text:
History of Kashmir
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Part of a series on the
History of Kashmir
Mythological history[show]
Nilamata Purana
Mythological dynasties
Legend of Kashap
Ancient period[show]
Pre-Mahabharat period Pre (3500 BCE)
Mahabharat period Pre (3200–2000 BCE)
Early dynasties Pre (2000–500 BCE)
Middle Republican period[show]
Middle Republic (326 BC)
Late Middle Republic (34–17 BCE)
Karakota Empire (489–920 BCE)
Medieval period[show]
Shah Mir Dynasty (1339–1535)
Chakhs (1535–1589)
Mughal rule (1589–1738)
Afghan rule (1738–1819)
Sikh rule (1819-1846)
Early modern period[show]
Jammu and Kashmir (princely state) (1846–1947)
Late modern period[show]
Kashmir conflict (1947–present)
Related articles[show]
Rajatarangini
Religious history
Kalhana
Nilamata Purana
Military history
Jammu and Kashmir
v
t
e
The history of Kashmir is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and the surrounding regions, comprising the areas of Central Asia, South Asia and East Asia. Historically, Kashmir referred to the Kashmir Valley.[1] Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh), the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later in the ninth century, Shaivism arose. Islamization in Kashmir took place during 13th to 15th century and led to the eventual decline of the Kashmir Shaivism in Kashmir. However, the achievements of the previous civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and culture which gave rise to Kashmiri Sufi mysticism.
In 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Shah Mir Dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughal Empire, who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Historiography
3 Early history
4 Muslim rulers
4.1 Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)
4.2 Mughals (1580s–1750s)
4.3 Afghan rulers (1750s–1819)
5 Sikh rule (1820–1846)
6 Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947)
7 1947
8 Post-1947
9 Historical demographics of Kashmir
10 Gallery
11 See also
12 Footnotes
12.1 Notes
12.2 Citations
13 Bibliography
13.1 Historiography
14 External links
Etymology[edit]
See also: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict
General view of Martand Sun Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple AD 490–555. Probable date of colonnade AD 693–729. Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu & Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868.
According to folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land" (from the Sanskrit: Ka = water and shimeera = desiccate).[2] In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake.[3] According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula).[3] When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmins to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, we may see some ground for the story which has taken this form.[3] The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44).[3][4] Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[5] Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.
According to the Mahabharata,[6] the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the epic period with a Republican system of government[7] from the capital city of Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava.,[8][9] shortened to Rajapura,[10][11][12][13] which has been identified with modern Rajauri.[14]
Later, the Panchalas are stated to have established their sway[citation needed]. The name Peer Panjal, which is a part of modern Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the Sanskritic tribal term Panchala[citation needed]. The Muslims prefixed the word peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed into Peer Panjal.[15] According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo. With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu".
Historiography[edit]
Nilmata Purana (complied c. 500–600 CE)[16] contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.[17][a] Kalhana's Rajatarangini (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from mythical times to 12th century.[20][21] It relies upon traditional sources like Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.[22][20] Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as India's first historian.[17][20] During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to Rajatarangini were written by Jonaraja (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with Akbar's conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE.[23] The text was translated into Persian by Muslim scholars such as Nizam Uddin, Farishta, and Abul Fazl.[24] Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's Tarikh-i-Kashmir (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.[25]
Early history[edit]
Further information: Rajatarangini, Kushan Empire, Huna people, Buddhism in Kashmir, Karkota Empire, and Mauryan Empire
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.
Earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases.[26][27] In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery.[28] During the later Vedic period, as kingdoms of the Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.[29][30]
Kanishka inaugurates Mahayana Buddhism in Kashmir.
In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.[31][32] During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) were built.[33] Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur.[34] Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part.[35] By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.[36] Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery.[37]
Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir.[38] His son Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.[39][40] After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion.[41] Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism.[42] Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in Southern India.[43]
Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent.
