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Renaissance art
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Titian, Sacred and Profane Love, c. 1513 – 1514
Piero della Francesca, The Baptism of Christ, (c. 1450) (National Gallery, London).
Renaissance art is the painting, sculpture and decorative arts of the period of European history , emerging as a distinct style in Italy in about 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy, literature, music, and science. Renaissance art, perceived as the noblest of ancient traditions, took as its foundation the art of Classical antiquity, but transformed that tradition by absorbing recent developments in the art of Northern Europe and by applying contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance art, with Renaissance Humanist philosophy, spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early Modern age.
Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, c. 1485. Uffizi, Florence
In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art.
The influences upon the development of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government, and other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary, dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above.
Classical texts, lost to European scholars for centuries, became available. These included Philosophy, Prose, Poetry, Drama, Science, a thesis on the Arts, and Early Christian Theology.
Simultaneously, Europe gained access to advanced mathematics which had its provenance in the works of Islamic scholars.
The advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad public.
The establishment of the Medici Bank and the subsequent trade it generated brought unprecedented wealth to a single Italian city, Florence.
Cosimo de' Medici set a new standard for patronage of the arts, not associated with the church or monarchy.
Humanist philosophy meant that man's relationship with humanity, the universe and with God was no longer the exclusive province of the Church.
A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The revival of a style of architecture based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in painting and sculpture, which manifested itself as early as the 1420s in the paintings of Masaccio and Uccello.
The improvement of oil paint and developments in oil-painting technique by Dutch artists such as Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes led to its adoption in Italy from about 1475 and had ultimately lasting effects on painting practices, worldwide.
The serendipitous presence within the region of Florence in the early 15th century of certain individuals of artistic genius, most notably Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Piero della Francesca, Donatello and Michelozzo formed an ethos out of which sprang the great masters of the High Renaissance, as well as supporting and encouraging many lesser artists to achieve work of extraordinary quality.[1]
A similar heritage of artistic achievement occurred in Venice through the talented Bellini family, their influential in-law Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto.[1][2][3]
The publication of two treatises by Leone Battista Alberti, De Pitura (On Painting), 1435, and De re aedificatoria (Ten Books on Architecture), 1452.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Proto-Renaissance in Italy, 1280–1400
1.2 Early Netherlandish art, 1400–1525
1.3 Early Renaissance in Italy, 1400–1479
1.4 Early Renaissance in France, 1375–1528
1.5 High Renaissance in Italy, 1475–1525
1.6 German Renaissance art
2 Britain
3 Themes and symbolism
4 Techniques
5 Italian artists
6 Artists of the Low Countries
7 German artists
8 French artists
9 Spanish artists
10 Dalmatian artists
11 Works
12 Major collections
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
History[edit]
Proto-Renaissance in Italy, 1280–1400[edit]
Giotto: The Lamentation, c. 1305, Scrovegni Chapel, foreshadows the Renaissance.
Main article: Italian Renaissance painting
In Italy in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the sculpture of Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano, working at Pisa, Siena and Pistoia shows markedly classicising tendencies, probably influenced by the familiarity of these artists with ancient Roman sarcophagi. Their masterpieces are the pulpits of the Baptistery and Cathedral of Pisa.
Contemporary with Giovanni Pisano, the Florentine painter Giotto developed a manner of figurative painting that was unprecedentedly naturalistic, three-dimensional, lifelike and classicist, when compared with that of his contemporaries and teacher Cimabue. Giotto, whose greatest work is the cycle of the Life of Christ at the Arena Chapel in Padua, was seen by the 16th century biographer Giorgio Vasari as "rescuing and restoring art" from the "crude, traditional, Byzantine style" prevalent in Italy in the 13th century.
Early Netherlandish art, 1400–1525[edit]
Main article: Early Netherlandish painting
Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the Cross (c. 1435), oil on oak panel, 220 cm × 262 cm (87 in × 103 in). Museo del Prado, Madrid
The painters of the Low Countries at this period included Jan van Eyck, his brother Hubert van Eyck, Robert Campin, Hans Memling, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes. Their painting developed independently of Early Italian Renaissance painting, and without the influence of a deliberate and conscious striving to revive antiquity. The style of painting grew directly out of the Medieval arts of tempera painting, stained glass and book illumination. The media used was oil paint, which had long been utilised for painting leather ceremonial shields and accoutrements, because it was flexible and relatively durable. The earliest Netherlandish oil paintings are meticulous and detailed like tempera paintings. The material lent itself to the depiction of tonal variations and texture, so facilitating the observation of nature in great detail.
The Netherlandish painters did not approach the creation of a picture through a framework of linear perspective and correct proportion. They maintained a Medieval view of hierarchical proportion and religious symbolism, while delighting in a realistic treatment of material elements, both natural and man-made. Jan van Eyck, with his brother Hubert painted The Altarpiece of the Mystical Lamb. It is probable that Antonello da Messina became familiar with Van Eyck's work, while in Naples or Sicily. In 1475, Hugo van der Goes' Portinari Altarpiece arrived in Florence where it was to have a profound influence on many painters, most immediately Domenico Ghirlandaio who painted an altarpiece imitating its elements.
Early Renaissance in Italy, 1400–1479[edit]
Donatello, David (1440s?) Museo Nazionale del Bargello.
Main article: Italian Renaissance painting
Although both the Pisanos and Giotto had students and followers, the first truly Renaissance artists were not to emerge in Florence until 1401 with the competition to sculpt a set of bronze doors of the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral which drew entries from seven young sculptors including Brunelleschi, Donatello and the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunelleschi, most famous as the architect of the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Church of San Lorenzo, created a number of sculptural works, including a lifesized Crucifix in Santa Maria Novella, renowned for its naturalism. His studies of perspective are thought to have influenced the painter Masaccio. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, his masterpieces being his Humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, one of the icons of the Florentine republic, and his great monument to Gattamelata, the first large equestrian bronze to be created since Roman times.
The contemporary of Donatello, Masaccio, was the painterly descendant of Giotto, furthering the trend towards solidity of form and naturalism of face and gesture that he had begun a century earlier. Masaccio completed several panel paintings but is best known for the fresco cycle that he began in the Brancacci Chapel with the older artist Masolino and which had profound influence on later painters, including Michelangelo. Masaccio's developments were carried forward in the paintings of Fra Angelico, particularly in his frescos at the Convent of San Marco in Florence.
The treatment of the elements of perspective and light in painting was of particular concern to 15th-century Florentine painters. Uccello was so obsessed with trying to achieve an appearance of perspective that, according to Vasari, it disturbed his sleep. His solutions can be seen in his masterpiece, the Battle of San Romano. Piero della Francesca made systematic and scientific studies of both light and linear perspective, the results of which can be seen in his fresco cycle of The History of the True Cross in San Francesco, Arezzo.
