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Skin flora
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Depiction of the human body and bacteria that predominate
The term skin flora (also commonly referred to as skin microbiome) refers to the microorganisms which reside on the skin; typically human skin.
Many of them are bacteria of which there are around 1000 species upon human skin from 19 phyla.[1][2] Most are found in the superficial layers of the epidermis and the upper parts of hair follicles.
Skin flora is usually non-pathogenic, and either commensal (are not harmful to their host) or mutualistic (offer a benefit). The benefits bacteria can offer include preventing transient pathogenic organisms from colonizing the skin surface, either by competing for nutrients, secreting chemicals against them, or stimulating the skin's immune system.[3] However, resident microbes can cause skin diseases and enter the blood system, creating life-threatening diseases, particularly in immunosuppressed people.[3]
A major non-human skin flora is Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a chytrid and non-hyphal zoosporic fungus that causes chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease thought to be responsible for the decline in amphibian populations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Species variety
1.1 Bacteria
1.2 Fungal
1.2.1 Umbilical microbiome
2 Relationship to host
3 Skin defenses
3.1 Antimicrobial peptides
3.2 Acidity
3.3 Immune system
4 Skin diseases
4.1 Acne vulgaris
4.2 Atopic Dermatitis
4.3 Psoriasis vulgaris
4.4 Rosacea
5 Clinical
5.1 Infected devices
6 Hygiene
6.1 Contagion
6.2 Removal
6.3 Damaged skin
7 Comparison with other flora
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Species variety[edit]
Bacteria[edit]
Scanning electron microscope image of Staphylococcus epidermidis one of roughly a thousand bacteria species present on human skin. Though usually not pathogenic, it can cause skin infections and even life-threatening illnesses in those that are immunocompromised.
The estimate of the number of species present on skin bacteria has been radically changed by the use of 16S ribosomal RNA to identify bacterial species present on skin samples direct from their genetic material. Previously such identification had depended upon microbiological culture upon which many varieties of bacteria did not grow and so were hidden to science.[1]
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus were thought from cultural based research to be dominant. However 16S ribosomal RNA research finds that while common, these species make up only 5% of skin bacteria.[4] However, skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for bacteria. Most come from four phyla: Actinobacteria (51.8%), Firmicutes (24.4%), Proteobacteria (16.5%), and Bacteroidetes (6.3%).
ecology of the 20 sites on the skin studied in the Human Microbiome Project
There are three main ecological areas: sebaceous, moist, and dry. Propionibacteria and Staphylococci species were the main species in sebaceous areas. In moist places on the body Corynebacteria together with Staphylococci dominate. In dry areas, there is a mixture of species but b-Proteobacteria and Flavobacteriales are dominant. Ecologically, sebaceous areas had greater species richness than moist and dry one. The areas with least similarity between people in species were the spaces between fingers, the spaces between toes, axillae, and umbilical cord stump. Most similarly were beside the nostril, nares (inside the nostril), and on the back.[1]
Frequency of the best studied skin microbes[3]
Organism
observations
Staphylococcus epidermidis Common, occasionally pathogenic
Staphylococcus aureus Infrequent, usually pathogenic
Staphylococcus warneri Infrequent, occasionally pathogenic
Streptococcus pyogenes Infrequent, usually pathogenic
Streptococcus mitis Frequent, occasionally pathogenic
Propionibacterium acnes Frequent, occasionally pathogenic
Corynebacterium spp. Frequent, occasionally pathogenic
Acinetobacter johnsonii Frequent, occasionally pathogenic
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infrequent, occasionally pathogenic
Fungal[edit]
A study of the area between toes in 100 young adults found 14 different genera of fungi. These include yeasts such as Candida albicans, Rhodotorula rubra, Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum, dermatophytes (skin living fungi) such as Microsporum gypseum, and Trichophyton rubrum and nondermatophyte fungi (opportunistic fungi that can live in skin) such as Rhizopus stolonifer, Trichosporon cutaneum, Fusarium, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Curvularia, Alternaria alternata, Paecilomyces, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium species.[5]
A study by the National Human Genome Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, researched the DNA of human skin fungi at 14 different locations on the body. These were the ear canal, between the eyebrows, the back of the head, behind the ear, the heel, toenails, between the toes, forearm, back, groin, nostrils, chest, palm, and the crook of the elbow. The study showed a large fungal diversity across the body, the richest habitat being the heel, which hosts about 80 species of fungi. By way of contrast, there are some 60 species in toenail clippings and 40 between the toes. Other rich areas are the palm, forearm and inside the elbow, with from 18 to 32 species. The head and the trunk hosted between 2 and 10 each.[6]
Umbilical microbiome[edit]
The umbilicus, or navel, is an area of the body that is rarely exposed to UV light, soaps, or bodily secretions[7] (the navel does not produce any secretions or oils) [8] and because it is an almost undisturbed community of bacteria [9] it is an excellent part of the skin microbiome to study.[10] The navel, or umbilicus is a moist microbiome of the body [11] (with high humidity and temperatures),[12] that contains a large amount of bacteria,[13] especially bacteria that favors moist conditions such as Corynebacterium[14] and Staphylococcus.[12]
The Belly Button Biodiversity Project began at North Carolina State University in early 2011 with two initial groups of 35 and 25 volunteers.[9] Volunteers were given sterile cotton swabs and were asked to insert the cotton swabs into their navels, to turn the cotton swab around three times and then return the cotton swab to the researchers in a vial [15] that contained a 0.5 ml 10% phosphate saline buffer.[9] Researchers at North Carolina State University, led by Jiri Hulcr,[16] then grew the samples in a culture until the bacterial colonies were large enough to be photographed and then these pictures were posted on the Belly Button Biodiversity Project’s website (volunteers were given sample numbers so that they could view their own samples online).[15] These samples then were analyzed using 16S rDNA libraries so that strains that did not grow well in cultures could be identified.[9]
