text:
April Theses
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Manifestation of war veterans and invalids in Petrograd on Apr 17 1917 against Lenin arrival
The April Theses (Russian: апрельские тезисы, transliteration: aprel'skie tezisy) were a series of ten directives issued by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin upon his return to Petrograd from his exile in Switzerland via Germany and Finland. The Theses were mostly aimed at fellow Bolsheviks in Russia and returning to Russia from exile. He called for soviets (workers' councils) to take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the soviets"), denounce liberals and social revolutionaries in the Provisional Government, called for Bolsheviks not to cooperate with the government, and called for new communist policies. The April Theses influenced the July Days and October Revolution in the next months and are identified with Leninism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 The Theses
3 Effects
4 References
5 External links
Background[edit]
The February Revolution had resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the collapse of Imperial Russia, and the establishment of the liberal Provisional Government under Georgy Lvov and later Alexander Kerensky. The Provisional Government was dominated mainly by liberals and moderate socialists who wanted to instigate political reform, creating a democracy with elections for an executive and a constituent assembly.
After the February Revolution Lenin sought to return to Russia as soon as possible. This was problematic because he was isolated in neutral Switzerland as World War I continued to be fought in neighbouring states. The Swiss communist Fritz Platten managed to negotiate with the German government for the safe passage of Lenin and his company through Germany by rail on the so-called "sealed train." The German government clearly hoped Lenin's return would create political unrest in Russia, which would lead to the capitulation of Russia and the end of Russian participation of the war on the Entente side, ending the war on the Eastern Front and allowing German forces to concentrate their fight against France, Britain, and allied forces on the Western Front. (Indeed, after the October Revolution resulted in the Bolshevik rise to power, this did occur with the Decree on Peace and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.)
Once through Germany, Lenin continued by ferry to Sweden, and the remainder of the journey through Scandinavia was subsequently arranged by Swedish communists Otto Grimlund and Ture Nerman. On 16 April (3 April according to the old Russian Calendar), 1917, Lenin arrived by train to a tumultuous reception at Finland Station in Petrograd.
The Theses[edit]
The April Theses were first announced in a speech in two meetings on 17 April 1917 (4 April according to the old Russian Calendar). Some believe he based this on Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution.[1] They were subsequently published in the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda. In the Theses, Lenin:[2]
Condemns the Provisional Government as bourgeois and urges "no support" for it, as "the utter falsity of all its promises should be made clear." He condemns World War I as a "predatory imperialist war" and the "revolutionary defensism" of foreign social democrat parties, calling for revolutionary defeatism.
Asserts that Russia is "passing from the first stage of the revolution—which, owing to the insufficient class consciousness and organization of the proletariat, placed power in the hands of the bourgeoisie—to its second stage, which must place power in the hands of the proletariat and the poorest sections of the peasants";
Recognises that the Bolsheviks are a minority in most of the soviets against a 'block of all the petty-bourgeois opportunist elements, from the Social-Cadets and the Socialist Revolutionaries down to the Organising Committee (Chkheidze, Tsereteli, etc.), Steklov, etc., etc., who have yielded to the influence of the bourgeoisie and spread that influence among the proletariat.'
Calls for a parliamentary republic not to be established and calls this a "retrograde step." He calls for "a republic of Soviets of Workers', Agricultural Labourers' and Peasants' Deputies throughout the country, from top to bottom."
Calls for "abolition of the police, the army, and the bureaucracy" and for "the salaries of all officials, all of whom are elective and displaceable at any time, not to exceed the average wage of a competent worker."
Calls for "The weight of emphasis in the agrarian programme to be shifted to the Soviets of Agricultural Labourers' Deputies," confiscation of all landed estates," and "nationalisation of all lands in the country, the land to be disposed of by the local Soviets of Agricultural Labourers' and Peasants' Deputies. The organisation of separate Soviets of Deputies of Poor Peasants. The setting up of a model farm on each of the large estates (ranging in size from 100 to 300 dessiatines, according to local and other conditions, and to the decisions of the local bodies) under the control of the Soviets of Agricultural Labourers' Deputies and for the public account."
Calls for "the immediate union of all banks in the country into a single national bank, and the institution of control over it by the Soviet of Workers' Deputies."
States that "it is not our immediate task to 'introduce' socialism, but only to bring social production and the distribution of products at once under the control of the Soviets of Workers' Deputies."
Lists "party tasks" as "Immediate convocation of a party congress," "alteration of the party programme, mainly: (1) On the question of imperialism and the imperialist war, (2) On our attitude towards the state and our demand for a "commune state," amendment of our out-of-date minimum programme," and change of the Party's name." Lenin notes that "instead of "Social Democracy," whose official leaders throughout the world have betrayed socialism and deserted to the bourgeoisie (the 'defencists' and the vacillating 'Kautskyites'), we must call ourselves the Communist Party." The name change would dissociate the Bolsheviks from the social democratic parties of Europe supporting participation of their nation in World War I. Lenin first developed this point in his 1915 pamphlet "Socialism and War," when he first called the pro-war social-democrats "social chauvinists."
