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Copernican heliocentrism
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Heliocentric model from Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)
It has been suggested that this article be merged with Copernican_Revolution#Nicolaus_Copernicus. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2018.
Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It positioned the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model departed from the Ptolemaic system that had prevailed for centuries, placing Earth at the center of the Universe, and is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.[1]
Copernicus was aware that the ancient Greek Aristarchus had already proposed a heliocentric theory, and cited him as a proponent of it in a reference that was deleted before publication, but there is no evidence that Copernicus had knowledge of, or access to, the specific details of Aristarchus' theory.[2] Although he had circulated an outline of his own heliocentric theory to colleagues sometime before 1514, he did not decide to publish it until he was urged to do so late in his life by his pupil Rheticus. Copernicus's challenge was to present a practical alternative to the Ptolemaic model by more elegantly and accurately determining the length of a solar year while preserving the metaphysical implications of a mathematically ordered cosmos. Thus, his heliocentric model retained several of the Ptolemaic elements causing the inaccuracies, such as the planets' circular orbits, epicycles, and uniform speeds,[1] while at the same time re-introducing such innovations as:
Earth is one of several planets revolving around a stationary Sun in a determined order
Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis
Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by Earth's motion
Distance from Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance from the Sun to the stars.
Contents
[hide]
1 Heliocentrism before Copernicus
1.1 Antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 The Ptolemaic system
2 Copernican theory
2.1 De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
3 Copernican Revolution
4 Modern historiography
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Heliocentrism before Copernicus[edit]
Main articles: Heliocentrism and Heliocentrism § Ancient_and_medieval_astronomy
This article duplicates the scope of other articles. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. (June 2018)
Antiquity[edit]
Philolaus (4th century BCE) was one of the first to hypothesize movement of the Earth, probably inspired by Pythagoras' theories about a spherical, moving globe. Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BCE had developed some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (speaking of a revolution by Earth on its axis) to propose what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric solar system. Though his original text has been lost, a reference in Archimedes' book The Sand Reckoner (Archimedis Syracusani Arenarius & Dimensio Circuli) describes a work by Aristarchus in which he advanced the heliocentric model. Archimedes wrote:
You (King Gelon) are aware the 'universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the 'universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the Floor, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface.[3]
—  The Sand Reckoner
It is a common idea that the heliocentric view was rejected by the contemporaries of Aristarchus. This is due to Gilles Ménage's translation of a passage from Plutarch's On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon. Plutarch reported that Cleanthes (a contemporary of Aristarchus and head of the Stoics) as a worshipper of the Sun and opponent to the heliocentric model, was jokingly told by Aristarchus that he should be charged with impiety. Gilles Ménage, shortly after the trials of Galileo and Giordano Bruno, amended an accusative (identifying the object of the verb) with a nominative (the subject of the sentence), and vice versa, so that the impiety accusation fell over the heliocentric sustainer. The resulting misconception of an isolated and persecuted Aristarchus is still transmitted today.[4][5]
Middle Ages[edit]
Several Islamic astronomers questioned the Earth's apparent immobility,[6][7] and centrality within the universe.[8] Some accepted that the earth rotates around its axis, such as Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020).[9][10] who invented an astrolabe based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[10][11] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from an Arabic work in the 13th century which states:
According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars.[10]
In the 12th century, Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji proposed a complete alternative to the Ptolemaic system (although not heliocentric).[12][13] He declared the Ptolemaic system as an imaginary model, successful at predicting planetary positions, but not real or physical. Al-Btiruji's alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.[13]
Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in an early manuscript of his book which survives, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion."[14] For reasons unknown (although possibly out of reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the publication of his book. Inspiration came to Copernicus not from observation of the planets, but from reading two authors. In Cicero he found an account of the theory of Hicetas. Plutarch provided an account of the Pythagoreans Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantes. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun. When Copernicus' book was published, it contained an unauthorized preface by the Lutheran theologian Andreas Osiander. This cleric stated that Copernicus wrote his heliocentric account of the Earth's movement as a mere mathematical hypothesis, not as an account that contained truth or even probability. Since Copernicus' hypothesis was believed to contradict the Old Testament account of the Sun's movement around the Earth (Joshua 10:12-13), this was apparently written to soften any religious backlash against the book. However, there is no evidence that Copernicus himself considered the heliocentric model as merely mathematically convenient, separate from reality.
Mathematical techniques developed in the 13th to 14th centuries by the Arab and Persian astronomers Mo'ayyeduddin al-Urdi, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn al-Shatir for geocentric models of planetary motions closely resemble some of those used later by Copernicus in his heliocentric models.[15] Copernicus used what is now known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi couple in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources.[16] Furthermore, the exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus was found in an earlier work by Ibn al-Shatir (d. c. 1375) of Damascus.[17] Ibn al-Shatir's lunar and Mercury models are also identical to those of Copernicus.[18] This has led some scholars to argue that Copernicus must have had access to some yet to be identified work on the ideas of those earlier astronomers.[19] However, no likely candidate for this conjectured work has yet come to light, and other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition.[20] Nevertheless, Copernicus cited some of the Islamic astronomers whose theories and observations he used in De Revolutionibus, namely al-Battani, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Zarqali, Averroes, and al-Bitruji.[21]
European scholars were well aware of the problems with Ptolemaic astronomy since the 13th century. The debate was precipitated by the reception by Averroes' criticism of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century.[22] Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the Ilkhanid-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the Maragheh observatory (especially the works of Al-Urdi, Al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir).[23]
The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the Theoricae novae planetarum by Georg von Peuerbach, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student Regiomontanus in 1454 but printed only in 1472. Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism. Regiomontanus himself was the teacher of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus.
There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus in a late work, and mentions the "motion of the Earth" in a letter.[24]
The Ptolemaic system[edit]
Line art drawing of Ptolemaic system
Main article: Geocentric model
The prevailing astronomical model of the cosmos in Europe in the 1,400 years leading up to the 16th century was that created by the Roman citizen Claudius Ptolemy in his Almagest, dating from about 150 A.D. Throughout the Middle Ages it was spoken of as the authoritative text on astronomy, although its author remained a little understood figure frequently mistaken as one of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt.[25] The Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between—a separate one for each planet. To account for apparent anomalies in this view, such as the apparent retrograde motion of the planets, a system of deferents and epicycles was used. The planet was said to revolve in a small circle (the epicycle) about a center, which itself revolved in a larger circle (the deferent) about a center on or near the Earth.[26]
A complementary theory to Ptolemy's employed homocentric spheres: the spheres within which the planets rotated could themselves rotate somewhat. This theory predated Ptolemy (it was first devised by Eudoxus of Cnidus; by the time of Copernicus it was associated with Averroes). Also popular with astronomers were variations such as eccentrics—by which the rotational axis was offset and not completely at the center.
Ptolemy's unique contribution to this theory was the equant—a point about which the center of a planet's epicycle moved with uniform angular velocity, but which was offset from the center of its deferent. This violated one of the fundamental principles of Aristotelian cosmology—namely, that the motions of the planets should be explained in terms of uniform circular motion, and was considered a serious defect by many medieval astronomers.[27] In Copernicus's day, the most up-to-date version of the Ptolemaic system was that of Peurbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476).
Copernican theory[edit]
Further information: Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolai Copernicito Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, in six books) (title page of 2nd edition, Basel, 1566)
Copernicus' major work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (first edition 1543 in Nuremberg, second edition 1566 in Basel[28]), was published during the year of his death, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. The book marks the beginning of the shift away from a geocentric (and anthropocentric) universe with the Earth at its center. Copernicus held that the Earth is another planet revolving around the fixed sun once a year, and turning on its axis once a day. But while Copernicus put the Sun at the center of the celestial spheres, he did not put it at the exact center of the universe, but near it. Copernicus' system used only uniform circular motions, correcting what was seen by many as the chief inelegance in Ptolemy's system.
The Copernican model replaced Ptolemy's equant circles with more epicycles.[29] This is the main reason that Copernicus' system had even more epicycles than Ptolemy's. The Copernican system can be summarized in several propositions, as Copernicus himself did in his early Commentariolus that he handed only to friends probably in the 1510s. The "little commentary" was never printed. Its existence was only known indirectly until a copy was discovered in Stockholm around 1880, and another in Vienna a few years later.[30] The major features of Copernican theory are:
Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles).
The center of the universe is near the Sun.
Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars.
The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis.
Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion.
The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium[edit]
Main article: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
It opened with an originally anonymous preface by Andreas Osiander, a theologian friend of Copernicus, who urged that the theory, which was considered a tool that allows simpler and more accurate calculations, did not necessarily have implications outside the limited realm of astronomy.[31]
Copernicus' actual book began with a letter from his (by then deceased) friend Nikolaus von Schönberg, Cardinal Archbishop of Capua, urging Copernicus to publish his theory.[32] Then, in a lengthy introduction, Copernicus dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, explaining his ostensible motive in writing the book as relating to the inability of earlier astronomers to agree on an adequate theory of the planets, and noting that if his system increased the accuracy of astronomical predictions it would allow the Church to develop a more accurate calendar. At that time, a reform of the Julian Calendar was considered necessary and was one of the major reasons for the Church's interest in astronomy.
The work itself was then divided into six books:[33]
General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World.
Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books).
Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena.
Description of the Moon and its orbital motions.
Concrete exposition of the new system including planetary longitude.
Further concrete exposition of the new system including planetary latitude.
Copernican Revolution[edit]
Main article: Copernican Revolution
This article duplicates the scope of other articles. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. (June 2018)
Statue of Copernicus next to Cracow University's Collegium Novum
From publication until about 1700, few astronomers were convinced by the Copernican system, though the book was relatively widely circulated (around 500 copies of the first and second editions have survived,[34] which is a large number by the scientific standards of the time). Few of Copernicus' contemporaries were ready to concede that the Earth actually moved, although Erasmus Reinhold used Copernicus' parameters to produce the Prutenic Tables. However, these tables translated Copernicus' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system, rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds.[35] The Prutenic tables came to be preferred by Prussian and German astronomers. The degree of improved accuracy of these tables remains an open question, but their usage of Copernican ideas led to more serious consideration of a heliocentric model. However, even forty-five years after the publication of De Revolutionibus, the astronomer Tycho Brahe went so far as to construct a cosmology precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus, but with the Earth held fixed in the center of the celestial sphere instead of the Sun.[36] It was another generation before a community of practicing astronomers appeared who accepted heliocentric cosmology.
From a modern point of view, the Copernican model has a number of advantages. It accurately predicts the relative distances of the planets from the Sun, although this meant abandoning the cherished Aristotelian idea that there is no empty space between the planetary spheres. Copernicus also gave a clear account of the cause of the seasons: that the Earth's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. In addition, Copernicus's theory provided a strikingly simple explanation for the apparent retrograde motions of the planets—namely as parallactic displacements resulting from the Earth's motion around the Sun—an important consideration in Johannes Kepler's conviction that the theory was substantially correct.[37] In the heliocentric model the planets' apparent retrograde motions' occurring at opposition to the Sun are a natural consequence of their heliocentric orbits. In the geocentic model, however, these are explained by the ad hoc use of epicycles, whose revolutions are mysteriously tied to that of the Sun's.[38]
However, for his contemporaries, the ideas presented by Copernicus were not markedly easier to use than the geocentric theory and did not produce more accurate predictions of planetary positions. Copernicus was aware of this and could not present any observational "proof", relying instead on arguments about what would be a more complete and elegant system. The Copernican model appeared to be contrary to common sense and to contradict the Bible. Tycho Brahe's arguments against Copernicus are illustrative of the physical, theological, and even astronomical grounds on which heliocentric cosmology was rejected. Tycho, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, appreciated the elegance of the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, but could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort of substance called aether that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system “... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that.”[39] Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Copernicus had assumed in order to explain why the Earth's motion produced no visible changes in the appearance of the fixed stars (known as annual stellar parallax). Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory – see stellar magnitude), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (the size of Earth's orbit or larger, and thus much larger than the sun). Regarding this Tycho wrote, “Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference.”[40] He said his Tychonic system, which incorporated Copernican features into a geocentric system, “offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture”.[41] Thus many astronomers accepted some aspects of Copernicus's theory at the expense of others. His model did have a large influence on later scientists such as Galileo and Johannes Kepler, who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of de Revolutionibus, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.[42]
During the 17th century, several further discoveries eventually led to the wider acceptance of heliocentrism:
Using the newly invented telescope, Galileo discovered the four large moons of Jupiter (evidence that the solar system contained bodies that did not orbit Earth), the phases of Venus (the first observational evidence not properly explained by the Ptolemaic theory) and the rotation of the Sun about a fixed axis[43] as indicated by the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots;
With a telescope, Giovanni Zupi saw the phases of Mercury in 1639;
Kepler in 1609 introduced the idea that the orbits of the planets were elliptical rather than circular, while retaining the heliocentric concept.
Isaac Newton in 1687 proposed universal gravity and the inverse-square law of gravitational attraction to explain Kepler's elliptical planetary orbits.
In 1725, James Bradley discovered stellar aberration, an apparent annual motion of stars around small ellipses, and attributed it to the finite speed of light and the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun.[44]
In 1838, Friedrich Bessel made the first successful measurements of annual parallax for the star 61 Cygni, of 0.314 arcseconds; which indicated that the star was 10.3 ly away, close to the currently accepted value of 11.4 ly. He narrowly beat Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson, who measured the parallaxes of Vega and Alpha Centauri in the same year.
Modern historiography[edit]
Whether Copernicus' propositions were "revolutionary" or "conservative" has been a topic of debate in the historiography of science. In his book The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe (1959), Arthur Koestler attempted to deconstruct the Copernican "revolution" by portraying Copernicus as a coward who was reluctant to publish his work due to a crippling fear of ridicule. Thomas Kuhn argued that Copernicus only transferred "some properties to the Sun's many astronomical functions previously attributed to the earth."[citation needed] Other historians[who?] have since argued that Kuhn underestimated what was "revolutionary" about Copernicus' work, and emphasized the difficulty Copernicus would have had in putting forward a new astronomical theory relying alone on simplicity in geometry, given that he had no experimental evidence.
See also[edit]
Astronomy portal
Cosmology portal
Copernican principle
Heliocentrism
Nicolaus Copernicus
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kuhn 1985
Jump up ^ Gingerich, O. "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol.16, NO.1/FEB, pp.37, 39, 1985
Jump up ^ Heath (1913), p. 302.
Jump up ^ Lucio Russo, Silvio M. Medaglia, Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo, in "Quaderni urbinati di cultura classica", n.s. 53 (82) (1996), pp. 113–121
Jump up ^ Lucio Russo, The forgotten revolution, Springer (2004)
Jump up ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context, Cambridge University Press, 14 (1–2): 145–163, doi:10.1017/s0269889701000060
Jump up ^ Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", Osiris, 2nd Series, 16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, Bibcode:2001Osir...16...49R, doi:10.1086/649338
Jump up ^ Adi Setia (2004), "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey", Islam & Science, 2, retrieved 2010-03-02
Jump up ^ Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam". Scientia/Rivista di Scienza. 108 (67): 762.
^ Jump up to: a b c Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02). Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780521028875.
Jump up ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993-01-01). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781438414195.
Jump up ^ Samsó, Julio (2007). "Biṭrūjī: Nūr al‐Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al‐Biṭrūjī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 133–4. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
^ Jump up to: a b Samsó, Julio (1970–80). "Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
Jump up ^ Gingerich, O. "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol.16, NO.1/FEB, P. 37, 1985
Jump up ^ Esposito 1999, p. 289
Jump up ^ Saliba, George (1995-07-01). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814780237.
Jump up ^ Swerdlow, Noel M. (1973-12-31). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 117 (6): 424. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986461.
Jump up ^ King, David A. (2007). "Ibn al‐Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 569–70. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
Jump up ^ Linton (2004, pp.124,137–38), Saliba (2009, pp.160–65).
Jump up ^ Goddu (2010, pp.261–69, 476–86), Huff (2010, pp.263–64), di Bono (1995), Veselovsky (1973).
Jump up ^ Freely, John (2015-03-30). Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World. I.B.Tauris. p. 179. ISBN 9781784531386.
Jump up ^ "Averroes' criticism of Ptolemaic astronomy precipitated this debate in Europe. [...] The recovery of Ptolemy's texts and their translation from Greek into Latin in the middle of the fifteenth century stimulated further consideration of these issues." Osler (2010), p.42
Jump up ^ George Saliba (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", Isis 70 (4), p. 571-576.
Jump up ^ Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers, Penguin Books, 1959, p. 212.
Jump up ^ McCluskey (1998), pp. 27
Jump up ^ Koestler (1989), pp. 69-72
Jump up ^ Gingerich (2004), p. 53
Jump up ^ Koestler (1989), p.194
Jump up ^ Koestler (1989), pp. 579-80
Jump up ^ Gingerich (2004), pp.31–32
Jump up ^ Gingerich (2004), p.139
Jump up ^ Koestler (1989), p.196
Jump up ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jump up ^ Gingerich (2004), p.248
Jump up ^ Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker, and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp 138-148
Jump up ^ Kuhn 1985, pp. 200–202
Jump up ^ Linton (2004, pp.138, 169), Crowe (2001, pp.90–92), Kuhn 1985, pp. 165–167
Jump up ^ Gingerich 2011, pp. 134–135
Jump up ^ Owen Gingerich, The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, New York: American Institute of Physics, 1993, 181, ISBN 0-88318-863-5
Jump up ^ Blair, Ann (1990). "Tycho Brahe's critique of Copernicus and the Copernican system". Journal of the History of Ideas. 51 (3): 355–377 [p. 364]. JSTOR 2709620.
Jump up ^ Gingerich, O. & Voelkel, J. R., J. Hist. Astron., Vol. 29, 1998, page 1
Jump up ^ Gingerich (2004), pp.23, 55
Jump up ^ Fixed, that is, in the Copernican system. In a geostatic system the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt, 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191–196)
Jump up ^ Hirschfeld, Alan (2001). Parallax:The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-7133-4.
References[edit]
Crowe, Michael J. (2001). Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-41444-2.
di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and Ṭūsï's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model". Journal for the History of Astronomy. xxvi: 133–54. Bibcode:1995JHA....26..133D.
Drake, Stillman (1970). Galileo Studies. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08283-3.
Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
Gingerich, Owen (2004). The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-01315-3.
Gingerich, Owen (June 2011), "Galileo, the Impact of the Telescope, and the Birth of Modern Astronomy" (PDF), Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia PA, 155 (2): 134–141
Goddu, André (2010). Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18107-6.
Huff, Toby E (2010). Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-17052-9.
Koestler, Arthur (1989). The Sleepwalkers. Arkana. ISBN 978-0-14-019246-9.
Kuhn, Thomas S. (1985). The Copernican Revolution—Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, Mississippi: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-17103-9.
Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8.
McCluskey, S. C. (1998). Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge: CUP.
Raju, C. K. (2007). Cultural foundations of mathematics: the nature of mathematical proof and the transmission of the calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c. CE. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-0871-2.
Saliba, George (2009). "Islamic reception of Greek astronomy". in Valls-Gabaud & Boskenberg (2009). pp. 149–65
Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56671-1.
Valls-Gabaud, D.; Boskenberg, A., eds. (2009). The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture. Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 260.
Veselovsky, I.N. (1973). "Copernicus and Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī". Journal for the History of Astronomy. iv: 128–30. Bibcode:1973JHA.....4..128V.
Further reading[edit]
Hannam, James (2007). "Deconstructing Copernicus". Medieval Science and Philosophy. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Analyses the varieties of argument used by Copernicus in De revolutionibus.
Goldstone, Lawrence (2010). The Astronomer: A Novel of Suspense. New York: Walker and Company. ISBN 0-8027-1986-4.
External links[edit]
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J/Z (New York City Subway service)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of "J/Z", see JZ.
Nassau Street Local and Nassau Street Express
A train made of R32 cars in J service at Marcy Avenue.
A train made of R160 cars in Z service entering Kosciuszko Street.
Northern end
Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer
Southern end
Broad Street
Stations
30 (J service)
26 (Z service)
Rolling stock
80 R32s (10 trains)
40 R42s (5 trains, AM rush)
40 R160As (4 trains)
32 R42s (4 trains, PM rush)[1]
(Rolling stock assignments subject to change)
Depot
East New York Yard
Started service
1893; 124 years ago (1893) (predecessor)
November 1967; 49 years ago (1967-11) (present-day J service)
December 11, 1988; 28 years ago (1988-12-11) (present-day Z service)
[show]
Route map
Legend
E J Z
Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer
Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–
JFK Airport
E trains continue west
skip-stop during rush hours
J local all other times
Z
121st Street
southbound platform
temporarily closed
J
111th Street
Z
104th Street
southbound platform
temporarily closed
J
Z
Woodhaven Boulevard
J
85th Street–Forest Parkway
Z
75th Street–Elderts Lane
Queens
Brooklyn
J
Cypress Hills
J
Z
Crescent Street
Z
Norwood Avenue
J
Cleveland Street
Z
Van Siclen Avenue
J
Z
Alabama Avenue
skip-stop during rush hours
J local all other times
no regular service trains
continue south
( M )
Broadway Junction
Chauncey Street
Halsey Street
Gates Avenue
Kosciuszko Street
Myrtle Avenue Line
ZZZtemporarily closed
Myrtle Avenue
Flushing Avenue
Lorimer Street
Hewes Street
Marcy Avenue
Brooklyn
Manhattan
Essex Street
M trains continue north
Bowery
Canal Street
Chambers Street
Fulton Street
J M Z
Broad Street
no regular service trains
continue to Brooklyn
Lines used by the J and Z
Other services sharing tracks with the J and Z
Unused lines, connections, or service patterns
Cross-platform interchange
Platforms on different levels
This diagram:
view
talk
edit
The J Nassau Street Local and Z Nassau Street Express[2] (earlier Jamaica Express and displayed as Jamaica Local/Express on the R160 cars) are two rapid transit services in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Their route emblems, or "bullets", are colored brown since they use the BMT Nassau Street Line in Lower Manhattan.[3]
The J operates at all times while the Z, operating internally as its rush-hour variant,[4] operates six trips in each peak direction on weekdays; both services use the entire BMT Archer Avenue, Jamaica, and Nassau Street lines between Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer in Jamaica, Queens and Broad Street in Lower Manhattan (via the Williamsburg Bridge between Brooklyn and Manhattan). When the Z operates, the two services form a skip-stop pair between Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport and Broadway Junction. At all other times, only the J operates, serving every station on its entire route.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Before the Chrystie Street Connection
1.2 Chrystie Street Connection to 1976
1.3 1976 to present
2 Route
2.1 Service pattern
2.2 Stations
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Before the Chrystie Street Connection[edit]
The Jamaica Line – then known as the Broadway Elevated – was one of the original elevated lines in Brooklyn, completed in 1893 from Cypress Hills west to Broadway Ferry in Williamsburg.[5] It was then a two-track line, with a single local service between the two ends, and a second east of Gates Avenue, where the Lexington Avenue Elevated merged.[6] This second service later became the 12, and was eliminated on October 13, 1950 with the abandonment of the Lexington Avenue el.
The second major service on the Broadway Elevated ran between Canarsie and Williamsburg via the BMT Canarsie Line, started on July 30, 1906, when the Broadway and Canarsie tracks were connected at East New York.[7] As part of the Dual Contracts, an extension from Cypress Hills east to Jamaica was completed on July 3, 1918,[8] a third track was added west of East New York, and express trains began running on it in 1922.[citation needed]
The Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation numbered its services in 1924,[citation needed] and the Canarsie and Jamaica services became 14 and 15. Both ran express during rush hours in the peak direction west of East New York. Express trains would only stop at Myrtle Avenue, Essex Street and Canal Street, before making local stops afterwards. Additional 14 trains, between Eastern Parkway or Atlantic Avenue on the Canarsie Line and Manhattan provided rush-hour local service on Broadway.[9] When the 14th Street–Eastern Line and Canarsie Line were connected on July 14, 1928,[10] the old Canarsie Line service was renamed the Broadway (Brooklyn) Line, providing only weekday local service over the Broadway Elevated west of Eastern Parkway. The Atlantic Avenue trips remained, and rush-hour trains continued to serve Rockaway Parkway (Canarsie), though they did not use the Broadway express tracks.[11] The 14 was later cut back to only rush-hour service.[citation needed]
On the Manhattan end, the first extension was made on September 16, 1908, when the Williamsburg Bridge subway tracks opened.[12] Broadway and Canarsie trains were extended to the new Essex Street terminal, and further to Chambers Street when the line was extended on August 4, 1913.[13] When the BMT Nassau Street Line was completed on May 30, 1931, the 15 was extended to Broad Street,[14][15] and the 14 was truncated to Canal Street.[11] Some 14 trains began terminating at Crescent Street on the Jamaica Line in 1956.[citation needed]
Manhattan–bound rush hour skip-stop service between Jamaica and East New York was implemented on June 18, 1959, with trains leaving 168th Street on weekdays between 7 AM and 8:30 AM.[16] Express 15 trains served "A" stations, while the morning 14 became the Jamaica Local, running between Jamaica and Canal Street, and stopped at stations marked "B".[17] Express 15 trains continued to run express between Eastern Parkway and Canal Street, making only stops at Myrtle Avenue, Essex Street, and Canal Street.[16] These stations were as follows:[18]
All trains: 168th Street • Sutphin Boulevard • 75th Street–Elderts Lane • Eastern Parkway • Myrtle Avenue • Essex Street • Canal Street
"A" stations: 168th Street • Sutphin Boulevard • 121st Street • 111th Street • Woodhaven Boulevard • 85th Street–Forest Parkway • Elderts Lane • Crescent Street • Cleveland Street • Eastern Parkway
"B" stations: 168th Street • 160th Street • Sutphin Boulevard • Queens Boulevard • Metropolitan Avenue • 104th Street • Elderts Lane • Cypress Hills • Norwood Avenue • Van Siclen Avenue • Alabama Avenue • Eastern Parkway
Letters were assigned to most BMT services in the early 1960s. The BMT Jamaica services retained their numbers until November 1967. The 15 became the QJ[19] (express), and the 14 became the JJ.[20]
Chrystie Street Connection to 1976[edit]

JJ

Jamaica

R32 end rollsign
When the Chrystie Street Connection opened on November 26, 1967, many services were changed. The two local services - the JJ (non-rush hours) and KK (rush hours) - were combined as the JJ, but without any major routing changes. Thus non-rush hour JJ trains ran between Jamaica and Broad Street, while morning rush hour JJ trains ran to Canal Street, and afternoon rush hour JJ trains ran between Canal Street and Atlantic Avenue or Crescent Street. The rush-hour express J was combined with the weekday QT Brighton Local via tunnel to form the weekday QJ, running between Jamaica and Brighton Beach via the Jamaica Line (express during rush hours in the peak direction), BMT Nassau Street Line, Montague Street Tunnel, and BMT Brighton Line (local). Finally, the RJ was a special peak-direction rush-hour service, running fully local on the Jamaica Line, Nassau Street Line, Montague Street Tunnel, and BMT Fourth Avenue Line to 95th Street in Fort Hamilton. This was an extension of a former rush-hour RR service, and thus ran towards Jamaica in the morning and towards Fort Hamilton in the afternoon.[21]
KK A New Service Brochure Map
The next change was made on July 1, 1968, when the Chrystie Street Connection tracks to the Williamsburg Bridge opened. The Jamaica Line portion of the rush-hour JJ was modified to become a new rush-hour KK, running between Jamaica (peak direction) or Eastern Parkway (both directions) and the new 57th Street station on the IND Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan. The MM (with a dark green bullet on R-27 signage) was a proposed alternative to the KK as a local to 57th Street/6th Avenue, which finally opened in July 1968.[22] The RJ was eliminated, being cut back to an RR variant, and the off-hour JJ was relabeled QJ (but not extended to Brighton Beach). At the same time, the existing skip-stop service was extended to afternoon Jamaica-bound trains, with those QJ trains running express west of Eastern Parkway and serving "A" stations east to Jamaica, and those KK trains serving "B" stations. Less than two months later, on August 18, the QJ was extended to Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue.[23][24]
On January 2, 1973, the QJ, which was the longest route in the transit system, was cut back to Broad Street and redesignated the J; and the M was extended to Coney Island in its place. At the same time, the KK was cut back to Eastern Parkway from 168th Street and renamed the K,[25][26] and both skip-stop patterns were carried out by alternate J trains.[citation needed] Eventually, the K was discontinued entirely on August 30, 1976,[27] eliminating the J skip-stop and express service east of Myrtle Avenue in the PM rush hour. Skip-stop service was retained toward Manhattan during the AM rush hour. One-way express service remained west of Myrtle Avenue, since the M was switched to the local tracks at that time.[28]
The following table summarizes the changes that were made between 1959 and 1976.
Morning rush-hour local
Morning rush-hour express
Afternoon rush-hour local
Afternoon rush-hour express
Other local
Other service
1959–67 14/KK 168th Street - Canal Street, "B" stops inbound 15/J 168th Street - Broad Street, "A" stops inbound 14/KK Crescent Street, Atlantic Avenue, or Rockaway Parkway - Canal Street 15/J 168th Street - Broad Street 15/JJ 168th Street - Broad Street
1967–68 JJ 168th Street - Canal Street, "B" stops inbound QJ 168th Street - Brighton Beach, "A" stops inbound JJ Crescent Street or Atlantic Avenue - Canal Street QJ 168th Street - Brighton Beach JJ 168th Street - Broad Street
QJ 168th Street - Brighton Beach, middays and early evenings RJ 168th Street - Bay Ridge, rush hour non-peak direction only
1968–1974 KK 168th Street - 57th Street, "B" stops inbound QJ 168th Street - Brooklyn, "A" stops inbound KK 168th Street - 57th Street, "B" stops outbound QJ 168th Street - Brooklyn, "A" stops outbound QJ 168th Street - Broad Street or Brooklyn
1974–1976 K Eastern Parkway - 57th Street J 168th Street - Broad Street, two inbound patterns, one for "A" stops and one for "B" stops K Eastern Parkway - 57th Street J 168th Street - Broad Street, two outbound patterns, one for "A" stops and one for "B" stops J 168th Street - Broad Street
1976 to present[edit]
Current rolling stock.
From top: R32, R42, R160.
From left to right: Trains in J and Z service.
The J was truncated to Queens Boulevard just after midnight on September 11, 1977,[29] and to 121st Street on April 15, 1985,[30] as portions of the elevated Jamaica Line closed and were demolished. The Q49 shuttle bus replaced service at the closed stations until 1988.
The BMT Archer Avenue Line opened on December 11, 1988, extending the line back east from 121st Street to Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer. The Z train first ran that day, introducing the present J/Z skip-stop pattern.[31] The new Z trains would go skip-stop between Jamaica Center and Broadway Junction (later Myrtle Avenue) during rush hours. Bus service on several Queens bus routes was rerouted to serve Jamaica Center instead of the 169th Street station several blocks away.[32] The J/Z skip-stop service was touted as being faster to lower Manhattan than E, F, and R service, in an attempt to relieve some crowding on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Because the MTA hoped that Queens passengers would transfer to the J/Z from the E, F, and R, every subway car on the J and Z's fleet was completely graffiti-free.[33]
On September 30, 1990, weekend J service was cut back to Canal Street,[34] but it was extended back to Chambers Street in January 1994.[35]
From May 1 to September 1, 1999, the Williamsburg Bridge was closed for reconstruction. J trains ran only between Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer and Myrtle Avenue. J/Z skip-stop service was in both directions between Jamaica Center and Eastern Parkway-Broadway Junction.[36][37][38] The closure was anticipated to last until October 1999, but subway service was restored one month ahead of schedule.[39] The project cost $130 million, including replacing the tracks support structure, signal system and other equipment.[40]
After the September 11, 2001 attacks, service on the BMT Broadway Line in Lower Manhattan, and R service, was suspended. J trains were extended beyond Broad Street via the Montague Street Tunnel to replace the R to Bay Ridge–95th Street at all times except late nights, when it only ran to Broad Street and a shuttle ran in Brooklyn between 95th and 36th Streets. J/Z skip-stop service was suspended.[41] Normal service on all three trains was restored on October 28.[42]
In May 2014, all trains began stopping at Alabama Avenue, presumably for the convenience of transit employees who work at the nearby East New York Yard and East New York Bus Depot.[43]
On June 14, 2015, weekend J service was extended back to Broad Street; this was proposed in July 2014 to improve weekend service between Lower Manhattan and Brooklyn.[44][45][46] Between 1990 and 2015, when weekend service terminated at Canal or Chambers Streets, Broad Street and the J/Z platforms at Fulton Street were two of the four New York City Subway stations that lacked full-time service (the remaining two being the platforms for the IRT 42nd Street Shuttle).
On June 26, 2017, J and Z trains started running local between Broadway Junction and Marcy Avenue at all times, supplementing the M, due to the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line connection being closed for reconstruction until 2018.[47][48][49]
Route[edit]
Service pattern[edit]
The following table shows the lines used by the J and Z, with shaded boxes indicating the route at the specified times:[50]
Line
From
To
Tracks
Times
middays
evenings
weekends
rush peak
rush peak
BMT Archer Avenue Line Jamaica Center Sutphin Boulevard all
BMT Jamaica Line 121st Street Alabama Avenue local (all)
local (skip-stop)
Broadway Junction Marcy Avenue local
Williamsburg Bridge all
BMT Nassau Street Line Essex Street Broad Street
Stations[edit]
For a more detailed station listing, see the articles on the lines listed above.
Stations in green and stations in blue denote stops served by the J and Z, respectively, during rush hours in the peak direction. The J makes all local stops outside of rush hours.
Station service legend
Stops all times
Stops all times except late nights
Stops late nights only
Stops weekdays only
Stops all times except rush hours in the peak direction
Stops rush hours in the peak direction only
Station closed
Time period details
Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act
↑ Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act
in the indicated direction only
↓
Elevator access to mezzanine only
Stations
Subway transfers
Connections
Queens
Archer Avenue Line
Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer E Q44 Select Bus Service
Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport E AirTrain JFK
LIRR at Jamaica
Q44 Select Bus Service
Jamaica Line
121st Street Q10 bus to JFK Int'l Airport
Manhattan-bound trains will not stop here until Fall 2017 due to renovations
111th Street
104th Street Manhattan-bound trains will not stop here until Fall 2017 due to renovations
Woodhaven Boulevard
85th Street–Forest Parkway
75th Street–Elderts Lane
Brooklyn
Cypress Hills
Crescent Street
Norwood Avenue
Cleveland Street
Van Siclen Avenue
Alabama Avenue
Broadway Junction A C (IND Fulton Street Line)
L (BMT Canarsie Line)
M LIRR Atlantic Branch at East New York
Some northbound a.m. rush hour trips begin/terminate at this station[a]
Some southbound p.m. rush hour trips begin at this station
Chauncey Street M
Halsey Street M
Gates Avenue M
Kosciuszko Street M B46 Select Bus Service
Myrtle Avenue–Broadway M M shuttle buses to Wyckoff Avenue
Flushing Avenue M B15 bus to JFK Airport
Lorimer Street M
Hewes Street M
Marcy Avenue M B44 Select Bus Service
Manhattan
Nassau Street Line
Essex Street M
F (IND Sixth Avenue Line at Delancey Street)
Bowery
Canal Street 4 6 <6> (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)
N Q R W (BMT Broadway Line)
Chambers Street 4 5 6 <6> (IRT Lexington Avenue Line at Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall)
Fulton Street 2 3 (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)
4 5 (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)
A C (IND Eighth Avenue Line)
Connection to N R W (BMT Broadway Line) at Cortlandt Street via Dey Street Passageway
Broad Street
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some northbound trains begin their trips at this station and continue to Jamaica Center during the early a.m. rush hour; some northbound trains from Broad Street end their trips at this station during the late a.m. rush hour.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Korman, Joe (January 1, 2017). "BMT-IND Car Assignments". JoeKorNer.
Jump up ^ "J/Z Subway Timetable, Effective June 25, 2017" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "mta.info - Line Colors". mta.info.
Jump up ^ "SUB-DIVISION B TRAIN OPERATOR/CONDUCTOR ROAD & NON-ROAD WORK PROGRAMS IN EFFECT: NOVEMBER 6, 2016" (PDF). progressiveaction.info. New York City Transit. July 29, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Trains Running This Morning". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Brooklyn, NY. 30 May 1893. p. 10.
Jump up ^ "Better Service on the Brooklyn L". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Brooklyn, NY. 20 December 1893. p. 12.
Jump up ^ "The BRT Opens Its New Extension for Through Traffic". The New York Times. July 31, 1906. p. 12. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "New Subway Line". The New York Times. July 7, 1918. p. 30. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, Map and Guide to BMT Rapid Transit Division, 1924
Jump up ^ "Celebrate Opening of New B. M. T. Line". The New York Times. July 15, 1928. p. 13. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, Map and Guide to BMT Rapid Transit Division, 1931
Jump up ^ "Mayor Runs a Train Over New Bridge". The New York Times. September 17, 1908. p. 16. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bridge Loop to Open for One Line Only". The New York Times. August 3, 1913. p. 6. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Nassau St. Service Outlined by B. M. T.". The New York Times. May 21, 1931. p. 29. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Mayor Drives Train in New Subway Link". The New York Times. May 30, 1931. p. 11. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jamaica BMT to Start Speed-Up Tomorrow". The New York Times. June 17, 1959. p. 28. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ New York City Transit Authority, Official New York City Subway Map and Station Guide, 1959
Jump up ^ New York City Transit Authority, Skip Stop on the BMT Jamaica Line, 1959
Jump up ^ New York City Subway map, 1968 edition
Jump up ^ Joseph Cunningham and Leonard DeHart, A History of the New York City Subway System Part 2: Rapid Transit in Brooklyn, 1977
Jump up ^ New York City Transit Authority, New York City Rapid Transit Map and Station Guide, 1967
Jump up ^ "THANK YOU FOR YOUR SERVICE Retired line designations Page 2". forgotten-ny.com.
Jump up ^ New York City Transit Authority, Rapid Transit Service Changes, 1968
Jump up ^ New York City Transit Authority, KK - a new service, 1968
Jump up ^ "Subway Schedules In Queens Changing Amid Some Protest". The New York Times. January 2, 1973. p. 46. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Changes Set for Jan. 2 Praised". New York Times. November 25, 1972. Retrieved January 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Transit Agency Drops 215 Runs". The New York Times. August 31, 1976. p. 42. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Service Adjustment on BMT and IND Lines Effective 1 A.M. Monday, Aug. 30". Flickr. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dembart, Lee (September 9, 1977). "A Sentimental Journey on the BMT...". The New York Times. p. 61. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "www.nycsubway.org". www.nycsubway.org.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Kirk (December 9, 1988). "Big Changes For Subways Are to Begin". The New York Times. p. B1. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "System-Wide Changes In Subway Service Effective Sunday, December 11, 1988". Flickr - Photo Sharing!. Retrieved June 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ nycsubway.org—The New York Transit Authority in the 1980s
Jump up ^ "Service Changes September 30, 1990" (PDF). subwaynut.com. New York City Transit Authority. September 30, 1990. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Glickman, Todd (October 6, 1998). "Archive of NYC Subway Maps". mit.edu. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "NO TRAINS OVER THE WILLIAMSBURG BRIDGE TAKE ONE(jpg)-The Subway Nut". www.subwaynut.com. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Williams, Monte (May 4, 1999). "Most Straphangers Unfazed By Closing of Bridge Lines". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rutenburg, James (April 27, 1999). "6-MONTH BRIDGEWORK TO DISRUPT J, M, Z LINES". New York Daily News. Retrieved June 6, 2016 – via fishq.info.
Jump up ^ "NYC DOT - Williamsburg Bridge". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Donohue, Pete (September 2, 1999). "IT'S J - AS IN JOY - TRAIN RIDERS FLYING HIGH ON FIXED-UP W'BURG SPAN". New York Daily News. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Soltren, Jose. "September 19, 2001 Subway Map". nycsubway.org. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Calcago, Michael. "October 28, 2001 Subway Map". nycsubway.org. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Compare:
"New York City Subway Map" (PDF). mta.info. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. February 2014. Archived from the original on June 11, 2014. Retrieved October 9, 2016. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) (Only the J served Alabama Avenue in February 2014)
(The Z now also served Alabama Avenue in May 2014)
Jump up ^ "mta.info - 2014 - 2017 MTA Financial Plan". mta.info.
Jump up ^ "MTA - news - MTA’s Proposed 2015 Budget Includes Systemwide Service Enhancements". mta.info.
Jump up ^ Donohue, Pete (July 24, 2014). "MTA to upgrade weekend service on J train, restore it on LIRR’s West Hempstead Branch". New York Daily News. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rivoli, Dan (March 17, 2016). "M line to be shut down next year for repairs". New York Daily News. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Brown, Nicole (March 18, 2016). "MTA: M line will shut down for part of next year". am New York. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Myrtle Avenue Line Infrastructure Projects". mta.info. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Subway Service Guide" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. June 25, 2017. Retrieved July 1, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to J (New York City Subway service) and Z (New York City Subway service).
MTA NYC Transit – J Nassau Street Express
MTA NYC Transit – Z Nassau Street Express
"J/Z Subway Timetable, Effective June 25, 2017" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
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text:
List of districts in Jammu and Kashmir
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Districts of J&K
The Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir consists of three divisions: Jammu, Kashmir Valley and Ladakh, and is further divided into 22 districts:[1] This excludes 78,114 km2 under the administration of Pakistan, 5,180 km2 handed over by Pakistan to China and 37,555 km2 under the administration of China in Ladakh district.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Princely state of Jammu and Kashmir
1.2 Partition
1.3 Inside India
2 Districts
2.1 Jammu division
2.2 Kashmir valley division
2.3 Ladakh division
3 References
4 Bibliography
5 External links
History[edit]
Princely state of Jammu and Kashmir[edit]
Main article: Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)
Prior to 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state under the paramountcy of the British Indian Empire. The central part of the state was administratively divided into the provinces Jammu and Kashmir. In addition there were frontier districts and semi-autonomous jagirs (principalities). They were subdivided as follows:[3]
Jammu province: Districts of Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Mirpur.
Kashmir province: Districts of Anantnag (also called Islamabad), Baramulla and Muzaffarabad.
Internal jagirs: Poonch, Chenani and Bhaderwah (all under the jurisdiction of the Jammu province)
Frontier districts:
Ladakh district with three sub-districts: Leh, Kargil and Skardu.
Gilgit district with two sub-districts: Gilgit and Astore.
Frontier illaqas comprising Punial, Ishkoman, Yasin, Kuh Ghizar, Hunza, Nagar and Chilas.
The Gilgit district and the frontier illaqas were administered by the British administration as the Gilgit Agency, which were returned to the princely state prior to the Partition of India.
Partition[edit]
Main article: Kashmir conflict
Following the indepndence of India and Pakistan, in October 1947, there was a rebellion in the western districts of the state coupled with a tribal invasion, both of which were supported by the newly independent Dominion of Pakistan. The princely ruler acceded to the Indian Union in return for armed assistance. India and Pakistan fought the First Kashmir War that lasted through 1948, at the end of which large parts of the three western districts of Mirpur, Poonch and Muzaffarabad, the whole of the Gilgit Agency and the Skardu sub-district of Ladakh came under Pakistani control. The remainder of the princely state has been organised as a semi-autonomous state of the Indian Union under the name Jammu and Kashmir.
Inside India[edit]
Main article: Jammu and Kashmir
The territory under the state control include:[4][5]
Jammu Division: districts of Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi; the jagirs of Chenani and Bhaderwah; 11 per cent of the Mirpur district and 40 per cent of the Poonch jagir.[6]
Kashmir Division: Kashmir South (Anantnag) and Kashmir North (Baramulla); 13 per cent of the Muzaffarabad district.[6]
Ladakh Division: Kargil and Leh subdistricts.
The districts were reorganised by 1968, breaking up some of the larger districts.[7] In 2006, eight new districts were created: Kishtwar, Ramban, Reasi, Samba, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam and Shopian.[8]
Districts[edit]
Jammu division[edit]
Name of District
Headquarters
Area (km²)
Population
2001 Census
Population
2011 Census[9][10]
Doda District Doda 2,306 320,256 409,576
Jammu District Jammu 3,097 1,343,756 1,526,406
Kathua District Kathua 2,651 550,084 615,711
Kishtwar District Kishtwar 7,737[11] 190,843 231,037
Poonch District Poonch 1,674 372,613 476,820
Rajouri District Rajouri 2,630 483,284 619,266
Ramban District Ramban 1,329 180,830 283,313
Reasi District Reasi 1,719 268,441 314,714
Samba District Samba 904 245,016 318,611
Udhampur District Udhampur 4,550 475,068 555,357
Total 26,293 4,430,191 5,350,811
Kashmir valley division[edit]
Name of District
Headquarters
Area (km²)
Population
2001 Census
Population
2011 Census
Anantnag District Anantnag 3,984 734,549 1,069,749
Bandipora District Bandipora 398 316,436 385,099
Baramulla district Baramulla 4,588 853,344 1,015,503
Budgam District Budgam 1,371 629,309 755,331
Ganderbal District Ganderbal 259 211,899 297,003
Kulgam District Kulgam 1,067 437,885 423,181
Kupwara District Kupwara 2,379 650,393 875,564
Pulwama District Pulwama 1,398 441,275 570,060
Shopian District Shopian 612.87 211,332 265,960
Srinagar District Srinagar 2,228 990,548 1,250,173
Total 15,948 5,476,970 6,907,623
Ladakh division[edit]
Name of District
Headquarters
Area (km²)
Population
2001 Census
Population
2011 Census
Kargil District Kargil 14,036 119,307 143,388
Leh District Leh 45,110 117,232 147,104
Total 59,146 236,539 290,492
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Department of Jammu & Kashmir Affairs". Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Jammu & Kashmir profile" (PDF). Censusinfo India 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Karim, Kashmir The Troubled Frontiers 2013, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Karim, Kashmir The Troubled Frontiers 2013, p. 29–32.
Jump up ^ Behera, Demystifying Kashmir 2007, p. 15.
^ Jump up to: a b Snedden, Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris 2015, p. 167.
Jump up ^ Behera, Demystifying Kashmir 2007, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Jammu and Kashmir to have eight new districts, Indo-Asian News Service, 6 July 2006.
Jump up ^ 2011 census J&K
Jump up ^ "Department of Jammu & Kashmir Affairs". Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
Jump up ^ http://kishtwar.nic.in/districtstats.html
Bibliography[edit]
Behera, Navnita Chadha (2007), Demystifying Kashmir, Pearson Education India, ISBN 8131708462
Karim, Maj Gen Afsir (2013), Kashmir The Troubled Frontiers, Lancer Publishers LLC, pp. 30–, ISBN 978-1-935501-76-3
Snedden, Christopher (2015), Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1-84904-342-7
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Districts of Jammu and Kashmir.
Districts of Pakistan administered Kashmir
old page from Government of India listing 14 districts
[hide]
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Districts of States of India
States
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_districts_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir&oldid=799068270"
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Jammu District