In the eighth century, Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir.[44] Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh.[45][46] After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.[44] Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab.[47][44] Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were defeated by Chakravarman.[48] Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.[44] After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to Lohara dynasty.[49] During the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot.[50]
Muslim rulers[edit]
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date AD 400 to 500, 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.
Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)[edit]
Historian Mohibbul Hasan states that the oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (Damaras) during the unpopular rule of the Lohara dynasty (1003–1320 CE) paved the way for foreign invasions of Kashmir.[51] Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a Turkic–Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir.[52][53] Rinchana, a Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir, established himself as the ruler after Zulju.[54][52] Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister Shah Mir, probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority,[55] Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims.[54] Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir.[55]
In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir.[56] Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses.[57] The Sultans between 1354–1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title But–Shikan for destroying idols.[52] Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from Central Asia and Persia to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, papier-mâché , shawl and carpet weaving prospered.[58] For a brief period in 1470s, states of Jammu, Poonch and Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE.[58] By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.[58]
Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah II (ruled 1537–38). During the Sultanate period, the Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The silver coins were square and followed a weight standard unique to Kashmir of between 6 and 7 gm. This coin weighs 6.16 gm.
Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun.[52][59] Persecution of Shias, Shafi'is and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.[60][59]
Mughals (1580s–1750s)[edit]
Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal padshah (emperor) Akbar the Great, who visited the valley himself in 1589 CE. The Mughal conquered Kashmir and added it in 1586 to his Afghan province Kabul Subah, but Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.[52][59]
In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of Muhammad, to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of Dal Lake.[61] Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.[61]
Afghan rulers (1750s–1819)[edit]
In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in Ahmed Shah Abdali's army, invaded Kashmir and established the rule of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive, particularly for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into slavery during this period. Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed Shah Abdali's death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47 years.[62][61]
Sikh rule (1820–1846)[edit]
Sheikh Imam-ud-din along with Ranjur Singh and Dewan Dina Nath. 1847. (James Duffield Harding) Sheikh Imam-ud-din was the governor of Kashmir under the Sikhs, and fought on the side of the English in the battle of Multan during the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46).
In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Punjab.[63] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[64] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[65] protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.[66] The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,[66] which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,[64] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer.[66] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.[64] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time Kashmiri shawls became known world wide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.[66]
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power.[63] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of Jammu.[63]
Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947)[edit]
Main article: Kashmir
Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi"[b] for 7.5 million rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding).
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second[67] the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir).[63] The Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir.[68] The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 which challenged British rule in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir.[69] Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857,[68] his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.[70]
1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of different regions, important cities, rivers and mountains are underlined in red.
The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."[71] It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[71]
Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.[72] Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.[73] The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite.[74][75] The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders,[74] and did not organize politically until the 1930s.[75]
1947[edit]
Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. An internal revolt began in the Poonch region against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.[76] In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people.[77] The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.[78] Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu".[79] To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement was pending with India.[80] Following huge riots in Jammu, in October 1947, Pashtuns from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded Kashmir, along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way.[81][82] The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten[c] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[79] Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional[83] until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad-hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.[84] The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.
See also: 1947 Poonch Rebellion, 1947 Jammu massacres, Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and The Accession of the Princely States.
Post-1947[edit]
Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict and History of Azad Kashmir
In Early 1948, India sought a resolution of the Kashmir Conflict at the United Nations. Following the set-up of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided.[85] However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.[79]
On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite.[86] As per the 1948[87] and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.[88]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[79] and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in 1965, 1971 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Vale of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[89]
Cease-fire line between India and Pakistan after the 1947 conflict
The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding and the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war, required by the Security Council resolution 47.[90]
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist revolution in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:[89] "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."[89] China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.
In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party.[80] Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy[91] also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.
Following the disputed elections in 1987, young disaffected Kashmiris in the Valley such as the HAJY group – Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed Yasin Malik – were recruited by the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front(JKLF) and the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley increased in momentum from this point on.[92][93] The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as Mujahadeens from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet-Afghan War the same year.[94] Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.[95][96][97]
Historical demographics of Kashmir[edit]
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.[98] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[98] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population.[98] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[99] In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%.[99] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[100] and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.[100]
Among the Muslims of the Kashmir province within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[101] It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[101] The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu."[101] Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.
Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[98]
Gallery[edit]
Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in Sindh.
A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. Cashmere shawl manufactory, chromolith., William Simpson.
Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.
Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
See also[edit]
United Nations Security Council Resolution 47
Kashmiriyat
Dynasties of Ancient Kashmir
Sharada Peeth
Buddhism in Kashmir
Harsha of Kashmir
History of Ladakh
List of topics on the land and the people of "Jammu and Kashmir"
Rajatarangini
History of Azad Kashmir
History of Gilgit–Baltistan
Lost Kashmiri History
Footnotes[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ . This is incorrect. Scholasticism was a hallmark of the Puranas. It is not that Puranic genealogies are "incomplete and occasionally inaccurate"[18]but rather they take the long view which is not a creation myth but has realistic as well as spiritual underpinnings-- metaphors need to be understood within those time space specificities. The chronology of events described in Puranas often are accurate-- they were added on during successive centuries by scribes.[19]
Jump up ^ From the text of the Treaty of Amritsar, signed 16 March 1846.[67]
Jump up ^ Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Christopher Snedden (15 September 2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Hurst. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0.
Jump up ^ Dhar, Somnath (1986), Jammu and Kashmir folklore, Marwah Publications, p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b c d Holdich, Thomas Hungerford (1911). "Kashmir". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 688.
Jump up ^ Daniélou, Alain (2003) [first published in French, L'Histoire de l'Inde, Fayard, 1971], A Brief History of India, translated by Hurry, Kenneth, Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, pp. 65–, ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3
Jump up ^ Houtsma 1993, p. 792.
Jump up ^ MBH 7.4.5.
Jump up ^ MBH 7/91/39-40.
Jump up ^ Mahabharata 7.4.5
Jump up ^ Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the ..., 1953, p 150, Dr H. C. Raychaudhuri – India; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the ..., 1955, p 78, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; An Analytical Study of Four Nikāyas, 1971, p 311, D. K.Barua – Tipiṭaka.
Jump up ^ Bhandarkar, R. G. (2001). Asoka. p. 31.
