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Hill Street Blues
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Hill Street Blues
Genre
Drama
Police procedural
Created by
Steven Bochco
Michael Kozoll
Theme music composer
Mike Post
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
7
No. of episodes
146 (list of episodes)
Production
Location(s)
Republic Studios, Los Angeles, California
Running time
49 minutes
Production company(s)
MTM Enterprises
Distributor
20th Television
Release
Original network
NBC
Picture format
Color
Original release
January 15, 1981 (1981-01-15) – May 12, 1987 (1987-05-12)
Chronology
Followed by
Beverly Hills Buntz
Hill Street Blues is an American serial police drama that aired on NBC in primetime from 1981 to 1987 for a total of 146 episodes.[1] The show chronicled the lives of the staff of a single police station located on the fictional Hill Street, in an unnamed large city, with "blues" being a slang term for police officers for their blue uniforms. The show received critical acclaim, and its production innovations influenced many subsequent dramatic television series produced in the United States and Canada. Its debut season was rewarded with eight Emmy Awards, a debut season record surpassed only by The West Wing. The show received a total of 98 Emmy nominations during its run.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Production
2.1 Seasons
2.2 Broadcast history and Nielsen Ratings
3 Setting
4 Title
5 Cast
5.1 Main characters
5.2 Other characters
6 Critical reception
6.1 Awards
7 Home video releases
8 Spin-offs
8.1 Beverly Hills Buntz
9 In popular culture
9.1 Computer game
10 References
11 External links
Background[edit]
MTM Enterprises developed the series on behalf of NBC, appointing Steven Bochco and Michael Kozoll as series writers. The writers were allowed considerable creative freedom and created a series that brought together a number of emerging ideas in TV drama for the first time. Each episode featured a number of intertwined storylines, some of which were resolved within the episode, with others developing over a number of episodes throughout a season. The conflicts between the work lives and private lives of the individual characters were also large elements of storylines. The series featured a strong focus on the workplace struggle between "what is right" and "what works". Almost every episode began with a pre-credit sequence (or "teaser") consisting of (mission) briefing and roll call at the beginning of the day shift (from season three it experimented with a "Previously on..." montage of clips of up to six previous episodes before the roll call). Many episodes were written to take place over the course of a single day, and often concluded with Capt. Frank Furillo (Daniel J. Travanti) and public defender Joyce Davenport (Veronica Hamel) in a domestic situation, often in bed, discussing how their respective days went. The series was notable for dealing with real-life issues and employing commonly used language and slang to a greater extent than had been seen before, which brought a sense of verisimilitude to the production.[2]
Production[edit]
The filming of Hill Street Blues employed what was, at that time, a unique style of camera usage for weeknight television productions, incorporating techniques such as filming being held close in with action cuts rapidly between stories. Rather than studio (floor) cameras, handhelds were used to enhance this style.[3] Extensive use of overheard, off-screen dialogue aurally-augmented the "documentary" feel with respect to the filmed action of a scene.[citation needed]
Although filmed in Los Angeles (both on location and at CBS Studio Center in Studio City), the series is set in a generic unnamed inner-city location with a feel of a U.S. urban center in the Midwest or Northeast. Bochco had intended this fictional city to be a hybrid of Chicago, Buffalo and Pittsburgh.[4]
The program's focus on failure and those at the bottom of the social scale is pronounced, very much in contrast to Bochco's later project L.A. Law. Inspired by police procedural detective novels such as Ed McBain's 1956 Cop Hater, the show has been described as Barney Miller out of doors; the focus on the bitter realities of 1980s urban living was revolutionary for its time (later seasons were accused of becoming formulaic). Some trace the origins of this shift to the death of Michael Conrad (Sgt. Phil Esterhaus) midway through season four, leading to the replacement of the beloved Sgt. Esterhaus by Sgt. Stan Jablonski, played by Robert Prosky. Nonetheless, it is a landmark piece of television programming, the influence of which was seen in such series as NYPD Blue and ER. In 1982, St. Elsewhere was hyped as Hill Street Blues in a hospital. The quality work done by MTM led to the appointment of Grant Tinker as NBC chairman in 1982.[citation needed]
In season seven, producers received scripts from acclaimed writers outside of television: Bob Woodward and David Mamet.[citation needed]
Seasons[edit]
See also: List of Hill Street Blues episodes
The theme song was written by Mike Post (featuring Larry Carlton on guitar), was released as a single and reached #10 on Billboard's Hot 100 in November 1981.
Pilot: Brandon Tartikoff commissioned a series from MTM Productions, which assigned Bochco and Kozoll to the project. The pilot was produced in 1980, but was held back as a mid-season replacement so as not to get lost among the other programs debuting in the fall of 1980. Barbara Bosson, who was married to Bochco, had the idea to fashion the series into four- or five-episode story "arcs". Robert Butler directed the pilot, developing a look and style inspired by the 1977 documentary The Police Tapes, in which filmmakers used handheld cameras to follow police officers in the South Bronx.[5] Butler went on to direct the first four episodes of the series, and Bosson had hoped he would stay on permanently. However, he felt he was not being amply recognized for his contributions to the show's look and style and left to pursue other projects. He would return to direct just one further episode, "The Second Oldest Profession" in season two.