The researchers at North Carolina State University discovered that while it was difficult to predict every strain of bacteria in the microbiome of the navel that they could predict which strains would be prevalent and which strains of bacteria would be quite rare in the microbiome.[9] It was found that the navel microbiomes only contained a few prevalent types of bacteria (Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Actinobacteria, Clostridiales, and Bacilli) and many different types of rare bacteria.[9] Other types of rare organisms were discovered inside the navels of the volunteers including three types of Archaea (an organism that usually lives in only extreme environments) and two of the three types of Archaea were found in one volunteer who claimed not to have bathed or showered for many years.[9]
Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium were among the most common types of bacteria found in the navels of this project’s volunteers and these types of bacteria have been found to be the most common types of bacteria found on the human skin in larger studies of the skin microbiome [17] (of which the Belly Button Biodiversity Project is a part).[9] (In these larger studies it has been found that females generally have more Staphylococcus living in their skin microbiomes [17] (usually Staphylococcus epidermidis) [15] and that men have more Corynebacterium living in their skin microbiomes.) [17]
According to the Belly Button Biodiversity Project [9] at North Carolina State University, there are two types of microorganisms found in the navel and surrounding areas. Transient bacteria (bacteria that does not reproduce) [11] forms the majority of the organisms found in the navel, and an estimated 1400 various strains were found in 95% of participants of the study.[18]
The Belly Button Biodiversity Project is ongoing and has now taken swabs from over 500 people.[9] The project was designed with the aim of countering that misconception that bacteria are always harmful to humans [19] and that humans are at war with bacteria.[20] In actuality, most strains of bacteria are harmless [12] if not beneficial for the human body.[21] Another of the project's goals is to foster public interest in microbiology.[16] Working in concert with the Human Microbiome Project, the Belly Button Biodiversity Project also studies the connections between human microbiomes and the factors of age, sex, ethnicity, location[16] and overall health.[22]
Relationship to host[edit]
Skin microflora can be commensals, mutualistic or pathogens. Often they can be all three depending upon the strength of the person's immune system.[3] Research upon the immune system in the gut and lungs has shown that microflora aids immunity development: however such research has only started upon whether this is the case with the skin.[3] Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an example of a mutualistic bacterium that can turn into a pathogen and cause disease: if it gains entry into the blood system it can result in infections in bone, joint, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems. It can also cause dermatitis. However, Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces antimicrobial substances such as pseudomonic acid (that are exploited commercially such as Mupirocin). This works against staphylococcal and streptococcal infections. Pseudomonas aeruginosa also produces substances that inhibit the growth of fungus species such as Candida krusei, Candida albicans, Torulopsis glabrata, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus fumigatus.[23] It can also inhibit the growth of Helicobacter pylori.[24] So important is its antimicrobial actions that it has been noted that "removing P. aeruginosa from the skin, through use of oral or topical antibiotics, may inversely allow for aberrant yeast colonization and infection."[3]
Another aspect of bacteria is the generation of body odor. Sweat is odorless however several bacteria may consume it and create byproducts which may be considered putrid by man (as in contrast to flies, for example, that may find them attractive/appealing). Several examples are:
Propionibacteria in adolescent and adult sebaceous glands can turn its amino acids into propionic acid.
Staphylococcus epidermidis creates body odor by breaking sweat into isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid).[25]
Bacillus subtilis creates strong foot odor.[26]
Skin defenses[edit]
Antimicrobial peptides[edit]
The skin creates antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidins that control the proliferation of skin microbes. Cathelicidins not only reduce microbe numbers directly but also cause the secretion of cytokine release which induces inflammation, angiogenesis, and reepithelialization. Conditions such as atopic dermatitis have been linked to the suppression in cathelicidin production. In rosacea abnormal processing of cathelicidin cause inflammation. Psoriasis has been linked to self-DNA created from cathelicidin peptides that causes autoinflammation. A major factor controlling cathelicidin is vitamin D3.[27]
Acidity[edit]
The superficial layers of the skin are naturally acidic (pH 4-4.5) due to lactic acid in sweat and produced by skin bacteria.[28] At this pH mutualistic flora such as Staphylococci, Micrococci, Corynebacterium and Propionibacteria grow but not transient bacteria such as Gram negative bacteria like Escherichia and Pseudomonas or Gram positive ones such as Staphylococcus aureus.[28] Another factor affecting the growth of pathological bacteria is that the antimicrobial substances secreted by the skin are enhanced in acidic conditions.[28] In alkaline conditions, bacteria cease to be attached to the skin and are more readily shed. It has been observed that the skin also swells under alkaline conditions and opens up allowing move to the surface.[28]
Immune system[edit]
If activated, the immune system in the skin produces cell-mediated immunity against microbes such as dermatophytes (skin fungi).[29] One reaction is to increase stratum corneum turnover and so shed the fungus from the skin surface. Skin fungi such as Trichophyton rubrum have evolved to create substances that limit the immune response to them.[29] The shedding of skin is a general means to control the buildup of flora upon the skin surface.
