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Top-down and bottom-up design
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Top-down and bottom-up are both strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, used in a variety of fields including software, humanistic and scientific theories (see systemics), and management and organization. In practice, they can be seen as a style of thinking, teaching, or leadership.
A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design and in some cases used as a synonym of decomposition) is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems in a reverse engineering fashion. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is formulated, specifying, but not detailing, any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is often specified with the assistance of "black boxes", which makes it easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail to clarify elementary mechanisms or be detailed enough to realistically validate the model. Top down approach starts with the big picture. It breaks down from there into smaller segments.[1]
A bottom-up approach is the piecing together of systems to give rise to more complex systems, thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. Bottom-up processing is a type of information processing based on incoming data from the environment to form a perception. From a cognitive psychology perspective, information enters the eyes in one direction (sensory input, or the "bottom"), and is then turned into an image by the brain that can be interpreted and recognized as a perception (output that is "built up" from processing to final cognition). In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by which the beginnings are small but eventually grow in complexity and completeness. However, "organic strategies" may result in a tangle of elements and subsystems, developed in isolation and subject to local optimization as opposed to meeting a global purpose.
Contents
[hide]
1 Product design and development
2 Computer science
2.1 Software development
2.2 Programming
2.3 Parsing
3 Nanotechnology
4 Neuroscience and psychology
5 Management and organization
5.1 Public health
6 Architecture
7 Ecology
8 See also
9 References cited
10 Citations and notes
11 Further reading
12 External links
Product design and development[edit]
Main article: New product development
During the design and development of new products, designers and engineers rely on both a bottom-up and top-down approach. The bottom-up approach is being utilized when off-the-shelf or existing components are selected and integrated into the product. An example would include selecting a particular fastener, such as a bolt, and designing the receiving components such that the fastener will fit properly. In a top-down approach, a custom fastener would be designed such that it would fit properly in the receiving components.[2] For perspective, for a product with more restrictive requirements (such as weight, geometry, safety, environment, etc.), such as a space-suit, a more top-down approach is taken and almost everything is custom designed. However, when it's more important to minimize cost and increase component availability, such as with manufacturing equipment, a more bottom-up approach would be taken, and as many off-the-shelf components (bolts, gears, bearings, etc.) would be selected as possible. In the latter case, the receiving housings would be designed around the selected components.
Computer science[edit]
Software development[edit]
Part of this section is from the Perl Design Patterns Book.
In the software development process, the top-down and bottom-up approaches play a key role.
Top-down approaches emphasize planning and a complete understanding of the system. It is inherent that no coding can begin until a sufficient level of detail has been reached in the design of at least some part of the system. Top-down approaches are implemented by attaching the stubs in place of the module. This, however, delays testing of the ultimate functional units of a system until significant design is complete. Bottom-up emphasizes coding and early testing, which can begin as soon as the first module has been specified. This approach, however, runs the risk that modules may be coded without having a clear idea of how they link to other parts of the system, and that such linking may not be as easy as first thought. Re-usability of code is one of the main benefits of the bottom-up approach.[3]
Top-down design was promoted in the 1970s by IBM researchers Harlan Mills and Niklaus Wirth. Mills developed structured programming concepts for practical use and tested them in a 1969 project to automate the New York Times morgue index. The engineering and management success of this project led to the spread of the top-down approach through IBM and the rest of the computer industry. Among other achievements, Niklaus Wirth, the developer of Pascal programming language, wrote the influential paper Program Development by Stepwise Refinement. Since Niklaus Wirth went on to develop languages such as Modula and Oberon (where one could define a module before knowing about the entire program specification), one can infer that top-down programming was not strictly what he promoted. Top-down methods were favored in software engineering until the late 1980s,[3] and object-oriented programming assisted in demonstrating the idea that both aspects of top-down and bottom-up programming could be utilized.
Modern software design approaches usually combine both top-down and bottom-up approaches. Although an understanding of the complete system is usually considered necessary for good design, leading theoretically to a top-down approach, most software projects attempt to make use of existing code to some degree. Pre-existing modules give designs a bottom-up flavor. Some design approaches also use an approach where a partially functional system is designed and coded to completion, and this system is then expanded to fulfill all the requirements for the project
Programming[edit]
Building blocks are an example of bottom-up design because the parts are first created and then assembled without regard to how the parts will work in the assembly.
