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Constitution of Kenya
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The Constitution of Kenya is the supreme law of the Republic of Kenya. There have been three significant versions of the constitution, with the most recent redraft being enabled in 2010. The 2010 edition replaced the 1963 independence constitution. The constitution was presented to the Attorney General of Kenya on 7 April 2010, officially published on 6 May 2010, and was subjected to a referendum on 4 August 2010.[1] The new Constitution was approved by 67% of Kenyan voters.[2] The constitution was promulgated on 27 August 2010.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Brief history of constitutional reform in Kenya
2 Government Structure
2.1 The Executive
2.2 The Legislature
2.3 Judiciary
3 Devolution
4 Citizenship
5 Disagreements over reform
6 International reaction
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Brief history of constitutional reform in Kenya[edit]
Main article: Constitutional reforms in Kenya
Kenya has had two major constitutional reforms involving wholly new texts since gaining independence: in 1969 and in 2010. In 1969, the 1963 independence constitution was replaced with a new text that entrenched amendments already made to the system of government that the independence constitution had contemplated.[4]
These changes included: changing the structure of the state from a federal, or Majimbo system, to a unitary system; creating a unicameral instead of bicameral legislature; changing from a parliamentary to a semi-presidential system with a powerful presidency; and reducing the protections of the bill of rights. Further amendments to the 1969 constitution were later effected, including, in 1982, the institution of a de jure single party government.[5]
The demand for a new constitution to replace the 1969 text with a more democratic system began in the early 1990s, with the end of the Cold War and democratic changes taking place elsewhere in Africa. The single party system was ended in 1991, and the first presidential election took place in 1992. Calls for a comprehensive review of the 1969 Constitution intensified in the late 1990s and early 2000s, helped by the victory of the opposition National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) party in the 2002 general elections. Official and civil society consultation processes led to the adoption of what became known as the "Bomas draft" constitution (after the location of the conference that adopted it).[6]
However, substantial amendments were nonetheless made to this draft prior to a referendum in 2005, resulting in a split in the then ruling coalition. The Liberal Democratic Party faction of the government, led by Raila Odinga, and supported by KANU led a successful 'No' vote against the amended Bomas Draft (called the Wako draft after the alleged mastermind of the changes). The review of the Constitution stalled and negotiations over the adoption of a new text seemed deadlocked. A deadlock only finally broken by the intervention of the African Union through a mediation team headed by Kofi Annan, following the outbreak of serious post-election violence in early 2008.
==Drafting process for the 2010 Constitution
The Constitution of Kenya was the final document resulting from the revision of the Harmonized draft constitution of Kenya written by the Committee of Experts initially released to the public on 17 November 2009 so that the public could debate the document and then parliament could decide whether to subject it to a referendum in June 2010. The public was given 30 days to scrutinise the draft and forward proposals and amendments to their respective members of parliament, after which a revised draft was presented to the Parliamentary Committee on 8 January 2010. The Parliamentary Select Committee (PSC) revised the draft and returned the draft to the Committee of Experts[7] who published a Proposed Constitution on 23 February 2010 that was presented to Parliament for final amendments if necessary.
After failing to incorporate over 150 amendments to the proposed constitution, parliament unanimously approved the proposed constitution on 1 April 2010. The proposed constitution was presented to the Attorney General of Kenya on 7 April 2010, officially published on 6 May 2010, and was subjected to a referendum on 4 August 2010.[1] The new Constitution was approved by 67% of Kenyan voters.[2]
Government Structure[edit]
The key changes proposed by the new constitution released are in the following areas:
Separation of Powers between the Three arms of government i.e. Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
The Executive – who holds executive authority and the qualifications.[8]
The Legislature – the composition, and representation of the people. An introduction of an upper house – the Senate.[9]
The Judiciary – qualations to hold office and appointment.[10]
Devolution – only two levels of Government: National and Counties.[11]
Citizenship – among other issues, gender discrimination was ended, and citizens who acquire foreign citizenship will not lose their Kenyan citizenship.[12]
Gains achieved
An advanced Bill of Rights that among other things recognizes Socio-Economic rights of the Kenyan citizens. (Chapter Four).
The removal of age limit of 35 years to run for president. New draft allows people to run as long as they are of adult age. Article 137(b)
Right to Recall legislators(Senators and Members of the National Assembly).(Article 104)
Representation in elective bodies has to effectively meet a gender equity constitutional requirement, namely that no more than two-thirds of members shall be from either gender in its make up. Chapter 7, Article 81(b)
Integrity Chapter, requires an Independent Ethics Commission to be set up that will monitor compliance with Integrity in all government institutions and make investigations,recommendations to the necessary authorities i.e. Attorney General and any other relevant authority.(Chapter Six)
An advanced Human Rights and Equality Commission that will also have power to investigate and summon people involved in Human Rights abuses within the government and with the public.(Article 252)
Equitable Sharing of resources between the National government and the County government through a resolution of Parliament. Chapter 12- Part 4.
