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Hess (surname)
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Hess or Heß, a German and Ashkenazic surname, meaning somebody originally from the region of Hesse.[1] Two alternative origins have been reported. Usage in the south of Germany may arise from a contraction of the personal name Matthäus, whereas appearance in Germany or The Netherlands may arise from a modification of the personal name Hesso.[2]
Notable people who share this surname include:
András Hess, Hungarian printer
Beat W. Hess (born 1949), Swiss businessman
Bernhard Hess (born 1966), Swiss politician
Bernhard von Hess (1792–1869), Bavarian Lieutenant General and War Minister
Carl von Hess (1863–1923), German ophthalmologist
Catherina Hess, (born 1985), German actress
Damian Hess aka MC Frontalot, nerdcore rapper
Dean Hess (1917-2015), American Air Force Colonel
Elizabeth Hess (born 1953), Canadian actress
Elmar Hess (born 1966), German artist
Eric Hess, American wrestler
Erika Hess (born 1962), Swiss alpine skier
Fred Hess (born 1944), American jazz musician
Fred Hess (Wisconsin) (1858-1925), American politician
Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), Russian-Swiss chemist
Gregory Hess (born 1962), 16th President of Wabash College
Hans-Georg Hess (1923-2008), German U-boat captain
John Jacob Hess (1584-1639), Swiss-German Anabaptist minister and martyr
Harry Hammond Hess (1906–1969), American geologist best known for his theories on sea floor spreading
Harry Hess, American college sports coach
Harvey Hess (1939-2012), American lyric poet
Heinrich von Heß (1788–1870), Austrian fieldmarshall
Heinrich Maria von Hess, German painter
Hieronymus Hess (de), Swiss drawer, painter, caricaturist (1799-1850)
Ilse Hess, German writer (1900-1995)
Jake Hess, American southern gospel vocalist
Jared Hess (born 1979), American writer and director of Napoleon Dynamite
Johann Hess (Hesse), (1490–1547), German theologian
Karl Hess (1923–1994), American speechwriter and author
Karl Hess (painter) (1801-1874), German painter
Leon Hess Founder, Chairman of the Board & CEO of Hess Corporation and the New York Jets NFL Football franchise until his death
Markus Hess, German hacker
Michael A. Hess (1952-1995), American lawyer
Moses Hess (1812–1875), Jewish philosopher and proto-Zionist
Myra Hess (1890–1965), British pianist
Nigel Hess, British composer
Ortwin Hess, British optician and physicist
Orvan Hess (1906–2002), doctor who invented the fetal heart monitor
Peter von Hess, German painter
Rudolf Hess (1894–1987), Deputy Führer of Nazi Germany
Victor Francis Hess (1883–1964), Austrian-American physicist who discovered cosmic rays
Walter Rudolf Hess (1881–1973), Swiss physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949
Willy Hess (violinist) (1859–1939), German famous violin virtuoso
Willy Hess (composer) (1906–1997), Swiss musicologist, composer, and famous Beethoven scholar
Wolf Rüdiger Hess (Heß) (1937–2001), German architect, right extremist and son of Rudolf Hess
See also[edit]
Rudolf Hoess (also Höss or Höß), commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II
Helius Eobanus Hessus (1488–1540), German Latin poet
The Hess Homestead
Hesse (surname)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Rottenberg, Dan (1986). Finding Our Fathers (reprint ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company. p. 51. ISBN 9780806311517. OCLC 13880202 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Hanks, Patrick, ed. (2003). Dictionary of American Family Names. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780195081374. OCLC 51655476 – via Google Books.
This page lists people with the surname Hess. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
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Radioactive contamination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Hanford site represents two-thirds of the United States' high-level radioactive waste by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the Columbia River in January 1960.
As of 2013, the Fukushima nuclear disaster site remains highly radioactive, with some 160,000 evacuees still living in temporary housing, and some land will be unfarmable for centuries. The difficult cleanup job will take 40 or more years, and cost tens of billions of dollars.[1][2]
Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable (from the International Atomic Energy Agency - IAEA - definition).[3]
Such contamination presents a hazard because of the radioactive decay of the contaminants, which emit harmful ionising radiation such as alpha particles or beta particles, gamma rays or neutrons. The degree of hazard is determined by the concentration of the contaminants, the energy of the radiation being emitted, the type of radiation, and the proximity of the contamination to organs of the body. It is important to be clear that the contamination gives rise to the radiation hazard, and the terms "radiation" and "contamination" are not interchangeable.