In Naples, the painter Antonello da Messina began using oil paints for portraits and religious paintings at a date that preceded other Italian painters, possibly about 1450. He carried this technique north and influenced the painters of Venice. One of the most significant painters of Northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna, who decorated the interior of a room, the Camera degli Sposi for his patron Ludovico Gonzaga, setting portraits of the family and court into an illusionistic architectural space.
The end of the Early Renaissance in Italian art is marked, like its beginning, by a particular commission that drew artists together, this time in cooperation rather than competition. Pope Sixtus IV had rebuilt the Papal Chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, and commissioned a group of artists, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli to decorate its wall with fresco cycles depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. In the sixteen large paintings, the artists, although each working in his individual style, agreed on principals of format, and utilised the techniques of lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation that had been carried to a high point in the large Florentine studios of Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio and Perugino.
Early Renaissance in France, 1375–1528[edit]
The artists of France, (including duchies such as Burgundy) were often associated with courts, providing illuminated manuscripts and portraits for the nobility as well as devotional paintings and altarpieces. Among the most famous were the Limbourg brothers, Flemish illuminators and creators of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Jean Fouquet, painter of the royal court, visited Italy in 1437 and reflects the influence of Florentine painters such as Paolo Uccello. Although best known for his portraits such as that of Charles VII of France Fouquet also created illuminations, and is thought to be the inventor of the portrait miniature. There were a number of artists at this date who painted famed altarpieces, that are stylistically quite distinct from both the Italian and the Flemish. These include two enigmatic figures, Enguerrand Quarton to whom is ascribed the Pieta of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and Jean Hey, otherwise known as "the Master of Moulins" after his most famous work, the Moulins Altarpiece. In these works realism and close observation of the human figure, emotions and lighting are combined with a Medieval formality, which includes gilt backgrounds.
High Renaissance in Italy, 1475–1525[edit]
Main article: High Renaissance
Michelangelo, (c. 1511) The Creation of Adam, from the Sistine Chapel ceiling
The "universal genius" Leonardo da Vinci was to further perfect the aspects of pictorial art (lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation) that had preoccupied artists of the Early Renaissance, in a lifetime of studying and meticulously recording his observations of the natural world. His adoption of oil paint as his primary media meant that he could depict light and its effects on the landscape and objects more naturally and with greater dramatic effect than had ever been done before, as demonstrated in the Mona Lisa. His dissection of cadavers carried forward the understanding of skeletal and muscular anatomy, as seen in the unfinished St Jerome. His depiction of human emotion in The Last Supper set the benchmark for religious painting.
The art of Leonardo's younger contemporary Michelangelo took a very different direction. Michelangelo, in neither his painting nor his sculpture demonstrates any interest in the observation of any natural object except the human body. He perfected his technique in depicting it, while in his early twenties, by the creation of the enormous marble statue of David and the group the Pieta, in St Peter's Basilica, Rome. He then set about an exploration of the expressive possibilities of the human anatomy. His commission by Pope Julius II to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling resulted in the supreme masterpiece of figurative composition, which was to have profound effect on every subsequent generation of European artists.
Standing alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo as the third great painter of the High Renaissance was the younger Raphael, who in a short life span painted a great number of lifelike and engaging portraits, including those of Pope Julius II and his successor Pope Leo X, and numerous portrayals of the Madonna and Christ Child, including the Sistine Madonna.
In Northern Italy the High Renaissance represented by the religious paintings of Giovanni Bellini which include several large altarpieces of a type known as "Sacred Conversation" which show a group of saints around the enthroned Madonna. His contemporary Giorgione left a small number of enigmatic works, including The Tempest, the subject of which has remained a matter of speculation. The earliest works of Titian date from the era of the High Renaissance, including a massive altarpiece The Assumption of the Virgin which combines human action and drama with spectacular colour and atmosphere.
German Renaissance art[edit]
Lucas Cranach the Elder, Apollo and Diana.
Main article: German Renaissance
German Renaissance art falls into the broader category of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, also known as the Northern Renaissance. Renaissance influences began to appear in German art in the 15th century, but this trend was not widespread. Gardner's Art Through the Ages identifies Michael Pacher, a painter and sculptor, as the first German artist whose work begins to show Italian Renaissance influences. According to that source, Pacher's painting, St. Wolfgang Forces the Devil to Hold His Prayerbook (c.1481), is Late Gothic in style, but also shows the influence of the Italian artist, Mantegna.[4] Artisans, such as engravers, became more concerned with aesthetics rather than just perfecting their craft. Germany had master engravers, such as Martin Schongauer, who did metal engravings in the late 1400s. Gardner relates this mastery of the graphic arts to advances in printing which occurred in Germany, and says that metal engraving began to replace the woodcut during the Renaissance.[5] However, some artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, continued to do woodcuts. Both Gardner and Russell describe the fine quality of Dürer's woodcuts, with Russell stating, in The World of Dürer, that Dürer "elevated them into high works of art."[6]
In the 1500s, Renaissance art in Germany became more common as, according to Gardner, "The art of northern Europe during the sixteenth century is characterized by a sudden awareness of the advances made by the Italian Renaissance and by a desire to assimilate this new style as rapidly as possible."[7] One of the best known practitioners of German Renaissance art was Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). Dürer's fascination with classical ideas led him to Italy to study art. Both Gardner and Russell recognized the importance of Durer's contribution to German art in bringing Italian Renaissance styles and ideas to Germany.[6][8] Russell calls this "Opening the Gothic windows of German art,"[6] while Gardner calls it Dürer's "life mission."[8] Importantly, as Gardner points out, Dürer "was the first northern artist who fully understood the basic aims of the southern Renaissance,"[8] although his style did not always reflect that. The same source says that Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) successfully assimilated Italian ideas while also keeping "northern traditions of close realism."[9] This is contrasted against Dürer's tendency to work in "his own native German style"[8] instead of combining German and Italian styles. Other important artists of the German Renaissance were Grünewald, Albrecht Altdorfer, and Lucas Cranach the Elder.[10]
Hieronymus Bosch was a painter of the Netherlands, who employed the type of fanciful forms that were often utilized to decorate borders and letters in illuminated manuscripts, combining plant and animal forms with architectonic ones. When taken from the context of the illumination and peopled with humans, these forms give Bosch's paintings a surreal quality which have no parallel in the work of any other Renaissance painter. His masterpiece is the triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights.
Britain[edit]
Britain was very late to late to develop a Renaissance style and most artists of the Tudor court were imported foreigners, usually from the Low countries, including Hans Holbein the Younger, who died in England. One exception was the portrait miniature, which artists including Nicholas Hilliard developed into a distinct genre, well before it became popular in the rest of Europe. Renaissance art in Scotland was similarly dependent on imported artists, and largely restricted to the court.