Calls for a new "revolutionary International, an International against the social-chauvinists and against the 'Center.'" This later became the Comintern (Third International) which was formed in 1919.
Effects[edit]
After the February Revolution, Bolshevik leaders returning from exile (such as Lev Kamenev) were arguing a much more moderate line, that Russian involvement in the war could be justified and that there should be cooperation with the liberals in the Provisional Government. However, Lenin's arguments reflected those made by the leading Bolsheviks in Petrograd at the time of the February Revolution, such as Alexander Shlyapnikov.
Lenin succeeded in persuading the Bolsheviks of his arguments as laid out in the April Theses and they provided much of the ideological groundwork that later led to the October Revolution.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ North, David (29 June 2001). "Toward a reconsideration of Trotsky's legacy and his place in the history of the 20th century". World Socialist Web Site. ICFI.
Jump up ^ Seventeen Moments in Soviet History - Vladimir Lenin, April Thesis, Pravda, 20 April 1917
External links[edit]
April Theses from the Marxists Internet Archive
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=April_Theses&oldid=829448588"
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List of The Fosters episodes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Fosters is an American drama series on Freeform (then known as ABC Family) that premiered on June 3, 2013. The series follows the lives of Lena Adams (Sherri Saum) and Stef Foster (Teri Polo), the Fosters, who are an interracial, lesbian couple living in the Mission Bay area of San Diego, raising Stef's biological son, Brandon (David Lambert), along with adopted twins, Jesus (Jake T. Austin/Noah Centineo) and Mariana (Cierra Ramirez).[1] Lena is a charter school vice principal and Stef is a police officer. Lena decides to take in "troubled" teenager Callie (Maia Mitchell) and then later her younger brother Jude (Hayden Byerly), who have endured a series of abusive foster homes.
On January 10, 2017, Freeform announced that the series was renewed for a fifth season,[2] which began on July 11, 2017.[3] In January 2018, it was announced that the fifth season will be the last.[4] As of March 13, 2018,[update] 101 episodes of The Fosters have aired.
Contents
[hide]
1 Series overview
2 Episodes
2.1 Season 1 (2013–14)
2.2 Season 2 (2014–15)
2.3 Season 3 (2015–16)
2.4 Season 4 (2016–17)
2.5 Season 5 (2017–18)
3 Webisodes
3.1 The Fosters: Girls United
4 References
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 21 June 3, 2013 (2013-06-03) March 24, 2014 (2014-03-24)
2 21 June 16, 2014 (2014-06-16) March 23, 2015 (2015-03-23)
3 20 June 8, 2015 (2015-06-08) March 28, 2016 (2016-03-28)
4 20 June 20, 2016 (2016-06-20) April 11, 2017 (2017-04-11)
5 22[5] July 11, 2017 (2017-07-11) June 6, 2018 (2018-06-06)
Episodes[edit]
Season 1 (2013–14)[edit]
Main article: The Fosters (season 1)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
1 "Pilot" Timothy Busfield Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige June 3, 2013 (2013-06-03) 1.42[6]
2
2 "Consequently" Timothy Busfield Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige June 10, 2013 (2013-06-10) 1.70[7]
3
3 "Hostile Acts" Melanie Mayron David Ehrman June 17, 2013 (2013-06-17) 1.25[8]
4
4 "Quinceañera" Joanna Kerns Joanna Johnson June 24, 2013 (2013-06-24) 1.89[9]
5
5 "The Morning After" Bethany Rooney Paul Sciarrotta July 1, 2013 (2013-07-01) 1.78[10]
6
6 "Saturday" Norman Buckley Marissa Jo Cerar July 8, 2013 (2013-07-08) 1.77[11]
7
7 "The Fallout" Jeff Melman Story by : Zoila Amelia Galeano
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige July 15, 2013 (2013-07-15) 1.79[12]
8
8 "Clean" Millicent Shelton Story by : David Ehrman & Paul Sciarrotta
Teleplay by : David Ehrman July 22, 2013 (2013-07-22) 1.89[13]
9
9 "Vigil" David Paymer Joanna Johnson July 29, 2013 (2013-07-29) 1.87[14]
10
10 "I Do" James Hayman Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 5, 2013 (2013-08-05) 2.07[15]
11
11 "The Honeymoon" James Hayman Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige January 13, 2014 (2014-01-13) 1.92[16]
12
12 "House and Home" Martha Mitchell Joanna Johnson January 20, 2014 (2014-01-20) 2.14[17]
13
13 "Things Unsaid" Joanna Kerns Marissa Jo Cerar January 27, 2014 (2014-01-27) 1.88[18]
14
14 "Family Day" Elodie Keene Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03) 1.80[19]
15
15 "Padre" Millicent Shelton Story by : Tamara P. Carter
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige February 10, 2014 (2014-02-10) 1.83[20]
16
