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ESPN
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This article is about the U.S. television channel. For ESPN channels in other countries, see ESPN International. For the company and other channels of the same name, see ESPN Inc. For the railroad, see East Penn Railroad.
ESPN
Owned by
ESPN Inc. (The Walt Disney Company (80%)/Hearst Communications (20%))
Picture format
720p (HDTV)
Downgraded to letterboxed 480i for SDTV feed
Slogan
The Worldwide Leader In Sports
Country
United States
Language
English
Broadcast area
Worldwide
Headquarters
Bristol, Connecticut
Sister channel(s)
Disney XD
ESPN2
ESPN3
ESPNews
ESPNU
ESPN on ABC
ESPN Deportes
ESPN Classic
Longhorn Network
ACC Network
SEC Network
ESPN Goal Line, Buzzer Beater, and Bases Loaded
Website
www.espn.com
Availability
Satellite
DirecTV
206
209-1 (alternate feed; HD/SD)
1206 (VOD)
Dish Network
140
144, 145, 146, 147 (alternate feeds)
Cable
Available on most U.S. cable systems
Consult your local cable provider for channel availability
IPTV
AT&T U-verse
1602 (HD)
602 (SD)
Verizon FiOS
570 (HD)
70 (SD)
Google Fiber
21
Streaming media
Sling TV
Internet Protocol television
DirecTV Now
Internet Protocol television
PlayStation Vue
Internet Protocol television
Hulu Live TV
Internet Protocol television
Audio Simulcast
Listen to Audio Simulcast Live
ESPN (originally an acronym for Entertainment and Sports Programming Network) is a U.S.-based global cable and satellite sports television channel owned by ESPN Inc., a joint venture owned by The Walt Disney Company (80%) and Hearst Communications (20%). The company was founded in 1979 by Bill Rasmussen along with his brother Scott and Ed Egan.
ESPN broadcasts primarily from studio facilities located in Bristol, Connecticut. The network also operates offices in Miami, New York City, Seattle, Charlotte, and Los Angeles. John Skipper currently serves as president of ESPN, a position he has held since January 1, 2012. While ESPN is one of the most successful sports networks, there has been much criticism of ESPN, which includes accusations of biased coverage,[1] conflict of interest, and controversies with individual broadcasters and analysts.
ESPN headquarters in Bristol, Connecticut
As of February 2015[update], ESPN is available to approximately 94,396,000 paid television households (81.1% of households with at least one television set) in the United States.[2] Nielsen has reported a much lower number in 2017, below 90,000,000 subscribers, losing more than 10,000 a day. In addition to the flagship channel and its seven related channels in the United States, ESPN broadcasts in more than 200 countries,[3] operating regional channels in Australia, Brazil, Latin America and the United Kingdom, and owning a 20% interest in The Sports Network (TSN) as well as its five sister networks in Canada.
In 2011, ESPN's history and rise was chronicled in Those Guys Have All the Fun, a nonfiction book written by James Andrew Miller and Tom Shales and published by Little, Brown and Company.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Programming
3 Executives
4 Related channels
4.1 ESPN2
4.2 ESPN Classic
4.3 ESPNews
4.4 ESPN+
4.5 ESPN Deportes
4.6 ESPNU
4.7 Longhorn Network
4.8 SEC Network
4.9 Other services
5 International channels
6 In popular culture
7 Criticism
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of ESPN
Bill Rasmussen conceived the concept of ESPN in late May 1978, after he was fired from his job with the World Hockey Association's New England Whalers. One of the first steps in Bill and his son Scott's (who had also been let go by the Whalers) process was finding land to build the channel's broadcasting facilities. The Rasmussens first rented office space in Plainville, Connecticut. However, the plan to base ESPN there was put on hold because a local ordinance prohibiting buildings from bearing rooftop satellite dishes. Available land area was quickly found in Bristol, Connecticut (where the channel remains headquartered to this day), with funding to buy the property provided by Getty Oil, which purchased 85% of the company from Bill Rasmussen on February 22, 1979, in an attempt to diversify the company's holdings. This helped the credibility of the fledgling company, however there were still many doubters to the viability of their sports channel concept. Another event that helped build ESPN's credibility was securing an advertising agreement with Anheuser-Busch in the spring of 1979; the company invested $1 million to be the "exclusive beer advertised on the network."[5]
ESPN launched on September 7, 1979, beginning with the first telecast of what would become the channel's flagship program, SportsCenter. Taped in front of a small live audience inside the Bristol studios, it was broadcast to 1.4 million cable subscribers throughout the United States.[5]
ESPN's next big break came when the channel acquired the rights to broadcast coverage of the early rounds of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. It first aired the NCAA tournament in March 1980, creating the modern day television event known as "March Madness." The channel's tournament coverage also launched the broadcasting career of Dick Vitale, who at the time he joined ESPN, had just been fired as head coach of the Detroit Pistons.
In April of that year, ESPN created another made-for-TV spectacle, when it began televising the NFL Draft. It provided complete coverage of the event that allowed rookie players from the college ranks to begin their professional careers in front of a national television audience in ways they were not able to previously.
The next major stepping stone for ESPN came over the course of a couple of months in 1984. During this time period, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) purchased 100% of ESPN from the Rasmussens and Getty Oil.[5] Under Getty ownership, the channel was unable to compete for the television rights to major sports events contracts as its majority corporate parent would not provide the funding, leading ESPN to lose out for broadcast deals with the National Hockey League (to USA Network) and NCAA Division I college football (to TBS). For years, the NFL, NBA and Major League Baseball refused to consider cable as a means of broadcasting some of their games.[6] However, with the backing of ABC, ESPN's ability to compete for major sports contracts greatly increased, and gave it credibility within the sports broadcasting industry.
