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Glucose tolerance test
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The glucose tolerance test is a medical test in which glucose is given and blood samples taken afterward to determine how quickly it is cleared from the blood.[1] The test is usually used to test for diabetes, insulin resistance, impaired beta cell function,[2] and sometimes reactive hypoglycemia and acromegaly, or rarer disorders of carbohydrate metabolism. In the most commonly performed version of the test, an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), a standard dose of glucose is ingested by mouth and blood levels are checked two hours later.[3] Many variations of the GTT have been devised over the years for various purposes, with different standard doses of glucose, different routes of administration, different intervals and durations of sampling, and various substances measured in addition to blood glucose.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Testing
2.1 Preparation
2.2 Procedure
2.3 Dose of glucose and variations
2.4 Substances measured and variations
3 Results
4 Sample method
5 Variations
6 Oral glucose challenge test
7 Limitations of OGTT
8 References
History[edit]
The glucose tolerance test was first described in 1923 by Jerome W. Conn.[4]
The test was based on the previous work in 1913 by A. T. B. Jacobson in determining that carbohydrate ingestion results in blood glucose fluctuations,[5] and the premise (named the Staub-Traugott Phenomenon after its first observers H. Staub in 1921 and K. Traugott in 1922) that a normal patient fed glucose will rapidly return to normal levels of blood glucose after an initial spike, and will see improved reaction to subsequent glucose feedings.[6][7]
Testing[edit]
Since the 1970s, the World Health Organization and other organizations interested in diabetes agreed on a standard dose and duration.
Preparation[edit]
The patient is instructed not to restrict carbohydrate intake in the days or weeks before the test. The test should not be done during an illness, as results may not reflect the patient's glucose metabolism when healthy. A full adult dose should not be given to a person weighing less than 42.6 kg (94 lb), or the excessive glucose may produce a false positive result. Usually the OGTT is performed in the morning as glucose tolerance can exhibit a diurnal rhythm with a significant decrease in the afternoon. The patient is instructed to fast (water is allowed) for 8–12 hours prior to the tests
Procedure[edit]
A zero time (baseline) blood sample is drawn.
The patient is then given a measured dose (below) of glucose solution to drink within a 5-minute time frame.
Blood is drawn at intervals for measurement of glucose (blood sugar), and sometimes insulin levels. The intervals and number of samples vary according to the purpose of the test. For simple diabetes screening, the most important sample is the 2 hour sample and the 0 and 2 hour samples may be the only ones collected. A laboratory may continue to collect blood for up to 6 hours depending on the protocol requested by the physician.
Dose of glucose and variations[edit]
75g of oral dose is the recommendation of the WHO to be used in all adults,[8] and is the main dosage used in the United States.[9] The dose is adjusted for weight only in children.[8] The dose should be drunk within 5 minutes.
A variant is often used in pregnancy to screen for gestational diabetes, with a screening test of 50 grams over one hour. If elevated, this is followed with a test of 100 grams over three hours.[10]
In UK general practice, the standard glucose load was provided by 394ml of the energy drink Lucozade with original carbonated flavour, but this is being superseded by purpose-made drinks.[11][12]
In Portugal, the standard glucose load is provided by the clinical laboratory or hospital by 200 ml of fluid in a PET bottle. The best-known brand is TopStar, produced in Portugal. The recommendation is for a 75g oral dose for all adults, which is adjusted for weight in children. However, doses of 50g and 100g are also used, available in orange, lemon and cola flavor.
Substances measured and variations[edit]
If renal glycosuria (sugar excreted in the urine despite normal levels in the blood) is suspected, urine samples may also be collected for testing along with the fasting and 2 hour blood tests.
Results[edit]
Fasting plasma glucose (measured before the OGTT begins) should be below 6.1 mmol/L (110 mg/dL). Fasting levels between 6.1 and 7.0 mmol/L (110 and 125 mg/dL) are borderline ("impaired fasting glycaemia"), and fasting levels repeatedly at or above 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) are diagnostic of diabetes.
