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The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
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Not to be confused with Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections.
A page of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (simplified Chinese: 九章算术; traditional Chinese: 九章算術; pinyin: Jiǔzhāng Suànshù) is a Chinese mathematics book, composed by several generations of scholars from the 10th–2nd century BCE, its latest stage being from the 2nd century CE. This book is one of the earliest surviving mathematical texts from China, the first being Suan shu shu (202 BCE – 186 BCE) and Zhoubi Suanjing (compiled throughout the Han until the late 2nd century CE). It lays out an approach to mathematics that centres on finding the most general methods of solving problems, which may be contrasted with the approach common to ancient Greek mathematicians, who tended to deduce propositions from an initial set of axioms.
Entries in the book usually take the form of a statement of a problem, followed by the statement of the solution, and an explanation of the procedure that led to the solution. These were commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Table of contents
3 Accessibility
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty
The full title of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art appears on two bronze standard measures which are dated to 179 CE, but there is speculation that the same book existed beforehand under different titles.[1]
Most scholars believe that Chinese mathematics and the mathematics of the ancient Mediterranean world had developed more or less independently up to the time when the Nine Chapters reached its final form. The method of chapter 7 was not found in Europe until the 13th century, and the method of chapter 8 uses Gaussian elimination before Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).[2] There is also the mathematical proof given in the treatise for the Pythagorean theorem.[3] The influence of The Nine Chapters greatly assisted the development of ancient mathematics in the regions of Korea and Japan. Its influence on mathematical thought in China persisted until the Qing Dynasty era.
Liu Hui wrote a very detailed commentary on this book in 263. He analyses the procedures of the Nine Chapters step by step, in a manner which is clearly designed to give the reader confidence that they are reliable, although he is not concerned to provide formal proofs in the Euclidean manner. Liu's commentary is of great mathematical interest in its own right. Liu credits the earlier mathematicians Zhang Cang (fl. 165 BCE - d. 142 BCE) and Geng Shouchang (fl. 75 BCE-49 BCE) (see armillary sphere) with the initial arrangement and commentary on the book, yet Han Dynasty records do not indicate the names of any authors of commentary, as they are not mentioned until the 3rd century.[4]
The Nine Chapters is an anonymous work, and its origins are not clear. Until recent years, there was no substantial evidence of related mathematical writing that might have preceded it, with the exception of mathematical work by those such as Jing Fang (78–37 BCE), Liu Xin (d. 23), and Zhang Heng (78–139) and the geometry clauses of the Mozi of the 4th century BCE. This is no longer the case. The Suàn shù shū (算數書) or writings on reckoning is an ancient Chinese text on mathematics approximately seven thousand characters in length, written on 190 bamboo strips. It was discovered together with other writings in 1983 when archaeologists opened a tomb in Hubei province. It is among the corpus of texts known as the Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts. From documentary evidence this tomb is known to have been closed in 186 BCE, early in the Western Han dynasty. While its relationship to the Nine Chapters is still under discussion by scholars, some of its contents are clearly paralleled there. The text of the Suàn shù shū is however much less systematic than the Nine Chapters; and appears to consist of a number of more or less independent short sections of text drawn from a number of sources. The Zhoubi Suanjing, a mathematics and astronomy text, was also compiled during the Han, and was even mentioned as a school of mathematics in and around 180 CE by Cai Yong.
Table of contents[edit]
Contents of The Nine Chapters are as follows:
方田 Fangtian - Bounding fields. Areas of fields of various shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, and circles; manipulation of vulgar fractions. Liu Hui's commentary includes a method for calculation of π and the approximate value of 3.14159.[5]
粟米 Sumi - Millet and rice. Exchange of commodities at different rates; unit pricing; the Rule of Three for solving proportions, using fractions.
衰分 Cuifen - Proportional distribution. Distribution of commodities and money at proportional rates; deriving arithmetic and geometric sums.
少廣 Shaoguang - Reducing dimensions. Finding the diameter or side of a shape given its volume or area. Division by mixed numbers; extraction of square and cube roots; diameter of sphere, perimeter and diameter of circle.