Contamination may affect a person, a place, an animal, or an object such as clothing. Following an atmospheric nuclear weapon discharge or a nuclear reactor containment breach, the air, soil, people, plants, and animals in the vicinity will become contaminated by nuclear fuel and fission products. A spilled vial of radioactive material like uranyl nitrate may contaminate the floor and any rags used to wipe up the spill. Cases of widespread radioactive contamination include the Bikini Atoll, the Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the Chernobyl disaster, and the area around the Mayak facility in Russia.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sources of contamination
1.1 Containment
1.2 Naturally occurring radioactivity
2 Control and monitoring of contamination
2.1 Contamination monitoring
2.1.1 Surface contamination
2.1.2 Exit monitoring
2.2 Airborne contamination
2.3 Internal human contamination
3 Decontamination
4 Contamination hazards
4.1 Low-level contamination
4.2 High-level contamination
5 Health effects of contamination
5.1 Biological effects
5.1.1 External irradiation
5.1.2 Internal irradiation
5.2 Social and psychological effects
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Sources of contamination[edit]
Global airborne contamination Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere. Plot of atmospheric 14C, New Zealand[4] and Austria.[5] The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. .[6]
Radioactive contamination can be due to a variety of causes. It may occur due to release of radioactive gases, liquids or particles. For example, if a radionuclide used in nuclear medicine is spilled (accidentally or, as in the case of the Goiânia accident, through ignorance), the material could be spread by people as they walk around.
Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result of certain processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon in nuclear fuel reprocessing. In cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations. For a discussion of environmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides in the environment.
Nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive contamination by the 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions that took place from the 1950s to the 1980s.
In nuclear accidents, a measure of the type and amount of radioactivity released,such as from a reactor containment failure, is known as the source term. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission defines this as "Types and amounts of radioactive or hazardous material released to the environment following an accident."[7]
Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the completion of decommissioning. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement might be the same.
Containment[edit]
Large industrial glovebox in the nuclear industry
Containment is the primary way of preventing contamination being released into the environment or coming into contact or being ingested by humans.
Being within the intended Containment differentiates radioactive material from radioactive contamination. When radioactive materials are concentrated to a detectable level outside a containment, the area affected is generally referred to as "contaminated".
There are a large number of techniques for containing radioactive material so that it does not spread beyond the containment and become contamination. In the case of liquids this is by the use of high integrity tanks or containers, usually with a sump system so that leakage can be detected by radiometric or conventional instrumentation.
Where material is likely to become airborne, then extensive use is made of the glovebox, which is a common technique in hazardous laboratory and process operations in many industries. The gloveboxes are kept under a slight negative pressure and the vent gas is filtered in high efficiency filters, which are monitored by radiological instrumentation to ensure they are functioning correctly.
Naturally occurring radioactivity[edit]
Main article: Environmental radioactivity
A variety of radionuclides occur naturally in the environment. Elements like uranium and thorium, and their decay products, are present in rock and soil. Potassium-40, a primordial nuclide, makes up a small percentage of all potassium and is present in the human body. Other nuclides, like carbon-14, which is present in all living organisms, are continuously created by cosmic rays.
These levels of radioactivity pose little danger but can confuse measurement. A particular problem is encountered with naturally generated radon gas which can affect instruments which are set to detect contamination close to normal background levels and can cause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator of radiological survey equipment to differentiate between background radiation and the radiation which emanates from contamination.
Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) can be brought to the surface or concentrated by human activities like mining, oil and gas extraction and coal consumption.
Control and monitoring of contamination[edit]
G-M counters being used as gamma survey monitors, seeking radioactive satellite debris
Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air, and specialist techniques are used to measure the levels of contamination by detection of the emitted radiation.
Contamination monitoring[edit]
Contamination monitoring depends entirely upon the correct and appropriate deployment and utilisation of radiation monitoring instruments.
Surface contamination[edit]
Surface contamination may either be fixed or "free". In the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but its radiation is still measurable. In the case of free contamination there is the hazard of contamination spread to other surfaces such as skin or clothing, or entrainment in the air. A concrete surface contaminated by radioactivity can be shaved to a specific depth, removing the contaminated material for disposal.
For occupational workers controlled areas are established where there may be a contamination hazard. Access to such areas is controlled by a variety of barrier techniques, sometimes involving changes of clothing and foot wear as required. The contamination within a controlled area is normally regularly monitored. Radiological protection instrumentation (RPI) plays a key role in monitoring and detecting any potential contamination spread, and combinations of hand held survey instruments and permanently installed area monitors such as Airborne particulate monitors and area gamma monitors are often installed. Detection and measurement of surface contamination of personnel and plant is normally by Geiger counter, scintillation counter or proportional counter. Proportional counters and dual phosphor scintillation counters can discriminate between alpha and beta contamination, but the Geiger counter cannot. Scintillation detectors are generally preferred for hand held monitoring instruments, and are designed with a large detection window to make monitoring of large areas faster. Geiger detectors tend to have small windows, which are more suited to small areas of contamination.
Exit monitoring[edit]
The spread of contamination by personnel exiting controlled areas in which nuclear material is used or processed is monitored by specialised installed exit control instruments such as frisk probes, hand contamination monitors and whole body exit monitors. These are used to check that persons exiting controlled areas do not carry contamination on their body or clothes.