Top-down is a programming style, the mainstay of traditional procedural languages, in which design begins by specifying complex pieces and then dividing them into successively smaller pieces. The technique for writing a program using top–down methods is to write a main procedure that names all the major functions it will need. Later, the programming team looks at the requirements of each of those functions and the process is repeated. These compartmentalized sub-routines eventually will perform actions so simple they can be easily and concisely coded. When all the various sub-routines have been coded the program is ready for testing. By defining how the application comes together at a high level, lower level work can be self-contained. By defining how the lower level abstractions are expected to integrate into higher level ones, interfaces become clearly defined.
In a bottom-up approach, the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by which the beginnings are small, but eventually grow in complexity and completeness. Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a paradigm that uses "objects" to design applications and computer programs. In mechanical engineering with software programs such as Pro/ENGINEER, Solidworks, and Autodesk Inventor users can design products as pieces not part of the whole and later add those pieces together to form assemblies like building with LEGO. Engineers call this piece part design.
In a bottom-up approach, good intuition is necessary to decide the functionality that is to be provided by the module. If a system is to be built from an existing system, this approach is more suitable as it starts from some existing modules.
Parsing[edit]
Parsing is the process of analyzing an input sequence (such as that read from a file or a keyboard) in order to determine its grammatical structure. This method is used in the analysis of both natural languages and computer languages, as in a compiler.
Bottom-up parsing is a strategy for analyzing unknown data relationships that attempts to identify the most fundamental units first, and then to infer higher-order structures from them. Top-down parsers, on the other hand, hypothesize general parse tree structures and then consider whether the known fundamental structures are compatible with the hypothesis. See Top-down parsing and Bottom-up parsing.
Nanotechnology[edit]
Main article: Nanotechnology
Top-down and bottom-up are two approaches for the manufacture of products. These terms were first applied to the field of nanotechnology by the Foresight Institute in 1989 in order to distinguish between molecular manufacturing (to mass-produce large atomically precise objects) and conventional manufacturing (which can mass-produce large objects that are not atomically precise). Bottom-up approaches seek to have smaller (usually molecular) components built up into more complex assemblies, while top-down approaches seek to create nanoscale devices by using larger, externally controlled ones to direct their assembly. Certain valuable nanostructures, such as Silicon nanowires, can be fabricated using either approach, with processing methods selected on the basis of targeted applications.
The top-down approach often uses the traditional workshop or microfabrication methods where externally controlled tools are used to cut, mill, and shape materials into the desired shape and order. Micropatterning techniques, such as photolithography and inkjet printing belong to this category. Vapor treatment can be regarded as a new top-down secondary approaches to engineer nanostructures.[4]
Bottom-up approaches, in contrast, use the chemical properties of single molecules to cause single-molecule components to (a) self-organize or self-assemble into some useful conformation, or (b) rely on positional assembly. These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or molecular recognition. See also Supramolecular chemistry. Such bottom-up approaches should, broadly speaking, be able to produce devices in parallel and much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.
Neuroscience and psychology[edit]
An example of top-down processing: Even though the second letter in each word is ambiguous, top-down processing allows for easy disambiguation based on the context.