16 "Us Against The World" Lee Rose Kelly Fullerton February 17, 2014 (2014-02-17) 1.68[21]
17
17 "Kids in the Hall" Michael Grossman Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon February 24, 2014 (2014-02-24) 1.48[22]
18
18 "Escapes and Reversals" Melanie Mayron Story by : Joanna Johnson
Teleplay by : Thomas Higgins March 3, 2014 (2014-03-03) 1.51[23]
19
19 "Don't Let Go" Zetna Fuentes Story by : Marissa Jo Cerar & Zoila Amelia Galeano
Teleplay by : Kelly Fullerton & Marissa Jo Cerar March 10, 2014 (2014-03-10) 1.21[24]
20
20 "Metropolis" Martha Mitchell Joanna Johnson March 17, 2014 (2014-03-17) 1.20[25]
21
21 "Adoption Day" Norman Buckley Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige March 24, 2014 (2014-03-24) 1.29[26]
Season 2 (2014–15)[edit]
Main article: The Fosters (season 2)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
22
1 "Things Unknown" Norman Buckley Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige June 16, 2014 (2014-06-16) 1.47[27]
23
2 "Take Me Out" Elodie Keene Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon June 23, 2014 (2014-06-23) 1.45[28]
24
3 "Play" Martha Mitchell Thomas Higgins June 30, 2014 (2014-06-30) 1.37[29]
25
4 "Say Something" Zetna Fuentes Kathleen McGhee-Anderson July 7, 2014 (2014-07-07) 1.42[30]
26
5 "Truth Be Told" Ron Lagomarsino Kelly Fullerton July 14, 2014 (2014-07-14) 1.61[31]
27
6 "Mother" Lee Rose Joanna Johnson July 21, 2014 (2014-07-21) 1.51[32]
28
7 "The Longest Day" Nzingha Stewart Marissa Jo Cerar July 28, 2014 (2014-07-28) 1.44[33]
29
8 "Girls Reunited" Daisy Mayer Story by : Joanna Johnson
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 4, 2014 (2014-08-04) 1.38[34]
30
9 "Leaky Faucets" Lee Rose Story by : Cristian Martinez
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 11, 2014 (2014-08-11) 1.35[35]
31
10 "Someone's Little Sister" Norman Buckley Joanna Johnson August 18, 2014 (2014-08-18) 1.48[36]
32
11 "Christmas Past" Norman Buckley Joanna Johnson December 8, 2014 (2014-12-08) 1.93[37]
33
12 "Over Under" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige January 19, 2015 (2015-01-19) 1.45[38]
34
13 "Stay" Elodie Keene Marissa Jo Cerar January 26, 2015 (2015-01-26) 1.20[39]
35
14 "Mother Nature" Martha Mitchell Thomas Higgins February 2, 2015 (2015-02-02) 1.26[40]
36
15 "Light of Day" Ron Lagomarsino Wade Solomon & Megan Lynn February 9, 2015 (2015-02-09) 1.24[41]
37
16 "If You Only Knew" Aprill Winney Kelly Fullerton February 16, 2015 (2015-02-16) 1.28[42]
38
17 "The Silence She Keeps" Melanie Mayron Cristian Martinez & Dan Richter February 23, 2015 (2015-02-23) 1.25[43]
39
18 "Now Hear This" Rob Morrow Thomas Higgins March 2, 2015 (2015-03-02) 1.23[44]
40
19 "Justify the Means" Jay Karas Joanna Johnson March 9, 2015 (2015-03-09) 1.14[45]
41
20 "Not that Kind of Girl" Lee Rose Story by : Kris Q. Rehl
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige March 16, 2015 (2015-03-16) 1.32[46]
42
21 "The End of the Beginning" Zetna Fuentes Joanna Johnson and Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige March 23, 2015 (2015-03-23) 1.45[47]
Season 3 (2015–16)[edit]
Main article: The Fosters (season 3)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
43
1 "Wreckage" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige June 8, 2015 (2015-06-08) 1.26[48]
44
2 "Father's Day" Aprill Winney Joanna Johnson June 15, 2015 (2015-06-15) 0.97[49]
45
3 "Déjà Vu" Charlie Stratton Thomas Higgins June 22, 2015 (2015-06-22) 1.00[50]
46
4 "More Than Words" Daisy Mayer Marissa Jo Cerar June 29, 2015 (2015-06-29) 1.18[51]
47
5 "Going South" Elodie Keene Michael MacLennan July 6, 2015 (2015-07-06) 1.30[52]
48
6 "It's My Party" Kees Van Oostrum Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon July 13, 2015 (2015-07-13) 1.30[53]
49
7 "Faith, Hope, Love" Jann Turner Cristian Martinez & Kris Q. Rehl July 20, 2015 (2015-07-20) 1.33[54]
50
8 "Daughters" Chandra Wilson Elle Johnson August 3, 2015 (2015-08-03) 1.23[55]
51
9 "Idyllwild" Joanna Johnson Joanna Johnson August 10, 2015 (2015-08-10) 1.06[56]
52
10 "Lucky" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 17, 2015 (2015-08-17) 1.24[57]
53
11 "First Impressions" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige January 25, 2016 (2016-01-25) 1.05[58]
54
12 "Mixed Messages" Rich Newey Thomas Higgins February 1, 2016 (2016-02-01) 0.79[59]
55
13 "If and When" Elodie Keene Anne Meredith February 8, 2016 (2016-02-08) 0.84[60]
56
14 "Under Water" Ron Lagomarsino Joanna Johnson February 15, 2016 (2016-02-15) 0.81[61]
57
15 "Minor Offenses" Rob Morrow Michael MacLennan February 22, 2016 (2016-02-22) 0.79[62]
58
16 "EQ" Anne Renton Anne Meredith February 29, 2016 (2016-02-29) 0.67[63]
59
