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When Calls the Heart
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Not to be confused with When the Heart Calls.
When Calls the Heart
Genre
Family Drama
Western
Based on
When Calls the Heart
by Janette Oke
Developed by
Michael Landon Jr.
Starring
Erin Krakow
Daniel Lissing
Lori Loughlin
Martin Cummins
Jack Wagner
Pascale Hutton
Kavan Smith
Country of origin
Canada
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
50 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Michael Landon Jr.
Jimmy Townsend
Roman Viaris
Francisco Gonzalez
Brian Bird
Brad Krevoy
Producer(s)
Vicki Sotheran
Greg Malcolm
Production location(s)
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Running time
42–84 minutes
Production company(s)
Believe Pictures
Brad Krevoy Television
Jordan Films
Release
Original network
Hallmark Channel (U.S.)
Super Channel (Canada)
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
1080i (HDTV)
Original release
January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11) – present (present)
Chronology
Related shows
When Hope Calls (spin off)
External links
[Official website Website]
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian-American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014,[1] and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.[2]
The series originally debuted as a two-hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney.[3] In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie[4]), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.[1][5]
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season,[6] which premiered with a two-hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April.[7] On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.[8]
A spin off of the show named When Hope Calls was announced at Hallmark's Television Critics Association summer press tour on July 26, 2018. When Hope Calls is expected to debut in 2019 on Hallmark Movies Now streaming service.[9]
Contents
1 Plot
2 Episodes
3 Cast
3.1 Main
3.2 Recurring
4 Characters
5 Production
6 Broadcast
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high-society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal-mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple—but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher's wealthy father has doomed the lawman's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 1, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son—along with 45 other miners—have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen—a result of the mining-company site manager's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town's teacher.[10]
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of When Calls the Heart episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 12 January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11) March 29, 2014 (2014-03-29)
2 7 April 25, 2015 (2015-04-25) June 13, 2015 (2015-06-13)
New Year's Wish December 26, 2015 (2015-12-26)
3 8 February 21, 2016 (2016-02-21) April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
Christmas December 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
4 10 February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19) April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
The Christmas Wishing Tree December 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
5 10 February 18, 2018 (2018-02-18) April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)
Cast[edit]
Main[edit]
Erin Krakow as Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton
Daniel Lissing as Jack Thornton (Seasons 1–5)
Lori Loughlin as Abigail Stanton
Jack Wagner as Bill Avery
Martin Cummins as Henry Gowen
Pascale Hutton as Rosemary LeVeaux Coulter
Kavan Smith as Leland Coulter
Recurring[edit]
Paul Greene as Carson Shepherd
Clayton Chitty as Kevin Townsend
Andrea Brooks as Faith Carter
Eva Bourne as Clara Weller Stanton
Aren Buchholz as Jesse Flynn
Carter Ryan Evancic as Cody Hastings
Loretta Walsh as Florence Blakeley
Erica Carroll as Dottie Ramsey
Johannah Newmarch as Molly Sullivan
Mark Humphrey as Frank Hogan
Chelah Horsdal as Cat Montgomery
Mitchell Kummen as Gabe Montgomery
Gracyn Shinyei as Emily Montgomery
Logan Williams as Miles Montgomery
Ben Rosenbaum as Mike Hickam
Ava Grace Cooper as Opal
Charlotte Hegele as Julie Thatcher
Max Lloyd-Jones as Tom Thornton
Brooke Shields as Charlotte Thornton
Ali Skovbye as Becky Hastings
Garwin Sanford as William Thatcher
Lynda Boyd as Grace Thatcher
Devon Weigel as Viola Thatcher
Marcus Rosner as Charles Kensington
Josie Bissett as AJ Foster
Steve Bacic as Charles Spurlock
Kristina Wagner as Nora Avery
Mamie Laverock as Rosaleen Sullivan
Adrian Hough as Reverend Anderson
Will Verchere-Gopaulsingh as Caleb Dunbar
Laura Bertram as Mary Dunbar
Derek Hamilton as Dewitt Graves
Niall Matter as Shane Cantrell (season 4)
Spencer Drever as Cyrus Rivera (season 4)
Characters[edit]
This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton is an independent, strong-minded, passionate and dedicated young teacher from the city. The middle daughter of William and Grace Thatcher, Elizabeth has two sisters, older sister Viola and younger sister Julie. Elizabeth was in her mid-20's when she found herself in Coal Valley, a small community on the Canadian frontier in need of a teacher, and quickly discovers it is not an easy place to live, lacking the creature comforts and luxuries of her privileged life with her family. She soon meets the newly appointed and charismatic Mountie Jack Thornton and develops an immediate dislike for him. However, over time they become good friends, and develop an obvious attraction to one another. In the season 1 finale, "Prelude to a Kiss" (also titled as "Final Adieu"), after overcoming many obstacles throughout the season, Jack tells Elizabeth "You're the one, you're the only one" and they share a kiss. Throughout season 2, Elizabeth's feelings for Jack are high at times as well as low. Finally, in the season 2 finale, she admits that his job as a Mountie scares her. After being comforted both admitting that they love each other, Jack and Elizabeth kiss. Season 3 continues the love story of Jack and Elizabeth, all leading up to Jack's marriage proposal in season 4 "My Heart Will Go On." The two wed in season 5's "My Heart Is Yours." Just days into their marriage, Jack is given a new assignment and leaves. He is killed (offscreen) in season 5's "In My Dreams." In the season 5 finale, "Close to My Heart," Elizabeth finds out she is pregnant with Jack's baby.
Jack Thornton is a laid back country boy. Jack is the son of Mountie Thomas Thornton and his wife Charlotte Thornton. Jack has a younger brother, Tom (named after his father). As a Mountie and a man of stout character and integrity, he often finds himself protecting and saving people. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Jack finds a basset hound whom he names Rip (after Rip Van Winkle) and takes home with him. A source of comfort and companion in the small town, Jack often goes to Rip when times in his life are difficult. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Rip, who's afraid of thunder, hides in the mine shafts during a storm. Jack and Elizabeth search for him; in their search, their relationship grows stronger. Upon his first meeting of Elizabeth, Jack developed an instant dislike and it appeared she irritated him. However, he grew to like and then fall madly and completely in love with her over time. In "Rules of Engagement" (S.1), it is revealed that Jack was briefly engaged to Rosemary LeVeaux when she comes looking for him. However, they have both changed and realize that they cannot have a relationship as they once did ever again. In "Prelude to a Kiss" (S.1), Jack found out that Elizabeth may be leaving Coal Valley. Taking her on a walk and giving her a framed picture of them that he had sketched, he asks her not to leave Coal Valley and tells her, "You're the one, you're the only one." She replied that she was "not going anywhere", Coal Valley was where she belonged before they share a kiss. In season 2, Elizabeth and Jack share a hot-and-cold relationship until the finale, "With All My Heart." They both admit that they love each other and share another kiss. Jack's brother, Tom, is introduced season 2's "Trials of the Heart," and their rocky relationship continues until "Coming Together, Coming Apart." Jack gently reminds his younger brother how their father was so proud of him, but he wouldn't be proud of the way he was currently living. Both in tears, Jack tells his younger brother that he believes in him and that he can turn his life around. More recently, Jack has become good friends with the sawmill operator, Lee Coulter. In season 3, Jack begins the new year knowing that Elizabeth only has eyes for him and that her relationship with Charles is over for good. In "Hearts In Question," Jack's mother Charlotte shows up unexpectedly. She meets Elizabeth and is suspicious of her, but through staying her sees Elizabeth for who she really is: a trustworthy, dedicated teacher. In the season finale, "Prayers From The Heart," Jack is injured in a flood. But he miraculously recovers in time to serve as Lee's best man at his wedding. Jack proposes to Elizabeth in season 4's "My Heart Will Go On," the night before he leaves for a new Mountie assignment. In season 5's "My Heart Is Yours," Jack and Elizabeth finally wed. Days into their new marriage, Jack receives a new assignment and leaves. He is killed (offscreen) in season 5's "In My Dreams," but his legacy will live on in his wife and their unborn child.