An Equalization Fund to improve basic access to basic needs of the marginalized communities. (Article 204).
Any member of the Public has a right to bring up a case against the government on the basis of infringement of Human Rights and the Bill of Rights – Article 23(1)(2). The courts and government institutions are bound to the Bill of Rights as per the constitution Article 2(1), Article 10(1).
The Salaries and Remuneration Commission that is an Independent entity and has the power of regularly reviewing salaries of all State officers to ensure the Compensation bill is fiscally sustainable. Article 230(5).
Independence of the Judiciary is affirmed Article 160.
An Independent National Land Commission created to Maintain oversight and manage all Land(Public) belonging to National and County Government and recommend policy on addressing complaints from public,advise the National government on ways of improving National and County land management,planning,dispute resolution. Article 67.
Environmental Rights are recognized under Chapter 5(Part 2)
Freedom of Media establishment from penalty on expression, by the State on any Opinion and dissemination of media. Article 34. This is subject to the Article 33.
The Executive[edit]
The executive at the top most levels will be constituted of a president, deputy president and the Cabinet.
Key functions of the president
Shall be the Head of state & Head of government of the Republic of Kenya.
Shall not be a member of parliament
Commander-in-Chief – and will declare war and state emergency upon approval by the National Assembly and Cabinet respectively.
Head of Government – will wield executive authority and will co-ordinate and supervise all major sections of the executive branch.
Shall nominate, appoint with prior approval of the national assembly, and dismiss Cabinet Secretaries.
Preside over Cabinet meetings.
Shall assent bills into law or refer them back to parliament for further review.
Shall nominate, and after approval of Parliament, appoint a Chief Justice.
Shall nominate, and after approval of Parliament, appoint an Attorney General
Shall nominate, and after approval of Parliament, appoint a Director of Public prosecution.
Shall appoint Judges to the Superior Court recommended to him/her by an independent Judiciary Service Commission.
Shall appoint Ambassadors/High Commissioners to Kenyan embassies abroad.
The Legislature[edit]
The Legislative branch is bicameral and will constitute of the following An upper house – the Senate
Each of the 47 counties will have a Senator
A senator will be elected by the voters.
Tentative total number of Senators will be 60.
Presides over presidential impeachment hearings (article 145)
A lower house – the National Assembly
Each constituency (290 the number gazetted by Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission in October 2012).
Majority of the Members of National Assembly will be directly elected by voters
There will be a Women's Representative MP elected from each county – therefore guaranteeing a minimum of 47 women MPs in the National Assembly.
Tentative total number of MPs will be 347.
Votes to investigate and impeach the president (article 145)
County Assemblies and Executive
The country will be divided to approximately 47 counties – the counties are comparable to the current districts.
Each county will have a County Executive headed by a county governor elected directly by the people and;
A county assembly elected with representatives from wards within the county.
Judiciary[edit]
Main article: Judiciary of Kenya
There will be three superior courts:
Supreme Court – highest judiciary organ consisting of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and five other judges. This court will handle appeals from the Appeals and Constitutional courts. It will also preside over presidential impeachment proceedings.
Court of Appeal – will handle appeal cases from the High Court and as prescribed by Parliament. It will constitute not less than 12 judges and will be headed by a president appointed by the chief justice.
An independent Judicial Service Commission has been set up to handle the appointment of judges. They will recommend a list of persons to be appointed as judges by the president (this article will be enforced after the transitional period). The commission will consist of the following:
A Supreme Court judge – elected by members of the Supreme Court to chair the commission
Court of Appeal judge – elected by members of the Court of Appeals to chair the commission
The Attorney-General
Two advocates, one a woman and one a man, each of whom has at least fifteen years' experience, nominated by the statutory body responsible for the professional regulation of advocates
One person nominated by the Public Service Commission.
Attorney General
Shall be appointed by the president – with approval from the National Assembly
Hold office for only one term of not more than 6 years.
Devolution[edit]
Devolution to the county governments will only be autonomous in implementation of distinct functions as listed in the Fourth Schedule (Part 2). This is in contrast with the Federal System in which Sovereignty is Constitutionally divided between the Federal government and the States. The Kenyan Devolution system still maintains a Unitary Political Concept as a result of distribution of functions between the two levels of government under the Fourth schedule and also as result of Article 192 which gives the president the power to suspend a county government under certain conditions.
A conflict of laws between the two levels of government is dealt with under Article 191 where National legislation will in some cases override County legislation. The relationship between the National Government and the Counties can be seen as that of a Principal and a limited autonomy Agent as opposed to an Agent and Agent relation in the Federal System.
More checks and balances have been introduced as requirements for accountability of both levels of government. The Parliament( Senate and National Assembly) has much discretion on the budgetary allocations to the County Governments. Every Five years the Senate receives recommendations from the Commission of Revenue Allocation (Article 217) and a resolution is passed on the criteria for Revenue allocation.