In the United Kingdom the HSE has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct portable radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned.[8] This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide for selecting the correct technology for the contamination type.
The UK NPL publishes a guide on the alarm levels to be used with instruments for checking personnel exiting controlled areas in which contamination may be encountered.[9] Surface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area for alpha or beta emitters. For SI, this is becquerels per square meter (or Bq/m2). Other units such as picoCuries per 100 cm2 or disintegrations per minute per square centimeter (1 dpm/cm2 = 167 Bq/m2) may be used.
Airborne contamination[edit]
Main article: Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring
The air can be contaminated with radioactive isotopes in particulate form, which poses a particular inhalation hazard. Respirators with suitable air filters, or completely self-contained suits with their own air supply can mitigate these dangers.
Airborne contamination is measured by specialist radiological instruments that continuously pump the sampled air through a filter. Airborne particles accumulate on the filter and can be measured in a number of ways:
The filter paper is periodically manually removed to an instrument such as a "scaler" which measures any accumulated radioactivity.
The filter paper is static and is measured in situ by a radiation detector.
The filter is a slowly moving strip and is measured by a radiation detector. These are commonly called "moving filter" devices and automatically advance the filter to present a clean area for accumulation, and thereby allow a plot of airborne concentration over time.
Commonly a semiconductor radiation detection sensor is used that can also provide spectrographic information on the contamination being collected.
A particular problem with airborne contamination monitors designed to detect alpha particles is that naturally occurring radon can be quite prevalent and may appear as contamination when low contamination levels are being sought. Modern instruments consequently have "radon compensation" to overcome this effect.
See the article on Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring for more information.
Internal human contamination[edit]
Main article: Committed dose
Radioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection. This will result in a committed dose of radiation.
For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered.
Decontamination[edit]
Cleaning up contamination results in radioactive waste unless the radioactive material can be returned to commercial use by reprocessing. In some cases of large areas of contamination, the contamination may be mitigated by burying and covering the contaminated substances with concrete, soil, or rock to prevent further spread of the contamination to the environment. If a person's body is contaminated by ingestion or by injury and standard cleaning cannot reduce the contamination further, then the person may be permanently contaminated.[citation needed]
Contamination control products have been used by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the commercial nuclear industry for decades to minimize contamination on radioactive equipment and surfaces and fix contamination in place. “Contamination control products” is a broad term that includes fixatives, strippable coatings, and decontamination gels. A fixative product functions as a permanent coating to stabilize residual loose/transferable radioactive contamination by fixing it in place; this aids in preventing the spread of contamination and reduces the possibility of the contamination becoming airborne, reducing workforce exposure and facilitating future deactivation and decommissioning (D&D) activities. Strippable coating products are loosely adhered paint-like films and are used for their decontamination abilities. They are applied to surfaces with loose/transferable radioactive contamination and then, once dried, are peeled off, which removes the loose/transferable contamination along with the product. The residual radioactive contamination on the surface is significantly reduced once the strippable coating is removed. Modern strippable coatings show high decontamination efficiency and can rival traditional mechanical and chemical decontamination methods. Decontamination gels work in much the same way as other strippable coatings. The results obtained through the use of contamination control products is variable and depends on the type of substrate, the selected contamination control product, the contaminants, and the environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, etc.).[2]
Some of the largest areas committed to be decontaminated are in the Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The national government is under pressure to clean up radioactivity due to the Fukushima nuclear accident of March 2011 from as much land as possible so that some of the 110,000 displaced people can return. Stripping out the key radioisotope threatening health (caesium-137) from low level waste could also dramatically decrease the volume of waste requiring special disposal. A goal is to find techniques that might be able to strip out 80 to 95% of the caesium from contaminated soil and other materials, efficiently and without destroying the organic content in the soil. One being investigated is termed hydrothermal blasting. The caesium is broken away from soil particles and then precipitated with ferric ferricyanide (Prussian blue). It would be the only component of the waste requiring special burial sites.[10] The aim is to get annual exposure from the contaminated environment down to one millisievert (mSv) above background. The most contaminated area where radiation doses are greater than 50 mSv/year must remain off limits, but some areas that are currently less than 5 mSv/year may be decontaminated allowing 22,000 residents to return.
To help with protection of people living in geographical areas which have been radioactively contaminated the International Commission on Radiological Protection has published a guide: "Publication 111 - Application of the Commission’s Recommendations to the Protection of People Living in Long-term Contaminated Areas after a Nuclear Accident or a Radiation Emergency".[11]
Contamination hazards[edit]
Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.
Elements which contain at least one stable isotope.
Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope is very long-lived, with half-life of over four million years.
Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between 800 and 34.000 years.
Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between one day and 103 years.
Highly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between several minutes and one day.
Extremely radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life less than several minutes.