Abigail Stanton is a Coal Valley woman whose husband and son died in the mining accident. Abigail is a very kind woman, and she stands strongly for the things she believes in. She is one of the first women to welcome Elizabeth and the two women quickly become friends. When Elizabeth accidentally burns down the little teacherage, Abigail gladly welcomes her into her home to live. After being complimented on her cooking, Abigail decides to open a cafe in Coal Valley. Together, Abigail and Elizabeth move into the rooms above the cafe. At the end of season 1, Abigail enjoys the company of Bill Avery, a Mountie, serving as a Forensic Investigator and friend of Jack Thornton's. In season 2, Abigail takes in her daughter-in-law, Clara, the wife of her late son Peter whom Abigail sees as the daughter she never had. With Bill's past being revealed, Abigail ends their friendship and spends more time with the new pastor, Frank Hogan. Also, she is a strong independent woman that is set on doing the things that are right and tries to help Elizabeth. In season 3, Abigail takes in two orphans, Becky Hastings, and her younger brother Cody. In season 4's "Heart of A Fighter," Abigail legally adopts Becky and Cody. Abigail serves as one of Elizabeth's matrons of honor in season 5's "My Heart Is Yours."
Bill Avery is a mysterious, quiet man. He first appears in season 1's "Rules of Engagement," in order to help Jack expose Mr. Gowen's wrongdoings. Bill is immediately attracted to widow Abigail Stanton. Things are going well until Abigail discovers a picture of Bill's family and his wedding ring. He later tells her that his son died, as well as his wife. However, his wife, Nora, comes to confront him in season 2's "Heart's Desire."
Henry Gowen is a cold, cynical man who formerly owned the coal mine. After the mine was shut down, Henry became the mayor of Hope Valley and still creates a cold, cynical presence whenever people are around him. Henry is highly disliked and feared in the town. He frequently uses bribery to get what he wants, which is never for the good of the town. In season 5, however, Henry seems to be turning into a new man, coming to the aid of the town often and actually helping Bill catch a criminal red-handed in season 5's "In My Dreams."
Rosemary "Rosie" LeVeaux Coulter is a flamboyant, enthusiastic actress from New York. She was briefly engaged to Jack Thornton, but they both realized that it wouldn't work out. Rosie immediately disliked Elizabeth and viewed her as "the competition," but eventually came to really care about Elizabeth, even if she has a hard time showing it. At the beginning of season 2, Rosemary began working at the cafe with Abigail and the two quickly became friends. Spending time with Abigail helped tone down some of Rosemary's enthusiasm and made her a more likable person. Rosemary even came to like Elizabeth, even if only on an acquaintance level. Truthfully, she cares about everyone in Hope Valley, especially Lee, with whom she shares an mutual attraction. When Rosie is not spending time with Lee, talking to Abigail, or dreaming about the glamorous life of an actress, she can often be found somewhere writing her weekly advice column for Hope Valley's newspaper! In season 3, Rosemary's friendship with Elizabeth deepened. Instead of viewing her as an adversary, she finds a friend in Elizabeth. Throughout season 3, Rosemary's relationship with Lee becomes more romantic. In "Heart Of A Hero," seeing that Lee needs to spend more time at the sawmill to help the new settlers find jobs, Rosemary tells Lee that the theater doesn't have to be built. He insists, but she says how important his job is. He smiles and tells her he will one day build her theatre, telling her that she is "the best part of his life." The couple shares in their first kiss. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking he is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to him, telling how much she loves him. In "Heartbreak," Rosemary is offered a job in Hollywood filming. This has always been Rosemary's dream, to be an actress. Lee unselfishly tells her to do whatever she feels best, but the thought of her leaving Hope Valley hurts him. Rosemary considers her options and realizes that her place is in Hope Valley, with Lee. Lee then tells her that he has another "role" that he thinks would be perfect for her and proposes marriage. She happily accepts. In "Hearts In Question," Rosemary enthusiastically plans for their wedding. The couple weds in the season 3 finale "Prayers From The Heart," with Elizabeth and Abigail as her maids of honor. Rosemary is one of Elizabeth's matrons of honor in season 5's "My Heart Is Yours."
Lee Coulter is a kind, laid-back, patient man who opens a sawmill in Hope Valley. When timber becomes Coal Valley's major source of natural resources, the town is renamed Hope Valley. He shares a mutual attraction to Rosemary and proves to be one of the few people who can outwit her. When she declines his romantic intentions, Lee recruits his friend, Molly Sullivan, to make Rosemary jealous; the ploy succeeds and Rosemary accepts his suit, appreciating Lee's good qualities. Despite her dramatic and occasionally prickly personality, Lee's compassion and patience never fails with her. With Rosemary's help, Lee beat Mr. Gowen at his own game in "Heart and Home." When not at work, Lee enjoys being with friends, including Jack Thornton, who shares Lee's simple and laid back outlook, allowing the men to discuss their lives and exchange romantic advice. In season 3, Lee's mill is unfortunately sabotaged by a man inside. Through Bill and Jack's investigation, they find the culprit. In season 3's "Heart Of A Hero," Rosemary unselfishly gives up the theater that Lee promised to build her. Lee promises that one day, he will build her the theater at a time when he isn't so involved with the sawmill and finding people jobs. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking Lee is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to Lee, telling him how afraid she was when she heard he had been injured. He however hears each and every word. She told him how much she loves him and to never leave her. In the episode "Heartbreak," Lee thinks Rosemary may leave Hope Valley when she is offered a movie job in Hollywood. When she gives up the movie, seeing her future in Hope Valley with him, he asks her to marry him. The couple weds in the season 3 finale, "Prayers From The Heart." Jack serves the role of Lee's best man. Lee returns the honor for Jack in season 5's "My Heart Is Yours." In season 4's "Heart of A Fighter," we learn that Lee lost his brother Patrick at a young age.
Julie Thatcher is Elizabeth's hopeless romantic younger sister. She often gets herself into sticky situations by falling head over heels for men who aren't quite what they seem. In season 2 she gets involved with Jack's brother Tom, which causes trouble with her family and for Jack and Elizabeth's relationship.
Cat Montgomery is a kind, encouraging woman in Coal Valley. She is a widow and mother of three: Gabe, Miles, and Emily. Cat was one of the first mothers to show kindness to Elizabeth when she first came. She desperately wants her children to remember the good memories of their father as seen by her self-sacrificing acts in "Secrets and Lies." Possessing a great sense of teamwork and encouragement, Cat supports the women of Coal Valley while working in the mines in "Cease and Desist." She is good friends with Elizabeth and Abigail. In "These Games," she also helps Jack catch a thief.