The National Government is constitutionally barred from intruding wilfully with the county government role and function under the Fourth Schedule. Exceptions may require parliamentary approval (Article 191 and 192). The National Government has a role to play in the County level by performing all the other functions that are not assigned to the County Government as listed on the Fourth Schedule (Part 1).
Citizenship[edit]
The new constitution makes important reforms to the previous framework on citizenship, in particular by ending gender discrimination in relation to the right of a woman to pass citizenship to her children or spouse; by ending the prohibition on dual citizenship; and by restricting the grounds on which citizenship may be taken away. The text has been criticised, however, for not providing sufficient protections against statelessness for children or adults.[13]
A person is a citizen by birth if on the day of the person's birth, whether or not the person is born in Kenya, either the mother or father of the person is a citizen (Art 14(1)).
A person who has been married to a citizen for a period of at least seven years is entitled on application to be registered as a citizen (Art 15(1)).
A person who has been lawfully resident in Kenya for a continuous period of at least seven years, and who satisfies the conditions prescribed by an Act of Parliament, may apply to be registered as a citizen (Art 15(2)).
A person who is a citizen does not lose citizenship by reason only of acquiring the citizenship of another country (Art 16) and persons who are citizens of other countries may acquire Kenyan citizenship (Art 15(4)).
A person who as a result of acquiring the citizenship of another country ceased to be a Kenyan citizen is entitled, on application, to regain Kenyan citizenship (Art 14(5)).
Disagreements over reform[edit]
After the draft of the constitution was released the type of government which would be implemented with the constitution was a debate amongst the various government coalitions.[14][15] The two major political parties,the Party of National Unity (PNU) and the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) disagreed on many points.[14] the greatest discrepancy in opinion was over the nature of the executive branch of the government.[14]
The economic interest represented by the Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA), openly opposed the new style of government.[14] Eventually the contentious issue of the position of Prime Minister was removed. The remaining contentious issues primarily concern abortion, Kadhi courts and land reform.
Mainstream Christian leaders in Kenya object to the constitution
The Proposed Constitution of Kenya in Sec 26(4) reiterates and reaffirms the current Kenyan penal code by stating: Abortion is not permitted unless, in the opinion of a trained health professional, there is need for emergency treatment, or the life or health of the mother is in danger, or if permitted by any other written law. However, the church insists that the weak drafting of the clause, especially the last two parts, could allow for the same clause to be used to enact laws or justify procurement of on-demand abortion.[16]
The Proposed Constitution of Kenya in Sec 24(4) exempts a section of society that profess Islam as their religion from broad sections of the Bill of Rights that relate with Personal Status, Marriage, Divorce and Inheritance.
The Proposed Constitution of Kenya in Sec 170 Provides for the Establishment of Kadhi Courts.
The Proposed Constitution of Kenya in Sec 170 (2)a Discriminates against all other sectors of society by limiting the Kadhi's Job opportunity only to persons that Profess the Muslim Religion. The church leaders also insist that for the clarity of the separation of religion and state doctrine and equality of religion, the Kadhi courts should not be in the constitution.
A three Judge Bench of the High Court has since in a landmark ruling of a case filed six-year ago, declared the inclusion of the Kadhi court illegal and against the principles of non-discrimination, separation of religion and state and constitutionalism.[17] A section of the Muslim leadership has vowed to retaliate the ruling by seeking their own judicial declaration that the teaching of Christian religious Education in public school curriculum is illegal.[18] The education curriculum includes religious education syllabus for both Christianity and Islam.
International reaction[edit]
Generally the whole world praised the approach that the Kenyans took to constitutional reform, seeing it as a viable way to keep corruption in check.[19] United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said that "I am pleased that they have taken this step, which represents a major milestone."[19] Other United States diplomats also commented on the unity and meaningful intent which Kenyans were presenting in approaching the reform.[19]
Non-profits concerned with civil society and other reforms also praised the approach.[19] For example, the Africa director for the International Foundation for Electoral Systems said that "The fact that they are bringing in stakeholders to lend their voice and make recommendations will strengthen civil society because they will keep a close eye on the process and, if it is passed, will ensure that it is respected and properly implemented."[19]
Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon stated: "On behalf of the Government of Canada, I wish to congratulate Kenya on the adoption of its new constitution. This is a significant achievement and an important moment in Kenya's history. We welcome the leadership shown by President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Amolo Odinga within the Grand Coalition Government in bringing Kenyans together to tackle their future and make progress through dialogue, and in implementing the reforms set out in the country's Kenya's 2007–2008 election violence and should reaffirm its complete cooperation and commitment to the ICC.".[20]
Researchers at the UK-based Overseas Development Institute have praised the 2010 Constitution as a positive step forwards in terms of securing greater equity for women and children in Kenya, highlighting "A new narrative for social justice" and "Institutional reforms to strengthen accountability".[21] However, they stress that a constitution alone will not generate the desired changes; what matters is how the constitutional commitments are translated into policy and practice.