商功 Shanggong - Figuring for construction. Volumes of solids of various shapes.
均輸 Junshu - Equitable taxation. More advanced word problems on proportion, involving work, distances, and rates.
盈不足 Yingbuzu - Excess and deficit. Linear problems (in two unknowns) solved using the principle known later in the West as the rule of false position.
方程 Fangcheng - The two-sided reference (i.e. Equations). Problems of agricultural yields and the sale of animals that lead to systems of linear equations, solved by a principle similar to Gaussian elimination.
勾股 Gougu - Base and altitude. Problems involving the principle known in the West as the Pythagorean theorem.
Accessibility[edit]
Abridged English translation: Florian Cajori: Arithmetic in Nine Sections, 1893.
Abridged English translation: Lam Lay Yong: Jiu Zhang Suanshu, An Overview, Archive for History of Exact Science, 1994 Springer Verlag.
A full translation and study of the Nine Chapters and Liu Hui's commentary is available in SHEN Kangshen "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" Oxford 1999. ISBN 0-19-853936-3
A French translation with detailed scholarly addenda and a critical edition of the Chinese text of both the book and its commentary is Chemla, Karine, and Shuchun Guo. 2004. Les neuf chapitres: le classique mathématique de la Chine ancienne et ses commentaires. Paris: Dunod. ISBN 978-2-10-049589-4.
German translation: Kurt Vogel: Neun Bücher Arithmetischer Technik, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn Braunsweig 1968
Russian translation: E. I Beriozkina: Mathematika V Devyati Knigah (Математика в девяти книгах), Moscow Science Press 1980.
Japanese translation.
See also[edit]
Haidao Suanjing
History of mathematics
History of geometry
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Needham, Volume 3, 24-25.
Jump up ^ Straffin, 164.
Jump up ^ Needham, Volume 3, 22.
Jump up ^ Needham, Volume 3, 24.
Jump up ^ O'Connor.
References[edit]
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Straffin, Philip D. "Liu Hui and the First Golden Age of Chinese Mathematics," Mathematics Magazine (Volume 71, Number 3, 1998): 163–181.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Liu Hui", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews .
External links[edit]
Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article:
九章算术
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Skyler Shaye
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Skyler Shaye
Shaye at MuchMusic for a MuchOnDemand episode, 2007
Born
Skyler Anna Shaye
(1986-10-14) 14 October 1986 (age 31)
Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actress
Years active
1995–present
Skyler Anna Shaye (born October 14, 1986) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Cloe in Bratz: The Movie and as Kylie in Superbabies: Baby Geniuses 2.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Acting career
2 Filmography
3 References
4 External links
Acting career[edit]
Shaye has been acting since a child. Her first role was in The Tin Soldier, a film directed by her godfather, actor Jon Voight.[2]
She then went on to work in film and television. She had a recurring role on the remake of the old Family Affair for the Warner Brother's Network. She then appeared in the HBO film Manhood. After that she guest starred in the Grey's Anatomy pilot episode "A Hard Day's Night". She also guest starred on Criminal Minds and Veronica Mars.
Filmography[edit]
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1995 Whispering, TheThe Whispering Ghost Girl Direct to-DVD
2003 Manhood Lily
2004 Superbabies: Baby Geniuses 2 Kylie Bobbins
2005 Berkeley Blonde at Library
2006 Legend of Simon Conjurer, TheThe Legend of Simon Conjurer Lulu
2007 Bratz: The Movie Cloe
2012 Beyond Megan Direct to-DVD
2013 Baby Geniuses and the Mystery of the Crown Jewels Kylie Bobbins Direct to-DVD
2014 Baby Geniuses and the Space Baby Kylie Bobbins Direct to-DVD
2015 Baby Geniuses and the Treasures of Egypt Kylie Bobbins Direct to-DVD
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2002 Family Affair Sutton Ramsey 4 episodes
2005 Grey's Anatomy Katie Bryce Episode: A Hard Day's Night
2006 Criminal Minds Ingrid Greisen Episode: The Tribe
Veronica Mars Natalie Landers Episode: I Am God
2015 Ray Donovan Cindy 7 episodes
2016 Grey's Anatomy Katie Bryce Episode: My Next Life
JL Ranch Lynn Landsburg TV Movie
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Interview by Marie Morreale. "Scholastic News: News". Teacher.scholastic.com. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Jon Voight's Goddaughter Breaks Out". OK! Magazine. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
External links[edit]
Skyler Shaye on IMDb
Skyler Shaye on Twitter
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 26865511
LCCN: no2008022520
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skyler_Shaye&oldid=801219579"
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World War III
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"Third World War" redirects here. For the band, see Third World War (band).