These terms are also employed in neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology to discuss the flow of information in processing.[5][page needed] Typically sensory input is considered "bottom-up", and higher cognitive processes, which have more information from other sources, are considered "top-down". A bottom-up process is characterized by an absence of higher level direction in sensory processing, whereas a top-down process is characterized by a high level of direction of sensory processing by more cognition, such as goals or targets (Beiderman, 19).[3]
According to college teaching notes written by Charles Ramskov,[who?] Rock, Neiser, and Gregory claim that top-down approach involves perception that is an active and constructive process.[6][better source needed] Additionally, it is an approach not directly given by stimulus input, but is the result of stimulus, internal hypotheses, and expectation interactions. According to Theoretical Synthesis, "when a stimulus is presented short and clarity is uncertain that gives a vague stimulus, perception becomes a top-down approach."[7]
Conversely, psychology defines bottom-up processing as an approach wherein there is a progression from the individual elements to the whole. According to Ramskov, one proponent of bottom-up approach, Gibson, claims that it is a process that includes visual perception that needs information available from proximal stimulus produced by the distal stimulus.[8][page needed][better source needed][9] Theoretical Synthesis also claims that bottom-up processing occurs "when a stimulus is presented long and clearly enough."[7]
Cognitively speaking, certain cognitive processes, such as fast reactions or quick visual identification, are considered bottom-up processes because they rely primarily on sensory information, whereas processes such as motor control and directed attention are considered top-down because they are goal directed. Neurologically speaking, some areas of the brain, such as area V1 mostly have bottom-up connections.[7] Other areas, such as the fusiform gyrus have inputs from higher brain areas and are considered to have top-down influence.[10][better source needed]
The study of visual attention provides an example. If your attention is drawn to a flower in a field, it may be because the color or shape of the flower are visually salient. The information that caused you to attend to the flower came to you in a bottom-up fashion—your attention was not contingent upon knowledge of the flower; the outside stimulus was sufficient on its own. Contrast this situation with one in which you are looking for a flower. You have a representation of what you are looking for. When you see the object you are looking for, it is salient. This is an example of the use of top-down information.
In cognitive terms, two thinking approaches are distinguished. "Top-down" (or "big chunk") is stereotypically the visionary, or the person who sees the larger picture and overview. Such people focus on the big picture and from that derive the details to support it. "Bottom-up" (or "small chunk") cognition is akin to focusing on the detail primarily, rather than the landscape. The expression "seeing the wood for the trees" references the two styles of cognition.[11]
Management and organization[edit]
In the fields of management and organization, the terms "top-down" and "bottom-up" are used to describe how decisions are made and/or how change is implemented.[12]
A "top-down" approach is where an executive decision maker or other top person makes the decisions of how something should be done. This approach is disseminated under their authority to lower levels in the hierarchy, who are, to a greater or lesser extent, bound by them. For example, when wanting to make an improvement in a hospital, a hospital administrator might decide that a major change (such as implementing a new program) is needed, and then the leader uses a planned approach to drive the changes down to the frontline staff (Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015).[12]
A "bottom-up" approach to changes one that works from the grassroots—from a large number of people working together, causing a decision to arise from their joint involvement. A decision by a number of activists, students, or victims of some incident to take action is a "bottom-up" decision. A bottom-up approach can be thought of as "an incremental change approach that represents an emergent process cultivated and upheld primarily by frontline workers" (Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015, p. 241).[12]
Positive aspects of top-down approaches include their efficiency and superb overview of higher levels.[12] Also, external effects can be internalized. On the negative side, if reforms are perceived to be imposed 'from above', it can be difficult for lower levels to accept them (e.g. Bresser-Pereira, Maravall, and Przeworski 1993). Evidence suggests this to be true regardless of the content of reforms (e.g. Dubois 2002). A bottom-up approach allows for more experimentation and a better feeling for what is needed at the bottom. Other evidence suggests that there is a third combination approach to change (see Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015).[12]
Public health[edit]
Both top-down and bottom-up approaches exist in public health. There are many examples of top-down programs, often run by governments or large inter-governmental organizations (IGOs); many of these are disease-specific or issue-specific, such as HIV control or Smallpox Eradication. Examples of bottom-up programs include many small NGOs set up to improve local access to healthcare. However, a lot of programs seek to combine both approaches; for instance, guinea worm eradication, a single-disease international program currently run by the Carter Center has involved the training of many local volunteers, boosting bottom-up capacity, as have international programs for hygiene, sanitation, and access to primary health-care.
Architecture[edit]
Often, the École des Beaux-Arts school of design is said to have primarily promoted top-down design because it taught that an architectural design should begin with a parti, a basic plan drawing of the overall project.[citation needed]
By contrast, the Bauhaus focused on bottom-up design. This method manifested itself in the study of translating small-scale organizational systems to a larger, more architectural scale (as with the woodpanel carving and furniture design).
Ecology[edit]
In ecology, top-down control refers to when a top predator controls the structure or population dynamics of the ecosystem. The classic example is of kelp forest ecosystems. In such ecosystems, sea otters are a keystone predator. They prey on urchins which in turn eat kelp. When otters are removed, urchin populations grow and reduce the kelp forest creating urchin barrens. In other words, such ecosystems are not controlled by productivity of the kelp but rather a top predator.