See also[edit]
Constitution of Kenya (1963)
Constitutional Reforms in Kenya
Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2005
Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2010
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Kenya referendum date set", Daily Nation, 14 May 2010
^ Jump up to: a b "New Kenyan Constitution Ratified". Voice of America. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Institutional Reform in the New Constitution of Kenya", International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ)
Jump up ^ See Preston Chitere, Ludeki Chweya, Japhet Masya, Arne Tostensen and Kamotho Waiganjo,"Kenya Constitutional Documents: A Comparative Analysis" Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2006, for a chronology of constitutional negotiations.
Jump up ^ See Preston Chitere, Ludeki Chweya, Japhet Masya, Arne Tostensen and Kamotho Waiganjo,"Kenya Constitutional Documents: A Comparative Analysis" Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2006, for a chronology of constitutional negotiations.
Jump up ^ See Preston Chitere, Ludeki Chweya, Japhet Masya, Arne Tostensen and Kamotho Waiganjo,"Kenya Constitutional Documents: A Comparative Analysis" Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2006, for a chronology of constitutional negotiations.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "New Laws, the principle structures of the National Executive, Authority of the president, election and disqualification of the president of Kenya". Kenyayetu.comxa.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "Establishment,role,composition,membership,offices,procedures and general rules,new laws of kenya". Kenyayetu.comxa.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "Judicial system of Kenya, supreme court, appeal,high court,kadhi's, chief justice and Establishment of the Judicial Service Commission". Kenyayetu.comxa.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "Devolution of power, devolved system of government and objects of devolution". Kenyayetu.comxa.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "voting 2010,chapter 3 The Proposed Constitution of Kenya". Kenyayetu.comxa.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ Citizenship Rights in Africa Initiative, Comments on the Citizenship Provisions of the Draft Kenyan Constitution (draft dated 23 February 2010)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Clottey, Peter (15 December 2009). "Human Rights Official Says Kenyans Want an Accountable Government". VOA. Retrieved 18 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Kenyan parties wrangle over powers of future presidents". Afrique in ligne. 17 December 2009. Retrieved 18 December 2009.
Jump up ^ http://www.nation.co.ke/News/politics/Church%20adamant%20on%20No%20vote%20in%20new%20law%20/-/1064/893606/-/5upiogz/-/index.html
Jump up ^ http://www.nation.co.ke/News/Kadhi%20courts%20illegal%20judges%20rule/-/1056/924614/-/rcndgfz/-/index.html
Jump up ^ "The Standard | Online Edition :: We will act if Kadhis’ Courts go, say irked Muslim leaders". Standardmedia.co.ke. 4 July 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fisher, Jim (8 December 2009). "Clinton, Africa Experts Laud Kenya Constitution Reform Process Ambassador Ranneberger hopes "historic opportunity" is not lost". America.gov. Retrieved 18 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Canada Welcomes Kenya's New Constitution". Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. 30 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
Jump up ^ Domingo, P. and Wild, L. (2012)Will Kenya's 2010 Constitution work for women and children? Overseas Development Institute Briefing Paper http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6577-kenya-constitution-women-children
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Constitution of Kenya (2010)
Website of the Committee of Experts on Constitutional Review
Constitution of Kenya via Embassy of the Republic of Kenya, Washington, D.C.
The Proposed Constitution of Kenya, published 6 May 2010
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Glossophobia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Glossophobia or speech anxiety is the fear of public speaking.[1] The word glossophobia derives from the Greek γλῶσσα glōssa, meaning tongue, and φόβος phobos, fear or dread. Some people have this specific phobia, while others may also have broader social phobia or social anxiety disorder.
Stage fright may be a symptom of glossophobia.[1]
Contents
1 Symptoms
2 Research
3 Help and relief
4 Causes
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
Symptoms[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Symptoms include:
intense anxiety prior to, or simply at the thought of having to verbally communicate with any group,
avoidance of events which focus the group's attention on individuals in attendance,
physical distress, nausea, or feelings of panic in such circumstances.
The more specific symptoms of speech anxiety can be grouped into three categories: physical, verbal, and non-verbal. Physical symptoms result from the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responding to the situation with a "fight-or-flight" reaction.
During the phobic response, adrenaline secretion produces a wide array of symptoms which enhances the "fight or flight" response. As Garcia-Lopez (2013)[2] has noted, symptoms can include acute hearing, increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilated pupils, increased perspiration and oxygen intake, stiffening of neck/upper back muscles, and dry mouth. Uncontrollable shaking is also common and often occurs prior to the phobia-eliciting stimulus. Symptoms may sometimes be alleviated or mitigated by medications such as beta-blockers.
Verbal symptoms of the fight or flight response include (but are not limited to) a tense or quivering voice, and vocalized pauses (which tend to comfort anxious speakers). One form of speech anxiety is dysfunctional speech anxiety in which the intensity of the fight-or-flight response prevents an individual from performing effectively.
