 Early life
2.2 Early career
2.3 Migration to Pakistan
2.4 Life in Lahore
2.5 Legacy
3 Charge for obscenity
4 Bibliography
5 Further reading
6 Manto's works online
7 References
8 External links
Writings[edit]
Manto chronicled the chaos that prevailed, during and after the Partition of India in 1947.[4][5] He started his literary career translating works of Victor Hugo, Oscar Wilde and Russian writers such as Chekhov and Gorky. His first story was "Tamasha", based on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre at Amritsar.[6] Though his earlier works, influenced by the progressive writers of his times,[5][7] showed a marked leftist and socialist leanings, his later work progressively became stark in portraying the darkness of the human psyche, as humanist values progressively declined around the Partition. His final works, which grew from the social climate and his own financial struggles, reflected an innate sense of human impotency towards darkness and contained a satirism that verged on dark comedy, as seen in his final work, Toba Tek Singh.[8] It not only showed the influence of his own demons, but also that of the collective madness that he saw in the ensuing decade of his life. To add to it, his numerous court cases and societal rebukes deepened his cynical view of society, from which he felt isolated.[9] No part of human existence remained untouched or taboo for him, he sincerely brought out stories of prostitutes and pimps alike, just as he highlighted the subversive sexual slavery of the women of his times.[10] To many contemporary women writers, his language portrayed reality and provided them with the dignity they long deserved.[11] He is still known for his scathing insight into human behaviour as well as revelation of the macabre animalistic nature of an enraged people, that stands out amidst the brevity of his prose.[4]
Saadat Hasan Manto is often compared with D. H. Lawrence, partly because he wrote about taboos of Indo-Pakistani Society.[12] His concerns on the socio-political issues, from local to global are revealed in his series, Letters to Uncle Sam, and those to Pandit Nehru.[4] On his writing he often commented, "If you find my stories dirty, the society you are living in is dirty. With my stories, I only expose the truth".[13]
Biography[edit]
Early life[edit]
Saadat Hassan Manto was born in Paproudi village of Samrala, in the Ludhiana district of the Punjab in a Muslim family of barristers on 11 May 1912.[14][15] His father was a judge of local court. He was ethnically a Kashmiri and proud of his Kashmiri roots and the remnants of Kashmiri culture in his family. In a letter to Pandit Nehru he suggested that being 'beautiful' was the second meaning of being 'Kashmiri'.[16][17]
The big turning point in his life came in 1933, at age 21, when he met Abdul Bari Alig, a scholar and polemic writer, in Amritsar. Abdul Bari Alig encouraged him to find his true talents and read Russian and French authors.[18]
Early career[edit]
Within a matter of months Manto produced an Urdu translation of Victor Hugo's The Last Day of a Condemned Man, which was published by Urdu Book Stall, Lahore as Sarguzasht-e-Aseer (A Prisoner's Story).[19] Soon afterwards he joined the editorial staff of Masawat, a daily published from Ludhiana[20]
This heightened enthusiasm pushed Manto to pursue graduation at Aligarh Muslim University, which he joined in February 1934, and soon got associated with Indian Progressive Writers' Association (IPWA). It was here that he met writer Ali Sardar Jafri and found a new spurt in his writing. His second story, "Inqlaab Pasand", was published in Aligarh magazine in March 1935.[6]
“ "A writer picks up his pen only when his sensibility is hurt."[4]
-- Manto to a court judge ”
Saadat Hasan Manto had accepted the job of writing for Urdu Service of All India Radio in 1941. This proved to be his most productive period as in the next eighteen months he published over four collections of radio plays, Aao (Come), Manto ke Drame (Manto's Dramas), Janaze (Funerals) and Teen Auraten (Three women). He continued to write short stories and his next short story collection Dhuan (Smoke) was soon out followed by Manto ke Afsane and his first collection of topical essays, Manto ke Mazamin. This period culminated with the publication of his mixed collection Afsane aur Dramey in 1943. Meanwhile, due to a quarrel with the director of the All India Radio, poet N. M. Rashid, he left his job and returned to Bombay in July 1942 and again started working with film industry. He entered his best phase in screenwriting giving films like Aatth Din, Shikari,[21] Chal Chal Re Naujawan and Mirza Ghalib, which was finally released in 1954.[22] Some of his short stories also came from this phase including Kaali Shalwar (1941), Dhuan (1941) and Bu (1945), which was published in Qaumi Jang (Bombay) in February 1945. Another highlight of his second phase in Bombay was the publication of a collection of his stories, Chugad, which also included the story 'Babu Gopinath'.[6] He stayed in Bombay until he moved to Pakistan in January 1948 after the partition of India in 1947.
