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Biome
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One way of mapping terrestrial biomes around the world
A biome /ˈbaɪoʊm/ is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate.[1][2] "Biome" is a broader term than "habitat"; any biome can comprise a variety of habitats.
While a biome can cover large areas, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale. For example, the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that are present on a human body.[3]
A 'biota' is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period, from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-timescale spatiotemporal scales. The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the concept
2 Classifications
2.1 Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
2.2 Allee (1949) biome-types
2.3 Kendeigh (1961) biomes
2.4 Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
2.4.1 Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
2.4.2 Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types
2.4.3 Biome-types
2.5 Goodall (1974-) ecosystem types
2.6 Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
2.7 Schultz (1988) ecozones
2.8 Bailey (1989) ecoregions
2.9 Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200
2.9.1 Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)
2.9.2 Biogeographic realms (marine)
2.9.3 Biomes (terrestrial)
2.9.4 Biomes (freshwater)
2.9.5 Biomes (marine)
2.9.6 Summary of the scheme
3 Other biomes
3.1 Marine biomes
3.2 Anthropogenic biomes
3.3 Microbial biomes
3.3.1 Endolithic biomes
3.3.2 Dermal biome
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History of the concept
The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius (1877).[4] Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition.[5][6] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[7][8] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[9]
However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology - irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name - and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determinated by climate zone, altitude or soil).[10]
In Brazilian literature, the term "biome" is sometimes used as synonym of "biogeographic province", an area based on species composition (the term "floristic province" being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both includes many biomes in fact.[5][11][12]
Classifications
To divide the world in a few ecological zones is a difficult attempt, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.[13]
A 1978 study on North American grasslands[14] found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.[15] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge’s bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
Main article: Holdridge life zones
Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.
Allee (1949) biome-types
The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[16]
Tundra
Taiga
Deciduous forest
Grasslands
Desert
High plateaus
Tropical forest
Minor terrestrial biomes
Kendeigh (1961) biomes
The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[17]
Terrestrial
Temperate deciduous forest
Coniferous forest
Woodland
Chaparral
Tundra
Grassland
Desert
Tropical savanna
Tropical forest
Marine
Oceanic plankton and nekton
Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
Pelecypod-annelid
Coral reef
Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation.
Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.
Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He was in a unique position to make such a holistic assertion because he had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.[18]
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
Physiognomy: the apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species.
Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that are similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
Formation-type:a grouping of convergent formations.
Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is simply a broader method to categorize similar communities.[19]
Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types
Whittaker, seeing the need for a simpler way to express the relationship of community structure to the environment, used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[19]
Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
Climatic moisture gradient
Temperature gradient by altitude
Temperature gradient by latitude
Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:
The gradient runs from favorable to extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).
Trends in diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.
Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient, and combined this with gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.
Biome-types
Tropical rainforest
Tropical seasonal rainforest
deciduous
semideciduous
Temperate giant rainforest
Montane rainforest
Temperate deciduous forest
Temperate evergreen forest
needleleaf
sclerophyll
Subarctic-subalpin needle-leaved forests (taiga)
Elfin woodland
Thorn forests and woodlands
Thorn scrub
Temperate woodland
Temperate shrublands
deciduous
heath
sclerophyll
subalpine-needleleaf
subalpine-broadleaf
Savanna
Temperate grassland
Alpine grasslands
Tundra
Tropical desert
Warm-temperate desert
Cool temperate desert scrub
Arctic-alpine desert
Bog
Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
Mangrove swamp
Salt marsh
Wetland[20]
Goodall (1974-) ecosystem types
... The multiauthored series Ecosystems of the world, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on earth:[21]
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems
Wet Coastal Ecosystems
Dry Coastal Ecosystems
Polar and Alpine Tundra
Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moor
Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts
Coniferous Forests
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Natural Grasslands
Heathlands and Related Shrublands
Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests
Mediterranean-Type Shrublands
Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands
Tropical Savannas
Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems
Wetland Forests
Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground
Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems
Managed Grasslands
Field Crop Ecosystems
Tree Crop Ecosystems
Greenhouse Ecosystems
Bioindustrial Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems
Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
