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Religious studies
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For the academic journal, see Religious Studies (journal).
Various religious symbols
Religious studies, alternately known as the study of religion, is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.
While theology attempts to understand the nature of transcendent or supernatural forces (such as deities), religious studies tries to study religious behavior and belief from outside any particular religious viewpoint. Religious studies draws upon multiple disciplines and their methodologies including anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and history of religion.
Religious studies originated in the 19th century, when scholarly and historical analysis of the Bible had flourished, and Hindu and Buddhist texts were first being translated into European languages. Early influential scholars included Friedrich Max Müller, in England, and Cornelius P. Tiele, in the Netherlands. Today religious studies is practiced by scholars worldwide.[1] In its early years, it was known as Comparative Religion or the Science of Religion and, in the USA, there are those who today also know the field as the History of religion (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular Mircea Eliade, from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s).
The term "religion" originated from the Latin noun "religio", that was nominalized from one of three verbs: "relegere" (to turn to constantly/observe conscientiously); "religare" (to bind oneself [back]); and "reeligere" (to choose again).[2] Because of these three different potential meanings, an etymological analysis alone does not resolve the ambiguity of defining religion, since each verb points to a different understanding of what religion is. During the Medieval Period, the term "religious" was used as a noun to describe someone who had joined a monastic order (a "religious").
The religious studies scholar Walter Capps described the purpose of the discipline as to provide "training and practice... in directing and conducting inquiry regarding the subject of religion".[3] At the same time, Capps stated that its other purpose was to use "prescribed modes and techniques of inquiry to make the subject of religion intelligible."[3] Religious studies scholar Robert A. Segal characterised the discipline as "a subject matter" that is "open to many approaches", and thus it "does not require either a distinctive method or a distinctive explanation to be worthy of disciplinary status."[4]
Different scholars operating in the field have different interests and intentions; some for instance seek to defend religion, while others seek to explain it away, and others wish to use religion as an example with which to prove a theory of their own.[5] Some scholars of religious studies are interested in primarily studying the religion to which they belong.[6]
Scholars of religion have argued that a study of the subject is useful for individuals because it will provide them with knowledge that is pertinent in inter-personal and professional contexts within an increasingly globalised world.[7] It has also been argued that studying religion is useful in appreciating and understanding sectarian tensions and religious violence.[8]
Contents
1 Defining "religion"
2 Intellectual foundation and background
3 History
3.1 Anthropology of religion
3.2 Cultural anthropology of religion
3.3 Economics of religion
3.4 Geography of religion
3.5 History of religion
3.6 Literary approaches
3.7 Neurological approaches
3.8 Origin of religion
3.9 Psychology of religion
3.10 Sociology of religion
3.11 Law and religion
3.12 Religion and film
4 Methodologies
4.1 Phenomenology
4.2 Functionalism
4.3 Lived religion
5 Religious studies and theology
6 Criticism
7 Scholarly journals
8 Notes
9 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
11.1 Academic societies
11.2 Online works and sources
Defining "religion"[edit]
Totem poles reflect the beliefs of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast; some religious studies scholars argue that the term "religion" is too Western-centric to encompass the beliefs and practices of communities such as these
Throughout the history of religious studies, there have been many attempts to define the term "religion".[9] Many of these have been monothetic, seeking to determine a key, essential element which all religions share, which can be used to define "religion" as a category, and which must be necessary in order for something to be classified as a "religion".[10] There are two forms of monothetic definition; the first are substantive, seeking to identify a specific core as being at the heart of religion, such as a belief in a God or gods, or an emphasis on power.[11] The second are functional, seeking to define "religion" in terms of what it does for humans, for instance defining it by the argument that it exists to assuage fear of death, unite a community, or reinforce the control of one group over another.[11] Other forms of definition are polythetic, producing a list of characteristics that are common to religion. In this definition there is no one characteristic that need be common to every form of religion.[11]
Causing further complications is the fact that there are various secular world views, such as nationalism and Marxism, which bear many of the same characteristics that are commonly associated with religion, but which rarely consider themselves to be religious.[12]
Conversely, other scholars of religious studies have argued that the discipline should reject the term "religion" altogether and cease trying to define it.[13] In this perspective, "religion" is argued to be a Western concept that has been forced upon other cultures in an act of intellectual imperialism.[14] According to scholar of religion Russell T. McCutcheon, "many of the peoples that we study by means of this category have no equivalent term or concept whatsoever".[15] There is, for instance, no word for "religion" in languages like Sanskrit.[14]
Intellectual foundation and background[edit]
Before religious studies became a field in its own right, flourishing in the United States in the late 1960s, several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures was the famous pragmatist William James. His 1902 Gifford lectures and book The Varieties of Religious Experience examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. His essay The Will to Believe defends the rationality of faith.
Max Weber studied religion from an economic perspective in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-1905), his most famous work. As a major figure in sociology, he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion. Émile Durkheim also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. He explored Protestant and Catholic attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his work Suicide. In 1912 he published his most memorable work on religion, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.
History[edit]
Max Müller
Interest in the general study of religion dates back to at least Hecataeus of Miletus (ca. 550 BCE – ca. 476 BCE) and Herodotus (ca. 484 BCE – 425 BCE). Later, during the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars such as Ibn Hazm (d. 1064 CE) studied Persian, Jewish, Christian, and Indian religions, among others. The first history of religion was the Treatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects (1127 CE), written by the Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani. Peter the Venerable, also working in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a Latin translation of the Qur'an.
Notwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline Religious Studies is relatively new. Dr. Chris Partridge notes that the "first professorships were established as recently as the final quarter of the nineteenth century."[1] In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. Max Müller was the first Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford University, a chair created especially for him. In his Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873) he wrote that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their life to the study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to take possession of this new territory in the name of true science."
Many of the key scholars who helped to establish the study of religion did not regard themselves as scholars of religious studies, but rather as theologians, philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and historians.[16]
Partridge writes that "by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry." He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies.