For other uses, see World War III (disambiguation).
World War III (WWIII or WW3) and the Third World War are names given to a hypothetical third worldwide large-scale military conflict subsequent to World War I and World War II. The term has been in use since at least as early as 1941. Some have applied it loosely to refer to limited or smaller conflicts such as the Cold War or the War on Terror, while others have operated under the assumption that such a conflict would surpass both prior World Wars in both the level of its widespread scope and of its overall destructive impact.[1]
Because of the development and use of nuclear weapons near the end of World War II and their subsequent acquisition and deployment by many countries, the potential risk of a nuclear devastation of Earth's civilization and life is a common theme in speculations of a Third World War. Another major concern is that biological warfare could cause a very large number of casualties, either intentionally or inadvertently by an accidental release of a biological agent, the unexpected mutation of an agent, or its adaptation to other species after use. High-scale apocalyptic events like these, caused by advanced technology used for destruction, could potentially make Earth's surface uninhabitable.
Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been the "war to end all wars," as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the inter-war period between the two World Wars, WWI was typically referred to simply as "The Great War". The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already "outgrown" the need for such widespread global wars.
With the advent of the Cold War in 1947 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction), had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet. The spectre of the potential of the absolute destruction of the human race may have contributed to the ability of both American and Soviet leaders to avoid such a scenario.
The Cold War ended in 1991 when the Soviet Union dissolved, leaving the United States as the sole global superpower of the time. With the end of the Cold War, it was believed that the likelihood of a fully unrestricted nuclear confrontation between two superpowers was significantly diminished.
Contents
[hide]
1 Coinage
1.1 Time magazine
2 Military plans
2.1 Operation Unthinkable
2.2 Operation Dropshot
2.3 Exercises Grand Slam, Longstep, and Mainbrace
2.4 Operation Strikeback
2.5 Exercise Reforger
2.6 Seven Days to the River Rhine
2.7 Exercise Able Archer
2.8 Strategic Defense Initiative
2.9 NATO nuclear sharing
3 Historical close calls
3.1 Korean War: 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953
3.2 Cuban Missile Crisis: 15–28 October 1962
3.3 Yom Kippur War super-power tensions: 6–25 October 1973
3.4 NORAD computer error of 1979: 9 November 1979
3.5 "Petrov save" incident: 26 September 1983
3.6 Able Archer escalations: 2–11 November 1983
3.7 Norwegian rocket incident: 25 January 1995
4 Extended usage of the term
4.1 Cold War
4.2 War on Terror
4.2.1 War on ISIL
4.3 Multiple small wars as a "third war"
5 Views on the likely outcome and definition of WWIII
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Coinage
Time magazine
Time magazine was an early adopter if not originator of the "World War III." Perhaps the first usage appears in its November 3, 1941, issue (preceding the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941) under its "National Affairs" section and entitled "World War III?" about Nazi refugee Dr. Hermann Rauschning, who had just arrived in the United States.[2] In its March 22, 1943, issue under its "Foreign News" section, Time reused the same title "World War III?" with regard to statements by then-Vice President Henry A. Wallace: "We shall decide some time in 1943 or 1944... whether to plant the seeds of World War III."[3][4] Time continued to entitle with or mention in stories the term "World War III" for the rest of the decade (and onwards): 1944,[5][6] 1945,[7][8] 1946 ("bacterial warfare"),[9] 1947,[10] and 1948.[11] (Time persists in using this term, e.g., this 2015 book review, entitled "This Is What World War III Will Look Like."[12])
Military plans
Military planners have been war gaming various scenarios, preparing for the worst, since the early days of the Cold War. Some of those plans are now out of date and have been partially or fully declassified.[citation needed]
Operation Unthinkable
Main article: Operation Unthinkable
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was concerned that, with the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of WWII and the unreliability of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, there was a serious threat to Western Europe. In April–May 1945, British Armed Forces developed Operation Unthinkable, thought to be the first scenario of the Third World War.[13] Its primary goal was "to impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire".[14] The plan was rejected by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee as militarily unfeasible.
