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Christ the Redeemer (statue)
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For other statues with this name and for other uses, see Christ the Redeemer.
Christ the Redeemer
Coordinates
22°57′7″S 43°12′38″W / 22.95194°S 43.21056°W / -22.95194; -43.21056Coordinates: 22°57′7″S 43°12′38″W / 22.95194°S 43.21056°W / -22.95194; -43.21056
Location
Corcovado mountain,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Designer
Created by the French sculptor Paul Landowski and built by the engineer Heitor da Silva Costa Brazil in collab with the French engineer Albert Caquot. Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida created the face of the statue
Material
Soapstone
Height
30 metres (98 ft) and 38 metres (125 ft) tall with its pedestal
Completion date
Dedicated October 12, 1931
Consecrated October 12, 2006
New Seven Wonders of the World July 7, 2007
National Historic Heritage of Brazil
Designated
1478
Reference no.
2001
Christ the Redeemer (Portuguese: Cristo Redentor, standard Brazilian Portuguese: [ˈkɾistu ʁedẽˈtoʁ], local dialect: [ˈkɾiɕtŭ̻ xe̞dẽ̞ˈtoɦ]) is an Art Deco statue of Jesus Christ in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, created by French sculptor Paul Landowski and built by the Brazilian engineer Heitor da Silva Costa, in collaboration with the French engineer Albert Caquot. Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida fashioned the face. Constructed between 1922 and 1931, the statue is 30 metres (98 ft) tall, excluding its 8-metre (26 ft) pedestal. The arms stretch 28 metres (92 ft) wide.[1][2]
The statue weighs 635 metric tons (625 long, 700 short tons), and is located at the peak of the 700-metre (2,300 ft) Corcovado mountain in the Tijuca Forest National Park overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro. A symbol of Christianity across the world, the statue has also become a cultural icon of both Rio de Janeiro and Brazil, and is listed as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.[3] It is made of reinforced concrete and soapstone. [4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Restoration
3 Similar structures
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
A view of the Corcovado before the construction, 19th century
Aerial view of the statue.
Vincentian priest, Pedro Maria Boss, first suggested placing a Christian monument on Mount Corcovado in the mid 1850s to honor Princess Isabel, princess regent of Brazil and the daughter of Emperor Pedro II, however the project died due to lack of support.[1] In 1889 the country became a republic, and due to the separation of church and state, the idea of the statue was dismissed.[7]
The Catholic Circle[clarification needed] of Rio made a second proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain in 1920.[8][better source needed] The group organized an event called Semana do Monumento ("Monument Week") to attract donations and collect signatures to support the building of the statue. What motivated the organization was what they perceived as 'Godlessness' in the society at the time. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics.[4] The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world.[9] The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.
Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the statue. French sculptor Paul Landowski created the work.[10]
In 1922, Landowski commissioned fellow Parisian Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida, who studied sculpture at the Fine Arts Conservatory in Bucharest and in Italy. Leonida's portrayal of Christ's face made him famous.[11][12]
A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's submissions and felt building the structure of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel was more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use.[5] Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the equivalent of US$250,000 (equivalent to $3,400,000 in 2016) and the monument opened on October 12, 1931.[5][6] During the opening ceremony, the statue was to be lit by a battery of floodlights turned on remotely by Italian shortwave radio inventor Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away in Rome but because of bad weather, the lights were activated on-site.[8]
In October 2006, on the 75th anniversary of the statue's completion, Archbishop of Rio, Cardinal Eusebio Oscar Scheid, consecrated a chapel, named after Brazil's patron saint—Our Lady of the Apparition, under the statue, allowing Catholics to hold baptisms and weddings there.[6]
Lightning struck the statue during a violent thunderstorm on February 10, 2008, causing some damage to the fingers, head and eyebrows. The Rio de Janeiro state government initiated a restoration effort to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods on the statue. Lightning damaged it again, on January 17, 2014, dislodging a finger on the right hand.[13][14][15][16]
In 2010, a massive restoration of the statue began. Work included cleaning, replacing the mortar and soapstone on the exterior, restoring iron in the internal structure, and waterproofing the monument. Vandals attacked the statue during renovation, spraying paint along the arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation". The culprits later apologized and presented themselves to the police.[17][18][19]
In 2015 two Russian and Ukrainian urban explorers, Vadim Makhorov and Vitaly Raskalov from Ontheroofs, climbed the statue with captured video footage and photos.[20][21][22]
Restoration[edit]
A panoramic view of the statue at the top of Corcovado Mountain with Sugarloaf Mountain (centre) and Guanabara Bay in the background.
Christ the Redeemer at night as seen from Tijuca Forest
Corcovado Rack Railway
In 1990, several organizations, including the Archdiocese of Rio de Janeiro, media company Grupo Globo, oil company Shell do Brasil, environmental regulator IBAMA, National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage, and the city government of Rio de Janeiro entered an agreement to conduct restoration work.