Research[edit]
Many people report stress-fueled speech disorders which are only present during public speech. Some individuals with glossophobia have been able to dance, perform in public, or even to speak (such as in a play), or sing if they cannot see the audience, or if they feel that they are presenting a character or stage persona other than themselves. Being able to blend in a group (as in a choir or band) has been reported to also alleviate some anxiety caused by glossophobia.
It has been estimated that 75% of all people experience some degree of anxiety/nervousness when it comes to public speaking.[3] If untreated, public speaking anxiety can lead to serious detrimental effects on one's quality of life, career goals and other areas. For example, educational goals requiring public speaking might be left unaccomplished. However, not all persons with public speaking anxiety are necessarily unable to achieve work goals, though this disorder becomes problematic when it prevents an individual from attaining or pursuing a goal they might otherwise have – were it not for their anxiety.
A recent study conducted by Garcia-Lopez, Diez-Bedmar, and Almansa-Moreno (2013) has reported that previously trained students could act as trainers to other students and help them to improve their public speaking skills.[4]
Help and relief[edit]
Training courses in public speaking and/or organizations such as Australian Rostrum, Toastmasters International, POWERtalk International, and Association of Speakers Clubs can help people to reduce their fear of public speaking to manageable levels. Self-help materials that address public speaking are among the best selling self-help topics.[citation needed] To temporarily treat their phobia, some affected people have turned to certain types of medications, typically beta blockers.[5]
In some cases, anxiety can be mitigated by a speaker not attempting to resist their anxiety, thus fortifying the anxiety/fight-or-flight loop. Other strategies involve using one's nervousness to enliven an otherwise fearful speech presentation.[6] A speaker's anxiety can also be reduced if they know their topic well and believe in it. It has been suggested that people should practice speaking in front of smaller, less intimidating groups when they're getting started in public speaking. Additionally, focusing on friendly, attentive people in the audience has been found to help.
Traditional advice has been to urge fearful speakers not to take themselves too seriously, and to be reminded that mistakes are often unnoticed by audiences. Gaining experience in public speaking often results in it becoming less anxiety-provoking over time. Recent studies suggest that there is a close link between fear of public speaking and self-efficacy and that attempts to help presenters improve their self-efficacy will also reduce this fear.[7][8][9]
Loosening up a "tough crowd" by asking questions promotes audience participation. A speaker may also find this exercise to be helpful when their mind "goes blank", as it gives them time to regain their train of thought.
Causes[edit]
The causes of glossophobia may vary. Often, it can be linked to traumatic experiences, or fearful events occurring during childhood, adolescence and early adulthood in which the speaker endured a traumatic childhood experience related to the public speaking. Genetics may also play a role, as might evolutionary factors.[10] In addition, other key causes of this anxiety have been identified as the novelty of the experience, the characteristics of the audience, the illusion of transparency and the degree to which the speaker identifies public speaking as a performance as opposed to an act of communication.[9]
An uncommon cause for glossophobia may come from a medical condition or a health concern. A serious brain injury can lead to different phobias, including glossophobia.[11]
See also[edit]
List of phobias
Selective mutism
Telephone phobia
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fritscher, Lisa. "Glossophobia". About.com. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Garcia-Lopez, L.J. (2013). Treating...social anxiety disorder. Madrid: Piramide.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, C. (2008) [2005]. Communicating for Results, a Guide for Business and the Professions (eighth edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ Garcia-Lopez, L. J.; Diez-Bedmar, M.B. & Almansa-Moreno, J.M. (2013). "From being a trainee to being a trainer: helping peers improve their public speaking skills". Journal of Psychodidactics. 18 (2): 331–342. doi:10.1387/RevPsicodidact.6419.
Jump up ^ Fadden, Helen (November 2016). "Glossophobia – Everything You Need to Know". thehealthyapron.com/.
Jump up ^ Grice, George L. (2015). Mastering Public Speaking 9th Edition. Pearson. p. 29. ISBN 0133753832.
Jump up ^ Hassall, Trevor; Arquero, Jose L.; Joyce, John; Gonzalez, Jose M. (12 July 2013). "Communication apprehension and communication self‐efficacy in accounting students". Asian Review of Accounting. 21 (2): 160–175. doi:10.1108/ARA-03-2013-0017 – via emeraldinsight.com (Atypon).
Jump up ^ Limon E. Kattington, ed. (2010). Handbook of Curriculum Development (PDF). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-61122-882-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Ireland, Christopher (March 2016). Student oral presentations: developing the skills and reducing the apprehension. 10th Annual International Technology, Education and Development Conference. Valencia, Spain. doi:10.21125/inted.2016.1317.
Jump up ^ Choices, NHS. "Phobias - Causes - NHS Choices".
Jump up ^ "Phobias". Healthline.