Operation Dropshot
Main article: Operation Dropshot
"Operation Dropshot" was the 1950s United States contingency plan for a possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union in the Western European and Asian theaters.
At the time the US nuclear arsenal was limited in size, based mostly in the United States, and depended on bombers for delivery. "Dropshot" included mission profiles that would have used 300 nuclear bombs and 29,000 high-explosive bombs on 200 targets in 100 cities and towns to wipe out 85% of the Soviet Union's industrial potential at a single stroke. Between 75 and 100 of the 300 nuclear weapons were targeted to destroy Soviet combat aircraft on the ground.
The scenario was devised prior to the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It was also devised before President John F. Kennedy and his Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara changed the US Nuclear War plan from the 'city killing' countervalue strike plan to a "counterforce" plan (targeted more at military forces). Nuclear weapons at this time were not accurate enough to hit a naval base without destroying the city adjacent to it, so the aim in using them was to destroy the enemy industrial capacity in an effort to cripple their war economy.
Exercises Grand Slam, Longstep, and Mainbrace
Main articles: Exercise Longstep, Exercise Grand Slam, and Exercise Mainbrace
In January 1950, the North Atlantic Council approved NATO's military strategy of containment.[15] NATO military planning took on a renewed urgency following the outbreak of the Korean War in the early 1950s, prompting NATO to establish a "force under a centralised command, adequate to deter aggression and to ensure the defence of Western Europe". Allied Command Europe was established under General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, US Army, on 2 April 1951.[16][17] The Western Union Defence Organization had previously carried out Exercise Verity, a 1949 multilateral exercise involving naval air strikes and submarine attacks.
Exercise Mainbrace brought together 200 ships and over 50,000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway from Russian attack in 1952. It was the first major NATO exercise. The exercise was jointly commanded by Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic Admiral Lynde D. McCormick, USN, and Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Matthew B. Ridgeway, US Army, during the autumn of 1952.
The US, UK, Canada, France, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Netherlands, and Belgium all participated.
Exercises Grand Slam and Longstep were naval exercises held in the Mediterranean Sea during 1952 to practice dislodging an enemy occupying force and amphibious assault. It involved over 170 warships and 700 aircraft under the overall command of Admiral Carney. The overall exercise commander, Admiral Carney summarized the accomplishments of Exercise Grand Slam by stating: "We have demonstrated that the senior commanders of all four powers can successfully take charge of a mixed task force and handle it effectively as a working unit."[citation needed]
The USSR called the exercises "war-like acts" by NATO, with particular reference to the participation of Norway and Denmark, and prepared for its own military maneuvers in the Soviet Zone.[18][19]
Operation Strikeback
Main article: Operation Strikeback
This was a major NATO naval exercise held in 1957, simulating a response to an all-out Soviet attack on NATO. The exercise involved over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 75,000 personnel from the United States Navy, the United Kingdom's Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, the French Navy, the Royal Netherlands Navy, and the Royal Norwegian Navy. As the largest peacetime naval operation up to that time, Operation Strikeback was characterized by military analyst Hanson W. Baldwin of The New York Times as "constituting the strongest striking fleet assembled since World War II".[20]
Exercise Reforger
If activated, Operation Reforger would have largely consisted of convoys like this one from Operation Earnest Will in 1987, though much larger. While troops could easily fly across the Atlantic, the heavy equipment and armor reinforcements would have to come by sea.