More work on the statue and its environs was conducted in 2003 and early 2010. In 2003, a set of escalators, walkways, and elevators were installed to facilitate access to the platform surrounding the statue. The four-month restoration in 2010[23] focused on the statue itself. The statue's internal structure was renovated and its soapstone mosaic covering was restored by removing a crust of fungi and other microorganisms and repairing small cracks. The lightning rods located in the statue’s head and arms were also repaired, and new lighting fixtures were installed at the foot of the statue.[24]
The restoration involved one hundred people and used more than 60,000 pieces of stone taken from the same quarry as the original statue.[23] During the unveiling of the restored statue, it was illuminated with green-and-yellow lighting in support of the Brazil national football team playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup.[23]
Maintenance work needs to be conducted periodically due to the strong winds and erosion to which the statue is exposed, as well as lightning strikes.[25] The original pale stone is no longer available in sufficient quantities, and replacement stones are increasingly darker in hue.[26]
Similar structures[edit]
Cristo del Otero in Palencia, Spain built in 1930 (21 m)
Cerro del Cubilete in Guanajuato, Mexico, inspired by Rio's Christ the Redeemer (23 m)
Christ Blessing in Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia (30 m)
Christ of Havana in Havana, Cuba, inspired by Christ the Redeemer (20 m)
Christ of the Abyss in various underwater locations
Christ of the Ozarks in Arkansas, United States, inspired by Rio's Christ the Redeemer (20 m)
Christ of Vũng Tàu in Vietnam (32 m)
Christ the King in Świebodzin, Poland (33 m)
Christ the Redeemer of the Andes (Argentina/Chile)
Christ the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Ibiza, Spain, inspired by Christ the Redeemer(23 m)
Cristo Blanco in Cusco, Peru
Cristo de la Concordia in Cochabamba, Bolivia
Cristo de las Noas in Torreón, Mexico (22 m)
Cristo del Pacífico in Lima, Peru, erected in 2011 (37 m)
Patung Yesus Kristus[27] in Mansinam Island, West Papua, Indonesia (30 m)
Cristo Redentore (Christ the Redeemer) of Maratea, Italy (21 m)
Cristo Rei in Lisbon, Portugal (28 m)
Cristo Rei of Dili in Dili, Timor-Leste (27 m)
Cristo Rei, Madeira on Madeira island, completed in 1927 (15 m)
Cristo Rei in Lubango, Angola (14 m)
Statue of Jesus Christ on the top of Sagrat Cor, Barcelona, Spain
Tas-Salvatur, Malta (12 m)
Statue of Jesus Christ, Monte Urgull, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain - 12 m
Jesus de Greatest in Imo, Nigeria, Africa’s tallest statue of Jesus and fifth tallest statue on the continent (8.53 m)
Cristo del Picacho in Tegucigalpa, Honduras
Cristo Redentor, Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic
Christ The King Lebanon
Another imitation statue of Christ the Redeemer is at Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India.(Shrish Patil)
Gallery[edit]
The statue
Access escalators
Christ the Redeemer after restoration
The statue illuminated in yellow and green, the colors of Brazil, during the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
Christ the Redeemer lit in the colours of the French flag after the November 2015 Paris attacks
The Corcovado and Christ the Redeemer as seen from Sugarloaf Mountain.
See also[edit]
Sanctuary of Christ the Redeemer at Google Cultural Institute
Approximate heights of various notable statues:
1. Spring Temple Buddha 153 m (incl. 25 m pedestal and 20 m throne)
2. Statue of Liberty 93 m (incl. 47 m pedestal)
3. The Motherland Calls 91 m (excl. pedestal)
4. Christ the Redeemer 38 m (incl. 8 m pedestal)
5. Statue of David 5.17 m (excl. 2.5 m pedestal)
List of statues by height
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Murray, Lorraine. "Christ the Redeemer (last updated 13 January 2014)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Giumbelli, Emerson (2014). Símbolos Religiosos em Controvérsia (in Portuguese). São Paulo. 244. ISBN 978-85-7816-137-8.
Jump up ^ "The New Seven Wonders of the World". Hindustan Times. July 8, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 11, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Christ the Redeemer". TIME. October 26, 1931. Retrieved July 11, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Brazil: Crocovado mountain – Statue of Christ". Travel Channel. Archived from the original on May 16, 2007. Retrieved July 7, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Sanctuary Status for Rio landmark". BBC News. October 13, 2006. Retrieved July 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Cristo Corcovado by Sergi Lla on Prezi". Prezi.com. Retrieved October 15, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cristo Redentor – Histórico da Construção" (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on March 13, 2009.
Jump up ^ Victor, Duilo. "Redentor, carioca até a alma" (in Portuguese). Jornal do Brasil. Retrieved July 17, 2008. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Phil, Damon (June 29, 1983). "Vote now for Phoneheng". The Sun. London.
Jump up ^ "Cristo Redentor: santuário carioca que virou símbolo da cidade no mundo". Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro. October 20, 2014. (in Portuguese)
Jump up ^ Dima, Alina. "Gheorghe Leonida – Romanian contribution to "Cristo Redentor"".