River and Stream Ecosystems
Lakes and Reservoirs
Marine Ecosystems
Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems
Coral Reefs
Estuaries and Enclosed Seas
Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean
Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
Underground Ecosystems
Cave Ecosystems
Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
The eponymously-named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[10][22][23]
Zonobiome
Zonal soil type
Zonal vegetation type
ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforest
ZB II. Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler “winter” dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna
ZB III. Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate Serosemes, sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
ZB IV. Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands
ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive
ZB VI. Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
ZB VII. Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts
ZB VIII. Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)
ZB IX. Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils) Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils
Schultz (1988) ecozones
Schultz (1988) defined nine ecozones (note that his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome used in this article than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[24]
polar/subpolar zone
boreal zone
humid mid-latitudes
arid mid-latitudes
tropical/subtropical arid lands
Mediterranean-type subtropics
seasonal tropics
humid subtropics
humid tropics
Bailey (1989) ecoregions
Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into seven domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, humid, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[25][26]
100 Polar Domain
120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)
M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
200 Humid Temperate Domain
210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)
M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)
M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
300 Dry Domain
310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
330 Temperate Steppe Division
340 Temperate Desert Division
400 Humid Tropical Domain
410 Savanna Division
420 Rainforest Division
Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200
Main article: Global 200
A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).[27][28]
This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.[27]
For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)
NA: Nearctic
PA: Palearctic
AT: Afrotropic
IM: Indomalaya
AA: Australasia
NT: Neotropic
OC: Oceania
AN: Antarctic[28]
It should be noted, however, that the applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975) - to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.[29]
Biogeographic realms (marine)
Arctic
Temperate Northern Atlantic
Temperate Northern Pacific
Tropical Atlantic
Western Indo-Pacific
Central Indo-Pacific
Eastern Indo-Pacific
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Temperate South America
Temperate Southern Africa
Temperate Australasia
Southern Ocean[30]
Biomes (terrestrial)
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
Tundra (Arctic)
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[28]
Biomes (freshwater)
According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[31]
Large lakes
Large river deltas
Polar freshwaters
Montane freshwaters
Temperate coastal rivers
Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
Temperate upland rivers
Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
Oceanic islands
Biomes (marine)
Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):
Polar
Temperate shelves and sea
Temperate upwelling
Tropical upwelling
Tropical coral[32]
Summary of the scheme
Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)
Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a main biome type (14)
Ecosystems (biotopes)
Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)
Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a main biome type (12)
Ecosystems (biotopes)
Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
(Marine provinces) (62)
Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a main biome type (5)
Ecosystems (biotopes)
Example:
Biosphere
Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100–1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)
Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list)
Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)
Other biomes
Marine biomes
Further information: Marine habitats
Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[33]
Litoral zone
Pelagic zone
Abyssal zone
Longhurst (1998) biomes:[34]
Coastal
Polar
Trade wind
Westerly
Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):[citation needed]
Open sea
Deep sea
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Benthic zone
Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
Abyssal
Hadal (ocean trench)
Littoral/Intertidal zone
Kelp forest
Pack ice
Anthropogenic biomes
Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a new way forward in ecology and conservation by recognizing the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and moving us toward an understanding of how best to live in and manage our biosphere and the anthropogenic biomes we live in.
Major anthropogenic biomes:
Dense settlements
Croplands
Rangelands
Forested
Indoor[35]
Microbial biomes
Further information: Habitat § Microhabitats
Endolithic biomes
The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.[36]
Dermal biome
The dermal biome is the living ecosystem that animals (including humans) have evolved, that permits them to live symbiotically and in balance with the microbes on and in them (the microbiome). This ecosystem consists of skin, follicles, hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, peptides, proteins, lipids and its associated microbiota. A healthy dermal biome has several functions: it resists infection of pathogens, protects against moisture loss and water damage, dynamically regulates body temperature and supports the healthy renewal of skin through the epidermal cell life cycle.[37]
Infection Resistance: Commensal microbiota assist the dermal biome resist infection for pathogenic bacteria by i] out-competing pathogens for resources, ii] training or stimulating the host’s immune system to defeat the pathogen, or iii] expressing substances that are directly hostile to the pathogen.