Later in 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the NCAA could no longer monopolize the rights to negotiate the contracts for college football games, allowing each individual school to negotiate broadcast deals of their choice. ESPN took full advantage and began to broadcast a large number of NCAA football games, creating an opportunity for fans to be able to view multiple games each weekend (instead of just one), the same deal that the NCAA had previously negotiated with TBS.[6] ESPN's breakthrough moment occurred in 1987, when it secured a contract with the NFL to broadcast eight games during that year's regular season – all of which aired on Sunday nights, marking the first broadcasts of Sunday NFL primetime games. ESPN's Sunday Night Football games would become the highest-rated NFL telecasts for the next 17 years (before losing the rights to NBC in 2006).[7] The channel's decision to broadcast NFL games on Sunday evenings actually resulted in a decline in viewership for the daytime games shown on the major broadcast networks, marking the first time that ESPN had been a legitimate competitor to NBC and CBS, which had long dominated the sports television market.
In 1992, ESPN launched ESPN Radio, a national sports talk radio network providing analysis and commentary programs (including shows such as Mike and Mike in the Morning and The Herd) as well as audio play-by-play of sporting events (including some simulcasted with the ESPN television channel).[5]
On October 10, 1993, ESPN2 – a secondary channel that originally was programmed with a separate lineup of niche sports popular with males 18–49 years old (with snowboarding and the World Series of Poker as its headliners) as well as serving as an overflow channel for ESPN – launched on cable systems reaching to 10 million subscribers.[5] It became the fastest growing cable channel in the U.S. during the 1990s, eventually expanding its national reach to 75 million subscribers.[5]
Ownership of ABC, and in effect control of ESPN, was acquired first by Capital Cities Communications in 1985, and then by The Walt Disney Company in 1996. In 2012, ESPN generated more revenue for Disney than any of its other properties combined.[8]
On April 26, 2017, approximately 100 ESPN employees were notified that their positions with the sports network had been terminated, among them athletes-turned-analysts Trent Dilfer and Danny Kanell, and noted journalists like NFL beat reporter Ed Werder and Major League Baseball expert Jayson Stark.[9] The layoffs came as ESPN continued to shed viewers, more than 10 million over a period of several years, while paying big money for the broadcast rights to such properties as the NFL, NBA and College Football Playoff.[10] Further cost-cutting measures taken include moving the studio operations of ESPNU to Bristol from Charlotte, North Carolina,[11] reducing its longtime MLB studio show Baseball Tonight to Sundays as a lead-in to the primetime game and adding the MLB Network-produced Intentional Talk to ESPN2's daily lineup.[12]
Programming[edit]
See also: List of programs broadcast by ESPN, List of ESPN sports properties, and List of television films produced for ESPN
Alongside its live sports broadcasts, ESPN also airs a variety of sports highlight, talk, and documentary-styled shows. These include:
Around the Horn – Competitive debating between four sports writers across the country
Baseball Tonight – A daily recap of the day's Major League Baseball stories and games that airs throughout the baseball season
College GameDay (basketball) – Weekly college basketball show airing from the Saturday Primetime game of the week site
College GameDay (football) – Weekly college football preview show airing from the site of a major college football game
E:60 – An investigative newsmagazine program focusing on American and international sports
First Take – Monday-Friday with Stephen A. Smith, Max Kellerman and Molly Qerim (moved from ESPN2 on January 3, 2017)
Mike and Mike in the Morning – A simulcast of the ESPN Radio morning show, focusing on current sports stories
Monday Night Countdown – Weekly recap show aired on Monday evenings during the NFL season, also serves as the pre-game show for Monday Night Football
Outside the Lines – Talk and debate show that examines critical sports issues on and off the field of play
Pardon the Interruption – Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon debate an array of sports topics
SportsCenter – The flagship program of ESPN, a daily sports news program delivering the latest sports news and highlights
SportsNation – Poll-driven show based on audience participation, including material generated or suggested by viewers
Sunday NFL Countdown – Weekly preview show that airs on Sunday mornings during the NFL season
Many of ESPN's documentary programs (such as 30 for 30 and Nine for IX) are produced by ESPN Films, a film division created in March 2008 as a restructuring of ESPN Original Entertainment, a programming division that was originally formed in 2001. 30 for 30 started airing in 2009 and continues airing to this day. Each episode is through the eyes of a well known filmmaker and has featured some of the biggest directors in Hollywood.[13] The 30 for 30 film O.J.: Made in America won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2017, the first such Oscar for ESPN.[14]
Since September 2006, ESPN has been integrated with the sports division of sister broadcast network ABC, with sports events televised on that network airing under the banner ESPN on ABC;[15][16] much of ABC's sports coverage since the rebranding has become increasingly limited to secondary coverage of sporting events whose broadcast rights are held by ESPN (such as NBA games, The Open Championship, and the X Games and its related qualifying events) as well as a limited array of event coverage not broadcast on ESPN (most notably, the NBA Finals).
Executives[edit]
John Skipper – President, ESPN, Inc.[17]
Sean Bratches – Executive Vice President, Sales and Marketing[18]
Christine Driessen – Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer[19]
Ed Durso – Executive Vice President, Administration[20]
Aaron LaBerge – Executive Vice President and Chief Technology Officer[21]
Norby Williamson – Executive Vice President, Programming[22]
Russell Wolff – Executive Vice President and Managing Director, ESPN International[23]
Related channels[edit]
ESPN2[edit]
Main article: ESPN2
ESPN2 launched on October 1, 1993, it carried a broad mix of event coverage from conventional sports (such as auto racing, college basketball and NHL hockey) to extreme sports (such as BMX, skateboarding and motocross).[24] The "ESPN BottomLine," a ticker displaying sports news and scores during all programming that is now used by all of ESPN's networks, originated on ESPN2 in 1995.[25] In the late 1990s, ESPN2 was gradually reformatted to serve as a secondary outlet for ESPN's mainstream sports programming.[26]
ESPN Classic[edit]
Main article: ESPN Classic
ESPN Classic is a digital cable and satellite television network that launched in 1995 as Classic Sports Network, founded by Brian Bedol and Steve Greenberg. ESPN Inc. purchased Classic Sports Network in 1997 for $175 million,[27] rebranding the channel to its current name the following year. The channel broadcasts notable archived sporting events (originally including events from past decades, but now focusing mainly on events from the 1990s and later), sports documentaries and sports-themed movies.