A 1 hour GTT (Glucose Tolerance Test) glucose level below 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) is considered normal.[9][10]
For a 2 hour GTT (Glucose Tolerance Test) with 75g intake, a glucose level below 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) is normal, whereas higher glucose levels indicate hyperglycemia. Blood plasma glucose between 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) and 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) indicate "impaired glucose tolerance", and levels above 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) at 2 hours confirm a diagnosis of diabetes.[9]
For gestational diabetes, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends a two-step procedure, wherein the first step is a 50g glucose dose.[10] If it results in a blood glucose level of more than 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL),[9] it is followed by a 100 gram glucose dose.[10] The diagnosis of gestational diabetes is then defined by a blood glucose level exceeding the cutoff value on at least two intervals,[10] with cutoffs as follows:[9]
Before glucose intake (fasting): 5.3 mmol/L (95 mg/dL)
1 hour after drinking the glucose solution: 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL)
2 hours: 8.6 mmol/L (155 mg/dL)
3 hours: 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL)
Sample method[edit]
The diagnosis criteria stated above by the World Health Organisation (WHO) are for venous samples only (a blood sample taken from a vein in the arm). An increasingly popular method for measuring blood glucose is to sample capillary or finger-prick blood, which is less invasive, more convenient for the patient and requires minimal training to conduct. Though fasting blood glucose levels have been shown to be similar in both capillary and venous samples, postprandial blood glucose levels (those measured after a meal) can vary. The diagnosis criteria issued by the WHO are only suitable for venous blood samples. Given the increasing popularity of capillary testing, the WHO has recommended that a conversion factor between the two sample types be calculated, but as of 2017[update] no conversion factor had been issued by the WHO, despite some medical professionals adopting their own.
Variations[edit]
A standard two-hour GTT (Glucose Tolerance test) is sufficient to diagnose or exclude all forms of diabetes mellitus at all but the earliest stages of development. Longer tests have been used for a variety of other purposes, such as detecting reactive hypoglycemia or defining subsets of hypothalamic obesity. Insulin levels are sometimes measured to detect insulin resistance or deficiency.
The GTT (Glucose Tolerance Test) is of limited value in the diagnosis of reactive hypoglycemia, since (1) normal levels do not preclude the diagnosis, (2) abnormal levels do not prove that the patient's other symptoms are related to a demonstrated atypical OGTT, and (3) many people without symptoms of reactive hypoglycemia may have the late low glucose.
Oral glucose challenge test[edit]
The oral glucose challenge test (OGCT) is a short version of the OGTT, used to check pregnant women for signs of gestational diabetes.[3][13] It can be done at any time of day, not on an empty stomach.[3] The test involves 50g of glucose, with a reading after one hour.[3]
Limitations of OGTT[edit]
The OGTT does not distinguish between insulin resistance in peripheral tissues and reduced capacity of the pancreas beta-cells to produce insulin. The OGTT is less accurate than the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp technique (the "gold standard" for measuring insulin resistance), or the insulin tolerance test, but is technically less difficult. Neither of the two technically demanding tests can be easily applied in a clinical setting or used in epidemiological studies. HOMA-IR (homeostatic model assessment) is a convenient way of measuring insulin resistance in normal subjects, which can be used in epidemiological studies, but can give erroneous results for diabetic patients.[14][15]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Glucose Tolerance Test at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ DeFronzo RA, Abdul-Ghani M (2011). "Assessment and treatment of cardiovascular risk in prediabetes: impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose". American Journal of Cardiology. 108 (3 Suppl): 3B–24B. PMID 21802577. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2011.03.013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care. "Glucose tolerance test: how does it work exactly?". Informed Health Online. Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Conn JW. Interpretation of the glucose tolerance test. The necessity of a standard preparatory diet. Am J Med Sci. 1940; 199: 555–564".
Jump up ^ "Jacobsen ATB. Untersuchungen über den Einﬂuss verschiedener Nahrungsmittel auf den Blutzucker bei normalen, zuckerkranken und graviden Personen. Biochem Z 1913;56:471–494".
Jump up ^ "TRAUGOTT K. Über das Verhalten des Blutzuckerspiegels bei wiederholter und verschiedener Art enteraler Zuckerzufuhr and dessen Bedeutung für die Leberfunktion. Klin. Wochenschr. 1: 892, 1922.".
Jump up ^ "Staub, H., Biochem. Z., 1921, cxviii, 93.".
^ Jump up to: a b World Health Organization and International Diabetes Federation (1999). Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Glucose tolerance test". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2016-05-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Glucose Tests". Lab Tests Online. Retrieved 2016-05-15. This article was last modified on December 21, 2015
Jump up ^ Salford Royal NHS Trust. "Glucose Tolerance Tests in Primary Care". Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Jane Patmore (2009). "Oral Glucose Tolerance Tests: Protocol and Guidance" (PDF). Hull and East Riding Diabetes Network, Hull NHS teaching hospitals trust. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Hartling, L; Dryden, DM; Guthrie, A; et al. (October 2012). "Screening and Diagnosing Gestational Diabetes Mellitus". Evidence Reports/Technology Assessments, No. 210. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Muniyappa R, Lee S, Chen H, Quon MJ (2008). "Current approaches for assessing insulin sensitivity and resistance in vivo: advantages, limitations, and appropriate usage". The American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 294 (1): E15–E26. PMID 17957034. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00645.2007.
Jump up ^ Antuna-Puente B, Disse E, Rabasa-Lhoret R, Laville M, Capeau J, Bastard JP (2011). "How can we measure insulin sensitivity/resistance?". DIABETES & METABOLISM. 37 (5): 179–188. PMID 21435930. doi:10.1016/j.diabet.2011.01.002.
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values: اختبار تحمل الجلوكوز – Arabic

values: Глюкозотолерантен тест – Bulgarian

values: Δοκιμασία ανοχής στην γλυκόζη – Greek

values: Test de tolerancia oral a la glucosa – Spanish

values: Test orale di tolleranza al glucosio – Italian

values: 経口ブドウ糖負荷試験 – Japanese

values: Test doustnego obciążenia glukozą – Polish

values: Prova de tolerância à glicose oral – Portuguese

values: Глюкозотолерантный тест – Russian

values: Тест оралног оптерећења глукозом – Serbian

values: குளுக்கோசு ஏற்புத்திறன் சோதனை – Tamil

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NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Part of the Bosnian War

A US Navy EA-6B Prowler aircraft over Bosnia in support of NATO Operation Joint Endeavor
Date
July 16, 1992–December 2, 2004
Location
Bosnia and Herzegovina
[show]
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NATO intervention in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Maritime Monitor
Sky Monitor
Maritime Guard
Deny Flight
Sharp Guard
Deliberate Force
IFOR
SFOR
The NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a series of actions undertaken by NATO whose stated aim was to establish long-term peace during and after the Bosnian War.[1] NATO's intervention began as largely political and symbolic, but gradually expanded to include large-scale air operations and the deployment of approximately 60,000 soldiers under Operation Joint Endeavor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early involvement and monitoring
2 Enforcing compliance 1992-1993
3 Growing role of air power 1994
4 Operations in 1995 and Operation Deliberate Force
4.1 Srebrenica and the London Conference
4.2 Operation Deliberate Force
5 The Dayton Accords and IFOR
6 References
7 Further reading
Early involvement and monitoring[edit]
NATO's first involvement in both the Bosnian War and the Yugoslav wars in general came in February 1992, when the alliance issued a statement urging all the belligerents in the conflict to allow the deployment of United Nations peacekeepers. While primarily symbolic, this statement paved the way for later NATO actions.[2]
On July 10, 1992, NATO foreign ministers agreed, at a meeting in Helsinki, to assist the United Nations in monitoring compliance with sanctions established under United Nations Security Council resolutions 713 (1991) and 757 (1992). This led to the commencement of Operation Maritime Monitor off the coast of Montenegro, which was coordinated with the Western European Union Operation Sharp Guard in the Strait of Otranto on July 16.[3] On October 9, 1992, the Security Council passed Resolution 781, establishing a no-fly zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina. In response, on October 16, NATO expanded its mission in the area to include Operation Sky Monitor, which monitored Bosnian airspace for flights from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.[4]
Enforcing compliance 1992-1993[edit]
On November 16, 1992, the Security Council issued Resolution 787, which called upon member states to "halt all inward and outbound maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargos" to ensure compliance with sanctions.[5] In response to this resolution, NATO deactivated Maritime Monitor on November 22, and replaced it with Operation Maritime Guard, under which NATO forces were authorized to stop ships and inspect their cargos. Unlike Sky Monitor and Maritime Monitor, this was a true enforcement mission, not just a monitoring one.[2]
NATO's air mission also switched from monitoring to enforcement. The Security Council issued Resolution 816, which authorized states to use measures "to ensure compliance" with the no-fly zone over Bosnia.[6] In response, on April 12, 1993, NATO initiated Operation Deny Flight which was tasked with enforcing the no-fly zone, using fighter aircraft based in the region.[7]
Throughout 1993, the role of NATO forces in Bosnia gradually grew. On June 10, 1993, NATO and the UN agreed that aircraft acting under Deny Flight would provide close air support to UNPROFOR at the request of the UN. On June 15, NATO integrated Operation Maritime Guard and Western European Union naval activities in the region into Operation Sharp Guard, and expanded its role to include greater enforcement powers.
Growing role of air power 1994[edit]
Main article: Operation Deny Flight
On February 28, 1994, the scope of NATO involvement in Bosnia increased dramatically. In an incident near Banja Luka, NATO fighters operating under Deny Flight shot down four Serb jets. This was the first combat operation in the history of NATO and opened the door for a steadily growing NATO presence in Bosnia.[8] In April, the presence of NATO airpower continued to grow during a Serb attack on Goražde. In response, NATO launched its first close air support mission on April 10, 1994, bombing several Serb targets at the request of UN commanders.[9] NATO launched several other limited air strikes throughout the year, acting in coordination with the United Nations.
