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Bra size
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Measuring for bra size
The bra size (also known as brassiere measurement or bust size) is the measure which indicates the size characteristics of a bra. Bra sizes are usually expressed as scales, with a number of systems being in use around the world. The scales take into account the band length and the cup size. From the wearer's point of view, the main measures that are taken into account, in determining the best bra fit for the wearer, are the measures of the wearer around the torso below the breasts and over the breasts, which defines the band length. For convenience, because of the impracticality of measuring a woman's breast size, the volume of the bra cup is based on the difference between these two measures.
Determining the correct bra size is the process manufacturers engage in to design and manufacture bras that correctly fit a majority of women, and for individual women, the process of identifying a correctly fitting bra.[1] Bra sizes usually consist of one or more letters indicating the breast cup size and a number, indicating a band size around the woman's torso. Bra cup sizes were invented in 1932 and band sizes became popular in the 1940s.
The shape, size, position, symmetry, spacing, firmness, and amount of sagging of individual women's breasts vary considerably. Manufacturers' bra size labeling systems vary from country to country because no international standards exist. Even within a single country, one study found that the bra label size was consistently different from the measured size.[2] As a result, about 25% of women have a difficult time finding a properly fitted bra.[3] Some women choose to buy custom-made bras due to the unusual size or shape of their breasts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Measurement method origins
1.1 Cup design origins
1.2 Band measurement origins
1.3 Other innovations
2 Consumer fitting
2.1 Larger breasts and bra fit
2.2 Bad bra-fit symptoms
2.3 Obtaining best fit
2.4 Confirming bra fit
2.4.1 Bra size calculator
3 Consumer measurement difficulties
3.1 Asymmetrical breasts common
3.2 Breast volume variation
3.3 Increasing breast size
4 Consumer measurement methods
4.1 Band measurement methods
4.1.1 Underbust +0
4.1.2 Underbust +4
4.1.3 Sizing chart
4.1.4 Above the breasts
4.2 Cup measurement methods
4.3 Cup sizes vary
4.4 Measuring cup size without a bra
4.5 Consumer fit research
5 Manufacturer design standards
5.1 UK
5.2 Australia/New Zealand
5.3 United States and Canada
5.4 Continental Europe
5.5 South Korea/Japan
5.6 France/Belgium/Spain
5.7 Italy
5.8 Advertising and retail influence
5.9 Research
5.10 Calculating cup volume and breast weight
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
Measurement method origins[edit]
This 1932 ad by the S.H. Camp Company was the first to denote cup size and band measurement
Parisienne Madeleine Gabeau received a United States patent on 21 November 1911 for a brassiere with soft cups and a metal band that supported and separated the breasts. To avoid the prevailing fashion that created a single "monobosom"[citation needed], her design provided "that the edges of the material d may be carried close along the inner and under contours of the breasts, so as to preserve their form, I employ an outlining band of metal b which is bent to conform to the lower curves of the breast."[4]
Cup design origins[edit]
The term "cup" was not used to describe bras until 1916[5] when two patents were filed.[6]
In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company were the first to measure cup size by the letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, and D, though the letters represented how pendulous the breasts were and not their volume. Camp's advertising in the February 1933 issue of Corset and Underwear Review featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts. Cup sizes A through D were not intended to be used for larger-breasted women.[7]
Warner's 1944 advertisement for bra sizes A through D
In 1937, Warner introduced its Alphabet Bra with four cup sizes (A, B, C and D) to its product descriptions. Before long, these cup sizes got nicknames: egg cup, tea cup, coffee cup and challenge cup.[8] Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company) followed, offering A, B, C and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s.[9] Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, but resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalog in the 1950s.[10]
Band measurement origins[edit]
Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple hook and eye closures in the 1930s. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women was a corset. To help women meet the perceived ideal female body shape, corset and girdle manufacturers used a calculation called hip spring, the difference between waist and hip measurement (usually 10–12 inches).[11]
The band measurement system was created by U.S. bra manufacturers just after World War II.
Other innovations[edit]
The underwire was first added to a strapless bra in 1937 by André, a custom-bra firm.[12] Patents for underwire-type devices in bras were issued in 1931 and 1932, but were not widely adopted by manufacturers until after World War II when metal shortages eased.[13]
In the 1930s, Dunlop chemists were able to reliably transform rubber latex into elastic thread. After 1940, "whirlpool," or concentric stitching was used to shape the cup structure of some designs.[14] The man-made fibres were quickly adopted by the industry because of their easy-care properties. Since a brassiere must be laundered frequently, easy-care fabric was in great demand.
Consumer fitting[edit]
Pendulous breasts can make it difficult for a person to properly fit a bra.[citation needed] For best results, the breasts should be measured twice: once when standing upright, once bending over at the waist with the breasts hanging down.[citation needed] If the difference between these two measurements is more than 10 cm, then the average is chosen for calculating the cup size.[citation needed] A number of reports, surveys and studies in different countries have found that between 80% to 85% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras.[15][unreliable source?]
In November 2005, Oprah Winfrey produced a show devoted to bras and bra sizes, during which she talked about research that eight out of ten women wear the wrong size bra.[16]
Larger breasts and bra fit[edit]
A woman wearing an Elle Macpherson brand 30E bra demonstrates correct band fit with incorrect cup fit. Her bra band is parallel to the ground and her breasts do not spill out under her arm, but she exhibits major spilling of her breast tissue over the top of the cup.
When purchasing bras, larger-breasted women usually have difficulty selecting a well-fitting bra.[citation needed] Buxom women are more likely than smaller-breasted women to wear an incorrectly sized bra.[citation needed] They tend to buy bras that are too small, while smaller-breasted women tend to purchase bras that are too large.[15] Studies have revealed that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.[17][18]
As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of tissue within them changes.[citation needed] The breasts may become ptotic.[citation needed] This makes measurements increasingly unreliable.[citation needed] The heavier a person's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.[19]
In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate back measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."[19]
One issue that complicates finding a correctly fitting bra is that band and cup sizes are not standardized, but vary considerably from one manufacturer to another, resulting in sizes that only provide an approximate fit.[20][21] Women cannot rely on labeled bra sizes to identify a bra that fits properly.[22][23] Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing may be inaccurate.[24]
Manufacturers cut their bras differently, so, for example, two 34B bras from two companies may not fit the same person.[25] Customers should pay attention to which sizing system is used by the manufacturer. The main difference is in how cup sizes increase, by 2 cm or 1 inch (= 2.54 cm, see below). Some French manufacturers also increase cup sizes by 3 cm.[26] Unlike dress sizes, manufacturers do not agree on a single standard.