Bottom up control in ecosystems refers to ecosystems in which the nutrient supply and productivity and type of primary producers (plants and phytoplankton) control the ecosystem structure. An example would be how plankton populations are controlled by the availability of nutrients. Plankton populations tend to be higher and more complex in areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface.
There are many different examples of these concepts. It is common for populations to be influenced by both types of control.
See also[edit]
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
References cited[edit]
Palmer S.E., Rosch E., & Chase P. (1981). "Canonical Perspective and the Perception of Objects". In Long J. & Baddely A. Attention and performance IX. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. pp. 135–151. ISBN 075754889X. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Ramskov, Charles B. (2008). Psychology Notes. Kendall Hunt Publishing. ISBN 075754889X.
Solso, Robert L. (1998). Cognitive psychology (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 075754889X.
Citations and notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Top-Down Design (Introduction to Statistical Computing)". bactra.org. September 24, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cognitive Lie Detection: Response Time and Consistency of Answers as Cues to Deception - Springer". Journal of Business and Psychology. 24: 33–49. January 9, 1997. doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9090-8. Retrieved October 21, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "STEP: Scripts: Attention: Treisman and Gelade 1980". Step.psy.cmu.edu. March 13, 2003. Retrieved October 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Saghaei, Jaber; Fallahzadeh, Ali; Saghaei, Tayebeh (June 2016). "Vapor treatment as a new method for photocurrent enhancement of UV photodetectors based on ZnO nanorods". Sensors and Actuators A: Physical. 247: 150–155. doi:10.1016/j.sna.2016.05.050.
Jump up ^ Palmer (1981).[page needed]
Jump up ^ Ramskov (2008), p. 67.[better source needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Classics in the History of Psychology - Stroop (1935)". Psychclassics.asu.edu. August 15, 1934. Archived from the original on January 19, 2014. Retrieved October 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ramskov (2008).[page needed][better source needed]
Jump up ^ Solso (1998), p. 15.
Jump up ^ Ramskov (2008), p. 81.[better source needed]
Jump up ^ Biederman, I.; Glass, A. L.; Stacy, E. W. (1973). "Searching for objects in real world scenes". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 97: 22–27. doi:10.1037/h0033776.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stewart, Greg L.; Manges, Kirstin A.; Ward, Marcia M. "Empowering Sustained Patient Safety". Journal of Nursing Care Quality. 30 (3): 240–246. doi:10.1097/ncq.0000000000000103.
Further reading[edit]
Luiz Carlos Bresser-Pereira, José María Maravall, and Adam Przeworski, 1993. Economic reforms in new democracies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1-55587-532-7.
Dubois, Hans F.W. 2002. Harmonization of the European vaccination policy and the role TQM and reengineering could play. Quality Management in Health Care 10(2): 47–57.
J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, D. F. Doak "Killer Whale Predation on Sea Otters Linking Oceanic and Nearshore Ecosystems", Science, October 16, 1998: Vol. 282. no. 5388, pp. 473 – 476
Malone, T. C.; Conley, D. J.; Fisher, T. R.; Glibert, P. M.; Harding, L.W.; Sellner, K.G. (1996). "Scales of nutrient-limited phytoplankton productivity in Chesapeake Bay". Estuaries. 19: 371–385. doi:10.2307/1352457.
Galotti, K. (2008). Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the laboratory. USA: Wadsworth.
Goldstein, E.B. (2010). Sensation and Perception. USA: Wadsworth.
Biederman, I.; Glass, A. L.; Stacy, E. W. (1973). "Searching for objects in real world scenes". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 97: 22–27. doi:10.1037/h0033776.
Stewart, G. L.; Manges, K. A.; Ward, M. M. (2015). "Empowering sustained patient safety: the benefits of combining top-down and bottom-up approaches". Journal of nursing care quality. 30 (3): 240–246. doi:10.1097/ncq.0000000000000103.
External links[edit]
"Program Development by Stepwise Refinement", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 14, No. 4, April (1971)
Integrated Parallel Bottom-up and Top-down Approach. In Proceedings of the International Emergency Management Society's Fifth Annual Conference (TIEMS 98), May 19–22, Washington DC, USA (1998).
Changing Your Mind: On the Contributions of Top-Down and Bottom-Up Guidance in Visual Search for Feature Singletons, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol. 29, No. 2, 483–502, 2003.
K. Eric Drexler and Christine Peterson, Nanotechnology and Enabling Technologies, Foresight Briefing No. 2, 1989.
Empowering sustained patient safety: the benefits of combining top-down and bottom-up approaches
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text:
Pavel Chekov
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"Pavel Chekhov" redirects here. For the Russian tennis player, see Pavel Chekhov (tennis).
This name uses Eastern Slavic naming customs; the patronymic is Andreievich and the family name is Chekov.
Pavel Andreievich Chekov
Star Trek character
Walter Koenig as Pavel Andreievich Chekov
First appearance
"Amok Time" (TOS) (1967)
Portrayed by
Walter Koenig
(1967–94)
Anton Yelchin
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Information
Species
Human
Affiliation
United Federation of Planets
Starfleet
Posting
USS Enterprise - navigator, security/tactical officer
USS Reliant - first officer
USS Enterprise-A - navigator and first officer
Rank
Ensign (Star Trek)
Lieutenant (The Motion Picture)
Commander (STII – Generations)
Admiral (Star Trek: Renegades)
Pavel Andreievich Chekov (Russian: Павел Андреевич Чехов) is a fictional character in the Star Trek universe. Walter Koenig portrayed Chekov in the second and third seasons of the original Star Trek series and the first seven Star Trek films.
Anton Yelchin portrayed the character in the 2009 Star Trek reboot film and two sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond.
Contents
1 Origin
2 Depiction
2.1 Reboot films
3 Fan productions
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origin[edit]
Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry wanted to include a younger cast member to appeal to teenage audiences. With a second season of Star Trek to be produced, Roddenberry interviewed Walter Koenig on the recommendation of director Joseph Pevney.[1]:345 After casting Koenig, Roddenberry wrote a letter to Mikhail Zimyanin, editor of Pravda,[1]:344 informing him of the introduction of a Russian character, and an NBC press release announcing the character at the time stated that it was in response to a Pravda article.[2][3] Koenig always denied the "Russian origin" story and said the character was added in response to the popularity of The Monkees' Davy Jones, and the character's hairstyle and appearance are a direct reference to this.[4][5] Roddenberry had previously mentioned, in a memo to his casting director, a desire to have someone reminiscent of one of The Beatles or Monkees on the show.[1]:345
Koenig's modest height, eyes, thick eyebrows, boyish face, and smile were all strikingly evocative of the lone British "Monkee" who captivated millions of pre-teen girls. Early attempts were made to style Koenig's brown hair similar to that of Jones too. Wigs were used in a couple of early episodes but not in others, which reveals a stage of experimentation to attentive viewers. Eventually, a final and consistent look for Koenig's hair length and fullness was reached and used consistently thereafter.
After Paramount Television signed Koenig to a contract because of the number of fan letters he received as Chekov, Roddenberry wrote in another memo "Kirk and Spock and the others actually seem rather 'middle aged' to the large youthful segment of our audience. We badly need a young man aboard the Enterprise—we need youthful attitudes and perspectives. Chekov can be used potently here".[6] In actuality, Koenig is only five years younger than co-stars Leonard Nimoy and William Shatner.
The episode "Amok Time", which was the first episode aired during the second season, was Chekov's first television appearance. ("Catspaw", the first episode shot with the Chekov character, would be aired a month later to roughly coincide with Halloween.) Because of budgetary constraints, the character did not appear in the animated Star Trek.[1]:422
Depiction[edit]
Pavel Andreievich Chekov was born in 2241 in Russia[7] and is a young and naïve ensign who first appears on-screen in The Original Series’ second season as the Enterprise's navigator. According to Roddenberry, he is "an extraordinarily capable young man—almost Spock's equal in some areas. An honor graduate of the Space Academy."[6] Chekov also substitutes for Mr. Spock at the science officer station when necessary. His promotion to lieutenant for Star Trek: The Motion Picture brings with it his transfer as the ship's tactical officer and chief of security.
By the events of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Chekov is executive officer aboard the USS Reliant. In that film, Khan Noonien Singh uses a creature that wraps itself around Chekov's cerebral cortex to control him and his captain. Chekov overcomes the creature's mind control and serves as Enterprise tactical officer in the film's climactic battle.
Although Khan recognizes Chekov in the film, the Chekov character is not a visible part of the crew during "Space Seed", the first-season episode that introduces Khan. Adaptations: From Text to Screen, Screen to Text calls this "the apparent gaffe notorious throughout Star Trek fandom".[8] Koenig joked that Khan remembers Chekov from the episode after he takes too long in a restroom Khan wants to use.[9]
Chekov is an accomplice in Kirk's theft of the Enterprise to rescue Spock in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, but is exonerated in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. He serves as navigator aboard the Enterprise-A during the events of Star Trek V: The Final Frontier and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country. The character's final film appearance is as a guest aboard the Enterprise-B on its maiden voyage in Star Trek Generations.
Spinoff novels show a continued career path, but these are not considered canon in the Star Trek universe. Novels written by William Shatner detail that Chekov reaches the rank of admiral, and even serves as Commander in Chief of Starfleet.
Reboot films[edit]
Anton Yelchin as Pavel Chekov
The 2009 Star Trek film creates an alternate timeline in the franchise.[10] In this timeline, Anton Yelchin's portrayal presents Chekov as a 17-year-old prodigy whose mathematical ability proves instrumental in a few events within the film, and whose accent provides some of the film's comic relief.
In the sequel, Star Trek Into Darkness, Chekov finds himself promoted to chief engineer after Scotty resigns. When Kirk orders him to put on a red shirt, a brief sting is heard as a closeup shows Chekov's nervous face, playing on the reputation of redshirts in the franchise as much as the character's shock regarding his sudden promotion.
The third film, Star Trek Beyond, was Yelchin's final appearance as Chekov, the film seeing Chekov accompanying Kirk after the entire crew are marooned on an uncharted planet following the destruction of the Enterprise, forcing them to destroy the last of the Enterprise to escape a trap and later work with the rest of the senior staff to restart a long-lost Starfleet ship to escape the planet and defeat a plan to attack the Federation. Yelchin died in a car accident on June 19, 2016, little more than a month before its scheduled release on July 22, 2016. All of the filming had already taken place, and the film was in its post production phase, with the credits including dedication to his memory. J. J. Abrams, producer of the reboot trilogy and director of its first two films, has stated that the role will not be recast for future sequels, implying the character of Chekov will be written out in future films.
Fan productions[edit]
Walter Koenig reprised his role as Chekov 12 years after Star Trek Generations in the fan-created series New Voyages episode "To Serve All My Days". Andy Bray portrayed a younger Chekov in that episode. Koenig reprised the character again in Star Trek: Renegades as 143-year-old Admiral Chekov, the newly appointed head of Section 31. He has stated that should there be a sequel, he would reprise Chekov and then retire from the role. He also returned as Chekov in the online miniseries Star Trek: Of Gods and Men.
In scientific illustrator Jenny Parks' 2017 book Star Trek Cats, Chekov is depicted as a Russian Blue.[11][12][13]
See also[edit]
Star Trek portal
Fictional characters portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Solow, Herbert; Justman, Robert (1997). Inside Star Trek: The Real Story. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-00974-5.
Jump up ^ Barbara and David P. Mikkelson (2005-04-11). "Russian Crewlette". Urban Legends Reference Pages.
Jump up ^ Paul A. Cantor (2001). Gilligan Unbound: Popular Culture in the Age of Globalization. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 222. ISBN 0-7425-0779-3.
Jump up ^ Source: The Making of Star Trek, by Stephen E. Whitfield and Gene Roddenberry, (c) 1968 Ballantine Books, pps 249-250
Jump up ^ TV Guide, September 4–10, 1993 p 20
^ Jump up to: a b Roddenberry, Gene (April 18, 1968), Kirk, Spock and Other Continuing STAR TREK Characters (memo), pp. 4–5
Jump up ^ Mandel, Geoffrey (1980). USS Enterprise Officer's Manual. 201W 18th St. Apt 20A, New York, NY. 10011: Inplmmml [terstellar Associates. p. 17.
Jump up ^ See p. 180. It is also noted as a typical continuity error in the sociological study of television Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participitory Culture by Henry Jenkins p. 104 as well as being flagged as major in the trivia-oriented book Oops!: Movie Mistakes That Made the Cut by Matteo Molinari, Jim Kamm p. 196
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas 2004: Thursday's Highlights". www.startrek.com. July 30, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ Burr, Ty (May 5, 2009). "Star Trek". The Boston Globe. p. 1. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ Sue (27 April 2017). "Interview: Star Trek Cats' Jenny Parks". Women at Warp. womenatwarp.com. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Nevin, Will (2 March 2017). "The serious absurdity (and purrfection) of Jenny Parks and 'Star Trek Cats'". OregonLive.com. Advance Publications. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Olson, Laurie Kay (16 December 2017). "Jenny Parks Cat Art Is Feline Nerdvana!". Petslady.com. Halcyon Solutions Inc. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
External links[edit]
Pavel Chekov at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)
"Pavel Chekov" at STARTREK.COM
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Triangular trade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Depiction of the classical model of the Triangular trade
Depiction of the Triangular Trade of slaves, sugar, and rum with New England instead of Europe as the third corner
Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions.
Historically the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so-called "trade winds"; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. A similar triangle to this, called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese, before Christopher Columbus' voyage, to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores. Columbus simply expanded the triangle outwards, and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach, and return from, the Americas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Atlantic triangular slave trade
1.1 New England
2 Other triangular trades
3 Notes
4 External links
Atlantic triangular slave trade[edit]
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See also: Atlantic slave trade
The best-known triangular trading system is the transatlantic slave trade, that operated from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, carrying slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers, with the northern colonies of British North America, especially New England, sometimes taking over the role of Europe.[1] The use of African slaves was fundamental to growing colonial cash crops, which were exported to Europe. European goods, in turn, were used to purchase African slaves, who were then brought on the sea lane west from Africa to the Americas, the so-called Middle Passage.[2]
Diagram illustrating the stowage of African slaves on a British slave ship.
A classic example is the colonial molasses trade. Sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from the Caribbean was traded to Europe or New England, where it was distilled into rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe, restarting the cycle. The trip itself took five to twelve weeks.
The loss of the slaver Luxborough Galley in 1727 ("I.C. 1760"), lost in the last leg of the triangular trade, between the Caribbean and Britain.
The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to Africa, in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as copper, cloth, trinkets, slave beads, guns and ammunition.[3] When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. On the second leg, ships made the journey of the Middle Passage from Africa to the New World. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port,[4] from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from Virginia, tobacco and hemp. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.
However, because of several disadvantages that slave ships faced compared to other trade ships, they often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas and filled up a large part or all of their capacity with ballast. Other disadvantages include the different form of the ships (to carry as many humans as possible, but not ideal to carry a maximum amount of produce) and the variations in the duration of a slave voyage, making it practically impossible to pre-schedule appointments in the Americas, which meant that slave ships often arrived in the Americas out-of-season. Instead, the cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back. The Triangular trade is a trade model, not an exact description of the ship's route.[5]

A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder technology to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade by making it easier for Africans to enslave each other: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5-year gun-slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50%, and the impact continued to grow over time."[6]
New England[edit]
New England also benefited from the trade, as many merchants from New England, especially the state of Rhode Island, replaced the role of Europe in the triangle. New England also made rum from the Caribbean sugar and molasses, which it shipped to Africa as well as within the New World.[7] Yet, the "triangle trade" as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton.[8] The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden.[9] The song "Molasses to Rum" from the musical 1776 vividly describes this form of the triangular trade.
Other triangular trades[edit]
The term "triangular trade" also refers to a variety of other trades.
A trade pattern which evolved before the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain, the Colonies of British North America, and British colonies in the Caribbean. This typically involved exporting raw resources, such as fish (especially salt cod), agricultural produce or lumber, from British North American colonies to slaves and planters in the West Indies; sugar and molasses from the Caribbean; and various manufactured commodities from Great Britain.[10]
The shipment of Newfoundland salt cod and corn from Boston in British vessels to southern Europe.[11] This also included the shipment of wine and olive oil to Britain.
A new "sugar triangle" developed in the 1820s and 1830s whereby American ships took local produce to Cuba, then brought sugar or coffee from Cuba to the Baltic coast (Russian Empire and Sweden), then bar iron and hemp back to New England.[12]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ About.com: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Accessed 6 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "Triangular Trade". National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on 25 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Accessed 28 March 2007.