Themes and symbolism[edit]
Sandro Botticelli, Magnificat Madonna, 1480–81, tempera on panel, Uffizi, Florence
Renaissance artists painted a wide variety of themes. Religious altarpieces, fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. For inspiration, painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned to Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (1260), a highly influential source book for the lives of saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. The rebirth of classical antiquity and Renaissance humanism also resulted in many Mythological and history paintings. Ovidian stories, for example, were very popular. Decorative ornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.
Techniques[edit]
the use of proportion – The first major treatment of the painting as a window into space appeared in the work of Giotto di Bondone, at the beginning of the 14th century. True linear perspective was formalized later, by Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti. In addition to giving a more realistic presentation of art, it moved Renaissance painters into composing more paintings.
foreshortening – The term foreshortening refers to the artistic effect of shortening lines in a drawing so as to create an illusion of depth.
sfumato – The term sfumato was coined by Italian Renaissance artist, Leonardo da Vinci, and refers to a fine art painting technique of blurring or softening of sharp outlines by subtle and gradual blending of one tone into another through the use of thin glazes to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality. This stems from the Italian word sfumare meaning to evaporate or to fade out. The Latin origin is fumare, to smoke.
chiaroscuro – The term chiaroscuro refers to the fine art painting modeling effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality. This comes from the Italian words meaning light (chiaro) and dark (scuro), a technique which came into wide use in the Baroque Period.
Italian artists[edit]
Renaissance
"The School of Athens", Raphael, 1509–1511
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Main article: Italian Renaissance painting
Leone Battista Alberti (1404–1472)
Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – 1455)
Biagio d'Antonio (1446 – 1 June 1516)
Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337)
Donatello (c. 1386 – December 13, 1466)
Leonardo da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519)
Michelangelo (6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564)
Raphael (April 6 or March 28, 1483 – April 6, 1520)
Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445 – May 17, 1510)
Masaccio (December 21, 1401 – 1428)
Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – May 15, 1461)
Filippo Lippi (c. 1406 – 8 October 1469)
Andrea del Castagno (c. 1421 – 19 August 1457)
Piero di Cosimo (2 January 1462 – 12 April 1522)
Paolo Uccello (1397 – 10 December 1475)
Antonello da Messina (c. 1430 – February 1479)
Pisanello (c. 1395 – c. 1455)
Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431 – September 13, 1506)
Luca Signorelli (c. 1445 – 16 October 1523)
Alessio Baldovinetti (14 October 1425 – 29 August 1499)
Piero della Francesca (c. 1415 – 12 October 1492)
Masolino (c. 1383 – c. 1447)
Titian (c. 1488/1490 – 27 August 1576)
Andrea del Verrocchio (c. 1435 – 1488)
Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449 – 11 January 1494)
Benozzo Gozzoli (c. 1421 – 1497)
Carlo Crivelli (c. 1435 – c. 1495)
Marco Cardisco (c. 1486 – c. 1542)
Pietro Negroni (c. 1505 – c. 1565)
Artists of the Low Countries[edit]
Main articles: Early Netherlandish painting for 15th-century artists, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting for 16th-century artists
Jean Bellegambe (c. 1470 – 1535)
Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516)
Dirk Bouts (1415 – 6 May 1475)
Robert Campin (c. 1380 – 1444)
Petrus Christus (1410/1420–1472)
Jacques Daret
Gerard David (c. 1455 – 1523)
Hubert van Eyck (1366?–1426)
Jan van Eyck (1385?–1440?)
Geertgen tot Sint Jans
Hugo van der Goes
Adriaen Isenbrant (c. 1490 – 1551)
Limbourg brothers
Quentin Matsys (1466–1530)
Hans Memling (c. 1430 – 1494)
Joachim Patinir
Rogier van der Weyden (Rogier de la Pasture)
"The Ghent Altarpiece: The Adoration of the Lamb" (interior view) painted 1432 by Jan van Eyck.
German artists[edit]
Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480–1538)
Hans Baldung (c. 1480 – 1545), Alsatian
Leonhard Beck (c. 1480 – 1542)
Barthel Bruyn the Elder (1493 – 1555)
Hans Burgkmair (1473 – 1531)
Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472 – 1553)
Lucas Cranach the Younger (1515 – 1586)
Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528)
Conrad Faber von Kreuznach (c. 1500 – c. 1553)
Matthias Grünewald (c. 1470 – 1528)
Hans Holbein the Elder (c. 1460 – 1524)
Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 1497 – 1543)
Ambrosius Holbein (1494 – 1519)
Jerg Ratgeb (c. 1480 – 1526)
Wilhelm Stetter (1487 – 1552), Alsatian
French artists[edit]
Jean Fouquet (1420–1481)
Jean Clouet (1480–1541)
François Clouet (c. 1510 – 22 December 1572)
Barthélemy d'Eyck (c. 1420 – after 1470)
Nicolas Froment (c. 1435 – c. 1486)
Jean Hey (formerly known as the Master of Moulins) (ca. 1475 – ca. 1505)
Simon Marmion (c. 1425 – 24/25 December 1489)
Enguerrand Quarton (c. 1410 – c. 1466)
Spanish artists[edit]
Bartolomé Bermejo
Pedro Berruguete
Ayne Bru
Juan de Flandes
Luis de Morales
Jaume Huguet
Paolo da San Leocadio
Alonso Sánchez Coello
El Greco
Murillo
Dalmatian artists[edit]
Francesco Laurana(c. 1430 – 12? March 1502)
Giorgio da Sebenico (c. 1410 – 10 October 1475)
Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino
Andrea Alessi (1425–1505)
Nicholas of Ragusa (1460? – 1517)
Giovanni Dalmata (c. 1440 – c. 1514)
Andrea Schiavone (c. 1510/1515–1563)
Works[edit]
Ghent Altarpiece, by Hubert and Jan van Eyck
The Arnolfini Portrait, by Jan van Eyck
The Werl Triptych, by Robert Campin
The Portinari Triptych, by Hugo van der Goes
The Descent from the Cross, by Rogier van der Weyden
Flagellation of Christ, by Piero della Francesca
Spring, by Sandro Botticelli
Lamentation of Christ, by Mantegna
The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci
The School of Athens, by Raphael
Sistine Chapel ceiling, by Michelangelo
Equestrian Portrait of Charles V, by Titian
Isenheim Altarpiece, by Matthias Grünewald
Melencolia I, by Albrecht Dürer
The Ambassadors, by Hans Holbein the Younger
Melun Diptych, by Jean Fouquet
Saint Vincent Panels, by Nuno Gonçalves
Major collections[edit]
General Collections:
National Gallery, London
Louvre, Paris
National Gallery of Art, Washington
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
National Art Museum of Azerbaijan, Baku
Netherlandish:
Musee Communal des Beaux-Arts, Bruges, Belgium
Groeningemuseum, Bruges, Belgium
Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain – for works of Hieronymus Bosch
Italian:
Uffizi, Florence
French:
Château d'Écouen (National museum of the Renaissance), Écouen, France
See also[edit]
Danube school
History of painting
International Gothic
Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, (1970)
Jump up ^ Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, (1974)
Jump up ^ Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe, (1979)
Jump up ^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 555. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 555–556. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Russell, Francis (1967). The World of Dürer. Time Life Books, Time Inc. p. 9.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 556–557. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 561. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 564. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 557. ISBN 0-15-503753-6.