Migration to Pakistan[edit]
Manto and his family were among the millions of Muslims who left present-day India for the Muslim-majority nation of Pakistan .[23]
Life in Lahore[edit]
When Manto arrived in Lahore from Bombay, he lived near and associated with several prominent intellectuals including Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Nasir Kazmi, Ahmad Rahi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi among others. They all used to gather at Lahore's iconic Pak Tea House, witness to some of the most fiery literary debates and passionate political arguments back in 1948–49. Pak Tea House holds a special place in the memories of those who know about Lahore's vibrant literary and cultural past. "There was absolutely no external influence and people would share their opinions on any subject without fear even during the military dictators' regimes."[24]
Legacy[edit]
On 18 January 2005, the fiftieth anniversary of his death, Manto was commemorated on a Pakistani postage stamp.[25]
On August 14, 2012 which is Pakistan's Independence Day, Saadat Hasan Manto was posthumously awarded Nishan-e-Imtiaz award (Distinguished Service to Pakistan Award) by the Government of Pakistan.[26]
Manto was a writer whose life story became a subject of intense discussion and introspection.[27] During the last two decades many stage productions were done to present his character in conflict with the harsh socio-economic realities of post partition era. Danish Iqbal's stage Play 'Ek Kutte Ki Kahani' is one such production which presented Manto in a new perspective on occasion of his birth centenary. In 2015, film director Sarmad Sultan Khoosat made and released a movie titled 'Manto' about his life.[28] and upcoming film directed by Nandita Das will star Nawazuddin Siddiqui as Manto [29][30]
Charge for obscenity[edit]
Manto faced trial for obscenity in his writings in both India and Pakistan,including three times in India before 1947 (‘Dhuan,’ ‘Bu,’ and ‘Kali Shalwar’) and three times in Pakistan after 1947 (‘KholDo,’ ‘Thanda Gosht,’ and ‘Upar Neeche Darmiyaan’) under section 292 of the Indian Penal Code and the Pakistan Penal Code in Pakistan’s early years. He was fined only in one case. Regarding the charges of obscenity he opined “I am not a pornographer but a story writer,”[31]
Bibliography[edit]
Atish Paray (Nuggets of Fire) – 1936
Chugad
Manto Ke Afsanay (Stories of Manto) – 1940
Dhuan (Smoke) – 1941
Afsane Aur Dramay (Fiction and Drama) – 1943
Lazzat-e-Sang-1948 (The Taste of Rock)
Siyah Hashiye-1948 (Black Borders)
Badshahat Ka Khatimah (The End of Kingship) – 1950
Khali Botlein (Empty Bottles) – 1950
Loud Speaker (Sketches)
Ganjey Farishtey (Sketches)
Manto ke Mazameen
Nimrud Ki Khudai (Nimrod The God) – 1950
Thanda Gosht (Cold Meat) – 1950
Yazid – 1951
Pardey Ke Peechhey (Behind The Curtains) – 1953
Sarak Ke Kinarey (By the Roadside) – 1953
Baghair Unwan Ke (Without a Title) – 1954
Baghair Ijazit (Without Permission) – 1955
Tobha Tek Singh( "powerful satire")-1955
Burquey – 1955
Phunduney (Tassles) – 1955
Sarkandon Ke Peechhey (Behind The Reeds) -1955
Shaiytan (Satan) – 1955
Shikari Auratein (Women of Prey) – 1955
Ratti, Masha, Tolah-1956
Kaali Shalwar (Black Pants) – 1961
Manto Ki Behtareen Kahanian (Best Stories of Manto) – 1963 [1]
Tahira Se Tahir (From Tahira to Tahir) – 1971
Further reading[edit]
Manto Naama, by Jagdish Chander Wadhawan.1998, Roli Books.
Manto Naama: The Life of Saadat Hasan Manto, English translation of the above by Jai Ratan, 1998, Roli Books.
Life and Works of Saadat Hasan Manto, by Alok Bhalla. 1997, Indian Institute of Advanced Study. ISBN 81-85952-48-5.
The Life and Works of Saadat Hasan Manto. Introduction by Leslie Flemming; trans. by Tahira Naqvi. Lahore, Pakistan: Vanguard Books Ltd., 1985.