British bras currently range from A to LL cup size (with Rigby&Peller recently introducing bras by Elila which go up to US-N-Cup[27]), while most Americans can find bras with cup sizes ranging from A to G. Some brands (Goddess, Elila) go as high as N, a size roughly equal to a British JJ-Cup. In continental Europe, Milena Lingerie from Poland produces up to cup R. Larger sizes are usually harder to find in retail outlets. As the cup size increases, the labeled cup size of different manufacturers' bras tend to vary more widely in actual volume.[23] One study found that the label size was consistently different from the measured size.[28]
Even medical studies have attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.[29] Research by plastic surgeons has suggested that bra size is imprecise because breast volume is not calculated accurately:
The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements.[30]
The use of the cup sizing and band measurement systems has evolved over time and continues to change. Experts recommend that women get fitted by an experienced person[31] at a retailer offering the widest possible selection of bra sizes and brands.
Bad bra-fit symptoms[edit]
If the straps dig into the shoulder, leaving red marks or causing shoulder or neck pain, the bra band is not offering enough support.[32] If breast tissue overflows the bottom of the bra, under the armpit, or over the top edge of the bra cup, the cup size is too small.[32] Loose fabric in the bra cup indicates the cup size is too big.[33] If the underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum,[34] the cup size is too small.[32] If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small.[32] If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel too loose if the cup is too big. It is possible to test whether a bra band is too tight or too loose by reversing the bra on her torso so that the cups are at the back and then check for fit and comfort. Generally, if the wearer must continually adjust the bra or experiences general discomfort, the bra is a poor fit and she should get a new fitting.[35]
Obtaining best fit[edit]
Bra extension for the band
Bra experts recommend that women, especially those whose cup sizes are D or larger, get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store.[31] However, even professional bra fitters in different countries including New Zealand[36] and the United Kingdom[37][38] produce inconsistent measurements of the same person. There is significant heterogeneity in breast shape, density, and volume. As such, current methods of bra fitting may be insufficient for this range of chest morphology.
A 2004 study by Consumers Reports in New Zealand found that 80% of department store bra fittings resulted in a poor fit.[39] However, because manufacturer's standards widely vary,[40] women cannot rely on their own measurements to obtain a satisfactory fit.[citation needed] Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a properly fitting bra is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much like shoes.
Bra fitters generally agree[citation needed] that a correctly fitting bra should meet the following criteria:
When viewed from the side, the edge of the chest band should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
Each cup's underwire at the front should lie flat against the sternum (not the breast), along the inframammary fold, and should not dig into the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
The apex of the breast, the nipple, must be in the center of the cup.
The breast should not bulge over the top or out the sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
The straps of a correctly fitted bra should not dig into or slip off the shoulder, which suggests a too-large band.
The back of the bra should not ride up and the chest band should remain parallel to the floor when viewed from the back.
The breasts should be supported primarily by the band around the rib cage, rather than by the shoulder straps.
The woman should be able to breathe and move easily without the bra slipping around.
Confirming bra fit[edit]
One method to confirm that the bra is the best fit has been nicknamed the Swoop and Scoop. After identifying a well-fitting bra, the woman bends forward (the swoop), allowing their breasts to fall into the bra, filling the cup naturally, and then fastening the bra on the outermost set of hooks.[41][42] When the woman stands up, she uses the opposite hand to place each breast gently into the cup (the scoop), and she then runs her index finger along the inside top edge of the bra cup to make sure her breast tissue does not spill over the edges.[32][43]
Experts suggest that women choose a bra band that fits well on the outermost hooks.[41][42] This allows the wearer to use the tighter hooks on the bra strap as it stretches during its lifetime of about eight months.[42] The band should be tight enough to support the bust, but the straps should not provide the primary support.[44]
Bra size calculator[edit]
There are many online bra size calculator tools, mostly you will find on lingerie website.[citation needed] But one major bra size problem is that it varies according to brand.[citation needed] So even if you know the bra size of some particular brand, you should get yourself measured if you're buying bra from some other brand.[citation needed]
Consumer measurement difficulties[edit]
A bra is one of the most complicated articles of clothing to make. A typical bra design has between 20 and 48 parts, including the band, hooks, cups, lining, and straps. Major retailers place orders from manufacturers in batches of 10,000. Orders of this size require a large-scale operation to manage the cutting, sewing and packing required.[45]
Constructing a properly fitting brassiere is difficult. Adelle Kirk, formerly a manager at the global Kurt Salmon management consulting firm that specializes in the apparel and retail businesses, said that making bras is complex:
Bras are one of the most complex pieces of apparel. There are lots of different styles, and each style has a dozen different sizes, and within that there are a lot of colors. Furthermore, there is a lot of product engineering. You've got hooks, you've got straps, there are usually two parts to every cup, and each requires a heavy amount of sewing. It is very component intensive.[46]
Asymmetrical breasts common[edit]
Obtaining the correct size is complicated by the fact that up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry,[47] which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size.[citation needed] For about 5% to 10% of women, their breasts are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases.[48] Minor asymmetry may be resolved by wearing a padded bra,[citation needed] but in severe cases of developmental breast deformity—commonly called "Amazon's Syndrome" by physicians, may require corrective surgery due to morphological alterations caused by variations in shape, volume, position of the breasts relative to the inframammary fold, the position of the nipple-areola complex on the chest, or both.[49]
Breast volume variation[edit]
Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of women's breasts change, if they experience menstrual cycles, during the cycle[15] and can experience unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size due to pregnancy, weight gain or loss, or medical conditions.[citation needed] Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements.[29]
Some women's breasts can change shape by as much as 20% per month:
"Breasts change shape quite consistently on a month-to-month basis, but they will individually change their volume by a different amount ... Some girls will change less than 10% and other girls can change by as much as 20%." Would it be better not to wear a bra at all then? "... In fact there are very few advantages in wearing existing bras. Having a bra that's generally supportive would have significant improvement particularly in terms of stopping them going south ... The skin is what gives the breasts their support"[50]
Increasing breast size[edit]
In 2010, the most common bra size sold in the UK was 36D.[17][51] In 2004, market research company Mintel reported that bust sizes in the United Kingdom had increased from 1998 to 2004 in younger as well as older consumers and that the shift was not limited to overweight women,[31] while a more recent study showed that the most often sold bra size in the US in 2008 was 36D.[52]
Researchers also said more women wear the correct—bigger—size now, spurred on by shows like BBC 1's What Not To Wear and Channel 4's How To Look Good Naked.[53]
Consumer measurement methods[edit]
Bra retailers recommend several methods for measuring band and cup size. These are based on two primary methods, either under the bust or over the bust, and sometimes both. Calculating the correct bra band size is complicated by a variety of factors. The American National Standards Institute states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the ‘true’ size of clothing.[40] As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science.[1] Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number.[54]
Band measurement methods[edit]
There are several possible methods for measuring the bust.