External links[edit]
art portal
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Renaissance paintings.
"Limited Freedom", Marica Hall, Berfrois, 2 March 2011.
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Reign of Terror
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This article is about the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution. For other uses, see Reign of Terror (disambiguation).
"The Terror" redirects here. For other uses, see The Terror (disambiguation).
Nine emigrés are executed by guillotine, 1793
Heads of aristocrats, on pikes
The Reign of Terror, or The Terror (French: la Terreur), is the label given by most historians to a period during the French Revolution after the First French Republic was established.
Several historians consider the "reign of terror" to have begun in 1793, placing the starting date at either 5 September,[1] June[2] or March (birth of the Revolutionary Tribunal), while some consider it to have begun in September 1792 (September Massacres), or even July 1789 (when the first lynchings took place),[3] but there is a consensus that it ended with the fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794.[1][2]
Between June 1793 and the end of July 1794, there were 16,594 official death sentences in France, of which 2,639 were in Paris.[2][4]
Contents
1 Barère and Robespierre glorify "terror"
2 Influences on the Terror
2.1 Enlightenment Thought
2.2 Threats of Foreign Invasion
2.3 Popular Pressure
2.4 Religious Upheaval
3 Major events during the Terror
4 Thermidorian Reaction
5 See also
6 Works Cited
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Primary sources
8.2 Secondary sources
8.3 Historiography
9 External links
Barère and Robespierre glorify "terror"[edit]
See also: History of France § Counter-revolution subdued (July 1793–April 1794)
Bertrand Barère
There was a sense of emergency among leading politicians in France in the summer of 1793 between the widespread civil war and counter-revolution. Bertrand Barère exclaimed on 5 September 1793 in the Convention: "Let's make terror the order of the day!"[5][6] They were determined to avoid street violence such as the September Massacres of 1792 by taking violence into their own hands as an instrument of government.[4]
Robespierre in February 1794 in a speech explained the necessity of terror:
If the basis of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the basis of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; it is thus an emanation of virtue; it is less a principle in itself, than a consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing needs of the patrie [homeland, fatherland].[7][4]
Some historians argue that such terror was a necessary reaction to the circumstances.[8] Others suggest there were additional causes, including ideological[9] and emotional.[10]
Influences on the Terror[edit]
Enlightenment Thought[edit]
Enlightenment thought emphasized the importance of rational thinking and began challenging legal and moral foundations of society, providing the leaders of the Terror with new ideas about the role and structure of government.[11] Rousseau's Social Contract argued that each person was born with rights, and they would come together to form a government that would then protect those rights. Under the social contract, the government was required to act for the general will, which represented the interests of everyone rather than a few factions.[12] Drawing from the idea of a general will, Robespierre felt that the French Revolution could result in a Republic built for the general will but only once those who fought this ideal were expelled.[13] [14] Those who resisted the government were deemed "tyrants" fighting against the virtue and honor of the general will. The leaders felt their ideal version of government was threatened from the inside and outside of France, and terror was the only way to preserve the dignity of the Republic created from French Revolution.[15]
Robespierre's ideology was not strictly derived from Rousseau. The writings of another Enlightenment thinker of the time, Baron de Montesquieu, greatly influenced Robespierre. One of Montesquieu’s writings, The Spirit of the Laws, defines a core principle of a democratic government: virtue. He describes it as “the love of laws and of our country.”[16] In Robespierre’s speech to the National Convention on February 5, 1794, On Political Morality, he talks about virtue being the “fundamental principle of popular or democratic government."[17] This was, in fact, the same virtue defined by Montesquieu almost 50 years earlier. Robespierre believed that the virtue needed for any democratic government was extremely lacking in the French people. As a result, he decided to weed out those he believed could never possess this virtue. The result was a continual push towards Terror. The Convention used this as justification for the course of action to “crush the enemies of the revolution, ... let the laws be executed, … and let liberty be saved.”[18]
These members of the Enlightenment movement greatly influenced revolutionary leaders; however, cautions from other Enlightenment thinkers were blatantly ignored. Voltaire’s warnings were often overlooked, though some of his ideas were used for justification of the Revolution and the start of the Terror. He protested against Catholic Dogmas and the ways of Christianity stating, “of all religions, the Christian should of course inspire the most toleration, but till now the Christian's have been the most intolerant of all men.”[19] These criticisms were often used by Robespierre and other leaders as justification for their anti-religious reforms. Voltaire also laid down some warnings. In his Philosophical Dictionary, he states, “we are all steeped in weakness and error; let us forgive each other our follies; that is the first law of nature” and “every individual who persecutes a man, his brother, because he is not of his opinion, is a monster."[20] The importance of forgiveness and understanding the failings of the human conditions were obviously lost on Robespierre and other leaders as they pursued Terror.
Threats of Foreign Invasion[edit]
After the beginning of the French Revolution, the surrounding monarchies did not show great hostility towards the rebellion.[21] Though mostly ignored, Louis XVI was later able to find support in Leopold II of Austria (Marie Antionette’s brother) and Frederick William II of Prussia. On August 27, 1791, these foreign leaders made the Pillnitz Declaration saying they would restore the French monarch if other European rulers joined. In response to what they viewed to be the meddling of foreign powers, France declared war on April 20, 1792.[22] However, at this point, the war was only Prussia and Austria against France. France began this war with a large series of defeats which set a precedent of fear of invasion in the people that would last throughout the war. Massive reforms of military institutions, while very effective in the long run, presented the initial problems of inexperienced forces and leaders of questionable political loyalty.[23] In the time it took for officers of merit to use their new freedoms to climb the chain of command, France suffered. Many of the early battles were definitive losses for the French.[24] There was the constant threat of the Austro-Prussian forces which were advancing easily toward the capital, threatening to destroy Paris if the monarch was harmed.[25] This series of defeats, coupled with militant uprisings and protests within the borders of France pushed the government to resort to drastic measures to ensure the loyalty of every citizen to not only France but more importantly to the Revolution.