Jump up ^ "Cristo Redentor vai passar por restauração até junho ("Christ the Redeemer under restoration 'til June")". Estadão.
Jump up ^ Moratelli, Valmir. "Cristo Redentor, castigado por raios, passa por ampla reforma (Christ the Redeemer, punished by lightnings, go by ample refit)". Último Segundo.
Jump up ^ "Cristo Redentor renovado para 2010" (PDF). Rio de Janeiro Government. December 2010. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Lightning breaks finger off Rio's Christ". The Age. January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Vandals cover Rio's Christ statue with graffiti". Reuters. April 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ Tabak, Bernardo. "Estátua do Cristo Redentor é alvo de pichação". Globo.
Jump up ^ Infosur hoy: Christ the Redeemer to get new outfit Archived July 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Climbing Christ the Redeemer youtube video". Ontheroofs. December 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Climbing Christ the Redeemer ontheroofs story with photos and video". Ontheroofs. December 10, 2015. Archived from the original on September 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ Millward, David (December 12, 2015). "Watch the stunning footage taken by photographers who climbed Rio’s 125-feet tall Christ the Redeemer Statue". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on September 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Brazil's Christ state returns after renovation". BBC News. July 1, 2010. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ Christ the Redeemer se la come, YouTube video, accessed January 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Reforma no cartão-postal". Veja Rio. May 18, 2010. Archived from the original on January 27, 2010. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ Bowater, Donna; Mulvey, Stephen; Misra, Tanvi (March 10, 2014). "Arms wide open". BBC Online. Retrieved December 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kompas Cyber Media. "Presiden Resmikan Patung Yesus Kristus di Pulau Mansinam – Kompas.com Regional". Regional.kompas.com. Retrieved October 15, 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Blanes, Ruy Llera (2014). "Review: Giumbelli, Emerson (2014), Símbolos Religiosos em Controvérsia. São Paulo: Terceiro Nome". Vibrant: Virtual Brazilian Anthropology (in Portuguese). 11 (2): 470–472. ISSN 1809-4341. doi:10.1590/S1809-43412014000200016. Archived from the original on December 20, 2010.
Giumbelli, Emerson (2008). "A modernidade do Cristo Redentor". Dados (in Portuguese). 51 (1): 75–105. ISSN 0011-5258. doi:10.1590/S0011-52582008000100003.
Giumbelli, Emerson & Bosisio, Izabella (2010). "A Política de um Monumento: as Muitas Imagens do Cristo Redentor". Debates do NER (in Portuguese). 2 (18): 173–192. ISSN 1982-8136.
Giumbelli, Emerson (2013). "O Cristo Pichado". Ponto Urbe. Revista do Núcleo de Antropologia Urbana da USP (in Portuguese) (12). ISSN 1981-3341. doi:10.4000/pontourbe.586.
Ranquetat-Júnior, Cesar Alberto (2012). Laicidade à brasileira: um estudo sobre a controvérsia em torno da presença de símbolos religiosos em espaços públicos (Doutorado em Antropologia Social) (in Portuguese). UFRGS. 310 pp. Retrieved December 7, 2015.
Ranquetat-Júnior, Cesar Alberto (2015). "Giumbelli, Emerson. Símbolos Religiosos em Controvérsia. São Paulo: Terceiro Nome, 2014.". Debates do NER (in Portuguese). 1 (27): 429–437. ISSN 1982-8136.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cristo Redentor do Rio de Janeiro.
Official website
Corcovado Train
Map (in Portuguese)
Government bulletin about the statue's restoration[permanent dead link] (in Portuguese)
Poliakoff, Martyn. "Soapstone @ Cristo Redentor". The Periodic Table of Videos. University of Nottingham.
Map (in Portuguese)
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Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States
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The appointment and confirmation of Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States involves several steps set forth by the United States Constitution, which have been further refined and developed by decades of tradition. Candidates are nominated by the President of the United States and must face a series of hearings in which both the nominee and other witnesses make statements and answer questions before the Senate Judiciary Committee, which can vote to send the nomination to the full United States Senate. Confirmation by the Senate allows the President to formally appoint the candidate to the court.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nomination
2 Confirmation
3 Recess appointments
4 Tenure and vacancies
5 References
Nomination[edit]
Article Two of the United States Constitution requires the President of the United States to nominate Supreme Court Justices and, with Senate confirmation, requires Justices to be appointed. This was for the division of power between the President and Senate by the founders, who wrote:
he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Judges of the supreme Court...
Upon the election of a new President, incoming White House staff prepare profiles of possible candidates for the Supreme Court, considering not only judges but also politicians and other individuals whom they consider appropriate for the role. Besides considering national figures whose views are well-known, they consider others who are less recognized. They go through published rulings, articles, speeches, and other background material to get an idea of candidates' values and views on constitutional issues. Age, health, race, gender, and likelihood of confirmation are also factored into considerations. Once a Supreme Court vacancy opens, the President discusses the candidates with advisors. Senators also call the President with suggestions. After a first choice is decided, the candidate is contacted and called on by the President to serve on the highest court. Staffers send a vetting form for the candidate to fill out. They visit the candidate to go over tax records and payments to domestic help. Candidates whom the President has never met are interviewed by White House officials before being sent to the White House to be interviewed in person by the President. After making a final decision, the President calls the candidate, who is told to prepare a statement for an appearance in front of the national press for the President's formal announcement.
