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Pauli exclusion principle
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Not to be confused with Pauling's principle of electroneutrality.
Wolfgang Pauli
Quantum mechanics
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The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle which states that two or more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously. In the case of electrons in atoms, it can be stated as follows: it is impossible for two electrons of a poly-electron atom to have the same values of the four quantum numbers: n, the principal quantum number, ℓ, the angular momentum quantum number, mℓ, the magnetic quantum number, and ms, the spin quantum number. For example, if two electrons reside in the same orbital, and if their n, ℓ, and mℓ values are the same, then their ms must be different, and thus the electrons must have opposite half-integer spin projections of 1/2 and −1/2. This principle was formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 for electrons, and later extended to all fermions with his spin–statistics theorem of 1940.
Particles with an integer spin, or bosons, are not subject to the Pauli exclusion principle: any number of identical bosons can occupy the same quantum state, as with, for instance, photons produced by a laser and Bose–Einstein condensate.
A more rigorous statement is that with respect to exchange of two identical particles the total wave function is antisymmetric for fermions, and symmetric for bosons. This means that if the space and spin co-ordinates of two identical particles are interchanged the wave function changes its sign for fermions, and does not change for bosons.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Connection to quantum state symmetry
3.1 Pauli principle in advanced quantum theory
4 Consequences
4.1 Atoms and the Pauli principle
4.2 Solid state properties and the Pauli principle
4.3 Stability of matter
4.4 Astrophysics and the Pauli principle
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
The Pauli exclusion principle describes the behavior of all fermions (particles with "half-integer spin"), while bosons (particles with "integer spin") are subject to other principles. Fermions include elementary particles such as quarks, electrons and neutrinos. Additionally, baryons such as protons and neutrons (subatomic particles composed from three quarks) and some atoms (such as helium-3) are fermions, and are therefore described by the Pauli exclusion principle as well. Atoms can have different overall "spin", which determines whether they are fermions or bosons — for example helium-3 has spin 1/2 and is therefore a fermion, in contrast to helium-4 which has spin 0 and is a boson.[1]:123–125 As such, the Pauli exclusion principle underpins many properties of everyday matter, from its large-scale stability, to the chemical behavior of atoms.
"Half-integer spin" means that the intrinsic angular momentum value of fermions is ℏ = h / 2 π {\displaystyle \hbar =h/2\pi } (reduced Planck's constant) times a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.). In the theory of quantum mechanics fermions are described by antisymmetric states. In contrast, particles with integer spin (called bosons) have symmetric wave functions; unlike fermions they may share the same quantum states. Bosons include the photon, the Cooper pairs which are responsible for superconductivity, and the W and Z bosons. (Fermions take their name from the Fermi–Dirac statistical distribution that they obey, and bosons from their Bose–Einstein distribution).
History[edit]
In the early 20th century it became evident that atoms and molecules with even numbers of electrons are more chemically stable than those with odd numbers of electrons. In the 1916 article "The Atom and the Molecule" by Gilbert N. Lewis, for example, the third of his six postulates of chemical behavior states that the atom tends to hold an even number of electrons in any given shell, and especially to hold eight electrons which are normally arranged symmetrically at the eight corners of a cube (see: cubical atom).[2] In 1919 chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that the periodic table could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells around the nucleus.[3] In 1922, Niels Bohr updated his model of the atom by assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example 2, 8 and 18) corresponded to stable "closed shells".[4]:203
Pauli looked for an explanation for these numbers, which were at first only empirical. At the same time he was trying to explain experimental results of the Zeeman effect in atomic spectroscopy and in ferromagnetism. He found an essential clue in a 1924 paper by Edmund C. Stoner, which pointed out that, for a given value of the principal quantum number (n), the number of energy levels of a single electron in the alkali metal spectra in an external magnetic field, where all degenerate energy levels are separated, is equal to the number of electrons in the closed shell of the noble gases for the same value of n. This led Pauli to realize that the complicated numbers of electrons in closed shells can be reduced to the simple rule of one electron per state, if the electron states are defined using four quantum numbers. For this purpose he introduced a new two-valued quantum number, identified by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck as electron spin.[5][6]
Connection to quantum state symmetry[edit]
The Pauli exclusion principle with a single-valued many-particle wavefunction is equivalent to requiring the wavefunction to be antisymmetric. An antisymmetric two-particle state is represented as a sum of states in which one particle is in state | x ⟩ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle |x\rangle } and the other in state | y ⟩ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle |y\rangle } , and is given by:
| ψ ⟩ = ∑ x , y A ( x , y ) | x , y ⟩ , {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =\sum _{x,y}A(x,y)|x,y\rangle ,}
and antisymmetry under exchange means that A(x,y) = −A(y,x). This implies A(x,y) = 0 when x = y, which is Pauli exclusion. It is true in any basis since local changes of basis keep antisymmetric matrices antisymmetric.