One of the earliest academic institutions where Religious Studies was presented as a distinct subject was University College Ibadan, now the University of Ibadan, where Geoffrey Parrinder was appointed as lecturer in Religious Studies in 1949.[17]
In the 1960s and 1970s, the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. New departments were founded and influential journals of religious studies were initiated (for example, Religious Studies and Religion). In the forward to Approaches to the Study of Religion, Ninian Smart wrote that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] basically dates from the 1960s, although before then there were such fields as 'the comparative study of religion', the 'history of religion', the 'sociology of religion' and so on..."
In the 1980s, in both Britain and America, "the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in the 1980s led to cut backs affecting religious studies departments." (Partridge) Later in the decade, religious studies began to pick up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study.
Philosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines. Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by English speaking scholars. (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indian, Muslim, and Jewish.) Common issues considered by the (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of God, belief and rationality, cosmology, and logical inferences of logical consistency from sacred texts.
Although philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims (e.g. Augustine and Pelagius's debate concerning original sin), the rise of scholasticism in the 11th century, which represented "the search for order in intellectual life" (Russell, 170), more fully integrated the Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of Aristotle) in religious study.
There is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself. Religious studies seeks to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories.
Anthropology of religion[edit]
The anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the common basic human needs that religion fulfills.
Cultural anthropology of religion[edit]
The cultural anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the cultural aspects of religion. Of primary concern to the cultural anthropologist of religions are rituals, beliefs, religious art, and practices of piety.
Economics of religion[edit]
Gallup surveys have found that the world's poorest countries may be the most religious. Of those countries with average per-capita incomes under $2000, 95% reported that religion played an important role in their daily lives. This is contrasted by the average of 47% from the richest countries, with incomes over $25000 (with the United States breaking the trend by reporting at 65%).[18] Social scientists have suggested that religion plays a functional role (helping people cope) in poorer nations.[18][19] The New York Times offers a graphic illustrating the correlation (not necessarily causation) between religion and poverty.
Geography of religion[edit]
The geography of religion is principally concerned with the spatial elements of religious practice and embodiment. In the 1960s and 1970s, geographers of religion such as Wilbur Zelinsky and David Sopher were mostly associated with the "Berkeley school" of cultural geography and focused mostly on the cultural imprints of religion on the landscape. Since the turn in the new cultural geography of religion through the work of James Duncan on the City as Text, geographers of religion have focused on what Lily Kong has called the "politics and poetics" of religion, especially in relation to the political geographies of secular nation-states. Recent interest in the geography of religion has focused on how religious practitioners enact sacred space through their embodied sacred practices as well as the relationship between religion and geopolitics.
History of religion[edit]
See also: History of religion
The history of religions is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance. Some topics of this discipline are the historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters.[20]
Literary approaches[edit]
There are many approaches to the study of sacred texts. One of these approaches is to interpret the text as a literary object. Metaphor, thematic elements, and the nature and motivations of the characters are of interest in this approach. An example of this approach is God: A Biography, by Jack Miles.
Neurological approaches[edit]
The temporal lobe has been of interest which has been termed the "God center" of the brain. (Ramachandran, ch. 9) Neurological findings in regard to religious experience is not a widely accepted discipline within religious studies. Scientific investigators have used a SPECTscanner to analyze the brain activity of both Christian contemplatives and Buddhist meditators, finding them to be quite similar.[21]
Origin of religion[edit]
Main articles: Evolutionary origin of religions, Evolutionary psychology of religion, and Revelation
The "origin of religion" refers to the emergence of religious behavior in prehistory, before written records.
Psychology of religion[edit]
Main article: Psychology of religion
The psychology of religion is concerned with the psychological principles operative in religious communities and practitioners. William James's The Varieties of Religious Experience analyzed personal experience as contrasted with the social phenomenon of religion. Some issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of religious conversion, the making of religious decisions, religion and happiness, and the psychological factors in evaluating religious claims.
Sigmund Freud was another figure in the field of psychology and religion. He used his psychoanalytic theory to explain religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, in order to justify the role of religion in the development of human culture.
Sociology of religion[edit]
Main article: Sociology of religion
The sociology of religion concerns the dialectical relationship between religion and society; the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society.[22] There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that it does not set out to assess the validity of religious beliefs, though the process of comparing multiple conflicting dogmas may require what Peter L. Berger has described as inherent "methodological atheism".[23] Whereas the sociology of religion broadly differs from theology in assuming the invalidity of the supernatural, theorists tend to acknowledge socio-cultural reification of religious practise.
It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations. The works of Max Weber emphasised the relationship between religious belief and the economic foundations of society. Contemporary debates have centred on issues such as secularization, civil religion, and the cohesiveness of religion in the context of globalization and multiculturalism.
The sociology of religion also deals with how religion impacts society regarding the positive and negatives of what happens when religion is mixed with society. Theorist such as Marx states that “religion is the opium of the people” - the idea that religion has become a way for people to deal with their problems. At least one comprehensive study refutes this idea. Research has found that secular democracies like France or Scandinavia outperform more theistic democracies on various measures of societal health. The authors explains, "Pressing questions include the reasons, whether theistic or non-theistic, that the exceptionally wealthy U.S. is so inefficient that it is experiencing a much higher degree of societal distress than are less religious, less wealthy prosperous democracies. Conversely, how do the latter achieve superior societal health while having little in the way of the religious values or institutions?"[24]
Law and religion[edit]
Main article: Law and religion
Vogel reports that in the 1970s a new "law and religion" approach has progressively built its own contribution to religious studies. Over a dozen scholarly organizations and committees were formed by 1983, and a scholarly quarterly, the Journal of Law and Religion first published that year and the Ecclesiastical Law Journal opened in 1999.[25] Many departments and centers have been created around the world during the last decades. As of 2012, major Law and Religion organizations in the U.S. included 500 law professors, 450 political scientists, and specialists in numerous other fields such as history and religious studies. Between 1985 and 2010, the field saw the publication of some 750 books and 5000 scholarly articles.[26] Scholars are not only focused on strictly legal issues about religious freedom or non establishment but also on the study of religions as they are qualified through judicial discourses or legal understanding on religious phenomena. Exponents look at canon law, natural law, and state law, often in comparative perspective.[27][28] Specialists have explored themes in western history regarding Christianity and justice and mercy, rule and equity, discipline and love.[29] Common topics on interest include marriage and the family,[30] and human rights.[31] Moving beyond Christianity, scholars have looked at law and religion interrelations in law and religion in the Muslim Middle East,[32] and pagan Rome.[33]
Religion and film[edit]
The earliest serious writing on the interface between religion and film appeared in the work of film critics like Jean Epstein in the 1920s.[34] The subject has grown in popularity with students and is cited as having particular relevance given the pervasiveness of film in modern culture.[35] Approaches to the study of religion and film differ among scholars; functionalist approaches for instance view film as a site in which religion is manifested, while theological approaches examine film as a reflection of God's presence in all things.[36]
Methodologies[edit]
A number of methodologies are used in Religious Studies. Methodologies are hermeneutics, or interpretive models, that provide a structure for the analysis of religious phenomena.