Operations in 1995 and Operation Deliberate Force[edit]
NATO continued its air operations over Bosnia in the first half of 1995. During this period, American pilot Scott O'Grady was shot down over Bosnia by a surface-to-air missile fired by Bosnian Serb soldiers. He was eventually rescued safely, but his downing caused concern in the United States and other NATO countries about NATO air superiority in Bosnia and prompted some calls for more aggressive NATO action to eliminate Serb anti-air capabilities.
Srebrenica and the London Conference[edit]
In July 1995, the Bosnian Serbs launched an attack on the Bosnian town of Srebrenica, ending with the deaths of approximately 8,000 civilians in the Srebrenica massacre. After the horrifying events at Srebrenica, 16 nations met at the London Conference, beginning on July 21, 1995, to consider new options for Bosnia. As a result of the conference, UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali gave General Bernard Janvier, the UN military commander, the authority to request NATO airstrikes without consulting civilian UN officials, as a way to streamline the process.[10] As a result of the conference, the North Atlantic Council and the UN also agreed to use NATO air strikes in response to attacks on any of the other safe areas in Bosnia. The participants at the conference also agreed in principle to the use of large-scale NATO air strikes in response to future acts of aggression by Serbs.[11]
Operation Deliberate Force[edit]
Main article: Operation Deliberate Force
After the London Conference, NATO planned an aggressive new air campaign against the Bosnian Serbs. On August 28, 1995, Serb forces launched a mortar shell at the Sarajevo marketplace killing 37 people. Admiral Leighton Smith, the NATO commander recommended that NATO launch retaliatory air strikes under Operation Deliberate Force.[12] On August 30, 1995, NATO officially launched Operation Deliberate Force with large-scale bombing of Serb targets. The bombing lasted until September 20, 1995 and involved attacks on 338 individual targets.
The Dayton Accords and IFOR[edit]
Largely as a result of the bombing under Operation Deliberate Force and changes in the battlefield situation, the belligerents in the Bosnian War met in Dayton, Ohio in November 1995, and signed the Dayton Accords, a peace treaty. As part of the accords, NATO agreed to provide 60,000 peacekeepers for the region, as part of the Implementation Force (IFOR). In December 1995, under Operation Joint Endeavor, NATO deployed these forces. These forces remained deployed until December 1996, when those remaining in the region were transferred to the Stabilization Force (SFOR). SFOR peacekeepers remained in Bosnia until 2004.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kay, Sean (1998-01-01). NATO and the Future of European Security. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 87. ISBN 9780847690015.
^ Jump up to: a b "JFC Naples/AFSOUTH, 1951-2009: OVER FIFTY YEARS WORKING FOR PEACE AND STABILITY". Allied Joint Forces Command Naples.
Jump up ^ "Operation Maritime Monitor". GlobalSecurity.org.
Jump up ^ "United Nations Resolution 757 (1992)". May 30, 1992. 6.a.
Jump up ^ "Resolution 787" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Resolution 816" (PDF). United Nations Security Council Resolutions. UN Security Council. Retrieved 2009-02-17.
Jump up ^ Beale, Michael. Bombs over Bosnia: The Role of Airpower in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Air University Press, 1997. p. 19
Jump up ^ Beale, Michael. Bombs over Bosnia: The Role of Airpower in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Air University Press, 1997. p. 2-3
Jump up ^ Gordon, Michael (April 11, 1994). "Conflict in the Balkans: NATO; Modest Air Operation in Bosnia Crosses a Major Political Frontier". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
Jump up ^ Beale, Michael. Bombs over Bosnia: The Role of Airpower in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Air University Press, 1997. p. 34
Jump up ^ Bucknam, Mark. Responsibility of Command. Air University Press, 2003. ISBN 1-58566-115-5 p. 253
Jump up ^ Davis, Bradley. "The Planning Background". Deliberate Force. Air University Press, 2000. ISBN 1-58566-076-0
Further reading[edit]
Phillips, R. Cody. Bosnia-Herzegovina: The U.S. Army's Role in Peace Enforcement Operations 1995-2004. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70-97-1. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14.
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Transfer of Property Act 1882
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This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. The talk page may contain suggestions. (July 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Transfer of Property Act 1882
An Act to amend the law relating to the Transfer of Property by act of parties.
Territorial extent
Union of India
Date enacted
17 February 1882
Date commenced
01 July 1882
Legislative history
Introduced by
Whitley Stokes
First reading
1877
Second reading
1882
Status: In force
The Transfer of Property Act 1882 is an Indian legislation which regulates the transfer of property in India. It contains specific provisions regarding what constitutes a transfer and the conditions attached to it. It came into force on 1 July 1882.