Most Presidents nominate individuals who broadly share their ideological views.[1] In many cases, however, a Justice's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court's history. Eisenhower later called the appointment "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made".[2] Another Justice whose decisions ran contrary to what was believed to be his ideology was David Souter, who was nominated to the high court in 1990 by President George H. W. Bush. Many pundits and politicians at the time expected Souter to be a conservative; however, after becoming a Justice, his opinions generally fell on the liberal side of the political spectrum.
Because the Constitution does not set any qualifications for service as a Justice, the President may nominate any individual to serve on the Court. However, that person must receive the confirmation of the Senate.
Confirmation[edit]
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from special-interest groups, many of which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee, depending on whether the nominee's track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. By convention, nominees avoid revealing too much about their views on potential cases that may come before the Court. At the close of confirmation hearings, the Committee votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report.
The Roberts Court (April 2017 - present). Front row (left to right): Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Anthony Kennedy, John Roberts (Chief Justice), Clarence Thomas, and Stephen Breyer. Back row (left to right): Elena Kagan, Samuel A. Alito, Sonia Sotomayor, and Neil Gorsuch.
The Committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent, beginning with Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Some western senators were concerned with his links to Wall Street and expressed their opposition when Stone was nominated. Stone proposed what was then the novelty of appearing before the Judiciary Committee to answer questions; his testimony helped secure a confirmation vote with very little opposition. The second nominee to appear before the Committee was Felix Frankfurter, who only addressed (at the Committee's request) what he considered to be slanderous allegations against him.[3] The modern practice of the Committee questioning nominees on their judicial views began with the nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in 1955; the nomination came shortly after the Court handed down the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and several Southern senators attempted to block Harlan's confirmation, hence the decision to testify.[4][5]
Once the Committee reports out the nomination, the whole Senate considers it. A simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Prior to 2017, a successful filibuster threat could add the requirement of a supermajority of 60 needed in favor of cloture, which would allow debate to end and force a final vote on confirmation. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee by vote of the full Senate came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork.
Not everyone nominated by the President has received a floor vote in the Senate. Prior to 2017 a nominee could be filibustered once debate on the nomination had begun in the full Senate. A filibuster indefinitely prolongs the debate, preventing a final vote on the nominee. President Lyndon Johnson's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy.[6][7][8] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.[9]
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006 before Committee hearings had begun, citing concerns about Senate requests during her confirmation process for access to internal Executive Branch documents resulting from her position as White House Counsel. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan withdrew the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg because of news reports containing marijuana use allegations.
The Senate may also fail to act on the nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on President Barack Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland in March 2016 to fill the vacancy left by the death of Antonin Scalia; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.[10]
Before 1981 the approval process of Justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, Justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).[11][12] Some believe this is because Congress sees Justices as playing a more political role than in the past.[13] The perceived politicization of the process has drawn criticism. For example, columnist George F. Will termed the defeat of Robert Bork's nomination "unjust" and, more generally, that the nomination process does "not delve deeply into the nominee's jurisprudential thinking."[14] Supreme Court nominations have caused media speculation about whether the judge leans to the left, middle, or right.[15] One indication of the politicized selection process is how much time each nominee spends being questioned under the glare of media coverage; before 1925, nominees were never questioned;[16] after 1955, every nominee has been required to appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee and answer questions; and the hours spent being grilled have lengthened from single digits (before 1980) to double digits today.[17] Another example of the politicization of the process was the Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination, which remained before the Senate far longer than any other nominee.
Following is a table of the approximate number of hours that media sources estimate were spent on the questioning of Supreme Court nominees since 1925:
Year
Nominee
# Hours
1925 Harlan Fiske Stone 7000500000000000000♠5
1938 Felix Frankfurter –
1955 John Marshall Harlan II –
1957 William J. Brennan, Jr. 7000300000000000000♠3
1967 Thurgood Marshall 7000700000000000000♠7
1971 William H. Rehnquist 7000700000000000000♠7
1975 John Paul Stevens 7000600000000000000♠6
1981 Sandra Day O'Connor 7001120000000000000♠12
1987 Robert Bork (not confirmed) 7001300000000000000♠30
1987 Anthony Kennedy 7001110000000000000♠11
1990 David H. Souter 7001200000000000000♠20
1991 Clarence Thomas 7001250000000000000♠25
1993 Ruth Bader Ginsburg 7001200000000000000♠20
1994 Stephen G. Breyer 7001200000000000000♠20
2005 John G. Roberts, Jr. 7001200000000000000♠20
2016 Merrick Garland (not confirmed) 5000000000000000000♠0
2017 Neil Gorsuch 7001200000000000000♠20
Sources: The New York Times (2005, 2009), MSNBC (2005)[3][4][17]
Once the Senate confirms the nomination by an affirmative vote, the Secretary of the Senate attests to a resolution of confirmation and transmits it to the White House.[18] The President then prepares and signs a commission, and causes the Seal of the United States Department of Justice to be affixed to the document before the new Justice can take office.[19] The date of commission determines a Justice's seniority.[20] A ceremony is held in which the Justice must take the Constitutional Oath, which is used for every federal and state officeholder below the President, and the Judicial Oath used for federal judges before entering into the execution of their office.