While this series of losses was eventually broken, the reality of what might have happened if they persisted hung over France. The tide would not turn from them until September of 1792 when the French won a critical victory at Valmy preventing the Austro-Prussian invasion.[26] While the French military had stabilized and was producing victories by the time the Reign of Terror officially began, the pressure to succeed in this international struggle acted as justification for the government to pursue its tyrannical actions. It was not until after the execution of Louis XVI and the annexation of the Rhineland that the other monarchies began to feel threatened enough to form the First Coalition.[27] The Coalition, consisting of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, and Sardinia, began attacking France from all directions besieging and capturing ports and retaking ground lost to France.[28] With so many similarities to the first days of the Revolutionary Wars, the French government with threats on all sides, unification of the country became a top priority.[29] As the war continued and the Reign of Terror began, leaders saw a correlation between using terror and achieving victory. Well phrased by Albert Soboul, “terror, at first an improvised response to defeat, once organized became an instrument of victory.”[30] The threat of defeat and foreign invasion may have helped spur the origins of the terror, but the timely success of the Terror with French victories added justification to its growth and continuation.
Popular Pressure[edit]
During the Reign of Terror, the sans-culottes and the Hébertists put pressure on the National Convention delegates and contributed to the overall instability of France. The National Convention was bitterly split between the Montagnards and the Girondins. The Girondins were more conservative leaders of the National Convention, while the Montagnards supported radical violence and pressures of the lower classes.[31] Once the Montagnards gained control of the National Convention, they began demanding radical measures. Moreover, the sans-culottes, the scrappy, urban workers of France, agitated leaders to inflict punishments on those who opposed the interests of the poor. The sans-culottes’ violent demonstrations pushing their demands, created constant pressure for the Montagnards to enact reform.[32] The sans-culottes fed the frenzy of instability and chaos by utilizing popular pressure during the Revolution. For example, the sans-culottes sent letters and petitions to the Committee of Public Safety urging them to protect their interests and rights with measures such as taxation of foodstuffs that favored workers over the rich. They advocated for arrests of those deemed to oppose reforms against those with privilege, and the more militant members would advocate pillage in order to achieve the desired equality.[33] The resulting instability caused problems that made forming the new Republic and achieving full political support even more critical.
Religious Upheaval[edit]
The Reign of Terror was characterized by a dramatic rejection of long-held religious authority, its hierarchical structure, and the corrupt and intolerant influence of the aristocracy and clergy. Religious elements that long stood as symbols of stability for the French people, were replaced by reason and scientific thought.[34][35] The radical revolutionaries and their supporters desired a cultural revolution that would rid the French state of all Christian influence.[36] This process began with the fall of the monarchy, an event that effectively defrocked the State of its sanctification by the clergy via the doctrine of Divine Right and ushered in an era of reason.[37]
Many long-held rights and powers were stripped from the Church and given to the State. In 1789, church lands were expropriated and priests killed and forced to leave France.[38] A Festival of Reason was held in the Notre Dame Cathedral, which was renamed "The Temple of Reason", and the old traditional calendar was replaced with a new revolutionary one.[39] The leaders of the Terror tried to address the call for these radical, revolutionary aspirations, while at the same time trying to maintain tight control on the de-Christianization movement that was threatening to the clear majority of the still devoted Catholic population of France. The tension sparked by these conflicting objectives laid a foundation for the "justified" use of terror to achieve revolutionary ideals and rid France of the religiosity that revolutionaries believed was standing in the way.
Major events during the Terror[edit]
Main articles: History of France § Revolutionary France (1789–1799), and France § Revolutionary France (1789–1799)
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Maximilien Robespierre, member of the Committee of Public Safety
On 10 March 1793 the National Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal. Among those charged by the tribunal, about a half were acquitted (though the number dropped to about a quarter after the enactment of the Law of 22 Prairial). In March rebellion broke out in the Vendée in response to mass conscription, which developed into a civil war that lasted until after the Terror.
On 6 April the Committee of Public Safety was created, which gradually became the de facto war-time government.[40]
On 2 June, the Parisian sans-culottes surrounded the National Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans-culottes alone. With the backing of the national guard, they persuaded the convention to arrest 29 Girondist leaders.[41] In reaction to the imprisonment of the Girondin deputies, some thirteen departments started the Federalist revolts against the National Convention in Paris, which were ultimately crushed.
On 24 June, the convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, the French Constitution of 1793. It was ratified by public referendum, but never put into force.
On 13 July the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat – a Jacobin leader and journalist – resulted in a further increase in Jacobin political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, was removed from the committee. On July 27, 1793, Robespierre became part of the Committee of Public Safety.[42]
On 23 August, the National Convention decreed the levée en masse, "The young men shall fight; the married man shall forge arms and transport provisions; the women shall make tents and clothes and shall serve in the hospitals; the children shall turn all lint into linen; the old men shall betake themselves to the public square in order to arouse the courage of the warriors and preach hatred of kings and the unity of the Republic."
The execution of the Girondins
On 9 September, the convention established paramilitary forces, the "revolutionary armies", to force farmers to surrender grain demanded by the government. On 17 September, the Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the imprisonment of vaguely defined "suspects". This created a mass overflow in the prison systems. On 29 September, the convention extended price fixing from grain and bread to other essential goods, and also fixed wages.
On 10 October, the Convention decreed that "the provisional government shall be revolutionary until peace." On 24 October, the French Republican Calendar was enacted. The trial of the Girondins started on the same day and they were executed on 31 October.
Anti-clerical sentiments increased during 1793 and a campaign of dechristianization occurred. On 10 November (20 Brumaire Year II of the French Republican Calendar), the Hébertists organized a Festival of Reason.
The execution of Olympe de Gouges, feminist writer close to the Girondins
On 14 Frimaire (5 December 1793) was passed the Law of Frimaire, which gave the central government more control over the actions of the representatives on mission.
On 16 Pluviôse (4 February 1794), the National Convention decreed that slavery be abolished in all of France and French colonies.
On 8 and 13 Ventôse (26 February and 3 March), Saint-Just proposed decrees to confiscate the property of exiles and opponents of the revolution, known as the Ventôse Decrees.
By the end of 1793, two major factions had emerged, both threatening the Revolutionary Government: the Hébertists, who called for an intensification of the Terror and threatened insurrection, and the Dantonists, led by Georges Danton, who demanded moderation and clemency. The Committee of Public Safety took actions against both. The major Hébertists were tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal and executed on 24 March. The Dantonists were arrested on 30 March, tried on 3 to 5 April and executed on 5 April.
On 20 Prairial (8 June) was celebrated across the country the Festival of the Supreme Being, which was part of the Cult of the Supreme Being, a deist national religion. On 22 Prairial (10 June), the National Convention passed a law proposed by Georges Couthon, known as the Law of 22 Prairial, which simplified the judicial process and greatly accelerated the work of the Revolutionary Tribunal. With the enactment of the law, the number of executions greatly increased, and the period from this time to the Thermidorian Reaction became known as "The Grand Terror".
On 8 Messidor (26 June), the French army won the Battle of Fleurus, which marked a turning point in France's military campaign and undermined the necessity of wartime measures and the legitimacy of the Revolutionary Government.