Season 1: The pilot aired on Thursday, January 15, 1981, at 10:00 pm, which would be the show's time slot for nearly its entire run. The second episode aired two nights later; the next week followed a similar pattern (episode 3 on Thursday, episode 4 on Saturday). NBC had ordered 13 episodes and the season was supposed to end on May 25 with a minor cliffhanger (the resolution of Sgt. Esterhaus' wedding). Instead, growing critical acclaim prompted NBC to order an additional four episodes to air during the May sweeps. Bochco and Kozoll quickly fashioned this into a new story arc, which aired as two two-hour episodes to close the season. In the first series' original ending, Officer Joe Coffey (Ed Marinaro), is shot dead during a vehicle stop. However, later on the producers decided that Coffey should remain so scene was edited to him being seriously wounded and taken to hospital. (The character would eventually be killed in the sixth season)
In early episodes the opening theme had several clearly audible edits; this was replaced by a longer, unedited version partway through the second season. The end credits for the pilot differed from the rest of the series in that the background still shot of the station house was completely different; it was also copyrighted 1980 instead of 1981. The show became the lowest-rated program ever renewed for a second season. However, it was only renewed for ten episodes. A full order was picked up partway through the season.[citation needed]
Season 2: A writers strike pushed the start of the season forward to October 29, meaning that only 19 episodes were completed that year. Kozoll was now listed as a consultant, signifying his diminished role in the show. He later stated he was already feeling burnt out, and in fact was relying more on car chases and action to fill the scripts. A less muted version of the closing theme was played over the end credits.
Season 3: Kozoll left the show at the end of season two, replaced for the most part by Anthony Yerkovich (who later created Miami Vice after leaving Hill Street Blues at the end of this season) and David Milch. This was the show's most popular in terms of viewership, as it finished at @21. This was also the birth of "Must See TV", as the show was joined by Cheers, Taxi and Fame. The network promoted Thursdays as "the best night of television on television." Michael Conrad was increasingly absent from the show due to his ongoing battle with cancer.
Season 4: Following his death on November 22, 1983, Michael Conrad's final appearance was broadcast halfway through the season in February 1984 in a memorable send-off episode, "Grace Under Pressure". Det. Harry Garibaldi (Ken Olin) was introduced at the end of the season as a temporary replacement for the disgraced Det. J.D. LaRue (Kiel Martin). The show won its fourth and final Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series this season.
Season 5: The show changed drastically this season, entering a somewhat "soap opera-ish" period according to Bochco. New characters included Sgt. Stanislaus Jablonski (Robert Prosky) and Det. Patsy Mayo (Mimi Kuzyk). Det. Garibaldi was now a regular, while Mrs. Furillo (Bosson) became a full-time member of the squad room. Bochco was dismissed at season's end by then-MTM President Arthur Price. The firing was due to Bochco's cost overruns, coupled with the fact that the show had achieved the 100-episode milestone needed to successfully syndicate it.
Betty Thomas won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress In a Drama Series this season. However, at the awards ceremony, recurring imposter Barry Bremen rushed the stage ahead of Thomas and claimed she was unable to attend. He then claimed the award and left the stage, confusing viewers and robbing Thomas of her moment in the sun, although she returned and spoke after the ad break. Presenter Peter Graves suggested that Bremen was "on his way to the cooler."
Season 6: Major changes occurred as Patsy Mayo, Det. Harry Garibaldi, Lt. Ray Calletano (René Enríquez), Fay Furillo (Barbara Bosson) and Officer Leo Schnitz (Robert Hirschfeld) were all phased out at the start of the season, and Joe Coffey left near the end. The sole addition was Lt. Norman Buntz, played by Dennis Franz, who had played a different character, Det. Sal Benedetto, in several episodes of season 3. Peter Jurasik played a new recurring character called Sid the Snitch, who was often teamed with Buntz. In a 1991 interview on Later with Bob Costas, Ken Olin explained that these characters were removed so that the new show-runners could add characters for which they would receive royalties. Barbara Bosson's departure, however, was voluntary. She left after a salary conflict with the new executive producer who, according to the actress, also wanted her character, Fay, to go back to being the "thorn in her ex-husband's side" which she no longer was by that time.[6]
The season premiere opened with a roll call filled with officers never before seen on the show, briefly fooling viewers into thinking the entire cast had been replaced. It was then revealed that this was, in fact, the night shift. The action then cut to the day shift pursuing their after-work activities. Another unique episode from this season explained through flashbacks how Furillo and Davenport met and fell in love. This was the first season that Travanti and Hamel were not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor/Actress in a Drama Series.
Season 7: While each episode of the series starts with the morning roll call, episodes from season 7 breaks away from tradition, showing characters at home or working. The roll call becomes a minor part of the beginning. Some episodes don't show roll call at all.
Officer Patrick Flaherty (played by Robert Clohessy) and Officer Tina Russo (Megan Gallagher) joined this season in an attempt to rekindle the Bates-Coffey relationship of years past. Stan Jablonski became a secondary character part way through this season, and when Travanti announced he would not return the next year, the producers decided to end the show in 1987. The program was also moved to Tuesday nights almost midway through the season after nearly six years to make way for L.A. Law on Thursdays.
This was the only season that Bruce Weitz (Det. Mick Belker) was not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Only Betty Thomas was nominated, making her the only member of the cast to be nominated all seasons. This was also the only season for which the show was not nominated for Outstanding Drama Series.
Broadcast history and Nielsen Ratings[edit]
Season
Timeslot
Ratings
1 Thursdays at 10:00 pm (January 15 - 22, 1981)
Saturdays at 10:00 pm (January 17 - March 21, 1981)
Tuesdays at 9:00 pm (May 19 - 26, 1981) not in the Top 30
2 Thursdays at 10:00 pm #27
3 #21
4 not in the Top 30
5 #30
6 not in the Top 30
7 Thursdays at 10:00 pm (October 2 - November 27, 1986)
Tuesdays at 9:00 pm (December 2, 1986 - February 10, 1987)
Tuesdays at 10:00 pm (March 3 - May 12, 1987) not in the Top 30

The series later aired in reruns on TV Land, Bravo, AmericanLife TV, and NuvoTV. It has been running since Sep., 2015 on Heroes & Icons network. Seasons one through seven can also be viewed on hulu.com. Season three can be viewed as streaming video on commercial sites and is also available in many countries from Channel 4 on YouTube.