Recess appointments[edit]
Potter Stewart, appointed by President Dwight Eisenhower, was the last Supreme Court Justice initially placed on the Court through a recess appointment.
Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution provides that:
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Thus, when the Senate is in recess, the President may make a temporary appointment to any office requiring Senate approval, including filling vacancies on the Supreme Court, without the Senate's advice and consent. Such a recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office only until the end of the next Senate session (always less than two years). To continue to serve thereafter and be compensated for his or her service, the nominee must be formally nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Of the ten Justices who have received recess appointments - two Chief Justices and eight Associate Justices - only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed for a regular appointment. No president since Dwight Eisenhower (who made three such appointments) has made a recess appointment to the Supreme Court and the practice has become highly controversial even when applied to lower federal courts. During the 110th Congress, the Democratic leadership of the Senate specifically blocked Republican President George W. Bush from making any recess appointments with the use of pro forma sessions.
In 1960 the Senate passed a resolution stating that it was the sense of the Senate that recess appointments to the Supreme Court should not be made except under unusual circumstances.[21] Being a resolution, it has no legally binding effect, but was intended as an expression of the position of the Senate and as a guide to executive actions. The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines.[21] [22]
Following is a list of recess appointments that have been made to the Supreme Court:[23]
Justice Appointed by Date of
Appointment Date of
Nomination Date of
Senate action Senate
action
Johnson, ThomasThomas Johnson Washington 000000001791-08-05-0000August 5, 1791 000000001791-10-31-0000October 31, 1791 000000001791-11-07-0000November 7, 1791 Confirmed
Rutledge, JohnJohn Rutledge
(as Chief Justice) Washington 000000001795-07-01-0000July 1, 1795 000000001795-12-10-0000December 10, 1795 000000001795-12-15-0000December 15, 1795 Rejected
Washington, BushrodBushrod Washington J. Adams 000000001798-09-29-0000September 29, 1798 000000001798-12-19-0000December 19, 1798 000000001798-12-20-0000December 20, 1798 Confirmed
Livingston, Henry BrockholstHenry Brockholst Livingston Jefferson 000000001806-11-10-0000November 10, 1806 000000001806-12-15-0000December 15, 1806 000000001806-12-17-0000December 17, 1806 Confirmed
Thompson, SmithSmith Thompson Monroe 000000001823-09-01-0000September 1, 1823 000000001823-12-05-0000December 5, 1823 000000001823-12-09-0000December 9, 1823 Confirmed
McKinley, JohnJohn McKinley Van Buren 000000001837-04-22-0000April 22, 1837 000000001837-09-18-0000September 18, 1837 000000001837-09-25-0000September 25, 1837 Confirmed
Woodbury, LeviLevi Woodbury Polk 000000001845-09-20-0000September 20, 1845 000000001845-12-23-0000December 23, 1845 000000001846-01-03-0000January 3, 1846 Confirmed
Curtis, Benjamin RobbinsBenjamin Robbins Curtis Fillmore 000000001851-09-22-0000September 22, 1851 000000001851-12-11-0000December 11, 1851 000000001851-12-20-0000December 20, 1851 Confirmed
Davis, DavidDavid Davis Lincoln 000000001862-10-17-0000October 17, 1862 000000001862-12-01-0000December 1, 1862 000000001862-12-08-0000December 8, 1862 Confirmed
Warren, EarlEarl Warren
(as Chief Justice) Eisenhower 000000001953-10-02-0000October 2, 1953 000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954 000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954 Confirmed
Brennan, Jr., William J.William J. Brennan, Jr. Eisenhower 000000001956-10-15-0000October 15, 1956 000000001957-01-14-0000January 14, 1957 000000001957-03-19-0000March 19, 1957 Confirmed
Stewart, PotterPotter Stewart Eisenhower 000000001958-10-14-0000October 14, 1958 000000001959-01-17-0000January 17, 1959 000000001959-12-05-0000December 5, 1959 Confirmed
Tenure and vacancies[edit]
The ability of a president to appoint new justices depends on the occurrence of a vacancy on the Court. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is well understood to mean Justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they can voluntarily resign or retire. A Justice can also be removed by Congressional impeachment and conviction. However, only one Justice has been impeached by the House (Samuel Chase, in 1805) and he was acquitted in the Senate. Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, once in 1953 and again in 1970), but they have not reached a vote in the House. No mechanism presently exists for removing a Justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service.[24]
Because Justices have indefinite tenure, it is impossible to know when a vacancy will next occur. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William H. Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 and the departures of Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (by death and retirement, respectively) in 2005 and 2006.
