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First Bank of the United States
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Not to be confused with Bank of America, the modern corporation.
First Bank of the United States
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
3rd Street facade (2009)
Location
120 South Third Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Coordinates
39°56′53″N 75°08′47″W / 39.9481°N 75.1464°W / 39.9481; -75.1464Coordinates: 39°56′53″N 75°08′47″W / 39.9481°N 75.1464°W / 39.9481; -75.1464
Built
1795
Architect
Samuel Blodgett,
possibly with James Hoban
Architectural style
Greek Revival, other
NRHP reference #
87001292 [1]
Added to NRHP
May 4, 1987
The President, Directors and Company, of the Bank of the United States, commonly known as the First Bank of the United States, was a national bank, chartered for a term of twenty years, by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. It followed the Bank of North America, the nation's first de facto central bank.
Establishment of the Bank of the United States was part of a three-part expansion of federal fiscal and monetary power, along with a federal mint and excise taxes, championed by Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton believed a national bank was necessary to stabilize and improve the nation's credit, and to improve handling of the financial business of the United States government under the newly enacted Constitution.
The First Bank building, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, within Independence National Historical Park, was completed in 1797, and is a National Historic Landmark for its historic and architectural significance.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Proposal
3 Opposition
4 Presidential approval
5 Expiration of charter
6 Purchase by Girard
7 Bank building
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
In 1791, the First Bank of the United States was one of the three major financial innovations proposed and supported by Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. In addition to the national bank, the other measures were assumption of the state war debts by the U.S. government, establishment of a mint and imposition of a federal excise tax. The goals of Hamilton's three measures were to:[2]
Establish financial order, clarity and precedence in and of the newly formed United States.
Establish credit—both in country and overseas—for the new nation.
Resolve the issue of the fiat currency, issued by the Continental Congress immediately prior to and during the American Revolutionary War—the "Continental".
In simpler words, Hamilton's four goals were to:
Have the Federal Government assume the Revolutionary War debts of the several states
Pay off the war debts
Raise money for the new government[3]
Establish a national bank and create a common currency[4]
"The tendency of a national bank is to increase public and private credit. The former gives power to the state for the protection of its rights and interests, and the latter facilitates and extends the operations of commerce amongst individuals."
Alexander Hamilton, December, 1790 report to George Washington[5]
Proposal[edit]
According to the plan put before the first session of the First Congress in 1790, Hamilton proposed establishing the initial funding for the First Bank of the United States through the sale of $10 million in stock of which the United States government would purchase the first $2 million in shares. Hamilton, foreseeing the objection that this could not be done since the U.S. government did not have $2 million, proposed that the government make the stock purchase using money lent to it by the bank; the loan to be paid back in ten equal annual installments. The remaining $8 million of stock would be available to the public, both in the United States and overseas. The chief requirement of these non-government purchases was that one-quarter of the purchase price had to be paid in gold or silver; the remaining balance could be paid in bonds, acceptable scrip, etc.[6]
Unlike the Bank of England, the primary function of the bank would be credit issued to government and private interests, for internal improvements and other economic development, per Hamilton's system of Public Credit. The business it would be involved in on behalf of the federal government—a depository for collected taxes, making short term loans to the government to cover real or potential temporary income gaps, serving as a holding site for both incoming and outgoing monies—was considered highly important but still secondary in nature.[7]
There were other, nonnegotiable conditions for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Among these were:[citation needed]
That the bank would have a twenty-year charter running from 1791 to 1811, after which time it would be up to the Congress to approve or deny renewal of the bank and its charter; however, during that time no other federal bank would be authorized; states, for their part, would be free to charter however many intrastate banks they wished.
That the bank, to avoid any appearance of impropriety, would:
be forbidden to buy government bonds.
have a mandatory rotation of directors.
neither issue notes nor incur debts beyond its actual capitalization.
That foreigners, whether overseas or residing in the United States, would be allowed to be First Bank of the United States stockholders, but would not be allowed to vote.
That the Secretary of the Treasury would be free to remove government deposits, inspect the books, and require statements regarding the bank's condition as frequently as once a week.[8]
To ensure that the government could meet both the current and future demands of its governmental accounts, an additional source of funding was required, "for interest payments on the assumed state debts would begin to fall due at the end of 1791...those payments would require $788,333 annually, and... an additional $38,291 was needed to cover deficiencies in the funds that had been appropriated for existing commitments."[9] To achieve this, Hamilton repeated a suggestion he had made nearly a year before—increase the duty on imported spirits, plus raise the excise tax on domestically distilled whiskey and other liquors. Local opposition to the tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion.
Opposition[edit]
"Hamilton’s financial system had then passed. It had two objects; 1st, as a puzzle, to exclude popular understanding and inquiry; 2nd, as a machine for the corruption of the legislature; for he avowed the opinion, that man could be governed by one of two motives only, force or interest; force, he observed, in this country was out of the question, and the interests, therefore, of the members must be laid hold of, to keep the legislative in unison with the executive. And with grief and shame it must be acknowledged that his machine was not without effect; that even in this, the birth of our government, some members were found sordid enough to bend their duty to their interests, and to look after personal rather than public good. "It is well known that during the war the greatest difficulty we encountered was the want of money or means to pay our soldiers who fought, or our farmers, manufacturers and merchants, who furnished the necessary supplies of food and clothing for them. After the expedient of paper money had exhausted itself, certificates of debt were given to the individual creditors, with assurance of payment so soon as the United States should be able. But the distresses of [p. 272] these people often obliged them to part with these for the half, the fifth, and even a tenth of their value; and speculators had made a trade of cozening them from the holders by the most fraudulent practices, and persuasions that they would never be paid. In the bill for funding and paying these, Hamilton made no difference between the original holders and the fraudulent purchasers of this paper."
Thomas Jefferson, February 4 entry in The Anas[10]
Hamilton's bank proposal faced widespread resistance from opponents of increased federal power. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the opposition, which claimed that the bank was unconstitutional, and that it benefited merchants and investors at the expense of the majority of the population.
Like most of the Southern members of Congress,[11] Jefferson and Madison also opposed a second of the three proposals of Hamilton: establishing an official government Mint. They believed this centralization of power away from local banks was dangerous to a sound monetary system and was mostly to the benefit of business interests in the commercial north, not southern agricultural interests, arguing that the right to own property would be infringed by these proposals. Furthermore, they contended that the creation of such a bank violated the Constitution, which specifically stated that congress was to regulate weights and measures and issue coined money (rather than mint and bills of credit).[12]
Bank of the United States check signed by John Jacob Astor in 1792
The first part of the bill, the concept and establishment of a national mint, met with no real objection, and sailed through; it was assumed the second and third part (the bank and an excise tax to finance it) would likewise glide through, and in their own way they did: The House version of the bill, despite some heated objections, easily passed. The Senate version of the bill did likewise, with considerably fewer, and milder, objections. It was when "the two bills changed houses, complications set in. In the Senate, Hamilton's supporters objected to the House's alteration of the plans for the excise tax."[13]
The establishment of the bank also raised early questions of constitutionality in the new government. Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, argued that the bank was an effective means to utilize the authorized powers of the government implied under the law of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that the bank violated traditional property laws and that its relevance to constitutionally authorized powers was weak. Another argument came from James Madison, who believed Congress had not received the power to incorporate a bank, or any other governmental agency. His argument rested primarily on the Tenth Amendment: that all powers not endowed to Congress are retained by the States (or the people). Additionally, his belief was that if the Constitution's writers had wanted Congress to have such power, they would have made it explicit. The decision would ultimately fall on President George Washington, following his deliberate investigation of the cabinet members' opinions.[14]
Presidential approval[edit]
George Washington initially declared that he was hesitant to sign the "bank bill" into law. Washington asked for the written advice and supporting reasons from all his cabinet members—most particularly from Hamilton. Attorney General Edmund Randolph from Virginia felt that the bill was unconstitutional. Jefferson, also from Virginia, agreed that Hamilton's proposal was against both the spirit and letter of the Constitution. Hamilton, who, unlike his fellow cabinet members, came from New York, quickly responded to those who claimed incorporation of the bank unconstitutional. While Hamilton's rebuttals were many and varied, chief among them were these two:
What the government could do for a person (incorporate), it could not refuse to do for an "artificial person", a business. And the First Bank of the United States, being privately owned and not a government agency, was a business. "Thus...unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect corporations to that of the United States, in relation to the objects entrusted to the management of the government."
Any government by its very nature was sovereign "and includes by force of the term a right to attainment of the ends...which are not precluded by restrictions & exceptions specified in the constitution...[15]
On February 25, 1791, convinced that the constitution authorized the measure,[14] Washington signed the "bank bill" into law.
On March 19, 1791 Washington appointed three Commissioners for the taking of subscriptions for this new bank: Thomas Willing, David Rittenhouse, and Samuel Howell.[16]
Expiration of charter[edit]
After Hamilton left office in 1795, the new Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. informed Congress that, due to the existing state of government finances, more money was needed. This could be achieved either by selling the government's shares of stock in the bank, or by raising taxes. Wolcott advised the first choice. Congress quickly agreed. Hamilton objected, believing that the dividends on that stock had been inviolably pledged for the support of the sinking fund to retire the debt. Hamilton tried to organize opposition to the measure, but was unsuccessful.
In 1811, the U.S. Senate tied on a vote to renew the bank's charter. Vice President George Clinton broke the tie and voted against renewal. The bank's charter thus expired in 1811.
In 1816, the bank was succeeded by the Second Bank of the United States.
Purchase by Girard[edit]
After the charter for the First Bank of the United States expired in 1811, Stephen Girard purchased most of its stock as well as the building and its furnishings on South Third Street in Philadelphia and opened his own bank, later known as Girard Bank. Girard hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank of the United States, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees, opened for business on May 18, 1812. He allowed the Trustees of the First Bank of the United States to use some offices and space in the vaults to continue the process of winding down the affairs of the closed bank at a very nominal rent.[17]
Over its early history the bank was known as “Girard’s Bank,”[18] or as “Girard Bank” [19] or also as “Stephen Girard’s Bank” or even the “Bank of Stephen Girard.” [18] Girard was the sole proprietor of his bank, and thus avoided the Pennsylvania state law which prohibited an unincorporated association of persons from establishing a bank, and which required a charter from the legislature for a banking corporation.[20]
Bank building[edit]
Measured drawing of the First Bank from the Historic American Buildings Survey.[21]
The First Bank of the United States was established in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the city served as the national capital, from 1790 to 1800. In the eighteenth century, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the English-speaking world. The bank began operations in Carpenters' Hall in 1791, some 200 feet from its permanent home.
Design of the bank building is credited to Samuel Blodgett, Superintendent of Buildings for the new capital in Washington, DC.,[22] although it has also been attributed to James Hoban.[23][24] It was completed in 1795.[25]
The First Bank of the United States has received various designations as a historic building. It was included in Independence National Historical Park when the park was formed in 1956. The building's architecture was studied by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1958.[23] With the rest of Independence National Historical Park, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, and the bank was then declared a National Historic Landmark on May 4, 1987. It is described in the landmark designation as an early masterpiece of monumental Classical Revival design.[26]
Until about 2000, the building housed offices for Independence National Historical Park. A proposal to have it house the collection of the Philadelphia Civil War Museum was abandoned when funding from the state of Pennsylvania was not forthcoming.[27] Future plans are for it to house the National Park Service archaeology lab, currently across the street in the old Visitor Center.
See also[edit]
Philadelphia portal
Bank Bill of 1791
Federal Reserve Act
History of central banking in the United States
United States Department of the Treasury
Stephen Simpson (writer) Outspoken journalist and fierce critic of the 1st Natl Bank and its practices.
List of National Historic Landmarks in Philadelphia
National Register of Historic Places listings in Center City, Philadelphia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2006-03-15). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Bailey, David M. Kennedy, Lizabeth Cohen, Thomas A. (2006). The American pageant : a history of the Republic (13th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 193–95. ISBN 0618479279.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Hamilton's Fiscal Program 1791–1793". Blinn College. Blinn.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Hamilton's Financial Program". Digital History. Digital History. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
Jump up ^ See (ed.) The papers of Alexander Hamilton, Columbia University Press, 1963 p. 256)
Jump up ^ The First Bank of the United States: A Chapter in the History of Central Banking
Jump up ^ McDonald, Forrest (1979). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W.W. North & Co. pp. 194–95.
Jump up ^ Report on the Bank, in Syrett, ed., Papers, 7:326–28
Jump up ^ Further Report on Public Credit, 7:226
Jump up ^ See The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson, 1903, p. 30
Jump up ^ Coblenz, Michael (2015). "The Fight Goes on Forever: 'Limited Government' and the First Bank of the United States". Southern Illinois University Law Journal. 39: 408. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Westley, Christopher (Fall 2010). "The Debate Over Money Manipulations: A Short History" (PDF). Intercollegiate Review. 45 (1–2): 3–11. Retrieved February 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Forrest (1979). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W.W. North & Co. p. 194.
^ Jump up to: a b John Marshall, The Life of George Washington, (1838) Chapter 28: Defense, Finance, Foreign Affairs – and the First “Systematic Opposition” (1790 to 1791)
Jump up ^ Washington to Hamilton, February 16, 1791, in Syrett, ed. Papers 8:98
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1961). Papers of Alexander Hamilton. Vol VIII 1781 – July 1791. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 211.
Jump up ^ Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. p. 249. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
^ Jump up to: a b "Girard's Bank". LOC Authorities. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-05-02.
Jump up ^ Konkle, Burton Alva (1937). Thomas Willing and the First American Financial System. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 199–200.
Jump up ^ Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. pp. 249–250. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
Jump up ^ Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. PA-1417, "First Bank of the United States", 7 photos, 3 color transparencies, 18 measured drawings, 3 photo caption pages
Jump up ^ 1984 National Register Nomination
^ Jump up to: a b Baigell, Matthew (1969). "James Hoban and the First Bank of the United States". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 28 (2): 135–36. JSTOR 988511.
Jump up ^ Whiffen, Marcus; Koeper, Frederick (1981). American architecture 1607–1976. Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 125. ISBN 0262231050.
Jump up ^ NPS historical marker at building
Jump up ^ "NHL nomination for First Bank of the United States" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
Jump up ^ Philadelphia Civil War Museum
Further reading[edit]
Danzer, Gerald A.; J. Jorge Klor de Alva; Larry S. Krieger; Louis E Wilson; Nancy Woloch. The Americans. ISBN 0-618-37716-6.
Markham, Jerry (2001). A Financial History of the United States. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0730-1.
Perkins, Edwin J. American public finance and financial services, 1700–1815 (1994) pp. 324–48. Complete text line free
Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
Rothbard, Murray (2002). A History of Money and Banking in the United States: The Colonial Era to World War II. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig Von Mises Inst. ISBN 978-0-945466-33-8.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to First Bank of the United States.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
An Act to incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States (1791)
Documents produced by the First Bank of the United States on FRASER
Hamilton's opinion
Jefferson's opinion
Record of the Debate
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Health food
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Health food is food marketed to provide human health effects beyond a normal healthy diet required for human nutrition. Foods marketed as health foods may be part of one or more categories, such as natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, vegetarian foods or dietary supplements. These products may be sold in health food stores or in the health food or organic sections of grocery stores.
Contents
1 Health claims
2 Examples
3 Therapeutic food
4 See also
5 References
Health claims[edit]
Main article: Health claims on food labels
In the United States, health claims on nutrition facts labels are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), while advertising is regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Several other countries provide regulations on food labeling to address the quality of possible health foods, such as Canada[1] and the European Food Safety Authority.[2]
According to the FDA, "Health claims describe a relationship between a food, food component, or dietary supplement ingredient, and reducing risk of a disease or health-related condition".[3]
In general, claims of health benefits for specific foodstuffs are not supported by scientific evidence and are not evaluated by national regulatory agencies. Additionally, research funded by manufacturers or marketers has been criticized to result in more favorable results than those from independently funded research.[4]
While there is no precise definition for "health food", the FDA monitors and warns food manufacturers against labeling foods as having specific health effects when no evidence exists to support such statements, such as for one manufacturer in 2018.[5]
Examples[edit]
This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018)
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Health food. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The following are examples of foods or dietary supplements marketed to be healthy, although no scientific evidence exists as of 2018 to support such belief:
Broccoli sprouts
Herbal extract, plants, often medicinal that are concentrated and standardized
Herbal teas
Honey, a naturally occurring whole sweetener
Organic foods
Certain oils, including olive oil and fish oil supplements
Yogurt, traditional cultured milk product[6]
Therapeutic food[edit]
In conditions of malnutrition, ready-to-use therapeutic foods have been used successfully to improve the health of malnourished children.[7]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Juicing
Raw foodism
Specialty foods
Organic food culture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Canada's food guides". Health Canada, Government of Canada. 1 September 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Nutrition and health claims". European Food Safety Authority. 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Claims That Can Be Made for Conventional Foods and Dietary Supplements". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. September 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Lenard I. Lesser; Cara B. Ebbeling; Merrill Goozner; David Wypij; David S. Ludwig (January 9, 2007). "Relationship between Funding Source and Conclusion among Nutrition-Related Scientific Articles". PLoS Medicine. 4 (1): e5. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040005. PMID 17214504. Retrieved November 1, 2010. Industry funding of nutrition-related scientific articles may bias conclusions in favor of sponsors' products, with potentially significant implications for public health.
Jump up ^ Edmundo Garcia Jr. (9 March 2018). "Warning letter: Carol Bond Health Foods". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Marette, A; Picard-Deland, E (2014). "Yogurt consumption and impact on health: Focus on children and cardiometabolic risk". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 99 (5 Suppl): 1243S–7S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.073379. PMID 24646821.
Jump up ^ Lazzerini, M; Rubert, L; Pani, P (2013). "Specially formulated foods for treating children with moderate acute malnutrition in low- and middle-income countries". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (6): CD009584. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009584.pub2. PMID 23794237.
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Righteousness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Righteousness (also called rectitude) is a theological concept in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. It is an attribute that implies that a person's actions are justified, and can have the connotation that the person has been "judged" or "reckoned" as leading a life that is pleasing to God.
William Tyndale (Bible translator into English in 1526) remodelled the word after an earlier word rihtwis, which would have yielded modern English *rightwise or *rightways. He used it to translate the Hebrew root צדקים (TzDYQ), tzedek, which appears over five hundred times in the Hebrew Bible, and the Greek word δίκαιος (dikaios), which appears more than two hundred times in the New Testament.
Contents
[hide]
1 Judaism
2 Christianity
2.1 Type of saint
3 Islam
4 See also
5 References
Judaism[edit]
Part of a series on the
Attributes of God
Aseity
Eternity
Graciousness
Holiness
Immanence
Immutability
Impassibility
Impeccability
Incorporeality
Love
Mission
Omnibenevolence
Omnipotence
Omnipresence
Omniscience
Oneness
Providence
Righteousness
Simplicity
Transcendence
Trinity
Veracity
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v
t
e
Main article: Tzadik
Righteousness is one of the chief attributes of God as portrayed in the Hebrew Bible. Its chief meaning concerns ethical conduct (for example, Leviticus 19:36; Deuteronomy 25:1; Psalm 1:6; Proverbs 8:20). In the Book of Job the title character is introduced to us as a person who is perfect in righteousness.
Christianity[edit]
See also: Sola fide and Christian views on the Old Covenant
The New Testament continues the Hebrew Bible's tradition of the ethical (1 Thessalonians 2:10) and legal (1 Corinthians 4:4) aspects of righteousness. William Lane Craig argues that we should think of God as the paradigm, the locus, the source of all righteousness.[1] Matthew's gospel contains the most utterances of the word. In Matthew's account of the baptism encounter Jesus tells the prophet "it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness" as Jesus requests that John perform the rite for him. The Sermon of the Mount contains the memorable commandment "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness". The Greek word dikaiosune also means justice[2] and the sole translation using this rendering for Matthew 6:33 is the New English Bible.
Jesus asserts the importance of righteousness by saying in Matthew 5:20, "For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven." Jesus also re-affirms the Laws of Moses by saying in Matthew 5:19, "Anyone who breaks one of the least of these commandments and teaches others to do the same will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever practices and teaches these commands will be called great in the kingdom of heaven."
However, Paul the Apostle speaks of two ways, at least in theory, to achieve righteousness: through the Law of Moses (or Torah); and through faith in the atonement made possible through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:3-13). Some interpret that he repeatedly emphasizes that faith is the only effective way. Reference (Romans 4:5). (Romans 3:21-24). For example, just a few verses earlier, he states the Jews did not attain the law of righteousness because they sought it not by faith, but by works (Romans 9:30-33). The New Testament speaks of a salvation founded on God's righteousness, as exemplified throughout the history of salvation narrated in the Old Testament (Romans 9-11). Paul writes to the Romans that righteousness comes by faith: "...a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: 'The righteous will live by faith.'" (Romans 1:17)
In II Cor. 9:9 the New Revised Standard Version has a footnote that the original word has the meaning of 'benevolence' and the Messianic Jewish commentary of David Stern affirms the Jewish practice of 'doing tzedakah' as charity in referring to the Matt. 6 and II Cor. 9 passages.[3]
James 2:14-26 speaks of the relationship between works of righteousness and faith, saying that "faith without works is dead." Righteous acts according to James include works of charity (James 2:15-16) as well as avoiding sins against the Law of Moses (James 2:11-12).
2 Peter 2:7-8 describes Lot as a righteous man.
Type of saint[edit]
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, "Righteous" is a type of saint who is regarded as a holy person under the Old Covenant (Old Testament Israel) but also sometimes used for married saints of the New Covenant (the Church). According to Orthodox theology, the Righteous saints of the Old Covenant were not able to enter into heaven until after the death of Jesus on the cross (Hebrews 11:40), but had to await salvation in the Bosom of Abraham (see: Harrowing of Hell).
Islam[edit]
Righteousness is mentioned several times in the Qur'an.[4] The Qur'an says that a life of righteousness is the only way to go to Heaven.
We will give the home of the Hereafter to those who do not want arrogance or mischief on earth; and the end is best for the righteous.
—  Qur’an Sura 28: Verse 83
O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise each other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things).
—  Qur'an Surah 49: Verse 13
Righteousness is not that you turn your faces to the east and the west [in prayer]. But righteous is the one who believes in God, the Last Day, the Angels, the Scripture and the Prophets; who gives his wealth in spite of love for it to kinsfolk, orphans, the poor, the wayfarer, to those who ask and to set slaves free. And (righteous are) those who pray, pay alms, honor their agreements, and are patient in (times of) poverty, ailment and during conflict. Such are the people of truth. And they are the God-Fearing.
—  Qur'an Surah 2: Verse 177
See also[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Righteousness
Look up righteousness in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Righteous Among
the Nations
The Holocaust
Rescuers assisting Jews
Righteousness
Seven Laws of Noah
Yad Vashem
Notable individuals
Archbishop Damaskinos
Feng-Shan Ho
Constantin Karadja
Valdemar Langlet
Carl Lutz
`Aristides de Sousa Mendes
Giorgio Perlasca
Oskar Schindler
Irena Sendler
Klymentiy Sheptytsky
Chiune Sugihara
Raoul Wallenberg
Ángel Sanz Briz
Major Francis Foley
By country
Albanian
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Chinese
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Lithuanian
Norwegian
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v
t
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Alien righteousness
Asha
Biblical law in Christianity
Christian perfection
Expounding of the Law
Imparted righteousness
Imputed righteousness
Justice, the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons.
Justification
Pono for righteousness in Hawaiian culture.
Proper righteousness
Rashidun Mahdi for the Islamic concept of righteousness.
Righteous Among the Nations
Holiness
Salvation
Sanctification
Yi (Confucianism)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Craig, William Lane. "Doctrine of God (part 19)". Reasonable Faith. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Young, Robert. (May 2011) Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible. p. 819. ISBN 978-1-56563-810-5
Jump up ^ Stern, David H. (1992) Jewish New Testament Commentary: A companion volume to the 'Jewish New Testament'. p. 30 and p. 512. ISBN 965-359-008-1
Jump up ^ http://www.wefound.org/texts/Islam_files/IslamRighteousness.htm
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Righteousness&oldid=809499460"
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Oxidizing and reducing flames
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bunsen burner: leftmost: reducing flame, rightmost: oxidizing flame
Oxygen rich butane torch flame
Fuel rich butane torch flame
In various burners, the oxidizing flame is the flame produced with an excessive amount of oxygen. When the amount of oxygen increases, the flame shortens, its color darkens, and it hisses and roars.[1] With some exceptions (e.g., platinum soldering in jewelry), the oxidizing flame is usually undesirable for welding and soldering, since, as its name suggests, it oxidizes the metal's surface.[1] The same principle is important in firing pottery — see Reducing atmosphere.
The reducing flame is the flame with low oxygen. It has a yellow or yellowish color due to carbon or hydrocarbons[2] which bind with (or reduce) the oxygen contained in the materials processed with the flame.[1] The reducing flame is also called the carburizing flame, since it tends to introduce carbon into the molten metal.
The neutral flame is the flame in which the amount of oxygen is precisely enough for burning, and neither oxidation nor reduction occurs.[1] A flame with a good balance of oxygen is clear blue.
The reducing and neutral flames are useful in soldering and annealing.[1]
See also[edit]
Redox
Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Types of flame for further details about the above types of flame in oxy-fuel burners
Oxyhydrogen
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The Anatomy of a Flame", in: "Jewelry concepts and technology", by Oppi Untracht, 1983, ISBN 0-385-04185-3
Jump up ^ Gas Age. 45. Robbins Publishing Company. 1920. p. 196. ISSN 0096-0780. Retrieved 2015-01-01.
This science article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Marriage Boot Camp
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Marriage Boot Camp
Also known as
'Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition'
Genre
Reality
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
13
No. of episodes
120 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Adam Freeman
Adam Reed
Lauren P. Gellert
Leslie Grief
Moriah Muse
Suzanne Murch
Jim Carroll
Elizabeth Carroll
Running time
42 minutes
Production company(s)
Thinkfactory Media
September Films
Release
Original network
WE tv
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
1080i (HDTV)
Original release
May 31, 2013 (2013-05-31) – present
Chronology
Related shows
Bridezillas
External links
Website
Marriage Boot Camp (also known as Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas, Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars and Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition) is an American reality television series which debuted on May 31, 2013, on WE tv.[1][2] It is a spin-off of Bridezillas [3] and is based on the Marriage Boot Camp non-profit seminar created by Jim Carroll in 1994. It was announced on August 1, 2013, that the series had been renewed for a ten-episode second season.[4] Production began in late 2013.[4] Season 2 dropped Bridezillas from the title,[5] and premiered on March 7, 2014.[6]
Contents
1 Synopsis
2 Cast
2.1 Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas Cast
2.1.1 Season 1 – Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas
2.1.2 Season 2 – Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas 2
2.2 Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Cast
2.2.1 Season 3 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars
2.2.2 Season 4 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 2
2.2.3 Season 5 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 3
2.2.4 Season 6 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 4
2.2.5 Season 7 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 5
2.2.6 Season 8 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 6
2.2.7 Season 9 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 7
2.2.8 Season 11 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 9
2.2.9 Season 13 — Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 11 - Lovers & Liars
2.3 Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition Cast
2.3.1 Season 10 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 8 - Family Edition
2.3.2 Season 12 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 10 - Family Edition 2
3 Episodes
4 International broadcast
5 References
6 External links
Synopsis[edit]
The first two seasons of Marriage Boot Camp chronicle the lives of five couples from previous seasons of Bridezillas as they move into one house together for approximately ten days in order to save their marital bonds. Following the second season, the show chronicle the lives of five couples from various reality shows.[2] The couples do a number of exercises to see if their marriages are worth saving.[2] In the end, the couples decide if they should divorce or make up.[2] Leading the program for the first seven seasons is marriage counselor team Jim Carroll and his wife Elizabeth.[7]
Cast[edit]
Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas Cast[edit]
Season 1 – Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas[edit]
Danni and Marlon Starr[8]
Kirsten and Seth Walker[9]
Melissa and Chris Moore[10]
Porsha and Byron Martin[2]
Remy (Reham) and Rob Maaddi[2]
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, David Bishop, Dana Hamman[2]
Season 2 – Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas 2[edit]
Blanca and Julian Lujan[4]
Mai-Lee and Tomas Acea[4]
Gloria and Mark Darrington[4]
Sofia and Shaun Sulligan[4]
Tasha Daniel and Jeff Webster[4]
Hosts and Counselors - Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, Bobby Davis and Ilsa Norman[2]
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Cast[edit]
Season 3 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars[edit]
Jennifer "JWoww" Farley and Roger Mathews (from Jersey Shore and Snooki & Jwoww)[5]
Traci Braxton and Kevin Surratt (from Braxton Family Values)[5]
Tanisha Thomas and Clive Muir (from Bad Girls Club, Tanisha Gets Married and Celebrity Fit Club)[5]
Gretchen Rossi and Slade Smiley (from The Real Housewives of Orange County)[5]
Ryan and Trista Sutter (from The Bachelorette and Dancing with the Stars)[11]
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, Bobby Davis and Ilsa Norman[2]
Season 4 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 2[edit]
Natalie Nunn and Jacob Payne (from Bad Girls Club and Celebrity Big Brother UK)[12]
Spencer Pratt and Heidi Montag (from The Hills, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, Famous Food and Celebrity Big Brother UK)[12]
Syleena Johnson and Kiwane Garris (from R&B Divas: Atlanta)[12]
Tyson Apostol and Rachel Foulger (from Survivor)[12]
Aviva and Reid Drescher (from The Real Housewives of New York City)[12]
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, David Bishop and Ilsa Norman[2]
Season 5 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 3[edit]
Aubrey O'Day and Travis Garland (from Making The Band, All About Aubrey, The Celebrity Apprentice and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Michael "The Situation" Sorrentino and Lauren Pesce (from Jersey Shore, The Sorrentinos, Dancing with the Stars and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Tami Roman and Reggie Youngblood (from The Real World and Basketball Wives)
Jeff Schroeder and Jordan Lloyd (from Big Brother and The Amazing Race)
Kendra Wilkinson and Hank Baskett (from The Girls Next Door, Kendra, Kendra on Top, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and Dancing with the Stars)
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, David Bishop and Ilsa Norman[2]
Season 6 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 4[edit]
June "Mama June" Shannon and Mike "Sugar Bear" Thompson (from Here Comes Honey Boo Boo)
Sarah Oliver and Jimmy "Inkman/Ink" Coney (from Bad Girls Club)
Sundy and Cedric Carter (from Basketball Wives LA)
Benzino and Althea Heart (from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta)
Sean Lowe and Catherine Giudici (from The Bachelor and Dancing with the Stars)
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, David Bishop and Ilsa Norman[2]
Season 7 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 5[edit]
Tara Reid and Dean May (from Taradise and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Lisa D'Amato and Adam Friedman (from America’s Next Top Model and Celebrity Rehab)
Michelle Money and Cody Sattler (from Bachelor in Paradise)
Toya and Mickey "Memphitz" Wright (from Tiny and Toya and Toya: A Family Affair)
Brittish Williams and Lorenzo Gordon (from Basketball Wives LA)
Hosts and Counselors: Jim Carroll, Elizabeth Carroll, David Bishop and Ilsa Norman[2]
Season 8 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 6[edit]
Jade Roper and Tanner Tolbert (from Bachelor in Paradise)[13]
Keke Wyatt and Michael Jamar (from R&B Divas: Atlanta)[13]
Amber Marchese and Jim Marchese (from The Real Housewives of New Jersey)[13]
Karen Gravano and Giovan "Storm" (from Mob Wives)[13]
Margeaux, Merika Palmiste and Nikko London (from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta)[13]
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino[2]
Season 9 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 7[edit]
Ashley Hebert and J.P. Rosenbaum (from The Bachelorette)[14]
Amy Duggar and Dillon King (from 19 Kids and Counting)[14]
PreMadonna and Buck Thomas (from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta)[14]
Gabrielle Victor and Victor Tarrats (from Bad Girls Club)[14]
Renee Graziano and Joey Gambino (from Mob Wives and Celebrity Big Brother UK)[14]
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino[2][14]
Season 11 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 9[edit]
Kailyn Lowry and Javi Marroquin (from 16 & Pregnant and Teen Mom 2)[14]
Mehgan James and DeAndre Perry (from Bad Girls Club and Basketball Wives LA)[14]
JJ Lane and Juelia Kinney (from Bachelor in Paradise)[14]
Asifa Mirza and Bobby Panahi (from Shahs of Sunset)[14]
Amina Buddafly, Peter Gunz and Tara Wallace (from Love & Hip Hop: New York)[14]
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino[2][14]
Season 13 — Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 11 - Lovers & Liars[edit]
Aubrey O'Day and Pauly D (from Making The Band, All About Aubrey, The Celebrity Apprentice, Jersey Shore, Famously Single and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Kim Richards and Wynn Katz (from The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills)
Desiree Hartsock and Chris Siegfried (from The Bachelorette)
Quani Robinson and Paul "Puma" Robinson (from Black Ink Crew)
Momma Dee and Ernest Bryant (from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta)
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition Cast[edit]
Season 10 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 8 - Family Edition[edit]
Chad "Ochocinco" and Paula Johnson (from Ochocinco: The Ultimate Catch and Dancing with the Stars)
Michael "The Situation", Marc and Frank "Maximo" Sorrentino (from Jersey Shore, The Sorrentinos, Dancing with the Stars and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Kendra and Patti Wilkinson (from The Girls Next Door, Kendra, Kendra on Top, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and Dancing with the Stars)
Farrah, Debra and Michael Abraham (from 16 & Pregnant, Teen Mom and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino[2][14]
Season 12 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 10 - Family Edition 2[edit]
Brandi and Guy Glanville (from The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills, Celebrity Big Brother U.S. and Celebrity Big Brother UK)
Renee, Jenniffer and Lana Graziano (from Mob Wives and Celebrity Big Brother UK)[14]
Jim Jones, Chrissy Lampkin and Nancy "Mama Jones" Jones (from Love & Hip Hop: New York, Chrissy & Mr. Jones and Jim & Chrissy: Vow or Never)
Amber, Tonya Portwood, and Matt Baier (from 16 & Pregnant and Teen Mom)
Hosts and Counselors: Dr. Ish Major and Dr. Venus "Dr. V" Nicolino[2][14]
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Marriage Boot Camp episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 10 May 31, 2013 (2013-05-31) July 26, 2013 (2013-07-26)
2 11 March 7, 2014 (2014-03-07) May 16, 2014 (2014-05-16)
3 8 May 30, 2014 (2014-05-30) July 25, 2014 (2014-07-25)
4 10 January 9, 2015 (2015-01-09) March 13, 2015 (2015-03-13)
5 12 May 29, 2015 (2015-05-29) August 21, 2015 (2015-08-21)
6 10 December 4, 2015 (2015-12-04) February 19, 2016 (2016-02-19)
7 10 June 3, 2016 (2016-06-03) August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)
8 10 October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07) December 16, 2016 (2016-12-16)
9 10 January 6, 2017 (2017-01-06) March 10, 2017 (2017-03-10)
10 8 April 28, 2017 (2017-04-28) June 23, 2017 (2017-06-23)
11 10 October 13, 2017 (2017-10-13) December 22, 2017 (2017-12-22)
12 10 March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09) May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)
13 TBA September 7, 2018 (2018-09-07) TBA
International broadcast[edit]
Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas premiered with double episodes in Australia on 9 May 2015 on Arena.[15] and Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars began on 27 June, 2015 on the same channel.[16] In the UK, Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars premiered in May 2016 on ITVBe, while the Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas (title changed to Bridezillas: The Boot Camp) will start airing on 18 June 2016 on the same channel.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (May 28, 2013). "WE tv Announces Summer Schedule Including 'Bridezillas', 'Pregnant & Dating'". TV by the Numbers.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r "WE tv Introduces the World Premiere of "Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas" Followed by the 10th and Final Season of WE tv's Original Hit Series "Bridezillas"". The Futon Critic. April 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (March 28, 2013). "WE TV Renews 'Bridezillas' & 'David Tutera', Orders 'Bridezillas' Spinoff Series". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kondolojy, Amanda (August 1, 2013). "'Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas' Renewed by WE tv for a Second Season". TV by the Numbers.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Celebrity Cast of Marriage Boot Camp Revealed". InTouch Weekly. Bauer Publishing. December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Make Up or Break Up: WE tv's "Marriage Boot Camp" Returns with an Explosive New Season on Friday, March 7 at 9PM ET/PT". The Futon Critic (Press release). WE tv. February 11, 2014. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Martindale, David (May 30, 2013). "Dallas-based counselors try to save out-of-control couples on 'Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas'". The Dallas Morning News.
Jump up ^ Thompson, L'Oreal (May 28, 2013). "Local couple stars on 'Marriage Boob Camp: Bridezillas'". The Baltimore Sun.
Jump up ^ Deggans, Eric (May 30, 2013). "Serial reality-TV couple back on 'Marriage Boot Camp: Bridezillas'". Tampa Bay Times.
Jump up ^ Holt, Tony (May 29, 2013). "Palm Coast couple return to 'Bridezillas'". The Daytona Beach News-Journal.
Jump up ^ "'Bachelorette' Trista Sutter on 'Marriage Boot Camp': We smell a franchise spinoff!". Zap2it. December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e http://www.wetv.com/we-tell-all/blogs/marriage-boot-camp-reality-stars-season-2-meet-the-couples
^ Jump up to: a b c d e ""Marriage Boot Camp Reality Stars" Returns and This Season Is Breaking All the Rules". The Futon Critic. July 9, 2016. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Shore]first1=Eric (December 2, 2016). "'Bad Girls Club' Alum Gabi Victor To Appear On 'Marriage Bootcamp'". Oxygen. Retrieved December 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Purcell, Charles (30 April 2015). "NEW THIS WEEK (May 4): Fresh Off The Boat, The Jinx, The Club, Roger & Val, Mother's Day and live sport". The Green Room. Archived from the original on 15 August 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Purcell, Charles (18 June 2015). "NEW THIS WEEK (May 4): Fresh Off The Boat, The Jinx, The Club, Roger & Val, Mother's Day and live sport". The Green Room. Archived from the original on 15 August 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
External links[edit]
Official website
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition Official website
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Celebrity Big Brother 11

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Celebrity Big Brother 18

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Celebrity Big Brother 10

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Celebrity Big Brother 8

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values: Edit section: Season 8 - Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 6

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Celebrity Big Brother 16

values: Edit section: Season 12 – Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars 10 - Family Edition 2

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Celebrity Big Brother 20

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