17 "Sixteen" Elodie Keene Marissa Jo Cerar March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07) 0.84[64]
60
18 "Rehearsal" Norman Buckley Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon March 14, 2016 (2016-03-14) 0.73[65]
61
19 "The Show" Bradley Bredeweg Story by : Joanna Johnson
Teleplay by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige March 21, 2016 (2016-03-21) 0.80[66]
62
20 "Kingdom Come" Joanna Johnson Story by : Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige
Teleplay by : Joanna Johnson March 28, 2016 (2016-03-28) 0.77[67]
Season 4 (2016–17)[edit]
Main article: The Fosters (season 4)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
63
1 "Potential Energy" Rob Morrow Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige June 20, 2016 (2016-06-20) 0.91[68]
64
2 "Safe" Rob Morrow Joanna Johnson June 27, 2016 (2016-06-27) 1.05[69]
65
3 "Trust" Elodie Keene Anne Meredith July 11, 2016 (2016-07-11) 0.80[70]
66
4 "Now for Then" Silas Howard Constance M. Burge July 18, 2016 (2016-07-18) 0.82[71]
67
5 "Forty" Velvet Andrews Smith Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon July 25, 2016 (2016-07-25) 0.84[72]
68
6 "Justify" Kelli Williams Cristian Martinez August 1, 2016 (2016-08-01) 0.93[73]
69
7 "Highs and Lows" Chandra Wilson Kris Q. Rehl August 8, 2016 (2016-08-08) 0.80[74]
70
8 "Girl Code" Aprill Winney Story by : Dan Richter
Teleplay by : Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon August 15, 2016 (2016-08-15) 0.88[75]
71
9 "New York" Joanna Johnson Joanna Johnson August 22, 2016 (2016-08-22) 0.88[76]
72
10 "Collateral Damage" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 29, 2016 (2016-08-29) 0.99[77]
73
11 "Insult to Injury" Rob Morrow Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige January 31, 2017 (2017-01-31) 0.92[78]
74
12 "Dream a Little Dream" Rob Morrow Joanna Johnson February 7, 2017 (2017-02-07) 0.67[79]
75
13 "Cruel and Unusual" Norman Buckley Anne Meredith February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14) 0.76[80]
76
14 "Doors and Windows" Susan Flannery Constance M. Burge February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21) 0.73[81]
77
15 "Sex Ed" Michael Medico Kris Q. Rehl February 28, 2017 (2017-02-28) 0.66[82]
78
16 "The Long Haul" Bradley Bredeweg Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon March 14, 2017 (2017-03-14) 0.71[83]
79
17 "Diamond in the Rough" Lily Mariye Cristian Martinez March 21, 2017 (2017-03-21) 0.69[84]
80
18 "Dirty Laundry" Laura Nisbet Peters Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon March 28, 2017 (2017-03-28) 0.69[85]
81
19 "Who Knows" Joanna Johnson Joanna Johnson April 4, 2017 (2017-04-04) 0.62[86]
82
20 "Until Tomorrow" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige April 11, 2017 (2017-04-11) 0.72[87]
Season 5 (2017–18)[edit]
Main article: The Fosters (season 5)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
83
1 "Resist" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige July 11, 2017 (2017-07-11) 0.87[88]
84
2 "Exterminate Her" Danny Nucci Joanna Johnson July 18, 2017 (2017-07-18) 0.69[89]
85
3 "Contact" Aprill Winney Anne Meredith July 25, 2017 (2017-07-25) 0.76[90]
86
4 "Too Fast, Too Furious" Tate Donovan Cristian Martinez August 1, 2017 (2017-08-01) 0.66[91]
87
5 "Telling" Anne Renton Kris Q. Rehl August 8, 2017 (2017-08-08) 0.69[92]
88
6 "Welcome to the Jungler" Kelli Williams Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon August 15, 2017 (2017-08-15) 0.61[93]
89
7 "Chasing Waterfalls" Chandra Wilson Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige August 22, 2017 (2017-08-22) 0.58[94]
90
8 "Engaged" Kees Van Oostrum Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon August 29, 2017 (2017-08-29) 0.58[95]
91
9 "Prom" Joanna Johnson Joanna Johnson September 5, 2017 (2017-09-05) 0.74[96]
92
10 "Sanctuary" Rob Morrow Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige January 9, 2018 (2018-01-09) 0.52[97]
93
11 "Invisible" Laura Nisbet Peters Story by : Kimberly Ndombe
Teleplay by : Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon January 16, 2018 (2018-01-16) 0.70[98]
94
12 "#IWasMadeinAmerica" Lee Rose Anne Meredith January 23, 2018 (2018-01-23) 0.62[99]
95
13 "Line in the Sand" Cheryl Dunye Dan Richter January 30, 2018 (2018-01-30) 0.56[100]
96
14 "Scars" Kelli Williams Cristian Martinez & Kris Q. Rehl February 6, 2018 (2018-02-06) 0.57[101]
97
15 "Mother's Day" Bradley Bredeweg Joanna Johnson February 13, 2018 (2018-02-13) 0.52[102]
98
16 "Giving Up the Ghost" Michael Medico Megan Lynn & Wade Solomon February 27, 2018 (2018-02-27) 0.54[103]
99
17 "Makeover" Laura Nisbet Peters Cristian Martinez & Kris Q. Rehl March 6, 2018 (2018-03-06) 0.50[104]
100