ESPNews[edit]
Main article: ESPNews
ESPNews is a digital cable and satellite television network that was launched on November 1, 1996, originally focusing solely on sports news, highlights and press conferences. Since August 2010, the network has gradually incorporated encores of ESPN's various sports debate and entertainment shows and video simulcasts of ESPN Radio shows, in addition to sports news programming (which since the 2013 cancellation of Highlight Express,[28] consists mainly of additional runs of SportsCenter); ESPNews also serves as an overflow feed due to programming conflicts caused by sporting events on the other ESPN networks.
ESPN+[edit]
Main article: ESPN+
ESPN+ is a digital cable and satellite television network that launched in 2002; this signal is seen in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and from November 21, 2013, also in Venezuela. ESPN+ signal displays events in these sports: Football, Tennis, Rugby, Cycling, Baseball, Horse Riding, Hockey and sports programs about: Football, Tennis, Rugby, Polo, Hockey, Motor, etc. It is divided into two signals: Atlantic and Pacific.
ESPN Deportes[edit]
Main article: ESPN Deportes
ESPN Deportes (Spanish pronunciation: [i.es.piˈen deˈportes], "ESPN Sports") is a digital cable and satellite television network that was originally launched in July 2001 to provide Spanish language simulcasts of certain Major League Baseball telecasts from ESPN. It became a 24-hour sports channel in January 2004.
ESPNU[edit]
Main article: ESPNU
ESPNU is a digital cable and satellite television network that launched on March 4, 2005, and focuses on college athletics including basketball, football, baseball college swimming, and hockey.
Longhorn Network[edit]
Main article: Longhorn Network
The Longhorn Network is a digital cable and satellite television network that was launched on August 26, 2011, focusing on events from the Texas Longhorns varsity sports teams of the University of Texas at Austin.[29] It features events from the 20 sports sanctioned by the Texas Longhorns athletics department, along with original programming (including historical, academic and cultural content).
SEC Network[edit]
Main article: SEC Network
SEC Network is a digital cable and satellite television network that launched on August 14, 2014, focusing on the coverage of sporting events sanctioned by the Southeastern Conference. Created as a result of a 20-year broadcast partnership between the two entities, the network is a joint venture between the conference and ESPN Inc. (which operates the network).[30][31]
Other services[edit]
ESPNHD
ESPN launched its high definition simulcast feed, originally branded as ESPNHD, on March 20, 2001. All studio shows based in Bristol and at L.A. Live, along with most live event telecasts on ESPN, are broadcast in high definition. ESPN is one of the few television networks with an all-digital infrastructure. Archived non-HD programming is presented in 4:3 standard definition with stylized pillarboxing. Pardon the Interruption and Around the Horn began airing in HD on September 27, 2010, with the relocation of the production of both shows into the facility housing the Washington, D.C. bureau for ABC News.[32]
ESPN, as with Disney/ABC's other broadcast and cable networks, transmits HD programming in the 720p resolution format; this is due to the fact that ABC executives had proposed a progressive scan signal that resolves fluid and high-speed motion in sports better, particularly during slow-motion replays.[33] The network's Digital Center itself natively holds 2160p UHD/4K operations and equipment.[34][35] In 2011, ESPNHD began to downplay its distinct promotional logo in preparation for the conversion of its standard definition feed from a 4:3 full-screen to a letterboxed format (via the application of the AFD #10 display flag), which occurred on June 1 of that year.
WatchESPN
WatchESPN is a website for desktop computers, as well as an application for smartphones and tablet computers that allows subscribers of participating cable and satellite providers to watch live streams of programming from ESPN and its sister networks (with the exception of ESPN Classic), including most sporting events, on computers, mobile devices, Apple TV, Roku and Xbox Live via their TV Everywhere login provided by their cable provider. The service originally launched on October 25, 2010 as ESPN Networks, a streaming service which provided a live stream of ESPN exclusive to Time Warner Cable subscribers.[36] ESPN3, an online streaming service providing live streams and replays of global sports events that launched in 2005 as a separate website,[37] was incorporated into the WatchESPN platform on August 31, 2011.[38]
ESPN Events
ESPN Regional Television (formerly branded as ESPN Plus) is the network's syndication arm, which produces collegiate sporting events for broadcast television stations throughout the United States (primarily those affiliated with networks such as The CW and MyNetworkTV or independent stations). ESPN Plus syndicates college football and basketball games from the American Athletic Conference, Big 12 Conference,[39] Mid-American Conference, Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference, Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference.
International channels[edit]
Main article: ESPN International
ESPN owns and operates regional channels in Australia, Brazil, and Latin America. In Canada, ESPN is a minority owner of The Sports Network (TSN) and the French-language Réseau des sports (RDS). ESPN also has a minority stake in J Sports in Japan. In the United Kingdom, BT Group operates the channel BT Sport ESPN.
In popular culture[edit]
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ESPN has been a part of popular culture since its inception. Many movies with a general sports theme will include ESPN announcers and programming into their storylines.
Many jokes have been made by comedians about fake obscure sports that are shown on ESPN. Dennis Miller mentioned watching "sumo rodeo," while George Carlin stated that ESPN showed "Australian dick wrestling." One of several Saturday Night Live sketches poking fun at the network features a fictional ESPN2 program called Scottish Soccer Hooligan Weekly, which includes a fake advertisement for "Senior Women's Beach Lacrosse." SNL also parodies ESPN Classic with fake archived obscure women's sports event telecasts from the 1980s (such as bowling, weightlifting and curling), with announcers who know nothing about the sport, and instead focus on the sponsors, which were always for feminine hygiene products. In the early years of ESPN, Late Night with David Letterman even featured a "Top Ten List" segment poking fun at some of the obscure sports seen on ESPN at the time. One of the more memorable sports on the list was "Amish Rake Fighting." A recurring skit on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon named Sports Freak-Out! is a parody of SportsCenter's overexcited anchors.