Underbust +0[edit]
A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size.[55][56]
Underbust +4[edit]
This method begins the same way as the underbust +0 method, where a measuring tape is pulled tight around the torso under the bust while remaining horizontal. If the measurement is even, 4 is added to calculate the band size. If it is odd, 5 is added. Kohl’s uses this method for its online fitting guide.[57]
Sizing chart[edit]
Currently, many large U.S. department stores determine band size by starting with the measurement taken underneath the bust similar to the aforementioned underbust +0 and underbust +4 methods. A sizing chart or calculator then uses this measurement to determine the band size.[58] Band sizes calculated using this method vary between manufacturers, although the band sizes generally lie in between band sizes that would result from the underbust +0 method and underbust+4 method.
Above the breasts[edit]
Victoria's Secret uses this method, where a measuring tape is pulled around the torso under the armpit and above the bust. Because band sizes are most commonly manufactured in even numbers, the wearer must round to the closest even number.[59]
Cup measurement methods[edit]
Pictogram for the European bra size 70B using EN 13402-1
Bra-wearers can calculate their cup size by finding the difference between their bust size and their band size.[58][60] The bust size, bust line measure, or over-bust measure is the measurement around the torso over the fullest part of the breasts, with the crest of the breast halfway between the elbow and shoulder,[61] usually over the nipples,[62] ideally while standing straight with arms to the side and wearing a properly fitted bra.[54] This practice assumes the current bra fits correctly. The measurements are made in the same units as the band size, either inches or centimetres. The cup size is calculated by subtracting the band size from the over-the-bust measurement.[63][64]
Cup sizes vary[edit]
Cup sizes vary from one country to another. The larger the cup size, the bigger the variation.[65]
Over the bust/band measurement difference and cup size [66][67]
Difference (inches) <1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Cupsize U.S. AA A B C D DD/E DDD/F DDDD/G H I J K L M N O — —
Cupsize UK/Austr. AA A B C D DD E F FF G GG H HH J JJ K KK L
Surveys of bra sizes tend to be very dependent on the population studied and how it was obtained. For instance, one U.S. study reported that the most common size was 34B, followed by 34C, that 63% were size 34 and 39% cup size B. However, the survey sample was drawn from 103 Caucasian student volunteers at a Midwest U.S. university aged 18–25, and excluded pregnant and nursing women.[68]
Bra maker Triumph conducted a survey in 2007 to determine the percentage of women wearing four cup sizes, and found that 57% of British women, more than any other country, need a D cup.[69]
Triumph Survey
Country
D
C
B
A
UK 57% 18% 19% 6%
Denmark 50% 19% 24% 7%
Netherlands 36% 27% 29% 8%
Belgium 28% 28% 35% 9%
France 26% 29% 38% 7%
Sweden 24% 30% 33% 14%
Greece 23% 28% 40% 9%
Switzerland 19% 24% 43% 14%
Austria 11% 27% 51% 10%
Italy 10% 21% 68% 1%
Measuring cup size without a bra[edit]
Bra-wearers who have difficulty calculating a correct cup size may be able to find a correct fit using a method adopted by plastic surgeons. Using a flexible tape measure, position the tape at the outside of the chest, under the arm, where the breast tissue begins.[70] Measure across the fullest part of the breast, usually across the nipple, to where the breast tissue stops at the breast bone.[71] This measuring approach assumes that the breasts are not so large or pendulous that they sag significantly,[62] making measuring across the fullness of the breast impractical.[citation needed] Only women whose breasts are firm and spherical can measure without a bra.[citation needed]
Conversion of the measurement to cup size is as follows:[71]
Measuring cup size
Measurement
Cup size
inch
cm
7.0 17.8 A
7.5 19.1 A
8.0 20.3 B
8.5 21.6 B
9.0 22.9 C
9.5 24.1 C
10.0 25.4 D
10.5 26.7 D
11.0 27.9 DD
These cup measurements are only correct for a 34-inch band because cup size is relative to band size. The volume of a brassiere cup is the same for 30D, 32C, 34B, and 36A, though the shape of each cup may be different. These related bra sizes of the same cup volume are called sister sizes. It is sometimes possible that two adjacent sister sizes will both fit a person, since the cup volume is the same, while the band size can be adjusted to a small degree by using the hook and eye fasteners in the bra clasp.[72]
Consumer fit research[edit]
A 2012 study by White and Scurr University of Portsmouth compared method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method used in many United Kingdom lingerie shops with and compared that to measurements obtained using a professional method.[citation needed] The study relied on the professional bra-fitting method described by McGhee and Steele (2010).[73]
The study utilized a five-step approach to obtain the best fitting bra size for an individual. The study measured 45 women using the traditional selection method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method. Women tried bras on until they obtained the best fit based on professional bra fitting criteria. The researchers found that 76% of women overestimated their band and 84% underestimated their cup size.[citation needed] When women wear bras with too big a band, breast support is reduced.[citation needed] Too small a cup size may cause skin irritation.[citation needed] They noted that "ill-fitting bras and insufficient breast support can lead to the development of musculoskeletal pain and inhibit women participating in physical activity."[citation needed] The study recommended that women should be educated about the criteria for finding a well-fitting bra.[citation needed] They recommended that women measure under their bust to determine their band size rather than the traditional over the bust measurement method.[74]
Manufacturer design standards[edit]
Bra-labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world.[72] In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Bra-fitting experts in the United Kingdom state that many women who buy off the rack without professional assistance wear up to two sizes too small.[53]
Manufacturer Fruit of the Loom attempted to solve the problem of finding a well-fitting bra for asymmetrical breasts by introducing Pick Your Perfect Bra, which allow women to choose a bra with two different cup sizes, although it is only available in A through D cup sizes.[75]
Approximate (band) size equivalents between various systems
Under bust (cm)
58–62
63–67
68–72
73–77
78–82
83–87
88–92
93–97
98–102
103–107
108–112
113–117
118–122
123–127
128–132
133–142
143+
EU
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
FR, BE, ES
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
IT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
US, UK (in)
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
AU, NZ
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
UK dress
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
There are several sizing systems in different countries. Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and lettered cup sizes, but there are some significant differences. Many bras available come in only 36 sizes.[31]
UK[edit]
These are equivalent UK cup volumes
The UK uses the inch-system, this means that the difference in chest circumference between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.
Leading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.[76]
However, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup.[citation needed] Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their George clothing range) whose sizing runs A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-H. Their H-Cup is roughly equal to a British standard G-cup.[citation needed]
Some retailers reserve AA for young teens, and use AAA[77][78][79] for women.