Main article: Exercise Reforger
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Exercise Reforger (from return of forces to Germany) was an annual exercise conducted, during the Cold War, by NATO. The exercise was intended to ensure that NATO had the ability to quickly deploy forces to West Germany in the event of a conflict with the Warsaw Pact. The Warsaw Pact outnumbered NATO throughout the Cold War in conventional forces, especially armor. Therefore, in the event of a Soviet invasion, in order not to resort to tactical nuclear strikes, NATO forces holding the line against a Warsaw Pact armored spearhead would have to be quickly resupplied and replaced. Most of this support would have come across the Atlantic from the US and Canada.
Reforger was not merely a show of force—in the event of a conflict, it would be the actual plan to strengthen the NATO presence in Europe. In that instance, it would have been referred to as Operation Reforger. Important components in Reforger included the Military Airlift Command, the Military Sealift Command, and the Civil Reserve Air Fleet.
Seven Days to the River Rhine
Main article: Seven Days to the River Rhine
A Warsaw Pact invasion would have come via three main paths through Germany
Seven Days to the River Rhine was a top secret military simulation exercise developed in 1979 by the Warsaw Pact. It started with the assumption that NATO would launch a nuclear attack on the Vistula river valley in a first-strike scenario, which would result in as many as two million Polish civilian casualties.[21] In response, a Soviet counter-strike would be carried out against West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark, with Warsaw Pact forces invading West Germany and aiming to stop at the River Rhine by the seventh day. Other USSR plans stopped only upon reaching the French border on day nine. Individual Warsaw Pact states were only assigned their own subpart of the strategic picture; in this case, the Polish forces were only expected to go as far as Germany. The Seven Days to the Rhine plan envisioned that Poland and Germany would be largely destroyed by nuclear exchanges, and that large numbers of troops would die of radiation sickness. It was estimated that NATO would fire nuclear weapons behind the advancing Soviet lines to cut off their supply lines and thus blunt their advance. While this plan assumed that NATO would use nuclear weapons to push back any Warsaw Pact invasion, it did not include nuclear strikes on France or the United Kingdom. Newspapers speculated when this plan was declassified, that France and the UK were not to be hit in an effort to get them to withhold use of their own nuclear weapons.
Exercise Able Archer
Main article: Able Archer 83
President Ronald Reagan and Soviet double agent Oleg Gordievsky, who later told the west how close the Able Archer 83 exercise had brought the Soviets to ordering a First Strike.
Exercise Able Archer was an annual exercise by the United States military in Europe that practiced command and control procedures, with emphasis on transition from solely conventional operations to chemical, nuclear, and conventional operations during a time of war.
"Able Archer 83" was a five-day North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) command post exercise starting on 7 November 1983, that spanned Western Europe, centered on the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) Headquarters in Casteau, north of the city of Mons. Able Archer exercises simulated a period of conflict escalation, culminating in a coordinated nuclear attack.[22]
The realistic nature of the 1983 exercise, coupled with deteriorating relations between the United States and the Soviet Union and the anticipated arrival of strategic Pershing II nuclear missiles in Europe, led some members of the Soviet Politburo and military to believe that Able Archer 83 was a ruse of war, obscuring preparations for a genuine nuclear first strike.[22][23][24][25] In response, the Soviets readied their nuclear forces and placed air units in East Germany and Poland on alert.[26][27] This "1983 war scare" is considered by many historians to be the closest the world has come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.[28] The threat of nuclear war ended with the conclusion of the exercise on 11 November.[29][30]
Strategic Defense Initiative
Main article: Strategic Defense Initiative
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by US President Ronald Reagan on 23 March 1983.[31] In the later part of his Presidency, numerous factors (which included watching the 1983 movie The Day After and hearing through a Soviet defector that Able Archer 83 almost triggered a Russian first strike) had turned Ronald Reagan against the concept of winnable nuclear war, and he began to see nuclear weapons as more of a "wild card" than a strategic deterrent. Although he later believed in disarmament treaties slowly blunting the danger of nuclear weaponry by reducing their number and alert status, he also believed a technological solution might allow incoming ICBMs to be shot down, thus making the US invulnerable to a first strike. However the USSR saw the SDI concept as a major threat, since unilateral deployment of the system would allow the US to launch a massive first strike on the Soviet Union without any fear of retaliation.