Skin diseases[edit]
Microorganisms play a role in noninfectious skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis,[30] rosacea, psoriasis,[31] and acne[32] Damaged skin can cause nonpathogenic bacteria to become pathogenic.[33] The skin microbiome is an active field where we continue to find new relationships between our commensal skin microbiota and skin diseases.
Acne vulgaris[edit]
Acne vulgaris is a common skin condition characterised by excessive sebum production by the pilosebaceous unit and inflammation of the skin.[34] Affected areas are typically colonised by Propionibacterium acnes; a member of the commensal microbiota even in those without acne.[35] High populations of P. acnes are linked to acne vulgaris although only certain strains are strongly associated with acne while others with healthy skin. The relative population of P. acnes is similar between those with acne and those without.[34][35]
Current treatment includes topical and systemic antibacterial drugs which result in decreased P. acnes colonisation and/or activity.[36] Potential probiotic treatment includes the use of Staphylococcus epidermidis to inhibit P. acnes growth. S. epidermidis produces succinic acid which has been shown to inhibit P. acnes growth.[37] Lactobacillus plantarum has also been shown to act as an anti-inflammatory and improve antimicrobial properties of the skin when applied topically. It was also shown to be effective in reducing acne lesion size.[38]
Atopic Dermatitis[edit]
Individuals with atopic dermatitis have shown an increase in populations of Staphylococcus aureus in both lesional and nonlesional skin.[35] Atopic dermatitis flares are associated with low bacterial diversity due to colonisation by S. aureus and following standard treatment, bacterial diversity has been seen to increase.
Current treatments include combinations of topical or systemic antibiotics, corticosteroids, and diluted bleach baths.[39] Potential probiotic treatments include using the commensal skin bacteria, S. epidermidis, to inhibit S. aureus growth. During atopic dermatitis flares, population levels of S. epidermidis has been shown to increase as an attempt to control S. aureus populations.[35][39]
Low gut microbial diversity in babies has been associated with an increased risk of atopic dermatitis.[40] Infants with atopic eczema have low levels of Bacteroides and high levels of Firmicutes. Bacteroides have anti-inflammatory properties which are essential against dermatitis.[40] (See gut microbiota)
Psoriasis vulgaris[edit]
Psoriasis vulgaris typically affects drier skin sites such as elbows and knees. Dry areas of the skin tend to have high microbial diversity and fewer populations than sebaceous sites.[36] A study using swab sampling techniques show areas in rich in Firmicutes (mainly Streptococcus and Staphylococcus) and Actinobacteria (mainly Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium) are associated with psoriasis.[41] While another study using biopsies associate increased levels of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria with healthy skin.[42] However most studies show that individuals affected by psoriasis have a lower microbial diversity in the affected areas.
Treatments for psoriasis include topical agents, phototherapy, and systemic agents.[43] Current research on the skin microbiota's role in psoriasis is inconsistent therefore there are no potential probiotic treatments.
Rosacea[edit]
Rosacea is typically connected to sebaceous sites of the skin. The skin mite Demodex folliculorum produce lipases that allow them to use sebum as a source of food therefore they have a high affinity for sebaceous skin sites. Although it is a part of the commensal skin microbiota, patients affected with rosacea show an increase in D. folliculorum compared to healthy individuals, suggesting pathogenicity.[44]
Bacillus oleronius, a Demodex associated microbe, is not typically found in the commensal skin microbiota but initiates inflammatory pathways whose starting mechanism is similar to rosacea patients.[35] Populations of S. epidermidis have also been isolated from pustules of rosacea patients. However it is possible that they were moved by Demodex to areas that favour growth as Demodex has shown to transport bacteria around the face.[45]
Current treatments include topical and oral antibiotics and laser therapy.[46] As current research has yet to show a clear mechanism for Demodex influence in rosacea, there are no potential probiotic treatments.