18 "Just Say Yes" Joanna Johnson Joanna Johnson March 13, 2018 (2018-03-13) 0.53[105]
101
19 "Many Roads" Peter Paige Bradley Bredeweg & Peter Paige March 13, 2018 0.48[105]
102
20 TBA TBA TBA June 4, 2018 (2018-06-04) TBD
103
21 TBA TBA TBA June 5, 2018 (2018-06-05) TBD
104
22 TBA TBA TBA June 6, 2018 (2018-06-06) TBD
Webisodes[edit]
The Fosters: Girls United[edit]
At the start of the second part of the first season of The Fosters, a five-episode web series called The Fosters: Girls United was confirmed by ABC Family. It stars Maia Mitchell, Daffany Clark, Cherinda Kincherlow, Annamarie Kenoyer, Alicia Sixtos, Hayley Kiyoko, and Angela Gibbs. Girls United premiered on ABC Family's official YouTube account on February 3, 2014.[106] Each episode runs approximately 5 minutes long.
No.
Title
Originally posted
1
"Run Baby Run" February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03)
Gabi goes missing and Girls United counselor, Michelle, calls a meeting to ask if the girls know anything about where she may have run off to.
2
"Stab in the Back" February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03)
The girls discuss who of them can be pregnant.
3
"Got Your Back" February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03)
Callie and Kiara share some mutual secrets. Callie also discovers that Becka harms herself with a knife.
4
"Scorpion Kings" February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03)
Gabi's father visits the Girls United home for some information about Gabi.
5
"United We Stand" February 3, 2014 (2014-02-03)
Gabi comes back and reveals she went away because she has HIV.
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Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (July 22, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Hit The Floor', 'Major Crimes', 'Teen Wolf', 'The Fosters' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
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Jump up ^ "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Better Call Saul' Wins NIght, 'Love & Hip Hop', 'Vanderpump Rules', 'The Fosters'& More". TV by the Numbers. February 18, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2015. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
Jump up ^ "Final Adjusted TV Ratings for Monday 23rd February 2015". SpoilerTV. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Better Call Saul', 'Vanderpump Rules', 'The Fosters' & More - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com". TVbytheNumbers. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Final Adjusted TV Ratings for Monday 9th March 2015". SpoilerTV. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
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Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (March 24, 2015). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Monday Night RAW' Tops Night + 'Love & Hop-Hop', 'Better Call Saul', 'Teen Mom' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (June 9, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 6.8.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
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Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (June 23, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 6.22.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (June 30, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 6.29.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 8, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 7.6.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 14, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 7.13.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 21, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 7.20.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 4, 2015). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Major Crimes', 'Teen Wolf', 'The Fosters', 'UnReal' & More". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved August 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (August 11, 2015). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Tops Night + 'Monday Night RAW', 'She's Got Game', 'Real Housewives of Orange County' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 17, 2015). "Top 100 Monday Cable Originals: 8.17.2015". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Monday cable ratings: 'Stevie J & Joseline: Go Hollywood' lands strong premiere ratings". zap2it.com. 26 January 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
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Jump up ^ "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Monday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.8.2016". showbuzzdaily.com.