Setting[edit]
The producers made efforts to avoid specifying precisely where the series took place; for example, the call letters of local TV stations were obscured to avoid showing whether they began with "W" (the Federal Communications Commission designation for stations east of the Mississippi) or "K" (signifying a station west of the Mississippi). One indication of setting within the show was given by Ofc. Renko's (Charles Haid) statement to his partner in the season one episode "Politics As Usual": "Just drop that 'cowboy' stuff. I was born in New Jersey, [and] never been west of Chicago in my life."
Show writer Steven Bochco attended college at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh. The run-down, shabby, drug-ridden impression of Pittsburgh's Hill District that Bochco acquired was apparently part of the inspiration for the show.[7]
However, in one episode, road signs are shown (possibly by accident) advertising the junction of three interstate highways (55, 90, and 94). Astute fans can look on a road map and see that junction can only be found in one city, so the signs inadvertently reveals that the series exteriors could only be filmed in Chicago.
Title[edit]
Hill Street Blues refers to the blue uniforms worn by many police officers in the US, and is perhaps an intentional pun on the musical style "blues," which is depressing in its tone ("Hill Street" is the name of the precinct). The phrase is uttered only once within the series, by Detective Emil Schneider (Dolph Sweet) in the first-season episode "Gatorbait". Schneider says it in a slightly mocking tone, in reference to officers Hill and Renko, who he feels are out of their league at a particular crime scene. The precinct bowling team is the "Hill Street Blue Ballers."
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of Hill Street Blues characters
Hill Street Blues cast, circa 1986, left to right, from bottom: Taurean Blacque, Daniel J. Travanti, Michael J. Warren; Second Row: Betty Thomas, James B. Sikking; Third Row: Robert Clohessy, Dennis Franz, Kiel Martin, Joe Spano; Top Row: George Wyner, Peter Jurasik, Robert Prosky, Megan Gallagher
Officers are listed by the rank they held at first appearance on the program; some officers later held higher ranks.
Main characters[edit]
Capt. Francis Xavier "Frank" Furillo (Daniel J. Travanti, 1981–87)
Joyce Davenport (Veronica Hamel, 1981–87)
Sgt. Phil Freemason Esterhaus (Michael Conrad, 1981–84)
Det. Mick Belker (Bruce Weitz, 1981–87)
Sgt. (later Lt.) Henry Goldblume (Joe Spano, 1981–87)
Ofc. Bobby Hill (Michael Warren, 1981–87)
Ofc. Andy Renko (Charles Haid, 1981–87)
Sgt. (later Lt./Sgt./Lt.) Howard Hunter (James B. Sikking, 1981–87)
Ofc. (later Sgt.) Lucille Bates (Betty Thomas, 1981–87)
Det. J.D. LaRue (Kiel Martin, 1981–87)
Det. Neal Washington (Taurean Blacque, 1981–87)
Lt. Ray Calletano (later Capt.) (Rene Enriquez, 1981–86)
Ofc. Joe Coffey (Ed Marinaro, 1981–86)
Fay Furillo (Barbara Bosson, 1981–86)
Sgt. Stan Jablonski (Robert Prosky, 1984–87)
Det. Harry Garibaldi (Ken Olin, 1984–85)
Det. Patricia "Patsy" Mayo (Mimi Kuzyk, 1984–85)
Lt. Norman "Guido" Buntz (Dennis Franz, 1985–87)
Ofc. Patrick Flaherty (Robert Clohessy, 1986–87)
Ofc. Tina Russo (Megan Gallagher, 1986–87)
Other characters[edit]
Chief Fletcher Daniels (Jon Cypher, 1981–87)
Ofc. Leo Schnitz (Robert Hirschfeld, 1981–85)
Grace Gardner (Barbara Babcock, 1981–85)
Jesus Martinez (Trinidad Silva, 1981–87)
Capt. Jerry Fuchs (Vincent Lucchesi, 1981–84)
Alan Wachtel (Jeffrey Tambor, 1982–87)
Captain Freedom (Dennis Dugan, 1982)
Assistant D.A. Irwin Bernstein (George Wyner, 1982–87)
Ofc. Robin Tattaglia Belker (Lisa Sutton, 1982–87)
Det. Sal Benedetto (Dennis Franz, 1983)
Gina Srignoli (Jennifer Tilly, 1984–85)
Det. Manny Rodriguez (Del Zamora, 1985)
Celeste Patterson (Judith Hansen, 1985–86)
Sid "The Snitch" Thurston (Peter Jurasik, 1985–87)
Hector Ruiz (Panchito Gomez, 1981–85)
Judge Lee Oberman (Larry D. Mann, 1983–85)
"Buck Naked" flasher (Lee Weaver, 1981–87)
Daryl Ann Renko (Deborah Richter, sometimes billed as Debi Richter, 1983–87)
Chief Coroner Wally Nydorf (Pat Corley, 1981–1987)
Shamrock Leader Tommy Mann (David Caruso, 1981-1983)
Blood (Bobby Ellerbee, 1981–84)
Doris Robson (Alfre Woodard, 1983)
Critical reception[edit]
Initially, Hill Street Blues received rave reviews from critics alongside dismal Nielsen ratings. Early schedule switching did not help; the show was broadcast once weekly on four different nights during its first season alone but gradually settled into a Thursday night slot. The NBC Broadcast Standards Unit deemed it "too violent, too sexy, too grim." The producers described the show as "an hour drama with 13 continuing characters living through a Gordian knot of personal and professional relationships." John J. O'Connor in a May 1981 review charted its growing popularity and called it "a comfortable balance between comedy and drama".[8] The groundbreaking choice to include African-Americans as mainstays in the core ensemble cast and to feature several inter-racial and inter-ethnic cop partnerships drew notice and praise, as did the overlapping plots and examinations of moral conundrums such as police corruption, racism, alcoholism, and both interpersonal and institutional forgiveness.[9]
Audience reception of certain portrayals of minority characters drew concern, with author Larry Landrum urging skepticism from an audience "already in the ambiguous position of identifying with individuals representing an armed authority."[10] Landrum also criticized the series' frenetic pace as ultimately requiring the use of stereotypes — narrative devices which constitute "an assault on the competence of audiences, obscure reflection on the causes of perceived social, political, and economic problems, and foster fragmented views of everyday life."[10]