Low-level contamination[edit]
The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation.[citation needed] If a survey or map is made of a contaminated area, random sampling locations may be labeled with their activity in becquerels or curies on contact. Low levels may be reported in counts per minute using a scintillation counter.
In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of, because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.
Facilities and physical locations that are deemed to be contaminated may be cordoned off by a health physicist and labeled "Contaminated area." Persons coming near such an area would typically require anti-contamination clothing ("anti-Cs").
High-level contamination[edit]
High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.
When radioactive contamination is being measured or mapped in situ, any location that appears to be a point source of radiation is likely to be heavily contaminated. A highly contaminated location is colloquially referred to as a "hot spot." On a map of a contaminated place, hot spots may be labeled with their "on contact" dose rate in mSv/h. In a contaminated facility, hot spots may be marked with a sign, shielded with bags of lead shot, or cordoned off with warning tape containing the radioactive trefoil symbol.
The radiation warning symbol (trefoil)
Alpha radiation consists of helium-4 nucleus and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma radiation is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Lead is good at absorbing gamma radiation, due to its density.
The hazard from contamination is the emission of ionising radiation. The principal radiations which will be encountered are alpha, beta and gamma, but these have quite different characteristics. They have widely differing penetrating powers and radiation effect, and the accompanying diagram shows the penetration of these radiations in simple terms. For an understanding of the different ionising effects of these radiations and the weighting factors applied, see the article on absorbed dose.
Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8[12] and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64.[13]
Health effects of contamination[edit]
Biological effects[edit]
See also: Sievert, Radiation poisoning, and committed dose
Radioactive contamination by definition emits ionizing radiation, which can irradiate the human body from an external or internal origin.
External irradiation[edit]
This is due to radiation from contamination located outside the human body. The source can be in the vicinity of the body or can be on the skin surface. The level of health risk is dependent on duration and the type and strength of irradiation. Penetrating radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons or beta particles pose the greatest risk from an external source. Low penetrating radiation such as alpha particles have a low external risk due to the shielding effect of the top layers of skin. See the article on sievert for more information on how this is calculated.
Internal irradiation[edit]
Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is Internal dosimetry.
The biological effects of ingested radionuclides depend greatly on the activity, the biodistribution, and the removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form, the particle size, and route of entry. Effects may also depend on the chemical toxicity of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with tritiated water.
Some organs concentrate certain elements and hence radionuclide variants of those elements. This action may lead to much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up a large percentage of any iodine that enters the body. Large quantities of inhaled or ingested radioactive iodine may impair or destroy the thyroid, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine-131 is a common fission product; it was a major component of the radioactivity released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to nine fatal cases of pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine.
The radiation risk proposed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) predicts that an effective dose of one sievert (100 rem) carries a 5.5% chance of developing cancer. Such a risk is the sum of both internal and external radiation dose.[14]
The ICRP states "Radionuclides incorporated in the human body irradiate the tissues over time periods determined by their physical half-life and their biological retention within the body. Thus they may give rise to doses to body tissues for many months or years after the intake. The need to regulate exposures to radionuclides and the accumulation of radiation dose over extended periods of time has led to the definition of committed dose quantities".[15] The ICRP further states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities (e.g., activity retained in the body or in daily excreta). The radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".[16]
The ICRP defines two dose quantities for individual committed dose:
Committed equivalent dose, H T(t) is the time integral of the equivalent dose rate in a particular tissue or organ that will be received by an individual following intake of radioactive material into the body by a Reference Person, where t is the integration time in years.[17] This refers specifically to the dose in a specific tissue or organ, in a similar way to external equivalent dose.
Committed effective dose, E(t) is the sum of the products of the committed organ or tissue equivalent doses and the appropriate tissue weighting factors WT, where t is the integration time in years following the intake. The commitment period is taken to be 50 years for adults, and to age 70 years for children.[17] This refers specifically to the dose to the whole body, in a similar way to external effective dose.
Social and psychological effects[edit]
A 2015 report in Lancet explained that serious impacts of nuclear accidents were often not directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects.[18] The consequences of low-level radiation are often more psychological than radiological. Because damage from very-low-level radiation cannot be detected, people exposed to it are left in anguished uncertainty about what will happen to them. Many believe they have been fundamentally contaminated for life and may refuse to have children for fear of birth defects. They may be shunned by others in their community who fear a sort of mysterious contagion.[19]
Forced evacuation from a radiological or nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental health impact of Chernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date".[19] Frank N. von Hippel, a U.S. scientist, commented on the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, saying that "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas".[20] Evacuation and long-term displacement of affected populations create problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients.[18]
Such great psychological danger does not accompany other materials that put people at risk of cancer and other deadly illness. Visceral fear is not widely aroused by, for example, the daily emissions from coal burning, although, as a National Academy of Sciences study found, this causes 10,000 premature deaths a year in the US population of 317,413,000. Medical errors leading to death in U.S. hospitals are estimated to be between 44,000 and 98,000. It is "only nuclear radiation that bears a huge psychological burden — for it carries a unique historical legacy".[19]
See also[edit]
Nuclear technology portal
Energy portal
Chemical hazard
Criticality accident
Human decontamination
List of Milestone nuclear explosions
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
Low-background steel
Nuclear and radiation accidents
Nuclear debate (disambiguation)
Nuclear power
Radiation biology
Radiation exposure (disambiguation)
Radiophobia
Relative biological effectiveness
Rongelap Atoll
Soviet submarine K-19
Category:Victims of radiological poisoning
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Richard Schiffman (12 March 2013). "Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Martin Fackler (June 1, 2011). "Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger". New York Times.