It is also theoretically possible for Congress to create additional vacancies by expanding the Court itself. The United States Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court, but in Article III it authorizes the Congress to fix the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six justices. As the country grew geographically, Congress increased the number of justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits. In 1807, the court was expanded to seven members, allowing Thomas Jefferson to appoint Thomas Todd as a new Justice. The expansion to nine members in 1837 allowed Andrew Jackson to appoint John Catron, and Martin Van Buren to appoint John McKinley; and the addition of a tenth seat in 1863 allowed Abraham Lincoln to name Stephen Johnson Field to the Court. However, at the request of Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, Congress passed the Judicial Circuits Act (1866) which provided that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court should have eventually reached seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. However, this law did not play out to completion, for in the Judiciary Act of 1869,[25] also known as the Circuit Judges Act, the number of justices was again set at nine, where it has since remained. The new seat created in 1869 was filled the following year by Ulysses S. Grant's appointment of Joseph P. Bradley - the last justice to be appointed to a newly created seat on the Court.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937, seeking to appoint an additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement; under Roosevelt's proposal, such appointments would continue until the Court reached a maximum size of 15 justices. Ostensibly, the proposal was made to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but the President's actual purpose was to pack the Court with justices who would support New Deal policies and legislation.[26] This plan, usually called the "Court-packing Plan", failed in Congress and proved a political disaster for Roosevelt.[27] The balance of the Court shifted with the retirement of Willis Van Devanter and the confirmation of Hugo Black in August 1937. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven Supreme Court justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.[28]
Despite the variability, nearly all Presidents so far have been able to appoint at least one Justice. The four exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his presidential term, although his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Johnson was denied the opportunity to appoint a Justice by a contraction in the size of the Supreme Court, which Congress may dictate. Jimmy Carter is the only President who completed at least one full term in office without making a nomination to the Court during his presidency.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See Black, Ryan C.; Owens, Ryan J. "Courting the President: How Circuit Court Judges Alter Their Behavior for Promotion to the Supreme Court". American Journal of Political Science. 60 (1): 30–43. doi:10.1111/ajps.12132.
Jump up ^ Todd S., Purdum (July 5, 2005). "Presidents, Picking Justices, Can Have Backfires". Courts in Transition: Nominees and History. New York Times. p. A4. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Tom Curry (Nov 5, 2005). "A guide to the Supreme Court nomination (quote:) "...1939, when he went before the Judiciary Committee, nominee Felix Frankfurter told senators..."". MSNBC.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b STEPHEN L. CARTER (May 9, 2009). "Let the Nominee Stay Home (quote:) "...The first was John Marshall Harlan in 1955, who declined invitations to discuss either specific cases or judicial philosophy as 'a matter of propriety'..."". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ "United States Senate. "Nominations"".
Jump up ^ Jim Brunner (24 March 2017). "Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 9 April 2017. In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans’ refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama’s nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist — and went on to lambaste President Trump’s conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she’s "deeply troubled" by Gorsuch’s "extreme conservative perspective on women’s health," citing his "inability" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the "Hobby Lobby" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.
Jump up ^ McCaskill, Claire (31 March 2017). "Gorsuch:Good for corporations, bad for working people". Retrieved 9 April 2017. I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn’t. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist - for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination.
Jump up ^ Schallhorn, Kaitlyn (23 March 2017). "Schumer: Democrats will filibuster SCOTUS nominee Neil Gorsuch". The Blaze. Retrieved 7 April 2017. Schumer added that Gorsuch’s record shows he has a "deep-seated conservative ideology" and "groomed by the Federalist Society," a conservative nonprofit legal organization.
Jump up ^ Matt Flegenheimer (6 April 2017). "Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch". New York Times. After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump’s nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789". United States Senate. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
Jump up ^ McMillion, Barry J. (19 October 2015). "Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. "The passionate intensity of the confirmation process". Jurist. Archived from the original on 17 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
Jump up ^ George F. Will (May 27, 2009). "Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice". Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ NEIL A. LEWIS (June 27, 1993). "Balanced Jurist at Home in the Middle". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ Steve Padilla (July 15, 2009). "Sotomayor hearings: The grilling of Supreme Court nominees is a relatively new invention (quote:) "Harlan Stone became the first Supreme Court nominee to appear and testify before the Judiciary Committee in 1925" ALSO "Every nominee to the high court since President Eisenhower's 1955 nomination of John Harlan has testified before the committee."". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "COURT IN TRANSITION; Republicans Speak of Respect of Roberts's Peers, and Democrats Issue Warnings -- their sources: Courts and Congress by Judge Robert A. Katzmann; Senate transcripts". New York Times. September 16, 2005. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ Rutkus, Supreme Court Nominations, p. 57
Jump up ^ 5 U.S.C. § 2902.
Jump up ^ See 28 U.S.C. § 4.
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Louis (2001-09-05). "Recess Appointments of Federal Judges" (PDF). CRSN Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. RL31112: 16–18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-06. Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court’s business.