Despite these shortcomings the show was very influential, with many others imitating its use of handheld cameras, ensemble cast, and multiple overlapping story arcs lasting for several episodes, set in urban decay. Alan Sepinwall wrote in 2014 that it "is on the short list of the most influential TV shows ever made. Whether through shared actors, writers, directors or through stylistic and thematic complexity, its DNA can be found in nearly every great drama produced in the 30-plus years since it debuted". He compared Hill Street Blues to Casablanca, which was so influential on other films that "if you come to see it for the first time after a lifetime of watching the copies, it could be at risk of playing like a bundle of clichés—even though it invented those clichés".[11]
In 1993, TV Guide named the series The All-Time Best Cop Show in its issue celebrating 40 years of television.[12] In 1997, the episode "Grace Under Pressure" was ranked number 49 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.[13] When the list was revised in 2009, "Freedom's Last Stand" was ranked number 57. In 2002, Hill Street Blues was ranked number 14 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time,[14] and in 2013 TV Guide ranked it #1 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time[15] and #23 of the 60 Best Series.[16]
Awards[edit]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Hill Street Blues
Shares the record for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series wins (4, 1981–84) with Mad Men (2008–11), L.A. Law (1987, 1989–91), and The West Wing (2000–03).[17]
It has been nominated for the most Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (16) and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (13).
The series shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members (excluding the guest performer category) for a single series in one year. (Both L.A. Law and The West Wing also hold that record). At the 34th Primetime Emmy Awards, for the 1981–82 season nine cast members were nominated for Emmys. Daniel J. Travanti and Michael Conrad were the only ones to win (for Lead Actor and Supporting Actor respectively). The others nominated were Veronica Hamel (for Lead Actress), Taurean Blacque, Michael Warren, Bruce Weitz, and Charles Haid (for Supporting Actor), and Barbara Bosson and Betty Thomas (for Supporting Actress).
At the 34th Primetime Emmy Awards, for the only time in Emmy Award history all five nominees in an acting category (in this case, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) were from a single series.
The pilot episode, "Hill Street Station" was awarded an Edgar for Best Teleplay from a Series.
"Hill Street Station" is the only episode in television history to have won the two major best director (Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series) and the two major best writer awards (Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Drama).
Over its seven seasons, the show earned 98 Emmy Award nominations, an average of 14 nominations per year.
Betty Thomas was the only one in the cast to be nominated in all seasons, also the only one to be nominated in the last season.
[12] In 1997, the episode "Grace Under Pressure" was ranked number 49 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.[13] When the list was revised in 2009, "Freedom's Last Stand" was ranked number 57.
In 2007, Channel 4 (UK) ranked Hill Street Blues No. 19 on their list of the "50 Greatest TV Dramas."[18]
Home video releases[edit]
20th Century Fox released the first two seasons of Hill Street Blues on DVD in Region 1 in 2006.[19] Both releases contain special features including gag reel, deleted scenes, commentary tracks, and featurettes.
On December 5, 2013, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1. They subsequently released Hill Street Blues: The Complete Series on DVD on April 29, 2014.[20]
In late 2014, they began releasing season sets; they have subsequently released seasons 3–7.[21][22][23][24][25]
In Region 2, Channel 4 DVD released the first two seasons on DVD in the UK in 2006.[26][27]
In Region 4, Shock Records released the first three seasons on DVD in Australia on December 4, 2013,[28][29][30] and the remaining four seasons on April 30, 2014.[31][32][33][34] On December 4, 2013, Shock Records also released a complete series set.[35]
Season
Episodes
Release Date
Region 1
Region 2
Region 4
The Complete 1st Season 17 January 31, 2006 March 25, 2013 December 4, 2013
The Complete 2nd Season 18 May 16, 2006
The Complete 3rd Season 22 November 4, 2014 —
The Complete 4th Season 22 March 3, 2015 April 30, 2014
The Complete 5th Season 23 May 26, 2015
The Complete 6th Season 22 September 8, 2015
The Complete 7th Season 22 January 12, 2016
The Complete Series 146 April 29, 2014 — December 4, 2013
Spin-offs[edit]
Beverly Hills Buntz[edit]
Main article: Beverly Hills Buntz
Beverly Hills Buntz aired on NBC from November 5, 1987 to April 22, 1988. It was a half-hour comedy, a hybrid between light private eye fare and a sitcom. The main character, Norman Buntz (Dennis Franz) quit Hill Street, moved to Beverly Hills with Sid "The Snitch" Thurston (Peter Jurasik), and became a private investigator. Thirteen episodes were filmed, of which only nine were broadcast.
In popular culture[edit]
Hill Street Blues has inspired parodies, storylines, characters, and cultural references in numerous media vehicles.
The Simpsons episode "The Springfield Connection" (S6E23), where Marge becomes a cop, uses and ends with a mix of The Simpsons and Hill Street Blues themes.
Computer game[edit]
In 1991, Krisalis Software (developed by Simeon Pashley and Rob Hill) released the computer game, Hill Street Blues, based on the TV show. The game runs on the Amiga, Atari ST, and DOS platforms[36] and places the player in charge of Hill Street Station and its surrounding neighborhood, with the aim of promptly dispatching officers to reported crimes, apprehending criminals, and making them testify at court. If certain areas have less serious crimes unresolved, such as bag-snatching, they soon escalate to more serious ones, such as murder in broad daylight.[37] The game is still available for download at computer game sites and outlets, and has received mixed reviews.[38]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hill Street Blues on IMDb
Jump up ^ Deming, Caren J. (1 March 1985). "Hill Street Blues as Narrative". Critical Studies in Mass Communication. 2 (1): 8. doi:10.1080/15295038509360058. ISSN 0739-3180.