Water-barrier regulation: The dermal biome regulates the water barrier – preventing moisture from escaping (except when expressed as sweat) and preventing environmental water from permeating the skin. Because environmental water can have a chilling effect to mammals and warm-blooded animals when kept in close proximity to the epidermis, the dermal biome also produces hydrophobic lipids that repel water.
Temperature regulation: The dermal biome is responsible for thermoregulation. To regulate excess heat, the dermal biome activates the sweat glands, allowing for evaporative cooling as sweat evaporates. To regulate cooler temperatures, the arrector pili muscles contract, causing hairs to “stand up” (goosebumps), and thereby trap an insulating blanket of air close to the skin.
Skin renewal: a healthy biome supports the replacement of skin through the life cycle of epidermal cells as they proliferate in the basal layers of the epidermis until they die and are shed (desquamation).
See also
Environment portal
Ecology portal
Earth sciences portal
Biology portal
Sustainable development portal
Biomics
Ecosystem
Ecotope
Climate classification
Life zones
Natural environment
References
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External links
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Look up Biome in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Biomes". Encyclopedia of Earth.
Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden)
Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map
WorldBiomes.com is a site covering the 5 principal world biome types: aquatic, desert, forest, grasslands, and tundra.
UWSP's online textbook The Physical Environment: – Earth Biomes
Panda.org's Habitats – describes the 14 major terrestrial habitats, 7 major freshwater habitats, and 5 major marine habitats.
Panda.org's Habitats Simplified – provides simplified explanations for 10 major terrestrial and aquatic habitat types.
UCMP Berkeley's The World's Biomes – provides lists of characteristics for some biomes and measurements of climate statistics.
Gale/Cengage has an excellent Biome Overview of terrestrial, aquatic, and man-made biomes with a particular focus on trees native to each, and has detailed descriptions of desert, rain forest, and wetland biomes.
Islands Of Wildness, The Natural Lands Of North America by Jim Bones, a video about continental biomes and climate change.
Dreams Of The Earth, Love Songs For A Troubled Planet by Jim Bones, a poetic video about the North American Biomes and climate change.
NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes gives an exemplar of each biome that is described in detail and provides scientific measurements of the climate statistics that define each biome.
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Biogeographic regionalisations
Biomes
Terrestrial
biomes
Polar/montane
Tundra
Taiga
Montane grasslands and shrublands
Temperate
Coniferous forests
Broadleaf and mixed forests
Deciduous forests
Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Tropical and
subtropical
Coniferous forests
Moist broadleaf forests
Dry broadleaf forests
Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Dry
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Wet
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Riparian
Wetland
Aquatic
biomes
Pond
Littoral
Intertidal
Mangroves
Kelp forests
Coral reefs
Neritic zone
Pelagic zone
Benthic zone
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Demersal zone
Other biomes
Endolithic zone
Biogeographic
realms
Terrestrial
Afrotropical
Antarctic
Australasian
Nearctic
Palearctic
Indomalayan
Neotropical
Oceanian
Marine
Arctic
Temperate Northern Pacific
Tropical Atlantic
Western Indo-Pacific
Central Indo-Pacific
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Subdivisions
Biogeographic provinces
Bioregions
Ecoregions
List of ecoregions
Global 200 ecoregions
See also
Ecological land classification
Floristic kingdoms
Vegetation classifications
Zoogeographic regions
Authority control
GND: 4132387-7
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biome&oldid=801599666"
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Biomes
Habitats
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Bioma – Asturian
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Biom – Azerbaijani
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Bioma – Catalan
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Biom – Czech
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Biom – Danish
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Biom – German
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Bioom – Estonian
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Bioma – Spanish
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Biomo – Esperanto
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Bioma – Basque
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Biome – French
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Bioma – Galician
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gl
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Biom – Croatian
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Bioma – Indonesian
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Bioma – Italian
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Bioma – Javanese
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Bioma – Latvian
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Biomas – Lithuanian
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Biom – Hungarian
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Biom – Malay
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Bioom – Dutch
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Biom – Norwegian
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Biom – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Biom – Low German
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Biom – Polish
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Bioma – Portuguese
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Biom – Romanian
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Biome – Scots
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Bióm – Slovak
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Biom – Slovenian
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Biom – Serbo-Croatian
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Biomi – Finnish
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Biom – Swedish
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Biyom – Turkish
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