Thermidorian Reaction[edit]
Main article: Thermidorian Reaction
The execution of Maximilien Robespierre
The fall of Robespierre was brought about by a combination of those who wanted more power for the Committee of Public Safety (and a more radical policy than he was willing to allow) and the moderates who completely opposed the revolutionary government. They had, between them, made the Law of 22 Prairial one of the charges against him, so that, after his fall, to advocate terror would be seen as adopting the policy of a convicted enemy of the republic, putting the advocate's own head at risk. Between his arrest and his execution, Robespierre may have tried to commit suicide by shooting himself, although the bullet wound he sustained, whatever its origin, only shattered his jaw. Alternatively, he may have been shot by the gendarme Merda. The great confusion that arose during the storming of the municipal Hall of Paris, where Robespierre and his friends had found refuge, makes it impossible to be sure of the wound's origin. In any case, Robespierre was guillotined the next day.[43]
The reign of the standing Committee of Public Safety was ended. New members were appointed the day after Robespierre's execution, and limits on terms of office were fixed (a quarter of the committee retired every three months). The Committee's powers were gradually eroded.
See also[edit]
Bals des victimes
Tricoteuse
Drownings at Nantes
State terrorism
Works Cited[edit]
"Battle of Valmy, (20 September 1792)." Weapons and Warfare. April 09, 2018. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2018/04/10/battle-of-valmy-20-september-1792/.
Bloy, Marjorie. "The First Coalition 1793-1797." A Web of English History. Accessed October 21, 2018. http://www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/france/coalit1.htm.
Leopold, II, and Frederick William. "The Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)." French Revolution. February 27, 2018. Accessed October 26, 2018. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/declaration-of-pillnitz-1791/.
McLetchie, Scott. "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror." Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm#22.
Montesquieu. "Modern History Sourcebook: Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws, 1748." Internet History Sourcebooks. Accessed October 23, 2018. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/montesquieu-spirit.asp.
Ozouf, Mona. "War and Terror in French Revolutionary Discourse (1792-1794)." The Journal of Modern History 56, no. 4 (1984): 580-97. http://www.jstor.org.du.idm.oclc.org/stable/1880323.
Popkin, Jeremy D. A Short History of the French Revolution. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2016.
“Robespierre, "On Political Morality",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 19, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/413.
Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 , no. 4 (1988): 771-93. doi:10.2307/204824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824.
“"Terror Is the Order of the Day",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 26, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/416.
Voltaire. "Voltaire, Selections from the Philosophical Dictionary." Omeka RSS. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/273/.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Reign of Terror". Encyclopædia Britannica (2015). Retrieved 19 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Linton, Marisa. "The Terror in the French Revolution" (PDF). Kingston University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
Jump up ^ The dates July 1789, September 1792, March 1793 as starting date for the Reign of Terror (French: la Terreur) are given in the French Wikipedia, referring to source: Jean-Clément Martin, La Terreur, part maudite de la Révolution ('The Terror, the cursed part of the Revolution'), coll. Découvertes Gallimard (n° 566), Paris: Gallimard, 2010, p. 14–15.
^ Jump up to: a b c Linton, Marisa (August 2006). "Robespierre and the terror: Marisa Linton reviews the life and career of one of the most vilified men in history". History Today. 8 (56): 23. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Noah Shusterman – The French Revolution. Faith, Desire, and Politics. Routledge, London and New York, 2014. Chapter 7 (p. 175–203): The federalist revolt, the Vendée, and the start of the Terror (summer–fall 1793).
Jump up ^ (in French) '30 août 1793 – La terreur à l'ordre du jour!' Website Vendéens & Chouans. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Halsall, Paul (1997). "Maximilien Robespierre: On the Principles of Political Morality, February 1794". Fordham University. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Mathiez, Albert. La Révolution Française. Librairie Armand Colin. ISBN 978-7-100-07058-4.
Jump up ^ Furet, Francois. A Deep-rooted Ideology as Well as Circumstance, p. 224.
Jump up ^ Tackett, Timothy (2015-02-23). The Coming of the Terror in the French Revolution. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674736559.
Jump up ^ William F. Church, "Introduction", in The Influence of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution, ed. William F. Church (Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1964), vii.
Jump up ^ Jean-Jacques Rousseau, "Ideal Empires and Republics. Rousseau's Social Contract, More's Utopia, Bacon's New Atlantis, Campanella's City of the Sun with an Introduction by Charles M. Andrews", (Washington: M. Walter Dunne, 1901), 92–94, Online Library of Liberty, http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/rousseau-ideal-empires-and-republics.
Jump up ^ Henri Peyre, "The Influence of Eighteenth Century Ideas on the French Revolution", in The Influence of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution, ed. William F. Church (Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1964), 99-101.
Jump up ^ Maximilien Robespierre, "Justification of the Use of Terror", July 28, 1794, Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, accessed May 1, 2018, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/robespierre-terror.asp.
Jump up ^ Maximilien Robespierre, "Justification of the Use of Terror", July 28, 1794, Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, accessed May 1, 2018, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/robespierre-terror.asp.
Jump up ^ Montesquieu. "Modern History Sourcebook: Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws, 1748." Internet History Sourcebooks. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/montesquieu-spirit.asp.
Jump up ^ “Robespierre, "On Political Morality",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/413.
Jump up ^ “"Terror Is the Order of the Day",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 26, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/416.
Jump up ^ Voltaire. "Voltaire, Selections from the Philosophical Dictionary." Omeka RSS. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/273/.
Jump up ^ Ibid.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin. A Short History of the French Revolution. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2016. 54.
Jump up ^ Gunther E. Rothenberg "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771-93. doi:10.2307/204824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin. A Short History of the French Revolution, 55.
Jump up ^ "Battle of Valmy, (20 September 1792)." Weapons and Warfare. April 09, 2018. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2018/04/10/battle-of-valmy-20-september-1792/.
Jump up ^ Leopold II, and Frederick William. "The Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)." French Revolution. February 27, 2018. Accessed October 26, 2018. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/declaration-of-pillnitz-1791/.
Jump up ^ Jermemy D. Popkin. A Short History of the French Revolution, 59.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Bloy. "The First Coalition 1793-1797." A Web of English History. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/montesquieu/.
Jump up ^ Ibid.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin. A Short History of the French Revolution, 64.
Jump up ^ Soboul cited in Mona Ozouf. "War and Terror in French Revolutionary Discourse (1792-1794)." The Journal of Modern History 56, no. 4 (1984): 580-97. http://www.jstor.org.du.idm.oclc.org/stable/1880323.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, (London: Routledge, 2016), 64.
Jump up ^ "Terror, Vengeance, and Martyrdom in the French Revolution: THE CASE OF THE SHADES - Oxford Scholarship", 2014, accessed May 1, 2018, http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199959853.001.0001/acprof-9780199959853-chapter-8. 2014.
Jump up ^ Albert Soboul, The Sans-culottes; the Popular Movement and Revolutionary Government, 1793–1794, (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1972), 5–17.
Jump up ^ Edmond Pressense, John Lacroix, Religion and the reign of terror, or, The church during the French revolution (World constitutions illustrated), (New York : Cincinnati: Carlton & Lanahan ; Hitchcock & Walden, 1869).
Jump up ^ Emmet Kennedy. A Cultural History of the French Revolution. (Yale University Press, 1989), 343. ISBN 9780300044263.
Jump up ^ Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution; chp 3, "The Imagery of Radicalism", 1984, 87–119.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, (London: Routledge, 2016), 72–73.
Jump up ^ Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution; chp 3, "The Imagery of Radicalism", 1984, 87–119.
Jump up ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, (London: Routledge, 2016), 72–73.
Jump up ^ Mantel, Hilary (6 August 2009). "He Roared". London Review of Books. 3 (15): 3–6. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Jones, Peter. The French Revolution 1787–1804. Pearson Education, 2003, p. 57.
Jump up ^ "Maximilien Robespierre | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-19.
Jump up ^ Merriman, John (2004). "Thermidor" (2nd ed.). A history of modern Europe: from the Renaissance to the present, p 507. W.W. Norton & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-393-92495-5
Further reading[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Cléry, Jean-Baptiste; Henry Essex Edgeworth (1961) [1798]. Sidney Scott, ed. Journal of the Terror. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. OCLC 3153946.
Secondary sources[edit]
Andress, David (2006). The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-27341-3.
Andress, David; Popkin, Jeremy (2015). Revolution and Changing Identities in France, 1789-99. Oxford University Press.
Baker, Keith M. François Furet, and Colin Lucas, eds. (1987) The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture, vol. 4, The Terror (London: Pergamon Press, 1987)
Beik, William (August 2005). "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration: Review Article". Past and Present. 188: 195–224. doi:10.1093/pastj/gti019.
Censer, Jack, and Lynn Hunt (2001). Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Hunt, Lynn (1984). Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gough, Hugh. The terror in the French revolution (London: Macmillan, 1998)
Hibbert, Christopher (1981). The Days of the French Revolution. New York: Quill-William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-16978-7.
Kerr, Wilfred Brenton (1985). Reign of Terror, 1793–1794. London: Porcupine Press. ISBN 0-87991-631-1.
Kennedy, Emmet. A Cultural History of the French Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991.
Linton, Marisa (August 2006). "Robespierre and the terror: Marisa Linton reviews the life and career of one of the most vilified men in history, (Maximilien Robespierre)(Biography)". History Today. 8 (56): 23.
Linton, Marisa, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Loomis, Stanley (1964). Paris in the Terror. New York: Dorset Press. ISBN 0-88029-401-9.
McLetchie, Scott. "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror." Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm#22.
Moore, Lucy (2006). Liberty: The Lives and Times of Six Women in Revolutionary France. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-720601-1.
Palmer, R. R. (2005). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12187-7.
Reinberg, M; Chaouat, Bruno; Brewer, Daniel; Brewer, Maria; Schlte-Sasse, Jochen (2010). Modernity and Ethics: The Ghost of Terror in the French Thought. ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis.
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 678–847. ISBN 0-394-55948-7.
Scott, Otto (1974). Robespierre, The Fool as Revolutionary – Inside the French Revolution. Windsor, New York: The Reformer Library. ISBN 978-1-887690-05-8.
Shadow (February 9, 1870). "The "Reign of Terror"". New York Times.
Shulim, Joseph I. "Robespierre and the French Revolution," American Historical Review (1977) 82#1 pp. 20–38 in JSTOR
Soboul, Albert. "Robespierre and the Popular Movement of 1793–4", Past and Present, No. 5. (May 1954), pp. 54–70. in JSTOR
Steel, Mark (2003). Vive La Revolution. London: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-0806-4.
Reviewed by Adam Thorpe in The Guardian, 23 December 2006.
Sutherland, D.M.G. (2003) The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order pp 174–253
Thoral, Marie-Cecile. From Valmy to Waterloo France at War, 1792-1815. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. https://link-springer-com.du.idm.oclc.org/content/pdf/10.1057%2F9780230294981.pdf
Wahnich, Sophie (2016). In Defence of the Terror: Liberty or Death in the French Revolution (Reprint ed.). Verso. ISBN 978-1784782023.
Reviewed by Ruth Scurr in The Guardian, 17 August 2012
Weber, Caroline. (2003) Terror and Its Discontents: Suspect Words in Revolutionary France online
Historiography[edit]
Kafker, Frank, James M. Lauz, and Darline Gay Levy (2002). The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Rudé, George (1976). Robespierre: Portrait of a Revolutionary Democrat. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-60128-4. A Marxist political portrait of Robespierre, examining his changing image among historians and the different aspects of Robespierre as an 'ideologue', as a political democrat, as a social democrat, as a practitioner of revolution, as a politician and as a popular leader/leader of revolution, it also touches on his legacy for the future revolutionary leaders Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to French Revolution.