According to the Act, 'transfer of property' means an act by which a person conveys the property to one or more persons, or himself and one or more other persons. The act of transfer may be done in the present or for the future. The person may include an individual, company or association or body of individuals, and any kind of property may be transferred, including the transfer of immovable property.
Contents
[hide]
1 Interpretation of "property"
2 Related legislation
3 References
4 External links
Interpretation of "property"[edit]
Property is broadly classified into the following categories:
Immovable Property (excluding standing timber, growing crops, and grass)
Movable Property
The Interpretation of the Act, says "Immovable property does not includes standing timber, growing crops or grass". Section 3(26), The General Clauses Act, 1897, defines, " immovable property" shall include land, benefits to arise out of the land, and things attached to the earth, or permanently fastened to anything attached to the earth. Also, The Registration Act,1908, 2(6)
"immovable property" includes land, buildings, hereditary allowances, rights to ways, lights, ferries, fisheries or any other benefit to arise out of the land, and things attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything which is attached to the earth, but not standing timber, growing crops nor grass.
A transfer of property passes forthwith to the transferee all the interest which the transferor is then capable of passing in the property unless a different intention is expressed or implied.
According to Section 43 of the Transfer of Property Act 1882, in case a person either fraudulently or erroneously represents that he is authorized to transfer certain immovable property and does some acts to transfer such property for consideration, then such a transfer will continue to operate in future. It will operate on any interest which the transferor may acquire in such property.
This will be at the option of the transferee and can be done during the time during which the contract of transfer exists. As per this rule, the rights of the bona fide transferee, who has no notice of the earlier transfer or of the option, are protected. This rule embodies a rule of estoppel i.e. a person who makes a representation cannot later on go against it.
Every person, who is competent to contract, is competent to transfer property, which can be transferred in whole or in part. He should be entitled to the transferable property, or authorized to dispose of transferable property which is not his own. The right may be either absolute or conditional, and the property may be movable or immovable, present or future. Such a transfer can be made orally unless a transfer in writing is specifically required under any law.
According to Section 6 of the Transfer of Property Act, the property of any kind may be transferred. The person insisting non-transferability must prove the existence of some law or custom which restricts the right of transfer. Unless there is some legal restriction preventing the transfer, the owner of the property may transfer it. However, in some cases, there may be a transfer of property by an unauthorized person who subsequently acquires an interest in such property.
In case the property is transferred subject to the condition which absolutely restrains the transferee from parting with or disposing of his interest in the property, the condition is void. The only exception is in the case of a lease where the condition is for the benefit of the lessor or those claiming under him. Generally, only the person having interest in the property is authorized to transfer his interest in the property and can pass on the proper title to any other person.
The rights of the transferees will not be adversely affected, provided: they acted in good faith; the property was acquired for a consideration, and the transferees had acted without notice of the defect in the title of the transferor.
It should be noted that these conditions must be satisfied :
There must be a representation by the transferor that he has authority to transfer the immovable property. The representation should be either fraudulent or erroneous. The transferee must act on the representation in good faith. The transfer should be done for a consideration. The transferor should subsequently acquire some interest in the property he had agreed to transfer. The transferee may have the option to acquire the interest which the transferor subsequently acquires.
Related legislation[edit]
There are 18 other statutes that are primarily concerned with Property Law, or significantly matter to Property Law, as listed below:[1]
Trusts Act, 1882
Specific Relief Act, 1963
Easements Act, 1882
Registration Act, 1908
Stamp Act, 1899
U.P. Stamp Act, 2008
Limitation Act, 1963
General Clauses Act, 1897
Evidence Act, 1872
Succession Act, 1925
Partition Act, 1893
Presidency-Towns Insolvency Act, 1909
Provincial Insolvency Act, 1920
Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993
Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002
Contract Act, 1872
Sale of Goods Act, 1930
Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sumeet Malik. PROPERTY LAW MANUAL (Hard Bound)|format= requires |url= (help) (2014 ed.). Eastern Book Company. p. 1-968. ISBN 9789351451150.
External links[edit]
Text of the Transfer of Property Act 1882
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Lokpal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about a legal term. For the Malayalam movie of the same name, see Lokpal (film).
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2013)
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A Lokpal (Sanskrit: लोकपाल lokapāla, "caretaker of people") is an anti-corruption authority or ombudsman who represents the public interest. The concept of an ombudsman is borrowed from Sweden. The Lokpal has jurisdiction over all Members of Parliament and central government employees in cases of corruption. The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act was passed in 2013 with amendments in parliament, following the Jan Lokpal movement led by Anna Hazare. The Lokpal is responsible for enquiring into corruption charges at the national level while the Lokayukta performs the same function at the state level.
As of February 2018, and ever since the related Act of Parliament was passed in India, The Indian Government is yet to appoint a Lokpal.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Jan Lokpal Bill movement
2.1 Features of the Jan Lokpal Bill
2.2 Fundamental duties
2.3 The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
History[edit]
The term "Lokpal" was coined by Dr. L.M.Singhvi in 1963. The concept of a constitutional ombudsman was first proposed in parliament by Law Minister Ashoke Kumar Sen in the early 1960s. The first Jan Lokpal Bill was proposed by M.C. Setalvad in 1968 and passed in the 4th Lok Sabha in 1969, but did not pass through the Rajya Sabha.[1] Subsequently, 'lokpal bills' were introduced in 1971, 1977, 1985, again by Ashoke Kumar Sen, while serving as Law Minister in the Rajiv Gandhi cabinet, and again in 1989, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2005 and in 2008, yet they were never passed.[2] Forty five years after its first introduction, the Lokpal Bill is finally enacted in India on 18 December 2013.
The Lokpal Bill provides for the filing, with the ombudsman, of complaints of corruption against the prime minister, other ministers, and MPs. The Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) recommended the enacting of the Office of a Lokpal, convinced that such an institution was justified, not only for removing the sense of injustice from the minds of citizens, but also to instill public confidence in the efficiency of the administrative machinery.
Following this, the Lokpal Bill was, for the first time, presented during the fourth Lok Sabha in 1968, and was passed there in 1969. However, while it was pending in the Rajya Sabha, the Lok Sabha was dissolved, and thus the bill was not passed.
The bill was revived several times in subsequent years, including in 2011. Each time, after the bill was introduced to the House, it was referred to a committee for improvements, to a joint committee of parliament, or to a departmental standing committee of the Home Ministry. Before the government could take a final stand on the issue, the house was dissolved again. Several conspicuous flaws were found in the 2008 draft of the Lokpal Bill. The basic idea of a lokpal is borrowed from the Office of the Ombudsman, which has the Administrative Reforms Committee of a lokpal at the Centre,[clarification needed] and lokayukta(s) in the states.
Anna Hazare fought to get this bill passed[where?], and it did pass on 27 December 2011, around 9:30,[when?] with some modifications. These were proposed as the Jan Lokpal Bill. However, Hazare and his team, as well as other political parties, claimed that the Lokpal Bill passed was weak, and would not serve its intended purpose. So the proposed bill by the ruling Congress Party has yet to be accepted in the Rajya Sabha. As of 29 December 2011, the bill has been deferred to the next parliamentary session, amid much controversy and disruption by the LJP, RJD and SP parties. The media at large, and the opposition parties, claimed the situation had been staged.[3]
Jan Lokpal Bill movement[edit]
Anna Hazare's hunger strike at Jantar Mantar in New Delhi, on the second day of his fast
Main article: Jan Lokpal Bill
Jan Lokpal Bill (Citizen's Ombudsman Bill) is a draft anti-corruption bill drawn up by prominent civil society activists, seeking the appointment of a Jan Lokpal, an independent body that would investigate corruption cases, complete the investigation within one year and conduct trials for the case within the next year.
Drafted by Justice Santosh Hegde (a former Supreme Court Judge and former Lokayukta of Karnataka), Prashant Bhushan (a Supreme Court Lawyer) and Arvind Kejriwal (a RTI activist), the draft Bill envisaged a system in which a corrupt person found guilty would go to jail within two years of the complaint being made and his ill-gotten wealth confiscated. It also sought power for the Jan Lokpal to prosecute politicians and bureaucrats without requiring government permission.
Retired IPS officer Kiran Bedi and others, like Anna Hazare, Swami Agnivesh, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, and Mallika Sarabhai are also members of the movement, called India Against Corruption. Its website describes the movement as "an expression of collective anger of people of India against corruption." It goes on to state: "We have all come together to force/request/persuade/pressurize the Government to enact the Jan Lokpal Bill. We feel that if this Bill were enacted it would create an effective deterrence against corruption."
Anna Hazare, an anti-corruption crusader, began a fast-unto-death, demanding that this bill, drafted by Civil Society, be adopted. The website of the India Against Corruption movement calls the Lokpal Bill of the government an "eyewash", and hosts a critique of that government bill. It also lists the difference between the bills drafted by the government and civil
Features of the Jan Lokpal Bill[edit]
An institution called Lokpal at the centre and Lokayukta in each state will be set up.
Like the Supreme Court and Election Commission, they will be completely independent of governments. No minister or bureaucrat will be to influence their investigations.
Cases against corrupt people will not linger on for years anymore: investigations in any case will have to be completed in one year. Trial should be completed in the next one year, so that the corrupt politician, officer or judge is sent to jail within two years.
The loss that a corrupt person caused to the government will be recovered at the time of conviction.
How will it help a common citizen? If the work of any citizen is not done in a prescribed time, in any government office, Lokpal will impose a financial penalty on the guilty officers, which will be given as compensation to the complainant.
So, you could approach Lokpal if your ration card or passport or voter card had not been made, or if the police are not registering your case, or if any other work is not being done within the prescribed time. Lokpal will have to get it done in a month's time. You could also report any case of corruption to Lokpal, like rations being siphoned off, poor quality roads being constructed or panchayat funds being siphoned off.
But won't the government appoint corrupt and weak people as Lokpal members? That won't be possible because its members will be selected by judges, citizens and constitutional authorities, not by politicians, through a completely transparent and participatory process.
What if some officer in Lokpal becomes corrupt? The entire functioning of Lokpal/ Lokayukta will be completely transparent. Any complaint against any officer of Lokpal will be investigated and the officer dismissed within two months.
What will happen to existing anti-corruption agencies? CVC, the departmental vigilance and anti-corruption branch of the CBI, will be merged into Lokpal. Lokpal will have complete powers and machinery to independently investigate and prosecute any officer, judge or politician.
It will be the duty of the Lokpal to provide protection to those who are being victimized for raising their voice against corruption.
Fundamental duties[edit]
To the cases and make jurisdictions against corruption cases with the Lokpal.
To judge whether a case is genuine or whether a fake complaint has been made.
To potentially impose fines on a fake complaint, or even a short span of jail time, if the case is not proved to be legally true.
Anna Hazare, a Gandhian rights activist, had started a fast unto death at Jantar Mantar in New Delhi demanding the passing of the bill. Hazare called off his hunger strike on 9 April 2011, bringing to an end his 98-hour protest after the government issued a gazette notification constituting a 10-member Joint Committee of government ministers and civil society activists, including him, to draft a bill for the creation of an effective Lokpal. Thousands of people from all over India, especially youth, supported Anna Hazare's cause by attending candle lit marches and conducting online campaigns through social media.
Recently yoga guru, Swami Ramdev, fasted for this cause for 9 days from 4 to 12 June 2011. He wanted the Government of India to accept various demands, which mainly included those related to the Lokpall Bill.
Anna Hazare on 8 June 2011, declared that he would again fast unto death on 16 August, if the Lokpal bill were not passed by the Parliament of India by 15 August, which is the Independence Day of India.[4]
On 16 June, Civil Society reported that only 15 points, of 71, that they recommended have been agreed to by the Joint Committee consisting of five central ministers. Following differences with the Civil Society, the team of five central ministers decided to forward two drafts of the Lokpal Bill to the Cabinet, one from each side. Anticipating some sort of police action against his fast, intended for 16 August, social activist Anna Hazare said he would ask the Supreme Court to prevent any situation similar to the police crackdown on Baba Ramdev and his supporters at Ramlila Maidan.
"The government said, ‘we will suppress the agitation of Anna Hazare as had been done in the case of Ramdev’. Is this democracy or autocracy? You cannot suppress.... That is why we will go to the Supreme Court tomorrow," Hazare told reporters, adding "the Constitution has given right to every citizen to lodge a protest. We will launch the agitation from August 16."[5]
On 27 December 2011, the Lokpal bill was passed by the Lok Sabha after a day-long debate and amendments. The Indian Army, the Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy have been kept out of the jurisdiction of the Lokpal. The bill also keeps the CBI independent.
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013[edit]
The historic Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 was passed by Indian Parliament paving the way for establishment of a Lokpal (Ombudsman) to fight corruption in public offices and ensure accountability on the part of public officials, including the Prime Minister, but with some safeguards.
Lokpal will consist of a chairperson and a maximum of eight members, of which 50% will be judicial members 50% members of Lokpal shall be from SC/ST/OBCs, minorities and women. Selection of chairperson and members of Lokpal through a selection committee consisting of PM, Speaker of Lok Sabha, leader of opposition in Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of India or a sitting Supreme Court judge nominated by CJI. Eminent jurist to be nominated by President of India on basis of recommendations of the first four members of the selection committee "through consensus". Lokpal's jurisdiction will cover all categories of public servants. All entities (NGOs) receiving donations from foreign source in the context of the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) in excess of Rs 10 lakh per year are under the jurisdiction of Lokpal. Centre will send Lokpal bill to states as a model bill. States have to set up Lokayuktas through a state law within 365 days.
Lokpal will have power of superintendence and direction over any central investigation agency including CBI for cases referred to them by the ombudsman.
A high-powered committee chaired by the PM will recommend selection of CBI director. The collegium will comprise PM, leader of opposition in Lok Sabha and Chief Justice of India PM has been brought under purview of the Lokpal, so also central ministers and senior officials.
Directorate of prosecution will be under overall control of CBI director. At present, it comes under the law ministry.
Appointment of director of prosecution to be based on recommendation of the Central Vigilance Commission.
Director of prosecution will also have a fixed tenure of two years like CBI chief.
Transfer of CBI officers investigating cases referred by Lokpal with the approval of watchdog.
Bill incorporates provisions for attachment and confiscation of property acquired by corrupt means, even while prosecution is pending.
Bill lays down clear timelines for preliminary enquiry and investigation and trial. Provides for special courts Public servants will not present their view before preliminary enquiry if the case requires 'element of surprise' like raids and searches.
Bill grants powers to Lokpal to sanction prosecution against public servants.
CBI may appoint a panel of advocates with approval of Lokpal, CBI will not have to depend on govt advocates.
On may 15th 2018, Mukul Rohtagi (Former Attorney Journal of India) has been appointed as eminent jurist in the selection panel of Lokpal.
See also[edit]
Protests for Jan Lokpal Bill
The Lokpal Bill, 2011
Jan Lokpal Bill
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hopeful Jan Lokpal bill will be passed: Anna Hazare - Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". 24 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Lokpal bill to cover PM". CNN-IBN. 21 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "News18.com: CNN-News18 Breaking News India, Latest News, Current News Headlines". News18.
Jump up ^ "Anna Hazare sets Aug 15th deadline for Lokpal Bill". The Times of India. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
Jump up ^ "'Govt agreed to only 15 of the 71 points of Lokpal Bill' - Rediff.com News". Rediff.com. 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
Further reading[edit]
Mukul Rohtagi]http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/mukul-rohatgi-appointed-eminent-jurist-in-selection-panel-for-lokpal/article23891565.ece
http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/002200804051550.htm
India Together – the Lokpal cycle
Times of India article
Anna to move SC against possible police crackdown
Lokpal bill infographics
Suggested amendments to the Bill
Consensus views on Lokpal
[1]
[2]
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Tinel's sign
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Tinel's sign
Transverse section across the wrist and digits. (The median nerve is the yellow dot near the center. The carpal tunnel is not labeled, but the circular structure surrounding the median nerve is visible.)
Classification and external resources
Specialty
neurology
ICD-10
G56.0
ICD-9-CM
354.0
OMIM
115430
DiseasesDB
2156
MedlinePlus
000433
eMedicine
orthoped/455 pmr/21 emerg/83 radio/135
MeSH
D002349
[edit on Wikidata]
Tinel's sign is a way to detect irritated nerves. It is performed by lightly tapping (percussing) over the nerve to elicit a sensation of tingling or "pins and needles" in the distribution of the nerve. It takes its name from French neurologist Jules Tinel (1879–1952).[1][2][3]
For example, in carpal tunnel syndrome where the median nerve is compressed at the wrist, Tinel's sign is often "positive" causing tingling in the thumb, index, middle finger and the radial half of the fourth digit. Tinel's sign is sometimes referred to as "distal tingling on percussion" or DTP. This distal sign of regeneration can be expected during different stage of somatosensory recovery.[4]
Although most frequently associated with carpal tunnel syndrome, Tinel's sign is a generalized term, and can also be positive in tarsal tunnel syndrome, or in ulnar nerve impingement at the wrist (Guyon's canal syndrome), where it affects the other (ulnar) half of the fourth digit and the fifth digit.
See also[edit]
Hoffmann's sign
Phalen maneuver
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tinel, J., Nerve wounds. London: Baillère, Tindall and Cox, 1917
Jump up ^ Tinel, J. (1915) Le signe du fourmillement dans les lésions des nerfs périphériques. Presse médicale, 47, 388–389
Jump up ^ Tinel, J. (1978) The "tingling sign" in peripheral nerve lesions (Translated by EB Kaplan). In: M. Spinner M (Ed.), Injuries to the Ma jor Branches of Peripheral Nerves of the Forearm. (2nd ed.) (pp 8–13). Philadelphia: WD Saunders Co
Jump up ^ Spicher, C.; Kohut, G.; Miauton, J. (1999). "At which stage of sensory recovery can a tingling sign be expected? A review and proposal for standardization and grading". Journal of Hand Therapy. 12 (4): 298–308. PMID 10622196. doi:10.1016/S0894-1130(99)80068-4.
External links[edit]
synd/3740 at Who Named It?
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