Australia/New Zealand[edit]
Australia and New Zealand use a permutation of the British system. Cup sizes are the same, but Australia's bra band measurement system is based on dress sizing charts.[80] However, dress sizes and cuts are calculated for B and C cups only, so basing the choice of band size upon dress size is not an accurate way to get the bra size. Depending upon a person's build, a size 16 may wear a 16 C (UK 40 C), a 14 DD, 12 F or a 10 G (UK 34 G) underneath their clothes, because all bra sizes are made for the same chest circumference of approx. 40 inches.[citation needed]
United States and Canada[edit]
Bra-sizing in the United States and Canada is very similar to the United Kingdom. Band sizes use the same designation in inches and the cups also increase by 1-inch-steps. However, some manufacturers use conflicting sizing methods. Some label bras beyond a C cup as D-DD-DDD-DDDD-E-EE-EEE-EEEE-F…, some use the variation: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5..... but many use the following system: A, B, C, D, DD, DDD, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O. and others label them like the British system D-DD-E-F-FF… Comparing the larger cup sizes between different manufacturers can be difficult.[citation needed]
In 2013, underwear maker Jockey International offered a new way to measure bra and cup size. It introduced a system with ten cup sizes per band size that are numbered and not lettered, designated as 1-36, 2-36 etc. The company developed the system over eight years, during which they scanned and measured the breasts and torsos of 800 women. Researchers also tracked the women's use of their bras at home.[81] To implement the system, women must purchase a set of plastic cups from the company to find their Jockey cup size. Some analysts were critical of the requirement to buy the measurement kit, since women must pay about USD$20 to adopt Jockey's proprietary system, in addition to the cost of the bras themselves.[81]
Continental Europe[edit]
Band size
Underbust circumference
Bust size
Underbust size
cm
FR/BE/ES
EU
IT
58–62 75 60 0
63–67 80 65 1 I
68–72 85 70 2 II
73–77 90 75 3 III
78–82 95 80 4 IV, IIII
83–87 100 85 5 V
88–92 105 90 6 VI
93–97 110 95 7 VII
98–102 115 100 8 VIII
103–107 120 105 9 IX, VIIII
108–112 125 110 10 X
Cup size
Difference [cm]
Cup
10–12 AA
12–14 A
14–16 B
16–18 C
18–20 D
20–22 E
22–24 F
24–26 G
26–28 H
In Continental Europe the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.
The cup labels begin with "AA" for an 11±1 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. not between bust circumference and band size as in the English systems[further explanation needed]. They increase in steps of 2 cm, instead of 2.5 cm or 1-inch, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped. In very large cup sizes this causes smaller cups than their English counterparts.
This system has been standardized in the European dress size standard EN 13402 introduced in 2006, but was in use in many European countries before that date.
South Korea/Japan[edit]
In South Korea and Japan the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.
The cup labels begin with "AAA" for an 5±1.25 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. similar bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2.5 cm, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped.
Japanese sizes are the same as Korean ones, but the cup labels begin with "AA" for a 7.5±1.25 cm difference and usually precedes the bust designation, i.e. "B75" instead of "75B".
This system has been standardized in the Korea dress size standard KS K9404 introduced in 1999 and in Japan dress size standard JIS L4006 introduced in 1998.
France/Belgium/Spain[edit]
The French and Spanish system is a permutation of the Continental European sizing system. While cup sizes are the same, band sizes are exactly 15 cm larger than the European band size.
Italy[edit]
The Italian band size uses small consecutive integers instead of the underbust circumference rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Since it starts with size 0 for European size 60, the conversion consists of a division by 5 and then a subtraction of 12. The size designations are often given in Roman numerals.
Cup sizes have traditionally used a step size of 2.5 cm, which is close to the English inch of 2.54 cm, and featured some double letters for large cups, but in recent years some Italian manufacturers have switched over to the European 2-cm system.
Here is a conversion table for bra sizes in Italy with respect other countries:
Italy
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Europe
65 cm 70 cm 75 cm 80 cm 85 cm 90 cm 95 cm 100 cm
UK & USA
30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
France & Spain
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Advertising and retail influence[edit]
Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort, and function.[29][82] Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional brassieres that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.[83]
Women with larger breasts (cup size greater than D) can have a difficult time finding a correctly sized bra[citation needed] because many stores do not offer a sufficient range of bras in greater sizes.[citation needed] Many salespeople are not trained in how to properly fit a bra, and when the customer can not find what they want, will sell the customer the next largest or smallest size.[25] Some salespeople measure customers over their shirt and bra, adding errors to every measurement.[citation needed] Elisabeth Squires, an author of a breast-health and bra guide, says "Most really good fitters will tell you this is an art, not a science."[84]
Research[edit]
English mechanical engineer and professor John Tyrer from Loughborough University tackled the problem of bra design after his wife returned disheartened from a shopping trip when she could not find anything to suit her needs.[85] On assignment from the British government,[86] he uncovered that 80% of women wear the wrong size of bra.[citation needed] He reported that women are measuring their chest diameter and maximum breast diameter rather than their breast volume, especially when the body is in motion. According to Tyrer, "to get the most supportive and fitted bra it's infinitely better if you know the volume of the breast and the size of the back.".[85] He says the A, B, C, D cup measurement system is flawed. "It's like measuring a motor car by the diameter of the gas cap." "The whole design is fundamentally flawed. It's an instrument of torture."[86] Tyrer has developed a bra design with crossed straps in the back.[citation needed] These use the weight of one breast to lift the other using counterbalance.[citation needed] Standard designs constrict chest movement during breathing.[citation needed] One of the tools used in the development of Tyrer's design has been a projective differential shape body analyzer for 40,000 GBP.[citation needed]
Contrary to popular belief, breasts weigh up to ~1 kg and not ~0.2 .. 0.3 kg.[85][87][88][89] Tyrer said, "By measuring the diameter of the chest and breasts current measurements are supposed to tell you something about the size and volume of each breast, but in fact it doesn't".[85] Bra companies remain reluctant to manufacture Tyrer's prototype,[86] which is a front closing bra with more vertical orientation and adjustable cups.[86]
Calculating cup volume and breast weight[edit]
The average breast weighs about 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[90] Each breast contributes to about 4–5% of the body fat.[citation needed] The density of fatty tissue is more or less equal to 0.9 kg/l for all women.[citation needed]
If a cup is a hemisphere, its volume V is given by the following formula:[91]
V = 2 π r 3 3 {\displaystyle V={2\pi r^{3} \over 3}} V = π D 3 12 {\displaystyle V={\pi D^{3} \over 12}}
where r is the radius of the cup, and D is its diameter.
If the cup is an hemi-ellipsoid, its volume is given by the formula :[citation needed]
V = 2 π a b c 3 {\displaystyle V={2\pi abc \over 3}} V ≈ π × c w × c d × w l 12 {\displaystyle V\approx {\pi \times cw\times cd\times wl \over 12}}
where a, b and c are the three semi-axes of the hemi-ellipsoid, and cw cd and wl are respectively the cup width, the cup depth and the length of the wire.