Clinical[edit]
Infected devices[edit]
Skin microbes are a potential source of infected medical devices such as catheters.[47]
Hygiene[edit]
It is important to note that the human skin is host to numerous bacterial and fungal species, some of which are known to be harmful, some known to be beneficial and the vast majority unresearched. The use of bactericidal and fungicidal soaps will inevitably lead to bacterial and fungal populations which are resistant to the chemicals employed. (see Drug resistance)
Contagion[edit]
Skin flora do not readily pass between people: 30 seconds of moderate friction and dry hand contact results in a transfer of only 0.07% of natural hand flora from naked with a greater percentage from gloves.[48]
Removal[edit]
The most effective (60 to 80% reduction) antimicrobial washing is with ethanol, isopropanol, and n-propanol. Viruses are most affected by high (95%) concentrations of ethanol, while bacteria are more affected by n-propanol.[49]
Unmedicated soaps are not very effective as illustrated by the following data. Health care workers washed their hands once in nonmedicated liquid soap for 30 seconds. The students/technicians for 20 times.[50]
Skin flora upon two hospital groups in colony-forming units per mL.
group and hand skin condition
unwashed
washed
Health care workers healthy 3.47 3.15
Health care workers damaged 3.33 3.29
Students/technicians healthy 4.39 3.54
Students/technicians damaged 4.58 4.43
An important use of hand washing is to prevent the transmission of antibiotic resistant skin flora that cause hospital-acquired infections such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. While such flora have become antibiotic resistant due to antibiotics there is no evidence that recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms when used in hand washing.[51] However, many strains of organisms are resistant to some of the substances used in antibacterial soaps such as Triclosan.[51]
One survey of bar soaps in dentist clinics found they all had their own flora and on average from two to five different genera of microorganisms with those used most more likely to have more species varieties.[52] Another survey of bar soaps in public toilets found even more flora.[53] Another study found that very dry soaps are not infected while all are that rest in pools of water.[54] However, research upon soap that was specially infected found that soap flora do not transmit to the hands.[55]
Damaged skin[edit]
Washing skin repeatedly can damage the protective external layer and cause transepidermal loss of water. This can be seen in roughness characterized by scaling and dryness, itchiness, dermatitis provoked by microorganisms and allergens penetrating the corneal layer and redness. Wearing gloves can cause further problems since it produces a humid environment favoring the growth of microbes and also contains irritants such as latex and talcum powder.[56]
Hand washing can damage skin because the stratum corneum top layer of skin consists of 15 to 20 layers of keratin disks, corneocytes, each of which is each surrounded by a thin film of skin lipids which can be removed by alcohols and detergents.[57]
Damaged skin defined by extensive cracking of skin surface, widespread reddening or occasional bleeding has also been found to be more frequently colonized by Staphylococcus hominis and these were more likely to be methicillin resistant.[56] Though not related to greater antibiotic resistance, damaged skin was also more like to be colonized by Staphylococcus aureus, gram-negative bacteria, Enterococci and Candida.[56]
Comparison with other flora[edit]
The skin flora is different from that of the gut which is predominantly Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes.[58] There is also low level of variation between people that is not found in gut studies.[4] Both gut and skin flora however lack the diversity found in soil flora.[1]
See also[edit]
Bacterial disease
Body odor
Gut flora
Human flora
Human microbiome project
Medical microbiology
Microbial ecology
Microflora
Oral microbiology
Skin
Vaginal flora
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Jarmuda, S; O'Reilly, N; Zaba, R; Jakubowicz, O; Szkaradkiewicz, A; Kavanagh, K (2012). "Potential role of Demodex mites and bacteria in the induction of rosacea". J Med Microbiol. 61 (Pt 11): 1504–10. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.048090-0. PMID 22933353.
Jump up ^ Cohen, AF; Tiemstra, JD (2002). "Diagnosis and treatment of rosacea". J Am Board Fam Pract. 15 (3): 214–7. PMID 12038728.
Jump up ^ Martín-Rabadán P, Gijón P, Alcalá L, Rodríguez-Créixems M, Alvarado N, Bouza E (2008). "Propionibacterium acnes is a common colonizer of intravascular catheters". J Infect. 56 (4): 257–60. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2008.01.012. PMID 18336916.
Jump up ^ Lingaas E, Fagernes M (2009). "Development of a method to measure bacterial transfer from hands". J Hosp Infect. 72 (1): 43–9. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2009.01.022. PMID 19282052.
Jump up ^ Kampf G, Kramer A (2004). "Epidemiologic background of hand hygiene and evaluation of the most important agents for scrubs and rubs". Clin Microbiol Rev. 17 (4): 863–93. doi:10.1128/CMR.17.4.863-893.2004. PMC 523567  . PMID 15489352.
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^ Jump up to: a b Weber DJ, Rutala WA (2006). "Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance?". Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 27 (10): 1107–19. doi:10.1086/507964. PMID 17006819.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Larson EL, Hughes CA, Pyrek JD, Sparks SM, Cagatay EU, Bartkus JM (1998). "Changes in bacterial flora associated with skin damage on hands of health care personnel". Am J Infect Control. 26 (5): 513–21. doi:10.1016/s0196-6553(98)70025-2. PMID 9795681.
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Jump up ^ Eckburg PB, Bik EM, Bernstein CN, Purdom E, Dethlefsen L, Sargent M, Gill SR, Nelson KE, Relman DA (2005). "Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora". Science. 308 (5728): 1635–8. doi:10.1126/science.1110591. PMC 1395357  . PMID 15831718.
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text:
Fibrin
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Micrograph showing fibrin (dark pink amorphous material) in a blocked vein surrounded by extravasated red blood cells (right of image). An artery (left of image) and the amnion (far left of image) is also seen. Placenta in a case of fetal thrombotic vasculopathy. H&E stain.