Florence Blakeley is a feisty gossip in Hope Valley. She often has a pessimistic perspective and always seems to find the negative, even in a very positive situation. In "Heart and Home," Abigail told Florence what she really thought about her, which causes Florence to rein in her negativity somewhat, though she remains fairly outspoken. While not always likable, Florence adds spice to life in Hope Valley.
Molly Sullivan is a friend of Lee Coulter and Elizabeth Thatcher. Molly's husband was killed in the mine disaster. She has a daughter Rosaleen. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Rosaleen has trouble in school because she misses her father so much. When she runs away, Elizabeth finds her in the mine, feeling guilty that she didn't bring her father his lunch the day of the disaster because she wanted to play with a friend instead. She fears her mother will blame her, but Elizabeth convinces her that Molly will "say that she loves her more than life itself." Molly is reunited with her daughter, to the joy of the town's people. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Lee feels it's time to "play hard to get" with Rosemary, so he enlists help from Molly. She pretends to be interested in him romantically. This ploy works and Rosemary admits that she does in fact like him. Molly is a kind woman and was among the first to welcome Elizabeth to town.
Clara Stanton is the wife of Abigail's late son Peter, and is a sweet, quiet, and sensitive young woman. Abigail never knew she had a daughter-in-law until season 2's "Trials of the Heart;" with Peter having married Clara only three days before he was killed. In "Heart's Desire," Abigail invites Clara to come live with her in Hope Valley, an offer that Clara accepts.
Charles Kensington III is an old friend of Elizabeth with whom she reconnects while in Hamilton. He is interested in her, though her feelings for Jack get in the way of their relationship.
Production[edit]
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set.[11] The Thatcher home is the University Women's Club of Vancouver.[12]
The series was renewed for a second season,[13] which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016,[14] with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.[15]
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two-hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.[16][17]
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.[18][19]
Broadcast[edit]
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015.[20] The network has since aired all five seasons.[21][22] The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Reiher, Andrea (January 11, 2014). "'When Calls the Heart' premiere: Will you return to the frontier?". Zap2It. From Inside the Box (blog). Retrieved January 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'When Calls the Heart' features Aussie Mountie". Canadian Press, April 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hallmark Channel - The Movie Cast". Hallmarkchannel.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ ""When Calls the Heart," Hallmark Channel's Newest Original Primetime Series Kicks Off with a 2-Hour Special Extended Pilot on October 5" (Press release). Hallmark Channel. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 2016-01-11 – via The Futon Critic.
Jump up ^ The Deadline Team (June 12, 2013). "Hallmark Channel's 'When Calls The Heart' Adds Cast; 'Cedar Cove' July Premiere Set". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
Jump up ^ "Special Announcement - When Calls the Heart". April 24, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (July 31, 2017). "'When Calls The Heart' Gets Season 5 Premiere Date On Hallmark Channel". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (March 21, 2018). "Hallmark Channel Upfront Presentation Canceled Due To Storm, Net Makes Announcements, Including 'When Calls the Heart' Renewal, At Central Park Event". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb (July 26, 2018). "Good Witch Renewed for Season 5, When Calls the Heart Gets Spinoff". TVLine. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Hallmark Channel - About the Series". Hallmarkchannel.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ Brioux, Bill (December 6, 2013). "'When Calls The Heart' TV Series Set In Fictional Town Built In B.C." The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (May 1, 2015). "TV Q&A: 'Grey's Anatomy,' 'Younger,' 'Bones' and a former Pittsburgh news anchor". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 5, 2014). "When Calls the Heart' Renewed for Second Season by Hallmark Channel". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (July 28, 2015). "'When Calls The Heart' Renewed For Season 3 On Hallmark Channel". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "When Calls the Heart videos". Hallmark Channel.
Jump up ^ McLennan, Cindy (April 11, 2016). "When Calls the Heart: Season Four Renewal for Hallmark Channel Series". TV Series Finale. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (April 15, 2016). "'When Calls The Heart' Renewed For Season 4 By Hallmark Channel". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Takeuchi, Craig (August 21, 2017). "Filming in Vancouver: Johnny Depp, When Calls the Heart, and Eggplant Emoji". Inside Vancouver. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Krakow, Erin [@erinkrakow] (December 21, 2017). "That's a Season 5 WRAP for Elizabeth! It flew! Missing my Hope Valley friends already!" (Tweet). Retrieved December 25, 2017 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "CBC-TV stacks fall and winter lineups with British, Aussie fare". 680 News, May 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "CBC Television reveals its 2016 summer schedule with five new primetime series, returning hits and the Rio 2016 Olympic Games". CBC Television. May 18, 2016. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "CBC Announces 2017-18 Programming Slate". CBC Television. May 24, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: When Calls the Heart
Official website
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Adolescent cliques
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Adolescent cliques are cliques that develop amongst adolescents. In the social sciences, the word "clique" is used to describe a group of 2 to 12 (averaging 5 or 6) "who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting".[1] Cliques are distinguished from "crowds" in that their members interact with one another (e.g. hang out together, go shopping, play basketball). Crowds, on the other hand, are defined by reputation. Although the word 'clique' or 'cliquey' is often used in day-to-day conversation to describe relational aggression or snarky, gossipy behaviors of groups of socially dominant teenage girls, that is not scientifically accurate.[citation needed] Interacting with cliques is part of normative social development regardless of gender, ethnicity, or popularity. Although cliques are most commonly studied during adolescence and middle childhood, they exist in all age groups.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Clique membership
2.1 Common misconceptions
2.2 Forms of association
2.3 Stability over time
3 Types of American cliques
3.1 Middle school cliques
3.2 High school cliques
4 Within clique structure
4.1 Popularity
4.2 Elements of popularity
5 Between clique structure
5.1 Personal factors
5.1.1 Orientation toward school
5.1.2 Orientation toward teen culture
5.1.3 Antisocial activity
5.2 Demographic factors
5.2.1 Age
5.2.2 Gender
5.2.3 Socioeconomic status
5.2.4 Ethnicity
5.2.5 Religion
5.3 Reputation determinants and effects
6 Clique membership and social adjustment in children's same-gender cliques
7 Change and stability in childhood
8 Effect of cliques on the development of psychopathology in children
9 Decline of cliques
10 Implications
11 See also
12 References
Definition[edit]
As children enter adolescence, cultural, biological and cognitive changes cause variation in their daily lives. Adolescents spend far less time with their parents and begin participating in both structured and unstructured peer activities.[2]:p.151 Without the direct presence of their parents or other adults, their peer network begins to become the primary context for most socialization and activity. These social "cliques" fundamentally influence adolescent life and development.[2]:p.155–164[3] Perhaps because they are perceived as an external threat to parental authority, undesired changes in adolescent behavior are often attributed to cliques.[4] In these situations, cliques are described as "social grouping[s] of persons that exhibit a great deal of peer pressure on its members and is exclusive, based on superficial differences".[1] Researchers, however, question these assumptions: based on empiric data from both experiments and ethnographies they suggest that clique structure characterizes many friendship networks within any given school, not all of which negatively affect adolescents.[5] A more neutral and scientific definition of clique is "a grouping of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting".[1]
Although cliques can range from two to twelve people, cliques typically consist of five or six people who are homogeneous in age, gender, race, social status, and socioeconomic background.[1][2] More subtle determinant of group membership, such as shared interests and values, take precedence as adolescents develop more sophisticated, abstract cognitive functions (more here), which allow them to categorize individuals in more subtle ways and better interpret social interactions.[2]:p.156 Consistent group identities thus allow individuals to cope with the anonymity and intimidation that often accompany the transition into large secondary schools.[1][6]
Similar cliques may re-emerge in adulthood in specific contexts, characterized by large, undifferentiated, anonymous crowds. Overall, cliques are a transitory social phase.[2][7]:p.159 In general, cliques first form in early adolescence with strict gender segregation, but by middle adolescence, some mixed-gender activities within the peer crowds foster close, cross-sex friendships which begin to restructure the clique.[8] During late adolescence, the organized clique structure typically dissolves into associated sets of couples, which then remain the primary social unit into and throughout adulthood.[1]
Cliques are different from other types of peer groups often seen in the average school, which are often reputation-based groups such as jocks or nerds. The major difference is that these reputation-based groups do not necessarily interact with each other, whereas members of a clique do interact with one another and have frequent social interactions.[9] For example, football players are considered jocks, but not all members of a football team always interact with each other.