Cups give a hemi-spherical shape to breasts and underwires give shape to cups.[citation needed] So the curvature radius of the underwire is the key parameter to determine volume and weight of the breast.[citation needed] The same underwires are used for the cups of sizes 36A, 34B, 32C, 30D etc. ... so those cups have the same volume.[citation needed] The reference numbers of underwire sizes are based on a B cup bra,[92] for example underwire size 32 is for 32B cup (and 34A, 30C...). An underwire size 30 width has a curvature diameter of 3-inch 5/6 ≈ 9.7 cm and this diameter increases by ⅓ inch ≈ 0.847 cm by size.[92] The table below shows volume calculations for some cups that can be found in a ready-to-wear large size shop.[93]
Underwire size
Bra size (US system)
Bra size (UK system)
Cup diameter[92]
Volume of one cup
Weight of both breasts
30 32A 30B 28C 32A 30B 28C 9.7 cm (3 in 5/6) 240 cm3 (0.51 US pt) 0.43 kg (0.95 lb)
32 34A 32B 30C 28D 34A 32B 30C 28D 10.6 cm (4 in 1/6) 310 cm3 (0.66 US pt) 0.56 kg (1.2 lb)
34 36A 34B 32C 30D 28E 36A 34B 32C 30D 28DD 11.4 cm (4 in 1/2) 390 cm3 (0.82 US pt) 0.70 kg (1.5 lb)
36 38A 36B 34C 32D 30E 28F 38A 36B 34C 32D 30DD 28E 12.3 cm (4 in 5/6) 480 cm3 (1.0 US pt) 0.86 kg (1.9 lb)
38 40A 38B 36C 34D 32E 30F 28G 40A 38B 36C 34D 32DD 30E 28F 13.1 cm (5 in 1/6) 590 cm3 (1.2 US pt) 1.1 kg (2.4 lb)
40 42A 40B 38C 36D 34E 32F 30G 28H 42A 40B 38C 36D 34DD 32E 30F 28FF 14.0 cm (5 in 1/2) 710 cm3 (1.5 US pt) 1.3 kg (2.9 lb)
42 44A 42B 40C 38D 36E 34F 32G 30H 28I 44A 42B 40C 38D 36DD 34E 32F 30FF 28G 14.8 cm (5 in 5/6) 850 cm3 (1.8 US pt) 1.5 kg (3.3 lb)
44 44B 42C 40D 38E 36F 34G 32H 30I 28J 44B 42C 40D 38DD 36E 34F 32FF 30G 28GG 15.7 cm (6 in 1/6) 1,000 cm3 (2.1 US pt) 1.8 kg (4.0 lb)
46 44C 42D 40E 38F 36G 34H 32I 30J 28K 44C 42D 40DD 38E 36F 34FF 32G 30GG 28H 16.5 cm (6 in 1/2) 1,180 cm3 (2.5 US pt) 2.1 kg (4.6 lb)
48 44D 42E 40F 38G 36H 34I 32J 30K 28L 44D 42DD 40E 38F 36FF 34G 32GG 30H 28HH 17.4 cm (6 in 5/6) 1,370 cm3 (2.9 US pt) 2.5 kg (5.5 lb)
50 44E 42F 40G 38H 36I 34J 32K 30L 28M 44DD 42E 40F 38FF 36G 34GG 32H 30HH 28J 18.2 cm (7 in 1/6) 1,580 cm3 (3.3 US pt) 2.8 kg (6.2 lb)
52 44F 42G 40H 38I 36J 34K 32L 30M 28N 44E 42F 40FF 38G 36GG 34H 32HH 30J 28JJ 19.0 cm (7 in 1/2) 1,810 cm3 (3.8 US pt) 3.3 kg (7.3 lb)
54 44G 42H 40I 38J 36K 34L 32M 30N 28O 44F 42FF 40G 38GG 36H 34HH 32J 30JJ 28K 19.9 cm (7 in 5/6) 2,060 cm3 (4.4 US pt) 3.7 kg (8.2 lb)
56 44H 42I 40J 38K 36L 34M 32N 30O 28P 44FF 42G 40GG 38H 36HH 34J 32JJ 30K 28KK 20.7 cm (8 in 1/6) 2,340 cm3 (4.9 US pt) 4.2 kg (9.3 lb)
58 44I 42J 40K 38L 36M 34N 32O 30P 44G 42GG 40H 38HH 36J 34JJ 32K 30KK 21.6 cm (8 in 1/2) 2,640 cm3 (5.6 US pt) 4.8 kg (11 lb)
60 44J 42K 40L 38M 36N 34O 32P 44GG 42H 40HH 38J 36JJ 34K 32KK 22.4 cm (8 in 5/6) 3,000 cm3 (6.3 US pt) 5.3 kg (12 lb)
See also[edit]
Fashion portal
Brassiere designs
History of brassieres
Wonderbra
Underwire bra
Cupless bra
Nursing bra

Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Find Your Bra Size". BareWeb Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Pechter 1998.
Jump up ^ "Why most women wear wrong bra size". Cupmysize.com. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ US patent 1009297, Madeleine Gabeau, "Breast Supporters", issued 1909-November-21
Jump up ^ Farrell-Beck & Gau 2002.
Jump up ^ US patent 1115674, Mary Phelps Jacob, "Brassière", issued 1914-November-14
Jump up ^ Apsan 2006, p. 186.
Jump up ^ Eisenberg & Eisenberg 2012.
Jump up ^ Apsan 2006, p. 186; Farrell-Beck & Gau 2002; Steele 2010, p. 101.
Jump up ^ Fields 2007, p. 102.
Jump up ^ "Spirella, Health and the Older Woman".
Jump up ^ "History of Fashion in America Timeline of Important Dates". Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Edmark, Tomima. "Bra Styles: Expert Bra Fitting Advice". HerRoom.com.
Jump up ^ "Brassiere". Clothing and Fashion Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wood, Cameron & Fitzgerald 2008.
Jump up ^ "Oprah Winfrey: Oprah's Bra and Swimsuit Intervention". 20 May 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Lantin, Barbara (14 April 2003). "A Weight off my shoulders". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bravissimo sizes up staff – Royal Free Hampstead".
^ Jump up to: a b Greenbaum et al. 2003.
Jump up ^ "Top Five Bra-Sizing Myths". Knickers: The lingerie blog. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Everything You Need to Know About Bra Fitting". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ "Cup Size Chart". The Wizard of Bras. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Proper Measuring Techniques for Plus-Size Women". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ Zhenga, Yu & Fan 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Diana, Mario. "A bra that's a little off can cause big problems". Retrieved 19 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Alles über verschiedene Größensysteme".
Jump up ^ Roberts, Hannah (1 April 2011). "Introducing British 48N cup bra". London: Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Greenbaum et al. 2003; Pechter 1998.
^ Jump up to: a b c McGhee & Steele 2006.
Jump up ^ Pechter 1998; Ringberg et al. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d King, Stephanie (2 June 2005). "A Short History of Lingerie: Doreen the Bra That Conquered the World". London: The Independent.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Lingerie Bra Fitting Video". Fantasie. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Schurman, Aysha. "Signs of the Wrong Bra Size". Life123. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bra Fitting Guide". Belladonna Eyes. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting tips from the German bra fitting forum www.busenfreundinnen.net". www.busenfreundinnen.net. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting Services".