Fibrin (also called Factor Ia) is a fibrous, non-globular protein involved in the clotting of blood. It is formed by the action of the protease thrombin on fibrinogen which causes it to polymerize. The polymerized fibrin together with platelets forms a hemostatic plug or clot over a wound site.
When the lining of a blood vessel is broken, platelets are attracted forming a platelet plug. These platelets have thrombin receptors on their surfaces that bind serum thrombin molecules[1] which in turn convert soluble fibrinogen in the serum into fibrin at the wound site. Fibrin forms long strands of tough insoluble protein that are bound to the platelets. Factor XIII completes the cross-linking of fibrin so that it hardens and contracts. The cross-linked fibrin forms a mesh atop the platelet plug that completes the clot.
Contents
[hide]
1 Role in disease
2 Physiology
3 Structure
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Role in disease[edit]
From Fibrinogen to Fibrin with the help of Thrombin and Factor VIII.
Excessive generation of fibrin due to activation of the coagulation cascade leads to thrombosis, the blockage of a vessel by an agglutination of red blood cells, platelets, polymerized fibrin and other components. Ineffective generation or premature lysis of fibrin increases the likelihood of a hemorrhage.
Dysfunction or disease of the liver can lead to a decrease in the production of fibrin's inactive precursor, fibrinogen, or to the production of abnormal fibrinogen molecules with reduced activity (dysfibrinogenaemia). Hereditary abnormalities of fibrinogen (the gene is carried on chromosome 4) are both quantitative and qualitative in nature and include afibrinogenaemia, hypofibrinogenaemia, dysfibrinogenaemia, and hypodysfibrinogenaemia.
Reduced, absent, or dysfunctional fibrin is likely to render patients as hemophiliacs.
Physiology[edit]
Cross-linking by thrombin and stabilization by activated factor XIII
Fibrin from different animal sources is generally glycosylated with complex type biantennary asparagine linked glycans. Variety is found in the degree of core fucosylation and in the type of sialic acid and galactose linkage.[2]
Structure[edit]
Crystal structure of the double-d fragment from human fibrin
The image at the left is a crystal structure of the double-d fragment from human fibrin with two bound ligands. The experimental method used to obtain the image was X-ray diffraction, and it has a resolution of 2.30 Å. The structure is mainly made up of single alpha helices shown in red and beta sheets shown in yellow. The two blue structures are the bound ligands. The chemical structures of the ligands are Ca2+ ion, alpha-D-mannose (C6H12O6), and D-glucosamine (C6H13NO5).
See also[edit]
D-dimer
Fibrin glue
Fibrin scaffold
Fibrinolysis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kehrel BE (2003). "[Blood platelets: biochemistry and physiology]". Hamostaseologie (in German). 23 (4): 149–58. doi:10.1267/Hamo03040149. PMID 14603379.
Jump up ^ Pabst M, Bondili JS, Stadlmann J, Mach L, Altmann F (July 2007). "Mass + retention time = structure: a strategy for the analysis of N-glycans by carbon LC-ESI-MS and its application to fibrin N-glycans". Anal. Chem. 79 (13): 5051–7. doi:10.1021/ac070363i. PMID 17539604.
External links[edit]
TGW1916.net, Defibrinated blood harvested from sheep (video)
Fibrin: Molecule of the Month, by David Goodsell, RCSB Protein Data Bank
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Proteins involved in coagulation
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NDL: 00570673
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Social Security number
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A Social Security card issued by the Railroad Retirement Board in 1943 to a now deceased person.
In the United States, a Social Security number (SSN) is a nine-digit number issued to U.S. citizens, permanent residents, and temporary (working) residents under section 205(c)(2) of the Social Security Act, codified as 42 U.S.C. § 405(c)(2). The number is issued to an individual by the Social Security Administration, an independent agency of the United States government. Although its primary purpose is to track individuals for Social Security purposes,[1] the Social Security number has become a de facto national identification number for taxation and other purposes.[2]
A Social Security number may be obtained by applying on Form SS-5, Application for A Social Security Number Card.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Purpose and use
2.1 Non-universal status
2.2 Use required for federal tax purposes
3 Types of Social Security cards
4 Identity theft
5 Replacement numbers
6 Structure
6.1 Historical structure
6.2 Valid SSNs
6.3 Exhaustion and re-use
7 SSNs used in advertising
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Social Security numbers were first issued by the Social Security Administration in November 1935 as part of the New Deal Social Security program. Within three months, 25 million numbers were issued.[4]
On November 24, 1936, 1,074 of the nation's 45,000 post offices were designated "typing centers" to type up Social Security cards that were then sent to Washington, D.C. On December 1, 1936, as part of the publicity campaign for the new program, Joseph L. Fay of the Social Security Administration selected a record from the top of the first stack of 1,000 records and announced that the first Social Security number in history was assigned to John David Sweeney, Jr., of New Rochelle, New York.[5][6]
Before 1986, people often did not obtain a Social Security number until the age of about 14,[7] since the numbers were used for income tracking purposes, and those under that age seldom had substantial income.[8] The Tax Reform Act of 1986 required parents to list Social Security numbers for each dependent over the age of 5 for whom the parent wanted to claim a tax deduction.[9] Before this act, parents claiming tax deductions were simply trusted not to lie about the number of children they supported. During the first year of the Tax Reform Act, this anti-fraud change resulted in seven million fewer minor dependents being claimed. The disappearance of these dependents is believed to have involved either children who never existed or tax deductions improperly claimed by non-custodial parents.[10] In 1988, the threshold was lowered to 2 years old, and in 1990, the threshold was lowered yet again to 1 year old.[11] Today, an SSN is required regardless of the child's age to receive an exemption.[citation needed] Since then, parents have often applied for Social Security numbers for their children soon after birth; today, it can be done on the application for a birth certificate.[12]
Purpose and use[edit]
The original purpose of this number was to track individuals' accounts within the Social Security program. It has since come to be used as an identifier for individuals within the United States, although rare errors occur where duplicates do exist. As numbers are now assigned by the central issuing office of the SSA, it is unlikely that duplication will ever occur again. A few duplications did occur when prenumbered cards were sent out to regional SSA offices and (originally) Post Offices.