The 2004 comedy film DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story gently lampoons the channel's multiple outlets by referencing the fictional ESPN8, "The Ocho",[40] a reference to a nickname formerly used by ESPN2, "the Deuce". ESPNU was rebranded ESPN The Ocho on August 8, 2017, airing obscure competitions such as disc golf, kabaddi, arm wrestling and roller derby.[41]
Sports video games releases by Electronic Arts in the early 1990s featured a logo for a fictional sports network, EASN (Electronic Arts Sports Network); this was soon changed to EA Sports after ESPN requested that the company stop using the similar name. In 2005, both companies signed a 15-year partnership, where the ESPN brand and personalities are integrated into EA Sports video games.
An occasional joke used in comedic television and film involves people getting ESP (the common abbreviation for extrasensory perception, that was coincidentally the working abbreviation for the channel prior to its launch) confused with ESPN, often including someone saying a sentence along the lines of "I know these kinds of things, I've got ESPN." There are also at least 22 children that are named after the network.[42][43]
Criticism[edit]
Main article: Criticism of ESPN
ESPN has been criticized for focusing too much on men's college and professional sports, and very little on women's sports or extreme sports.[44] Other criticism has focused on ethnicity in ESPN's varying mediated forms, as well as carriage fees and issues regarding the exportation of ESPN content.[45] Some critics argue that ESPN's success is their ability to provide other enterprise and investigative sports news while competing with other hard sports-news-producing outlets such as Yahoo! Sports and Fox Sports.[citation needed] Some scholars have challenged ESPN's journalistic integrity calling for an expanded standard of professionalism to prevent biased coverage and conflicts of interest.[46]
See also[edit]
List of ESPN personalities
List of past ESPN personalities
ESPN 3D
Wieden+Kennedy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Geography lesson: Breaking down the bias in ESPN's coverage, ESPN.com, August 15, 2008.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (February 22, 2015). "List of how many homes each cable network is in as of February 2015". TV by the Numbers. Zap2it. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ ESPN Inc Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN". Amazon.com. Retrieved August 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hill (January 3, 1984). "ABC buys stake in ESPN". New York Times. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Wolverton, Brad; López-Rivera, Marisa; Killough, Ashley C. (September 4, 2009). "A Powerful League Piles Up Its Advantages". Chronicle of Higher Education. 56 (2): A1–A28. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Goodwin, Michael (October 28, 1987). "ESPN Ends season in middle of pack". New York Times. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ badenhausen, Kurt (November 9, 2012). "Why ESPN Is Worth $40 Billion As The World's Most Valuable Media Property". Forbes. Retrieved February 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Richard Deitsch (April 26, 2017). "ESPN layoffs: Firings list, details on state at network | SI.com". Sports Illustrated. Time Inc. Retrieved October 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Joe Drape and Brooks Barnes (April 26, 2017). "A Struggling ESPN Lays Off Many On-Air Personalities". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Katherine Peralta (April 26, 2017). "ESPN layoffs hit Charlotte offices". The Charlotte Observer. The McClatchy Company. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ian Casselberry (April 27, 2017). "ESPN cutting Baseball Tonight to Sundays only, partnering with MLB Network on Intentional Talk". Awful Announcing. Awful Announcing. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "30 for 30".
Jump up ^ "'O.J.: Made In America' wins best documentary feature Oscar". ESPN.
Jump up ^ Deitsch, Richard (August 10, 2006). "Worldwide leader expands". SI.com.
Jump up ^ "'ESPN on ABC' to debut during college football season". ESPN. Associated Press. August 10, 2006.
Jump up ^ James, Meg (November 23, 2011). "John Skipper is promoted to ESPN president". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 24, 2012. Retrieved January 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ "SEAN R. H. BRATCHES Executive Vice President, Sales and Marketing". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "CHRISTINE F. DRIESSEN Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "EDWIN M. DURSO Executive Vice President, Administration". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Aaron LaBerge - ESPN MediaZone". ESPN. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "NORBY WILLIAMSON Executive Vice President, Studio and Remote Production". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "RUSSELL WOLFF Executive Vice President and Managing Director, ESPN International". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Whether you get it or not, ESPN2 has no tie to the tried and true". Baltimore Sun. October 1, 1993. Retrieved September 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hiestand, Michael (March 7, 2008). "Dedicated staff keeps close watch on ESPN's Bottom Line". USA Today. Retrieved March 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ "The Last Days Of ESPN2". February 1, 2012. Deadspin. Retrieved September 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Whitford, David (May 25, 2010). "The king of the sports deal". Fortune. Archived from the original on May 22, 2010. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ "ESPN Cancels "Highlight Express" And "Unite," While Schwab, Hoenig Among Layoffs". Street & Smith's Sports Business Daily. June 13, 2013. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "ESPN and University of Texas unveil 'Longhorn Network' name and logo". TexasSports.com. April 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "SEC And ESPN Announce New TV Network". SEC. February 5, 2013. Retrieved September 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ "SEC Releases 2014 Conference Football Schedule". SEC. August 21, 2013. Retrieved September 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ ESPN Yakkers Go HD Next Week Archived September 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. TVPredictions.com September 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The HD Experience" (PDF). ESPN. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 9, 2008. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Butts, Tom (28 May 2014). "ESPN Opens New Digital Center". TV Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
Jump up ^ McCracken, Harry (13 June 2016). "The Technology Behind ESPN'S Digital Transformation". Fast Company. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Amy (October 22, 2010). "Time Warner Cable Customers Can Now Watch ESPN and ESPN3.com On Their Computer". ESPN Inc. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Daniel (January 22, 2014). "ESPN's secret web weapon: ESPN3". Fortune. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Nagle, Dave (January 6, 2012). "ESPN, Inc.: 2011 in Review". ESPN Inc. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Men抯 Basketball Television FAQ". Big12Sports.com.
Jump up ^ "Movie Preview: Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story". Entertainment Weekly. April 21, 2004. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ Life imitates art: ESPN 8 'The Ocho' debuts August 8 - Rob Williams, Daily Hive, 4 August 2017
Jump up ^ "Texas toddler at least third named ESPN". ESPN. June 16, 2006.