Clique membership[edit]
Common misconceptions[edit]
Although the popular media portrays female cliques almost exclusively (see examples in movies, television, and young adult fiction), clique membership is almost equally prevalent in adolescent boys. Girls do, however, tend to form cliques earlier (11 years old as compared with 13 or 14 among boys), which may contribute to the greater popular salience of female cliques.[1] Additionally, the activities central to most female cliques include gossip and emotional sharing; this behavior visibly increases, revealing female cliques to the outside observer. Male cliques, on the other hand, tend to center around activities that have occurred before the formation of the clique (common examples include basketball and video games), and thus may draw less attention to the appearance of male cliques. Male cliques may have also gone largely unnoticed because they often appear less exclusive toward the non-clique peer group members.[1] This last difference may arise because males more frequently reported ambitions related to acceptance and status throughout their crowd, whereas females more often aspired to status and close bonds with only a few peers (i.e. a clique).[1][10] Males were also more likely to consider actively exclusive behavior unethical, as were younger adolescents.[2]:p.161 The stereotype of cruel, unwelcoming clique members is well supported in some cases, but other cliques are more open to drifters. Both attitudes appear in some cliques of both sexes and all social groups become more permeable with age.[11] Similarly, although adolescents tend to associate with others of the same ethnicity and socioeconomic status, clique membership is equally common across ethnicity and economic background. The characteristics of the distinct cliques within each demographic group also vary equally, although members of cliques in one crowd or demographic group may not perceive all of the distinctions in others (see also crowds).[12]
Forms of association[edit]
A number of recent studies confirm that regardless of gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, adolescents tend to fall into one of three categories: group members, liaisons, and isolates.[1][2]:p.158
Group Member: The majority of group members' social interactions occur within the same small group. They comprise less than half of any given school population at a time, with a higher concentration among girls and younger grades.
Liaisons: Liaisons associate with a few members of multiple cliques and are generally regarded positively by their peers.
Isolates: Characterized by few, if any, close peer relationships, these individuals do not regularly interact with any clique members. Isolated can be further classified by social agency:
Volunteer status – these isolates deliberately avoid forming relationships.
Forced status – peers actively exclude, mock, or victimize these isolates (see relational aggression and bullying).
Stability over time[edit]
Membership type is far more stable over time than membership in an individual clique: isolates generally remain socially disengaged, liaisons remain equally consistent, and "group members" frequently switch from one clique to another, but typically remain group members over time.[13] The objective cliques themselves remain surprisingly stable as well. On average, cliques lose around one third of their members over a given school year, but new members with similar characteristics tend to replace the deserters, maintaining the general identity of the clique.[13] Clique membership becomes more stable across time, as well as more permeable, less exclusive, and less hierarchical.[2]:p.161 Contrary to popular belief, individual friendships are far less stable across the school year.[13] This is particularly true of high-status cliques and individuals, in which clique members must critically analyze their friendships and socialize only with their most popular peers or risk losing membership and status.[11]
Types of American cliques[edit]
Using the definition of a clique, we are able to draw distinctions between the many different types of cliques a person is able to be a member of. During adolescent years, students may obtain membership to a certain clique in order to ease the process of secondary school. Since adolescents emulating similar cultural standards are likely to become friends and these friends are likely to encourage these aspects of their attitudes, behaviors, and dress,[14] the types of cliques commonly found in schools can vary significantly. Some of the more common types of cliques found include: jocks, tomboys, cheerleaders, mean girls, foreigners, gamers, hipsters, hippies, troublemakers, peacemakers, class clowns, "cool kids", arty intellectuals, gangsters, wangsters, "ghetto kids", stoners/slackers, girly girls, scenesters, scene kids, punks, preps, skaters, goths, emos, skinheads, geeks/nerds, and drifters.
Middle school cliques[edit]
Sociologists Patricia and Peter Adler claim that Middle School cliques can fall under four specific labels:[15]
The Popular Clique – members of this clique are generally known to have the most friends in their school, and are viewed as having the most fun.
The Fringe Group – members of this clique follow in the shadow of members of the popular clique—they mimic the popular cliques' actions, structure and guidelines, but are not actually part of it. They are "second in line" to the popular kids.
The Friendship Circles – members of friendship circles tend to be groups of friends who share a common belief, interest, style, appearance, or hobby, or are looking for their own culture separate from the other cliques.
The Loners – members of this group seem to have very few friends, and prefer to work and be alone. Some may be envious of those who belong to a different clique.
The friendship circles can be divided into some categories, such as...
The Athletic Group - members of this group play sports in or outside of school. They tend to have many friends and are sometimes with the popular clique. These kids are usually in a regular relationship.
The Nerds/Geeks- members of this group are studious, and care a lot about their schoolwork. Some may be socially impaired, however most have friends in the same group. They prefer video games, studying, and reading instead of playing sports or going to large social events.
The Punks/Emos – members of punk or emo cliques tend to have small amounts of friends and trouble interacting with others, they can be seen as violent or depressed due to their heavy use of makeup and dark clothing. This clique is less common in middle schools than it may be in high schools.
High school cliques[edit]
TLC (TV channel) mentions and describes some typical types of teen cliques observable in most high schools.[16]
Geeks – a group of students described as being intellectual, obsessive or socially impaired. They usually don't have the modern fashion sense of other groups, and they usually prefer chess to hoops. "Geeky" interests and hobbies usually include: fantasy movies and shows, role-playing games and technical hobbies and activities (which in some cases can include technology knowledge). Geeks are smart, but they sometimes have a hard time socially, as many teens view them as being more boring to be around than others.
Jocks – live for athletics, tend to be popular with many of their peers. They may be the male equivalent of "mean girls".
Thespians – the teens who are obsessed with Broadway musicals and more than likely aspire to do theatre professionally. They typically have a very busy and complicated schedule, spending most of their time in rehearsal for the school show or working on their craft. They generally do well academically and have a good sense of responsibility. Their hobbies include learning all the songs and dances to all their favourite musicals, singing randomly at any given time, and obsessing over a new favourite Broadway show every week. They are usually very kind and sweet to those outside of their own clique, except for the occasional diva. They are also creative and very funny, but have a unique sense of humor which is only funny to those who understand musical theatre references; their preferred subjects are in the performing arts—drama, singing, dance, acting, and musical theatre. They may also be involved in other performing arts activities, such as choir or dancing.