Jump up ^ Porter, Michael J. (1 June 1987). "A Comparative Analysis of Directing Styles in Hill Street Blues". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 31 (3): 325. doi:10.1080/08838158709386667. ISSN 0883-8151.
Jump up ^ Warren, Ellen; Warren, James (1996-08-28). "'Hill Street' Creator Pays 1st Visit To Police Station He Made Famous". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2016-06-06.
Jump up ^ Fetherston, Drew (May 10, 1987). "Last Call for the Cop Show That Broke All the Rules". Newsday. p. 11.
Jump up ^ "Bosson Leaving 'Hill St.' In Salary, Role Disputes". latimes. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Clemetson, Lynette (August 9, 2002). "Revival for a Black Enclave in Pittsburgh". New York Times{{inconsistent citations}}
Jump up ^ O'Connor, John J. (10 May 1981). "TV View; 'Hill Street Blues'- A Hit with Problems". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Fackler, Mark; Darling, Stephen (1 January 1987). "Forgiveness on Prime-Time Television a Case Study: Hill Street Blues". Studies in Popular Culture. 10 (1): 64–73.
^ Jump up to: a b Landrum, Larry (1984). "Instrumental Texts and Stereotyping in Hill Street Blues: The Police Procedural on Television". MELUS. 11 (3): 99. doi:10.2307/467137.
Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (2014-04-28). "Review: 'Hill Street Blues: The Complete Series' on DVD / The groundbreaking '80s cop drama still holds up after decades of imitators". HitFix. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b TV Guide April 17-23, 1993. 1993. p. 38.
^ Jump up to: a b "Special Collector's Issue: 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time". TV Guide (June 28–July 4). 1997.
Jump up ^ "TV Guide Names Top 50 Shows". CBS.
Jump up ^ Roush, Matt (February 25, 2013). "Showstoppers: The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time". TV Guide. pp. 16-17.
Jump up ^ "TV Guide Magazine's 60 Best Series of All Time". 23 December 2013.
Jump up ^ O'Neil, Tom (August 31, 2011). "Mad Men may tie record as Emmy's drama series champ". Awards Tracker (blog). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived May 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Release Information for Hill Street Blues". Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues DVD news: Box Art for Hill Street Blues - The Complete Series - TVShowsOnDVD.com". Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues: Season Three". Shout!Factory. Retrieved 2014-08-14.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues DVD news: Announcement for Hill Street Blues - Season 4 - TVShowsOnDVD.com". Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues DVD news: Announcement for Hill Street Blues - Season 5 - TVShowsOnDVD.com". Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues DVD news: Announcement for Hill Street Blues - Season 6 - TVShowsOnDVD.com". Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues DVD news: Box Art and Details for Hill Street Blues - The Final Season - TVShowsOnDVD.com". tvshowsondvd.com.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues Season 1". Channel 4 Store. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues Season 2". Channel 4 Store. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 1". ScreenPop. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 2". ScreenPop. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 3". ScreenPop. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 4". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 5". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 6". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Season 7". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hill Street Blues – Complete Collection". Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Johnny "ThunderPeel2001" Walker (424), Martin Smith (63992) and phlux (4157). "Hill Street Blues Game Review". MobyGames.com. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Crusades83 (15 January 2007). "Hill Street Blues Game Review". Classic PC Games. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Home of the Underdogs (15 January 2007). "Hill Street Blues Game Review". Squakenet.com. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
External links[edit]
Hill Street Blues on IMDb
Hill Street Blues at TV.com
Hill Street Blues at Encyclopedia of Television
Hill Street Blues-related interview videos at the Archive of American Television
[show]
v
t
e
Hill Street Blues
Episodes
"Hill Street Station"
Related lists
Awards and nomination
Characters
Related series
Beverly Hills Buntz
[show]
v
t
e
Television series created or produced by Steven Bochco
Richie Brockelman, Private Eye (1978)
Paris (1979)
Hill Street Blues (1981–1987)
Bay City Blues (1983)
Hooperman (1987–1989)
L.A. Law (1986–1994)
Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989–1993)
Cop Rock (1990)
Civil Wars (1991–1993)
Capitol Critters (1992)
NYPD Blue (1993–2005)
The Byrds of Paradise (1994)
Public Morals (1996)
Murder One (1995–1997)
Brooklyn South (1997–1998)
Total Security (1997)
City of Angels (2000)
Philly (2001–2002)
Blind Justice (2005)
Over There (2005)
Commander in Chief (2005–2006)
Hollis & Rae (2006)
Raising the Bar (2008–2009)
Murder in the First (2014–2016)
[show]
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Carbon dioxide removal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It has been suggested that this article be merged into Greenhouse_gas_removal. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2017.
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) refers to a number of technologies, the objective of which is the large-scale removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[1] Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, ocean fertilization, enhanced weathering, and direct air capture when combined with storage.[1] CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources, such as power stations. The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but cannot reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere. As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, it creates negative emissions, offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems, airplanes and vehicle exhausts.[2][3] It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering,[1] while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation.[4] Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of "climate engineering" or "geoengineering" usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken.
The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues, including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri,[5] the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres,[6] and the World Watch Institute.[7] Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute, Columbia University,[8] and the Climate Decision Making Center,[9] an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University's Department of Engineering and Public Policy.
The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment, land use, availability of geologic reservoirs, and leakage. The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC.[10] Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction.[11] In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions.