The SDI concept was to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative.
NATO nuclear sharing
Main article: Nuclear sharing
NATO operational plans for a Third World War have involved NATO allies who do not have their own nuclear weapons, using nuclear weapons supplied by the United States as part of a general NATO war plan, under the direction of NATO's Supreme Allied Commander.
Of the three nuclear powers in NATO (France, the United Kingdom and the United States), only the United States has provided weapons for nuclear sharing. As of November 2009[update], Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey are still hosting US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy.[32][33] Canada hosted weapons until 1984,[34] and Greece until 2001.[32][35] The United Kingdom also received US tactical nuclear weapons such as nuclear artillery and Lance missiles until 1992, despite the UK being a nuclear weapons state in its own right; these were mainly deployed in Germany.
In peace time, the nuclear weapons stored in non-nuclear countries are guarded by US airmen though previously some artillery and missile systems were guarded by US Army soldiers; the codes required for detonating them are under American control. In case of war, the weapons are to be mounted on the participating countries' warplanes. The weapons are under custody and control of USAF Munitions Support Squadrons co-located on NATO main operating bases who work together with the host nation forces.[32]
As of 2005[update], 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs of the 480 US nuclear weapons believed to be deployed in Europe fall under the nuclear sharing arrangement.[36] The weapons are stored within a vault in hardened aircraft shelters, using the USAF WS3 Weapon Storage and Security System. The delivery warplanes used are F-16s and Panavia Tornados.[37]
Historical close calls
Main article: Nuclear warfare
See also: List of nuclear close calls
With the initiation of the Cold War arms race in the 1950s, an apocalyptic war between the United States and the Soviet Union became a real possibility. During the Cold War era (1947 - 1991), a number of military events have been described as having come quite close to potentially triggering World War III.
Korean War: 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953
The Korean War was a war between two coalitions fighting for control over the Korean Peninsula: a communist coalition including North Korea, China and the USSR, and a capitalist coalition including South Korea, the United States, and the UN. Many then believed that the conflict was likely to soon escalate into a full-scale war between the three countries, the US, the USSR, and China. CBS war correspondent Bill Downs wrote in 1951 that, "To my mind, the answer is: Yes, Korea is the beginning of World War III. The brilliant landings at Inchon and the cooperative efforts of the American armed forces with the United Nations Allies have won us a victory in Korea. But this is only the first battle in a major international struggle which now is engulfing the Far East and the entire world."[38] Downs afterwards repeated this belief on ABC Evening News while reporting on the USS Pueblo incident in 1968.[39]
Cuban Missile Crisis: 15–28 October 1962
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A US Navy HSS-1 Seabat helicopter hovers over Soviet submarine B-59, forced to the surface by US Naval forces in the Caribbean near Cuba. B-59 had a nuclear torpedo on board, three officer keys were required to use it. Only one dissent prevented the submarine from attacking the US fleet nearby, a spark that could have led to a Third World War (October 28–29, 1962)
The Cuban Missile Crisis: a confrontation on the stationing of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, in response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion, is considered as having been the closest to a nuclear exchange, which could have precipitated a Third World War. The crisis peaked on 27 October, with three separate major incidents occurring on the same day, all of these incidents having been initiated by the US military.
The "Arkhipov save" incident occurred when a Soviet submarine nearly launched a nuclear-tipped torpedo in response to having been targeted by American naval depth charges in international waters, with the Soviet nuclear launch response only having being prevented by Soviet naval officer Vasili Arkhipov.
The shooting down of a U-2 while violating Cuban airspace.
The near interception of another U-2 that had somehow managed to stray into Soviet airspace over Siberia, which airspace violation nearly caused the Soviets to believe that this might be the vanguard of a US aerial bombardment.
Despite what many believe to be the closest the world has come to a nuclear conflict, throughout the entire standoff, the Doomsday Clock, which is run by the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists to estimate how close the end of the world, or doomsday, is, with midnight being the apocalypse, stayed at a relatively stable seven minutes to midnight. This has been explained as being due to the brevity of the crisis, since the clock monitored more long term factors such as leadership of countries, conflicts, wars, and political upheavals, as well as societies reactions to said factors.
The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists now credits the political developments resulting from the Cuban Missile Crisis with having actually enhanced global stability. The Bulletin posits that future crises and occasions that might otherwise escalate, were rendered as more stable due to two major factors:
A Washington to Moscow direct telephone line, resulted from the communication trouble between the White House and the Kremlin during the crisis, giving the leaders of the two largest nuclear powers the ability to contact each other in real time, rather than sending written messages that needed to be translated and wired, which had dragged out conversations in which seconds could have potentially prevented a nuclear exchange.
The second factor was caused in part due to the worldwide reaction to how close the US and USSR had come to the brink of World War III during the standoff. As the public began to more closely monitor topics involving nuclear weapons, and therefore to rally support for the cause of non-proliferation, the 1963 test ban treaty was signed. To date this treaty has been signed by 126 total nations, with the most notable exceptions being France and China Both of these countries were still in the relative beginning stages of their nuclear programs at the time of the original treaty signing, and both sought nuclear capabilities independent of their allies.
-This Test Ban Treaty prevented the testing of nuclear ordnance that detonated in the atmosphere, limiting testing to below ground and under water, decreasing fallout and effects on the environment, and subsequently caused the Doomsday Clock to decrease by five minutes, to arrive at a total of twelve minutes to midnight. Up until this point, over 1000 nuclear bombs had been detonated, and concerns over both long and short term affects to the planet became increasingly more worrisome to scientists.[40][not in citation given]
Yom Kippur War super-power tensions: 6–25 October 1973
The Yom Kippur War, also known as the Ramadan War, or October War, began with Arab victories. Israel successfully counterattacked. Tensions grew between the US (which supported Israel) and the Soviet Union (which sided with the Arab states). American and Soviet naval forces came close to firing upon each other. Admiral Murphy of the US reckoned the chances of the Soviet squadron attempting a first strike against his fleet at 40 percent. The Pentagon moved Defcon status from 4 to 3.[41] The superpowers had been pushed to the brink of war, but tensions eased with the ceasefire brought in under UNSC 339.[42][43]
NORAD computer error of 1979: 9 November 1979
The United States made emergency retaliation preparations after NORAD saw on-screen indications that a full-scale Soviet attack had been launched.[44] No attempt was made to use the "red telephone" hotline to clarify the situation with the USSR and it was not until early-warning radar systems confirmed no such launch had taken place that NORAD realized that a computer system test had caused the display errors. A senator inside the NORAD facility at the time described an atmosphere of absolute panic. A GAO investigation led to the construction of an off-site test facility to prevent similar mistakes.[45]
"Petrov save" incident: 26 September 1983
A false alarm occurred on the Soviet nuclear early warning system, showing the launch of American Minuteman ICBMs from bases in the United States. A retaliatory attack was prevented by Stanislav Petrov, an officer of the Soviet Air Defence Forces, who realised the system had simply malfunctioned (which was borne out by later investigations).[46][47]
Able Archer escalations: 2–11 November 1983
During Able Archer 83, a ten-day NATO exercise simulating a period of conflict escalation that culminated in a DEFCON 1 nuclear strike, some members of the Soviet Politburo and armed forces treated the events as a ruse of war concealing a genuine first strike. In response, the military prepared for a coordinated counter-attack by readying nuclear forces and placing air units stationed in the Warsaw Pact states of East Germany and Poland under high alert. However, the state of Soviet preparation for retaliation ceased upon completion of the Able Archer exercises.[22]
Norwegian rocket incident: 25 January 1995
The Norwegian rocket incident occurred when the Russian Federation's Olenegorsk early warning station accidentally mistook the radar signature from a Black Brant XII research rocket (being jointly launched by Norwegian and US scientists from Andøya Rocket Range), as appearing to be the radar signature of the launch of a Trident SLBM missile. In response, President Boris Yeltsin was summoned and the Cheget nuclear briefcase was activated for the first and only time. However, the high command was soon able to determine that the rocket was not entering Russian airspace, and promptly aborted plans for combat readiness and retaliation. It was retrospectively determined that, while the rocket scientists had informed thirty states including Russia about the test launch, the information had not reached Russian radar technicians.[48][49]
Extended usage of the term
Cold War
In 2004 neoconservative commentator Norman Podhoretz proposed that the Cold War might rightly be called World War III.[50] In 2011 on CNBC's Kudlow and Company, host Lawrence Kudlow, discussing a book by former deputy Under-Secretary of Defense Jed Babbin, agreed with Podhoretz, adding, "World War IV is the terror war, and war with China would be World War V."[51]
Still the majority of historians would seem to hold that World War III would necessarily have to be a worldwide "war in which large forces from many countries fought" [52] and a war that "involves most of the principal nations of the world." [53] In his book Secret Weapons of the Cold War, Bill Yenne explains that the military standoff that occurred between the two 'Superpowers', namely the United States and the Soviet Union, from the 1940s through to 1991, was only the Cold War, which ultimately helped to enable mankind to avert the possibility of an all out nuclear confrontation, and that it certainly was not World War III itself.[54]
War on Terror
The so-called "War on Terror" that began with the September 11 attacks has been claimed by some to be World War III[55][56] or sometimes as World War IV.[57] Others have disparaged such claims as "distorting American history." While there is general agreement amongst historians regarding the definitions and extent of the first two World Wars, namely due to the unmistakable global scale of aggression and self-destruction of these two wars, a few have claimed that a "World War" might now no longer require such worldwide and large scale aggression and carnage. Still such claims of a new "lower threshold of aggression," that might now be sufficient to qualify a war as a "World War" have not gained such widespread acceptance and support as the definitions of the first two World Wars have received amongst historians.[58]
War on ISIL
On 1 February 2015, Iraq's Prime Minister declared that the War on ISIL was effectively "World War III", due to ISIL' declaration of a Worldwide Caliphate, its aims to conquer the world, and its success in spreading the conflict to multiple countries outside of the Levant region.[59] In response to the November 2015 Paris attacks, King of Jordan Abdullah II said "We are facing a Third World War [within Islam].[60]
In his State of the Union Address on 12 January 2016, U.S. president Barack Obama warned that news reports granting ISIL the supposed ability to foment WW III might be excessive and irresponsible, stating that, "as we focus on destroying ISIL, over-the-top claims that this is World War III just play into their hands. Masses of fighters on the back of pickup trucks and twisted souls plotting in apartments or garages pose an enormous danger to civilians and must be stopped. But they do not threaten our national existence."[61]
Multiple small wars as a "third war"
In multiple recorded interviews under somewhat casual circumstances, comparing the conflagrations of World Wars I and II to the ongoing lower intensity wars of the 21st century, Pope Francis has said, "The world is at war, because it has lost peace," and "perhaps one can speak of a third war, one fought piecemeal."[62][63]
Views on the likely outcome and definition of WWIII
In 1949, after the unleashing of nuclear weaponry at the end of WWII, physicist Albert Einstein suggested that any outcome of a possible WWIII would be so dire as to revert mankind back to the Stone Age. When asked by journalist Alfred Werner, what types of weapons Einstein believed World War III might be fought with, Einstein warned, "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones". It can be inferred here that Einstein assumed that World War III would either exterminate, or else nearly exterminate the human race (presumably due to nuclear warfare).[1]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World War III.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: World War III
Look up world war iii in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Cold War II
World War III in popular culture
Prevention of nuclear catastrophe
References
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Further reading
Huntington, Samuel (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-84441-9.
Langford, David (1981). War in 2080 : the future of military technology. London: Sphere Books. ISBN 978-0-7221-5393-2.
Mearsheimer, John (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. W. W. Norton, New York. ISBN 978-0393349276.
Pamidi, G.G. (2012). Possibility of a nuclear war in Asia : an Indian perspective. New Delhi: United Service Institution of India : Vij Books India. ISBN 93-81411-51-4.
Piepers, Ingo (2016). 2020: WARning. Conijn Advies. ISBN 9082411814.
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