Bibliography[edit]
Rothwell, J. Dan. In The Company of Others: An Introduction to Communication. New York: McGraw Hill, 2004.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossophobia&oldid=854107924"
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My Old Man (short story)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Ernest Hemingway in 1923
"My Old Man" is a short story written by Ernest Hemingway, published in his 1923 book Three Stories and Ten Poems, which published by a small Paris imprint.[1] The story was also included in his next collection of stories, In Our Time, published in New York in 1925 by Boni & Liveright. The story tells of a boy named Joe whose father is a steeplechase jockey, and is narrated from Joe's point-of-view.[2]
"My Old Man" was written in 1922. As one of Hemingway's earliest stories, it is generally regarded by critics as juvenilia, along with "Up in Michigan", also published in Three Stories and Ten Poems. Critical attention focuses chiefly on three issues: Sherwood Anderson's influence, the story's narrative structure, and the question of whether Joe's father is moral or immoral.[3]
The story was the basis for the 1950 film Under My Skin, and the 1979 television film My Old Man.
Contents
[hide]
1 Publication history
2 Summary
3 Themes and style
4 Reception
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
Publication history[edit]
Hemingway and his wife Hadley lived in Paris, where he was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star from 1922 until Hadley became pregnant in 1923 when they returned to Toronto.[4] During his absence, Bill Bird's Parisian Three Mountains Press published a small collection of Hemingway's work, Three Stories and Ten Poems, which included "My Old Man".[3] During the "great suitcase debacle" of the previous year, when a suitcase containing all of Hemingway's manuscripts was stolen from Hadley at a Paris train station, "My Old Man" was one of two stories to survive because it was in the post to editors.[5]
In 1925 the story was reprinted in the New York edition of In Our Time, published by Boni & Liveright.[6]
Summary[edit]
The story opens with Joe living in Italy with his father, Butler, who is a steeplechase jockey, riding in races on tracks in the Milan and Turin area. One day Joe sees two men, one named Holbrook, engage in a tense conversation with his father. After, Butler says to his son, "You got to take a lot things in this world, Joe."[7]
This Kzar is a great big yellow horse …. I never saw such a horse. He was being led around the paddocks with his head down and when he went by me I felt all hollow he was so beautiful. There was never such a wonderful, lean, running built horse.
— "My Old Man"[8]
They pack their belongings and move to Paris, taking rooms at Maisons-Laffitte, where Joe plays in the woods with the local boys. For some reason unknown to him, his father rarely races in France, but he frequents the race tracks with Joe. At one race Joe is captivated by a large horse named Kzar; he cannot imagine any of the other horses winning. Yet Kzar loses by a nose and his father wins a large amount of money who placed a large bet against the favorite at the recommendation of Kzar's jockey, Gardner.
He buys an Irish thoroughbred named Gilferd, trains it, and begins racing again. On his second outing at a race in Auteuil, Gildferd fails to make the final jump and falls on top of Butler, killing him. Gardner takes Joe, who is crying, away from the track. As they leave, Joe overhears a man say to another, "Well, Butler got his all right." Gardner says, "Don't you listen to what those bums said, Joe. Your old man was one swell guy."[9] Joe is unconvinced. The story ends with these lines: "But I don't know. Seems like when they get started, they don't leave a guy nothing."[9]
Themes and style[edit]
"My Old Man" has received little critical attention, and is more often thought of as one of Hemingway's apprentice story, or as juvenilia.[3] Yet in 1924, only two years later, he would write two of the strongest stories in his canon, "Indian Camp" and "Big Two-Hearted River".[5] Hemingway critic Thomas Strychaz writes that "My Old Man" is generally accepted as the weakest story in In Our Time, yet he says its importance lies in advancing themes of American expatriates in post-World War I Europe, weak or "toppled fathers", social corruption and innocence betrayed.[10]
Hemingway critic Wendolyn Tetlow writes "My Old Man" is an initiation story, similar to "Indian Camp" where a young boy's innocence is stripped away, and that it is told from the child's point-of-view in a first person narrative.[11] Despite the childlike tone of the narrative, which often displays sentimentality or nostalgia for the boy's father, Joe is fully aware of the intent of the comment he overhears. He understands bitterly that his father's reputation is damaged, stating "when they get started, they don't leave a guy nothing".[12]
Tetlow says Joe learns that his father, a man who refused to fix races, is killed because he was being true to himself.[11] Not all critics agree and readings of the story vary. Butler is perceived variously as crooked and deeply corrupt, morally bereft, to "not a son of a bitch" or "benevolently honorable".[13] The owners, jockeys and bettors in the horse racing world are seen as corrupt,[10] but Hemingway does not reveal explicitly whether Butler is at odds with others because he is moral, or at odds because he is throwing races.[3] Phillip Sipiora writes that the narrative mode, which filters the reader's view through the eyes of a 12-year-old child, shapes the confusion about Butler's honor.[13]
The narrative's time frame is equally confusing. It is not clear whether Joe tells the story as a 12-year-old whose father has just died, or whether he is telling the story as an adult. It is a complex narrative style, presenting multiple temporal perspectives and a subjective perception of reality, which make it difficult for the reader to know the truth.[14]
Reception[edit]