Jump up ^ Democrats supported the resolution 48-4, and Republicans opposed it 33-0.
Jump up ^ Denis Steven Rutkus & Maureen Bearden, Supreme Court Nominations, 1789-2009: Actions by the Senate, the Judiciary Committee, and the President, Cong. Research Serv. (May 13, 2009).
Jump up ^ Appel, Jacob M. (2009-08-22). "Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ 16 Stat. 44
Jump up ^ Mintz, S. (2007). "The New Deal in Decline". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on 2008-05-05. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
Jump up ^ Hodak, George (2007). "February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan". ABAjournal.com. American Bar Association. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Justices, Number of", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press 1992, ISBN 0-19-505835-6
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text:
Everybody Dance (Chic song)
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"Everybody Dance"
Single by Chic
from the album Chic
B-side
"You Can Get By"
Released
April 1978
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
1977
Genre
Disco
Length
6:41 (LP version)
3:30 (7" edit)
8:25 (12" mix)
Label
Atlantic
Songwriter(s)
Bernard Edwards
Nile Rodgers
Producer(s)
Bernard Edwards
Nile Rodgers
Chic singles chronology
"Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)"
(1977) "Everybody Dance"
(1978) "Le Freak"
(1978)
"Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)"
(1977) "Everybody Dance"
(1978) "Le Freak"
(1978)
"Everybody Dance" is a song written and produced by American musicians Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers for their band Chic. The disco song, which features Norma Jean Wright on lead vocals and Luther Vandross on background vocals, was released as the second single from the band's self-titled debut studio album Chic (1977) in 1978. According to Nile Rodgers, it was the first song specifically written for Chic, and, due to its historical status and popularity, is usually played as the opening song of the band's live set. It was later heavily sampled by British pop group Steps on their UK number 1 "Stomp" and by the Manic Street Preachers on their single "(It's Not War) Just the End of Love".
The song has featured in films such as The Last Days of Disco (1998) and Summer of Sam (1999) and is also featured in the Grand Theft Auto IV expansion pack The Ballad of Gay Tony on the radio station K109.
Contents
[hide]
1 Release
2 Chart performance
3 Track listing and formats
4 Charts
4.1 Weekly charts
5 Cover versions
6 External links
7 Chart performance
8 Track listing and formats
9 Charts
10 External links
Release[edit]
Unlike most Chic singles, its 12" version was not included on a regular album, nor was it widely available upon original release, with the 12" format being issued only as a promo. The extended 12" version has, however, subsequently been issued on numerous compilations. Also unlike most Chic singles, the b-side "You Can Get By" was edited down from the original album track; almost all future Chic b-sides would be presented in their full-length versions.
Chart performance[edit]
"Everybody Dance" became another hit for the band in the United States, topping the Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart in 1977, and peaking at number 38 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 12 on the Billboards Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in 1978.
Track listing and formats[edit]
Atlantic 7" 3469, 1978
A. "Everybody Dance" (7" Edit) - 3:30
B. "You Can Get By" (7" Edit) - 3:59
Atlantic promo 12" DSKO 109, 1978
A. "Everybody Dance" (12" Mix) - 8:25
B. "You Can Get By" - 5:36
Atlantic 12" DK 4621, 1978 / Atlantic Oldies promo 12" DSKO 179, 1979
A. "Everybody Dance" (12" Mix) - 8:25
B. "Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)" - 8:21
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1977–78)
Peak
position
Canada Top Singles (RPM) 45
UK Singles (Official Charts Company) 9
US Billboard Hot 100 38
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard) 12
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard) 1
Cover versions[edit]
1990s
In 1993, RuPaul recorded a version of the song for his debut album Supermodel of the World.
In 1993, British dance group Evolution scored a UK Top 20 hit with a house cover of the track, released on Deconstruction Records. The extended version was appropriately titled 'Chic Inspirational Mix'.
2000s
In 2007, Canadian singer Deborah Cox reinterpreted the track as "Everybody Dance (Clap Your Hands)", incorporating a sample of the original Chic vocals in the mix. The track briefly hit the US Hot Dance Club Songs Chart, peaking at No.17.
2010s
In 2011, British singer Kimberly Walsh covered the song for Horrid Henry: The Movie.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
Village People by Village People (all cuts) Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number-one single (with "Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)" and "You Can Get By")
October 22, 1977 - November 10, 1977 Succeeded by
Once Upon a Time by Donna Summer (all cuts)
[show]
v
t
e
Chic
Bernard Edwards
Nile Rodgers
Tony Thompson
Nathaniel S. Hardy, Jr.