Employee, patient, student, and credit records are sometimes indexed by Social Security number.
The U.S. Armed Forces has used the Social Security number as an identification number for Army and Air Force personnel since July 1, 1969, the Navy and Marine Corps for their personnel since January 1, 1972, and the Coast Guard for their personnel since October 1, 1974.[13] Previously, the United States military used a much more complicated system of service numbers that varied by service.
Beginning in June 2011, DOD began removing the Social Security number from military identification cards. It is replaced by a unique DOD identification number, formerly known as the EDIPI.[14]
Non-universal status[edit]
An old Social Security card with the "not for identification" message
Social Security was originally a universal tax, but when Medicare was passed in 1965, objecting religious groups in existence prior to 1951 were allowed to opt out of the system.[15] Because of this, not every American is part of the Social Security program, and not everyone has a number. However, a social security number is required for parents to claim their children as dependents for federal income tax purposes,[12] and the Internal Revenue Service requires all corporations to obtain SSNs (or alternative identifying numbers) from their employees, as described below. The Old Order Amish have fought to prevent universal Social Security by overturning rules such as a requirement to provide a Social Security number for a hunting license.[16]
Social Security cards printed from January 1946 until January 1972 expressly stated that people should not use the number and card for identification.[17] Since nearly everyone in the United States now has an SSN, it became convenient to use it anyway and the message was removed.[18]
Since then, Social Security numbers have become de facto national identification numbers.[2] Although some people do not have an SSN assigned to them, it is becoming increasingly difficult to engage in legitimate financial activities such as applying for a loan or a bank account without one.[19] While the government cannot require an individual to disclose their SSN without a legal basis, companies may refuse to provide service to an individual who does not provide an SSN.[20][21] The card on which an SSN is issued is still not suitable for primary identification as it has no photograph, no physical description and no birth date. All it does is confirm that a particular number has been issued to a particular name. Instead, a driver's license or state ID card is used as an identification for adults.
Use required for federal tax purposes[edit]
Internal Revenue Code section 6109(d) provides: "The social security account number issued to an individual for purposes of section 205(c)(2)(A) of the Social Security Act [codified as 42 U.S.C. § 405(c)(2)(A)] shall, except as shall otherwise be specified under regulations of the Secretary [of the Treasury or his delegate], be used as the identifying number for such individual for purposes of this title [the Internal Revenue Code, title 26 of the United States Code]."[22]
The Internal Revenue Code also provides, when required by regulations prescribed by the Secretary [of the Treasury or his delegate]:
Inclusion in returns: Any person required under the authority of this title to make a return, statement, or other document shall include in such return, statement, or other document such identifying number as may be prescribed for securing proper identification of such person.
Furnishing number to other persons: Any person with respect to whom a return, statement, or other document is required under the authority of this title to be made by another person or whose identifying number is required to be shown on a return of another person shall furnish to such other person such identifying number as may be prescribed for securing his proper identification.[23]
According to U.S. Treasury regulations, any person who, after October 31, 1962, works as an employee for wages subject to Social Security taxes, Medicare taxes, or U.S. federal income tax withholdings is required to apply for "an account number" using "Form SS-5."[24]
A taxpayer who is not eligible to have a Social Security number must obtain an alternative Taxpayer Identification Number.
Types of Social Security cards[edit]
Three different types of Social Security cards are issued. The most common type contains the cardholder's name and number. Such cards are issued to U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents. There are also two restricted types of Social Security cards:
One reads "not valid for employment." Such cards cannot be used as proof of work authorization, and are not acceptable as a List C document on the I-9 form.
The other reads "valid for work only with DHS authorization", or the older, "valid for work only with INS authorization." These cards are issued to people who have temporary work authorization in the U.S. They can satisfy the I-9 requirement, if they are accompanied by a work authorization card.
In 2004 Congress passed The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act; parts of which mandated that the Social Security Administration redesign the Social Security Number (SSN) Card to prevent forgery. From April 2006 through August 2007, Social Security Administration (SSA) and Government Printing Office (GPO) employees were assigned to redesign the Social Security Number Card to the specifications of the Interagency Task Force created by the Commissioner of Social Security in consultation with the Secretary of Homeland Security.