Contents
[hide]
1 General
2 Methods
2.1 Bio-energy with carbon capture & storage
2.2 Biochar
2.3 Enhanced weathering
2.4 Direct air capture (DAC)
2.5 Ocean fertilization
3 Example CO2 scrubbing chemistry
3.1 Calcium oxide
3.2 Sodium hydroxide
4 Direct air capture (DAC) process example using NaOH
5 Economic issues
6 Risks, problems and criticisms
7 See also
8 References
General[edit]
Carbon dioxide removal is different from reducing emissions, as the former produces an outlet of carbon dioxide from Earth's atmosphere, whereas the latter decreases the inlet of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Both have the same net effect, but for achieving carbon dioxide concentration levels below present levels, carbon dioxide removal is critical. Also for meeting higher concentration levels, carbon dioxide removal is increasingly considered to be crucial as it provides the only possibility to fill the gap between needed reductions to meet mitigation targets and global emission trends.
In the OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 released at the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference, the authors commented on the need for negative emissions, stating "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS".
A carbon dioxide sink such as a concentrated group of plants or any other primary producer that binds carbon dioxide into biomass, such as within forests and kelp beds, is not carbon negative, as sinks are not permanent. A carbon dioxide sink of this type moves carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere or hydrosphere to the biosphere. This process could be undone, for example by wildfires or logging.
Carbon dioxide sinks that store carbon dioxide in the Earth's crust by injecting it into the subsurface, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts (mineral sequestration), are considered carbon negative. This is because they are removing carbon from the atmosphere and sequestering it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years). However, Carbon Capture technology remains, at best, theoretical and is yet to reach more than 33% efficiency. Furthermore, this process could be rapidly undone, for example by earthquakes or mining.
Methods[edit]
Bio-energy with carbon capture & storage[edit]
Main article: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage
Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, or BECCS, uses biomass to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and carbon capture and storage technologies to concentrate and permanently store it in deep geological formations.
BECCS is currently (as of October 2012) the only CDR technology deployed at full industrial scale, with 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total capacity operating, divided between three different facilities (as of January 2012).[12][13][14][15][16]
The Imperial College London, the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, the Walker Institute for Climate System Research, and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID: Avoiding dangerous climate change research program, stating that "Overall, of the technologies studied in this report, BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today’s energy system. The presence of a primary product will support early deployment."[17]
According to the OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS".[18]
Biochar[edit]
Main article: Biochar
Biochar is created by the pyrolysis of biomass, and is under investigation as a method of carbon sequestration. Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in carbon sequestration, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass.[19] Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material.[20] The offset of GHG emission, if biochar were to be implemented, would be a maximum of 12%. This equates to about 106 metric tons of CO2 equivalents. On a medium conservative level, it would be 23% less than that, at 82 metric tons.[21] A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit would the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year of carbon in biochar soils.[22]
Enhanced weathering[edit]
Main article: Enhanced weathering
Enhanced weathering refers to chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land or ocean based techniques. Examples of land based enhanced weathering techniques are in-situ carbonation of silicates. Ultramafic rock, for example, has the potential to store thousands of years worth of CO2 emissions according to one estimate.[citation needed] Ocean based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as, grinding, dispersing and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and CO2 sequestration. Enhanced weathering is considered as one of the least expensive of geoengineering options. One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the CarbFix project in Iceland.[citation needed]
Direct air capture (DAC)[edit]
Carbon dioxide can be removed from ambient air through chemical processes, sequestered, and stored. Traditional modes of carbon capture such as precombustion and postcombustion CO2 capture from large point sources can help slow the rate of increase of the atmospheric CO2 concentration, but only the direct removal of CO2 from the air, or “direct air capture” (DAC), can actually reduce the global atmospheric CO2 concentration.
A few engineering proposals have been made for the more difficult task of removing CO2 from the atmosphere – a form of climate engineering – but work in this area is still in its infancy. [23] Among the main technologies proposed, three of them stand out: Causticization with alkali and alkali-earth hydroxides; [24] Carbonation [25] and Organic−inorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in poroous adsorbents. For a review on the most recent research on these areas, see [23]
One proposed method is by so-called artificial trees.[26][27] This concept, proposed by climate scientist Wallace S. Broecker and science writer Robert Kunzig,[28] imagines huge numbers of artificial trees around the world to remove ambient CO2. The technology is now being pioneered by Klaus Lackner, a researcher at the Earth Institute, Columbia University,[29] whose artificial tree technology can suck up to 1,000 times more CO2 from the air than real trees can,[citation needed] at a rate of about one ton of carbon per day if the artificial tree is approximately the size of an actual tree.[30][31] The CO2 would be captured in a filter and then removed from the filter and stored.
The chemistry used is a variant of that described below, as it is based on sodium hydroxide. However, in a more recent design proposed by Klaus Lackner, the process can be carried out at only 40 °C by using a polymer-based ion exchange resin, which takes advantage of changes in humidity to prompt the release of captured CO2, instead of using a kiln. This reduces the energy required to operate the process.[32]
Another substance which can be used are Metal-organic frameworks (or MOF's).[33] A special MOF has been made specifically for locking CO2 by Joeri Denayer.[34]
In 2008, the Discovery Channel covered[35] the work of David Keith,[36] of University of Calgary, who built a tower, 4 feet wide and 20 feet tall (1.2×6.1 meters), with a fan at the bottom that sucks air in, which comes out again at the top. In the process, about half the CO2 is removed from the air.
This device uses the chemical process described in detail below. The system demonstrated on the Discovery Channel was a 1/90,000th scale test system of the capture section; the reagents are regenerated in a separate facility. The main costs of a full plant will be the cost to build it, and the energy input to regenerate the chemicals and produce a pure stream of CO2.