Jump up ^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (PDF). Vienna: IAEA. ISBN 92-0-100707-8.
Jump up ^ "Atmospheric δ14C record from Wellington". Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1994. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
Jump up ^ Levin, I.; et al. (1994). "δ14C record from Vermunt". Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.
Jump up ^ "Radiocarbon dating". University of Utrecht. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
Jump up ^ USNRC, United States Regulatory Commission. "Glossary". Retrieved 14 November 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/irp7.pdf
Jump up ^ Operational Monitoring Good Practice Guide "The Selection of Alarm Levels for Personnel Exit Monitors" Dec 2009 - National Physical Laboratory, Teddington UK [1]
Jump up ^ Dennis Normile, "Cooling a Hot Zone," Science, 339 (1 March 2013) pp. 1028-1029.
Jump up ^ ICRP Protection of people living in long term contaminated areas
Jump up ^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8 (PDF). Vienna: IAEA.
Jump up ^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64. Vienna: IAEA. p. 234. ISBN 978-92-0-112409-8.
Jump up ^ ICRP publication 103 - Paragraph 83.
Jump up ^ ICRP Publication 103 paragraph 140
Jump up ^ ICRP publication 103 - Paragraph 144.
^ Jump up to: a b ICRP publication 103 - Glossary.
^ Jump up to: a b Arifumi Hasegawa, Koichi Tanigawa, Akira Ohtsuru, Hirooki Yabe, Masaharu Maeda, Jun Shigemura, et al. Health effects of radiation and other health problems in the aftermath of nuclear accidents, with an emphasis on Fukushima, The Lancet, 1 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Andrew C. Revkin (March 10, 2012). "Nuclear Risk and Fear, from Hiroshima to Fukushima". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Frank N. von Hippel (September–October 2011). The radiological and psychological consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi accident. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. vol. 67 no. 5. pp. 27–36.
Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 30 "Practical Radiation Monitoring" Oct 2002 - National Physical Laboratory, Teddington UK
External links[edit]
Book: Pollution
Q&A: Health effects of radiation exposure, BBC News, 21 July 2011.
Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility
training guide Brookhaven National Laboratory Training Guide.
International Fund for Animal Welfare report on impact of radiation on animals
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text:
List of state and union territory capitals in India
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States and union
territories of India
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India is a country located in southern Asia. With over 1.3 billion people, India is the most populous democracy in the world. It is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of 29 states and 7 union territories.[1] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[2] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts..
The state and union territory capitals are sorted according to no legislative and judicial capitals. The administrative capital is where the executive government offices are located, the legislative capital is where the state assembly convenes, and the judicial capital is the location of the state or territorial High Courts. Union territories are marked with a dagger ( ).
Contents
1 List
2 Explanatory notes
3 Citations
4 References
5 External links
List[edit]
No.