Jump up ^ "BBC Radio 4 Woman's Hour – Bras".
Jump up ^ "The Great Bra Fitting Fiasco". Daily Mail. London. 9 August 2005.
Jump up ^ "Which? Report – Bra fitting services". 1 September 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b ""What's My Size?" Status Report on U.S. Clothing Size Standards and a Glimpse of the International Scene". New York. July 24, 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b Bailly, Jenny. "The 4 Biggest Bra Shopping Mistakes". Retrieved 14 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "10 Bra Mistakes You're Probably Making (And How To Fix Them)". August 5, 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Swoop and Scoop". Freya. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra Size Guide". Lacy Hint. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Watson, Noshua. "MAS Holdings: Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility in the Apparel Industry" (PDF). INSEAD. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Moberg, Matthew; Siskin, Jonathan; Stern, Barry; Wu, Ru (1999). "Sara Lee: Wonderbra". University of Michigan Business School. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Breast Development". Massachusetts Hospital for Children. Archived from the original on 7 August 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Losken et al. 2005.
Jump up ^ Araco et al. 2006; Wieslander 1999.
Jump up ^ Ghost, Sarah (14 November 2007). "Support Act" (Real Audio Media). BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Are you wearing the right bra size?". Archived from the original on 17 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Holson, Laura M. (8 April 2009). "Your Bra Size: The Truth May (Pleasantly) Surprise You". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Rae, Charles (2 October 2008). "British Boobs up for the Cup". London: The Sun. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bra Fitting Guide". Clovia.com. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Find Your Bra Size". Bare Necessities. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "How to Measure Bra Size". Women's Health Magazine (online). Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra Fitting: Free Professional Bra Fitting In Your Area".
^ Jump up to: a b "Calculate Your Bra Size". MBSC. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "How to Measure Your Bra Size at Victoria's Secret".
Jump up ^ "Find Your Bra Size". BareNecessities.com. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Tomima Edmark. How to Measure for Bra. HerRoom.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Measuring Breasts For Proper Bra Siz". femaleontop.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ "Bra Size Chart". DimensionsGuide.com. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Breast Size Chart". DimensionsGuide.com. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Frederick's of Hollywood – Bra Size Conversion Chart". Frederick's of Hollywood. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "HerRoom sizing chart". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting - how to find your right bra size?". 007b.com. Retrieved 30 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Chen, LaBat & Bye 2010.
Jump up ^ "Brit girls' boobs are the biggest". London: The Sun. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra sizing and fitting procedure". Lauren Silva.
^ Jump up to: a b Frederick R. Jelovsek. "Breast Asymmetry – When Does It Need Treatment?". Retrieved 2 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Figleaves.com fitting room".
Jump up ^ McGhee & Steele 2010.
Jump up ^ White & Scurr 2012.
Jump up ^ "Pick Your Perfect Pair Bras: Learn About Pick Your Perfect Pair Bras". Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "How To Properly Measure Your Bra Size". Retrieved May 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "32 34 36 38 40 AAA Bras and Small Lingerie at Little Women.". Retrieved 2 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive collection of small bras - A Cup Bras, AA Cup Bras, AAA Cup Bras and also AAAA Cup Bras". daintylady.co.uk. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Petite Lingerie and Small Bra Sizes AAA, AA and A Cup Bras". lulalu.com. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Alles über verschiedene Größensysteme". Busenfreundinnen.
^ Jump up to: a b Clifford, Stephanie (May 31, 2013). "A New Step in Wrestling With the Bra". The New York Times. Retrieved May 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bras and Pants". Mintel International Group Ltd. 2005.
Jump up ^ Seigel, Jessica (13 February 2004). "The Cups Runneth Over". New York: New York Times. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Hodges, Jane (29 November 2007). "Finding a Good Fit For the Female Form". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Support Act". Leicester—Features. BBC. 14 November 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jessica Seigel. Bent out of shape: Why is it so hard to find the perfect bra?". Lifetime Magazine. May–June 2003.
Jump up ^ "I didn't know that", episode 24. National Geographic TV.
Jump up ^ "I Didn't Know That, episode 24". Archived from the original on 14 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Festival Programme, Bras to Bridges or Why Bras Don't Work". Loughborough University – Faculty of Science.
Jump up ^ Katch et al. 1980.
Jump up ^ Nanas, Edward (February 1964). "Brassieres: An Engineering Miracle". Science and Mechanics. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c McCunn, Don. "Underwire Charts" (PDF). Design Enterprises of San Francisco.
Jump up ^ "Plussize "Trusiz" Chart". Retrieved 2012-07-20.
References[edit]
Apsan, Rebecca (2006). The Lingerie Handbook. New York: Workman Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7611-4323-9.
Araco, A.; Gravante, G.; Araco, F.; Gentile, P.; Castrì, F.; Delogu, D.; Filingeri, V.; Cervelli, V. (2006). "Breast Asymmetries: A Brief Review and Our Experience". Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 30 (3): 309–319. doi:10.1007/s00266-005-0178-x.
Chen, Chin-Man; LaBat, Karen; Bye, Elizabeth (2010). "Physical Characteristics Related to Bra Fit". Ergonomics. 53 (4): 514–24. PMID 20309747. doi:10.1080/00140130903490684.
Eisenberg, Ted; Eisenberg, Joyne K. (2012). The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Incompra Press. ISBN 978-0-9857249-0-0.
Farrell-Beck, Jane; Gau, Colleen (2002). Uplift: The Bra in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1835-0.
Fields, Jill (2007). An Intimate Affair: Women, Lingerie, and Sexuality. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22369-1.
Greenbaum, A. R.; Heslop, T.; Morris, J.; Dunn, K. W. (2003). "An Investigation of the Suitability of Bra Fit in Women Referred for Reduction Mammaplasty". British Journal of Plastic Surgery. 56 (3): 230–236. PMID 12859918. doi:10.1016/S0007-1226(03)00122-X.
Katch, Victor L.; Campaigne, Barbara; Freedson, Patty; Sady, Stanley; Katch, Frank I.; Behnke, Albert R. (1980). "Contribution of Breast Volume and Weight to Body Fat Distribution in Females". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 53 (1): 93–100. PMID 7416252. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330530113.
Losken, Albert; Fishman, Inessa; Denson, Donald D.; Moyer, Hunter R.; Carlson, Grant W. (2005). "An Objective Evaluation of Breast Symmetry and Shape Differences Using 3-Dimensional Images". Annals of Plastic Surgery. 55 (6): 571–575. PMID 16327452. doi:10.1097/01.sap.0000185459.49434.5f.