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/wiki/Jammu_(city)
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Jammu (city)

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/wiki/Kathua_District
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Kathua District

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/wiki/Kishtwar_District
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Kishtwar District

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/wiki/Rajouri_District
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Rajouri District

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/wiki/Ramban_District
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Ramban District

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/wiki/Reasi_District
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Reasi District

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/wiki/Samba_District
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Samba District

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/wiki/Udhampur_District
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Udhampur District

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/wiki/Anantnag_District
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Anantnag District

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/wiki/Bandipora_District
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Bandipora District

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/wiki/Budgam_District
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Budgam District

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/wiki/Ganderbal_District
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Ganderbal District

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/wiki/Kulgam_District
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Kulgam District

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/wiki/Kupwara_District
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Kupwara District

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/wiki/Pulwama_District
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Pulwama District

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/wiki/Shopian_District
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Shopian District

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/wiki/Srinagar_District
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Srinagar District

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/wiki/Kargil_District
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Kargil District

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/wiki/Kargil_town
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Kargil town

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/wiki/Leh_District
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Leh District

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http://mha.nic.in/more3

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values: commons:Category:Districts of Jammu and Kashmir

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Districts of India

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States of India

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values: List of districts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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/wiki/Chandigarh_district
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Chandigarh district

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values: Category:Jammu and Kashmir-related lists

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values: জম্মু ও কাশ্মীরের জেলাসমূহের তালিকা – Bangla

values: जम्मू अउरी काश्मीर के जिला सभ के लिस्ट – Bhojpuri

values: Anexo:Distritos del estado de Jammu y Cachemira – Spanish

values: Liste des districts du Jammu-et-Cachemire – French

values: जम्मू और कश्मीर के जिले – Hindi

values: ജമ്മു-കാശ്മീരിലെ ജില്ലകളുടെ പട്ടിക – Malayalam

values: जम्मू आणि काश्मीरमधील जिल्हे – Marathi

values: ჯამუ დო ქაშმირიშ ოლქეფიშ ერკებული – Mingrelian

values: Senarai daerah di Jammu dan Kashmir – Malay

values: जम्मू अनि कश्मीरका जिल्लाहरु – Nepali

values: Distrikter i Jammu og Kashmir – Norwegian

values: Список округов Джамму и Кашмира – Russian

values: जम्मूकाश्मीरराज्यस्य मण्डलानि – Sanskrit

values: List of districts in Jammu and Kashmir – Simple English

values: ஜம்மு காஷ்மீர் மாவட்டப் பட்டியல் – Tamil

values: جموں و کشمیر کے اضلاع کی فہرست – Urdu

values: 查谟-克什米尔邦行政区划 – Chinese

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