State or
union territory
Administrative capitals
Legislative capitals
Judiciary capitals
Year capital was established
The Former capital
1
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Port Blair — Kolkata 1955 Calcutta (1945–1955)
2
Andhra Pradesh
Hyderabad (de jure to 2024)
Amaravati (de facto from 2017)[3] [4] [a] Amaravati [3] Hyderabad 1956
2017 Kurnool (1953-1956)
3
Arunachal Pradesh
Itanagar Itanagar Guwahati 1986 —
4
Assam
Dispur Guwahati Guwahati 1975 Shillong[b] (1874–1952)
5
Bihar
Patna Patna Patna 1912 —
6
Chandigarh
Chandigarh[c] — Chandigarh 1966 —
7
Chhattisgarh
Atal Nagar[d] Raipur Bilaspur 2000 —
8
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Silvassa — Mumbai 1945 Mumbai (1954–1961)
Panaji (1961–1987)
9
Daman and Diu
Daman — Mumbai 1987 Ahmedabad (1961–1963)
Panaji (1963–1987)
10
National Capital Territory of Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi New Delhi 1931 —
11
Goa
Panaji[e] Porvorim Mumbai 1961 Panaji (1961–1987)
12
Gujarat
Gandhinagar Gandhinagar Ahmedabad 1960 Ahmedabad (1960–1970)
13
Haryana
Chandigarh Chandigarh Chandigarh 1966 —
14
Himachal Pradesh
Shimla
Dharamshala (W/2nd)[8]
Shimla (Summer)
Dharamsala(Winter)
Shimla 1971
2017
Bilaspur (1950–1956)
15
Jammu and Kashmir
Srinagar (Summer)
Jammu (Winter) Srinagar (Summer)
Jammu (Winter) Srinagar (Summer)
Jammu (Winter) 1947 —
16
Jharkhand
Ranchi Ranchi Ranchi 2000 —
17
Karnataka
Bengaluru Bengaluru Bengaluru 1940 (Mysore)
18
Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram Kochi 1956 —
19
Lakshadweep
Kavaratti — Kochi 1956 —
20
Madhya Pradesh
Bhopal Bhopal Jabalpur 1956 Nagpur[f] (1861–1956)
21
Maharashtra
Mumbai[g]
Nagpur (W/2nd)[h] Mumbai (Summer)
Nagpur (Winter)[i] Mumbai 1818
1960 —
22
Manipur
Imphal Imphal Imphal 1947 —
23
Meghalaya
Shillong Shillong Shillong 1970 —
24
Mizoram
Aizawl Aizawl Guwahati 1972 —
25
Nagaland
Kohima Kohima Guwahati 1963 —
26
Odisha
Bhubaneswar Bhubaneswar Cuttack 1948 Cuttack (1936–1948)
27
Puducherry
Puducherry Puducherry Chennai 1954 Madras (1948–1954)
28
Punjab
Chandigarh Chandigarh Chandigarh 1966 —
29
Rajasthan
Jaipur Jaipur Jodhpur 1950 —
30
Sikkim
Gangtok[j] Gangtok Gangtok 1890 —
31
Tamil Nadu
Chennai[k] Chennai Chennai 1956 —
32
Telangana
Hyderabad[l] Hyderabad Hyderabad 2014 —
33
Tripura
Agartala Agartala Agartala 1956 —
34
Uttar Pradesh
Lucknow Lucknow Allahabad 1938 —
35
Uttarakhand
Dehradun[m] Dehradun Nainital 2000 —
36
West Bengal
Kolkata Kolkata Kolkata 1947 —
Explanatory notes[edit]
Jump up ^ After the formation of Telangana, as per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, both states will share Hyderabad as their common capital for up to ten years. The new capital of Andhra Pradesh is going to be Amaravati, decided by the Andhra Pradesh government in April, 2016.
Jump up ^ Shilong was the joint capital of Assam and Meghalaya until 1971.[5]
Jump up ^ Chandigarh is the capital of the states of Punjab and Haryana, and is a Union Territory, separate from the two states.[6]
Jump up ^ Raipur is the interim capital of Chhattisgarh. The town of Atal Nagar 17 km from Raipur is envisaged as the state's new capital.
Jump up ^ Panaji was the capital of Goa from 1843 when it was ruled by the Portuguese.[7]
Jump up ^ Nagpur was the capital of Central Provinces and Berar which was a province from 1861 until 1950.[9] Central Province became the major constituent of Madhya Pradesh, after it was formed in 1950.[9] Nagpur remained the capital of the new state.[10] In 1956, Berar (Vidarbha) was separated from Madhya Pradesh, and merged with the Bombay State. Nagpur thus lost the status of a capital city. In 1960, under the Nagpur pact, Nagpur became the second capital of Maharashtra.[11]
Jump up ^ Mumbai / Bombay was the capital of Bombay Presidency which was a province until 1950. After that Bombay became the capital of Bombay State. Subsequently, Bombay State was split into Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960.
Jump up ^ In 1960, under the Nagpur pact, Nagpur became the second capital of Maharashtra.[11] Although an official notification to this effect was only given in 1988. The India yearbook of the government of India still does not mention Nagpur, being either the second or winter capital of Maharashtra.
Jump up ^ Under the Nagpur pact, one of the preconditions for Vidarbha joining the state of Maharastra was that, at least one of the legislative sessions every year should be held in Nagpur. The winter session is held in Nagpur.[12]
Jump up ^ Gangtok has been the capital of Sikkim since 1890. Sikkim joined the Indian Union in 1975.[13]
Jump up ^ Chennai (Madras) was the capital of the Madras Presidency since 1839, which was redrawn as Madras State in 1956. Madras State was renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1968.
Jump up ^ After the formation of Telangana, as per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, both states will share Hyderabad as their common capital for ten years. The new Andhra Pradesh Capital City capital is going to be Amaravati, decided by the Andhra Pradesh government in April, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dehradun is the interim capital of Uttarakhand. The town of Gairsain is envisaged as the state's new capital.[14]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Library of Congress 2004.
Jump up ^ Sharma 2007, p. 49.
^ Jump up to: a b "After 2200 Years, Amaravati Gets Back Power!". Gulte.com. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "AP Government Portal - Official Andhra Pradesh State Govt. Portal". Ap.gov.in. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Baruah 1999, p. xiii.