McGhee, Deirdre E.; Steele, Julie R. (2006). "How do Respiratory State and Measurement Method affect Bra Size Calculations?". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 40 (12): 970–974. PMC 2577461  . PMID 17021004. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.025171.
———; ——— (2010). "Optimising Breast Support in Female Patients through Correct Bra Fit: A Cross-sectional Study". Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 13 (6): 568–572. PMID 20451452. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2010.03.003.
Pechter, Edward A. (1998). "A New Method for Determining Bra Size and Predicting Postaugmentation Breast Size". Plastic Reconstruction Surgery. 102 (4): 1259–1265. PMID 9734454. doi:10.1097/00006534-199809040-00056.
Ringberg, Anita; Bågeman, Erika; Rose, Carsten; Ingvar, Christian; Jernström, Helena (2006). "Of Cup and Bra Size: Reply to Prospective Study of Breast Size and Premenopausal Breast Cancer Incidence". International Journal of Cancer. 119 (9): 2242–2243. PMID 16841335. doi:10.1002/ijc.22104.
Steele, Valerie (2010). The Berg Companion to Fashion. Oxford, England: Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84788-592-0.
White, J.; Scurr, J. (2012). "Evaluation of Professional Bra Fitting Criteria for Bra Selection and Fitting in the UK". Ergonomics. 55 (6): 704–711. doi:10.1080/00140139.2011.647096.
Wieslander, J. B. (1999). "Medfödd bröstdeformitet allvarligt handikapp: Viktig indikation för bröstrekonstruktion med silikonimplantat" [Congenital Breast Deformity is a Serious Handicap: An Important Indication for Breast Reconstruction with Silicone Implants] (PDF). Lakartidningen (in Swedish). 96 (14): 1703–1705, 1708–1710. ISSN 1652-7518. PMID 10222685. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
Wood, Katherine; Cameron, Melainie; Fitzgerald, Kylie (2008). "Breast Size, Bra Fit and Thoracic Pain in Young Women: A Correlational Study". Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 16: 1. PMC 2275741  . PMID 18339205. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-16-1.
Zhenga, Rong; Yu, Winnie; Fan, Jintu (2007). "Development of a New Chinese Bra Sizing System Based on Breast Anthropometric Measurements". International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 37 (8): 697–705. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2007.05.008.
Further reading[edit]
Jahme, Carole (14 May 2010). "Breast size: a human anomaly". Ask Carole (column). The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
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Programmable logic device
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (January 2013)
A simplified PAL device. The programmable elements (shown as a fuse) connect both the true and complemented inputs to the AND gates. These AND gates, also known as product terms, are ORed together to form a sum-of-products logic array.
A programmable logic device (PLD) is an electronic component used to build reconfigurable digital circuits. Unlike a logic gate, which has a fixed function, a PLD has an undefined function at the time of manufacture. Before the PLD can be used in a circuit it must be programmed, that is, reconfigured.
Contents
1 Early programmable logic
2 PLA
3 PAL
4 GALs
5 CPLDs
6 FPGAs
7 Other variants
8 How PLDs retain their configuration
9 PLD programming languages
10 PLD programming devices
11 References
12 External links
Early programmable logic[edit]
In 1969, Motorola offered the XC157, a mask-programmed gate array with 12 gates and 30 uncommitted input/output pins.[1]
In 1970, Texas Instruments developed a mask-programmable IC based on the IBM read-only associative memory or ROAM. This device, the TMS2000, was programmed by altering the metal layer during the production of the IC. The TMS2000 had up to 17 inputs and 18 outputs with 8 JK flip flop for memory. TI coined the term programmable logic array for this device.[2]
In 1971, General Electric Company (GE) was developing a programmable logic device based on the new PROM technology. This experimental device improved on IBM's ROAM by allowing multilevel logic. Intel had just introduced the floating-gate UV erasable PROM so the researcher at GE incorporated that technology. The GE device was the first erasable PLD ever developed, predating the Altera EPLD by over a decade. GE obtained several early patents on programmable logic devices.[3][4][5]
In 1973 National Semiconductor introduced a mask-programmable PLA device (DM7575) with 14 inputs and 8 outputs with no memory registers. This was more popular than the TI part but cost of making the metal mask limited its use. The device is significant because it was the basis for the field programmable logic array produced by Signetics in 1975, the 82S100. (Intersil actually beat Signetics to market but poor yield doomed their part.)[6][7]
In 1974 GE entered into an agreement with Monolithic Memories to develop a mask- programmable logic device incorporating the GE innovations. The device was named the 'Programmable Associative Logic Array' or PALA. The MMI 5760 was completed in 1976 and could implement multilevel or sequential circuits of over 100 gates. The device was supported by a GE design environment where Boolean equations would be converted to mask patterns for configuring the device. The part was never brought to market.[8]
PLA[edit]
Main article: Programmable logic array
In 1970, Texas Instruments developed a mask-programmable IC based on the IBM read-only associative memory or ROAM. This device, the TMS2000, was programmed by altering the metal layer during the production of the IC. The TMS2000 had up to 17 inputs and 18 outputs with 8 JK flip flop for memory. TI coined the term programmable logic array for this device.[2]
A programmable logic array (PLA) has a programmable AND gate array, which links to a programmable OR gate array, which can then be conditionally complemented to produce an output.
PAL[edit]
Main article: Programmable array logic
PAL devices have arrays of transistor cells arranged in a "fixed-OR, programmable-AND" plane used to implement "sum-of-products" binary logic equations for each of the outputs in terms of the inputs and either synchronous or asynchronous feedback from the outputs.
MMI introduced a breakthrough device in 1978, the programmable array logic or PAL. The architecture was simpler than that of Signetics FPLA because it omitted the programmable OR array. This made the parts faster, smaller and cheaper. They were available in 20 pin 300 mil DIP packages while the FPLAs came in 28 pin 600 mil packages. The PAL Handbook demystified the design process. The PALASM design software (PAL assembler) converted the engineers' Boolean equations into the fuse pattern required to program the part. The PAL devices were soon second-sourced by National Semiconductor, Texas Instruments and AMD.
After MMI succeeded with the 20-pin PAL parts, AMD introduced the 24-pin 22V10 PAL with additional features. After buying out MMI (1987), AMD spun off a consolidated operation as Vantis, and that business was acquired by Lattice Semiconductor in 1999.
GALs[edit]
Main article: Generic array logic
Lattice GAL 16V8 and 20V8
An improvement on the PAL was the generic array logic device, or GAL, invented by Lattice Semiconductor in 1985. This device has the same logical properties as the PAL but can be erased and reprogrammed. The GAL is very useful in the prototyping stage of a design, when any bugs in the logic can be corrected by reprogramming. GALs are programmed and reprogrammed using a PAL programmer, or by using the in-circuit programming technique on supporting chips.
Lattice GALs combine CMOS and electrically erasable (E2) floating gate technology for a high-speed, low-power logic device. A similar device called a PEEL (programmable electrically erasable logic) was introduced by the International CMOS Technology (ICT) corporation.