Jump up ^ "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Monday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.15.2016". showbuzzdaily.com.
Jump up ^ "Monday cable ratings: 'WWE Raw' reigns supreme, 'Better Call Saul' falls". tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com.
Jump up ^ "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Monday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.29.2016". showbuzzdaily.com.
Jump up ^ "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Monday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.7.2016". showbuzzdaily.com.
Jump up ^ "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Monday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.14.2016". showbuzzdaily.com.
Jump up ^ "Monday cable ratings: 'Love and Hip Hop' leads, 'WWE Raw' falls". tvbythenumbers.com.
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Jump up ^ Welch, Alex (February 1, 2017). "Tuesday cable ratings: 'WWE Smackdown' and 'Taboo' tick up". Screener. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (February 8, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.7.2017". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
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Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (February 22, 2017). "updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.21.2017". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 26, 2017.
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Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 22, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.21.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 29, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.28.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved March 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 5, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 4.4.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 12, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 4.11.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 12, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.11.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 19, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.18.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 26, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.25.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 2, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.1.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 9, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.8.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 16, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.15.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 23, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.22.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 30, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.29.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 7, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.5.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (January 10, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 1.9.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (January 18, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 1.16.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved January 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (January 24, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 1.23.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved January 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (January 31, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 1.30.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved January 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (February 7, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.6.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved February 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (February 14, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.13.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved February 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (February 28, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.27.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 7, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.6.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch (March 14, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.13.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Philiana Ng. "'The Fosters' Web Series to Launch - The Hollywood Reporter". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_The_Fosters_episodes&oldid=830773254"
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Moon illusion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the illusion where the moon appears larger near the horizon. For the illusion where the apparent illumination source does not correspond with the position of the sun in the sky, see Lunar terminator § Lunar terminator illusion.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A harvest moon
The Moon illusion is an optical illusion which causes the Moon to appear larger near the horizon than it does higher up in the sky. It has been known since ancient times and recorded by various cultures.[1][2] The explanation of this illusion is still debated.[2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Proof of illusion
2 Possible explanations
2.1 Refraction and distance
2.2 Apparent distance hypothesis
2.3 Relative size hypothesis
2.4 Angle of regard hypothesis
3 Historical references
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Proof of illusion[edit]
A popular belief, stretching back at least to Aristotle in the 4th century B.C., holds that the Moon appears larger near the horizon due to a real magnification effect caused by the Earth's atmosphere. This is not true: although the atmosphere does change the perceived colour of the Moon, it does not magnify or enlarge it.[5] Atmospheric refraction also makes the image of the Moon slightly smaller in the vertical direction.[citation needed]
The angle that the full Moon subtends at an observer's eye can be measured directly with a theodolite to show that it remains constant as the Moon rises or sinks in the sky (discounting the very small variations due to the physical effects mentioned). Photographs of the Moon at different elevations also show that its size remains the same.[6]
A simple way of demonstrating that the effect is an illusion is to hold a small pebble (say, 0.33 inches or 8.4 millimetres wide) at arm's length (25 inches or 640 millimetres) with one eye closed, positioning the pebble so that it covers (eclipses) the full Moon when high in the night sky. Then, when the seemingly very large Moon is on the horizon, the same pebble will also cover it, revealing that there has been no change in the size of the Moon.
Between different full moons, the Moon's angular diameter can vary from 29.43 arcminutes at apogee to 33.5 arcminutes at perigee—an increase of around 14% in apparent diameter or 30% in apparent area.[7] This is because of the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit.
Possible explanations[edit]
The size of a viewed object can be measured objectively either as an angular size (the visual angle that it subtends at the eye, corresponding to the proportion of the visual field that it occupies), or as physical size (its real size measured in, say, metres). Perceived size is only loosely related to these concepts, however. For example, if two identical, familiar objects are placed at distances of five and ten meters, respectively, then the more distant object subtends approximately half the visual angle of the nearer object, but we normally perceive that as the same size (a phenomenon referred to as size constancy), not as half the size. Conversely, if the more distant object did subtend the same angle as the nearer object then we would normally perceive it to be twice as big.
One question concerning the Moon illusion, therefore, is whether the horizon moon appears larger because its perceived angular size seems greater, or because its perceived physical size seems greater, or some combination of both. There is currently no consensus on this point. Most recent research on the Moon illusion has been conducted by psychologists specializing in human perception. The 1989 book The Moon Illusion, edited by Hershenson, offers about 24 chapters written by various illusion researchers reaching different conclusions. After reviewing the many different explanations in their 2002 book The Mystery of the Moon Illusion, Ross and Plug conclude "No single theory has emerged victorious".[8] They argue that the size of the illusion is variable, but is usually an apparent increase in diameter of about 50 percent. The most important factor is the sight of the terrain, but there is a small contribution from other factors such as the angle of regard, posture and oculomotor[clarification needed] commands.