Jump up ^ Hiestand, Michael (February 7, 2006). "Lampley nearing most-called Olympics". USA Today. Retrieved June 9, 2008. ESPN says it's heard of at least 22 babies named ESPN
Jump up ^ Lavelle, Katherine L. "Chapter 10 The ESPN Effect Representation of Women in 30 for 30 Films". The ESPN effect : exploring the worldwide leader in sports. McGuire, John, 1961-, Armfield, Greg G.,, Earnheardt, Adam C., 1970-. New York. ISBN 9781433126000. OCLC 917889678.
Jump up ^ Earnheardt, Adam C. (July 17, 2015). "Chapter 20 Afterword: Challenging the Worldwide Leader in Sports". In McGuire, John; Armfield, Greg; Earnheardt, Adam C. The ESPN Effect: Exploring the Worldwide Leader in Sports. Peter Lang. pp. 265–270. ISBN 978-1433126000.
Jump up ^ Oates, T. P.; Pauly, J. (2007). "Sports journalism as moral and ethical discourse". Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 22: 332–347. doi:10.1080/08900520701583628.
Bibliography[edit]
McGuire, John; Armfield, Greg G.; Earnheardt, Adam C., eds. (2015). The ESPN Effect: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1433126000.
Miller, James Andrew; Shales, Tom (2011). Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-04300-7.
Vogan, Travis (2015). ESPN: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03976-8.
External links[edit]
Official website
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text:
Streptococcus pyogenes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Streptococcus pyogenes
S. pyogenes bacteria at 900x magnification
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Eubacteria
Phylum: Firmicutes
Class: Bacilli
Order: Lactobacillales
Family: Streptococcaceae
Genus: Streptococcus
Species: S. pyogenes
Binomial name
Streptococcus pyogenes
Rosenbach 1884
Streptococcus pyogenes is a species of Gram-positive bacteria. These bacteria are aerotolerant and an extracellular bacterium, made up of non-motile and non-sporing cocci. As expected with a streptococci, it is clinically important in human illness. It is an infrequent, but usually pathogenic, part of the skin microbiota. It is the predominant species harboring the Lancefield group A antigen, and is often called group A streptococcus (GAS). However, both Streptococcus dysgalactiae and the Streptococcus anginosus group can possess group A antigen. Group A streptococci when grown on blood agar typically produces small zones of beta-hemolysis, a complete destruction of red blood cells. (A zone size of 2–3 mm is typical.) It is thus also called group A (beta-hemolytic) streptococcus (GABHS), and can make colonies greater than 5 mm in size.[1]
Like other cocci, streptococci are round bacteria. The name is derived from Greek words meaning chain(Strepto) of berries (coccus) and pus(pyo)-forming(genes), because streptococcal cells tend to link in chains of round cells (see image) and a number of infections caused by the bacterium, produce pus. Streptococci can be catalase positive or negative.[2] S. pyogenes can be cultured on blood agar plates. Under ideal conditions, it has an incubation period of 1 to 3 days.[3]
An estimated 700 million GAS infections occur worldwide each year. While the overall mortality rate for these infections is 0.1%, over 650,000 of the cases are severe and invasive, and have a mortality rate of 25%.[4] Early recognition and treatment are critical; diagnostic failure can result in sepsis and death.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Epidemiology
2 Bacteriology
2.1 Serotyping
2.2 Virulence factors
2.3 Lysogeny
2.4 Genome
3 Disease
4 Applications
4.1 Bionanotechnology
4.2 Genome editing
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Epidemiology[edit]
The S. pyogenes typically colonises the throat, genital mucosa, rectum, and skin. 1% to 5% of healthy individuals have throat, vaginal, or rectal carriage. While in healthy children, such carriage rate varies from 2% to 17%. There are four methods for the transmission of this bacteria: inhalation of respiratory droplets, skin contact, contact with objects, surface, or dust that is contaminated with bacteria, or less commonly transmission through food. Such bacteria can cause a variety of diseases such as streptococcal pharyngitis, rheumatic fever, rheumatic heart disease, and scarlet fever. Although pharyngitis is mostly bacterial in origin, about 15 to 30% of all pharyngitis cases in children are streptococcal; meanwhile, 5 to 20% of pharyngitis in adults are streptococcal. The number of pharyngitis cases is higher in children when compared to adults due to exposures in schools, nurseries, and lower host immunity. Such cases Streptococcal pharyngitis occurs more frequently from December to April (later winter to early spring) in seasonal countries, possibly due to changing climate, behavioural changes or predisposing viral infection. Disease cases are the lowest during autumn.[7]
MT1 (metabolic type 1) clone is frequently associated with invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections among developed countries. The incidence and mortality of S. pyognes was high during the pre-penicillin era, but started to fall prior to penicillin widespread availability. Therefore, environmental factors do play a role in the S. pyogenes infection. Incidence of S. pyogenes is 2 to 4 per 100,000 population in developed countries and 12 to 83 per 100,000 population in developing countries. S. pyogenes infection is more frequently found in men than women, with highest rates in elderly, followed by infants. In people with risk factors such as heart disease, diabetes, malignancy, blunt trauma, surgical incision, viral respiratory infection, and influenza, S. pyogenes infection happens in 17 to 25% of all cases. It usually happens within one week of the diagnosis of influenza infection. In 14 to 16% of childhoodS. pyogenes infections there is a prior chickenpox infection. Such S. pyogenes infection in children usually manifests as severe soft tissue infection with onset 4 to 12 days from the chickenpox diagnosis. There is also 40 to 60 times increase in risk of S. pyogenes infection within the first two weeks of chickenpox infection in children. However, 20 to 30% of S. pyogenes infection does occur in adults with no identifiable risk factors. The incidence is higher in children (50 to 80% of S. pyogenes infection) with no known risk factors. The rates of scarlet fever in UK was usually 4 in 100,000 population, however, in 2014, the rates had risen to 49 per 100,000 population. Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) usually occurs at 2 to 3 weeks after the throat infection, which is more common among the impoverished people in developing countries. From 1967 to 1996, the global mean incidence of rheumatic fever and RHD was 19 per 100,000 with the highest incidence at 51 per 100,000.[7]