CPLDs[edit]
Main article: Complex programmable logic device
PALs and GALs are available only in small sizes, equivalent to a few hundred logic gates. For bigger logic circuits, complex PLDs or CPLDs can be used. These contain the equivalent of several PALs linked by programmable interconnections, all in one integrated circuit. CPLDs can replace thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of logic gates.
Some CPLDs are programmed using a PAL programmer, but this method becomes inconvenient for devices with hundreds of pins. A second method of programming is to solder the device to its printed circuit board, then feed it with a serial data stream from a personal computer. The CPLD contains a circuit that decodes the data stream and configures the CPLD to perform its specified logic function. Some manufacturers (including Altera and Microsemi) use JTAG to program CPLD's in-circuit from .JAM files.
FPGAs[edit]
Main article: Field-programmable gate array
While PALs were being developed into GALs and CPLDs (all discussed above), a separate stream of development was happening. This type of device is based on gate array technology and is called the field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Early examples of FPGAs are the 82s100 array, and 82S105 sequencer, by Signetics, introduced in the late 1970s. The 82S100 was an array of AND terms. The 82S105 also had flip flop functions.
FPGAs use a grid of logic gates, and once stored, the data doesn't change, similar to that of an ordinary gate array. The term "field-programmable" means the device is programmed by the customer, not the manufacturer.
FPGAs are usually programmed after being soldered down to the circuit board, in a manner similar to that of larger CPLDs. In most larger FPGAs, the configuration is volatile and must be re-loaded into the device whenever power is applied or different functionality is required. Configuration is typically stored in a configuration PROM or EEPROM. EEPROM versions may be in-system programmable (typically via JTAG).
The difference between FPGAs and CPLDs is that FPGAs are internally based on Look-up tables (LUTs) whereas CPLDs form the logic functions with sea-of-gates (e.g. sum of products). CPLDs are meant for simpler designs while FPGAs are meant for more complex designs. In general, CPLDs are a good choice for wide combinational logic applications, whereas FPGAs are more suitable for large state machines (i.e. microprocessors).
Other variants[edit]
At present, there's not much interest in reconfigurable systems anymore. These are microprocessor circuits that contain some fixed functions and other functions that can be altered by code running on the processor. Designing self-altering systems requires engineers to learn new methods, and that new software tools be developed.
PLDs are being sold now that contain a microprocessor with a fixed function (the so-called core) surrounded by programmable logic. These devices let designers concentrate on adding new features to designs without having to worry about making the microprocessor work.
How PLDs retain their configuration[edit]
A PLD is a combination of a logic device and a memory device. The memory is used to store the pattern that was given to the chip during programming. Most of the methods for storing data in an integrated circuit have been adapted for use in PLDs. These include:
Silicon antifuses
SRAM
EPROM or EEPROM cells
Flash memory
Silicon antifuses are connections that are made by applying a voltage across a modified area of silicon inside the chip. They are called antifuses because they work in the opposite way to normal fuses, which begin life as connections until they are broken by an electric current.
SRAM, or static RAM, is a volatile type of memory, meaning that its contents are lost each time the power is switched off. SRAM-based PLDs therefore have to be programmed every time the circuit is switched on. This is usually done automatically by another part of the circuit.
An EPROM cell is a MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) transistor that can be switched on by trapping an electric charge permanently on its gate electrode. This is done by a PAL programmer. The charge remains for many years and can only be removed by exposing the chip to strong ultraviolet light in a device called an EPROM eraser.
Flash memory is non-volatile, retaining its contents even when the power is switched off. It can be erased and reprogrammed as required. This makes it useful for PLD memory.
As of 2005, most CPLDs are electrically programmable and erasable, and non-volatile. This is because they are too small to justify the inconvenience of programming internal SRAM cells every time they start up, and EPROM cells are more expensive due to their ceramic package with a quartz window.
PLD programming languages[edit]
Many PAL programming devices accept input in a standard file format, commonly referred to as 'JEDEC files'.They are analogous to software compilers. The languages used as source code for logic compilers are called hardware description languages, or HDLs.
PALASM, ABEL and CUPL are frequently used for low-complexity devices, while Verilog and VHDL are popular higher-level description languages for more complex devices. The more limited ABEL is often used for historical reasons, but for new designs VHDL is more popular, even for low-complexity designs.
For modern PLD programming languages, design flows, and tools, see FPGA and Reconfigurable computing.
PLD programming devices[edit]
A device programmer is used to transfer the boolean logic pattern into the programmable device. In the early days of programmable logic, every PLD manufacturer also produced a specialized device programmer for its family of logic devices. Later, universal device programmers came onto the market that supported several logic device families from different manufacturers. Today's device programmers usually can program common PLDs (mostly PAL/GAL equivalents) from all existing manufacturers. Common file formats used to store the boolean logic pattern (fuses) are JEDEC, Altera POF (programmable object file), or Xilinx BITstream.[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Motorola Semiconductor Data Book, Fourth Edition. Motorola Inc. 1969. p. IC-73.
^ Jump up to: a b Andres, Kent (October 1970). A Texas Instruments Application Report: MOS programmable logic arrays. Texas Instruments. Bulletin CA-158. Report introduces the TMS2000 and TMS2200 series of mask programmable PLAs.
Jump up ^ Greer, David L. Electrically Programmable Logic Circuits US Patent 3,818,452. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: April 28, 1972, Granted: June 18, 1974
Jump up ^ Greer, David L. Multiple Level Associative Logic Circuits US Patent 3,816,725. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: April 28, 1972, Granted: June 11, 1974
Jump up ^ Greer, David L. Segmented Associative Logic Circuits US Patent 3,849,638. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: July 18, 1973, Granted: November 19, 1974
Jump up ^ "Semiconductors and IC's : FPLA". EDN. Boston, MA: Cahners Publishing. 20 (13): 66. July 20, 1975. Press release on Intersil IM5200 field programmable logic array. Fourteen inputs pins and 48 product terms. Avalanched-induced-migration programming. Unit price was $37.50
Jump up ^ "FPLA's give quick custom logic". EDN. Boston, MA: Cahners Publishing. 20 (13): 61. July 20, 1975. Press release on Signetics 82S100 and 82S101 field programmable logic arrays. Fourteen inputs pins, 8 output pins and 48 product terms. NiCr fuse link programming.
Jump up ^ Pellerin, David; Michael Holley (1991). Practical Design Using Programmable Logic. Prentice-Hall. p. 15. ISBN 0-13-723834-7.
Jump up ^ PLD File Formats
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Programmable Logic
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Programmable logic device.
"PLD Tools Creating SVF, JAM, STAPL and other formats". JTAG / boundary-scan. Corelis. Dec 1, 2010.
"FPGAs and CPLDs". Lattice Semiconductor.
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