Jump up ^ Pillai, Madhavan Arjunan (1988). Ancient Indian History. p. 149.
Jump up ^ Awasthi, A. B. L. (1992). Purana Index. p. 79.
Jump up ^ Misra, Shivenandan (1976). Ancient Indian Republics: From the Earliest Times to the 6th century A.D. p. 92.
Jump up ^ Watters. Yuan Chawang. Vol I. p. 284.
Jump up ^ Ratanlal Joshi. "Kashmir: The Fountainhead of Indian Culture". Official webpage of the Kashmiri Overseas Association. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Kenoyer & Heuston 2005, p. 28.
^ Jump up to: a b Sharma 2005, p. 74.
Jump up ^ Ganguly 1985, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Ganguly 1985, pp. 16–18.
^ Jump up to: a b c Singh 2008, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Sreedharan 2004, p. 330.
Jump up ^ Sharma 2005, p. 73–4.
Jump up ^ Sharma 2005, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Sharma 2005, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Hasan 1983, p. 47.
Jump up ^ Singh 2008, pp. 111–3.
Jump up ^ Kennedy 2000, p. 259.
Jump up ^ Allchin & Allchin 1982, p. 113.
Jump up ^ Rapson 1955, p. 118.
Jump up ^ Sharma 1985, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Heckel 2003, p. 48.
Jump up ^ Green 1970, p. 403.
Jump up ^ Sastri 1988, p. 219.
Jump up ^ Chatterjee 1998, p. 199.
Jump up ^ Bamzai 1994, pp. 83–4.
Jump up ^ Pal 1989, p. 51.
Jump up ^ Singh 2008, pp. 522–3.
Jump up ^ Singh 2008, p. 480.
Jump up ^ Grousset 1970, p. 71.
Jump up ^ Dani 1999, pp. 142–3.
Jump up ^ Pal 1989, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Flood 1996, pp. 166–7.
Jump up ^ Flood 2008, p. 213.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Singh 2008, p. 571.
Jump up ^ Majumdar 1977, pp. 260–3.
Jump up ^ Wink 1991, pp. 242–5.
Jump up ^ Majumdar 1977, p. 356.
Jump up ^ Majumdar 1977, p. 357.
Jump up ^ Khan 2008, p. 58.
Jump up ^ Frye 1975, p. 178.
Jump up ^ Hasan 1959, pp. 32–4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Chadha 2005, p. 38.
Jump up ^ Hasan 1959, pp. 35–6.
^ Jump up to: a b Asimov & Bosworth 1998, p. 308.
^ Jump up to: a b Asimov & Bosworth 1998, p. 309.
Jump up ^ "Explore the Beauty of Kashmir".
Jump up ^ Bose 2005, pp. 268–9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Asimov & Bosworth 1998, p. 313.
^ Jump up to: a b c Houtsma 1993, p. 793.
Jump up ^ Hasan 1983, p. 48.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schofield 2010, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Chadha 2005, p. 39.
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15), pp. 94–95.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schofield 2010, pp. 5–6.
Jump up ^ Madan 2008, p. 15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Zutshi 2003, pp. 39–41.
^ Jump up to: a b Treaty of Amritsar 1846.
^ Jump up to: a b Schofield 2010, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Schofield 2010, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Schofield 2010, p. 11.
^ Jump up to: a b Bowers, Paul. 2004. "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28 Archived 26 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine., International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ Kashmir. OUP.
Jump up ^ Iqbal Singh Sevea (29 June 2012). The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–. ISBN 978-1-139-53639-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Bose 2005, pp. 15–17
^ Jump up to: a b Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 54
Jump up ^ Prem Nath Bazaz, "The Truth About Kashmir"
Jump up ^ Official Records of the United Nations Security Council, Meeting No:234, 1948, pp.250–1:[1]
Jump up ^ 1947 Kashmir History
^ Jump up to: a b c d Stein 1998, p. 368.
^ Jump up to: a b Schofield, Victoria. 'Kashmir: The origins of the dispute', BBC News UK Edition (16 January 2002) Retrieved 20 May 2005
Jump up ^ Jamal, Arif (2009), Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir, Melville House, pp. 52–53, ISBN 978-1-933633-59-6
Jump up ^ Pathan Tribal Invasion into Kashmir
Jump up ^ Govt. of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir , Delhi 1948, p.77
Jump up ^ Sheikh Abdullah, Flames of the Chinar, New Delhi 1993, p.97
Jump up ^ "NEHRU URGES U.N. TO POLL KASHMIR; Would Have Supervised Ballot to Decide Accession – Bomb Attack by India Reported". The New York Times. 3 November 1947. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949.
Jump up ^ UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948.
Jump up ^ UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Resolution 47 (1948).
Jump up ^ Elections in Kashmir
Jump up ^ Puri 1993, p. 52.
Jump up ^ 1989 Insurgency
Jump up ^ BBC Timeline on Kashmir conflict.
Jump up ^ Human Rights Watch Report, 1994
Jump up ^ Pakistan admission over Kashmir
Jump up ^ Operation Topac
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15), pp. 99–102.
^ Jump up to: a b Rai 2004, p. 27.
^ Jump up to: a b BBC. 2003. The Future of Kashmir? In Depth.
^ Jump up to: a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.
Bibliography[edit]
Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982), The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
Asimov, M S; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1998), Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, UNESCO, ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1
Bamzai, P. N. K (1994), Culture And Political History of Kashmir ( 3 Vols. Set), M.D. Publications, ISBN 978-81-85880-31-0
Bose, Sumantra (2005), Kashmir: Roots Of Conflict Paths To Peace, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-02855-5
Chadha, Vivek (2005), Low Intensity Conflicts in India: An Analysis, SAGE, ISBN 978-0-7619-3325-0
Chatterjee, Suhas (1998), Indian Civilization And Culture, M.D. Publications, ISBN 978-81-7533-083-2
Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1999), History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-1540-7
Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
Flood, Gavin D. (2008), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Wiley, ISBN 978-81-265-1629-2
Frye, R. N. (1975), The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6
Green, Peter (1970), Alexander of Macedon: 356-323 B.c. : a Historical Biography, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7
Grousset, René (1970), The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1
Guha, Ramachandra (2011), India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy, Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-330-54020-9
Hasan, Mohibbul (1959), Kashmīr Under the Sultāns, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-49-7
Heckel, Waldemar (2003), The Wars of Alexander the Great 336–323 BC, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-203-49959-7
Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1993), E.J. Brill's First Encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2
Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000), God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-11013-1
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly Burton (2005), The Ancient South Asian World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-522243-2
Khan, Iqtidar Alam (2008), Historical Dictionary of Medieval India, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-5503-8
Madan, T. N. (2008), "Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashmiriyat: An Introductory Essay", in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi: Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 1–36, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0
Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4
Pal, Pratapaditya (1989), Indian Sculpture: 700–1800, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-06477-5
Puri, Balraj (1993), Kashmir towards insurgency, Orient Longman, ISBN 978-0-86311-384-0
Rai, Mridu (2004), Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-85065-661-6
Rapson, Edward James (1955), The Cambridge History of India, Cambridge University Press, GGKEY:FP2CEFT2WJH
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1988), Age of the Nandas And Mauryas, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1
Schofield, Victoria (2010), Kashmir in conflict: India, Pakistan and the unending war, I. B. Tauris., ISBN 978-1-84885-105-4
Sharma, Subhra (1985), Life in the Upanishads, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-81-7017-202-4
Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0
Stein, B. (1998), A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
Wink, André (1991), Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09509-0
Zutshi, Chitralekha (2003), Language of belonging: Islam, regional identity, and the making of Kashmir, Oxford University Press/Permanent Black, ISBN 978-0-19-521939-5
Primary sources
Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab. New Delhi: Voice of India.
Pandit, K. N. (2013). Baharistan-i-shahi: A chronicle of mediaeval Kashmir. Srinagar: Gulshan Books.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15); Karachi to Kotayam, Great Britain Commonwealth Office, 1908, ISBN 978-1-154-40971-0
Resolution 47 (1948) of 21 April 1948, UN Security Council, 21 April 1948, retrieved 26 February 2013
Treaty of Amritsar, 16 March 1846, 16 March 1846, retrieved 26 February 2013
UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948, Mount Holyoke College, 10 January 1949, retrieved 26 February 2013
UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949, Mount Holyoke College, 10 January 1949, retrieved 26 February 2013
UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951, Mount Holyoke College, 10 January 1949, retrieved 26 February 2013
Historiography[edit]
Ganguly, D.K. (1985), History and Historians in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-0-391-03250-7
Ghose, D. K. "Source-Material for the History of Kashmir (Second Half of the Nineteenth Century)," Quarterly Review of Historical Studies (1969) 9#1 pp 7–12.
Hasan, Mohibbul (1983), Historians of medieval India, Meenakshi Prakashan, OCLC 12924924
Hewitt, Vernon. "Never Ending Stories: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Jammu and Kashmir," History Compass (2007) 5#1 pp 288–301. covers 1846 to 1997
Lone, Fozia Nazir. "From 'Sale to Accession Deed'- Scanning the Historiography of Kashmir 1846–1947." History Compass (2009) 7#6 pp 1496–1508.
Sharma, Tej Ram (2005), Historiography: A History of Historical Writing, Concept Publishing Company, ISBN 978-81-8069-155-3
Sreedharan, E. (2004), A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-250-2657-0
Zutshi, Chitralekha. "Whither Kashmir Studies?: A Review." Modern Asian Studies (2012) 46#4 pp 1033–1048
Zutshi, Chitralekha. "Past as tradition, past as history: The Rajatarangini narratives in Kashmir’s Persian historical tradition." Indian Economic & Social History Review (2013) 50#2 pp 201–219.
External links[edit]
Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English
Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA; Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list
Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline
Coins of the Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1586)
(in Arabic) "The Great History of the Events of Kashmir" from 1821
[hide]
v
t
e
History of India
States
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Telangana
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
NCT
Delhi
Territories
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Daman and Diu
Lakshadweep
Puducherry
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kashmir&oldid=824131582"
Categories:
History of Kashmir
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference
Webarchive template wayback links
EngvarB from May 2014
Use dmy dates from May 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017
Articles with Arabic-language external links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Español
فارسی
Français
हिन्दी
Italiano
Lietuvių
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Português
Русский
தமிழ்
ไทย
Edit links
This page was last edited on 5 February 2018, at 14:29.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