Jump up ^ Menon & Banerjea 2002, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Ring 1996, p. 288.
Jump up ^ "Dharamshala Declared Second Capital of Himachal | Hill Post". www.hillpost.in. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Boland-Crewe & Lea 2002, p. 155.
Jump up ^ Kumāra 1998, p. 136.
^ Jump up to: a b Kini 1974, pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ Khandewale 1989, p. 21.
Jump up ^ Spate 1953, p. 200.
Jump up ^ Sati & Kumar 2004, pp. 9–10.
References[edit]
Baruah, Sanjib (1999). India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3491-6. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
Boland-Crewe, Tara; Lea, David, eds. (15 November 2002). The Territories and States of India. Europa. ISBN 978-1-85743-148-3. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
"Country Profile: India" (PDF), Library of Congress Country Studies (5th ed.), Library of Congress Federal Research Division, December 2004, retrieved 30 September 2011
Khandewale, Shrinivas Vishnu (1989). Industrial Area and Regional Resources: A Case Study of Nagpur Industrial Area. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-134-2. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
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Amusement park accidents
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Amusement park accidents refer to serious injuries or deaths that occur at amusement parks. Many such accidents are reported to regulatory authorities as usually required by law everywhere. The US Consumer Product Safety Commission tracks statistics for all amusement ride accidents. Accidents listed here are caused by one of the following:
Caused by negligence on the part of the guest. This can be refusal to follow specific ride safety instructions, or deliberate intent to violate park rules.
The result of a guest's known, or unknown, health issues.
Negligence on the part of the park, either by ride operator or maintenance safety instructions, or deliberate intent to violate park rules.
Act of God or a generic accident (e.g., lightning strike, slipping and falling), that is not a direct result of an action on anybody's part
According to the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA), a trade association for permanent amusement park facilities, 290 million tickets were sold by US amusement parks in 2010.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Statistics for the United States
1.1 Florida
1.1.1 2006
1.1.2 2007
2 Injuries to children
3 Notable incidents
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Statistics for the United States[edit]
Deaths:
From 1987 to 2000, there were an estimated 4.5 amusement ride-related deaths per year.[2]
From 1990 to 2004, there were 52 deaths associated with amusement park rides.[3][4]
There were 3 deaths in 2001, 2 deaths in 2002, and 3 deaths in 2003.[5]
Injuries:
In 2011, 1,204 people were injured at 400 amusement parks, according to the IAAPA.[3]
Florida[edit]
All of Florida's major parks—which include the Walt Disney World Resort, SeaWorld Orlando, Universal Orlando, and Busch Gardens Tampa Bay—report quarterly details surrounding accidents and other incidents at their parks. A requirement for these reported incidents is that they be fatal incidents, or that the injured person had required an overnight hospital visit. Four examples of the types of incidents that have been reported to Florida's Bureau of Fair Rides Inspection are listed here:[6][not in citation given]
a 68-year-old woman fractured both legs and an arm while exiting the ride vehicle of Peter Pan's Flight.
a 42-year-old man broke his left ankle while exiting the Kilimanjaro Safari ride vehicle.
a 14-year-old girl broke her arm on the Camp Jurassic climbing nets.
a 57-year-old man suffered chest pain while riding Revenge of the Mummy.
From 2004 through 2009, the Orlando-area attractions that attracted the most guest lawsuits were:[7]
7 lawsuits for Dudley Do-Right's Ripsaw Falls at Universal Orlando
5 lawsuits for Mission: Space at Epcot
3 lawsuits for The Black Hole, a water slide at Wet 'n Wild; Popeye & Bluto's Bilge-Rat Barges at Islands of Adventure; and Rock 'n' Roller Coaster at Disney's Hollywood Studios.
2 lawsuits each for eleven other rides at area attractions.
2006[edit]
In the second quarter of 2006, there were 12 reported cases of serious injuries or illnesses out of the many people who visited the various parks and resorts.[8]
Disney reported nine cases. Among them were: two deaths; a man who swallowed too much water at Typhoon Lagoon; three women who fell and broke their hips or suffered other injuries; two men with chest pains; and a boy who fainted at Blizzard Beach.
During that same time period, Universal Orlando reported one case: a woman with chest pain, numbness in an arm, and other symptoms.
SeaWorld and Busch Gardens reported no cases during the quarter.
Busch Gardens' Adventure Island water park reported two cases of people complaining of injuries.