The new SSN card design utilizes both covert and overt security features created by the SSA and GPO design teams.
Identity theft[edit]
Dog tag from World War II (possibly Army-Air Corps), labeled "P" for Protestant.
Many citizens and privacy advocates are concerned about the disclosure and processing of Social Security numbers. Furthermore, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University have demonstrated an algorithm that uses publicly available personal information to reconstruct a given SSN.[25]
The SSN is frequently used by those involved in identity theft, since it is interconnected with many other forms of identification, and because people asking for it treat it as an authenticator. Financial institutions generally require an SSN to set up bank accounts, credit cards, and loans—partly because they assume that no one except the person it was issued to knows it.
Exacerbating the problem of using the Social Security number as an identifier is the fact that the Social Security card contains no biometric identifiers of any sort, making it essentially impossible to tell whether a person using a certain SSN truly belongs to someone without relying on other documentation (which may itself have been falsely procured through use of the fraudulent SSN). Congress has proposed federal laws that restrict the use of SSNs for identification and bans their use for a number of commercial purposes—e.g., rental applications.[26]
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) offers alternatives to SSNs in some places where providing untrusted parties with identification numbers is essential. Tax return preparers must obtain and use a Preparer Tax Identification Number (PTIN) to include on their client's tax returns (as part of signature requirements). Day care services have tax benefits, and even a sole proprietor should give parents an EIN (employer identification number) to use on their tax return.
The Social Security Administration has suggested that, if asked to provide his or her Social Security number, a citizen should ask which law requires its use.[27] In accordance with §7213 of the 9/11 Commission Implementation Act of 2004 and 20 C.F.R. 422.103(e)(2), the number of replacement Social Security cards per person is generally limited to three per calendar year and ten in a lifetime.[27]
Identity confusion has also occurred because of the use of local Social Security numbers by the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau, whose numbers overlap with those of residents of New Hampshire and Maine.[28]
Replacement numbers[edit]
A person can request a new Social Security number, but only under certain conditions;[29]
Where sequential numbers assigned to members of the same family are causing problems.
In the event of duplicates having been issued.
In cases where the person has been a victim of domestic violence or harassment, and there is a clear need to change their number for their personal safety.[30]
When a person has been a victim of identity theft, and their Social Security number continues to be problematic.
Where a person has a demonstrable religious objection to a number (such as certain Christians being averse to the number 666).
For all of these conditions, credible third-party evidence such as a restraining order or police report, is required.
Structure[edit]
The Social Security number is a nine-digit number in the format "AAA-GG-SSSS".[31] The number is divided into three parts: the first three digits, known as the area number because they were formerly assigned by geographical region; the middle two digits, known as the group number; and the final four digits, known as the serial number.
On June 25, 2011, the SSA changed the SSN assignment process to "SSN randomization".[32] SSN randomization affected the SSN assignment process in the following ways:
It eliminated the geographical significance of the first three digits of the SSN, referred to as the area number, by no longer allocating specific numbers by state for assignment to individuals.
It eliminated the significance of the highest group number assigned for each area number, and, as a result, the High Group List is frozen in time and can be used for validation of only those SSNs issued prior to the randomization implementation date (see section “Valid SSNs”).
Previously unassigned area numbers have been introduced for assignment, excluding area numbers 000, 666 and 900–99.
Because Individual Taxpayer Identification Numbers (ITINs) are issued by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), they were not affected by this SSA change.
Historical structure[edit]
Prior to the 2011 randomization process, the first three digits or area number were assigned by geographical region. Prior to 1973, cards were issued in local Social Security offices around the country and the area number represented the office code where the card was issued. This did not necessarily have to be in the area where the applicant lived, since a person could apply for their card in any Social Security office. Beginning in 1973, when the SSA began assigning SSNs and issuing cards centrally from Baltimore, the area number was assigned based on the ZIP Code in the mailing address provided on the application for the original Social Security card. The applicant's mailing address did not have to be the same as their place of residence. Thus, the area number did not necessarily represent the state of residence of the applicant regardless of whether the card was issued prior to, or after, 1973.
Generally, numbers were assigned beginning in the northeast and moving south and westward, so that people applying from addresses on the east coast had the lowest numbers and those on the west coast had the highest numbers. As the areas assigned to a locality were exhausted, new areas from the pool were assigned, so some states had noncontiguous groups of numbers.
The middle two digits or group number range from 01 to 99. Even before SSN randomization, the group numbers were not assigned consecutively within an area. Instead, for administrative reasons, group numbers were issued in the following order:[33]
odd numbers from 01 through 09.
even numbers from 10 through 98.
even numbers from 02 through 08.
odd numbers from 11 through 99.
As an example, group number 98 would be issued before 11.
The last four digits are serial numbers. Before SSN randomization took effect, they represented a straight numerical sequence of digits from 0001 to 9999 within the group.