values: margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;

value: span

values: background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;

values: padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;

attrs: class id href

values: NavToggle NavToggle1 #

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Shah_Mir_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Shah Mir Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Mughal_rule_in_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Mughal rule in Kashmir

values:
/wiki/Afghan_rule_in_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Afghan rule in Kashmir

values:
/wiki/Sikh_rule_in_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Sikh rule in Kashmir

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/British_East_India_Company
mw-redirect
British East India Company

values:
/wiki/Treaty_of_Amritsar,_1846
mw-redirect
Treaty of Amritsar, 1846

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Karkota_Empire
mw-redirect
Karkota Empire

values:
/wiki/Mauryan_Empire
mw-redirect
Mauryan Empire

values:
/wiki/Kashmir_valley
mw-redirect
Kashmir valley

values:
/wiki/Rigvedic_tribes
mw-redirect
Rigvedic tribes

values:
/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism
mw-redirect
Mahayana Buddhism

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Hydaspes
mw-redirect
Battle of Hydaspes

values:
/wiki/Kushan_dynasty
mw-redirect
Kushan dynasty

values:
/wiki/Southern_India
mw-redirect
Southern India

values:
/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_kingdom)
mw-redirect
Kalinga (historical kingdom)

values:
/wiki/Avanti_Varman_(Utpala_dynasty)
mw-redirect
Avanti Varman (Utpala dynasty)

values:
/wiki/Hindu_Shahi
mw-redirect
Hindu Shahi

values: Edit section: Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)

values:
/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist
mw-redirect
Tibetan Buddhist

values:
/wiki/Shah_Miri_dynasty
mw-redirect
Shah Miri dynasty

values:
/wiki/Suri_Empire
mw-redirect
Suri Empire

values:
/wiki/Akbar_the_Great
mw-redirect
Akbar the Great

values:
/wiki/Kabul_Subah
mw-redirect
Kabul Subah

values:
/wiki/Hazratbal_Shrine
mw-redirect
Hazratbal Shrine

values:
/wiki/Nadir_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India
mw-redirect
Nadir Shah's invasion of India

values: Edit section: Afghan rulers (1750s–1819)

values:
/wiki/Ahmed_Shah_Abdali
mw-redirect
Ahmed Shah Abdali

values:
/wiki/Sikh_Kingdom
mw-redirect
Sikh Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Gulab_Singh_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir

values:
/wiki/General_Zorawar_Singh
mw-redirect
General Zorawar Singh

values: Edit section: Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947)

values:
/wiki/Punjab_region
mw-redirect
Punjab region

values:
/wiki/Vale_of_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Vale of Kashmir

values:
/wiki/Revolt_of_1857
mw-redirect
Revolt of 1857

values:
/wiki/Rambir_Singh
mw-redirect
Rambir Singh

values:
/wiki/Gilgit,_Pakistan
mw-redirect
Gilgit, Pakistan

values:
/wiki/Kashmir_region
mw-redirect
Kashmir region

values:
/wiki/Kashmiri_Pandits
mw-redirect
Kashmiri Pandits

values:
/wiki/British_India
mw-redirect
British India

values:
/wiki/Union_of_India
mw-redirect
Union of India

values:
/wiki/Pashtun_people
mw-redirect
Pashtun people

values: North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)

values: Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma

values: Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)

values:
/wiki/Princely_States#Accession
mw-redirect
Princely States

values:
/wiki/Kashmir_Conflict
mw-redirect
Kashmir Conflict

values: United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan

values: United Nations Security Council Resolution 47

values:
/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_(1949)
mw-redirect
Chinese Revolution (1949)

values:
/wiki/Soviet-Afghan_War
mw-redirect
Soviet-Afghan War

values: Edit section: Historical demographics of Kashmir

values:
/wiki/Thakur_(Indian_title)
mw-redirect
Thakur (Indian title)

values:
/wiki/Dynasties_of_Ancient_Kashmir
mw-redirect
Dynasties of Ancient Kashmir

values: Lost Kashmiri History (page does not exist)

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Ramesh_Chandra_Majumdar
mw-redirect
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar

values: -moz-column-width: 33em; -webkit-column-width: 33em; column-width: 33em;

values:
/wiki/UN_Security_Council
mw-redirect
UN Security Council

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12924924

values:
nofollow
http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4077

values:
/wiki/States_and_territories_of_India
mw-redirect
States and territories of India

values:
/wiki/History_of_Arunachal_Pradesh
mw-redirect
History of Arunachal Pradesh

values:
/wiki/History_of_Chhattisgarh
mw-redirect
History of Chhattisgarh

values:
/wiki/History_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir
mw-redirect
History of Jammu and Kashmir

values:
/wiki/History_of_Meghalaya
mw-redirect
History of Meghalaya

values:
/wiki/History_of_Nagaland
mw-redirect
History of Nagaland

values:
/wiki/History_of_Punjab_(India)
mw-redirect
History of Punjab (India)

values:
/wiki/History_of_Chandigarh
mw-redirect
History of Chandigarh

values:
/wiki/History_of_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli
mw-redirect
History of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

values:
/wiki/History_of_Daman_and_Diu
mw-redirect
History of Daman and Diu

values:
/wiki/History_of_Lakshadweep
mw-redirect
History of Lakshadweep

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017

values: Category:Articles with Arabic-language external links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/History_of_Kashmir
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: تاریخ کشمیر – Persian

values: कश्मीर का इतिहास – Hindi

values: ਕਸ਼ਮੀਰ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi

values: История Кашмира – Russian

values: ஜம்மு காஷ்மீர் வரலாறு – Tamil

values: ประวัติศาสตร์รัฐชัมมูและกัษมีระ – Thai

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_Kashmir rootpage-History_of_Kashmir skin-vector action-view