Refraction and distance[edit]
Ptolemy attempted to explain the Moon illusion through atmospheric refraction in the Almagest, and later (in the Optics) as an optical illusion due to apparent distance,[9][10] or the difficulty of looking upwards, although interpretations of the account in the Optics are disputed.[11] Similarly Cleomedes (about 200 A.D.), in his book on astronomy, ascribed the illusion both to refraction and to changes in apparent distance.[2] In the Book of Optics (1011–1022 A.D.), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) repeated refraction as an explanation, but also proposed a more detailed explanation based on intervening objects and apparent distance.
Through additional works (by Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo, and others) based on Ibn al-Haytham's explanation, the Moon illusion came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon in the 17th century.[12]
Apparent distance hypothesis[edit]
Clouds near the horizon are typically farther away from the viewer, while those high in the sky are closer, giving the impression of a flat, or gently curved, sky surface
An apparent distance theory evidently was first clearly described by Cleomedes around 200 A.D. The theory proposes that the horizon moon looks larger than the zenith moon because it looks farther away. Ibn al-Haytham was more specific. His argument was that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer; however, since there are no intervening objects between the Earth and the Moon, the perceived distance is too short and the Moon appears smaller than on the horizon.[2]
When we see objects such as clouds, birds, and aeroplanes in the sky, those near the horizon are typically farther away from us than those overhead. This may result in the perception of the sky itself as a comparatively flat or only gently curving surface in which objects moving towards the horizon always recede away from us.
In 1813, Schopenhauer wrote about this, that the moon illusion is "purely intellectual or cerebral and not optical or sensuous."[13] The brain takes the sense data that is given to it from the eye and it apprehends a large moon because "our intuitively perceiving understanding regards everything that is seen in a horizontal direction as being more distant and therefore as being larger than objects that are seen in a vertical direction."[14] The brain is accustomed to seeing terrestrially–sized objects in a horizontal direction and also as they are affected by atmospheric perspective, according to Schopenhauer.
A diagram of the moon seen against a cloud of the same size, at different heights in the sky. When the moon is high, the clouds it is against are closer to the viewer and appear larger. When the moon is low in the sky, the same clouds are further away and appear smaller, giving the illusion of a larger moon.
If we perceive the Moon to be in the general vicinity of the other things we see in the sky, we would expect it to also recede as it approaches the horizon, which should result in a smaller retinal image. But since its retinal image is approximately the same size whether it is near the horizon or not, our brains, attempting to compensate for perspective, assume that a low Moon must be physically larger.
Extensive experiments in 1962 by Kaufman and Rock showed that a crucial causative factor in the illusion is a change in the pattern of cues to distance, comparable to the Ponzo illusion. The horizon moon is perceived to be at the end of a stretch of terrain receding into the distance, accompanied by distant trees, buildings and so forth, all of which indicate that it must be a long way away, while these cues are absent from the zenith moon. Experiments by many other researchers have found the same result; namely, when pictorial cues to a great distance are subtracted from the vista of the large-looking horizon moon it looks smaller. When pictorial cues to an increased distance are added into the vista of the zenith moon, it appears larger.
A potential problem for the apparent distance theory has been that very few people (perhaps about 5%) perceive the horizon moon as being both larger and farther away. Indeed, most people (perhaps 90%) say the horizon moon looks both larger and closer than the zenith moon (Boring, 1962; Hershenson, 1982; McCready, 1965, 1986; Restle, 1970). Most of the rest say it looks larger and about the same distance away as the zenith moon, with a few people reporting no Moon illusion at all. However, the response that the horizon moon appears larger, but not closer than the zenith moon could be because the viewer's logic confounds his or her perception; because the viewer knows that the moon can't possibly be physically farther away, he or she is not consciously aware of the perception. This is reinforced by the idea that we do not consciously perceive distance and size, as spatial awareness is a subconscious, retino cortical cognition. Nevertheless, the apparent distance explanation is the one most often found in textbooks.
Those advocating the apparent distance hypothesis might counter that in the Ponzo illusion, people do not perceive one line to actually be farther away than another either, or that everything on the horizon is perceived as farther away, out of the habit that this is true for every object ever seen there (average-altitude clouds are about 100 times farther away at the horizon than when overhead).
Relative size hypothesis[edit]
The Ebbinghaus illusion. The lower central circle surrounded by small circles might represent the horizon moon accompanied by objects of smaller visual extent, while the upper central circle represents the zenith moon surrounded by expanses of sky of larger visual extent. Although both central circles are actually the same size, the lower one looks larger to many people.
Historically, the best-known alternative to the "apparent distance" theory has been a "relative size" theory. This states that the perceived size of an object depends not only on its retinal size, but also on the size of objects in its immediate visual environment. In the case of the Moon illusion, objects in the vicinity of the horizon moon (that is, objects on or near the horizon) exhibit a fine detail that makes the Moon appear larger, while the zenith moon is surrounded by large expanses of empty sky that make it appear smaller.[15]
The effect is illustrated by the classic Ebbinghaus illusion, where a circle appears larger when surrounded by smaller circles, than it does when surrounded by larger circles.