Jump up ^ A. P. Middleton, Tobacco Coast.
Jump up ^ Emmer, P.C.: The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series CS614, 1998.
Jump up ^ Whatley, Warren C. "The Gun-Slave Hypothesis and the 18th Century British Slave Trade". Explorations in Economic History. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2017.07.001.
Jump up ^ Slavery in Rhode Island Slavery in the North Accessed 11 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Wayne. And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006–2007. ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4. page 117.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Wayne. And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006–2007. ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4. p. 119.
Jump up ^ Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker, 1997. ISBN 0-8027-1326-2.
Jump up ^ Morgan, Kenneth. Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-33017-3. pp. 64–77.
Jump up ^ Chris Evans and Göran Rydén, Baltic Iron in the Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century : Brill, 2007 ISBN 978-90-04-16153-5, 273.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Triangular trade.
The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database, a portal to data concerning the history of the triangular trade of transatlantic slave trade voyages.
Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice
[show]
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List of sugars and sugar products
Chemistry
Fructose
Galactose
Glucose
Lactose
Maltose
Sucrose
Trehalose
Xylose
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Free sugar
Reducing sugar
Sources
Sugar beet
Sugarcane
Agave nectar
Birch
Coconut
Date
Honeydew
Maple
Palm
Products
Syrups
Candi sugar
Cheong
Maesil-cheong
Mogwa-cheong
Yuja-cheong
Corn syrup
Glucose syrup
Golden syrup
High-fructose corn syrup
High-maltose corn syrup
Honey
Inverted sugar syrup
Kuromitsu
Maple syrup
Molasses
Pine honey
Steen's cane syrup
Treacle
Solid forms
Brown
Peen tong
Chancaca
Crystalline fructose
Gelling
Gula melaka
Jaggery
Misri
Mizuame
Molasses sugar
Muscovado
Nib
Non-centrifugal cane sugar
Panela
Plantation Reserve
Powdered
Preserving
Rock candy
Sucanat
Sugar candy
Barley sugar
Butterscotch
Candy
Hard
Toffee
Sugar glass
Sugarloaf
Wasanbon
Other forms
Caramel
Cotton candy floss
Maple sugar foods
Rum
Sugar alcohol
Sugar confectionery
Sugarcane juice
Tuzemák
Unrefined sweeteners
Industry
Production
Boilery
Plantation
Casa grande
Refinery
Sugar bush
Sugar cane mill
Engenho
Batey
Zafra
By region (current)
Cuba
Caribbean
Philippines
Sri Lanka
U.S. Sugar Program
By region (historical)
Danish West Indies
Fiji
Hawaii
History
Amelioration Act 1798
Blackbirding
Colonial molasses trade
Demerara rebellion of 1823
Holing cane
Molasses Act
Reciprocity Treaty of 1875
Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
Sugar Act
Sugar Duties Act 1846
Sugar Intervention
Taiwan Sugar Railways
Triangular trade
Culture
Crop over
Sugar house
Sugaring
Sugar nips
Sugar packet
Sucrology
Sugar people
Sugar tit
Sugar sculpture
Treacle mine
Related
Added sugar
Australian Aboriginal sweet foods
Bagasse
Barley malt syrup
Brown rice syrup
Cane knife
Flavored syrup
Fruit syrup
Date honey
Grape
Jallab
Health effects
Nectar
Sugar addiction
Sugars in wine
Residual sugar
Sugar substitute
Sweetened beverage
Sweetener
Sweetness
Vinasse
Yacón syrup
Category
Production
[show]
v
t
e
Part of a series on trade routes
Amber Road
Hærvejen
Incense Route
Dvaravati–Kamboja route
King's Highway
Rome-India routes
Royal Road
Salt road
Siberian Route
Silk Road
Maritime Silk Road
Spice Route
Tea Horse Road
Varangians to the Greeks
Via Maris
Triangular trade
Volga trade route
Trans-Saharan trade
Old Salt Route
Maritime republics
Hanseatic League
Grand Trunk Road
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triangular_trade&oldid=800666901"
Categories:
History of the Atlantic Ocean
Shipping routes
Slavery in North America
History of sugar
Slavery in the British Empire
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