Skaters – skateboarders who came along and borrowed the long hair and slacker trappings of the surf scene, but they have always been more rebellious.
Outsiders – may be socially challenged and unable to fit in, or they may be independent and feel no need to join any one group exclusively. They tend to have an "I don't care about anything" attitude, and will oftentimes get in trouble for it.
Hipsters – make a big effort to assemble a wardrobe that seems effortless. They challenge traditional norms and modern trends. All genders wear tight jeans, flannel shirts, Buddy Holly glasses and vintage clothing. They follow the latest trends in fashion and like to be independent from the other cliques and often do what is "uncool" before it becomes "cool".
Scenesters – Also known as Trendies, they are ever eager to fit in. They are dedicated followers of fashion, devoted to a particular band, club or style. They dress in tight, fashionable clothing, wear sunglasses and sport wild but styled hairdos (striped, streaked or spiked). Social media platforms are totally essential to them. Scenesters sometimes get labelled posers or wannabes.
Preps – a subgenre of the popular clique. Preps tend to be good at being social and having fun and usually come from an upper middle class or upper-class family. Sometimes they overlap with jocks, especially when it comes to sports. In most high schools, preps are those most commonly chosen to have important positions for school events such as Class Officers, Home Coming King/Queen, Prom King/Queen and Prom Court. Maintaining the right image may even make them vulnerable. Unlike the stereotype of "mean girls", preps often get along with everyone.
Nerds – they are obsessed and often have superior knowledge or devotion to something, usually aren't fashion-conscious, may be introverted, and they often do well in school.
Mean girls – the 2004 movie Mean Girls, starring Lindsay Lohan as a girl negotiating the jungles of teenage subcultures, put a new label on this type of teen. They always embrace the latest fashions. They form exclusive cliques and frequently engage in gossip. They crave popularity, often because they feel insecure; yet they have a hard time with genuine relationships.
Emo kids – highly emotional. Their emotions are reflected in their appearance: dark clothing, streaked bangs, and tattoos and piercings. The emo style has its roots in punk culture, which tended to be more rebellious, and goth, which was darker and gloomier. Some emos are described as scene kids because they wear brighter neon clothes. These kids are more vulnerable to depression or bipolar tendencies. They are known for experiments with self-injury and cutting, though not all of them do this. Emo kids tend to be mistaked for goth due to their dark outfits, or sometimes rockers being they often wear band t-shirts and have a lot of musical interests.
Rockers – tend to stay away from the crowd and in small groups with similar interests in music. This is a very large clique because of how diverse it is. They tend to wear band T-shirts, lots of jewelry, and baggy or tight jeans and are usually listening to music. Many of them will be in a band or know an instrument. They live according to the Rock and Roll lifestyle: Sex, drugs, and music.
Within clique structure[edit]
Popularity[edit]
A powerful, yet unstable social hierarchy structures interactions between group members in any given clique. This hierarchy is always topped by the highest-status member, labeled by psychologists as the "Leader" or "Queen Bee".[1][11] In her now famous ethnography of adolescent cliques, Queen Bees and Wannabes, author Rosalind Wiseman explains the standard set of roles most frequently adopted by male and female clique members.
Females:
Queen Bee – Leader: rules by "charisma, force, money, looks, will, & manipulation".
Sidekick – Lieutenant: invariably supports the Queen Bee's opinions.
Banker – Gossip: collects and employs information for her own gain until part of clique, then works for benefit of Queen Bee and Sidekick.
Floater – Similar to a Liaison; closely associated with multiple cliques.
Pleaser – Can be in or out of clique: immediately adopts all of the Queen Bee and Sidekick's opinions, yet never gains their approval and is often treated with indifference by the Queen Bee.
Target – Outside of the clique; regularly excluded and humiliated.
Males:
Leader – Like the Queen Bee except well-respected: Athletic, tough, rich, & gets the girls.
Flunkie – Like the Pleaser, he does anything asked of him, but he also responds to any member. Inadvertently annoys others with his actions regularly.
Thug – Although often smarter than he lets on, the Thug communicates primarily through nonverbal bullying. He typically appears popular, but may have had a rough past or childhood.
The Get Wits – Groupies of male clique: respected by adults as high-achieving "good kids", but only unsought tag-a-longs to the clique.
Although too rigid to be entirely accurate across samples, these basic denominations are useful for discussing general behavior and organization within cliques. The role hierarchies within cliques are significantly more stable than the individual members. Maintaining one's status and power requires constant effort. Queen Bees and Leaders must work the hardest to protect their positions and typically become manipulative and disliked in the process.[8][11][13] For example, a Leader or Queen Bee may keep objective attention off of him or herself by unpredictably alternating praise and criticism of other members (see relational aggression). They may also change the way the clique views activities, values, and opinions of things to keep the other members unsure of where they stand in the group."[1][11]
The Leader or Queen Bee also maintains power over group membership—exercised through both tacit and explicit rejection of prospective members—as well as the final say in accepting new members, regardless of the opinions of other members.[13] The majority of new memberships results from one of two approaches: invitation or application. The "invitation" approach originates within the clique: a current member of a clique invites a potential member either explicitly or by indirect socialization, which consists of the clique attempting to demonstrate the joys and benefits of membership. Aspiring peers who have not been invited can also "apply" by courting the lowest ranking members and progressing up to the Leader or Queen Bee who will decide whether to accept him or her.[1][11]
Elements of popularity[edit]
Advanced and adaptable social skills are the best predictors of popularity, but further predictors of popularity are difficult to identify, primarily because the schema of "popularity" represents the interaction between two distinct concepts. Popularity breaks down into sociometric status (sometimes called "likability"), which measures peers' private feelings toward the individual, and perceived popularity, which reflects the individual's status, prestige, and power.[1]
Socio-metric status is determined by fairly universally valuable characteristics including social skills, friendliness, and sense of humor. The foundations of perceived popularity, on the other hand, vary widely.[2]:p.171 Some popular adolescents are high in both characteristics, but they more often develop in distinct individuals and cliques, all considered "popular" during adolescence.[17]
Regardless of popularity type, highly popular individuals influence local norms and behaviors in similar ways: "adolescents are easily swayed by the opinions of high-status peers to endorse activities they might otherwise reject and to run the other way from activities endorsed by low-status peers, even if they secretly enjoy them".[10] The popular individuals themselves, however, fare differently depending on the root of their status.[8] Several recent studies proved the discriminant validity of the two groups and found that perceived popularity in high school is predictive of alcohol use, sexual activity, and smoking.[1] It may also be associated with a lasting drop in sociometric status. Several recent studies suggest that long-term outcomes are generally more positive for individuals who were neither Isolates nor among the most popular during adolescence.[1][2][8]
Between clique structure[edit]
Personal factors[edit]
A status hierarchy much like that within individual cliques organizes the various cliques within each peer crowd.[2]:p.157 The crowds within a given school are also perceived hierarchically. Crowd ranking can sometimes change but is generally quite stable across time and schools.[2]:p.162 Part of a clique's popularity status is based on the crowd with which its members associate, thus similarly-popular cliques within the same crowd are more likely to move within the hierarchy than are similar crowds within the larger peer context.[1]
Both because students meet and seek friends with others who share their interests ("selection") and because much of clique members time, both free and structured, takes place in the company of the other members ("socialization"), cliques are usually defined by common attitudes and activities.[18] Among the most powerful determinants of clique membership are orientation toward school, orientation toward teen culture, and involvement in antisocial behavior.[2]:p.167
Orientation toward school[edit]
Because studying time and partying time conflict, most individuals are rarely exposed to individuals from the opposite end of this spectrum during unstructured time. Membership in the same clique with peers whose values are highly distinct is thus uncommon. Individuals with only somewhat different views of school, however, are likely to belong to the same clique, and socialization is likely to decrease their differences over time. For example, girls' decisions about enrollment in advanced math are significantly related to those of their close friends.[14] A study of 78 high schools found that even controlling for past achievement, the GPAs of an individual's close friends reliably help predict grades; in fact "of all the characteristics of friends that influence adolescents' behavior, their friends' school performance has the greatest impact, not only on their own academic achievement, but also on their involvement in problem behavior and drug use."[5]
Orientation toward teen culture[edit]
See also: Youth subculture
Similar taste in music and clothing signal others with potentially shared interests and values and often suggest the leisure activities and substance use patterns of which they approve. Thus adolescents emulating similar cultural standards are likely to become friends and these friends are likely to encourage these aspects of their attitudes, behaviors, and dress.[19] Participation in subcultures can also reinforce belonging.[20] In many cases, clique members can be easily identified based on dress alone.[13][21][22]
Antisocial activity[edit]
Main article: Juvenile delinquency
Research does not support the common belief that troubled adolescents have few or no friends.[2]:p.168 Instead such individuals gravitate toward one another and form their own cliques, although these friendships do often differ from the friendships of more socially acceptable children.[4][23][24][25][26] This general self-sorting trend applies in different ways to specific kinds of antisocial behavior. A few of the most studied are substance use, aggression, and depressive symptoms.
Substance use
Similarity in substance use is one of the most powerful factors in clique development and lasting membership, even serving as the earliest predictor of cross-gender friendships and the most common basis for multi-ethnic cliques.[2]:p.168 Alcohol and drug use are predicted by the interaction between number of substance using friends, the extent of their substance use, and perceived closeness to those friends;[2]:p.170 a substance-free adolescent is thus unlikely to seek out or be accepted by a clique characterized by frequent substance use and even more unlikely to remain substance-free long after entering such clique[4][27][28] Cliques typically fall into one of four categories and clique membership reliably predicts individual behavior.[21][29]
High Functioning cliques consisted of "a network of high-achieving friends who were involved in school-based extracurricular activities and who reported low use of alcohol and few symptoms of depression."
Maladjusted cliques "showed the opposite pattern": uninvolved in school performance and organized activities, used alcohol frequently and to excess, and reported multiple symptoms of depression.
Disengaged cliques did not encourage engagement "in much of anything, including drinking."
Engaged cliques consisted of friends who "engaged in school, achieved decent grades, and neither abstained from nor abused alcohol."
Members of High Functioning and Engaged cliques demonstrated the best long-term outcomes, whereas Maladjusted clique membership predicted low achievement, chronic substance abuse, and confrontation with authorities and Disengaged clique members and others who abstained completely typically exhibited abnormally high anxiety and inhibition.[21][29]
Aggression
Gravitation toward similar peer groups can be especially dangerous for adolescents with aggressive tendencies. A recent[when?] observational study on antisocial, aggressive boys established that clique members tended to live in the same neighborhood, where they met and bonded through unstructured, unsupervised activities.[25] Since antisocial groups encourage antisocial behavior, aggressive behaviors tend to escalate rapidly within groups of aggressive adolescents. In the case of bullies this effect is so detrimental that those without any friends are actually more likely to improve over time than those with friends[23] and generally experience better long-term outcomes.[4][26] In the most extreme cases, these groups may become gangs or practice less organized, but equally dangerous, violent delinquency[2][20]:p.168
Depression
Although these maladjusted, detrimental cliques can develop among adolescents of either gender, those based on aggression and delinquency are more often observed in males. In females, adjustment problems are more often manifested as internalizing problems, rather than the externalizing problems common among their male peers.[20] Research shows, however, that both internalizing and externalizing behaviors are negatively related to the subjective sense of strong, reliable group belonging, even controlling for adolescent age, gender, ethnicity, family structure, and parents' educational level.[20]
Because adolescent females, on average, both report stronger feelings of group belonging and place greater importance on this feeling than do their male peers,[20] girls who do not feel accepted may be more susceptible than equally excluded boys to forming and conforming to cliques based on shared maladaptive behavior. If so, differences in internalizing or externalizing behaviors of adolescent boys and girls may be magnified during adolescence, contributing to the significant gender differences observed in adult outcomes such as incarceration and mood disorders.[2]:p.426 For example, the same cycle of selection and socialization known to exacerbate aggression applies to the internalizing behaviors associated with depression.[6][30] One study on the emergence of depression in adolescence found that even controlling for the effects of age and pubertal development, gender predicted several small but significant differences: (a) depressive symptoms and negative peer relations predicted increasing levels of reassurance-seeking in female subjects; (b) initial levels of reassurance-seeking predicted deteriorating friendship quality among girls and initial levels of depressive symptoms, which were higher among girls, predicted low friendship stability among all subjects, and (c) "reassurance-seeking combined with poor peer experiences predicted increases in girls' depressive symptoms."[30]
Perhaps related to the role of reassurance-seeking, those who both value and experience social acceptance are far less likely to exhibit problem behavior than those who value group membership equally, but are uncertain of their relationship.[30] This relationships is better predicted by self-esteem than the actual quality of the relationships, although also directly related to discordance in personal and peer ratings of status.[6][19] This effect likely arises cyclically: troubled children are rejected by their peers for their undesirable behavior, while rejected children receive less normative socialization and behave more problematically.[2][30]:p.167–170
Demographic factors[edit]
Although there are exceptions, demographic factors typically influence adolescent crowd membership even before real cliques begin to form and often influence clique membership more powerfully than personal or behavioral characteristics. Many of the effects on clique composition described below may be largely attributed to crowd segregation.
Age[edit]
Because the contemporary school system divides children by age and structures the majority of most adolescents' time and social exposure, age is the most universal common factor among clique members; notable exceptions include friendships formed in neighborhoods or on the internet and those initiated with early-maturing pubertal girls, all of which are often detrimental to the younger friend.[2][7][31]:p.164
Gender[edit]
Gender is perhaps the strongest demographic determinant of clique composition in very early puberty. During childhood and early adolescence sex cleavage (social segregation) between cliques is almost absolute. However, unlike other factors, gender division is temporary.
Socioeconomic status[edit]
Another, less advantageous, powerful determinant of clique formation is socioeconomic class. This trend was first published in the famous "Elmtown's Youth Study", which found that "almost never did adolescents from one social class associate with students from a class that was two ranks higher or lower".[22] A diverse array of follow-up studies have confirmed that class-consciousness steadily increases throughout adolescence, so that by mid-adolescence clique membership across significantly different social backgrounds is highly anomalous.[2]:p.165
Ethnicity[edit]
Main article: Adolescence § Culture
In the United States race remains an even stronger determinant of friendship than socioeconomic status.[12] Like socioeconomic status, ethnicity is not a strong determinant of childhood friendships, but becomes increasingly potent with age. By high school, ethnically mixed cliques are rarely observed.[2]:p.165 This pattern of social segregation is strongest between black students and all other students and most prevalent in schools where students are divided into academic tracks. This is because various factors disadvantage black children, affecting performance in some cases and adult decisions in others so that in many cases black children are disproportionately likely to be placed in lower tracks, regardless of intelligence or performance[32] resulting in uneven distribution between tracks in the majority of American high schools.[33] Researchers suggest that because close friends in adolescence "usually have similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations, and similar school achievement levels", early tracking may both decrease exposure to peers of other racial and socioeconomic backgrounds and decrease perceived similarity with the majority of those peers[5][32][33] Racial divisions are most acute in tracked schools but are fundamental to crowd and clique composition in almost all American schools, and thus cannot be attributed to, nor changed by, any one educational program. More encouragingly, however, longitudinal observations suggest that interventions in early childhood may have the potential to influence social segregation: the more schools foster close cross-racial friendships in childhood the less peer group segregation manifests.[2][33]:p.167
Religion[edit]
A well-established factor in clique composition is religious background, affiliation, and participation.[22] This is somewhat confounded by overlap with socioeconomic status, but also relates to behavioral correlates of religion and selection by both individual and their peers.[22]
Reputation determinants and effects[edit]
Cliques reputation is often determined by their most noticeable behavioral characteristic that is shared among their members.[9] The characteristic might be so salient that it could dominate the way that members of that clique are perceived and treated by other peers regardless of the individual differences that each member has. For example, a clique group could be perceived as athletic, but say an individual in that group is very smart and gets good grades in school. That individual would be treated based on his athletic characteristics rather than his intellectual abilities. When people are treated based on a single characteristic it changes their self-image, resulting in a change in who they are. This phenomenon is known as the looking glass self; individuals become more like the way they think they are perceived by others. So for the example where the individual was treated based on his athletic abilities rather than his intelligence, that person will likely focus his attention more on sports rather than doing well in school, causing him or her to become even more like the clique he or she is a part of. This phenomenon where individuals in a group tend to be more like each other than non-group members is known as group homophily.[9] Children almost always choose to be friends of people who share similarities with themselves, hence why similar characteristics among clique members establish the clique's reputation and allow different cliques to be told apart.
Clique membership and social adjustment in children's same-gender cliques[edit]
Most people agree that children are affected by who they associate with, but what is not well understood is the specific characteristics that children of similar types of groups share. The focus of these authors' research[9] was to discover the different emotional and social effects that members of the same cliques share. For their study they divided the 473 fourth and fifth graders into five groups, which were: competent, tough, average, withdrawn, and incompetent/aggressive. The researchers did this by having students rate their classmates on several characteristics; bright, fun, bully, withdrawn, athletic, prosocial, reactive aggression. They then measured differences among groups by asking children questions regarding peers social status and behavioral characteristics. For example, they asked participants to nominate up to three participating classmates who "tries to get what he or she wants by hitting, shoving, pushing or threatening others". In addition, they asked children questions about themselves that regarded to levels of loneliness and children's social dissatisfaction.
The researcher's discovered differences in emotional well-being and social satisfaction between different types of clique groups. They found that competent and average groups showed positive characteristics such as good interpersonal skills, whereas withdrawn, incompetent/aggressive and tough cliques lacked emotional well-being and social satisfaction. Another discovery was that social status levels did not distinguish average, competent and tough cliques from one another. Therefore, if an individual is in one of these three groups they are no more likely to have a high social status than a low social status. Their conclusion to these findings was that even when taking into account individuals social status level, the type of clique people are in has a significant effect on their social and emotional characteristics.
Change and stability in childhood[edit]
A recent study done by Witvliet, Van Lier, Cuijpers and Koot shows the differences in behavioral characteristics between clique members and non-clique members in early elementary school, the stability of clique membership and whether the differences in these characteristics are gender oriented. Three hundred first-grade students (151 boys, 149 girls) from eleven different elementary schools in the Netherlands participated. The children were examined by being asked to determine their best friends. This friendship was considered valid if the elected friendship was reciprocated by the other child. The child was considered to be in a clique when the following criteria was overcome 1) consisted of at least three children 2) each child had to have more connections with members than non-members and 3) a link had to occur between all members of clique. Children were then rated by their peers to determine who was liked the most versus who was liked the least. The children were also asked to determine behavioural characteristics of participants and who best fit the description of characteristics such as aggressive, anxious, etc. The peer study was followed through every spring and children were given a small reward for their involvement. These results were then used to compare between clique members and non-clique members. These results were also used to discuss the children's characteristics while also separating based on gender. In first grade, 29 cliques were found with an average of 5.3 members. In second grade 25 cliques were found with an average of 6.2 members. This study suggests that clique members tend to be more adjusted and that gender may have some form of influence on the results. This study showed that isolated girls would have more behavioural problems than isolated boys.[34]
Effect of cliques on the development of psychopathology in children[edit]
Researches have often conducted studies to determine whether membership to a clique produces positive or negative development. In one 4-year study of 451 children from age nine to twelve, Miranda Witvliet along with Pol A. C. van Lier, Mara Brendgen, Hans M. Koot, and Frank Vitaro examined longitudinal associations between clique membership status and internalizing and externalizing problems during late childhood.[35] In this quasi-experiment the researchers aimed to discover if clique membership status was linked to increases in children's psychopathology. Children from five different elementary schools in northwestern Quebec, Canada were the participants of this particular study. In the study, clique membership status was identified through social network analysis, and peer nominations were used to assess internalizing and externalizing problems. The study used the program Kliquefinder to identify clique membership status through social network analysis. Through use of behavioural descriptions on the Pupil Evaluation Inventory (PEI), peer nominations of externalizing and internalizing behaviors were obtained.
Through this study, Witvliet, van Lier, Brendgen, Koot, and Vitaro noted that externalizing problems increased among clique members. They found that clique members compared with isolated children showed, on average, an increase in externalizing problems across that same period. While no sex differences were found in the link between clique membership status and internalizing problems, the association found between clique membership and an increase in externalizing problems was specific to boys only. The researchers claimed that these results support the hypothesis that clique membership protects children against developing internalizing problems.
Decline of cliques[edit]
During middle adolescence, the social norms that once enforced sex cleavage shift to encourage mixed-sex socialization. Single-sex cliques begin to seek out the company of opposite-sex cliques, although at first almost all direct interaction remains within the individual cliques despite the presence of the other clique(s). Gradually, intersex relationships and mixed sex cliques develop, closely followed by the first romantic relationships, which typically appear among early-pubertal, high-status, more physically developed adolescents. Over the course of late adolescence romantic relationships replace clique hierarchies as the most potent determinants of social status and networks of dating couples eventually replace more rigidly structured cliques.[2]:p.159[26]
The chronological relationship between changing gender dynamics and the dissolution of organized, hierarchical cliques is well-established, but not fully understood. One theory asserts that sex cleavage both arises and wanes because cliques are largely sorted by common interests: girls and boys are generally interested in different activities until dating emerges, after which they share a highly valued activity.[2](164) This idea is consistent with the direct relationship between pubertal development and the appearance of other-sex friends.[2]:p.165 One possible explanation for this progression argues that children are socialized from childhood to conform to gender roles and during early adolescence cognitive developments promote active self-presentation and anxiety over peer-perceptions; as a result, early adolescents become more consciously aware of both the benefits of conventional gender identity and the threat of ridicule or rejection in response to unorthodox behavior. According to this framework, gender segregation subsides because the same inculcated gender roles that prompt children to distance themselves from anything associated with the opposite sex also encourage adolescents and adults to demonstrate heterosexual desire and sexual/seductive competence.[7] This argument explains the drastic shift in the targets of ridicule from those who were too androgynous in middle school to those who can not or do not attract sexual attention in high school.
The effects of such social enforcement of gender-roles, may take the form of relational aggression, bullying, and gay bullying.
Implications[edit]
Perhaps the most consequential finding from the empirical study of adolescent cliques is that they are not an inherently negative force, but rather part of normative development in our society. Although it is certainly true that certain cliques can negatively influence development, others can actually benefit adolescents. In cases in which clique influence is negative, it is encouraging to note that while most forms of interventions are fairly ineffective and peer group interventions frequently produce iatrogenic effects,[25][36] interventions with parents have yielded encouraging results.[3][24][28][37]
See also[edit]
Adolescence
Cabal
Clique
Collusion
Crowds (adolescence)
Youth subculture
Relational aggression
Bullying
Juvenile delinquency
Simmelian tie
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Steinberg, Laurence D. (2010). Adolescence (9 ed.). New York, New York: McGraw-Hil. ISBN 978-0-07-353203-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, B. Bradford; Mounts, Nina; Lamborn, Susie D.; Steinberg, Laurence (1993). "Parenting Practices and Peer Group Affiliation in Adolescence". Child Development. 64 (2): 467–482. ISSN 1467-8624. JSTOR 1131263. PMID 8477629. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02922.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Monahan, Kathryn C.; Steinberg, Laurence; Cauffman, Elizabeth (2009). "Affiliation with antisocial peers, susceptibility to peer influence, and antisocial behavior during the transition to adulthood". Developmental Psychology. 45 (6): 1520–1530. ISSN 0012-1649. PMC 2886974  . PMID 19899911. doi:10.1037/a0017417.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cook, T. D.; Deng, Y.; Morgano, E. (May 2007). "Friendship Influences During Early Adolescence: The Special Role of Friends' Grade Point Average". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 17 (2): 325–356. ISSN 1050-8392. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00525.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c Brown, B. B.; Bank, H.; Steinberg, L. (November 2008). "Smoke in the Looking Glass: Effects of Discordance Between Self- and Peer Rated Crowd Affiliation on Adolescent Anxiety, Depression and Self-feelings". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 37 (10): 1163–1177. ISSN 0047-2891. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9198-y.
^ Jump up to: a b c Negriff, S.; Susman, E. J.; Trickett, P. K. (October 2011). "The Developmental Pathway from Pubertal Timing to Delinquency and Sexual Activity from Early to Late Adolescence". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 40 (10): 1343–1356. ISSN 0047-2891. PMC 3594103  . PMID 21191640. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9621-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mayeux, L.; Sandstrom, M. J.; Cillessen, A. H. N. (March 2008). "Is Being Popular a Risky Proposition?". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 18: 49–74. ISSN 1532-7795. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00550.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kwon, Kyongboon; Lease, A. Michele (2007). Clique membership and social adjustment in children's same-gender cliques. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53.2, 216-242
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Wiseman, Rosalind (2002). Queen bees & wannabes : helping your daughter survive cliques, gossip, boyfriends, and other realities of adolescence. ISBN 978-1-4000-4792-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Hamm, J. V. (March 2000). "Do birds of a feather flock together? The variable bases for African American, Asian American, and European American adolescents' selection of similar friends". Developmental Psychology. 36 (2): 209–219. ISSN 0012-1649. PMID 10749078. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.209.
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Jump up ^ "Cliques and Fitting In". Retrieved 2013-02-15.
Jump up ^ Kelly, J. (2012, March 8). Some of the more common types of cliques found include: jocks, cheerleaders, mean girls, foreigners, gamers, sluts, hipsters, hippies, arty intellectuals, gangsters, stoners/slackers, scenesters, punks, preps, skaters, goths, emos, skinheads, geeks/nerds, athletic girls, "cool kids" and drifters. 10 Types of Teens: A Field Guide to Teenagers. TLC Family. Retrieved October 31, 2012
Jump up ^ Bruyn, E. H.; Cillessen, A. H. N. (June 2006). "Heterogeneity of Girls' Consensual Popularity: Academic and Interpersonal Behavioral Profiles". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 35 (3): 412–422. ISSN 0047-2891. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-9023-4.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Newman, Barbara M.; Lohman, Brenda J.; Newman, Philip R. (2007). "Peer group membership and a sense of belonging: Their relationship to adolescent behavior problems". Adolescence. 42 (166): 241–263. ISSN 0001-8449. PMID 17849935.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bryant Ludden, A.; Eccles, J. S. (March 2007). "Psychosocial, Motivational, and Contextual Profiles of Youth Reporting Different Patterns of Substance Use During Adolescence". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 17: 51–88. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00512.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hollingshead, August de Belmont (1975). Elmtown's youth and Elmtown revisited. New York, New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-40656-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, R. E.; Bukowski, W. M.; Bagwell, C. (March 2005). "Stability of aggression during early adolescence as moderated by reciprocated friendship status and friend's aggression". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 29 (2): 139–145. ISSN 0165-0254. doi:10.1080/01650250444000397.
^ Jump up to: a b Kiesner, Jeff; Francois Poulin; Thomas J. Dishion (2010). "Adolescent Substance Abuse With Friends: Moderating and Mediating Effects of Parental Monitoring and Peer Activity Contexts". Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 56 (4): 529–556. PMC 3002110  . PMID 21165170. doi:10.1353/mpq.2010.0002.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dishion, T. J.; Andrews, D. W.; Crosby, L. (February 1995). "Antisocial boys and their friends in early adolescence: Relationship characteristics, quality, and interactional process". Child Development. 66 (1): 139–151. JSTOR 1131196. PMID 7497821. doi:10.2307/1131196.
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Jump up ^ Vitaro, F.; Brendgen, M.; Wanner, B. (February 2005). "Patterns of Affiliation with Delinquent Friends During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence: Correlates and Consequences". Social Development. 14 (1): 82–108. ISSN 1467-9507. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00292.x.
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^ Jump up to: a b Shedler, J.; Block, J. (May 1990). "Adolescent drug use and psychological health: A longitudinal inquiry". American Psychologist. 45 (5): 612–630. PMID 2350080. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.5.612.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Prinstein, M. J.; Borelli, J. L.; Cheah, C. S. L.; Simon, V. A.; Aikins, J. W. (November 2005). "Adolescent Girls' Interpersonal Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms: A Longitudinal Examination of Reassurance-Seeking and Peer Relationships" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 114 (4): 676–688. ISSN 0021-843X. PMID 16351388. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.676.
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^ Jump up to: a b Lucas, S. R.; Berends, M. (October 2007). "Race and track location in U.S. Public schools". Research in Social Stratification and Mobility. 25 (3): 169–187. ISSN 0276-5624. doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2006.12.002.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hamm, J. V.; Bradford Brown, B. B.; Heck, D. J. (March 2005). "Bridging the Ethnic Divide: Student and School Characteristics in African American, Asian-Descent, Latino, and White Adolescents' Cross-Ethnic Friend Nominations". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 15 (1): 21–46. ISSN 1050-8392. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2005.00085.x.
Jump up ^ Cuijpers, Koot, van Lier, Witvliet. Change and Stability in Childhood Clique Membership, Isolation From Cliques, and Associated Child Characteristics. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. n.d.
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