Another Lonely Voice: The Urdu Short Stories of Saadat Hasan Manto, by Leslie A. Flemming, Berkeley: Centre for South and South east Asian Studies. University of California. 1979. [2]
Madness and Partition: The Short Stories of Saadat Hasan Manto, Stephen Alter, Journal of Comparative Poetics, No. 14, Madness and Civilization/ al-Junun wa al-Hadarah (1994), pp. 91–100. [3]
Bitter Fruit: The Very Best of Saadat Hassan Manto, edited and tr. by Khalid Hassan, Penguin, 2008.
Naked Voices: Stories and Sketches by Manto, Ed. and tr. by Rakhshanda Jalil. Indian Ink & Roli Books, 2008.
Stars from Another Sky: The Bombay Film World of the 1940s, tr. by Khalid Hasan. Penguin India, 2000.
Manto: Selected Stories, tr. by Aatish Taseer. Vintage/Random House India, 2008. ISBN 81-84001-44-4.
The Pity of Partition: Manto’s Life, Times, and Work across the India-Pakistan Divide. Ayesha Jalal.
Pinglay-Plumber, Prachi (January 12, 2015). "Manto Bridge : to Manto, Bombay was about its people". Outlook. 55 (1): 72–73. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
Manto's works online[edit]
Stories of Saadat Hasan Manto
Short stories of Saadat Hasan Manto
Toba Tek Singh. Translated by Frances W. Pritchett.
'Toba Tek Singh' in Hindi [4]
'Thanda Gosht' (Cold Meat) in English
A collection of short stories in Hindi
'Mera Sahib' – Manto's writing about Muhammad Ali Jinnah
'First Letter to Uncle Sam'
'Second Letter to Uncle Sam'
'Third Letter to Uncle Sam'
'A Dog of Tithwal' in English[32]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/en/content/saadat-hasan-manto, Saadat Hasan Manto on Penguin Books India, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/11/books/review/bombay-stories-by-saadat-hasan-manto.html?_r=0, New York Times article titled 'Pearls of Regret '.
Jump up ^ http://www.dawn.com/news/716126/manto-centenary-a-conversation-about-manto, Article on Saadat Hasan Manto on Dawn, Karachi newspaper, Retrieved 18 March 2016
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://www.panunkashmir.org/kashmirsentinel/feb2003/14.html, Biography of Saadat Hasan Manto on Kashmir Sentinel, Feb 2003 issue, Retrieved 18 March 2016
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=2401, Profile of Saadat Hasan Manto on Boloji.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
^ Jump up to: a b c Early Years, Biography of Saadat Hasan Manto by Sharad Dutt, BBC Hindi.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ Digital South Asia Library Mahfil. v 1, V. 1 ( 1963) p. 12., Saadat Hasan Manto 'Biography', Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/sunday-special/kaleidoscope/manto-s-undivided-people-divided-us/129280.html, Saadat Hasan Manto on India Tribune newspaper, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ http://pakteahouse.net/2012/12/19/some-closing-thoughts-on-saadat-hasan-mantos-centenary/, Saadat Hasan Manto centenary article on Pak Tea House.net website, Published 12 Dec 2012, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=9097PQAACAAJ&dq=saadat+hasan+manto+siteurdustudies.com&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGjfrQpsvLAhULxmMKHTGtDCMQ6AEIJjAA, Saadat Hasan Manto on Google Books.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ He presented women as humans Nasira Sharma, BBC Hindi, Published 10 May 2005, 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ Rajendra Yadav quote BBC Hindi.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ Manto on his writing BBC Hindi.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ Leslie A. Flemming, Another Lonely Voice: The Urdu Short Stories of Saadat Hasan Manto, Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies, University of California (1979), p. 2
Jump up ^ Abida Samiuddin, Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Urdu Literature, Global Vision Publishing House (2007), p. 391
Jump up ^ Reeck, Matt; Ahmad, Aftab (2012). Bombay Stories. Random House India. ISBN 9788184003611. He claimed allegiance not only to his native Punjab but also to his ancestors' home in Kashmir. While raised speaking Punjabi, he was also proud of the remnants of Kashmiri culture that his family maintained-food customs, as well as intermarriage with families of Kashmiri origin-and throughout his life he assigned special importance to others who had Kashmiri roots. In a tongue-in-cheek letter addressed to Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, he went so far as to suggest that being beautiful was the second meaning of being Kashmiri
Jump up ^ Pandita, Rahul (2013). Our Moon Has Blood Clots: The Exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits. Random House India. ISBN 9788184003901. By virtue of his disposition, temperament, features and his spirit, Manto remains a Kashmiri Pandit.