Valid SSNs[edit]
Prior to June 25, 2011, a valid SSN could not have an area number between 734 and 749, or above 772, the highest area number the Social Security Administration had allocated. Effective June 25, 2011, the SSA assigns SSNs randomly and allows for the assignment of area numbers between 734 and 749 and above 772 through the 800s.[34] This should not be confused with Tax Identification Numbers (TINs), which include additional area numbers.[35]
Some special numbers are never allocated:
Numbers with all zeros in any digit group (000-##-####, ###-00-####, ###-##-0000).[36][37]
Numbers with 666 or 900–999 (Individual Taxpayer Identification Number) in the first digit group.[36]
Until 2011, the SSA published the last group number used for each area number.[38] Since group numbers were allocated in a regular pattern, it was possible to identify an unissued SSN that contained an invalid group number. Now numbers are assigned randomly, and fraudulent SSNs are not easily detectable with publicly available information. Many online services, however, provide SSN validation.
Unlike many similar numbers, no check digit is included.
Exhaustion and re-use[edit]
The Social Security Administration does not reuse Social Security numbers. It has issued over 450 million since the start of the program, and at a use rate of about 5.5 million per year. It says it has enough to last several generations without reuse or changing the number of digits.[39] However, there have been instances where multiple individuals have been inadvertently assigned the same Social Security number.[40]
SSNs used in advertising[edit]
The promotional Social Security card as distributed by the F.W. Woolworth Company
Some SSNs used in advertising have rendered those numbers invalid. One famous instance of this occurred in 1938 when the E. H. Ferree Company in Lockport, New York, decided to promote its product by showing how a Social Security card would fit into its wallets. A sample card, used for display purposes, was placed in each wallet, which was sold by Woolworth and other department stores across the country; the wallet manufacturer's vice president and treasurer Douglas Patterson used the actual SSN of his secretary, Hilda Schrader Whitcher.
Even though the card was printed in red (the real card is printed in blue) and had "Specimen" printed across the front, many people used Whitcher's SSN as their own. The Social Security Administration's account of the incident also claims that the fake card was half the size of a real card, despite a miniature card's being useless for its purpose and despite Whitcher's holding two cards of apparently identical size in the accompanying photograph. Over time, the number that appeared (078-05-1120) has been claimed by a total of over 40,000 people as their own.[41] The SSA initiated an advertising campaign stating that it was incorrect to use the number (Hilda Whitcher was issued a new SSN). However, the number was found to be in use by 12 individuals as late as 1977.[41]
More recently, Todd Davis distributed his SSN in advertisements for his company's LifeLock identity theft protection service, which allowed his identity to be stolen over a dozen times.[42][43]
See also[edit]
Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas
Death Master File
Feature creep
INSEE code
Italian fiscal code card
Kennitala
National Insurance number
National Registration Identity Card
NHI Number
NIE Number
Permanent account number
Personally identifiable information
PESEL
PPS number
Social Insurance Number
Tax file number
Uniform civil number
Unique Population Registry Code
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Story of the Social Security Number". Ssa.gov. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Kouri, Jim (March 9, 2005). "Social Security Cards: De Facto National Identification". American Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ 20 C.F.R. 422.103(b)
Jump up ^ "Social Security Online". Ssa.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
Jump up ^ "The First Social Security Number and the Lowest Number". Social Security History. United States Social Security Administration. Retrieved July 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "First Applicant on Pension List". Ogden Standard Examiner. Ogden, Utah. December 2, 1936. p. 8.
Jump up ^ Long, Wayne S. (Spring 1993). "Social Security Numbers Issued: A 20-Year Review" (PDF). Social Security Journal. 56 (1): 82. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Jack (1993). "A strategy for assembling samples of adult twin pairs in the United States". Statistics in Medicine. 12 (18): 1693–1702. doi:10.1002/sim.4780121805. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tax Reform Act of 1986". Social Security History. United States Social Security Administration. Retrieved July 27, 2015. ("Unlike the PIN the SSN is not universally assigned, nor is it issued at birth. In the U.S., assignment of the SSN occurs traditionally when an individual joins the workforce, usually as a teenager. The age at SSN issuance, however, has been declining for decades“ and recent changes in the tax law now require that all infants claimed as dependants must have an SSN by one year of age.")
Jump up ^ Jeffrey B. Liebman (December 2000). "Who Are the Ineligible EITC Recipients?". National Tax Journal. 53: 1165–1186.
Jump up ^ "Social Security Number Chronology". Social Security Administration.
^ Jump up to: a b "Social Security Numbers For Children". Social Security Administration.
Jump up ^ "National Personnel Records Center". National Archives.
Jump up ^ "DOD removes SSAN from ID cards".
Jump up ^ "The Amish & Social Security". Amishnews.com. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
Jump up ^ "Amish reject giving Social Security numbers to get licenses". The Chippewa Herald. August 30, 1999. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Version History". Social Security History. United States Social Security Administration. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. Retrieved July 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pear, Robert (July 26, 1998). "The Nation; Not for Identification Purposes (Just Kidding)". The New York Times. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Social Security Number Not Required". Scribd.com. 2008-04-29. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
Jump up ^ Charles H. Mullen, Associate Commissioner (March 18, 1998), Letter to Mr. Scott McDonald (PDF), Office of Public Enquiries, Social Security Administration, retrieved July 27, 2015
Jump up ^ "Can I refuse to give my Social Security number to a private business?". