text:
Han (cultural)
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Han
Hangul
한
Hanja
恨
Revised Romanization
han
McCune–Reischauer
han
Han or Haan [ha̠n][1][self-published source] is a theorized culture-bound syndrome in Hanja that denotes a collective feeling of oppression and isolation in the face of insurmountable odds, the overcoming of which is beyond the nation's own capabilities. It connotes aspects of lament and unavenged injustice.
The minjung theologian Suh Nam-dong describes han as a "feeling of unresolved resentment against injustices suffered, a sense of helplessness because of the overwhelming odds against one, a feeling of acute pain in one's guts and bowels, making the whole body writhe and squirm, and an obstinate urge to take revenge and to right the wrong—all these combined."[2]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Context and usage
4 Han in popular culture
5 Cognates
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Sources
Etymology[edit]
Han is the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese character 恨 (hèn), which in modern Chinese means "hatred", "dislike", "animosity", "bitterness", "rancor", or "resentment".
History[edit]
Some scholars theorize the concept of Han evolved from Korea's history of having been invaded such as in the Japanese occupation of 1910–45.[1] Others attribute han to class system structures, such as the distinction between the elite Yangban class and the peasants.[citation needed] Han permeates Korean cultural expression, for example, in Korean shamanism and Pansori.
Japanese scholar Kimura claims that modern history such as the liberation by the surrender of Japan to the Allies rather than to the Korean Liberation Army, the Korean War and the subsequent division of the nation also contribute to the culture as missing glorious history and unresolved han.[3]
In Korean American literary works (e.g., Dictee by Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, The Language of Blood by Jane Jeong Trenka, Notes from the Divided Country by Suji Kwock Kim, Comfort Woman by Nora Okja Keller) Americans of Korean descent are sometimes portrayed as experiencing "Americanized" or second-generational han.[4]
The term derives from the Chinese term, hen (恨), a concept of deep hatred and resentment towards an aggressor who had forsaken the victim, a feeling of anguish and ultimate failure due to animosity that could only be relieved through revenge, which may seem like an impossible task. The hanja for Han is 恨.
Context and usage[edit]
Han is a difficult concept which requires an understanding of the context in which it is used, as explained in Translation Journal:
Han is frequently translated as sorrow, spite, rancor, regret, resentment or grief, among many other attempts to explain a concept that has no English equivalent. Han is an inherent characteristic of the Korean character and as such finds expression, implied or explicit, in nearly every aspect of Korean life and culture.[5]
Han is sorrow caused by heavy suffering, injustice or persecution, a dull lingering ache in the soul. It is a blend of lifelong sorrow and resentment, neither more powerful than the other. Han is imbued with resignation, bitter acceptance, and a grim determination to wait until vengeance can at last be achieved.[5]
Han in popular culture[edit]
This article contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (August 2018)
The Korean poet Ko Eun describes the trait as universal to the Korean experience: "We Koreans were born from the womb of Han and brought up in the womb of Han."[6] Han connotes both despair at recognition of past injustice and acceptance of such matters as part of the Korean experience.
Korean American scholar Elaine Kim has written on han in relation to the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[7]
The television show The West Wing also made reference to the trait in Episode 5.4 (entitled "Han"). The episode concludes with a visiting North Korean pianist teaching Bartlet, the President of the United States, the word while requesting asylum in the United States. Lamenting his choice to deny the musician asylum, the President realizes his own personal understanding of the esoteric concept; "There is no literal English translation. It's a state of mind. Of soul, really. A sadness. A sadness so deep no tears will come. And yet still there's hope."
In the second episode of Anthony Bourdain: Parts Unknown ("Los Angeles", airing April 21, 2013), the opening lines of the Wikipedia definition of Han is read and explained to Anthony over a traditional meal at the house of a Korean-American graffiti artist David Choe.
Cognates[edit]
Although the modern Chinese cognate 恨 means more simply hatred, animosity, or resentment; the classical definition of 恨 is often translated as 'regret' or 'unfulfilled vengeance', which more closely correlates with the Korean sentiment of 'Han'.[8]
See also[edit]
List of Korea-related topics
Korean culture
Korean language
Emotional baggage
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kim, Luke I. C. (2012). Beyond the Battle Line: The Korean War and My Life. Xlibris Corporation. p. 234. ISBN 146535218X.
Jump up ^ Yoo, Boo-wong (1988). Korean Pentecostalism: Its History and Theology. New York: Verlag Peter Lang. p. 221. ISBN 3-8204-1664-1.
Jump up ^ Kimura, Kan (2004). 朝鮮半島をどう見るか (Chōsen hantō wo dō miruka) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shueisha. p. 99. ISBN 978-4-08-720241-0.
Jump up ^ Seo-Young, Chu Seo-young (2008). "Science Fiction and Postmemory Han in Contemporary Korean American Literature". MELUS: 97–121.
^ Jump up to: a b Bannon, David (2008-01-03). "Unique Korean Cultural Concepts in Interpersonal Relations". Translation Journal 12(1). Retrieved 2010-04-10.
Jump up ^ Yoo, p.222.
Jump up ^ Kim, Elaine (1993). Robert Gooding-Williams, ed. "Home Is Where the Han Is: A Korean American Perspective on the Los Angeles Upheavals". Reading Rodney King/Reading Urban Uprising. Routledge: 215–35.
Jump up ^ Gu Hanyu Da Cidian
Sources[edit]
Beech, Hannah (June 3, 2002). "The Unbearable Sadness of Being Korean". Time. Retrieved 2007-11-17. (Director Im Kwon-taek on han)
한 (恨) (Han) Dongseo Encyclopedia (in Korean)
한 (한국 문화) [恨] (Han: hanguk munwha) Korea Britannica Encyclopedia (in Korean)
Kroman, Alex (17 September 2000). "HAN - The Soul of Korean Literature". Archived from the original on 26 November 2002. Retrieved 17 November 2007. Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help) (includes author Park Kyong-ni's essay discussing han "The Feelings and Thoughts of the Korean People in Literature")
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Mint mark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A mint mark is a letter, symbol or an inscription on a coin indicating the mint where the coin was produced.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mint marks in Numismatics
3 Examples
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Mint marks were first developed to locate a problem. If a coin was underweight, or overweight, the mint mark would immediately tell where the coin was minted, and the problem could be located and fixed. Another problem which could occur would be a dishonest mint official debasing the coin, or putting less precious metal in the coin than specified. The first mint marks, called "Magistrate Marks" were developed by the Greeks, and named the Magistrate in charge of producing that coin. Debasing a coin, or otherwise tampering with it, was a very serious crime, often punishable by death in many civilizations. For example, in 1649, the directors of the Spanish colonial American Mint at Potosi, in what is today Bolivia, were condemned to death for seriously debasing the coinage. The initials of the assayer as well as the mint mark were immediate identifiers when the coins were inspected.
In some cases the symbols found in the field of ancient Greek coins indicated mints, not magistrates. Mints in territories conquered by Alexander the Great struck coins with the types he used in Macedon but marked with a local symbol.[1] For example, Rhodes struck coins with Alexander’s types marked with a rose, a local symbol previously used on its own coins.[2]
A reform of Diocletian made mint marks a regular feature of ancient Roman coinage. These mint marks were placed at the bottom of the reverse of the coin and contained three parts. The first part indicates that this was a coin with either SM for Sacra Moneta, M for Moneta, or P for Pecurnia. The second part was an abbreviation of the name of the mint such as ROM for Rome or LON for London. The final part indicated the workshop within the mint.[3] The reform of Anastasius, which is the traditional dividing point between the coinage of the Roman and the Later Roman (a.k.a. Byzantine) empires, replaced the mint marks on gold coins by the inscription CONOB, meaning the pure standard of Constantinople, which was used by a variety of mints. Mint marks continued on copper coinage until the second half of the seventh century, however.[4]
Mint mark and privy marks on French Cochinchina 20 Cents 1879, Paris Mint
Mint names began to appear on French coins under Pepin and became mandatory under Charlemagne.[5] In 1389, Charles IV adopted a system called Secret Points. This scheme placed a dot under the first letter of the legend on coins of Crémieu, under the second letter for Romans, up to the twenty-second letter for Bourges.[6] In the fifteenth century letters or symbols placed at the end of the legend indicating the mint were used in addition to Secret Points.[7] In 1540, Francis I discontinued Secret Points in favor of a system of letters; A for Paris, B for Rouen, …, Z for Lyon; in the field.[8] He also made it the rule for mint-masters to place their personal marks on coins, as they had done with increasing frequency since the coinage of Louis XI. This was one of the few royal practices continued by the Republic of France.[9] The mint letters continued until 1898 (briefly revived in 1914 and from 1942-58) and the mint-masters marks, supplemented by the mark of the Chief Engraver, are still used.[10]
Some Medieval English coins used mint names .[11] When William III retired hammered coinage, branch mints which helped strike machine made coins to replace it put their initials below his bust.[12] The Royal Mint established branches to coin sovereigns near the sources of gold. These issues show the initials of Sydney, Melbourne, Victoria, and Perth Australia as well as Canada, South Africa, and India.[13] The privately owned Soho Mint obtained a contract to strike royal copper coins with steam presses and put its name on these coins and on coins it minted for other countries. When it closed, Ralph Heaton acquired its equipment, founded the Birmingham Mint, and put his H mint mark on coins of Canada, among others.
Spanish Milled Dollar with Mexico City Mint Mark.
The Spanish Empire introduced mint marks to the New World when they authorized Mexico City to open a mint on 11 May 1535. The Spanish Empire established mints throughout its American territories, each with their own mint mark. After its revolution, Mexico continued to use its colonial Mo monogram mint mark shown on either side of the date in the Spanish Milled Dollar. The United States of America established mints in Charlotte, North Carolina and Dahlonega, Georgia in 1838 after the Georgia Gold Rush and put its first mint marks on the gold coins struck there.[14] Like other countries, the United States has since placed mint marks not only on its own coins but also those of its territories, such as the Philippines, and other countries for which it has contracts to strike coins, such as Fiji.
Mint marks in Numismatics[edit]
In the 19th century, numismatists (coin collectors) did not generally collect coins according to mint mark; rather, they attempted to obtain date sets of coins. A turnaround began after 1893, when A. G. Heaton's "A Treatise on Coinage of the United States Branch Mints" was published. Heaton cited example after example of mint-marked coins that were much scarcer than Philadelphia products and that should bring high premiums. When the United States abandoned silver coinage in 1964, mint marks were removed from the new copper-nickel coins in the belief that it would reduce the removal of coins from circulation by collectors. The silver coins quickly disappeared from circulation, and it was feared that if collectors saved too many of the new coins, there would be a serious shortage of coinage. Mint marks were returned to United States coins in 1968.
Examples[edit]
Examples of mint marks in United States coinage include P for the Philadelphia Mint, D for the Denver Mint, S for the San Francisco Mint, and W for the West Point Mint. In the past, CC for the Carson City Mint, C for the Charlotte Mint, D for the Dahlonega Mint, and O for the New Orleans Mint were used. Most coins of the Philadelphia Mint earlier than 1980 are unmarked, the notable exceptions being wartime nickels and the Susan B. Anthony Dollars starting 1979. Until 2017, the Lincoln cent was the only coin that does not always have a mint mark, using a "D" when struck in Denver but lacking a "P" when ostensibly struck at the Philadelphia mint; this practice allows additional minting of the coin at the San Francisco mint ("S") and West Point mint ("W") without the use of their respective mint marks to supplement coin production without the concern of creating scarce varieties. Starting in 2017, the Philadelphia "P" was added to the Lincoln cent to celebrate 225 years of service[15]. Generally modern "S" and "W" coins do not circulate, being mostly produced as bullion, commemorative, or proof coinage.
Although the US and several other countries use the initial letter of the city for its mint marks, this practice is not universal. For instance, Germany used A for Berlin, D for Munich, E for Muldenhutten, F for Stuttgart, G for Karlsruhe and J for Hamburg. When Spain adopted decimal coinage in 1848, it used stars with different numbers of points as mint marks. Madrid used six pointed stars, Barcelona used eight pointed stars, and so on. After the revolution of 1868, small dates were placed in these stars.[16] The small dates indicated the year the coin was struck, as opposed to the large date on the coin which was the year it was authorized.[17]
Many mints of the world commonly use a Privy mark, which is a symbol unique to each mint. The Royal Canadian Mint commonly uses a maple leaf privy mark. Segovia, Spain used an aqueduct, a local landmark, before it switched over to the star system in 1868. The private mint of the French Coinage Society Poissy Branch used a thunderbolt mint mark on coins of France, its colonies, Romania and other countries.[18]
Privy mark (left) and mint mark on a Dutch coin. The mint mark is that of the mint of Utrecht. Since 1830 (with an interruption in 1941-1945) this mark is pressed on all Dutch coins.
Many Islamic coins bear an inscription telling which mint produced the coin. This inscription is often the name of the city where the coin was minted spelled out in Arabic script.
Several euro coins have mint marks of their respective Mint. See Identifying marks on euro coins for more information.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greek Coins and Their Values, H. A. Seaby, Kings of Macedon coin 539
Jump up ^ Historia Numorum, Barcay Head, introduction page lix
Jump up ^ Roman Coins and Their Values, David Sear page 47
Jump up ^ Byzantine Coins, P. D. Whiting, page 60
Jump up ^ Coins in History, John Porteous, page 54
Jump up ^ The Silver Coins of Medieval France, James Roberts, page 202
Jump up ^ The Silver Coins of Medieval France, James Roberts, page 203
Jump up ^ The Silver Coins of Medieval France, James Roberts, page 204
Jump up ^ Coins in History, John Porteous, page 164
Jump up ^ Standard Catalog of World Coins by Krause Publications
Jump up ^ Coins in History, John Porteous, page 68
Jump up ^ Coins in History, John Porteous, page 214
Jump up ^ Historic Gold Coins of the World, Burton Hobson, pages 129 and 132
Jump up ^ A Guide Book of United States Coins, R. S. Yeoman
Jump up ^ "It's really true: Cents struck at Philadelphia Mint in 2017 bear P Mint mark". Coin World. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Standard Catalog of World Coins, C. Krause and C Michler, Spain
Jump up ^ The Coin Atlas, Crib, Cook, and Carradice, p. 58
Jump up ^ Standard Catalog of World Coins, C. Krause and C Michler, Spain, France, French Indo-China and Romania
External links[edit]
Mint marks on British gold Sovereigns
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Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone
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Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone
UTC offset
HST
UTC−10:00
HDT
UTC−9:00
Current time (Refresh the clock.)
HDT
11:23 am on Oct 27, 2017
HST
10:23 am on Oct 27, 2017
Observance of DST
DST is observed in certain regions of this time zone between the 2nd Sunday in March and the 1st Sunday in November.
DST began
Mar 12, 2017
DST ends
Nov 5, 2017
The Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone observes Hawaii–Aleutian Standard Time (HST[1][2]), by subtracting ten hours from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC−10:00). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 150th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.
The zone takes its name from the two areas it includes: Hawaii and the portion of Alaska's Aleutian Islands west of 169° 30′ W longitude.
During daylight saving time, the Alaskan portion observes Hawaii–Aleutian Daylight Time (HDT, UTC−9), while Hawaii stays on standard time.
From 1900 until 1947, GMT−10:30 was used as standard time in Hawaii.[3]
French Polynesia uses UTC−10 for its major cities. The Cook Islands also use the same time. These areas do not use DST. "Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone" is a U.S. term and for that reason the Polynesian areas are not considered to be a part of the Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone.
Contents
[hide]
1 Major metropolitan areas
2 Other significant places
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Major metropolitan areas[edit]
Honolulu, Hawaii
Hilo, Hawaii
Kahului, Hawaii
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii
Kapaa, Hawaii
Other significant places[edit]
Adak Island, Alaska
Johnston Atoll
See also[edit]
Time zone
Time offset
Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ""U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual: An official guide to the form and style of Federal Government printing"" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. 2008. p. 234. Retrieved 2017-07-24. Time zones §9.47. The following forms are to be used when abbreviating names of time zones: ... HDT—Hawaii-Aleutian daylight time (not observed in HI) ... HST—Hawaii-Aleutian standard time
Jump up ^ ""What are the time zones in the United States?"". National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce. 2016. Retrieved 2017-07-24. Hawaii-Aleutian (HT); HST -10; HDT -9; DST observed in Aleutian Islands, but not Hawaii
Jump up ^ "Sources for Time Zone and Daylight Saving Time Data". Retrieved 2012-06-18. [not in citation given]
External links[edit]
HAST – Hawaii–Aleutian Standard Time
HADT – Hawaii–Aleutian Daylight Time
The official U.S. time for the Hawaii–Aleutian time zone (Hawaii) dead link
The official U.S. time for the Hawaii–Aleutian time zone (Aleutian Islands) dead link
What are the time zones in the United States? (NIST)
Hawaiian-Aleutian zone at Cornell
[hide]
v
t
e
Time zones in North America
Time zone
Hours from UTC: Standard time
Hours from UTC: Daylight saving time
Hawaii–Aleutian (in Hawaii) –10 –10
Hawaii–Aleutian (in Alaska) –10 –9
Alaska –9 –8
Pacific –8 –7
Mountain (Arizona and Sonora only) –7 –7
Mountain (other states) –7 –6
Central (Saskatchewan only) –6 –6
Central (other states) –6 –5
Eastern (Southampton Island,Atikokan and New Osnaburgh/Pickle Lakeonly) –5 –5
Eastern (other states) –5 –4
Atlantic (Natashquan River) –4 –4
Atlantic (other states) –4 –3
Newfoundland –3:30 –2:30
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
and most of Greenland –3 –2
See also
Time in Canada
Time in Denmark
Time in Mexico
Time in the United States

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List of people associated with the French Revolution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a partial list of people associated with the French Revolution, including supporters and opponents. Note that not all people listed here were French.
Contents:
Top
0–9
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
A[edit]
Charles, comte d'Artois Younger brother of Louis XVI and one of the first émigrés; later King Charles X (1824–1830).
Reine Audu Participant in The Women's March on Versailles and the 10 August (French Revolution).
Charles Augereau, duc de Castiglione Officer throughout the Revolutionary era and Empire; later a general and Marshal of France.
Jean-Pierre-André Amar Deputy to the National Convention from Isère; member of the Committee of General Security.
B[edit]
François-Noël Babeuf Proto-socialist, guillotined in 1797 after an attempted coup d'etat.
Jean Sylvain Bailly President of the Third Estate who administered the Tennis Court Oath; made Mayor of Paris after the storming of the Bastille; guillotined during the Reign of Terror.
Antoine Barnave Constitutional monarchist and Feuillant; guillotined.
Paul Nicolas, vicomte de Barras A Montagnard, then Thermidorian; ultimately the Directory régime's executive leader.
Madame du Barry Mistress of King Louis XV and famous victim of the guillotine during the Reign of Terror.
François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy Briefly a Director; exiled to French Guiana; returned to France during the Empire.
Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte General, Ambassador to Vienna and Minister of War; later King of Sweden and Norway.
Joséphine de Beauharnais Empress; wife of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Louis Alexandre Berthier General; effectively Napoleon Bonaparte's chief of staff.
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne Committee of Public Safety member; survived 9 Thermidor; later deported to French Guiana.
Joseph Bonaparte Eldest Bonaparte brother; supported his brother Napoleon; later made King of Naples and then Spain.
Lucien Bonaparte Younger brother of Napoleon; President of the Assembly during the Directory; later fell out with Napoleon.
Napoleon Bonaparte General; seized power as First Consul in the 18 Brumaire coup. Made virtual dictator as Consul for Life in 1802. Declared Emperor of the French in 1804. Founded the First French Empire.
Louis Antoine de Bourbon, duc d'Enghien Prince of the Blood; son of the Duc de Bourbon; kidnapped and executed by Napoleon.
Louis François de Bourbon Prince of the Blood; briefly emigrated from 1789–1790, but returned to France; expelled by Directory; died in exile.
Louis Henri, duc de Bourbon Prince of the Blood, son of the Prince de Condé and father of the Duc d'Enghien; emigrated.
Louis Joseph de Bourbon Prince of the Blood; composed the Brunswick Manifesto.
Charles de Bouvens Orator who had to flee the French Revolution due to his conservative views.
Louis de Breteuil Royalist; briefly supplanted Necker in the royal cabinet.
Cardinal Étienne Charles de Brienne Royalist; President of the Royal Council of Finances shortly before the Revolution.
Jacques Pierre Brissot de Warville Girondist (Brissotin); guillotined.
Guillaume Marie Anne Brune Political journalist; Jacobin; friend of Georges Danton; appointed a general, then Marshal of France; murdered by royalists during the White Terror.
Edmund Burke English philosopher and politician; author of famous 1790 polemic against the Revolution.
C[edit]
Charles Alexandre de Calonne French Controller-General of Finances from 1783 to 1787, whose discovery of the perilous state of French finances in 1786 precipitated the crisis leading to the Revolution.
Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès Moderate; Second Consul under Bonaparte; chief contributor to the Napoleonic Code.
Pierre Joseph Cambon Legislative and the Convention member; directed French financial policy and aided in the Thermidor coup.
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot Mathematician; physicist; Committee of Public Safety member; "Organizer of Victory"; turned against Robespierre on 9 Thermidor; a Director; ousted in 18 Fructidor coup.
Louis Philippe, duc de Chartres Eldest son of the Duke of Orleans; defected to Austria with Dumouriez in 1793; later King of France.
Pierre Gaspard Chaumette Cult of Reason devotee; guillotined, as was fellow devotee Jacques Hébert.
André Chénier Poet; guillotined.
Jean Chouan Royalist counter-revolutionary.
Étienne Clavière Girondist; finance minister 1792; died in prison by suicide 1793.
Anacharsis Cloots Philosopher and writer; guillotined.
Jean Marie Collot d'Herbois Actor; Paris Commune member; belated Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; deported to French Guiana after 9 Thermidor revolt, where he died.
Marquis de Condorcet Philosopher; mathematician; Girondist associate; died in prison.
Charlotte Corday Assassinated Marat; guillotined.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb Scientist; metric system pioneer.
Georges Couthon Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; guillotined following 9 Thermidor.
D[edit]
Georges Danton Writer; Jacobin, but neither a Girondist nor a Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; guillotined.
Pierre Claude François Daunou Historian; loosely associated with the Girondists faction; served both Directory and Empire.
Jacques-Louis David Painter; Montagnard; Committee of General Security member; survived fall from power following 9 Thermidor.
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix General; killed while leading the French to victory during the Battle of Marengo (1800).
Camille Desmoulins Journalist; Montagnard; Danton associate; guillotined.
Denis Diderot Enlightenment author; atheist philosopher; influenced Revolutionary theory.
Jacques François Dugommier General; National Convention deputy.
Charles François Dumouriez General; sometime Girondist and Foreign Minister in the Girondist cabinet; eventually defected to Austria.
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours Constitutional monarchist; National Constituent Assembly president; eventually exiled.
Roger Ducos Deputy from Landes; member of the Council of Five Hundred; vice-president of the Consulate Senate.
E[edit]
Grace Elliott Scottish courtesan; former mistress of Louis Philippe II, duc d'Orléans; resident in Paris throughout the Revolution.
Antoine Joseph Marie d'Espinassy Politician, Knight, General and Deputy; Royal of Signes and Revolutionary.
F[edit]
Fabre d'Églantine Author of the French Revolutionary Calendar; guillotined.
Joseph Fesch Cardinal; closely associated with Napoleon Bonaparte.
Joseph Fouché Jacobin deputy; Thermidorian; Minister of Police under Napoleon.
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville Public Prosecutor during the Reign of Terror; subsequently guillotined (1795).
G[edit]
Olympe de Gouges Writer; advocate of gender equality; guillotined.
Henri Grégoire Revolutionary priest; supported Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
H[edit]
Jacques Hébert Polemicist; editor of Le Père Duchesne; guillotined.
Marie Jean Hérault Committee of Public Safety member; revised Condorcet's Constitution of 1793; Danton associate; guillotined.
Lazare Hoche Soldier rapidly promoted to General during early years of Revolution.
Pierre-Augustin Hulin Ex-royal soldier and one of the first revolutionaries to enter the Bastille; later general under Bonaparte.
I[edit]
J[edit]
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan General; victor at the battles of Wattignies and Fleurus.
K[edit]
François Christophe Kellermann Promoted to General early in the Revolution; Battle of Valmy hero; Marshal of France; army administrator during Empire years.
Jean-Baptiste Kléber Revolutionary general; assassinated in 1800.
L[edit]
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Bonapartist general; author of Les Liaisons dangereuses.
Marie Thérèse, princesse de Lamballe Friend of Marie Antoinette; victim of the September Massacres.
Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette General; constitutional monarchist.
Claire Lacombe Feminist revolutionary, founder of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women.
Alexandre-Théodore, comte de Lameth Leading Feuillant; formed "Triumvirate" with Barnave and Duport; eventually emigrated.
Charles Malo François Lameth Brother of Alexandre de Lameth; Feuillant; emigrated.
Jean Lannes Soldier rising through ranks to become general; Marshal of France; close to Bonaparte.
Arnaud de Laporte High royal government official, headed up antirevolutionary activities; second political victim of the guillotine.
Marquis de Launay Royalist governor of the Bastille; killed after its storming.
Antoine Lavoisier Scientist; metric pioneer; tax collector; guillotined.
Charles Leclerc General; close to Bonaparte; served in Haiti.
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas Deputy to the National Convention from Pas-de-Calais; Robespierrist and close ally of Saint-Just; committed suicide at Robespierre's downfall.
Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau Former noble; voted to execute Louis XVI; assassinated one day before the execution of Louis XVI.
Louis Legendre Deputy for the Seine, present at various events. Eventual President of the Convention, member of the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hundred.
Jacques-Donatien Le Ray Promoted French support for the American Revolution.
Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet Committee of Public Safety member; opposed Girondist faction.
Toussaint L'Ouverture Commander of Haitian rebels fighting against French occupying forces; captured and imprisoned by Napoleon's government.
Louis XVI of France French king at outbreak of Revolution; deposed; guillotined.
Louis XVII of France The "Lost Dauphin"
Nicolas, Comte Luckner German-born Marshal of France; commanded troops for the First Republic; guillotined during the Reign of Terror.
M[edit]
Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes Louis XVI's defense counsel at his trial, although not known as a royalist; guillotined.
Jean-Paul Marat Radical journalist; Montagnard; assassinated by Charlotte Corday.
François-Séverin Marceau Soldier who participated in the storming of the Bastille; later a general.
Marie Antoinette Queen consort of France; deposed, guillotined.
André Masséna General; victor at the Battle of Zürich.
Jean-Sifrein Maury French cardinal; Archbishop of Paris; royalist.
Théroigne de Méricourt Radical agitator, organizer.
Philippe-Antoine Merlin
("Merlin de Douai") Director; later a Bonapartist.
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
("Mirabeau") Represented the Third Estate in the Estates-General of 1789, despite being a noble; remained a major political figure throughout the rest of his life.
Antoine-François Momoro Printer, publisher, and section leader; Hébertist; originator of the phrase Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité; guillotined.
Charles, baron de Montesquieu
("Montesquieu") Enlightenment political philosopher; influenced Revolutionary thinking
Jean Victor Marie Moreau General; victor at the Battle of Hohenlinden.
Gouverneur Morris American minister to France; witness and diarist of the early Revolution, 1792–94.
Jean-François-Auguste Moulin General; member of the Directory.
Jean Joseph Mounier Monarchist deputy; president of the National Constituent Assembly, 1789.
Joachim Murat Prominent cavalry general; became Napoleon's brother-in-law; later made King of Naples.
N[edit]
Jacques Necker Liberal royalist; Director-General of Finance whose dismissal precipitated the storming of the Bastille.
O[edit]
Louis Philippe II, duc d'Orléans First Prince of the Blood; supported the Revolution, taking the name Philippe Egalité; voted to execute his cousin the King; later guillotined on suspicion of plotting to become King.
P[edit]
Thomas Paine American revolutionary writer; moved to France during French Revolution but subsequently fell out of favor; arrested, imprisoned and sentenced to death during Reign of Terror, but survived.
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve Insurrectionary mayor of Paris; member of first Committee of Public Safety; associated with Girondists; committed suicide during Reign of Terror.
Pierre Philippeaux Montagnard; Danton associate; guillotined.
Philippe Egalité See Orléans, Louis Philippe II, duc d' above.
Charles Pichegru General; member of the Council of Five Hundred; conspirator in the Coup of 18 Fructidor.
Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois
("Prieur de la Côte-d'Or") Engineer; Committee of Public Safety member; Carnot associate; turned against Robespierre on 9 Thermidor; Council of Five Hundred member during Directory.
Pierre Louis Prieur
("Crieur de la Marne") National Constituent Assembly secretary; Committee of Public Safety member; exiled following Bourbon Restoration.
Louis, comte de Provence Louis XVI's younger brother; emigrated 1791; declared himself Louis XVIII, King of France in 1795, but did not actually assume the throne until 1814.
Q[edit]
R[edit]
Jean-François Rewbell Deputy; Feuillant; member of the Directory.
Maximilien Robespierre Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; prominent during Reign of Terror; guillotined after 9 Thermidor.
Comte de Rochambeau Senior general and former commander of French troops during the American Revolution, commander of the Armee du Nord for the Republic; imprisoned during the Reign of Terror but not executed.
Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière Girondist; interior minister in 1792; committed suicide in 1793 following his wife's condemnation.
Madame Roland
(Manon-Jeanne Roland, née Philpon) Jean-Marie Roland's wife; author of influential Revolutionary writings under Roland's name; salonière; guillotined.
Gilbert Romme Initially a Girondist politician, then Montagnard; designed French Republican Calendar; condemned after Girondists' return to power; committed suicide before execution.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Enlightenment political philosopher; influenced Revolutionary thinking.
Jacques Roux Hébertist leader of the Enragés faction; member of Paris Commune; arrested during Reign of Terror; committed suicide before trial.
S[edit]
Marquis de Sade Author of erotica and philosophy; imprisoned on charges of sodomy and poisoning at the outbreak of the Revolution; released 1790; elected to the National Convention; escaped execution during the Reign of Terror.
Jean Bon Saint-André Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; later became a naval officer and administrator.
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just Committee of Public Safety member; Montagnard; close associate of Robespierre; prominent in Reign of Terror; guillotined after 9 Thermidor.
Joseph Servan General; Minister of War.
Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès Although a cleric, entered the Estates-General of 1789 as a representative of the Third Estate; author of pamphlet What is the Third Estate?; instigated the 18 Brumaire coup, but outflanked by Bonaparte.
Madame de Staël Daughter of Jacques Necker; salonière and writer; adopted moderate Revolutionary position; opposed Napoleon.
T[edit]
Jean Lambert Tallien Montagnard; later a leading Thermidorian.
Madame Tallien
(Thérésa Tallien, née Teresa Cabarrús) Her moderating influence on her husband Jean Lambert Tallien saved lives in the wake of 9 Thermidor, earning her the moniker Notre-Dame de Thermidor ("Our Lady of Thermidor").
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
("Talleyrand") Clergyman and diplomat; initially a royalist, then revolutionary; co-wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; survived 9 Thermidor to become Foreign Minister under Directory, Bonaparte and the Bourbon Restoration.
Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target Lawyer and politician; deputy of the Third Estate in the Estates-General of 1789; survived Reign of Terror to become Directory politician.
Jean Baptiste Treilhard Deputy from Paris; held multiple high-ranking offices including Director.
U[edit]
V[edit]
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud Girondist leader; guillotined.
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac Girondist, then Montagnard; Committee of Public Safety member; drew up 9 Thermidor report outlawing Robespierre; later a Bonapartist.
Voltaire
(François-Marie Arouet) Enlightenment author and philosopher whose writings influenced Revolutionary thinking.
See also[edit]
Glossary of the French Revolution
List of historians of the French Revolution
Further reading[edit]
Ballard, Richard. A New Dictionary of the French Revolution (2011) excerpt and text search
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, ed. The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History (3 vol. 2006)
Furet, Francois, et al. eds. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989) long articles by scholars excerpt and text search
Hanson, Paul R. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution (2004)
Ross, Steven T. Historical Dictionary of the Wars of the French Revolution (1998)
Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus, eds. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution (2 vol. 1985) full text online
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1788
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1790
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1791
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Declaration of Pillnitz (27 Aug 1791)
The Constitution of 1791 (3 Sep 1791)
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1792
France declares war (20 Apr 1792)
Brunswick Manifesto (25 Jul 1792)
Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary (Jun 1792)
10th of August (10 Aug 1792)
September Massacres (Sep 1792)
National Convention (20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)
First republic declared (22 Sep 1792)
1793
Execution of Louis XVI (21 Jan 1793)
Revolutionary Tribunal (9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)
Reign of Terror (27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)
Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
Fall of the Girondists (2 Jun 1793)
Assassination of Marat (13 Jul 1793)
Levée en masse (23 Aug 1793)
The Death of Marat (painting)
Law of Suspects (17 Sep 1793)
Marie Antoinette is guillotined (16 Oct 1793)
Anti-clerical laws (throughout the year)
1794
Danton and Desmoulins guillotined (5 Apr 1794)
Law of 22 Prairial (10 Jun 1794)
Thermidorian Reaction (27 Jul 1794)
Robespierre guillotined (28 Jul 1794)
White Terror (Fall 1794)
Closing of the Jacobin Club (11 Nov 1794)
1795
Constitution of the Year III (22 Aug 1795)
Conspiracy of the Equals (Nov 1795)
Directoire (1795–99)
Council of Five Hundred
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13 Vendémiaire 5 Oct 1795
1797
Coup of 18 Fructidor (4 Sep 1797)
Second Congress of Rastatt (Dec 1797)
1799
Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 Jun 1799)
Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov 1799)
Constitution of the Year VIII (24 Dec 1799)
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Revolutionary campaigns
1792
Verdun
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1793
First Coalition
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Battle of Neerwinden)
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Battle of Wattignies
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Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)
First Battle of Wissembourg (13 Oct 1793)
Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)
Second Battle of Wissembourg (26–27 Dec 1793)
1794
Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies (24 Apr 1794)
Battle of Boulou (Pyrenees) (30 Apr – 1 May 1794)
Battle of Tournay (22 May 1794)
Battle of Fleurus (26 Jun 1794)
Chouannerie
Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794)
Battle of Aldenhoven (2 Oct 1794)
1795
Peace of Basel
1796
Battle of Lonato (3–4 Aug 1796)
Battle of Castiglione (5 Aug 1796)
Battle of Theiningen
Battle of Neresheim (11 Aug 1796)
Battle of Amberg (24 Aug 1796)
Battle of Würzburg (3 Sep 1796)
Battle of Rovereto (4 Sep 1796)
First Battle of Bassano (8 Sep 1796)
Battle of Emmendingen (19 Oct 1796)
Battle of Schliengen (26 Oct 1796)
Second Battle of Bassano (6 Nov 1796)
Battle of Calliano (6–7 Nov 1796)
Battle of the Bridge of Arcole (15–17 Nov 1796)
The Ireland Expedition (Dec 1796)
1797
Naval Engagement off Brittany (13 Jan 1797)
Battle of Rivoli (14–15 Jan 1797)
Battle of the Bay of Cádiz (25 Jan 1797)
Treaty of Leoben (17 Apr 1797)
Battle of Neuwied (18 Apr 1797)
Treaty of Campo Formio (17 Oct 1797)
1798
French invasion of Switzerland (28 January – 17 May 1798)
French Invasion of Egypt (1798–1801)
Irish Rebellion of 1798 (23 May – 23 Sep 1798)
Quasi-War (1798–1800)
Peasants' War (12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)
1799
Second Coalition (1798–1802)
Siege of Acre (20 Mar – 21 May 1799)
Battle of Ostrach (20–21 Mar 1799)
Battle of Stockach (25 Mar 1799)
Battle of Magnano (5 Apr 1799)
Battle of Cassano (27 Apr 1799)
First Battle of Zurich (4–7 Jun 1799)
Battle of Trebbia (19 Jun 1799)
Battle of Novi (15 Aug 1799)
Second Battle of Zurich (25–26 Sep 1799)
1800
Battle of Marengo (14 Jun 1800)
Battle of Hohenlinden (3 Dec 1800)
League of Armed Neutrality (1800–02)
1801
Treaty of Lunéville (9 Feb 1801)
Treaty of Florence (18 Mar 1801)
Algeciras Campaign (8 Jul 1801)
1802
Treaty of Amiens (25 Mar 1802)
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Military leaders
French Army
Eustache Charles d'Aoust
Pierre Augereau
Alexandre de Beauharnais
Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte
Louis-Alexandre Berthier
Jean-Baptiste Bessières
Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brune
Jean François Carteaux
Jean Étienne Championnet
Chapuis de Tourville
Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine
Louis-Nicolas Davout
Louis Desaix
Jacques François Dugommier
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
Charles François Dumouriez
Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino
Louis-Charles de Flers
Paul Grenier
Emmanuel de Grouchy
Jacques Maurice Hatry
Lazare Hoche
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan
François Christophe de Kellermann
Jean-Baptiste Kléber
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
Jean Lannes
Charles Leclerc
Claude Lecourbe
François Joseph Lefebvre
Jacques MacDonald
Jean-Antoine Marbot
Jean Baptiste de Marbot
François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers
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André Masséna
Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey
Jean Victor Marie Moreau
Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise
Joachim Murat
Michel Ney
Pierre-Jacques Osten (fr)
Nicolas Oudinot
Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon
Jean-Charles Pichegru
Józef Poniatowski
Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer
Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier
Joseph Souham
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Louis-Gabriel Suchet
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French Navy
Charles-Alexandre Linois
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József Alvinczi
Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen
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Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg
Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze (Swiss)
Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth
Pál Kray (Hungarian)
Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (French)
Maximilian Baillet de Latour (Walloon)
Karl Mack von Leiberich
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Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich
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Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt
Isaac René Guy le Chapelier
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Nicolas de Condorcet
Feuillants
and monarchiens
Madame de Lamballe
Madame du Barry
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Loménie de Brienne
Charles Alexandre de Calonne
de Chateaubriand
Jean Chouan
Grace Elliott
Arnaud de La Porte
Jean-Sifrein Maury
Jacques Necker
François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy
Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas
Antoine Barnave
Lafayette
Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth
Charles Malo François Lameth
André Chénier
Jean-François Rewbell
Camille Jordan
Madame de Staël
Boissy d'Anglas
Jean-Charles Pichegru
Pierre Paul Royer-Collard
Girondists
Jacques Pierre Brissot
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Madame Roland
Father Henri Grégoire
Étienne Clavière
Marquis de Condorcet
Charlotte Corday
Marie Jean Hérault
Jean Baptiste Treilhard
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
Jean Debry
Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil
Olympe de Gouges
Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet
Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux
The Plain
Abbé Sieyès
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Charles François Lebrun
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot
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Louis Philippe I
Mirabeau
Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville
Jean Joseph Mounier
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
François de Neufchâteau
Montagnards
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Georges Danton
Jean-Paul Marat
Camille Desmoulins
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
Paul Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Louis Philippe I
Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau
Jacques-Louis David
Marquis de Sade
Georges Couthon
Roger Ducos
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois
Jean-Henri Voulland
Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier
Jean-Pierre-André Amar
Prieur de la Côte-d'Or
Prieur de la Marne
Gilbert Romme
Jean Bon Saint-André
Jean-Lambert Tallien
Pierre Louis Prieur
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Antoine Christophe Saliceti
Hébertists
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Jacques Hébert
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
Pierre Gaspard Chaumette
Charles-Philippe Ronsin
Antoine-François Momoro
François-Nicolas Vincent
François Chabot
Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
François Hanriot
Jacques Roux
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
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Theophile Leclerc
Claire Lacombe
Pauline Léon
Gracchus Babeuf
Sylvain Maréchal
Others
Charles X
Louis XVI
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Marie Antoinette
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Joachim Murat
Jean Sylvain Bailly
Jacques-Donatien Le Ray
Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes
Talleyrand
Thérésa Tallien
Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target
Catherine Théot
List of people associated with the French Revolution
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Influential thinkers
Les Lumières
Beaumarchais
Edmund Burke
Anacharsis Cloots
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Pierre Claude François Daunou
Diderot
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Thomas Jefferson
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Montesquieu
Thomas Paine
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Voltaire
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Cultural impact
La Marseillaise
French Tricolour
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Marianne
Bastille Day
Panthéon
French Republican Calendar
Cult of the Supreme Being
Cult of Reason
Temple of Reason
Sans-culottes
Metric system
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Women in the French Revolution
Symbolism in the French Revolution
Historiography of the French Revolution
Influence of the French Revolution
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Fluid mosaic model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Fluid mosaic model of a cell membrane
The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded. The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in cell membrane. The model, which was devised by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins.[1] The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell-cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion. The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of plasma membrane.
Contents
1 Chemical makeup
2 Experimental evidence
3 Subsequent developments
3.1 Membrane asymmetry
3.2 Non-bilayer membranes
3.3 Membrane curvature
3.4 Lipid movement within the membrane
4 Restrictions to bilayer fluidity
4.1 Lipid rafts
4.2 Protein complexes
4.3 Cytoskeletal fences (corrals) and binding to the extracellular matrix
5 Historical timeline
6 Notes and references
Chemical makeup[edit]
Chemically a cell membrane is composed of four components: Phospholipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Cholesterol.

|-
Experimental evidence[edit]
The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static.[2]
Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davidson-Danielli Tri-Layer model.[1] These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties.[1]
An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase.[3] Singer and Nicholson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model.[2]
The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes.
Subsequent developments[edit]
Membrane asymmetry[edit]
Additionally, the two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol-interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts.[4] Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid-protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins.[5]
Non-bilayer membranes[edit]
The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction.[6]
Membrane curvature[edit]
The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division.[7] Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.[8]
Lipid movement within the membrane[edit]
During the decade of 1970, it was acknowledged that individual lipid molecules undergo free lateral diffusion within each of the layers of the lipid membrane.[9] Diffusion occurs at a high speed, with an average lipid molecule diffusing ~2 µm, approximately the length of a large bacterial cell, in about 1 second.[9] It has also been observed that individual lipid molecules rotate rapidly around their own axis.[9] Moreover, phospholipid molecules can, although they seldom do, migrate from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other (a process known as flip-flop). However, flip-flop might be enhanced by flippase enzymes. The processes described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function.
Restrictions to bilayer fluidity[edit]
There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes e.g. binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein-protein interactions.[1] Furthermore, protein-cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of “cytoskeletal fences”, corrals wherein lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave.[1] Restriction on lateral diffusion rates of membrane components is very important because it allows the functional specialization of particular regions within the cell membranes.
Lipid rafts[edit]
Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts.[10]
Protein complexes[edit]
Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes within the membrane.[1] The assembly of single molecules into these macromolecular complexes has important functional consequences for the cell; such as ion and metabolite transport, signaling, cell adhesion, and migration.[1]
Cytoskeletal fences (corrals) and binding to the extracellular matrix[edit]
Some proteins embedded in the bilipid layer interact with the extracellular matrix outside the cell, cytoskeleton filaments inside the cell, and septin ring-like structures. These interactions have a strong influence on shape and structure, as well as on compartmentalization. Moreover, they impose physical constraints that restrict the free lateral diffusion of proteins and at least some lipids within the bilipid layer.[1]
When integral proteins of the lipid bilayer are tethered to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments.[11] Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes.
S.cerevisiae septins
Septin ring-like structures (in green) can pinch cell membranes and split them into subdomains.
Septins are a family of GTP-binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring-like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.[12]
Historical timeline[edit]
1895 – Ernest Overton hypothesized that cell membranes are made out of lipids.[13]
1925 – Evert Gorter and François Grendel found that red blood cell membranes are formed by a fatty layer two molecules thick, i.e. they described the bilipid nature of the cell membrane.[14]
1935 – Hugh Davson and James Danielli proposed that lipid membranes are layers composed by proteins and lipids with pore-like structures that allow specific permeability for certain molecules. Then, they suggested a model for the cell membrane, consisting of a lipid layer surrounded by protein layers at both sides of it.[15]
1957 – J. David Robertson, based on electron microscopy studies, establishes the "Unit Membrane Hypothesis". This, states that all membranes in the cell, i.e. plasma and organelle membranes, have the same structure: a bilayer of phospholipids with monolayers of proteins at both sides of it.[16]
1972 – SJ Singer and GL Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model as an explanation for the data and latest evidence regarding the structure and thermodynamics of cell membranes.[2]
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Nicolson GL (2014). "The Fluid—Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure: Still relevant to understanding the structure, function and dynamics of biological membranes after more than 40 years". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1838 (6): 1451–146. doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.10.019. PMID 24189436.
^ Jump up to: a b c Singer SJ, Nicolson GL (Feb 1972). "The fluid mosaic model of the structure of cell membranes". Science. 175 (4023): 720–31. doi:10.1126/science.175.4023.720. PMID 4333397.
Jump up ^ Frye LD, Edidin M (1970). "The rapid intermixing of cell surface antigens after formation of mouse-human heterokaryons". J Cell Sci. 7 (2): 319–35. PMID 4098863.
Jump up ^ Silvius JR (2005). "Partitioning of membrane molecules between raft and non-raft domains: Insights from model-membrane studies". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1746 (3): 193–202. doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2005.09.003. PMID 16271405.
Jump up ^ Mouritsen OG, Bloom M (1984). "Mattress model of lipid-protein interactions in membranes". Biophys J. 46 (2): 141–153. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(84)84007-2. PMC 1435039  . PMID 6478029.
Jump up ^ van den Brink-van der Laan E; et al. (2004). "Nonbilayer lipids affect peripheral and integral membrane proteins via changes in the lateral pressure profile". Biochim Biophys Acta. 1666 (1–2): 275–88. doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2004.06.010. PMID 15519321.
Jump up ^ Frost A; et al. (2009). "The BAR domain superfamily: membrane-molding macromolecules". Cell. 137 (2): 191–6. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.04.010. PMID 19379681.
Jump up ^ Rodríguez-García R; et al. (2009). "Bimodal spectrum for the curvature fluctuations of bilayer vesicles: pure bending plus hybrid curvature-dilation modes". Phys Rev Lett. 102 (12): 128101. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.128101. PMID 19392326.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2008). Molecular Biology of the Cell (5th ed.). New York: Garland Science. pp. 621–622. ISBN 978-0-8153-4105-5.
Jump up ^ Lingwood D, Simons K (2010). "Lipid rafts as a membrane-organizing principle". Science. 327 (5961): 46–50. doi:10.1126/science.1174621. PMID 20044567.
Jump up ^ G. Vereb; et al. (2003). "Dynamic, yet structured: The cell membrane three decades after the Singer–Nicolson model". PNAS. 100 (14): 8053–8058. doi:10.1073/pnas.1332550100. PMC 166180  . PMID 12832616.
Jump up ^ Juha Saarikangas; Yves Barral (2011). "The emerging functions of septins in metazoans". EMBO Reports. 12 (11): 1118–1126. doi:10.1038/embor.2011.193. PMC 3207108  . PMID 21997296.
Jump up ^ Overton, E (1895). "Uberdie osmotischen Eigenshafter der Lebenden Pflanzen und tierzelle". Vjschr Naturf Ges Zurich. 40: 159–201.
Jump up ^ E. Gorter; F. Grendel (1925). "On Biomolecular Layers of Lipoids on the Chromocytes of the Blood". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 41: 439–443. doi:10.1084/jem.41.4.439. PMC 2130960  . PMID 19868999.
Jump up ^ James Danielli; Hugh Davson (1935). "A contribution to the theory of permeability of thin films". Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology. 5 (4): 495–508. doi:10.1002/jcp.1030050409.
Jump up ^ John E. Heuser (1995). "In Memory of J. David Robertson" (PDF). Newsletter of the American Society of Cell Biology.
show
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Golgi apparatus
Parenthesome
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text:
Scotty Doesn't Know
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Scotty Doesn't Know"
Song by Lustra
from the album Left for Dead
Released
2004
Genre
Pop punk
Length
2:55
Label
XOFF Records
Songwriter(s)
Jason Adams, Christopher Graham Baird, Nicholas Cloutman, Bruce Fulford
"Scotty Doesn't Know" is a song written and performed by the American rock band Lustra. Originally written for the 2004 film EuroTrip, the song contains numerous lewd references to how Scotty's girlfriend Fiona has been cheating on him for an extended period of time; the song is written from the perspective of the person she is having the affair with. The song was eventually released on their 2006 album Left for Dead. The song peaked at #53 on the U.S. Billboard Pop chart, #39 on the Digital Songs chart and at #75 on the Hot 100, mainly due to the high amount of digital downloads.
Contents
[hide]
1 In the film
2 Chart positions
3 References
4 External links
In the film[edit]
In the film Eurotrip, Scotty (Scott Mechlowicz) is dumped by his girlfriend Fiona (Kristin Kreuk) for the lead singer of a band (played in the film by Matt Damon). The band performs the song at a party Scotty is attending, and is praised by many characters in the film (including Scotty's parents and, eventually, Scotty himself) as being "catchy." The song becomes something of a popular phenomenon, appearing on the radio and across the world; in Bratislava, the song has been remixed and is playing in a popular nightclub. By the end of the film, it has become so widespread and popular that Scotty's best friend Cooper is able to use it as his cell phone ring tone.
Chart positions[edit]
"Scotty Doesn't Know" debuted at #89 on the U.S. Billboard Pop 100 for the chart week of July 22, 2006.[1]
Chart (2006)
Peak
position
U.S. Billboard Pop 100 53
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 75
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Billboard, July 22, 2006
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
This 2000s rock song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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