To put this into perspective, people in the U.S. emit about 20 tonnes of CO2 per person annually.[citation needed][37] In other words, each person in the U.S. would require a tower like the one featured by the Discovery Channel to remove this amount of CO2 from the air, requiring an annual 2 megawatt-hours of electricity to operate it. By comparison, a refrigerator consumes about 1.2 megawatt-hours annually (2001 figures).[38] But, by combining many small systems such as this into one large system, the construction costs and energy use can be reduced.
It has been proposed that the Solar updraft tower to generate electricity from thermal air currents also be used at the same time for amine gravity scrubbing of CO2.[39] Some heat would be required to regenerate the amine.
A similar CO2 scrubber has also been built by Carbon Engineering. Besides simply focusing on capturing the CO2, the company also puts emphasis on reuse of the CO2, for example in the production of fuels, which would thus be carbon-neutral.[40][41]
Direct air capture has been proposed as a way of generating carbon-neutral organic chemicals, by harvesting the atmospheric compounds and then using them in the production and synthesis of polymers and fuels.
Finally the Swiss-based Climeworks is currently building the first industrial scale direct air capturing plant in Hinwil, Switzerland. Starting in May 2017, the plant is going to scrub about 900 metric tons of CO2 per year using heat from a local waste incineration plant. The CO2 should be sold to a local vegetable growing company.[42]
Ocean fertilization[edit]
Main article: Ocean fertilization
Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of climate engineering based on the purposeful introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. A number of techniques, including fertilization by iron, urea and phosphorus have been proposed.
Example CO2 scrubbing chemistry[edit]
Main article: Carbon dioxide scrubber
Calcium oxide[edit]
Calcium oxide (quicklime) will absorb CO2 from atmospheric air mixed with steam at 400 °C (forming calcium carbonate) and release it at 1,000 °C. This process, proposed by A. Steinfeld, can be performed using renewable energy from thermal concentrated solar power.[43] Quicklime is made by heating limestone to release the CO2 within it. Quicklime is mixed with sand for brick building as mortar, where it hardens by absorption of CO2.
Sodium hydroxide[edit]
Zeman and Lackner outlined a specific method of air capture using sodium hydroxide.[44] Carbon Engineering, a Calgary, Alberta firm founded in 2009 and partially funded by Bill Gates, is developing a process to capture carbon dioxide using a solution of potassium hydroxide mixed with some water at their pilot plant . They hope to create and sell synthetic fuels at a cost of $100 a ton.[45]
Direct air capture (DAC) process example using NaOH[edit]
Figure 1: This PFD summarizes the main steps in a DCA processes that uses NaOH (aka Caustic Soda) as the absorber.[46]
Among the technologies studied for DAC, the use of aqueous hydroxide sorbents is one of the most interesting approaches.[23]
This processes is outlined by Figure 1.
The chemistry of this process is explained in the "Sodium Hydroxide" section in the carbon dioxide scrubber page. In short, CO2 from the air is chemically dissolved into NaOH(aq) solution as Na2CO3; the Na2CO3 is then reacted with solid Ca(OH)2, which regenerates the solvent and produces CaCO3 crystals; lastly, heat is applied to the CaCO3 crystals to produce pure CO2 gas.[46]
Air is pumped through the CO2 absorber as the first step of this process.[46][47] CO2 absorber for DAC are designed either as a counter-current spray tower or as a counter-current thin-falling-film contractor to maximize the contact area between the air and the solvent and thus maximize the absorption driving force.[46][47] The solvent is regenerated in the causticization unit by reacting the Na2CO3 with Ca(OH)2, which also transfers the captured CO2 to the form of CaCO3 solid crystals.[46] A mechanical filter is then used to separate the CaCO3 crystals form the water.[46] Since the crystals come out wet from the filter, they are dried in a steam dryer.[46] Then the dry crystals are heated in a furnace to produce CaO and pure CO2 gas.[46] The CaO is then hydrated to regenerate the Ca(OH)2 used for the causticization reaction.[46] The pure CO2 stream is then compressed and ready to be transported for geologic sequestration, EOR, or other commercial applications.
1 M NaOH (aq) is a typical solvent concentration because this concentrations is limited by the causticization reaction that regenerates the solvent it is not too far from the practical maximum of 2 M NaOH.[46] The furnace/kiln can be powered renewably or by burning fuel on-site with pure oxygen produces in an on-site air separation unit.
NaOH is economically competitive with other absorbents (e.g. Amines) used for DAC processes.[46] DAC processes are energy intensive.[46][47] Calcination (at the furnace) is the most energy intensive step of this process.[46][47]
Economic issues[edit]
A crucial issue for CDR methods is their cost, which differs substantially among the different technologies: some of these are not sufficiently developed to perform cost assessments. The American Physical Society estimates the costs for direct air capture to be $600/tonne with optimistic assumptions.[48] The IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme and Ecofys provides an estimate that 3.5 billion tonnes could be removed annually from the atmosphere with BECCS (Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage) at carbon prices as low as €50 per tonne,[49] while a report from Biorecro and the Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute estimates costs "below €100" per tonne for large scale BECCS deployment.[4]
Risks, problems and criticisms[edit]
CDR is slow to act, and requires a long-term political and engineering program to effect.[50] CDR is even slower to take effect on acidified oceans. In a Business as usual concentration pathway, the deep ocean will remain acidified for centuries, and as a consequence many marine species are in danger of extinction.[51]
See also[edit]
Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
Biochar
Carbon capture and storage
Carbon dioxide scrubber
Carbon-neutral fuel
Climate change mitigation
Climate change mitigation scenarios
Climate engineering
Greenhouse gas removal
List of emerging technologies
Lithium peroxide
Low-carbon economy
Virgin Earth Challenge
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty". The Royal Society. 2009. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
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Jump up ^ Azar, C.; Lindgren, K.; Larson, E.; Möllersten, K. (2006). "Carbon Capture and Storage from Fossil Fuels and Biomass – Costs and Potential Role in Stabilizing the Atmosphere". Climatic Change. 74: 47–79. doi:10.1007/s10584-005-3484-7.