Maternal S. pyogenes infection usually happens in the late pregnancy at more than 30 weeks of gestation to 4 weeks post pregnancy, which accounts for 2 to 4% of all the S. pyogenes infections. This represents 20 to 100 times increase in risk for S. pyogenes infections. Clinical manifestations are: pneumonia, septic arthritis, necrotizing fasciitis, and genital tract sepsis. According to a study done by Queen Charlotte’s hospital in London during the 1930s, vagina was not the common source of such infection. On the contrary, maternal throat and the close contacts were the more common sites for maternal S. pyogenes infection.[7]
Bacteriology[edit]
Serotyping[edit]
In 1928, Rebecca Lancefield published a method for serotyping S. pyogenes based on its cell-wall polysaccharide,[8] a virulence factor displayed on its surface.[9] Later, in 1946, Lancefield described the serologic classification of S. pyogenes isolates based on their surface T-antigen.[10] Four of the 20 T-antigens have been revealed to be pili, which are used by bacteria to attach to host cells.[11] As of 2016, a total of 120 M proteins are identified. These M proteins are encoded by 234 types emm gene with greater than 1,200 alleles.[7]
Virulence factors[edit]
S. pyogenes has several virulence factors that enable it to attach to host tissues, evade the immune response, and spread by penetrating host tissue layers.[12] A carbohydrate-based bacterial capsule composed of hyaluronic acid surrounds the bacterium, protecting it from phagocytosis by neutrophils.[2] In addition, the capsule and several factors embedded in the cell wall, including M protein, lipoteichoic acid, and protein F (SfbI) facilitate attachment to various host cells.[13] M protein also inhibits opsonization by the alternative complement pathway by binding to host complement regulators. The M protein found on some serotypes is also able to prevent opsonization by binding to fibrinogen.[2] However, the M protein is also the weakest point in this pathogen's defense, as antibodies produced by the immune system against M protein target the bacteria for engulfment by phagocytes. M proteins are unique to each strain, and identification can be used clinically to confirm the strain causing an infection.[14]
Lysogeny[edit]
All strains of S. pyogenes are polylysogenized, in that they carry one or more bacteriophage on their genomes.[15] Some of the phages may be defective, but in some cases active phage may compensate for defects in others.[16] In general, the genome of S. pyogenes strains isolated during disease are >90% identical, they differ by the phage they carry.[17]
Name
Description
Streptolysin O An exotoxin, one of the bases of the organism's beta-hemolytic property, streptolysin O causes an immune response and detection of antibodies to it; antistreptolysin O (ASO) can be clinically used to confirm a recent infection.
Streptolysin S A cardiotoxic exotoxin, another beta-hemolytic component, not immunogenic and O2 stable: A potent cell poison affecting many types of cell including neutrophils, platelets, and subcellular organelles.
Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA) Superantigens secreted by many strains of S. pyogenes: This pyrogenic exotoxin is responsible for the rash of scarlet fever and many of the symptoms of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, also known as toxic shock like syndrome(TSLS).
Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin C (SpeC)
Streptokinase Enzymatically activates plasminogen, a proteolytic enzyme, into plasmin, which in turn digests fibrin and other proteins
Hyaluronidase Hyaluronidase is widely assumed to facilitate the spread of the bacteria through tissues by breaking down hyaluronic acid, an important component of connective tissue. However, very few isolates of S. pyogenes are capable of secreting active hyaluronidase due to mutations in the gene that encode the enzyme. Moreover, the few isolates capable of secreting hyaluronidase do not appear to need it to spread through tissues or to cause skin lesions.[18] Thus, the true role of hyaluronidase in pathogenesis, if any, remains unknown.
Streptodornase Most strains of S. pyogenes secrete up to four different DNases, which are sometimes called streptodornase. The DNases protect the bacteria from being trapped in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) by digesting the NETs' web of DNA, to which are bound neutrophil serine proteases that can kill the bacteria.[19]
C5a peptidase C5a peptidase cleaves a potent neutrophil chemotaxin called C5a, which is produced by the complement system.[20] C5a peptidase is necessary to minimize the influx of neutrophils early in infection as the bacteria are attempting to colonize the host's tissue.[21] C5a peptidase, although required to degrade the neutrophil chemotaxin C5a in the early stages of infection, is not required for S. pyogenes to prevent the influx of neutrophils as the bacteria spread through the fascia.[22]
Streptococcal chemokine protease The affected tissue of patients with severe cases of necrotizing fasciitis are devoid of neutrophils.[23] The serine protease ScpC, which is released by S. pyogenes, is responsible for preventing the migration of neutrophils to the spreading infection. ScpC degrades the chemokine IL-8, which would otherwise attract neutrophils to the site of infection.[21][22]
Genome[edit]
The genome of different strains were sequenced (genome size is 1.8–1.9 Mbp)[24] encoding about 1700-1900 proteins (1700 in strain NZ131,[25][26] 1865 in strain MGAS5005[27][28]).
Disease[edit]
See also: Group A streptococcal infection
S. pyogenes is the cause of many important human diseases, ranging from mild superficial skin infections to life-threatening systemic diseases.[2] Infections typically begin in the throat or skin. The most striking sign is a strawberry-like rash. Examples of mild S. pyogenes infections include pharyngitis (strep throat) and localized skin infection (impetigo). Erysipelas and cellulitis are characterized by multiplication and lateral spread of S. pyogenes in deep layers of the skin. S. pyogenes invasion and multiplication in the fascia can lead to necrotizing fasciitis, a life-threatening condition requiring surgery.[citation needed] [29] The bacterium is found in neonatal infections.[30]
Infections due to certain strains of S. pyogenes can be associated with the release of bacterial toxins. Throat infections associated with release of certain toxins lead to scarlet fever. Other toxigenic S. pyogenes infections may lead to streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, which can be life-threatening.[2]
S. pyogenes can also cause disease in the form of post-infectious "non-pyogenic" (not associated with local bacterial multiplication and pus formation) syndromes. These autoimmune-mediated complications follow a small percentage of infections and include rheumatic fever and acute post-infectious glomerulonephritis. Both conditions appear several weeks following the initial streptococcal infection. Rheumatic fever is characterized by inflammation of the joints and/or heart following an episode of streptococcal pharyngitis. Acute glomerulonephritis, inflammation of the renal glomerulus, can follow streptococcal pharyngitis or skin infection.