Since its publication "My Old Man" has continued to be anthologized, often because of the unusual narrative structure, according to Sipiora.[15] In Our Time received good reviews; Edmund Wilson described the writing as "of the first distinction";[16] and biographer Mellow writes the volume is a Hemingway's masterpiece.[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Oliver (1999), 230
Jump up ^ Oliver (1999), 230-231
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sipiora (1992), 43
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 15–18
^ Jump up to: a b Smith (1996), 42
Jump up ^ Tetlow (1992), 47
Jump up ^ Hemingway (1925), 118
Jump up ^ Hemingway (1925), 121
^ Jump up to: a b Hemingway (1925), 129
^ Jump up to: a b Strychacz (1996), 79
^ Jump up to: a b Tetlow (1992), 87
Jump up ^ Tetlow (1992), 88
^ Jump up to: a b Sipiora (1992), 45
Jump up ^ Sipiora (1992), 46
Jump up ^ Sipiora (1992), 44
Jump up ^ qtd. in Wagner-Martin (2002), 4
Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 266–267
Sources[edit]
Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3
Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
Mellow, James. (1992) Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-3953-7777-2
Sipiora, Phillip. (1992) "Ethical Narration in 'My Old Man'". in Beegel, Susan, Hemingway's Neglected Short Fiction. Tuscaloosa: Alabama UP. ISBN 978-0-8173-0586-4
Smith, Paul. (1996). "1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45479-7
Strychacz, Thomas. (1996). "'In Our Time', Out of Season". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45479-7
Tetlow, Wendolyn E. (1992). Hemingway's "In Our Time": Lyrical Dimensions. Cranbury NJ: Associated University Presses. ISBN 978-0-8387-5219-7
External links[edit]
Ernest Hemingway Collection, JFK Library
[show]
v
t
e
Ernest Hemingway
Bibliography
Novels
The Torrents of Spring (1926)
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
To Have and Have Not (1937)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
Across the River and into the Trees (1950)
The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
Non-fiction
Death in the Afternoon (1932)
Green Hills of Africa (1935)
Posthumous
A Moveable Feast (1964)
Islands in the Stream (1970)
The Dangerous Summer (1985)
The Garden of Eden (1986)
True at First Light (1999)
Under Kilimanjaro (2005)
Short stories
"Indian Camp" (1925)
"The Doctor and the Doctor's Wife" (1925)
"The End of Something" (1925)
"The Three-Day Blow" (1925)
"The Battler" (1925)
"A Very Short Story" (1925)
"Soldier's Home" (1925)
"The Revolutionist" (1925)
"Mr. and Mrs. Elliot" (1925)
"Cat in the Rain" (1925)
"Out of Season" (1925)
"Cross Country Snow" (1925)
"My Old Man" (1925)
"Big Two-Hearted River" (1925)
"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" (1926)
"A Canary for One" (1926)
"Fifty Grand" (1927)
"Hills Like White Elephants" (1927)
"The Killers" (1927)
"The Undefeated" (1927)
"Che Ti Dice La Patria?" (1927)
"In Another Country" (1927)
"On the Quai at Smyrna" (1930)
"Fathers and Sons" (1932)
"A Day's Wait" (1933)
"The Gambler, the Nun, and the Radio" (1933)
"A Way You'll Never Be" (1933)
"The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1936)
"The Capital of the World" (1936)
"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" (1936)
Short story
collections
Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923)
In Our Time (1925)
Men Without Women (1927)
Winner Take Nothing (1933)
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938)
The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1961)
The Fifth Column and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War (1969)
The Nick Adams Stories (1972)
The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway (1987)
Ernest Hemingway: The Collected Stories (1995)
Story fragments
"On Writing"
Poetry
88 Poems (1979)
Complete Poems
Letters and
journalism
Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961 (1981)
Dateline: Toronto (1985)
The Cambridge Edition of the Letters of Ernest Hemingway (2011)
Adaptations
The Sun Also Rises
1957 film
1984 film
Opera
The Select (The Sun Also Rises)
Ballet
"The Killers"
1946 film
1956 film
1964 film
Bukowski short story
A Farewell to Arms
1932 film
1957 film
1966 TV series
To Have and Have Not
1944 film
The Breaking Point (1950)
The Gun Runners (1958)
Captain Khorshid (1987)
For Whom the Bell Tolls
1943 film
1965 TV series
Metallica song
The Old Man and the Sea
1958 film
1990 miniseries
1999 film
Other film adaptations
The Macomber Affair (1947)
The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952)
Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man (1962)
Islands in the Stream (1977)
See also
Nick Adams
Michigan cottage
Idaho house
Key West home
Hotel Ambos Mundos, Havana home
Finca Vigía, Cuba home
Pilar (boat)
The Spanish Earth (1937 film)
Bacall to Arms (1946 cartoon)
Hello Hemingway (1990 film)
In Love and War (1996 film)
Hemingway & Gellhorn (2012 film)
Cooper & Hemingway: The True Gen (2013 documentary)
Papa: Hemingway in Cuba (2015 film)
Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award
Kennedy Library Hemingway collection
Family
Elizabeth Hadley Richardson (first wife)
Jack Hemingway (son)
Pauline Pfeiffer (second wife)
Patrick Hemingway (son)
Gregory Hemingway (son)
Martha Gellhorn (third wife)
Mary Welsh Hemingway (fourth wife)
Grace Hall Hemingway (mother)
Leicester Hemingway (brother)
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Earth's orbit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Earth at different points in its orbit
Earth's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi),[1] and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi).[2] Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day.[nb 1] Earth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.[3]
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of study
2 Influence on Earth
3 Events in the orbit
4 Future
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History of study[edit]
Main article: Heliocentrism
Heliocentric Solar System
Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel)