Angle of regard hypothesis[edit]
According to the "angle of regard" hypothesis, the Moon illusion is produced by changes in the position of the eyes in the head accompanying changes in the angle of elevation of the Moon. Though once popular, this explanation no longer has much support.[3] Looking through one's legs at the horizon moon does reduce the illusion noticeably, but this may be because the image on the retina is inverted. Raising the eyes or tilting the head when in an upright posture gives only a very small reduction in the illusion.[2]
Historical references[edit]
Immanuel Kant refers to the Moon illusion in his 1781 text Critique of Pure Reason, when he writes that "the astronomer cannot prevent himself from seeing the moon larger at its rising than some time afterwards, although he is not deceived by this illusion".[16] Schopenhauer (1813) was cited above. Wade[1] shortly summarizes historical references to the Moon illusion starting with Aristotle; he lists quotes by Aristotle (~330 BC), Ptolemy (~142, 150), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (1083), John Pecham (~1280), Leonardo da Vinci (~1500), René Descartes (1637), Benedetto Castelli (1639), Pierre Gassendi (1642), Thomas Hobbes (1655), J. Rohault (1671), Nicolas Malebranche (1674), William Molyneux (1687), J. Wallis (1687), G. Berkeley (1709), J.T. Desaguliers (1736), W. Porterfield (1737), R. Smith (1738), C.N. Le Cat (1744), D. Hartley (1749), Thomas Young (1807), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1830).
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wade, Nicholas J (1998). A natural history of vision. A Bradford Book. Cambridge MA, London, UK: The MIT Press. p. 377 ff. ISBN 0-262-23194-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ross, Helen E.; Plug, Cornelis (2002). The mystery of the moon illusion. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019 850862 X.
^ Jump up to: a b Hershenson, Maurice (1989). The Moon illusion. ISBN 0-8058-0121-9.
Jump up ^ McCready, Don (November 10, 2004). "Finally! Why the Moon Looks Big at the Horizon and Smaller When Higher Up" (PDF). Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater. Retrieved December 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "See a huge moon illusion". USA Today. 17 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Lynch, D; Livingstone, W (2001). "7.10". Color and Light in Nature. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "Large and small full moons". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA.
Jump up ^ Helen Ross; Cornelis Plug (2002). The Mystery of The Moon Illusion. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 180.
Jump up ^ Good, Gregory (1998). Sciences of the Earth: An Encyclopedia of Events, People, and Phenomena. Psychology Press. pp. 50–. ISBN 9780815300625. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Robinson, J.O. (1998). The Psychology of Visual Illusion. Dover Publications. p. 55. ISBN 0486404498. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Ross, Helen E; Ross, George M (1976). "Did Ptolemy understand the moon illusion?". Perception. 5 (4): 377–85. doi:10.1068/p050377. PMID 794813.
Jump up ^ Plug, Cornelis; Ross, Helen E. (1989). "Historical Review". In Hershenson, Maurice. The Moon Illusion. Psychology Press. pp. 5–30. ISBN 978-0-8058-0121-7.
Jump up ^ On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, § 21 [ist also rein intellektual, oder cerebral; nicht optisch oder sensual]
Jump up ^ On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, § 21 [... daß unser anschauender Verstand, nach dem Horizont hin, alles für entfernter, mithin für größer hält, als in der senkrechten Richtung]
Jump up ^ Restle, Frank (February 1970). "Moon Illusion Explained on the Basis of Relative Size". Science.
Jump up ^ Kant, Immanuel (1900). Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by J. M. D. Meiklejohn. New York: Dover Publications. p. 189. (B 354)
Further reading[edit]
Kaufman, Lloyd; Kaufman, James H. (4 January 2000). "Explaining the moon illusion". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (1): 500–505. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.1.500. PMC 26692  . PMID 10618447. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moon illusions.
A vision scientist reviews and critiques moon illusion theories (and argues for oculomotor micropsia).
Another careful review of moon illusion research.
A physicist offers opinions about current theories
Summer Moon Illusion – NASA
"Finally! Why the Moon Looks Big at the Horizon and Smaller When Higher Up" by Don McCready, Professor Emeritus, Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Revised November 10, 2004, retrieved October 31, 2015
Why does the moon look so big now?
Why does the Moon appear bigger near the horizon? (from The Straight Dope)
Moon illusion illustrated
Moon illusion discussed at Bad Astronomy website
New Thoughts on Understanding the Moon Illusion Carl J. Wenning, Planetarian, December 1985
Father-Son Scientists Confirm Why Horizon Moon Appears Larger
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Moonrise Over Turkey (16 June 2009)
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