Conversely, if the diagonal quantities A(x,x) are zero in every basis, then the wavefunction component
A ( x , y ) = ⟨ ψ | x , y ⟩ = ⟨ ψ | ( | x ⟩ ⊗ | y ⟩ ) {\displaystyle A(x,y)=\langle \psi |x,y\rangle =\langle \psi |(|x\rangle \otimes |y\rangle )}
is necessarily antisymmetric. To prove it, consider the matrix element
⟨ ψ | ( ( | x ⟩ + | y ⟩ ) ⊗ ( | x ⟩ + | y ⟩ ) ) . {\displaystyle \langle \psi |{\Big (}(|x\rangle +|y\rangle )\otimes (|x\rangle +|y\rangle ){\Big )}.}
This is zero, because the two particles have zero probability to both be in the superposition state | x ⟩ + | y ⟩ {\displaystyle |x\rangle +|y\rangle } . But this is equal to
⟨ ψ | x , x ⟩ + ⟨ ψ | x , y ⟩ + ⟨ ψ | y , x ⟩ + ⟨ ψ | y , y ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle \psi |x,x\rangle +\langle \psi |x,y\rangle +\langle \psi |y,x\rangle +\langle \psi |y,y\rangle .}
The first and last terms on the right side are diagonal elements and are zero, and the whole sum is equal to zero. So the wavefunction matrix elements obey:
⟨ ψ | x , y ⟩ + ⟨ ψ | y , x ⟩ = 0 , {\displaystyle \langle \psi |x,y\rangle +\langle \psi |y,x\rangle =0,}
or
A ( x , y ) = − A ( y , x ) . {\displaystyle A(x,y)=-A(y,x).}
Pauli principle in advanced quantum theory[edit]
According to the spin–statistics theorem, particles with integer spin occupy symmetric quantum states, and particles with half-integer spin occupy antisymmetric states; furthermore, only integer or half-integer values of spin are allowed by the principles of quantum mechanics. In relativistic quantum field theory, the Pauli principle follows from applying a rotation operator in imaginary time to particles of half-integer spin.
In one dimension, bosons, as well as fermions, can obey the exclusion principle. A one-dimensional Bose gas with delta-function repulsive interactions of infinite strength is equivalent to a gas of free fermions. The reason for this is that, in one dimension, exchange of particles requires that they pass through each other; for infinitely strong repulsion this cannot happen. This model is described by a quantum nonlinear Schrödinger equation. In momentum space the exclusion principle is valid also for finite repulsion in a Bose gas with delta-function interactions,[7] as well as for interacting spins and Hubbard model in one dimension, and for other models solvable by Bethe ansatz. The ground state in models solvable by Bethe ansatz is a Fermi sphere.
Consequences[edit]
Atoms and the Pauli principle[edit]
The Pauli exclusion principle helps explain a wide variety of physical phenomena. One particularly important consequence of the principle is the elaborate electron shell structure of atoms and the way atoms share electrons, explaining the variety of chemical elements and their chemical combinations. An electrically neutral atom contains bound electrons equal in number to the protons in the nucleus. Electrons, being fermions, cannot occupy the same quantum state as other electrons, so electrons have to "stack" within an atom, i.e. have different spins while at the same electron orbital as described below.
An example is the neutral helium atom, which has two bound electrons, both of which can occupy the lowest-energy (1s) states by acquiring opposite spin; as spin is part of the quantum state of the electron, the two electrons are in different quantum states and do not violate the Pauli principle. However, the spin can take only two different values (eigenvalues). In a lithium atom, with three bound electrons, the third electron cannot reside in a 1s state, and must occupy one of the higher-energy 2s states instead. Similarly, successively larger elements must have shells of successively higher energy. The chemical properties of an element largely depend on the number of electrons in the outermost shell; atoms with different numbers of occupied electron shells but the same number of electrons in the outermost shell have similar properties, which gives rise to the periodic table of the elements.[8]:214–218
Solid state properties and the Pauli principle[edit]
In conductors and semiconductors, there are very large numbers of molecular orbitals which effectively form a continuous band structure of energy levels. In strong conductors (metals) electrons are so degenerate that they cannot even contribute much to the thermal capacity of a metal.[9]:133–147 Many mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties of solids are the direct consequence of Pauli exclusion.
Stability of matter[edit]
The stability of the electrons in an atom itself is unrelated to the exclusion principle, but is described by the quantum theory of the atom. The underlying idea is that close approach of an electron to the nucleus of the atom necessarily increases its kinetic energy, an application of the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg.[10] However, stability of large systems with many electrons and many nucleons is a different matter, and requires the Pauli exclusion principle.[11]
It has been shown that the Pauli exclusion principle is responsible for the fact that ordinary bulk matter is stable and occupies volume. This suggestion was first made in 1931 by Paul Ehrenfest, who pointed out that the electrons of each atom cannot all fall into the lowest-energy orbital and must occupy successively larger shells. Atoms therefore occupy a volume and cannot be squeezed too closely together.[12]
A more rigorous proof was provided in 1967 by Freeman Dyson and Andrew Lenard, who considered the balance of attractive (electron–nuclear) and repulsive (electron–electron and nuclear–nuclear) forces and showed that ordinary matter would collapse and occupy a much smaller volume without the Pauli principle.[13][14]
The consequence of the Pauli principle here is that electrons of the same spin are kept apart by a repulsive exchange interaction, which is a short-range effect, acting simultaneously with the long-range electrostatic or Coulombic force. This effect is partly responsible for the everyday observation in the macroscopic world that two solid objects cannot be in the same place at the same time.
Astrophysics and the Pauli principle[edit]
Freeman Dyson and Andrew Lenard did not consider the extreme magnetic or gravitational forces that occur in some astronomical objects. In 1995 Elliott Lieb and coworkers showed that the Pauli principle still leads to stability in intense magnetic fields such as in neutron stars, although at a much higher density than in ordinary matter.[15] It is a consequence of general relativity that, in sufficiently intense gravitational fields, matter collapses to form a black hole.
Astronomy provides a spectacular demonstration of the effect of the Pauli principle, in the form of white dwarf and neutron stars. In both bodies, atomic structure is disrupted by extreme pressure, but the stars are held in hydrostatic equilibrium by degeneracy pressure, also known as Fermi pressure. This exotic form of matter is known as degenerate matter. The immense gravitational force of a star's mass is normally held in equilibrium by thermal pressure caused by heat produced in thermonuclear fusion in the star's core. In white dwarfs, which do not undergo nuclear fusion, an opposing force to gravity is provided by electron degeneracy pressure. In neutron stars, subject to even stronger gravitational forces, electrons have merged with protons to form neutrons. Neutrons are capable of producing an even higher degeneracy pressure, neutron degeneracy pressure, albeit over a shorter range. This can stabilize neutron stars from further collapse, but at a smaller size and higher density than a white dwarf. Neutrons are the most "rigid" objects known; their Young modulus (or more accurately, bulk modulus) is 20 orders of magnitude larger than that of diamond. However, even this enormous rigidity can be overcome by the gravitational field of a massive star or by the pressure of a supernova, leading to the formation of a black hole.[16]:286–287
See also[edit]
Exchange force
Exchange interaction
Exchange symmetry
Fermi–Dirac statistics
Fermi hole
Hund's rule
Pauli effect
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kenneth S. Krane (5 November 1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-80553-3.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Langmuir, Irving (1919). "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" (PDF). Journal of the American Chemical Society. 41 (6): 868–934. doi:10.1021/ja02227a002. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
Jump up ^ Shaviv, Glora. The Life of Stars: The Controversial Inception and Emergence of the Theory of Stellar Structure (2010 ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3642020872.
Jump up ^ Straumann, Norbert (2004). "The Role of the Exclusion Principle for Atoms to Stars: A Historical Account". Invited talk at the 12th Workshop on Nuclear Astrophysics. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.251.9585  .
Jump up ^ Über den Zusammenhang des Abschlusses der Elektronengruppen im Atom mit der Komplexstruktur der Spektren W. Pauli, Zeitschrift für Physik, February 1925, Volume 31, Issue 1, pp 765–783
Jump up ^ A. Izergin and V. Korepin, Letter in Mathematical Physics vol 6, page 283, 1982
Jump up ^ Griffiths, David J. (2004), Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.), Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-111892-7
Jump up ^ Kittel, Charles (2005), Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.), USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8
Jump up ^ Elliot J. Lieb The Stability of Matter and Quantum Electrodynamics
Jump up ^ This realization is attributed by Lieb and by G. L. Sewell (2002). Quantum Mechanics and Its Emergent Macrophysics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05832-6. to F. J. Dyson and A. Lenard: Stability of Matter, Parts I and II (J. Math. Phys., 8, 423–434 (1967); J. Math. Phys., 9, 698–711 (1968) ).
Jump up ^ As described by F. J. Dyson (J.Math.Phys. 8, 1538–1545 (1967)), Ehrenfest made this suggestion in his address on the occasion of the award of the Lorentz Medal to Pauli.
Jump up ^ F. J. Dyson and A. Lenard: Stability of Matter, Parts I and II (J. Math. Phys., 8, 423–434 (1967); J. Math. Phys., 9, 698–711 (1968) )
Jump up ^ Dyson, Freeman (1967). "Ground‐State Energy of a Finite System of Charged Particles". J. Math. Phys. 8 (8): 1538–1545. Bibcode:1967JMP.....8.1538D. doi:10.1063/1.1705389.
Jump up ^ Lieb, E. H.; Loss, M.; Solovej, J. P. (1995). "Stability of Matter in Magnetic Fields". Physical Review Letters. 75 (6): 985–9. arXiv:cond-mat/9506047  . Bibcode:1995PhRvL..75..985L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.985.
Jump up ^ Martin Bojowald (5 November 2012). The Universe: A View from Classical and Quantum Gravity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-66769-7.
General
Dill, Dan (2006). "Chapter 3.5, Many-electron atoms: Fermi holes and Fermi heaps". Notes on General Chemistry (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-4292-0068-5.
Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8714-5.
Massimi, Michela (2005). Pauli's Exclusion Principle. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83911-4.
Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0.
External links[edit]
Nobel Lecture: Exclusion Principle and Quantum Mechanics Pauli's own account of the development of the Exclusion Principle.
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Sparks Fly (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Sparks Fly"
Single by Taylor Swift
from the album Speak Now
Released
July 18, 2011 (2011-07-18)
Format
CD single
Genre
Country pop
pop rock
Length
4:22
Label
Big Machine
Songwriter(s)
Taylor Swift
Producer(s)
Nathan Chapman
Taylor Swift
Taylor Swift singles chronology
"The Story of Us"
(2011) "Sparks Fly"
(2011) "Ours"
(2011)
"The Story of Us"
(2011) "Sparks Fly"
(2011) "Ours"
(2011)
Music video
"Sparks Fly" on YouTube
"Sparks Fly" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for her third studio album Speak Now (2010). Swift wrote the song when she was 16 years old, prior to the release of her debut single "Tim McGraw" in 2006. Following a 2007 live performance of the song, "Sparks Fly" grew in popularity among Swift's fanbase. While Speak Now was under production, she received requests from fans to include the song on the album. Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman, the song was serviced to country radio in the United States by Big Machine Records on July 18, 2011, as the fifth single from Speak Now. A CD single was released on Swift's official store for a limited time on August 10, 2011.
"Sparks Fly" received generally positive reviews by music critics, who praised it for its upbeat tempo. Others praised Swift's lyrics of the song and have claimed that the song is a crossover between country and pop. Following the release of Speak Now, the song debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and at number 28 on the Canadian Hot 100, due to strong digital sales. After the song was released as a single, it re-entered the US Billboard Hot 100 at 84. It peaked at number one at the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 1,000,000 copies. "Sparks Fly" was used as the opening song for the Speak Now World Tour (2011–12). A music video for the song was released, featuring clips of various performances during the Speak Now World Tour.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and release
2 Music and lyrics
3 Critical reception
4 Commercial performance
5 Live performances
6 Music video
7 Track listing
8 Charts and certifications
8.1 Weekly charts
8.2 Year-end charts
8.3 Certifications
9 Release history
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Background and release[edit]
Swift began work on her third studio album Speak Now two years prior to its release in 2010.[1] "Sparks Fly" was written by Swift when she was sixteen years old, prior the release of her eponymous album in 2006.[2] She performed the song live during several bar shows "of forty and fifty people".[2] A recorded live performance of the song during one of her concerts made its way onto the internet in 2007.[3] The song became a favorite among Swift's fans, leading Swift to rework the song and include it on Speak Now after having so many requested for it to be included on the album.[2][4] Of the song, Swift said that: "This is a song I wrote a few years ago and I have been working on it ever since. It's been awesome to see it change over the years. The fans have heard it before in concert, but there have been some really cool changes that I am very proud of and can't wait for them to hear."[5]
The song was sent to country music radio stations on July 18, 2011,[6] as the fifth single from Speak Now.[7][8] An exclusive package was released to Swift's official store including a "Speak Now" necklace and an individually numbered "Sparks Fly" CD single. Only 2,500 copies of the CD single were made and the package was made available for a limited time.[9] The single was later included in another package that is exclusive to Swift's official store. The package included the Target exclusive deluxe edition of Speak Now, a free pair of headphones, and the choice between either the "Sparks Fly", "The Story of Us", or the "Mean" CD single.[10] The song was featured on a promotional trailer for the CW show, Hart of Dixie.[11] It was also featured on the annual "Macy's 4th of July Fireworks Show" last 2012. The song was released on Now That's What I Call Country Volume 5.[12][13]
Music and lyrics[edit]
"Sparks Fly" (2011)
A sample of Taylor Swift's "Sparks Fly", featuring the electric guitar-backed chorus and Swift's a capella "Drop everything now".
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"Sparks Fly" is a country pop[6] song with a length of four minutes and 22 seconds.[14] The song, written solely by Swift,[15] is in the key of D minor with Swift's vocals spanning two octaves, from F3 to C5.[16] Johnathan Keefe claimed that "the a capella "Drop everything now" exclamation simply commands attention, with the desperation in Swift’s call-to-action answering the common criticisms that her work is sexless and chaste."[17] Bobby Peacock stated that "I wouldn't mind if the banjo from the 2007 version were left in, but its omission is hardly make-or-break. Perhaps my biggest problem is that the song's chorus undermines itself in the second half – it starts out emphatic and anthemic as usual, but there's just no "oomph" on the hook. It almost feels as if she's trailing off mid-sentence."[3] Blake Boldt of Engine 145 stated ""Sparks Fly" centers around a simple but effective hook—"I see sparks fly whenever you smile"—that further cements Swift’s reputation as one the craftiest songwriters in popular music."[18] Amanda Hensel of Taste of Country commented on the chorus of the song stating, "Though Swift implies that this particular crush is a "bad idea," she still insists that they should try to make it work in the chorus: "Drop everything now, meet me in the pouring rain / Kiss me on the sidewalk, take away the pain / ‘Cause I see sparks fly / Whenever you smile," she sings insistently."[6]
According to Swift, the song is about "falling for someone who you maybe shouldn't fall for, but you can't stop yourself because there's such a connection and chemistry."[6]
Critical reception[edit]
"Sparks Fly" received positive reviews from music critics. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised Swift's vocals on "Sparks Fly", commenting that her voice in such an upbeat song is unaffected enough to mask how masterful she has become as a singer.[19] Rahul Prabhakar of The Oxonian Review considers it "dopamine-infused, hair-whipping stuff".[20] Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine calls the song "the purest iteration of Swift’s template and repertoire", also saying that it "could turn things around for Swift, as it’s perhaps the most perfectly constructed single in a career built on tracks that are marvels of pop production and songwriting." He concluded by stating that the song "proves how evocative those turns-of-phrase can be in the right context. To that end, “Sparks Fly” plays as a template as much as it does as a standalone single, and it’s a testament to everything Taylor Swift gets right."[17] Bobby Peacock of Roughstock claims that he gets "a sense that Taylor is starting to experience a little burnout at radio. Her songs drop like rocks once they peak, and she's currently 0 for 3 on hitting the top of the Billboard charts. While I don't think this song has that je ne sais quoi to get her another 'You Belong with Me'-level hit, I still think that even a slightly lesser effort from her is a worthwhile listen."[3] Blake Boldt of Engine 145 praised Swift, saying "Her infusion of individual lines with urgency (“Drop everything now,” she insists) and earnestness (“Take away the pain,” she pleads) are a tribute to her talent, not so much as a distinguished vocalist but as an excellent communicator. Each frazzled note is freighted with meaning. Should I stay or should I go now?, she wonders, wiling [sic] away the hours before he calls her again."[18] Amanda Hensel of Taste of Country claimed the song is "just another one of those so-Swift tracks that continually toes the line between country and pop to create a genre that is 100% Taylor Swift."[6] Erin Thompson of Seattle Weekly stated he wasn't to "hot on" the song and compared the song to Swift's earlier works, "Fearless", "Hey Stephen", and "Forever and Always", and stated that Swift "puts in a line about standing in the rain in so many of her songs that I'm beginning to think she watches The Notebook every time she gets ready to sit down and write a song."[21] Mikael Wood of Spin considered it a bubbly tune along with Swift's song, "Long Live".[22]
Commercial performance[edit]
Following the release of Speak Now, on November 4, 2010, "Sparks Fly" debuted at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 due to strong digital sales of 113,000 downloads[23] making it one of the songs to make Swift the first act to have ten songs debut on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week. With the addition of "Mine", Swift had a total of 11 songs charting in one week, making Swift the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week.[24] The song made a Hot Shot Debut on the Hot Country Songs at number 49.[25] Billboard included the song in their Five Potential Pop Hits for 2011 list.[26] The song jumped from 39 and settled on 31 on the Hot Country Songs on the week ending August 6, 2011.[27] After its single release, the song re-entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 84 on the week ending August 27, 2011.[28] On the week ending October 8, 2011 the song jumped from 13 to 10 on the Hot Country Songs.[29] The song has peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Radio Songs Chart.[30] It peaked at number one on the Hot Country Songs in the week of November 26, 2011.[31] The song became Swift's first single in two years to reach atop the aforesaid chart since "You Belong with Me" in 2009.[32][33] On November 29, 2011, the song was certified Gold by the RIAA.[34] The song was number 37 on the 2011 year-end chart of Hot Country Songs.[35] As of November 2017, "Sparks Fly" has sold 1.1 million copies in the United States.[36] In Canada, "Sparks Fly" debuted at 28 on the week of November 13, 2010.[37]
"Sparks Fly" was nominated for "Favorite Song" on the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards 2012.[38] The song won the award for "Choice Music: Country Song" on 2012 Teen Choice Awards.[39]
Live performances[edit]
The live performance that was uploaded to YouTube was captured at the Gold Country Casino in Oroville, California on May 30, 2007.[40] The song was, at the time, unreleased and was performed using banjos and violins and contained different lyrics than the album version.[3] "Sparks Fly" was the opening song of the Speak Now World Tour.[41] The performance begins with an opening montage about how people should "speak now" about how they feel, and Swift then raises from a cloud of smoke and sings "Drop everything now" before starting the actual song performance. Swift also uses a longer interlude into the final chorus of the song.[42] Fireworks were also used during the performance.[43] The performance uses electric guitars instead of banjos[42] and was released on Swift's first live album, Speak Now World Tour Live.[44] In his review of Speak Now World Tour Live, Matt Bjorke of Roughstock cited Swift's perforation of "Sparks Fly" a standout during the concert.[45] Swift has also performed the song at the CMA Music Festival. Before beginning the performance Swift walked through the crowd to the stage and began singing.[46]
"Sparks Fly" was the first song Taylor Swift performed on her debut in the iHeart Radio Music Festival 2012 in Las Vegas, Nevada. As introduced by Nina Dobrev, Swift appeared from the audience and opened the performance of the song's imminent hook, "Drop everything now", as she walks through the crowd to the stage.
The song was a regular part of the setlist on Swift's Red Tour and most recently, she performed an acoustic version of the song at her 1989 World Tour show in Vancouver.
Music video[edit]
A music video for the song was announced on August 8, 2011 on Swift's official website.[47] It premiered on August 10, 2011 on her official website at 4:30 pm CDT.[48] It is directed by Christian Lamb.[49] The video features clips of various performances from her Speak Now World Tour, such as "Speak Now", "Back to December", "Better Than Revenge", "Mean" and other performances, as well as never before seen footage at beginning.[50] Many of the footage for the video was captured at four different tour date locations including one from the show in Newark, New Jersey. The footage with the rain was captured during one of the summer shows at Gillette Stadium.[51]
Billy Dukes of Taste of Country praised the video saying, "The magic and theatrics she’s able to capture on stage rival what almost anyone else is able to dream up for a more Hollywood-like “produced” music video."[51] During the week of its release, the music video had over 400,000 views and helped push Swift up the Billboard's Social 50, moving her from number nineteen to ten.[52] Jocelyn Vena of MTV News praised the footage of the video saying that it "perfectly encapsulates the tour's high-octane energy including theatrical set changes, dancers, aerialists, fireworks, pyrotechnics, costume changes and the occasional rainstorm."[53] The video was number one on the week's most streamed videos on August 27, 2011 for Yahoo! Music.[30] To date, the video has over 38 million views on YouTube.
Track listing[edit]
Limited Edition CD single[9]
"Sparks Fly" – 4:20
Charts and certifications[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2010–11)
Peak
position
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[54] 28
Canada Country (Billboard)[55] 3
US Billboard Hot 100[56] 17
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[57] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2011)
Position
US Country Songs (Billboard)[35] 37
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
United States (RIAA)[58]
Platinum 1,100,000[36]
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
Preceded by
"Crazy Girl"
by Eli Young Band Billboard Hot Country Songs
number-one single
November 26, 2011 Succeeded by
"Country Must Be Country Wide"
by Brantley Gilbert
Release history[edit]
List of radio and release dates with formats and record labels
Country
Date
Format
Label
United States
July 18, 2011[6] Country radio Big Machine Records
August 10, 2011[9][48] Limited edition CD single
See also[edit]
List of Hot Country Songs number ones of 2011
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John, Christopher (July 21, 2010). "Taylor Swift Sets Release Date for New Album 'Speak Now' – Speakeasy — WSJ". The Wall Street Journal. Les Hinton. Retrieved July 22, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor Swift (September 1, 2011). "YouTube Presents Taylor Swift". YouTube. Google Inc. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Taylor Swift – "Sparks Fly"". Bobby Peacock. Roughstock. August 8, 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Swiftie13 (August 22, 2011). "Fans Responsible For Getting "Sparks Fly" On Taylor Swift CD « Nashville Music Scene". Nashville!. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Music and Lyrics". TaylorSwift.com. October 25, 2010. Archived from the original on November 25, 2011. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Taylor Swift, 'Sparks Fly' – Song Review". Taste of Country. Townsquare Media. July 4, 2011. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Watch the "Sparks Fly" Beginning Next Week" (PDF). Country AirCheck. June 28, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift confirms 5th single off Speak Now". Alejandro. Shuffleme.net. July 7, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c CD Single Reference:
"Sparks Fly CD Single + Speak Now Necklace". TaylorSwift.com. August 10, 2011. Archived from the original on September 9, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
"Taylor Swift – "Spark Fly" Limited Edition Promo Cd Single: Taylor Swift: Music". Amazon.com (US). Amazon Inc. Retrieved August 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Speak Now Deluxe CD-DVD + CD Single + FREE Headphones". TaylorSwift.com. Archived from the original on November 17, 2011. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (January 9, 2012). "Taylor Swift Makes "Sparks Fly" in New Hart of Dixie Clip—Check It Out Now!". E! Online. Retrieved January 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Now That's What I Call Country, Vol. 5 - Various Artists : Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Retrieved June 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ "NOW Country 5: Now That's What I Call Country: Music". Amazon.com (US). Amazon Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Speak Now Taylor Swift". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. October 25, 2010. Retrieved July 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ Sparks Fly (CD single). Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records. 2011. 4393000542.
Jump up ^ "Digital sheet music – Taylor Swift – Sparks Fly". Musicnotes.com. Alfred Publishing. October 25, 2010. Retrieved July 25, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Single Review: Taylor Swift, "Sparks Fly"". Jonathan Keefe. Country Universe. July 12, 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Single Review: Taylor Swift – "Sparks Fly". Blake Boldt. Engine145. July 18, 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Speak Now Big Machine". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media. October 26, 2010. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Needs a Gap Year". Rahul Prabhakar. The Oxonian Review. November 1, 2010. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift's Speak Now Track "If This Was A Movie" Is Better Than Her Upcoming New Single". Erin Thompson. Seattle Weekly. November 25, 2011. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ Mikael Wood (December 2010). "Swift Justice: No time for teardrops, country star spits venom". Spin. Spin Media LLC. Retrieved June 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Chart Moves: Taylor Swift, Michael Jackson, Rihanna, Kanye West". Keith Caulfield, SilvioPietroluongo. Billboard Prometheus Global Media. November 4, 2010. Retrieved November 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Debuts 10 'Speak Now' Songs on Hot 100". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. November 4, 2010. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Top Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. July 16, 2011. Retrieved July 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ask Billboard: Readers' 2010 Top Picks, Continued". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. January 7, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Top Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. August 6, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Music Hits, Top 100 Music Charts, Top 100 Songs & The Hot 100". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. August 27, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Top Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. October 8, 2011. Retrieved September 29, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sparks Fly – Taylor Swift|". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Country songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. November 26, 2011. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift 'Sparks' No. 1 Country Song; Faith Hill's CMA Bounce". Billboard. November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "High Five: Taylor Swift Back Atop Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. November 14, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Recording Industry Association of America". RIAA. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Best of 2011: Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. 2011. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Trust, Gary (November 26, 2017). "Ask Billboard: Taylor Swift's Career Album & Song Sales". Retrieved November 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Canadian Hot 100". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. November 13, 2010. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sparks Fly (by Taylor Swift) | Favorite Song | Kids Choice Awards". Nickelodeon. Viacom International Inc. August 10, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Teen Choice Awards Nominees 2012: Taylor Swift & Blake Shelton Lead the Country Pack". The Boot. May 21, 2012. Retrieved May 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Shelly Fabian (May 30, 2007). "Taylor Swift Concert Review - Gold Country Casino - May 30, 2007". About.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Speak Now World Tour References:
Coffey, Kevin (May 28, 2011). "Taylor Swift shimmers in Omaha". Omaha World-Herald. Retrieved August 9, 2011.
Herrero, Javier (March 19, 2011). "Taylor Swift encandila a unos 4.000 madrileños con su country edulcorado" [Taylor Swift dazzle some 4,000 locals sweetened country]. La Rioja (in Spanish). Grupo Vocento. Retrieved August 19, 2011.
Sträter, Andreas (March 13, 2011). "Blaue Augen, süße Songs: Taylor Swift in Oberhausen" [Blues, sweet songs: Taylor Swift in Overhausen]. Soester Anzeiger (in German). Retrieved August 19, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Speak Now World Tour Live (CD/DVD). Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records. 2011. BMRTS0340B.
Jump up ^ Melissa Maerz (July 27, 2011). "Speak Now Tour review - Taylor Swift Review". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vaughan, Andrew. "Speak Now World Tour Live [CD/DVD]: Taylor Swift: Music". Amazon.com (US). Amazon Inc. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Album/DVD Review: Taylor Swift - Speak Now: World Tour Live". Matt Bjorke. Roughstock. November 21, 2011. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ Amanda Hensel (August 11, 2011). "Taylor Swift Makes 'Sparks Fly' on 'CMA Music Festival: Country's Night to Rock'". Taste of Country. Townsquare Media. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sparks Fly Video". TaylorSwift.com. August 8, 2011. Archived from the original on November 25, 2011. Retrieved August 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor Swift (August 10, 2011). "Twitter / @taylorswift132: The 'Sparks Fly' music vid." Twitter. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift To Release 'Sparks Fly' Video Tomorrow". AllAccess. August 9, 2011. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "sf on Vimeo". Vimeo. August 10, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Billy, Dukes (August 10, 2011). "Taylor's New 'Sparks Fly' Video Features Fans and Concert Theatrics". TasteofCountry.com. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kyle Bylin (August 18, 2011). "Taylor Swift Rockets Up Social 50 with 'Sparks Fly' Video (Watch)". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved August 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Gives Fans Front-Row Seat In 'Sparks Fly' Video". Jocelyn Vena. MTV News. Viacom. August 11, 2011. Retrieved September 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Chart History (Canada Country)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Taylor Swift – Sparks Fly". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved August 10, 2014. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
Lyrics at Taylor Swift official site
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
Taylor Swift songs
Discography
Taylor Swift
"Tim McGraw"
"Picture to Burn"
"Teardrops on My Guitar"
"Should've Said No"
"Our Song"
Fearless
"Fearless"
"Fifteen"
"Love Story"
"White Horse"
"You Belong with Me"
"Breathe"
"You're Not Sorry"
"Forever & Always"
"Change"
Speak Now
"Mine"
"Sparks Fly"
"Back to December"
"Speak Now"
"Mean"
"The Story of Us"
"Innocent"
"Ours"
Red
"State of Grace"
"Red"
"I Knew You Were Trouble"
"All Too Well"
"22"
"We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together"
"The Last Time"
"Everything Has Changed"
"Begin Again"
1989
"Welcome to New York"
"Blank Space"
"Style"
"Out of the Woods"
"Shake It Off"
"Bad Blood"
"Wildest Dreams"
"Wonderland"
"New Romantics"
Reputation
"...Ready for It?"
"End Game"
"Delicate"
"Look What You Made Me Do"
"Gorgeous"
"Call It What You Want"
"New Year's Day"
Songs as a featured artist
"Two Is Better Than One"
"Half of My Heart"
"Both of Us"
"Highway Don't Care"
Other songs
"Crazier"
"Today Was a Fairytale"
"Safe & Sound"
"Long Live"
"Eyes Open"
"Ronan"
"Sweeter Than Fiction"
"I Don't Wanna Live Forever"
"Best Days of Your Life"
"Better Man"
"This Is What You Came For"
"You'll Always Find Your Way Back Home"
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Calavera
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Calaveras (disambiguation).
A sugar skull, a common gift for children and decoration for the Day of the Dead.
A calavera [plural:calaveras] (Spanish -pronounced [kalaˈβeɾa] for "skull") is a representation of a human skull. The term is most often applied to edible or decorative skulls made (usually by hand) from either sugar (called Alfeñiques) or clay which are used in the Mexican celebration of the Day of the Dead (Día de Muertos) and the Roman Catholic holiday All Souls' Day. Calavera can also refer to any artistic representations of skulls, such as the lithographs of José Guadalupe Posada. The most widely known calaveras are created with cane sugar and are decorated with items such as colored foil, icing, beads, and feathers.[1]
Role Traditional methods for producing calaveras have been in use since the 1630s .[2]" The skulls are created either for children or as offerings to be placed on altars known as ofrendas for the Día de Muertos which has roots in the Aztec, Mayan, and Toltec cultural celebration of the Day of the Dead.[3]
The tradition of sugar skulls is for families to decorate their loved ones' ofrendas with both large or small handmade sugar skulls[4]. Small sugar skulls represent the children who have died, which is celebrated on November 1. While the larger sugar skulls represent the adults with the celebration taking place on the following day, November 2nd. It is believed that the departed return home to enjoy the offering on the altar.[5]
In pre- Columbian times the images of skulls and skeletons were shown often in paintings, pottery, etc. representing rebirth into the next stage of life. During the 20th century a political caricaturist named Jose Guadalupe Posada became famous for making Calaveras as vain skeletons dressed in the clothing of the wealthy. The most famous one was Catrina, wearing a feathery hat, fancy shoes and a long dress. Catrina is considered to be the personification of The Day of the Dead.[3] These skeletons are created from many materials such as wood, sugar paste varieties, types of nuts, chocolate, etc. When used as offerings, the name of the deceased is written across the forehead of the skull on colored foil.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 chloe baker skull
3 Literary calaveras
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Production[edit]
Sugar skulls before decoration
Traditional production methods have been in use since roughly the 15th century CE. The process involves using molds to cast the calaveras.[6] Production can be a lengthy process. A creator will usually spend roughly four to six months producing the skulls for a season. Traditionally-made sugar skulls are considered folk art and are not meant to be consumed.[6]
The production process is more focused on the aesthetic appeal of the skull than on the taste or food safety of the product. Furthermore, many calaveras feature inedible decorations, such as beads, feathers, and foil. Some skulls were formerly decorated with sombreros, though these designs have mostly disappeared since the 1970s.[6] The calaveras are then traditionally sold at outdoor market stalls beginning two weeks before the Day of the Dead.
Sugar skulls offered for sale in Mexico
Other calaveras are produced to be edible. Most are cast as one piece from cane sugar (which can either be left unflavored or flavored with vanilla[7]). Other calaveras may be made from chocolate. The calaveras are typically colored with vegetable dyes. Like the more decorative calaveras, these will sometimes have names written on the foreheads as well. Calaveras may be eaten, or kept for a few days and then thrown away.
chloe baker skull[edit]
Clay toy variations of calaveras also resemble the shape of human skulls. These toys are often painted a metallic silver color, but they may also be found in colors such as white, black, and red. Beaded eyes of many colors may also be added for decoration.
Literary calaveras[edit]
Poetry written for the Day of the Dead are known as literary calaveras, and are intended to humorously criticize the living while reminding them of their mortality.[8][9] Literary calaveras appeared during the second half of the nineteenth century, when drawings critical of important politicians began to be published in the press. Living personalities were depicted as skeletons exhibiting recognizable traits, making them easily identifiable. Additionally, drawings of dead personalities often contained text elements providing details of the deaths of various individuals.
See also[edit]
Calacas skeleton.
Papel Picado
La Calavera Catrina Skeletons
Santa Muerte, more skeletons
References[edit]
Jump up ^ About an José Guadalupe Mexicano Posada's Calavera Revolucionaria, retrieved 2007-11-13, Posada created many images of calaveras (skeletons) performing many different human activities. These images were/are used for the Day of The Dead celebrations in Mexico.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Day of the Dead, Sugar Skulls, Mexican Folk Art, Oilcloth & Papel Picado". "www.mexicansugarskull.com. Retrieved 2015-07-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Day of the Dead Sweets and Treats — Hungry History". Retrieved 2015-07-01.
Jump up ^ "A Sweet History of Sugar Skulls on Day of the Dead". Martha Stewart. 2016-10-28. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
Jump up ^ Gavrilova, Anabela (2013-08-12). "Sugar Skulls' status in popular culture: What is their meaning and where do they originate from?". Cruel Daze of Summer. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Frequently Asked Questions about Day of the Dead, Sugar Skulls, Mexican Folk Art, Oilcloth & Papel Picado". www.mexicansugarskull.com. Retrieved 2015-06-29.
Jump up ^ Stanley Brandes (8 January 2007). Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead: The Day of the Dead in Mexico and Beyond. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-4051-5248-8.
Jump up ^ Rangel, Sonia. "Calavera poetry reading slated for Nov. 1". Tejano Tribune. Archived from the original on 2009-07-28. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
Jump up ^ Barradas, Francisco (2007-11-01). "Calaveras and Posadas". El Tecolote (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
External links[edit]
Look up calavera in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Sugar skull resource site
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calavera&oldid=821637277"
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