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe[4] in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution" resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus's groundbreaking book...had been [printed] over a century earlier, [the Dutch mapmaker] Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world."[5]
Influence on Earth[edit]
Main article: Season
Because of Earth's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons.[6]
Events in the orbit[edit]
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices – the two points in the Earth's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun – and the equinoxes – the two points in the Earth's orbit where the Earth's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23.[7] The effect of the Earth's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%[8] in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.[9]
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon.[10][nb 2] This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
Orbital characteristics
epoch J2000.0[nb 3]
aphelion 152.10×10^6 km (94.51×10^6 mi)
1.0167 AU[nb 4]
perihelion 147.10×10^6 km (91.40×10^6 mi)
0.98329 AU[nb 4]
semimajor axis 149.60×10^6 km (92.96×10^6 mi)
1.000001018 AU[11]
eccentricity 0.0167086[11]
inclination 7.155° to Sun's equator
1.578690°[12] to invariable plane
longitude of the ascending node 174.9°[11]
longitude of perihelion 102.9°[11]
argument of periapsis 288.1°[11][nb 5]
period 365.256363004 days[13]
average speed 29.78 km/s (18.50 mi/s)[3]
107,200 km/h (66,600 mph)
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis — nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis — farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23.[7] The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).[14]
Future[edit]
Main article: Stability of the Solar System
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs" of stability for the Solar System.[15] By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.[16]
In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time.[17] Modeling the Solar System is subject to the n-body problem.
See also[edit]
Astronomy portal
Astronomical unit
Barycenter
Earth's axial tilt
Earth's rotation
Geocentric orbit – the orbit of any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or an artificial satellite
Satellite
Space station
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Our planet takes about 365 days to orbit the Sun. A full orbit has 360°. That fact demonstrates that each day, the Earth travels roughly 1° in its orbit. Thus, the Sun will appear to move eastward across the sky relative to the stars by that same amount.
Jump up ^ For the Earth, the Hill radius is
R H = a ( m 3 M ) 1 / 3 , {\displaystyle R_{H}=a\left({\frac {m}{3M}}\right)^{1/3},}
where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an astronomical unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about ( 1 3 ⋅ 332 946 ) 1 / 3 ≈ 0.01 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {1}{3\cdot 332\,946}}\right)^{1/3}\approx 0.01} .[citation needed]
Jump up ^ All astronomical quantities vary, both secularly and periodically. The quantities given are the values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.
^ Jump up to: a b aphelion = a × (1 + e); perihelion = a × (1 – e), where a is the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
Jump up ^ The reference lists the longitude of perihelion, which is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node and the argument of perihelion. Subtracting from that (102.937°) the node longitude of 174.873° gives −71.936°. Adding 360° gives 288.064°. That addition does not change the angle but expresses it in the usual 0–360° range for longitudes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sun: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jean Meeus, Astronomical Algorithms 2nd ed, ISBN 0-943396-61-1 (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1998) 238. See Ellipse#Circumference. The formula by Ramanujan is accurate enough.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, David R. (2004-09-01). "Earth Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Johannes Petreius. 1543.
Jump up ^ Jerry Brotton, A History of the World in Twelve Maps, London: Allen Lane, 2012, ISBN 9781846140990 p. 262.
Jump up ^ "What causes the seasons? (NASA)". Retrieved January 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Date & Time of Solstices & Equinoxes". August 28, 2013. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. See "Orbital characteristics" table. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% of the radiation at aphelion.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Williams, Jack (2005-12-20). "Earth's tilt creates seasons". USAToday. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ Vázquez, M.; Montañés Rodríguez, P.; Palle, E. (2006). "The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets" (PDF). Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Simon, J.L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N. (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer. p. 294. ISBN 0-387-98746-0.
Jump up ^ The figure appears in multiple references, and is derived from the VSOP87 elements from section 5.8.3, p. 675 of the following: Simon, J. L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ "What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle?". Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Laskar, J. (2001). "Solar System: Stability". In Murdin, Paul. Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astropvhysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. article 2198.
Jump up ^ Gribbin, John (2004). Deep simplicity : bringing order to chaos and complexity (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6256-0.
Jump up ^ "Earth-Venus smash-up possible". June 11, 2009. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
External links[edit]
Media related to Earth's orbit at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
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