^ Jump up to: a b "Global Status of BECCS Projects 2010". Biorecro and The Global Carbon Capture and Storage institute. 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
Jump up ^ Pagnamenta, Robin (2009-12-01). "Carbon must be sucked from air, says IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri". Times Online. London. Retrieved 13 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Fiona (2011-06-05). "Global warming crisis may mean world has to suck greenhouse gases from air". Guardian Online. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Hollo, Tim (2009-01-15). "Negative emissions needed for a safe climate". Retrieved 10 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "National Geographic Magazine - NGM.com". Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. 2013-04-25. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
Jump up ^ "Snatching Carbon Dioxide from the Atmosphere" (PDF). Cdmc.epp.cmu.edu. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
Jump up ^ "Carbon dioxide capture and storage" (PDF). IPCC. 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Lenton, TM; NE Vaughan (2009). "The radiative forcing potential of different climate geoengineering options". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 9 (15): 2559–608. doi:10.5194/acp-9-5539-2009.
Jump up ^ "Global Status of BECCS Projects 2010". Biorecro AB, Global CCS Institute. 2010. Retrieved 2012-01-20.
Jump up ^ "Global Technology Roadmap for CCS in Industry Biomass-based industrial CO2 sources: biofuels production with CCS" (PDF). ECN. 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-20.
Jump up ^ "First U.S. large demonstration-scale injection of CO2 from a biofuel production facility begins". Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Ethanol plant to sequester CO2 emissions". Archived from the original on 10 March 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Production Begins at Biggest Ethanol Plant in Kansas". Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Potential for the Deployment of Negative Emissions Technologies in the UK" (PDF). Grantham Institute for Climate Change, Imperial College. 2010. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived May 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "What is biochar?". UK Biochar research center. University of Edinburgh Kings Buildings Edinburgh. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "What is Biomass?". Biomass Energy Center. Direct.gov.uk. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Climate change and Biochar". International Biochar Initiative. International Biochar Initiative. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Biochar reducing and removing CO2 while improving soils: A significant sustainable response to climate change" (PDF). UKBRC. UK Biochar research Center. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sanz-Pérez, E. S.; Murdock, C. R.; Didas, S. A.; Jones, C. W. (2016). "Direct Capture of CO2 from Ambient Air". Chem. Rev. 116 (19): 11840−11876. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173.
Jump up ^ Lackner, K. S.; Ziock, H.; Grimes, P. (1999). Carbon Dioxide Extraction from Air: Is It an Option?. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Technical Conference on Coal Utilization & Fuel Systems. pp. 885–896.
Jump up ^ Nikulshina, V.; Ayesa, N.; Gálvez, M. E.; Stainfeld, A. (2016). "Feasibility of Na–Based Thermochemical Cycles for the Capture of CO2 from air. Thermodynamic and Thermogravimetric Analyses.". Chem. Eng. J. 140 (1–3): 62–70. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2007.09.007.
Jump up ^ "New Device Vacuums Away Carbon Dioxide". LiveScience. 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
Jump up ^ Adam, David (2008-05-31). "Could US scientist's 'CO2 catcher' help to slow warming? | Environment". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
Jump up ^ Artificial trees designed by Wallace Broecker
Jump up ^ The Earth Institute, Columbia University http://www.earth.columbia.edu/sections/view/9
Jump up ^ "Cleaning up the Carbon Mess – 07.31.2011". Energy Now. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
Jump up ^ – 'Artificial trees' to cut carbon. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy". Energy.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
Jump up ^ Scrubbing CO2 with MOFs
Jump up ^ Wetenschap redt de wereld docu on Joeri Denayer's MOFs
Jump up ^ – Discovery Channel, 2008 Archived January 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ – David Keith Archived February 1, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vaughan, Adam (2009-09-02). "Carbon emissions per person, by country". the Guardian. Retrieved 2016-12-05.
Jump up ^ "End-Use Consumption of Electricity by End Use and Appliance". Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
Jump up ^ The Methane Economy
Jump up ^ Forbes on Carbon Engineering's carbon scrubber
Jump up ^ More info on the co2 scrubber
Jump up ^ "The World's First Commercial Carbon Capture Plant Will Turn Pollution Into Cash". Co.Exist. 2015-10-22. Retrieved 2017-01-05.
Jump up ^ "Can technology clear the air? – environment – 12 January 2009". New Scientist. 2009-01-12. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
Jump up ^ Zeman, F. S.; Lackner, K. S. (2004). "Capturing carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere". World Resour. Rev. 16: 157–72.
Jump up ^ Anne Eisenberg (January 5, 2013). "Pulling Carbon Dioxide Out of Thin Air". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Zeman, Frank (2007-11-01). "Energy and Material Balance of CO2 Capture from Ambient Air". Environmental Science & Technology. 41 (21): 7558–7563. ISSN 0013-936X. doi:10.1021/es070874m.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Berend Smit, Jeffrey A. Reimer, Curtis M. Oldenburg and Ian C. Bourg (2014). Introduction to Carbon Capture and Sequestration, Vol 1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Direct Air Capture of CO2 with Chemicals". The American Physical Society. 2011-06-01. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
Jump up ^ "Potential for Biomass and Carbon Capture and Storage" (PDF). IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme. 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
Jump up ^ Cao, L.; Caldeira, K. (2010). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide removal: Long-term consequences and commitment". Environmental Research Letters. 5 (2): 024011. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/2/024011.
Jump up ^ Mathesius, Sabine; Hofmann, Matthias; Caldeira, Ken; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2015). "Long-term response of oceans to CO2 removal from the atmosphere". Nature Climate Change. 5 (12): 1107–1113. doi:10.1038/nclimate2729.
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