Jump up ^ Pakistan Post, 2005, Retrieved 12 August 2015
Jump up ^ http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-dogtithwal/bio.html#gsc.tab=0, Saadat Hasan Manto article on bookrags.com website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ http://www.abhivyakti-hindi.org/lekhak/m/manto.htm Author Profile, Profile of Saadat Hasan Manto, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ "Shikari". Retrore. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.indiaclub.com/s?defaultSearchTextValue=Search&searchKeywords=Saadat+Hasan+Manto+&Action=submit&field_subjectbin=&field_price=&field_author-bin=&searchRank=-product_site_launch_date&searchSize=12&searchPage=1&searchBinNameList=subjectbin%2Cprice%2Cauthor-bin, Collection of Saadat Hasan Manto Books on India Club website, Retrieved 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ Manto, Saadat Hasan. Ganjay Farishtay. p. 190. , Retrieved 4 September 2015
Jump up ^ http://herald.dawn.com/news/1152781, Pak Tea House,19 March 2015, Herald-Dawn newspaper article, Retrieved 6 September 2015
Jump up ^ Bio details, Saadat Hassan Manto (1912–1955) Men of Letters, PakPost, Retrieved 12 August 2015
Jump up ^ http://www.dawn.com/news/742068/abida-parveen-aleem-dar-among-winners-posthumous-awards-for-manto-mehdi-hassan, Retrieved 12 August 2015
Jump up ^ http://www.dawn.com/news/717682/tributes-paid-to-manto, Tributes paid to Manto, Dawn newspaper, Karachi, published 11 May 2012, Retrieved 19 Jan 2016
Jump up ^ http://www.dawn.com/news/1205621, 'How Manto, the movie, came about', Dawn, Karachi newspaper- published 8 Sep 2015, Retrieved 19 Jan 2016
Jump up ^ http://www.news18.com/news/movies/manto-rasika-dugals-first-look-as-sadat-hassans-wife-safia-revealed-1373591.html
Jump up ^ http://www.news18.com/news/movies/manto-rejected-bigotry-and-exposed-hypocrisy-he-is-paradoxically-relevant-in-our-times-1374749.html
Jump up ^ Tariq Bashir (March 20, 2015). "Sentence First – Verdict Afterwards". The Friday Times. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.sikh-history.com/literature/stories/dog.html
External links[edit]
Manto and his stories
Saadat Hasan Manto on IMDb, Retrieved 12 August 2015
Remembering Manto on his 101st birth anniversary
Manto, After Fifty years; A tribute at BBC Hindi
Watch Video Play of Saadat Hasan Manto
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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Scheme of a liposome formed by phospholipids in an aqueous solution.
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes (not to be confused with lysosomes). If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Vesicles perform a variety of functions. Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control,[1] and temporary storage of food and enzymes . They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
Sarfus image of lipid vesicles.
IUPAC definition
Closed structure formed by amphiphilic molecules that contains solvent (usually water).[2]
The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by James Rothman, Randy Schekman and Thomas Südhof for their roles (building upon earlier research, some of it by their mentors) on the makeup and function of cell vesicles, especially in yeasts and in humans, including information on each vesicle's parts and how they are assembled. Vesicle dysfunction is thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, some hard-to-treat cases of epilepsy, some cancers and immunological disorders and certain neurovascular conditions.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of vesicles
1.1 Vacuoles
1.2 Lysosomes
1.3 Transport vesicles
1.4 Secretory vesicles
1.4.1 Types
1.5 Extracellular vesicles
1.5.1 Types
1.6 Other types
2 Formation and transport
2.1 Vesicle coat and cargo molecules
2.2 Vesicle docking
2.3 Vesicle fusion
2.4 In receptor downregulation
2.5 Preparation
2.5.1 Isolated vesicles
2.6 Artificial vesicles
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Types of vesicles[edit]
Electron micrograph of a cell containing a food vacuole (fv) and transport vacuole (TV) in a malaria parasite.
Vacuoles[edit]
Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole in the center of the cell that is used for osmotic control and nutrient storage.
Contractile vacuoles are found in certain protists, especially those in Phylum Ciliophora. These vacuoles take water from the cytoplasm and excrete it from the cell to avoid bursting due to osmotic pressure.
Lysosomes[edit]
Lysosomes are involved in cellular digestion. Food can be taken from outside the cell into food vacuoles by a process called endocytosis. These food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes which break down the components so that they can be used in the cell. This form of cellular eating is called phagocytosis.
Lysosomes are also used to destroy defective or damaged organelles in a process called autophagy. They fuse with the membrane of the damaged organelle, digesting it.
Transport vesicles[edit]
Transport vesicles can move molecules between locations inside the cell, e.g., proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
Membrane-bound and secreted proteins are made on ribosomes found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Most of these proteins mature in the Golgi apparatus before going to their final destination which may be to lysosomes, peroxisomes, or outside of the cell. These proteins travel within the cell inside of transport vesicles.
Secretory vesicles[edit]
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed.
Types[edit]
Synaptic vesicles are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons and store neurotransmitters. When a signal comes down an axon, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane releasing the neurotransmitter so that it can be detected by receptor molecules on the next nerve cell.
In animals endocrine tissues release hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones are stored within secretory vesicles. A good example is the endocrine tissue found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This tissue contains many cell types that are defined by which hormones they produce.
Secretory vesicles hold the enzymes that are used to make the cell walls of plants, protists, fungi, bacteria and Archaea cells as well as the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
Bacteria, Archaea, fungi and parasites release membrane vesicles (MVs) containing varied but specialized toxic compounds and biochemical signal molecules, which are transported to target cells to initiate processes in favour of the microbe, which include invasion of host cells and killing of competing microbes in the same niche.[5]
Extracellular vesicles[edit]
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life including complex eukaryotes, both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi.
Types[edit]
Exosomes: membraneous vesicles of endocytic origin (50-100 nm diameter)[6]:Table 1 enriched in CD63 and CD81.[6]
microvesicle (also referred to as shedding microvesicles, SMVs[citation needed]), that are shed directly from the plasma membrane (20–1000 nm[6]:Table 1).
membrane particles (50–80 nm), or large membranous vesicles (~600 nm) CD133+, CD63−[6]
Apoptotic blebs or vesicles (1000–5000 nm diameter): released by dying cells.[6]:Table 1
These are often separated by density[6]:Table 1 by differential centrifugation.
Ectosomes were named in 2008, but in 2012 are not considered a separate type.[6]
In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management.[6] The extracellular vesicles of (mesenchymal) stem cells, also known as the secretome of stem cells, are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly degenerative, auto-immune and/or inflammatory diseases.[7]
In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host-pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.[8]
Ocean cyanobacteria have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open-ocean seawater samples.[9]
Other types[edit]
Main article: Gas vesicle
Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. These vesicles are typically lemon-shaped or cylindrical tubes made out of protein;[10] their diameter determines the strength of the vesicle with larger ones being weaker. The diameter of the vesicle also affects it's volume and how efficiently it can provide buoyancy. In cyanobacteria natural selection has worked to create vesicles that are at the maximum diameter possible while still being structurally stable. The protein skin is permeable to gasses but not water, keeping the vesicles from flooding.[11]
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy they were discovered independently in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson[12] and Ermanno Bonucci.[13] These cell-derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self-destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium-loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine:calcium:phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue's matrix unless the Golgi are non-existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane-bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.
Formation and transport[edit]
Cell biology
The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome (little dots)
Vesicle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
Cytoskeleton
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the cytoplasm)
Lysosome
Centrosome
Cell membrane
Some vesicles are made when part of the membrane pinches off the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi complex. Others are made when an object outside of the cell is surrounded by the cell membrane.
Vesicle coat and cargo molecules[edit]
The vesicle "coat" is a collection of proteins that serve to shape the curvature of a donor membrane, forming the rounded vesicle shape. Coat proteins can also function to bind to various transmembrane receptor proteins, called cargo receptors. These receptors help select what material is endocytosed in receptor-mediated endocytosis or intracellular transport.
There are three types of vesicle coats: clathrin, COPI and COPII. The various types of coat proteins help with sorting of vesicles to their final destination. Clathrin coats are found on vesicles trafficking between the Golgi and plasma membrane, the Golgi and endosomes and the plasma membrane and endosomes. COPI coated vesicles are responsible for retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER, while COPII coated vesicles are responsible for anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi.
The clathrin coat is thought to assemble in response to regulatory G protein. A protein coat assembles and disassembles due to an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) protein.
Vesicle docking[edit]
Surface proteins called SNAREs identify the vesicle's cargo and complementary SNAREs on the target membrane act to cause fusion of the vesicle and target membrane. Such v-SNARES are hypothesised to exist on the vesicle membrane, while the complementary ones on the target membrane are known as t-SNAREs.
Often SNAREs associated with vesicles or target membranes are instead classified as Qa, Qb, Qc, or R SNAREs owing to further variation than simply v- or t-SNAREs. An array of different SNARE complexes can be seen in different tissues and subcellular compartments, with 36 isoforms currently identified in humans.
Regulatory Rab proteins are thought to inspect the joining of the SNAREs. Rab protein is a regulatory GTP-binding protein and controls the binding of these complementary SNAREs for a long enough time for the Rab protein to hydrolyse its bound GTP and lock the vesicle onto the membrane.
Vesicle fusion[edit]
Further information: Vesicle fusion
Vesicle fusion can occur in one of two ways: full fusion or kiss-and-run fusion. Fusion requires the two membranes to be brought within 1.5 nm of each other. For this to occur water must be displaced from the surface of the vesicle membrane. This is energetically unfavorable and evidence suggests that the process requires ATP, GTP and acetyl-coA. Fusion is also linked to budding, which is why the term budding and fusing arises.
In receptor downregulation[edit]
Membrane proteins serving as receptors are sometimes tagged for downregulation by the attachment of ubiquitin. After arriving an endosome via the pathway described above, vesicles begin to form inside the endosome, taking with them the membrane proteins meant for degradation; When the endosome either matures to become a lysosome or is united with one, the vesicles are completely degraded. Without this mechanism, only the extracellular part of the membrane proteins would reach the lumen of the lysosome and only this part would be degraded.[14]
It is because of these vesicles that the endosome is sometimes known as a multivesicular body. The pathway to their formation is not completely understood; unlike the other vesicles described above, the outer surface of the vesicles is not in contact with the cytosol.
Preparation[edit]
Isolated vesicles[edit]
Producing membrane vesicles is one of the methods to investigate various membranes of the cell. After the living tissue is crushed into suspension, various membranes form tiny closed bubbles. Big fragments of the crushed cells can be discarded by low-speed centrifugation and later the fraction of the known origin (plasmalemma, tonoplast, etc.) can be isolated by precise high-speed centrifugation in the density gradient. Using osmotic shock, it is possible temporarily open vesicles (filling them with the required solution) and then centrifugate down again and resuspend in a different solution. Applying ionophores like valinomycin can create electrochemical gradients comparable to the gradients inside living cells.
Vesicles are mainly used in two types of research:
To find and later isolate membrane receptors that specifically bind hormones and various other important substances.[15]
To investigate transport of various ions or other substances across the membrane of the given type.[16] While transport can be more easily investigated with patch clamp techniques, vesicles can also be isolated from objects for which a patch clamp is not applicable.
Artificial vesicles[edit]
Phospholipid vesicles have also been studied in biochemistry. For such studies, a homogeneous phospholipid vesicle suspension can be prepared by extrusion or sonication,[17] injection of a phospholipid solution into the aqueous buffer solution membranes.[18] In this way aqueous vesicle solutions can be prepared of different phospholipid composition, as well as different sizes of vesicles.
See also[edit]
Bleb (cell biology)
DODAB
Host-pathogen interface
Membrane contact sites
Membrane nanotube
Membrane vesicle trafficking
Micelle
Microsome
Protocell
Spitzenkörper, a structure of many small vesicles found in fungal hyphae
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Walsby AE (1994). "Gas vesicles". Microbiological Reviews. 58 (1): 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173.
Jump up ^ "Terminology of polymers and polymerization processes in dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (12): 2229–2259. 2011. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Nobel medical prize goes to 2 Americans, 1 German". CNN. 2005-10-19. Retrieved 2013-10-09.
Jump up ^ 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, press release 2013-10-07
Jump up ^ Deatherage, B. L.; Cookson, B. T. (2012). "Membrane Vesicle Release in Bacteria, Eukaryotes, and Archaea: a Conserved yet Underappreciated Aspect of Microbial Life". Infection and Immunity. 80 (6): 1948–1957. doi:10.1128/IAI.06014-11. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 3370574  . PMID 22409932.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h van der Pol, Edwin; Böing, Anita N.; Harrison, Paul; Sturk, Augueste; Nieuwland, Rienk (2012-07-01). "Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (3): 676–705. doi:10.1124/pr.112.005983. ISSN 1521-0081. PMID 22722893. Free full text
Jump up ^ Teixeira, Fábio G.; Carvalho, Miguel M.; Sousa, Nuno; Salgado, António J. (2013-10-01). "Mesenchymal stem cells secretome: a new paradigm for central nervous system regeneration?". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 70 (20): 3871–3882. doi:10.1007/s00018-013-1290-8. ISSN 1420-682X.
Jump up ^ Kuehn, Meta J.; Kesty, Nicole C. (2005-11-15). "Bacterial outer membrane vesicles and the host-pathogen interaction". Genes & Development. 19 (22): 2645–2655. doi:10.1101/gad.1299905. ISSN 0890-9369. PMID 16291643.
Jump up ^ Biller, Steven J.; Schubotz, Florence; Roggensack, Sara E; Thompson, Anne W.; Summons, Roger E.; Chisholm, Sallie W. (2014-01-10). "Bacterial Vesicles in Marine Ecosystems". Science. 343 (6167): 183–186. doi:10.1126/science.1243457. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 24408433.
Jump up ^ Pfeifer F (2012). "Distribution, formation and regulation of gas vesicles". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 10 (10): 705–15. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2834. PMID 22941504.
Jump up ^ Walsby, Anthony (March 1994). "Gas Vesicles" (PDF). Microbiological Reviews. 58: 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173. Retrieved Jan 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Anderson HC (1967). "Electron microscopic studies of induced cartilage development and calcification". J. Cell Biol. 35 (1): 81–101. doi:10.1083/jcb.35.1.81. PMC 2107116  . PMID 6061727.
Jump up ^ Bonucci E (1967). "Fine structure of early cartilage calcification". J. Ultrastruct. Res. 20 (1): 33–50. doi:10.1016/S0022-5320(67)80034-0. PMID 4195919.
Jump up ^ Katzmann DJ, Odorizzi G, Emr SD (2002). "Receptor downregulation and multivesicular-body sorting" (PDF). Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3 (12): 893–905. doi:10.1038/nrm973. PMID 12461556.
Jump up ^ Sidhu VK, Vorhölter FJ, Niehaus K, Watt SA (2008). "Analysis of outer membrane vesicle associated proteins isolated from the plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris". BMC Microbiol. 8: 87. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-8-87. PMC 2438364  . PMID 18518965.
Jump up ^ Scherer GG, Martiny-Baron G (1985). "K+
/H+
exchange transport in plantmembranevesicles is evidence for K+
transport". Plant Science. 41 (3): 161–8. doi:10.1016/0168-9452(85)90083-4.
Jump up ^ Barenholz, Y.; Gibbes, D.; Litman, B. J.; Goll, J.; Thompson, T. E.; Carlson, F. D. (1977). "A simple method for the preparation of homogeneous phospholipid vesicles". Biochemistry. 16 (12): 2806–10. doi:10.1021/bi00631a035. PMID 889789.
Jump up ^ Batzri S, Korn ED (April 1973). "Single bilayer liposomes prepared without sonication". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 298 (4): 1015–9. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(73)90408-2. PMID 4738145.
Further reading[edit]
Alberts, Bruce; et al. (1998). Essential Cell Biology: An Introduction to the Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Pub. ISBN 978-0-8153-2971-8.
External links[edit]
Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
[hide]
v
t
e
Structures of the cell / organelles (TH H1.00.01.2-3)
Endomembrane system
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Parenthesome
Autophagosome
Vesicles
Exosome
Lysosome
Endosome
Phagosome
Vacuole
Acrosome
Cytoplasmic granules
Melanosome
Microbody
Glyoxysome
Peroxisome
Weibel–Palade body
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
MTOCs
Centrosome
Centriole
Basal body
Spindle pole body
Myofibril
Endosymbionts
Mitochondrion
Plastids
Chloroplast
Chromoplast
Gerontoplast
Leucoplast
Amyloplast
Elaioplast
Proteinoplast
Tannosome
Other internal
RNA
Ribosome
Spliceosome
Vault
Cytoplasm
Proteasome
External
Undulipodium
Cilium
Flagellum
Axoneme
Radial spoke
Extracellular matrix
Cell wall
Authority control
NDL: 00575902
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)&oldid=809814880"
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