This bacterium remains acutely sensitive to penicillin. Failure of treatment with penicillin is generally attributed to other local commensal organisms producing β-lactamase, or failure to achieve adequate tissue levels in the pharynx. Certain strains have developed resistance to macrolides, tetracyclines, and clindamycin.
Applications[edit]
Bionanotechnology[edit]
Many S. pyogenes proteins have unique properties, which have been harnessed in recent years to produce a highly specific "superglue"[31][32] and a route to enhance the effectiveness of antibody therapy.[33]
Genome editing[edit]
The CRISPR system from this organism that is used to recognize and destroy DNA from invading viruses, stopping the infection, was appropriated in 2012 for use as a genome-editing tool that could potentially alter any piece of DNA and later RNA.[34]
See also[edit]
Friedrich Fehleisen
Friedrich Julius Rosenbach
Friedrich Loeffler
Frederick Twort
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Streptococcus pyogenes - Pathogen Safety Data Sheets". Government of Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
Jump up ^ Streptococcal Pharyngitis, archived from the original on May 13, 2012
Jump up ^ Aziz RK, Kansal R, Aronow BJ, Taylor WL, Rowe SL, Kubal M, Chhatwal GS, Walker MJ, Kotb M (2010). Ahmed N, ed. "Microevolution of Group A Streptococci In Vivo: Capturing Regulatory Networks Engaged in Sociomicrobiology, Niche Adaptation, and Hypervirulence". PLoS ONE. 5 (4): e9798. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009798. PMC 2854683  . PMID 20418946. Retrieved 2011-08-12.
Jump up ^ Jim Dwyer (July 11, 2012). "An Infection, Unnoticed, Turns Unstoppable". The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ Jim Dwyer (July 18, 2012). "After Boy's Death, Hospital Alters Discharging Procedures". The New York Times. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Androulla, Efstratiou; Theresa, Lamagni (10 February 2016). "Epidemiology of Streptococcus pyogenes". Streptococcus pyogenes : Basic Biology to Clinical Manifestations. Oklahoma City, United States: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Pignanelli S, Brusa S, Pulcrano G, Catania MR, Cocchi E, Lanari M (2015). "A rare case of infant sepsis due to the emm-89 genotype of Group A Streptococcus within a community-acquired cluster". New Microbiol. 38 (4): 589–92. PMID 26485019.
Jump up ^ Lancefield RC (1928). "The antigenic complex of Streptococcus hemolyticus". J Exp Med. 47 (1): 9–10. doi:10.1084/jem.47.1.91. PMC 2131344  .
Jump up ^ Lancefield RC, Dole VP (1946). "The properties of T antigen extracted from group A hemolytic streptococci". J Exp Med. 84 (5): 449–71. doi:10.1084/jem.84.5.449. PMC 2135665  . PMID 19871581.
Jump up ^ Mora M, Bensi G, Capo S, Falugi F, Zingaretti C, Manetti AG, Maggi T, Taddei AR, Grandi G, Telford JL (2005). "Group A Streptococcus produce pilus-like structures containing protective antigens and Lancefield T antigens". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 102 (43): 15641–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507808102. PMC 1253647  . PMID 16223875.
Jump up ^ Patterson MJ (1996). Baron S; et al., eds. Streptococcus. In: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
Jump up ^ Bisno AL, Brito MO, Collins CM (2003). "Molecular basis of group A streptococcal virulence". Lancet Infect Dis. 3 (4): 191–200. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00576-0. PMID 12679262.
Jump up ^ Engel ME, Muhamed B, Whitelaw AC, Musvosvi M, Mayosi BM, Dale JB. Group A streptococcal emm type prevalence among symptomatic children in Cape Town and potential vaccine coverage. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014 Feb;33(2):208-10. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3182a5c32a.PMID 23934204
Jump up ^ Ferretti JJ; McShan WM; Ajdic D; Savic DJ; Savic G; Lyon K; et al. (2001). "Complete Genome Sequence of an M1 Strain of Streptococcus pyogenes". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 98: 4658–63. doi:10.1073/pnas.071559398. PMC 31890  . PMID 11296296.
Jump up ^ Canchaya C, Desiere F, McShan WM, Ferretti JJ, Parkhill J, Brussow H (2002). "Genome analysis of an inducible prophage and prophage remnants integrated in the Streptococcus pyogenes strain SF370". Virology. 302: 245–58. doi:10.1006/viro.2002.1570. PMID 12441069.
Jump up ^ Banks DJ, Porcella SF, Barbian KD, Martin JM, Musser JM (2003). "Structure and distribution of an unusual chimeric genetic element encoding macrolide resistance in phylogenetically diverse clones of group A Streptococcus". J Infect Dis. 188: 1898–908. doi:10.1086/379897. PMID 14673771.
Jump up ^ Starr CR, Engleberg NC (2006). "Role of Hyaluronidase in Subcutaneous Spread and Growth of Group A Streptococcus". Infect Immun. 74 (1): 40–8. doi:10.1128/IAI.74.1.40-48.2006. PMC 1346594  . PMID 16368955.
Jump up ^ Buchanan JT, Simpson AJ, Aziz RK, Liu GY, Kristian SA, Kotb M, Feramisco J, Nizet V (2006). "DNase expression allows the pathogen group A Streptococcus to escape killing in neutrophil extracellular traps". Curr Biol. 16 (4): 396–400. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.12.039. PMID 16488874.