Phenomenology[edit]
Main article: Phenomenology (philosophy)
Phenomenology is "arguably the most influential approach to the study of religion in the twentieth century." (Partridge) The term is first found in the title of the work of the influential philosopher of German Idealism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, entitled The Phenomenology of Spirit. Phenomenology had been practiced long before its being made explicit as a philosophical method by Edmund Husserl, who is considered to be its founder. In the context of Phenomenology of religion however, the term was first used by Pierre Daniel Chantepie de la Saussaye in his work "Lehrbuch der Religiongeschichte" (1887). Chantepie's phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics of religion much like a zoologist would categorize animals or an entomologist would categorize insects.
In part due to Husserl's influence, "phenomenology" came to "refer to a method which is more complex and claims rather more for itself than did Chantepie’s mere cataloguing of facts." (Partridge) Husserl argued that the foundation of knowledge is consciousness. He recognized "how easy it is for prior beliefs and interpretations to unconsciously influence one’s thinking, Husserl’s phenomenological method sought to shelve all these presuppositions and interpretations." (Partridge) Husserl introduced the term "eidetic vision" to describe the ability to observe without "prior beliefs and interpretations" influencing understanding and perception.
His other main conceptual contribution is the idea of the epoche: setting aside metaphysical questions and observing phenomena in and of themselves, without any bias or commitments on the part of the investigator. The epoche, also known as phenomenological reduction or bracketing, involves approaching a phenomenon or phenomena from a neutral standpoint, instead of with our own particular attitudes. In performing this reduction, whatever phenomenon or phenomena we approach are understood in themselves, rather than from our own perspectives. In the field of religious studies, a contemporary advocate of the phenomenological method is Ninian Smart. He suggests that we should perform the epoche as a means to engage in cross-cultural studies. In doing so, we can take the beliefs, symbols, rituals etc. of the other from within their own perspective, rather than imposing ours on them. Another earlier scholar who employs the phenomenological method for studying religion is Gerardus van der Leeuw. In his Religion in Essence and Manifestation (1933), he outlines what a phenomenology of religion should look like:
Firstly, argues van der Leeuw, the student of religion needs to classify the religious phenomena into distinct categories: e.g. sacrifice, sacrament, sacred space, sacred time, sacred word, festivals, and myth.
Secondly, scholars then need to interpolate the phenomena into their own lives. That is to say, they need to empathetically (Einfühlung) try and understand the religion from within....The life examined by the religious studies scholar, insists van der Leeuw, needs to "acquire its place in the life of the student himself who should understand it out of his inner self."
Thirdly, van der Leeuw stresses perhaps the fundamental phenomenological principle, namely epoch, the suspension of value-judgements and the adoption of a neutral stance.
Fourthly, scholars needs to clarify any apparent structural relationships and make sense of the information. In so doing, they move towards a holistic understanding of how the various aspects of a religion relate and function together.
Fifthly, this leads naturally to a stage at which "all these activities, undertaken together and simultaneously, constitute genuine understanding [Verstehen]: the chaotic and obstinate 'reality' thus becomes a manifestation, a revelation" (eidetic vision).
Sixthly, having thus attained this general grasp, there is a continual need to make sure that it tallies with the up-to-date research of other disciplines, such as archaeology, history, philology etc. For van der Leeuw, as for other phenomenologists, the continual checking of one’s results is crucial to the maintenance of scholarly objectivity. In order to avoid degeneration into fantasy, phenomenology must always feed on facts.
Finally, having gone through the above six stages, the phenomenologist should be as close as anyone can be to an understanding of the 'meaning' of the religious phenomena studied and be in a position to relate his understanding to others.
The subjectivity inherent to the phenomenological study of religion makes complete and comprehensive understanding highly difficult. However, phenomenologists aim to separate their formal study of religion from their own theological worldview and to eliminate, as far as possible, any personal biases (e.g., a Christian phenomenologist would avoid studying Hinduism through the lens of Christianity).
There are a number of both theoretical and methodological attitudes common among phenomenologists:source
Phenomenologists tend to oppose the acceptance of unobservable matters and grand systems erected in speculative thinking;
Phenomenologists tend to oppose naturalism (also called objectivism and positivism), which is the worldview growing from modern natural science and technology that has been spreading from Northern Europe since the Renaissance;
Positively speaking, phenomenologists tend to justify cognition (and some also evaluation and action) with reference to what Edmund Husserl called Evidenz, which is awareness of a matter itself as disclosed in the most clear, distinct, and adequate way for something of its kind;
Phenomenologists tend to believe that not only objects in the natural and cultural worlds, but also ideal objects, such as numbers, and even conscious life itself can be made evident and thus known;
Phenomenologists tend to hold that inquiry ought to focus upon what might be called "encountering" as it is directed at objects and, correlatively, upon "objects as they are encountered" (this terminology is not widely shared, but the emphasis on a dual problematics and the reflective approach it requires is);
Phenomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or "eidetic" terms as prior to explanation by means of causes, purposes, or grounds; and
Phenomenologists tend to debate whether or not what Husserl calls the transcendental phenomenological epochê and reduction is useful or even possible.
Many scholars of religious studies argued that phenomenology was "the distinctive method of the discipline".[37] In 2006, the phenomenologist of religion Thomas Ryba noted that this approach to the study of religion had "entered a period of dormancy".[38] Phenomenological approaches were largely taxonomical, with Robert A. Segal stating that it amounted to "no more than data gathering" alongside "the classification of the data gathered".[37]
Functionalism[edit]
Functionalism, in regard to religious studies, is the analysis of religions and their various communities of adherents using the functions of particular religious phenomena to interpret the structure of religious communities and their beliefs. The approach was introduced by British anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown.[39] A major criticism of functionalism is that it lends itself to teleological explanations. An example of a functionalist approach is understanding the dietary restrictions contained in the Pentateuch as having the function of promoting health or providing social identity (i.e. a sense of belonging though common practice).
Lived religion[edit]
Lived religion is the ethnographic and holistic framework for understanding the beliefs, practices, and everyday experiences of religious and spiritual persons in religious studies. The name lived religion comes from the French tradition of sociology of religion "la religion vécue".[40]
The concept of lived religion was popularized in the late 20th century by religious study scholars like Robert A. Orsi and David Hall. The study of lived religion has come to include a wide range of subject areas as a means of exploring and emphasizing what a religious person does and what they believe. Today, the field of lived religion is expanding to include many topics and scholars.
Religious studies and theology[edit]
Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from theology and the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. The scholar need not be a believer. Theology stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic and scripture as evidence. Theology according to this understanding fits with the definition which Anselm of Canterbury gave to it in the 11th century, credo ut intelligam, or faith seeking understanding (literally, "I believe so that I may understand"). The theologian then has the task of making intelligible, or clarifying, the religious commitments to which he or she subscribes. The scholar of religious studies has no such allegiances.[41]
Criticism[edit]
A group of scholars have criticized religious studies beginning in the 1990s as a theological project which actually imposes views onto the people it aims to survey. Prominent voices in this critical view include Jonathan Z. Smith, Timothy Fitzgerald, Talal Asad, Tomoko Masuzawa, Geoffrey A. Oddie, Richard E. King, Russell T. McCutcheon, and Daniel Dubuisson. Their areas of research overlap heavily with postcolonial studies.[42]
Scholarly journals[edit]
Much of the latest scholarship appears in the scholarly journals, which also typically review and evaluate new monographs. There are a large numbers of peer-reviewed scholarly journals in the discipline of Religious Studies. Many journals focus on historical or sociological topics or concentrate on particular religious traditions, such as Judaism or Islam. Religious studies journals have been laggard in gaining accessibility through the Internet, but libraries specializing in religious history have started to catch up.[43][44][45] Among the prominent journals published in English are:[46]
American Jewish History
Anglican & Episcopal History
British Catholic History
The Catholic Historical Review
Church History
History of Religions
Journal of the American Academy of Religion
Journal of Ecclesiastical History
Journal of Religious History
Journal of Religion & Society[47]
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
Methodist History Journal[48]
Mormon Historical Studies
Numen: International Review for the History of Religions
Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique, published in English, French and German
Social Compass
Sociology of Religion
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ C.S. Adcock (2013). The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–70.
Jump up ^ McBrien, Richard P. Catholicism. New York: HarperCollins, 1994, p. 359.
^ Jump up to: a b Capps 1995, p. xiv.
Jump up ^ Segal 2006, p. xvii.
Jump up ^ Capps 1995, p. xvi.
Jump up ^ Herling 2016, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Herling 2016, pp. 6–7.
Jump up ^ Herling 2016, pp. 7–10.
Jump up ^ Capps 1995, p. xviii.
Jump up ^ Capps 1995, p. xviii; Herling 2016, p. 37.
^ Jump up to: a b c Herling 2016, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Smart 1998, pp. 22–26.
Jump up ^ Herling 2016, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b Hinnells 2005, p. 2.
Jump up ^ McCutcheon 2001, p. 10.
Jump up ^ Capps 1995, p. xv.
Jump up ^ King, Ursula (4 August 2005). "Obituary: Geoffrey Parrinder". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Inc., Gallup,. "Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations". gallup.com. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Inc., Gallup,. "Religion Provides Emotional Boost to World's Poor". gallup.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Kevin M. Schultz and Paul Harvey, "Everywhere and Nowhere: Recent Trends in American Religious History and Historiography," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 78 (March 2010), 129–62.
Jump up ^ Newberg, Andrew; Eugene D'Aquili; Vince Raus (2001). Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantyne Books. ISBN 0-345-44033-1.
Jump up ^ Kevin J. Christiano, et al., (2nd ed., 2008), Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6111-3
Jump up ^ Berger, Peter L. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (1967). Anchor Books 1990 paperback: ISBN 0-385-07305-4
Jump up ^ Gregory S. Paul, "Cross-national correlations of quantifiable societal health with popular religiosity and secularism in the prosperous democracies," Journal of Religion & Society (2005) 1#1 pp 1-17 online Archived 2014-01-23 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Vogel, Howard J. (1983). "A Survey and Commentary on the New Literature in Law and Religion". Journal of Law and Religion. 1 (1): 79–169. JSTOR 1051074.
Jump up ^ John Witte, "The Study of Law and Religion in the United States: An Interim Report," Ecclesiastical Law Journal (2012) 14#3 pp: 327-354.
Jump up ^ Norman Doe, Law and Religion in Europe: A Comparative Introduction (2011)
Jump up ^ W. Cole Durham, and Brett G. Scharffs, eds. Law and religion: national, international, and comparative perspectives (Aspen Pub, 2010).
Jump up ^ John Witte Jr. and Frank S. Alexander, eds., Christianity and Law: An Introduction (Cambridge U.P. 2008)
Jump up ^ John Witte Jr, From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition (1997)
Jump up ^ John Witte, Jr., The Reformation of Rights: Law, Religion and Human Rights in Early Modern Calvinism (2008)
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Mayer, Ann (1987). "Law and Religion in the Muslim Middle East". American Journal of Comparative Law. 35 (1): 127–184. JSTOR 840165.
Jump up ^ Alan Watson, The state, law, and religion: pagan Rome (University of Georgia Press, 1992)
Jump up ^ Wright 2007, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Wright 2007, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Wright 2007, p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b Segal 2006, p. xiii.
Jump up ^ Ryba 2006, p. 119.
Jump up ^ Peter Connolly (2001). Approaches to the Study of Religion. A&C Black. p. 19.
Jump up ^ David Hall, "Lived Religion In America: Toward A History Of Practice", Princeton University Press (1997), p. vii
Jump up ^ John M. Riddle (2008). A History of the Middle Ages, 300-1500. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 291.
Jump up ^ Daniel Dubuisson. "Exporting the Local: Recent Perspectives on 'Religion' as a Cultural Category." Religion Compass 1.6 (2007), pp. 787-800.
Jump up ^ Marshall Eidson, "Electronic journals in religious studies: Theological libraries prepare for the digital future." Journal of Religious & Theological Information 3.3-4 (2001): 45-67.
Jump up ^ Kate L. Ganski, "Accessibility of E-resources from Theological Library Websites." Theological Librarianship 1.1 (2008).
Jump up ^ Gerber, Kent T. K. (2016). "Getting Involved With the Digital Humanities in Theology, Biblical Studies, and Religious Studies". Theological Librarianship: An Online Journal of the American Theological Library Association. 9: 1.
Jump up ^ See "Journal Rankings on Religious Studies" SJR Archived 2016-05-22 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ See website
Jump up ^ See website Archived 2015-05-20 at Wikiwix
Bibliography[edit]
Capps, Walter H. (1995). Religious Studies: The Making of a Discipline. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0800625351.
Herling, Bradley L. (2016). A Beginner's Guide to the Study of Religion (second ed.). London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4725-0692-4.
Hinnells, John R. (2005). "Introduction". In John R. Hinnells (ed.). The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-415-33310-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
McCutcheon, Russell T. (2001). Critics Not Caretakers: Redescribing the Public Study of Religion. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791449448.
Ryba, Thomas (2006). "Phenomenology of Religion". In Robert A. Segal (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 91–121. ISBN 978-1405185981. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Segal, Robert A. (2006). "Introduction". In Robert A. Segal (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion. Malden: Blackwell. pp. xiii–xix. ISBN 978-1405185981. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Smart, Ninian (1998). The World's Religions (second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63139-4.
Wright, Melanie (2007). Religion and Film: An Introduction. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 9781850437598.
Further reading[edit]
Curtis, Finbarr (2012). "The study of American religions: critical reflections on a specialization". Religion. 42 (3): 355–372. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2012.681875.
Eaton, Mark E. "Religious Studies Encyclopedism: A Recent History." The Reference Librarian (2016): 1-13.
Eliade, Mircea and Ioan P. Couliano. The HarperCollins Concise Guide to World Religion: The A-to-Z Encyclopedia of All the Major Religious Traditions (1999)
Eliade, Mircea ed. Encyclopedia of Religion (16 vol. 1986; 2nd ed 15 vol. 2005; online at Gale Virtual Reference Library). 3300 articles in 15,000 pages by 2000 experts.
Elliott, Scott S. ed. Reinventing Religious Studies: Key Writings in the History of a Discipline (Acumen, 2013) 280pp
Hall, Weetwood; et al. (2013). "Religious Studies at 50". Religious Studies. 49: 437. doi:10.1017/S0034412513000395. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Fitzgerald, Timothy. The Ideology of Religious Studies (Oxford University Press, 2000).
Hart, Darryl G. The University Gets Religion: Religious Studies in American Higher Education (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).
Hafner, Johann. "Relating Theology and Religious Studies: Reflections on the German Academic Landscape." Toronto Journal of Theology (2015): 1-9.
McCutcheon, Russell T. The Discipline of Religion: Structure, Meaning, Rhetoric (Routledge, 2003)
Martin, Luther H., and Donald Wiebe. "Religious studies as a scientific discipline: The persistence of a delusion." Journal of the American Academy of Religion (2012) Online
Miles, Jack. God: A Biography. New York: Vintage, 1996.
Olson, Carl. The Allure of Decadent Thinking: Religious Studies and the Challenge of Postmodernism (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Pals, Daniel L. Nine Theories of Religion. 3rd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Sharpe, Eric J. Comparative Religion: A History, London: Duckworth, 1975 (2nd revised edition 1986).
Sloan Wilson, David. Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion and the Nature of Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Stark, Rodney. Discovering God: The Origins of Great Religions and the Evolution of Belief. New York: HarperCollins, 2007.
Torre, Renée de la, and Eloísa Martín. "Religious Studies in Latin America." Annual Review of Sociology 42.1 (2016).
Werblowsky, RJ Zwi (1989). "In nostro tempore: On Mircea Eliade". Religion. 19 (2): 129–136. doi:10.1016/0048-721x(89)90035-3.
Werblowsky, RJ Zwi (1975). "On studying Comparative Religion". Religious Studies. 11 (02): 145–156. doi:10.1017/s0034412500008301.
Witte, John. "The Study of Law and Religion in the United States: An Interim Report," Ecclesiastical Law Journal (2012) 14#3 pp 327–354.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religious studies.
The Institute for the Biocultural Study of Religion (IBCSR)
IBCSR Research Review - briefly annotates and furnishes online information about scholarly articles and books related to brain, behavior, culture, and religion.
The Religious Research Association
The Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)
The Institute for the Study of American Religion
Academic societies[edit]
Australian Association for the Study of Religions (AASR)
American Academy of Religion (AAR)
Council of Societies for the Study of Religion
European Association for the Study of Religions (EASR)
International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR)
International Association for the History of Religions (IAHR)
International Philosophy of Religion Association (IPRA)
New Zealand Association for the Study of Religions (NZASR)
North American Association for the Study of Religion (NAASR)
Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)
European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) - Anthropology of Religion
Online works and sources[edit]
Studying Religion in Culture University of Alabama
"Religious studies web guide: Online journals
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text:
Foundation for Individual Rights in Education
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Foundation for Individual Rights in Education
Founded
1999; 19 years ago (1999)
Founder
Alan Charles Kors,
Harvey A. Silverglate
Tax ID no.
04-3467254
Location
510 Walnut Street, Suite 1250
Philadelphia, PA 19106
Coordinates
39°56′53″N 75°09′05″W / 39.9481°N 75.1513°W / 39.9481; -75.1513Coordinates: 39°56′53″N 75°09′05″W / 39.9481°N 75.1513°W / 39.9481; -75.1513
Key people
Greg Lukianoff
(President)
Robert Shibley
(Executive Director)
Website
thefire.org
The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE) is a non-profit, non-partisan group founded in 1999 that focuses on civil liberties in academia in the United States. Its goal is "to defend and sustain individual rights at America's colleges and universities," including the rights to "freedom of speech, legal equality, due process, religious liberty, and sanctity of conscience".[1]
One of FIRE's main activities has been criticism of university administrators whose activities have, in FIRE's view, violated the free speech or due process rights of college and university students and professors under the First Amendment and/or Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. FIRE lists over 400 such instances on its website.[2]
FIRE was founded by Alan Charles Kors, a libertarian professor at the University of Pennsylvania, and Harvey A. Silverglate, a civil-liberties lawyer in Cambridge, Massachusetts.[3] Silverglate remains on FIRE's board,[4] while Kors is Chairman Emeritus. Since March 23, 2006, FIRE's President has been Greg Lukianoff, who previously served as interim president.[5]
FIRE has no stated political affiliation. It has represented conservative[6] and religious[7] student groups. FIRE has also advocated on behalf of PETA[8] and Professor Ward Churchill.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Issues
1.1 University ratings
2 Leadership
3 Cases
3.1 Public universities
3.2 Private universities
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Issues[edit]
One of FIRE's primary focuses is opposition to campus "speech codes."[10] FIRE identifies as speech codes those college and university policies prohibiting expressions that the institutions consider to be sexually, racially, religiously or otherwise offensive in content if such policies prohibit speech that would be protected by the First Amendment in the off-campus society.[11] FIRE has taken stances on campus sexual misconduct policies; for example, it denounced the American Association of University Women's report on sexual harassment as "fatally flawed"[12] and sided with the defendants in joining[13] an amicus brief in Lyle v. Warner Brothers Television Productions et al.[14]
Another issue is opposition to campus "security fees" that some campuses impose on organizations hosting controversial or unpopular speakers on the theory that they should pay for extra security the colleges deem necessary due to the likelihood of demonstrations and disruption of the events.[15] FIRE bases its opposition to such fees on the Supreme Court ruling in Forsyth County, Georgia v. The Nationalist Movement; the Supreme Court stated that "speech cannot be financially burdened, any more than it can be punished or banned, simply because it might offend a hostile mob."
FIRE has also voiced support for freedom of association by defending student organizations, including campus religious organizations that may discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation or religious belief in membership (for example at Tufts University[16][17] and at the Milwaukee School of Engineering)[18] and fraternities that may engage in "off-color"[19] or "misogynistic"[20] speech.
The group also targets situations where students and faculty are adjudicated outside the bounds of due process afforded to them by Constitutional law or stated university policy.[21]
University ratings[edit]
FIRE's latest report of University Ratings is Spotlight on Speech Codes 2016: The State of Free Speech on Our Nation’s Campuses.[22] The foundation gathers together each university's various harassment and hate speech policies, as well as any "Advertised Commitments to Freedom of Speech". On the basis of these and media reports, FIRE then assigns each institution a color code: green ("no serious threats to free speech"), yellow ("some policies that could ban or excessively regulate protected speech") or red ("at least one policy that both clearly and substantially restricts freedom of speech").
As of 2016 the percentage of universities that FIRE deemed to "seriously infringe upon students' rights to free speech" dipped to just below 50 percent.[22] That makes 2016 the fourth consecutive year that the percentage has dropped, according to FIRE.
In April 2007, Jon B. Gould, an author and George Mason University faculty member, criticized FIRE's rating methods, claiming that FIRE had grossly exaggerated the prevalence of unconstitutional speech codes.[23]
As of January 2016, FIRE rated most of the eight universities in the Ivy League, "red"; one was rated "green" (University of Pennsylvania), five were rated "red" (Brown, Cornell, Harvard, Columbia and Princeton) and the final two (Dartmouth, and Yale) were rated "yellow".[24]
Leadership[edit]
FIRE is composed of professors, policy experts, and public intellectuals who span the political spectrum.[25]
FIRE's president since March 2006 is Greg Lukianoff, who previously served as interim president after the retirement of David French.[5]
FIRE was co-founded by Alan Kors and Harvey A. Silverglate, who were FIRE's co-directors until 2004. Kors served as FIRE's first president and chairperson. Its first executive director and, later, CEO, was Thor Halvorssen.[26] As of 2008, Silverglate was still active with the organization as chairman and served on the Board of Directors, while Kors was no longer listed as an active board member. Also included among FIRE's directors were molecular biologist Richard Losick, feminist scholar Daphne Patai, and proprietarian author Virginia Postrel.[4]
As of 2008, FIRE's Board of Advisors included the following notable people:[27]
Karith Foster, comedian and author.
Kmele Foster, telecommunications entrepreneur and political commentator.
Ira Glasser, former executive director of the ACLU.
Wendy Kaminer, lawyer, feminist, and social critic.
Peter Malkin, real estate investor and Chairman Emeritus of Empire State Realty Trust.
Jacob Mchangama, Danish lawyer and think tank director.
John McWhorter, professor and columnist.
Muriel Morisey, professor and former trustee.
Mike Peters, political and comic strip cartoonist.
Steven Pinker, cognitive psychologist, linguist, and popular science author.
Nadine Strossen, professor and former ACLU president.
Lawrence Summers, professor and former Harvard University president.
Cases[edit]
Public universities[edit]
In 2003 and 2004, FIRE acted on behalf of Cal Poly student Steve Hinkle, who was punished for posting a flier on a public bulletin board announcing a College Republicans-sponsored speech by Mason Weaver, a black social critic, and author of the book It's OK to Leave the Plantation, which argued against dependence on government. Some students at the campus Multicultural Center found the flier offensive. Hinkle politely offered to discuss the flier, but to no avail. After he left, a student called the university police, whose official report stated that officers had responded to complaints about "a suspicious white male passing out literature of an offensive racial nature." The Cal Poly Judicial Affairs Office, after a seven-hour hearing in February 2003, found Hinkle guilty of "disruption of a campus event," as several students in the Multicultural Center public area claimed that they were having a meeting at the time, although no sign, announcement, or record of that event existed. Despite repeated attempts by FIRE to get Cal Poly's admin to correct the problem, FIRE brought suit in Hinkle's name. Eventually, Cal Poly settled out of court. The sequence of events is fully detailed in a FIRE press release, issued May 6, 2004.[28]
FIRE supported Linda McCarriston, a poet, professor and self-described socialist at the University of Alaska Anchorage, in a case in which the University was investigating her for a poem she had published on sexual abuse involving Native Alaskans. In explicit response to FIRE's intervention, University of Alaska President Mark Hamilton ordered that the investigation cease on constitutional grounds, stating that "there was nothing to investigate"; he was formally commended for defending academic freedom by Democratic governor Tony Knowles and by unanimous vote of both houses of the Alaska legislature.[29]
FIRE joined with a number of other civil liberties groups in the case of Hosty v. Carter, involving suppression of a student newspaper at Governors State University in Illinois,[30] and has been involved in a case at Arizona State University where it condemned the listing of a class as open only to Native American students.[31]
FIRE sparred with the University of New Hampshire in 2004 over its treatment of student Timothy Garneau, who was expelled from student housing after he wrote and distributed a flier joking that female classmates could lose the "Freshman fifteen" by taking the stairs instead of the elevator. After FIRE publicly criticized the decision, Garneau was reinstated. He had been living in his car for three weeks.[32]
In 2007, FIRE took issue with a document from a Resident Assistant training session at the University of Delaware's Office of Residence Life Diversity Facilitation Training. The brief handout, compiled and presented by Dr. Shakti Butler, included a controversial definition of the word "racist". The author noted that it "applies to all white people (i.e., people of European descent) living in the United States, regardless of class, gender, religion, culture or sexuality".[33][34] About this event, Walter E. Williams wrote, "This gem of wisdom suggests that by virtue of birth alone, not conduct, if you're white, you're a racist."[35][36]
FIRE sent a letter[37] to the President of University of Florida on November 29, 2007, expressing outrage that the Vice-Chancellor had sent a mass email which condemned a showing of the movie Obsession: Radical Islam's War Against the West and called for an apology from those responsible.[38] The state Attorney General had threatened legal action due to possible freedom of speech violations. Two weeks later, the Vice-Chancellor and President signed a follow-up statement retracting the call for apology.[39]
In 2007, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) disciplined a university employee, who also was a student, for reading "Notre Dame vs. the Klan: How the Fighting Irish Defeated the Ku Klux Klan". This book was available in the university library.[40] FIRE took its criticism of IUPUI public. The chancellor finally apologized to the employee-student after mounting criticism from FIRE, the ACLU, and other free speech groups.[41]
In May 2007 Valdosta State University expelled T. Hayden Barnes, who had protested against the construction of two new parking garages on the campus which he saw as encouraging the use of private transportation. University President Ronald Zaccari misconstrued a caption of the proposed garages as the "Ronald Zaccari Memorial Parking Garage" as a threat to himself. With FIRE support, the expulsion was overturned and a court found VSU to have violated Barnes's due process rights.[42]
In 2008, college professor Kerry Laird was ordered by Temple College to remove the quote, "Gott ist tot" (God is Dead), a famous quote from Nietzsche, from his office door. FIRE wrote a letter to the Temple administration hinting at the possibility of legal action[43] and stated, "Please spare Temple College the embarrassment of fighting against the Bill of Rights, by which it is legally and morally bound."[44] Temple has since lifted the ban.
In October 2011, Catawba Valley Community College suspended a student (Marc Bechtol) for complaining on his Facebook about the new policy that required students to sign up for a debit card to get their student ID and grant money. CVCC decided that the comments were 'disturbing' and a 'threat', and used that reasoning to suspend the student. FIRE took the side of the student and, pending a final outcome, he has been allowed back in class.[45]
FIRE represented a student group for National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws at Iowa State University who were prohibited from using the university's logo on T-shirts advocating marijuana legalization. On February 2017 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit unanimously upheld a federal district court's decision to bar Iowa State from using its trademark policy to prevent the group from printing their shirts, a win the group called its "biggest victory to date."[46]
Private universities[edit]
At Tufts University in 2000, FIRE defended a Christian group that had been de-recognized by the university for refusing to allow a homosexual student to take a leadership position in the group, although the student was permitted to remain a member of the group. FIRE defended the group on religious freedom grounds, arguing that members of student groups that have an expressive purpose should be allowed to organize and operate religious groups based on that expressive purpose.[16][17]
FIRE has also criticized Columbia University's sexual misconduct policy;[47] according to FIRE, the policy "lack[ed] even the most minimal safeguards and fundamental principles of fairness".[48]That controversy led to the resignation of Charlene Allen, Columbia's program coordinator for the Office of Sexual Misconduct Prevention and Education, whose policies were at the center of the controversy. Allen's resignation was considered in part due to FIRE's activism.[49]
FIRE criticized Brandeis University on both free speech and due process grounds in early 2008 over its treatment of veteran politics professor Donald Hindley. Provost Marty Krauss informed Hindley in October 2007 that comments he made in his Latin American politics class violated the school's anti-harassment policy. Krauss placed a monitor in Hindley's class and ordered him to attend racial sensitivity training.[50] FIRE, along with Brandeis' own Committee on Faculty Rights and Responsibilities, has criticized Krauss for never explicitly telling Hindley what specific in-class comments constituted harassing speech and for not granting Hindley a process by which to appeal the decision. According to Brandeis' student press, Hindley is rumored to have used the epithet "wetback." An anonymous student-witness, quoted in the Brandeis Hoot,[51] called Hindley's remarks "inappropriate." Other students praised Hindley's pedagogical approach as encouraging "students to face racist narratives head on" and that any disagreement "is a dispute for students and faculty to solve through rational dialogue, not one for the administration to settle in secret inquisitions."[52]
In 2010, FIRE criticized DePaul University for denying recognition to a group advocating for decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States stating that student groups must "be congruent with our institutional goals regarding the health and well-being of our students." [53]
See also[edit]
Urofsky v. Gilmore
Speech code
Ari Cohn
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. "About FIRE". Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. "Case Archive". Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. "FIRE's Founders". Retrieved 2008-03-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. "Board of Directors". Retrieved 2008-03-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "FIRE Names Greg Lukianoff as President" (Press release). Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. 2006-03-23. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Bake Sale Battles Continue".
Jump up ^ "Christian Cleansing at UNC-Chapel Hill".
Jump up ^ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. "Victory for Animals and Free Speech!". Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Lukianoff, Greg (2005-02-09). "FIRE Letter to University of Colorado at Boulder Interim Chancellor Philip P. DiStefano, February 9, 2005". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Leo, John (Winter 2007). "Free Inquiry? Not on Campus". City Journal. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ "What are Speech Codes?". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
Jump up ^ "AAUW Sexual Harassment Report Is Fatally Flawed" (Press release). Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. 2006-01-26. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ "FIRE Joins Amicus Brief in Friends Writers' Case" (Press release). Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. 2005-02-10. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Summary of case and opinion on its impact: Epstein Becker & Green, P.C. "California Supreme Court Issues Ruling in Friends Sexual Harassment Case" (PDF). Retrieved 2015-07-07.
Jump up ^ Bob Egelko (2009-03-29). "Campus security bills for speakers challenged". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tufts University: Refusal to Allow Evangelical Christian Club to Reject Homosexual Leadership". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tufts University to Reconsider Status of Christian Group", Beliefnet.com. Accessed March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Milwaukee School of Engineering: Threat to Christian Group's Freedom of Association". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ French, David (2005-05-10). "Is Dartmouth Really Free?". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Sarabyn, Kelly (2008-03-13). "Yale Caves into Its Women's Center's Speech-Repressing Demands". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Miller, John (2005-10-24). "Pariahs, Martyrs — and Fighters Back". National Review.
^ Jump up to: a b "Speech Code Reports - FIRE". FIRE. Retrieved 2016-01-26.
Jump up ^ Gould, Jon B. (April 2007). "Returning Fire". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Watson, Kathryn (2015-11-20). "Ivy League Schools Stomp On Freedom Of Speech". The Daily Caller. Retrieved 2017-06-11.
Jump up ^ Tamar Lewin (April 24, 2003). "Suit Challenges a University's Speech Code". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Strausbaugh, John (2007-08-19). "A Maverick Mogul, Proudly Politically Incorrect". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Board of Advisors". Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Major Victory for Free Speech at Cal Poly", Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, Press Release, May 6, 2004. Accessed October 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ "There is nothing to investigate", Elizabeth Wright, Issues & Views, 2001. Accessed April 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amicus Briefs Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine.", Feminists for Free Expression. Accessed March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Jaschik, Scott (October 7, 2005). "Arizona State Ends Class Limited to Native Americans". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Dan (July 1, 2005). "The Eighth Annual Muzzle Awards: Dishonorable mentions". Boston Phoenix. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ University of Delaware Requires Students to Undergo Ideological Reeducation (FIRE Press Release, October 30, 2007)
Jump up ^ Victory at University of Delaware (FIRE Press Release, November 2, 2007)
Jump up ^ Academic Cesspools by Walter E. Williams, October 17, 2007
Jump up ^ Academic Cesspools II by Walter E. Williams, November 7, 2007
Jump up ^ "FIRE's letter to University of Florida Vice President for Student Affairs Patricia Telles-Irvin, November 29, 2007". FIRE. 2007-11-29. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Jump up ^ Phi Beta Cons on National Review Online
Jump up ^ Stripling, Jack (2007-12-14). "News". Gainesville.com. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Jump up ^ Political Correctness vs. Freedom of Thought - The Keith John Sampson Story on the Fire website
Jump up ^ "Iupui encyclopedia topics". Reference.com. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
Jump up ^ Lipka, Sara (2010-09-07). "Former College President Is Found Personally Liable for Expelling Student - Students - The Chronicle of Higher Education". Chronicle.com. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
Jump up ^ Jaschik, Scott (2008-11-07). "College Ends Ban on Nietzsche Quote, Inside Higher Ed". Insidehighered.com. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Letter to Temple College President Glenda O. Barron". FIRE. 2008-11-05. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
Jump up ^ Facebook post gets college student banned from N.C. campus Archived November 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., News & Observer, Oct 13 2011
Jump up ^ "Victory in Eighth Circuit: Iowa State Can't Censor Pot Legalization T-Shirts - FIRE". FIRE. 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
Jump up ^ "New Procedure for Handling Sexual Misconduct Charges at Columbia University Is Challenged", Karen Arenson, The New York Times. New York City: 5 October 2000. Accessed 27 March 2008.
Jump up ^ Schifrin, Nick (October 5, 2000). "Outside Groups Attack New Misconduct Policy]". Columbia Spectator. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Lieberman, Tallie (April 30, 2001). "Allen Resignation Met with Surprise". Columbia Spectator. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Brandeis Professor says his Right to Free Speech Violated, Boston Globe, 7/1/05". Boston.com. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Student Reveals Nature of Hindley Complaint". The Brandeis Hoot. 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Why we must defend Hindley". The Brandeis Hoot. 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Discriminatory Treatment of Student Organizations at DePaul University". FIRE. 2010-10-18. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
External links[edit]
Official website
Organizational Profile – National Center for Charitable Statistics (Urban Institute)
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