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Classic Maya collapse
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In archaeology, the classic Maya collapse is the decline of Classic Maya civilization and the abandonment of Maya cities in the southern Maya lowlands of Mesoamerica between the 8th and 9th centuries, at the end of the Classic Maya Period. Preclassic Maya experienced a similar collapse in the 2nd century.[citation needed]
The Classic Period of Mesoamerican chronology is generally defined as the period from 250 to 900, the last century of which is referred to as the Terminal Classic.[1] The Classic Maya collapse is one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in archaeology. Urban centers of the southern lowlands, among them Palenque, Copán, Tikal, and Calakmul, went into decline during the 8th and 9th centuries and were abandoned shortly thereafter. Archaeologically, this decline is indicated by the cessation of monumental inscriptions[2] and the reduction of large-scale architectural construction at the primary urban centers of the Classic Period.[citation needed]
Although termed a collapse, it did not mark the end of the Maya civilization but rather a shift away from the Southern Lowlands as a power center; Northern Yucatán in particular prospered afterwards, although with very different artistic and architectural styles, and with much less use of monumental hieroglyphic writing. In the Post-Classic Period following the collapse, the state of Chichén Itzá built an empire that briefly united much of the Maya region,[2] and centers such as Mayapán and Uxmal flourished, as did the Highland states of the K'iche' and Kaqchikel Maya. Independent Maya civilization continued until 1697 when the Spanish conquered Nojpetén, the last independent city-state. Millions of Maya people still inhabit the Yucatán peninsula today.[3]
Because parts of Maya civilization unambiguously continued, a number of scholars strongly dislike the term collapse.[4] Regarding the proposed collapse, E. W. Andrews IV went as far as to say, "in my belief no such thing happened."[5]
Contents
1 Progression of the decline
2 Theories
2.1 Foreign invasion
2.2 Collapse of trade routes
2.3 Epidemic diseases
2.4 Drought theory
2.5 Systemic ecological collapse model
2.6 Other explanations
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Progression of the decline[edit]
The Maya often recorded dates on monuments they built. Few dated monuments were being built circa 500 – around ten per year in 514, for example. The number steadily increased to twenty per year by 672 and forty by around 750. After this, the number of dated monuments begins to falter relatively quickly, collapsing back to ten by 800 and to zero by 900. Likewise, recorded lists of kings complement this analysis. Altar Q at Copán shows a reign of kings from 426 to 763. One last king not recorded on Altar Q was Ukit Took, "Patron of Flint", who was probably a usurper. The dynasty is believed to have collapsed entirely shortly thereafter. In Quirigua, twenty miles north of Copán, the last king Jade Sky began his rule between 895 and 900, and throughout the Maya area all kingdoms similarly fell around that time.[6]
A third piece of evidence of the progression of Maya decline, gathered by Ann Corinne Freter, Nancy Gonlin, and David Webster, uses a technique called obsidian hydration. The technique allowed them to map the spread and growth of settlements in the Copán Valley and estimate their populations. Between 400 and 450, the population was estimated at a peak of twenty-eight thousand, between 750 and 800 – larger than London at the time. Population then began to steadily decline. By 900 the population had fallen to fifteen thousand, and by 1200 the population was again less than 1000.[citation needed]
Theories[edit]
88 different theories or variations of theories attempting to explain the Classic Maya collapse have been identified.[7] From climate change to deforestation to lack of action by Maya kings, there is no universally accepted collapse theory, although drought is gaining momentum as the leading explanation.[8]
Foreign invasion[edit]
The archaeological evidence of the Toltec intrusion into Seibal, Peten, suggests to some the theory of foreign invasion. The latest hypothesis states that the southern lowlands were invaded by a non-Maya group whose homelands were probably in the gulf coast lowlands. This invasion began in the 9th century and set off, within 100 years, a group of events that destroyed the Classic Maya. It is believed that this invasion was somehow influenced by the Toltec people of central Mexico. However, most Mayanists do not believe that foreign invasion was the main cause of the Classic Maya collapse; they postulate that no military defeat can explain or be the cause of the protracted and complex Classic collapse process. Teotihuacan influence across the Maya region may have involved some form of military invasion; however, it is generally noted that significant Teotihuacan-Maya interactions date from at least the Early Classic period, well before the episodes of Late Classic collapse.[9]
The foreign invasion theory does not answer the question of where the inhabitants went. David Webster believed that the population should have increased because of the lack of elite power. Further, it is not understood why the governmental institutions were not remade following the revolts, which happened under similar circumstances in places like China. A study by anthropologist Elliot M. Abrams came to the conclusion that buildings, specifically in Copan, did not require an extensive amount of time and workers to construct.[10] However, this theory was developed during a period when the archaeological evidence showed that there were fewer Maya people than there are now known to have been.[11] Revolutions, peasant revolts, and social turmoil change circumstances, and are often followed by foreign wars, but they run their course. There are no documented revolutions that caused wholesale abandonment of entire regions.[citation needed]
Collapse of trade routes[edit]
It has been hypothesized that the decline of the Maya is related to the collapse of their intricate trade systems, especially those connected to the central Mexican city of Teotihuacán. Preceding improved knowledge of the chronology of Mesoamerica, Teotihuacan was believed to have fallen during 700–750, forcing the "restructuring of economic relations throughout highland Mesoamerica and the Gulf Coast".[12] This remaking of relationships between civilizations would have then given the collapse of the Classic Maya a slightly later date. However, after knowing more about the events and the periods when they occurred, it is believed that the strongest Teotihuacan influence was during the 4th and 5th centuries. In addition, the civilization of Teotihuacan started to lose its power, and maybe abandoned the city, during 600–650. This differs greatly from the previous belief that Teotihuacano power decreased during 700–750.[13] But since the new decline date of 600–650 has been accepted, the Maya civilizations are now thought to have lived on and prospered “for another century and more”[14] than what was previously believed. Rather than the decline of Teotihuacan directly preceding the collapse of the Maya, their decline is now seen as contributing “to the 6th-century ‘hiatus’”.[14]
Epidemic diseases[edit]
The disease theory is also a contender as a factor in the Classic Maya collapse. Widespread disease could explain some rapid depopulation, both directly through the spread of infection itself and indirectly as an inhibition to recovery over the long run. According to Dunn (1968) and Shimkin (1973), infectious diseases spread by parasites are common in tropical rainforest regions, such as the Maya lowlands. Shimkin specifically suggests that the Maya may have encountered endemic infections related to American trypanosomiasis, Ascaris, and some enteropathogens that cause acute diarrheal illness. Furthermore, some experts believe that, through development of their civilization (that is, development of agriculture and settlements), the Maya could have created a "disturbed environment", in which parasitic and pathogen-carrying insects often thrive.[15] Among the pathogens listed above, it is thought that those that cause the acute diarrheal illnesses would have been the most devastating to the Maya population, because such illness would have struck a victim at an early age, thereby hampering nutritional health and the natural growth and development of a child. This would have made them more susceptible to other diseases later in life, and would have been exacerbated by an increasing dependence on carbohydrate-rich crops.[16] Such ideas as this could explain the role of disease as at least a possible partial reason for the Classic Maya Collapse.[17]
Drought theory[edit]
Large droughts hit the Yucatán Peninsula and Petén Basin areas with particular ferocity, as thin tropical soils decline in fertility and become unworkable when deprived of forest cover,[18] and due to regular seasonal drought drying up surface water.[19] Colonial Spanish officials accurately documented cycles of drought, famine, disease, and war, providing a reliable historical record of the basic drought pattern in the Maya region.[20]
Climatic factors were first implicated in the collapse as early as 1931 by Mayanists Thomas Gann and J. E. S. Thompson.[21] In The Great Maya Droughts, Richardson Gill gathers and analyzes an array of climatic, historical, hydrologic, tree ring, volcanic, geologic, lake bed, and archeological research, and demonstrates that a prolonged series of droughts probably caused the Classic Maya collapse.[22] The drought theory provides a comprehensive explanation, because non-environmental and cultural factors (excessive warfare, foreign invasion, peasant revolt, less trade, etc.) can all be explained by the effects of prolonged drought on Classic Maya civilization.[23]
Climatic changes are, with increasing frequency, found to be major drivers in the rise and fall of civilizations all over the world.[24] Professors Harvey Weiss of Yale University and Raymond S. Bradley of the University of Massachusetts have written, "Many lines of evidence now point to climate forcing as the primary agent in repeated social collapse."[25] In a separate publication, Weiss illustrates an emerging understanding of scientists:
Within the past five years new tools and new data for archaeologists, climatologists, and historians have brought us to the edge of a new era in the study of global and hemispheric climate change and its cultural impacts. The climate of the Holocene, previously assumed static, now displays a surprising dynamism, which has affected the agricultural bases of pre-industrial societies. The list of Holocene climate alterations and their socio-economic effects has rapidly become too complex for brief summary.[26]
The drought theory holds that rapid climate change in the form of severe drought brought about the Classic Maya collapse. According to the particular version put forward by Gill in The Great Maya Droughts,
[Studies of] Yucatecan lake sediment cores ... provide unambiguous evidence for a severe 200-year drought from AD 800 to 1000 ... the most severe in the last 7,000 years ... precisely at the time of the Maya Collapse.[27]
Climatic modeling, tree ring data, and historical climate data show that cold weather in the Northern Hemisphere is associated with drought in Mesoamerica.[28] Northern Europe suffered extremely low[clarification needed] temperatures around the same time as the Maya droughts. The same connection between drought in the Maya areas and extreme cold in northern Europe was found again at the beginning of the 20th century. Volcanic activity, within and outside Mesoamerica, is also correlated with colder weather and resulting drought, as the effects of the Tambora volcano eruption in 1815 indicate.[29]
Mesoamerican civilization provides a remarkable exception: civilization prospering in the tropical swampland. The Maya are often perceived as having lived in a rainforest, but technically, they lived in a seasonal desert without access to stable sources of drinking water.[30] The exceptional accomplishments of the Maya are even more remarkable because of their engineered response to the fundamental environmental difficulty of relying upon rainwater rather than permanent sources of water. “The Maya succeeded in creating a civilization in a seasonal desert by creating a system of water storage and management which was totally dependent on consistent rainfall.”[31] The constant need for water kept the Maya on the edge of survival. “Given this precarious balance of wet and dry conditions, even a slight shift in the distribution of annual precipitation can have serious consequences.”[19] Water and civilization were vitally connected in ancient Mesoamerica. Archaeologist and specialist in pre-industrial land and water usage practices Vernon Scarborough believes water management and access were critical to the development of Maya civilization.[32]
Critics of the drought theory wonder why the southern and central lowland cities were abandoned and the northern cities like Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Coba continued to thrive.[33] One critic argued that Chichen Itza revamped its political, military, religious, and economic institutions away from powerful lords or kings.[34] Inhabitants of the northern Yucatán also had access to seafood, which might have explained the survival of Chichen Itza and Mayapan, cities away from the coast but within reach of coastal food supplies.[35] Critics of the drought theory also point to current weather patterns: much heavier rainfall in the southern lowlands compared to the lighter amount of rain in the northern Yucatán. Drought theory supporters state that the entire regional climate changed, including the amount of rainfall, so that modern rainfall patterns are not indicative of rainfall from 800 to 900. LSU archaeologist Heather McKillop found a significant[clarification needed] rise in sea level along the coast nearest the southern Maya lowlands, coinciding with the end of the Classic period, and indicating climate change.[36]
David Webster, a critic of the megadrought theory, says that much of the evidence provided by Gill comes from the northern Yucatán and not the southern part of the peninsula, where Classic Maya civilization flourished. He also states that if water sources were to have dried up, then several city-states would have moved to other water sources. That Gill suggests that all water in the region would have dried up and destroyed Maya civilization is a stretch, according to Webster,[37] although Webster does not have a precise competing theory explaining the Classic Maya Collapse.
A study published in Science in 2012 found that modest rainfall reductions, amounting to only 25 to 40 percent of annual rainfall, may have been the tipping point to the Maya collapse. Based on samples of lake and cave sediments in the areas surrounding major Maya cities, the researchers were able to determine the amount of annual rainfall in the region. The mild droughts that took place between 800–950 would therefore be enough to rapidly deplete seasonal water supplies in the Yucatán lowlands, where there are no rivers.[38][39][40]
A study published in Scientific Reports in 2016 showed that between 750 and 900 a cluster of four earthquakes affected the wet tropical mountains south of the Yucatán lowlands, which are not vulnerable to drought, and include such important cities as Quirigua and Copán. These earthquakes left detectable destruction in several Maya cities and led to the abandonment of Quirigua. The study hypothesizes that repeated destruction combined with declining trade with the Maya kingdoms of the Yucatán lowlands to propagate the collapse to the southern part of the Maya realm.[41]
LIDAR scanning of the Classic Maya heartlands bolsters the drought theory. A huge population as we now understand existed would not ordinarily disappear from civil war, revolution, soil degradation, disease, earthquake or other suspected factors. Drought, the absence of water in an agricultural system heavily dependent upon water, is almost the only remaining possibility for the collapse in the entire heavily populated region. The Yucatán may have provided underground water and more rainfall to permit the continuance of Mayan civilization there.
Systemic ecological collapse model[edit]
Some ecological theories of Maya decline focus on the worsening agricultural and resource conditions in the late Classic period. It was originally thought that the majority of Maya agriculture was dependent on a simple slash-and-burn system. Based on this method, the hypothesis of soil exhaustion was advanced by Orator F. Cook in 1921. Similar soil exhaustion assumptions are associated with erosion, intensive agricultural, and savanna grass competition.
More recent investigations have shown a complicated variety of intensive agricultural techniques utilized by the Maya, explaining the high population of the Classic Maya polities. Modern archaeologists now comprehend the sophisticated intensive and productive agricultural techniques of the ancient Maya, and several of the Maya agricultural methods have not yet been reproduced. Intensive agricultural methods were developed and utilized by all the Mesoamerican cultures to boost their food production and give them a competitive advantage over less skillful peoples.[42] These intensive agricultural methods included canals, terracing, raised fields, ridged fields, chinampas, the use of human feces as fertilizer, seasonal swamps or bajos, using muck from the bajos to create fertile fields, dikes, dams, irrigation, water reservoirs, several types of water storage systems, hydraulic systems, swamp reclamation, swidden systems, and other agricultural techniques that have not yet been fully understood.[43] Systemic ecological collapse is said to be evidenced by deforestation, siltation, and the decline of biological diversity.
In addition to mountainous terrain, Mesoamericans successfully exploited the very problematic tropical rainforest for 1,500 years.[44] The agricultural techniques utilized by the Maya were entirely dependent upon ample supplies of water, lending credit to the drought theory of collapse. The Maya thrived in territory that would be uninhabitable to most peoples. Their success over two millennia in this environment was "amazing."[45]
Other explanations[edit]
Anthropologist Joseph Tainter wrote extensively about the collapse of the Southern Lowland Maya in his 1988 study The Collapse of Complex Societies. His theory about Maya collapse encompasses some of the above explanations, but focuses specifically on the development of and the declining marginal returns from the increasing social complexity of the competing Maya city-states.[46] Psychologist Julian Jaynes suggested that the collapse was due to a failure in the social control systems of religion and political authority, due to increasing socioeconomic complexity that overwhelmed the power of traditional rituals and the king's authority to compel obedience.[47]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See Stuart and Stuart (1993, p. 12), McKillop (2006, p. 90, pp. 339–340)
^ Jump up to: a b Кнорозов, Ю. В. Письменность индейцев майя. — М.—Л.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1963. — 664 с.
Jump up ^ Lorenzo Ochoa; Patricia Martel(dir.) (2002). Lengua y cultura mayas (in Spanish). UNAM. p. 170. ISBN 9703200893. El "Pueblo Maya" lo constituyen actualmente algo menos de 6 millones de hablantes de 25 idiomas
Jump up ^ Aimers, James J. "What Maya Collapse? Terminal Classic Variation in the Maya Lowlands." J Archaeol Res (2007) 15:329–377
Jump up ^ Andrews IV, E. W. (1973). The development of Maya civilization after the abandonment of the southern cities. In Culbert, T. P. (ed.), The Classic Maya Collapse, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 243–265
Jump up ^ Acemoglu, Robinson, Daron, James A. (2012). Why Nations Fail. pp. 143–149. ISBN 978-1-84668-429-6.
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, p. 371)
Jump up ^ “Like most things, collapse explanations are subject to fashion, and the one most in the limelight today is climatic change, or more specifically, megadrought.” Quote is from Webster (2002, p. 239); see also article by Diamond (2003)
Jump up ^ See Braswell(2003)
Jump up ^ Abrams, Elliot M. (1994). How the Maya Built Their World. University of Texas. ISBN 978-0-292-70462-6.
Jump up ^ Webster (2002 pp. 221–223)
Jump up ^ Webster (2002 pp. 231)
Jump up ^ Webster (2002 pp. 231–234)
^ Jump up to: a b Webster (2002 pp. 232)
Jump up ^ Anderson and May (1982); R. Anderson (1982); Lycett (1985).
Jump up ^ Wright, Lori E (1997). "Intertooth Patterns of Hypoplasia Expression: Implications for Childhood Health in the Classic Maya Collapse". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 102: 233–247 – via Wiley.
Jump up ^ Santley, Killion, and Lycett (1986, pp. 140–141)
Jump up ^ Coe (1999, pp. 26–27)
^ Jump up to: a b Webster (2002, p. 239)
Jump up ^ See Gill (2000, p. 311); Webster (2002, p. 239)
Jump up ^ Gann & Thompson, The History of the Maya, 1931
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, passim.)
Jump up ^ Webster (2002, p. 99)
Jump up ^ See for example papers by deMenocal (2001); Weiss (1997); Weiss and Bradley (2001)
Jump up ^ Weiss and Bradley (2001)
Jump up ^ Quote is from Weiss (1997)
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, p.276 )
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, loc. cit.)
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, p. 376)
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, p. 382); Webster (2002, p. 239)
Jump up ^ Gill (2000, p. 386)
Jump up ^ As reported in McKillop (2006, p. 89)
Jump up ^ Mann (2006, p. 312)
Jump up ^ Mann (2006, pp. 312–313)
Jump up ^ McKillop (2006, p. 129)
Jump up ^ McKillop (2006, pp. 312–313)
Jump up ^ Webster (2002, pp. 243–245)
Jump up ^ Medina-Elizalde, Martín; Rohling, Eelco J. (24 Feb 2012). "Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization Related to Modest Reduction in Precipitation". Science. 335 (6071). pp. 956–959. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..956M. doi:10.1126/science.1216629. More than one of |DOI= and |doi= specified (help)
Jump up ^ "Classic Maya Civilization Collapse Related to Modest Rainfall Reductions, Research Suggests". Science Daily. 2012-02-23. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
Jump up ^ "Mild drought caused Maya collapse in Mexico, Guatemala". BBC News. 2012-02-25. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
Jump up ^ Brocard, Gilles; Anselmetti, Flavio; Teyssier, Christian (15 Nov 2016). "Guatemala paleoseismicity: from Late Classic Maya collapse to recent fault creep". Scientific Reports. 6. doi:10.1038/srep36976.
Jump up ^ See synopsis in Dunning et al.(2002)
Jump up ^ Demarest (2004, pp. 130–147); Sabloff (1994, pp. 81–84, 139–140)
Jump up ^ Sabloff (1994, p. 171), citing Rice and Rice (1984)
Jump up ^ Demarest (2004, p. 129)
Jump up ^ Tainter (1988, pp. 152–177)
Jump up ^ Jaynes, Julian (2000) [1976]. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin. p. 197. ISBN 0-618-05707-2.
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Application software
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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GNU Image Manipulation Program (GIMP), version 2.6, a freely distributed application
An application software (app or application for short) is computer software designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical flight simulator, a console game or a photo editor. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively.[1] This contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer.
Applications may be bundled with the computer and its system software or published separately, and may be coded as proprietary, open-source or university projects.[2] Apps built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
1.1 Metonymy
1.2 Apps and killer apps
2 Classification
2.1 By property and use rights
2.2 By coding language
2.3 By purpose and output
2.4 Information worker software
2.5 Entertainment software
2.6 Educational software
2.7 Enterprise infrastructure software
2.8 Simulation software
2.9 Media development software
2.10 Product engineering software
2.11 Software engineering
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Terminology[edit]
In information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance or general-purpose chores), and a programming tool (with which computer programs are created)[original research?]. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these elements. Some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing; others, called integrated software include several applications.[3]
User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software includes spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is.
The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy.[4] For example, one of the key questions in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. antitrust trial was whether Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser was part of its Windows operating system or a separable piece of application software. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, due to disagreement about the relationship between the Linux kernel and the operating systems built over this kernel. In some types of embedded systems, the application software and the operating system software may be indistinguishable to the user, as in the case of software used to control a VCR, DVD player or microwave oven. The above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app: see Application Portfolio Management.
Metonymy[edit]
The word "application", once used as an adjective, is not restricted to the "of or pertaining to application software" meaning.[5] For example, concepts such as application programming interface (API), application server, application virtualization, application lifecycle management and portable application apply to all computer programs alike, not just application software.
Apps and killer apps[edit]
Main article: Killer application
Some applications are available in versions for several different platforms; others only work on one and are thus called, for example, a Geography application for Windows, or an Android application for education, or a Linux game. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform, increasing the desirability of that platform. This is called a killer application or killer app. For example, VisiCalc was the first modern spreadsheet software for the Apple II and helped selling the then-new personal computers into offices. For Blackberry it was their email software.
In recent years, the shortened term "app" (coined in 1981 or earlier[6]) has become popular to refer to applications for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, the shortened form matching their typically smaller scope compared to applications on PCs. Even more recently, the shortened version is used for desktop application software as well.
Classification[edit]
There are many different and not alternative ways in order to order and classify application software.
By the legal point of view, application software is mainly classified with a black box approach, in relation to the rights of its final end-users or subscribers (with eventual intermediate and tiered subscription levels).
Software applications are also classified in respect of the programming language in which the source code is written or executed, and respect of their purpose and outputs.
By property and use rights[edit]
Application software is usually distinguished among two main classes: closed source vs open source software applications, and among free or proprietary software applications.
Proprietary software is placed under the exclusive copyright, and a software license grants limited usage rights to other stakeholders[disambiguation needed]. The open-closed principle states that software may be "open only for extension, but not for modification". Such applications can only get add-on[disambiguation needed] by third-parties.
Free and open-source software shall be run distributed, sold or extended for any purpose, and -being open- shall be modified or reversed in the same way.
FOSS software applications released under a free license may be perpetual and also royalty-free. Perhaps, the owner, the holder or third-party enforcer of any right (copyright, trademark, patent, or ius in re aliena) are entitled to add exceptions, limitations, time decays or expiring dates to the license terms of use.
Public-domain software is a type of FOSS, which is royalty-free and - openly or reservedly- can be run, distributed, modified, reversed, republished or created in derivative works without any copyright attribution and therefore revocation. It can even be sold, but without transferring the public domain property to other single subjects. Public-domain SW can be released under an (un)licensing legal statement, which enforces those terms and conditions for an indefinite duration (for a lifetime, or forever).
By coding language[edit]
Since the development and near-universal adoption of the web, an important distinction that has emerged, has been between web applications — written with HTML, JavaScript and other web-native technologies and typically requiring one to be online and running a web browser, and the more traditional native applications written in whatever languages are available for one's particular type of computer. There has been a contentious debate in the computing community regarding web applications replacing native applications for many purposes, especially on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated.[7][8][9]
By purpose and output[edit]
Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical.[10][11] Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, for example word processors or databases. Vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every specific aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking worker, or accounting, or customer service.
There are many types of application software:[12]
LibreOffice Writer, an open-source word processor that is a component of LibreOffice
An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. They usually have related functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other, e.g. open each other's files. Business applications often come in suites, e.g. Microsoft Office, LibreOffice and iWork, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, etc.; but suites exist for other purposes, e.g. graphics or music.
Enterprise software addresses the needs of an entire organization's processes and data flows, across several departments, often in a large distributed environment. Examples include enterprise resource planning systems, customer relationship management (CRM) systems and supply chain management software. Departmental Software is a sub-type of enterprise software with a focus on smaller organizations or groups within a large organization. (Examples include travel expense management and IT Helpdesk.)
Enterprise infrastructure software provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems. (Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.)
Information worker software lets users create and manage information, often for individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples include time management, resource management, analytical, collaborative and documentation tools. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
Content access software is used primarily to access content without editing, but may include software that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital entertainment and published digital content. (Examples include media players, web browsers, and help browsers.)
Educational software is related to content access software, but has the content or features adapted for use in by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through material, or include collaborative capabilities.
Simulation software simulates physical or abstract systems for either research, training or entertainment purposes.
Media development software generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes graphic-art software, desktop publishing software, multimedia development software, HTML editors, digital-animation editors, digital audio and video composition, and many others.[13]
Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling tools, integrated development environments, and application programmer interfaces.
Entertainment Software can refer to video games, screen savers, programs to display motion pictures or play recorded music, and other forms of entertainment which can be experienced through use of a computing device.
Applications can also be classified by computing platform such as a particular operating system, delivery network such as in cloud computing and Web 2.0 applications, or delivery devices such as mobile apps for mobile devices.
The operating system itself can be considered application software when performing simple calculating, measuring, rendering, and word processing tasks not used to control hardware via command-line interface or graphical user interface. This does not include application software bundled within operating systems such as a software calculator or text editor.
Information worker software[edit]
Accounting software
Data management
Contact manager
Spreadsheet
Database software
Documentation
Document automation
Word processor
Desktop publishing software
Diagramming software
Presentation software
Email
Blog software
Enterprise resource planning
Financial software
Day trading software
Banking software
Clearing systems
arithmetic software
Field service management
Workforce management software
Project management software
Calendaring software
Employee scheduling software
Workflow software
Reservation systems
Entertainment software[edit]
Screen savers
Video games
Arcade games
Console games
Mobile games
Personal computer games
Educational software[edit]
Classroom management
Reference software
Sales readiness software
Survey management
Enterprise infrastructure software[edit]
Business workflow software
Database management system (DBMS)
Digital asset management (DAM) software
Document management software
Geographic information system (GIS)
Simulation software[edit]
Computer simulators
Scientific simulators
Social simulators
Battlefield simulators
Emergency simulators
Vehicle simulators
Flight simulators
Driving simulators
Simulation games
Vehicle simulation games
Media development software[edit]
3D computer graphics software
Animation software
Graphic art software
Raster graphics editor
Vector graphics editor
Image organizer
Video editing software
Audio editing software
Digital audio workstation
Music sequencer
Scorewriter
HTML editor
Game development tool
Product engineering software[edit]
Hardware engineering
Computer-aided engineering
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Finite element analysis
Software engineering[edit]
Compiler software
Integrated development environment
Compiler
Linker
Debugger
Version control
Game development tool
License manager
See also[edit]
Software development
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Application software". PC Magazine. Ziff Davis.
Jump up ^ Ryan, Thorne (2013-03-14). "Caffeine and computer screens: student programmers endure weekend long appathon". The Arbiter. Archived from the original on 2016-07-09. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ Ceruzzi, Paul E. (2000). A History of Modern Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03255-4.
Jump up ^ Ulrich, William. "Application Package Software: The Promise Vs. Reality". Cutter Consortium.
Jump up ^ Application Package Software: The Promise Vs. Reality
Jump up ^ The History of 'App' and the Demise of the Programmer
Jump up ^ Gassée, Jean-Louis (2012-09-17). "The Silly Web vs. Native Apps Debate". The Silly Web vs. Native Apps Debate. Archived from the original on 2016-04-15. Retrieved 2013-07-14.
Jump up ^ Frechette, Casey (2013-04-11). "What journalists need to know about the difference between Web apps and native apps". Poynter. Retrieved 2017-01-04.
Jump up ^ Valums, Andrew (2010-02-10). "Web apps vs desktop apps". valums.com. Archived from the original on 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-07-14.
Jump up ^ "What Is a Horizontal Application?".
Jump up ^ "What Are Horizontal Services?". Archived from the original on 2013-10-31.
Jump up ^ "What is Application Software & Its Types | eduCBA". eduCBA. 2015-12-21. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
Jump up ^ Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02990-6.
External links[edit]
Media related to Application software at Wikimedia Commons
Learning materials related to application software at Wikiversity
Authority control
GND: 4120906-0
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Battles of Trenton and Princeton
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This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (December 2015)
The battles of Trenton and Princeton were two related engagements of the American Revolutionary War.
Battle of Trenton, 1776-12-26.
Battle of Princeton, 1777-01-03.
They are noted as the first successes won by Washington in the open field. They put new life into the American cause, and established Washington in the confidence of his troops and the country at large.[1]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Trenton and Princeton, Battles of". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 252–253.

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text:
Degrees of freedom (mechanics)
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This article is about mechanics. For other fields, see Degrees of freedom.
In physics, the degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of parameters that determine the state of a physical system and is important to the analysis of systems of bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics, and structural engineering.
The position of a single railcar (engine) moving along a track has one degree of freedom because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has only one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track.
An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a rigid body traveling on a plane (a flat, two-dimensional space). This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobile's three independent degrees of freedom.
The position and orientation of a rigid body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom.
The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device.[1]
Contents
1 Motions and dimensions
2 Six degrees of freedom (6 DoF)
3 Mobility formula
3.1 Planar and spherical movement
3.2 Systems of bodies
4 Electrical engineering
5 See also
6 References
Motions and dimensions[edit]
The position of an n-dimensional rigid body is defined by the rigid transformation, [T] = [A, d], where d is an n-dimensional translation and A is an n × n rotation matrix, which has n translational degrees of freedom and n(n − 1)/2 rotational degrees of freedom. The number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO(n).
A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles (infinite number of DOFs), this is often approximated by a finite DOF system. When motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study (e.g. for analyzing the motion of satellites), a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body (or even a particle) in order to simplify the analysis.
The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the minimum number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. Applying this definition, we have:
For a single particle in a plane two coordinates define its location so it has two degrees of freedom;
A single particle in space requires three coordinates so it has three degrees of freedom;
Two particles in space have a combined six degrees of freedom;
If two particles in space are constrained to maintain a constant distance from each other, such as in the case of a diatomic molecule, then the six coordinates must satisfy a single constraint equation defined by the distance formula. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system to five, because the distance formula can be used to solve for the remaining coordinate once the other five are specified.
Six degrees of freedom (6 DoF)[edit]
The six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship
Attitude degrees of freedom for an airplane
Main article: Six degrees of freedom
The motion of a ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body, and is described as:[2]
Translation and rotation:
Moving up and down (elevating/heaving);
Moving left and right (strafing/swaying);
Moving forward and backward (walking/surging);
Swivels left and right (yawing);
Tilts forward and backward (pitching);
Pivots side to side (rolling).
See also Euler angles
The trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom.
Mobility formula[edit]
The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of rigid bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies.[3][4]
Consider a system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the fixed body in the count of bodies, so that mobility is independent of the choice of the body that forms the fixed frame. Then the degree-of-freedom of the unconstrained system of N = n + 1 is
M = 6 n = 6 ( N − 1 ) , {\displaystyle M=6n=6(N-1),\!}
because the fixed body has zero degrees of freedom relative to itself.
Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility. Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joint's freedom f, where c = 6 − f. In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f = 1 and therefore c = 6 − 1 = 5.
The result is that the mobility of a system formed from n moving links and j joints each with freedom fi, i = 1, ..., j, is given by
M = 6 n − ∑ i = 1 j ( 6 − f i ) = 6 ( N − 1 − j ) + ∑ i = 1 j f i {\displaystyle M=6n-\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ (6-f_{i})=6(N-1-j)+\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i}}
Recall that N includes the fixed link.
There are two important special cases: (i) a simple open chain, and (ii) a simple closed chain. A single open chain consists of n moving links connected end to end by n joints, with one end connected to a ground link. Thus, in this case N = j + 1 and the mobility of the chain is
M = ∑ i = 1 j f i {\displaystyle M=\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i}}
For a simple closed chain, n moving links are connected end-to-end by n + 1 joints such that the two ends are connected to the ground link forming a loop. In this case, we have N = j and the mobility of the chain is
M = ∑ i = 1 j f i − 6 {\displaystyle M=\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i}-6}
An example of a simple open chain is a serial robot manipulator. These robotic systems are constructed from a series of links connected by six one degree-of-freedom revolute or prismatic joints, so the system has six degrees of freedom.
An example of a simple closed chain is the RSSR spatial four-bar linkage. The sum of the freedom of these joints is eight, so the mobility of the linkage is two, where one of the degrees of freedom is the rotation of the coupler around the line joining the two S joints.
Planar and spherical movement[edit]
It is common practice to design the linkage system so that the movement of all of the bodies are constrained to lie on parallel planes, to form what is known as a planar linkage. It is also possible to construct the linkage system so that all of the bodies move on concentric spheres, forming a spherical linkage. In both cases, the degrees of freedom of the links in each system is now three rather than six, and the constraints imposed by joints are now c = 3 − f.
In this case, the mobility formula is given by
M = 3 ( N − 1 − j ) + ∑ i = 1 j f i , {\displaystyle M=3(N-1-j)+\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i},}
and the special cases become
planar or spherical simple open chain,
M = ∑ i = 1 j f i , {\displaystyle M=\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i},}
planar or spherical simple closed chain,
M = ∑ i = 1 j f i − 3. {\displaystyle M=\sum _{i=1}^{j}\ f_{i}-3.}
An example of a planar simple closed chain is the planar four-bar linkage, which is a four-bar loop with four one degree-of-freedom joints and therefore has mobility M = 1.
Systems of bodies[edit]
An articulated robot with six DOF in a kinematic chain.
A system with several bodies would have a combined DOF that is the sum of the DOFs of the bodies, less the internal constraints they may have on relative motion. A mechanism or linkage containing a number of connected rigid bodies may have more than the degrees of freedom for a single rigid body. Here the term degrees of freedom is used to describe the number of parameters needed to specify the spatial pose of a linkage.
A specific type of linkage is the open kinematic chain, where a set of rigid links are connected at joints; a joint may provide one DOF (hinge/sliding), or two (cylindrical). Such chains occur commonly in robotics, biomechanics, and for satellites and other space structures. A human arm is considered to have seven DOFs. A shoulder gives pitch, yaw, and roll, an elbow allows for pitch, and a wrist allows for pitch,yaw and roll . Only 3 of those movements would be necessary to move the hand to any point in space, but people would lack the ability to grasp things from different angles or directions. A robot (or object) that has mechanisms to control all 6 physical DOF is said to be holonomic. An object with fewer controllable DOFs than total DOFs is said to be non-holonomic, and an object with more controllable DOFs than total DOFs (such as the human arm) is said to be redundant. Although keep in mind that it is not redundant in the human arm because the two DOFs; wrist and shoulder, that represent the same movement; roll, supply each other since they can't do a full 360. The degree of freedom are like different movements that can be made.
In mobile robotics, a car-like robot can reach any position and orientation in 2-D space, so it needs 3 DOFs to describe its pose, but at any point, you can move it only by a forward motion and a steering angle. So it has two control DOFs and three representational DOFs; i.e. it is non-holonomic. A fixed-wing aircraft, with 3–4 control DOFs (forward motion, roll, pitch, and to a limited extent, yaw) in a 3-D space, is also non-holonomic, as it cannot move directly up/down or left/right.
A summary of formulas and methods for computing the degrees-of-freedom in mechanical systems has been given by Pennestri, Cavacece, and Vita.[5]
Electrical engineering[edit]
In electrical engineering degrees of freedom is often used to describe the number of directions in which a phased array antenna can form either beams or nulls. It is equal to one less than the number of elements contained in the array, as one element is used as a reference against which either constructive or destructive interference may be applied using each of the remaining antenna elements. Radar practice and communication link practice, with beam steering being more prevalent for radar applications and null steering being more prevalent for interference suppression in communication links.
See also[edit]
Gimbal lock
Kinematics
Kinematic pair
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-76-multi-scale-system-design-fall-2004/readings/reading_l3.pdf
Jump up ^ Summary of ship movement Archived November 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York.
Jump up ^ J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, Geometric Design of Linkages, 2nd Edition, Springer 2010
Jump up ^ Pennestri E, Cavacece M, Vita L, On the computation of degrees-of-freedom: A didactic perspective, ASME Paper DETC2005-84109
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