In the fourth quarter of 2006, Universal Orlando, SeaWorld Orlando, Wet ‘n Wild and Busch Gardens Tampa Bay reported no serious injuries or illnesses on rides in their fourth-quarter filings. Disney reported 6 incidents, ranging from a guest's dizziness upon exiting a ride to a broken foot at Typhoon Lagoon.[9]
2007[edit]
In the first quarter of 2007, Universal Orlando, SeaWorld Orlando, Wet ‘n Wild and Busch Gardens Tampa Bay reported no serious incidents on their rides. Disney reported four.[10]
In the 2nd quarter of 2007, only five significant incidents occurred at the major Orlando and Tampa Bay area theme parks. This marked the first time in five quarters that a fatality was not reported by those parks.[11]
In the 3rd quarter of 2007, eight serious injuries were reported at the major Orlando and Tampa Bay area theme parks.[6]
In the 4th quarter of 2007, three injuries and one death were reported at the major Orlando and Tampa Bay area theme parks.[12]
Injuries to children[edit]
Approximately 4,400 children are hurt each year on amusement park rides, but only 1.5% of those injuries are serious enough to require hospitalization.[13] Between 1990 and 2000, around 82,000 children under 18 were taken to emergency rooms after suffering injuries from amusement park rides. An additional 11,000 suffered injuries on rides outside amusement parks, such as those found at local malls, restaurants, or arcades.[14]
Of those reported 82,000 incidents, 34% occurred at locations where the rides were considered permanent, 29% happened on temporary attractions, and 25% were not categorized.
Girls were injured more often than boys. The most frequent injuries were to the head, neck, arms, face, and legs. Most injuries reported appeared to be due to improper restraints or padding, or were caused by the child falling in, on, off, or against the ride.
Notable incidents[edit]
Incidents at Cedar Fair parks
Incidents at CNL Income Properties parks
Incidents at Disney parks
Incidents at Herschend parks
Incidents at SeaWorld parks
Incidents at Six Flags parks
Incidents at Universal parks
Incidents at independent amusement parks
Incidents at European amusement parks
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.iaapa.org/resources/by-park-type/amusement-parks-and-attractions/industry-statistics
Jump up ^ "Amusement Ride-Related Injuries and Deaths in the United States:2003 Update" (PDF). US Consumer Product Safety Commission. 2003-11-01. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Jonel Aleccia (2014-07-08). "Thrills or Chills? Roller Coaster Safety a Mystery". NBC News. Retrieved 2014-07-08.
Jump up ^ Heygood, Michael (3 August 2012). "Carnival and amusement park accidents injure thousands each year". Heygood, Orr & Pearson. Retrieved 28 May 2013. There were more than 15,000 amusement ride-related injuries in 2005 in the US. According to the CPSC, […]
Jump up ^ "Amusement Ride-Related Injuries and Deaths in the United States:2003 Update" (PDF). US Consumer Product Safety Commission. 2003-11-01. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "Central Florida theme park injuries and illnesses". Orlando Sentinel. 2007-10-25. Archived from the original on 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
Jump up ^ "Top 5 Central Florida theme park rides that draw lawsuits". Orlando Sentinel. 2009-03-29. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
Jump up ^ Report on 2Q2006 incidents Archived November 5, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Quarterly state reports cite "natural" death, injuries". Orlando Sentinel. 2007-01-30. Archived from the original on 2012-03-13. Retrieved 2007-01-30.
Jump up ^ "Disney deaths due to natural causes". Orlando Sentinel. 2007-04-18. Archived from the original on 2007-04-25. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Theme park injuries and illnesses". Orlando Sentinel. 2007-07-17. Archived from the original on April 30, 2009. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
Jump up ^ "4 seriously hurt at Central Florida theme parks at end of '07, records show". Orlando Sentinel. 2007-01-16. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
Jump up ^ JoNel Aleccia (2013-05-01). "Amusement rides hurt 4,400 kids a year, large study finds". NBC News. Retrieved 2013-07-22.
Jump up ^ Michelle Healy (2013-05-01). "Amusement-ride injuries can happen on 'mall rides' too". USA Today. Retrieved 2013-05-02.
Bibliography[edit]
ASTM F2291, Practice for Design of Amusement Rides and Devices
External links[edit]
International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions
Amusement Safety Organization Amusement ride injuries
US Consumer Product Safety Commission
Searchable database of Central Florida amusement park accidents From the Orlando Sentinel, covers the quarterly government reports made by Walt Disney World, Universal Orlando, SeaWorld Orlando, Wet 'n Wild and Busch Gardens Tampa Bay.
Amusement park accident information
Ride accident news archive from 1998 onward
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values: Incidents at CNL Income Properties parks

values: List of incidents at independent amusement parks

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http://www.iaapa.org/
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http://www.amusementsafety.org/
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http://www.cpsc.gov/
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http://www.amusementparkaccidents.com/
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http://www.rideaccidents.com/
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/wiki/Incidents_at_Walt_Disney_World
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Incidents at Walt Disney World

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Incidents at Tokyo Disney Resort

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/wiki/Incidents_at_Disneyland_Paris
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Incidents at Disneyland Paris

values: List of incidents at Warner Bros. Movie World

values: Incidents at independent amusement parks

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values: Category:Lists of amusement park incidents

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