Jump up ^ Wexler DE, Chenoweth DE, Cleary PP (1985). "Mechanism of action of the group A streptococcal C5a inactivator". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 82 (23): 8144–8. doi:10.1073/pnas.82.23.8144. PMC 391459  . PMID 3906656.
^ Jump up to: a b Ji Y, McLandsborough L, Kondagunta A, Cleary PP (1996). "C5a peptidase alters clearance and trafficking of group A streptococci by infected mice". Infect Immun. 64 (2): 503–10. PMC 173793  . PMID 8550199.
^ Jump up to: a b Hidalgo-Grass C, Mishalian I, Dan-Goor M, Belotserkovsky I, Eran Y, Nizet V, Peled A, Hanski E (2006). "A streptococcal protease that degrades CXC chemokines and impairs bacterial clearance from infected tissues". EMBO J. 25 (19): 4628–37. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7601327. PMC 1589981  . PMID 16977314.
Jump up ^ Hidalgo-Grass C, Dan-Goor M, Maly A, Eran Y, Kwinn LA, Nizet V, Ravins M, Jaffe J, Peyser A, Moses AE, Hanski E (2004). "Effect of a bacterial pheromone peptide on host chemokine degradation in group A streptococcal necrotising soft-tissue infections". Lancet. 363 (9410): 696–703. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15643-2. PMID 15001327.
Jump up ^ Beres SB, Richter EW, Nagiec MJ, Sumby P, Porcella SF, DeLeo FR, Musser JM (2006). "Molecular genetic anatomy of inter- and intraserotype variation in the human bacterial pathogen group a Streptococcus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (18): 7059–64. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510279103. PMC 1459018  . PMID 16636287.
Jump up ^ "Streptococcus pyogenes NZ131".
Jump up ^ McShan, W. M.; Ferretti, J. J.; Karasawa, T; Suvorov, A. N.; Lin, S; Qin, B; Jia, H; Kenton, S; Najar, F; Wu, H; Scott, J; Roe, B. A.; Savic, D. J. (2008). "Genome sequence of a nephritogenic and highly transformable M49 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes". Journal of Bacteriology. 190 (23): 7773–85. doi:10.1128/JB.00672-08. PMC 2583620  . PMID 18820018.
Jump up ^ Sumby, P; Porcella, S. F.; Madrigal, A. G.; Barbian, K. D.; Virtaneva, K; Ricklefs, S. M.; Sturdevant, D. E.; Graham, M. R.; Vuopio-Varkila, J; Hoe, N. P.; Musser, J. M. (2005). "Evolutionary origin and emergence of a highly successful clone of serotype M1 group a Streptococcus involved multiple horizontal gene transfer events". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 192 (5): 771–82. doi:10.1086/432514. PMID 16088826.
Jump up ^ "Streptococcus pyogenes MGAS5005".
Jump up ^ "Necrotizing Fasciitis". CDC. Content source: National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Division of Bacterial Diseases. Page maintained by: Office of the Associate Director for Communication, Digital Media Branch, Division of Public Affairs. October 26, 2017. Retrieved 2018-01-06.
Jump up ^ Baucells, B.J.; Mercadal Hally, M.; Álvarez Sánchez, A.T.; Figueras Aloy, J. (2015). "Asociaciones de probióticos para la prevención de la enterocolitis necrosante y la reducción de la sepsis tardía y la mortalidad neonatal en recién nacidos pretérmino de menos de 1.500g: una revisión sistemática". Anales de Pediatría. doi:10.1016/j.anpedi.2015.07.038. ISSN 1695-4033.
Jump up ^ "Flesh-eating bacteria inspire superglue - University of Oxford".
Jump up ^ Zakeri B, Fierer JO, Celik E, Chittock EC, Schwarz-Linek U, Moy VT, Howarth M (2012). "Peptide tag forming a rapid covalent bond to a protein, through engineering a bacterial adhesin". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (12): E690–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.1115485109. PMC 3311370  . PMID 22366317.
Jump up ^ Baruah K, Bowden TA, Krishna BA, Dwek RA, Crispin M, Scanlan CN (2012). "Selective Deactivation of Serum IgG: A General Strategy for the Enhancement of Monoclonal Antibody Receptor Interactions". Journal of Molecular Biology. 420 (1–2): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2012.04.002. PMC 3437440  . PMID 22484364.
Jump up ^ Zimmer, Carl (2016-06-03). "Scientists Find Form of Crispr Gene Editing With New Capabilities". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
Further reading[edit]
Freiberg JA, McIver KS, Shirtliff ME (2014). "In vivo expression of Streptococcus pyogenes immunogenic proteins during tibial foreign body infection". Infect. Immun. 82 (9): 3891–9. doi:10.1128/IAI.01831-14. PMC 4187806  . PMID 25001603.
Rosenbach FJ (1884). Mikro-Organismen bei den Wund-Infections-Krankheiten des Menschen (in German). J.F. Bergmann. OL 22886502M.
Wilson LG (October 1987). "The early recognition of streptococci as causes of disease". Med Hist. 31 (4): 403–14. doi:10.1017/s0025727300047268. PMC 1139783  . PMID 3316876.
Rolleston JD (November 1928). "The history of scarlet fever". British Medical Journal. 2 (3542): 926–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.3542.926. PMC 2456687  . PMID 20774279.
World Health Organization (2005). "The current evidence for the burden of group A streptococcal diseases" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-08-22.
Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M (November 2005). "The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 685–94. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70267-X. PMID 16253886. (corresponding summary article)
Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, eds. (2016). Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic Biology to Clinical Manifestations [Internet]. Oklahoma City, OK: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center.
External links[edit]
Type strain of Streptococcus pyogenes at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
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Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q131271
BacDive: 14758
EoL: 975366
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values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
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p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: عقدية مقيحة – Arabic

values:
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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
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values: استرپتوکوک پیوژنز – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: 化膿レンサ球菌 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Streptococcus pyogenes – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Пиогени стрептокок – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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values:
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display: none; font-size: 13px;

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