Omar Hakim
Robert Sabino
Sylver Logan Sharp
Luther Vandross
Norma Jean Wright
Studio albums
Chic (1977)
C'est Chic (1978)
Risqué (1979)
Real People (1980)
Take It Off (1981)
Soup For One (1982)
Tongue in Chic (1982)
Believer (1983)
Chic-ism (1992)
Live albums
Live at the Budokan (1999)
A Night in Amsterdam (2006)
Produced by Chic
Norma Jean Wright: Norma Jean (1978)
Sister Sledge: We Are Family (1979)
Sheila and B. Devotion: King of the World (1980)
Sister Sledge: Love Somebody Today (1980)
Diana Ross: diana (1980)
Debbie Harry: KooKoo (1981)
Johnny Mathis: I Love My Lady (1981, unreleased)
Main compilations
Les Plus Grands Succès De Chic: Chic's Greatest Hits (1979)
Freak Out: The Greatest Hits of Chic and Sister Sledge (1988)
Megachic: Best of Chic (1990)
Dance, Dance, Dance: The Best of Chic (1991)
The Best of Chic, Volume 2 (1992)
Everybody Dance (1995)
Dance, Dance, Dance & Other Hits (1997)
The Very Best of Chic & Sister Sledge (1999)
The Very Best of Chic (2000)
Good Times: The Very Best of the Hits & the Remixes (Chic & Sister Sledge) (2005)
The Definitive Groove Collection (2006)
Up All Night (2013)
Notable singles
"Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)"
"Everybody Dance"
"Le Freak"
"I Want Your Love"
"Good Times"
"My Forbidden Lover"
"My Feet Keep Dancing"
"Rebels Are We"
"Real People"
"Stage Fright"
"Soup for One"
"Hangin'"
"Chic Mystique"
"I'll Be There"
Related articles
Discography
The Sugarhill Gang
"Rapper's Delight"
"Lady (Hear Me Tonight)"
Chart performance[edit]
"Everybody Dance" became another hit for the band in the United States, topping the Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart in 1977, and peaking at number 38 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 12 on the Billboards Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in 1978.
Track listing and formats[edit]
Atlantic 7" 3469, 1978
A. "Everybody Dance" (7" Edit) - 3:30
B. "You Can Get By" (7" Edit) - 3:59
Atlantic promo 12" DSKO 109, 1978
A. "Everybody Dance" (12" Mix) - 8:25
B. "You Can Get By" - 5:36
Atlantic 12" DK 4621, 1978 / Atlantic Oldies promo 12" DSKO 179, 1979
A. "Everybody Dance" (12" Mix) - 8:25
B. "Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)" - 8:21
Charts[edit]
Chart (1977–78)
Peak
position
UK Singles (Official Charts Company) 9
US Billboard Hot 100 38
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard) 12
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard) 1
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
Village People by Village People (all cuts) Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number-one single (with "Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)" and "You Can Get By")
October 22, 1977 - November 10, 1977 Succeeded by
Once Upon a Time by Donna Summer (all cuts)
[show]
v
t
e
Chic
Bernard Edwards
Nile Rodgers
Tony Thompson
Nathaniel S. Hardy, Jr.
Omar Hakim
Robert Sabino
Sylver Logan Sharp
Luther Vandross
Norma Jean Wright
Studio albums
Chic (1977)
C'est Chic (1978)
Risqué (1979)
Real People (1980)
Take It Off (1981)
Soup For One (1982)
Tongue in Chic (1982)
Believer (1983)
Chic-ism (1992)
Live albums
Live at the Budokan (1999)
A Night in Amsterdam (2006)
Produced by Chic
Norma Jean Wright: Norma Jean (1978)
Sister Sledge: We Are Family (1979)
Sheila and B. Devotion: King of the World (1980)
Sister Sledge: Love Somebody Today (1980)
Diana Ross: diana (1980)
Debbie Harry: KooKoo (1981)
Johnny Mathis: I Love My Lady (1981, unreleased)
Main compilations
Les Plus Grands Succès De Chic: Chic's Greatest Hits (1979)
Freak Out: The Greatest Hits of Chic and Sister Sledge (1988)
Megachic: Best of Chic (1990)
Dance, Dance, Dance: The Best of Chic (1991)
The Best of Chic, Volume 2 (1992)
Everybody Dance (1995)
Dance, Dance, Dance & Other Hits (1997)
The Very Best of Chic & Sister Sledge (1999)
The Very Best of Chic (2000)
Good Times: The Very Best of the Hits & the Remixes (Chic & Sister Sledge) (2005)
The Definitive Groove Collection (2006)
Up All Night (2013)
Notable singles
"Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)"
"Everybody Dance"
"Le Freak"
"I Want Your Love"
"Good Times"
"My Forbidden Lover"
"My Feet Keep Dancing"
"Rebels Are We"
"Real People"
"Stage Fright"
"Soup for One"
"Hangin'"
"Chic Mystique"
"I'll Be There"
Related articles
Discography
The Sugarhill Gang
"Rapper's Delight"
"Lady (Hear Me Tonight)"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Everybody_Dance_(Chic_song)&oldid=790353969"
Categories:
1978 singles
Chic (band) songs
Billboard Dance Club Songs number-one singles
Songs written by Bernard Edwards
Songs written by Nile Rodgers
Song recordings produced by Nile Rodgers
Song recordings produced by Bernard Edwards
1978 songs
Atlantic Records singles
Songs about dancing
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