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1788
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1790
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1791
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Declaration of Pillnitz (27 Aug 1791)
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1792
France declares war (20 Apr 1792)
Brunswick Manifesto (25 Jul 1792)
Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary (Jun 1792)
10th of August (10 Aug 1792)
September Massacres (Sep 1792)
National Convention (20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)
First republic declared (22 Sep 1792)
1793
Execution of Louis XVI (21 Jan 1793)
Revolutionary Tribunal (9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)
Reign of Terror (27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)
Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
Fall of the Girondists (2 Jun 1793)
Assassination of Marat (13 Jul 1793)
Levée en masse (23 Aug 1793)
The Death of Marat (painting)
Law of Suspects (17 Sep 1793)
Marie Antoinette is guillotined (16 Oct 1793)
Anti-clerical laws (throughout the year)
1794
Danton and Desmoulins guillotined (5 Apr 1794)
Law of 22 Prairial (10 Jun 1794)
Thermidorian Reaction (27 Jul 1794)
Robespierre guillotined (28 Jul 1794)
White Terror (Fall 1794)
Closing of the Jacobin Club (11 Nov 1794)
1795
Constitution of the Year III (22 Aug 1795)
Conspiracy of the Equals (Nov 1795)
Directoire (1795–99)
Council of Five Hundred
Council of Ancients
13 Vendémiaire 5 Oct 1795
1797
Coup of 18 Fructidor (4 Sep 1797)
Second Congress of Rastatt (Dec 1797)
1799
Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 Jun 1799)
Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov 1799)
Constitution of the Year VIII (24 Dec 1799)
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1792
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1793
First Coalition
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War in the Vendée
Battle of Neerwinden)
Battle of Famars (23 May 1793)
Expédition de Sardaigne (21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)
Battle of Kaiserslautern
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Battle of Wattignies
Battle of Hondschoote
Siege of Bellegarde
Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)
First Battle of Wissembourg (13 Oct 1793)
Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)
Second Battle of Wissembourg (26–27 Dec 1793)
1794
Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies (24 Apr 1794)
Battle of Boulou (Pyrenees) (30 Apr – 1 May 1794)
Battle of Tournay (22 May 1794)
Battle of Fleurus (26 Jun 1794)
Chouannerie
Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794)
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1795
Peace of Basel
1796
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The Ireland Expedition (Dec 1796)
1797
Naval Engagement off Brittany (13 Jan 1797)
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Treaty of Leoben (17 Apr 1797)
Battle of Neuwied (18 Apr 1797)
Treaty of Campo Formio (17 Oct 1797)
1798
French invasion of Switzerland (28 January – 17 May 1798)
French Invasion of Egypt (1798–1801)
Irish Rebellion of 1798 (23 May – 23 Sep 1798)
Quasi-War (1798–1800)
Peasants' War (12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)
1799
Second Coalition (1798–1802)
Siege of Acre (20 Mar – 21 May 1799)
Battle of Ostrach (20–21 Mar 1799)
Battle of Stockach (25 Mar 1799)
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Battle of Cassano (27 Apr 1799)
First Battle of Zurich (4–7 Jun 1799)
Battle of Trebbia (19 Jun 1799)
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Second Battle of Zurich (25–26 Sep 1799)
1800
Battle of Marengo (14 Jun 1800)
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League of Armed Neutrality (1800–02)
1801
Treaty of Lunéville (9 Feb 1801)
Treaty of Florence (18 Mar 1801)
Algeciras Campaign (8 Jul 1801)
1802
Treaty of Amiens (25 Mar 1802)
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Military leaders
French Army
Eustache Charles d'Aoust
Pierre Augereau
Alexandre de Beauharnais
Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte
Louis-Alexandre Berthier
Jean-Baptiste Bessières
Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brune
Jean François Carteaux
Jean Étienne Championnet
Chapuis de Tourville
Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine
Louis-Nicolas Davout
Louis Desaix
Jacques François Dugommier
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
Charles François Dumouriez
Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino
Louis-Charles de Flers
Paul Grenier
Emmanuel de Grouchy
Jacques Maurice Hatry
Lazare Hoche
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan
François Christophe de Kellermann
Jean-Baptiste Kléber
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
Jean Lannes
Charles Leclerc
Claude Lecourbe
François Joseph Lefebvre
Jacques MacDonald
Jean-Antoine Marbot
Jean Baptiste de Marbot
François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers
Auguste de Marmont
André Masséna
Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey
Jean Victor Marie Moreau
Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise
Joachim Murat
Michel Ney
Pierre-Jacques Osten (fr)
Nicolas Oudinot
Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon
Jean-Charles Pichegru
Józef Poniatowski
Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer
Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier
Joseph Souham
Jean-de-Dieu Soult
Louis-Gabriel Suchet
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Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno
French Navy
Charles-Alexandre Linois
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Austria
József Alvinczi
Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen
Count of Clerfayt (Walloon)
Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg
Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze (Swiss)
Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth
Pál Kray (Hungarian)
Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (French)
Maximilian Baillet de Latour (Walloon)
Karl Mack von Leiberich
Rudolf Ritter von Otto (Saxon)
Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich
Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen
Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló (Hungarian)
Karl Philipp Sebottendorf
Dagobert von Wurmser
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Sir Ralph Abercromby
Admiral Sir James Saumarez
Admiral Sir Edward Pellew
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
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William V, Prince of Orange
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Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
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Alexander Korsakov
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Society of 1789
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Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt
Isaac René Guy le Chapelier
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Nicolas de Condorcet
Feuillants
and monarchiens
Madame de Lamballe
Madame du Barry
Louis de Breteuil
Loménie de Brienne
Charles Alexandre de Calonne
de Chateaubriand
Jean Chouan
Grace Elliott
Arnaud de La Porte
Jean-Sifrein Maury
Jacques Necker
François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy
Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas
Antoine Barnave
Lafayette
Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth
Charles Malo François Lameth
André Chénier
Jean-François Rewbell
Camille Jordan
Madame de Staël
Boissy d'Anglas
Jean-Charles Pichegru
Pierre Paul Royer-Collard
Girondists
Jacques Pierre Brissot
Roland de La Platière
Madame Roland
Father Henri Grégoire
Étienne Clavière
Marquis de Condorcet
Charlotte Corday
Marie Jean Hérault
Jean Baptiste Treilhard
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
Jean Debry
Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil
Olympe de Gouges
Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet
Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux
The Plain
Abbé Sieyès
de Cambacérès
Charles François Lebrun
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot
Philippe Égalité
Louis Philippe I
Mirabeau
Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville
Jean Joseph Mounier
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
François de Neufchâteau
Montagnards
Maximilien Robespierre
Georges Danton
Jean-Paul Marat
Camille Desmoulins
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
Paul Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Louis Philippe I
Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau
Jacques-Louis David
Marquis de Sade
Georges Couthon
Roger Ducos
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois
Jean-Henri Voulland
Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier
Jean-Pierre-André Amar
Prieur de la Côte-d'Or
Prieur de la Marne
Gilbert Romme
Jean Bon Saint-André
Jean-Lambert Tallien
Pierre Louis Prieur
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Antoine Christophe Saliceti
Hébertists
and Enragés
Jacques Hébert
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
Pierre Gaspard Chaumette
Charles-Philippe Ronsin
Antoine-François Momoro
François-Nicolas Vincent
François Chabot
Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
François Hanriot
Jacques Roux
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
Charles-Philippe Ronsin
Jean-François Varlet
Theophile Leclerc
Claire Lacombe
Pauline Léon
Gracchus Babeuf
Sylvain Maréchal
Others
Charles X
Louis XVI
Louis XVII
Louis XVIII
Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien
Louis Henri, Prince of Condé
Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé
Marie Antoinette
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Lucien Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Fesch
Joséphine de Beauharnais
Joachim Murat
Jean Sylvain Bailly
Jacques-Donatien Le Ray
Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes
Talleyrand
Thérésa Tallien
Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target
Catherine Théot
List of people associated with the French Revolution
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Influential thinkers
Les Lumières
Beaumarchais
Edmund Burke
Anacharsis Cloots
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Pierre Claude François Daunou
Diderot
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Jefferson
Antoine Lavoisier
Montesquieu
Thomas Paine
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Abbé Sieyès
Voltaire
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Cultural impact
La Marseillaise
French Tricolour
Liberté, égalité, fraternité
Marianne
Bastille Day
Panthéon
French Republican Calendar
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Temple of Reason
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Metric system
Phrygian cap
Women in the French Revolution
Symbolism in the French Revolution
Historiography of the French Revolution
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Reign of Terror (disambiguation)

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Expédition d'Irlande

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Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brune

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Nicolas de Condorcet

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Princess Marie Louise of Savoy

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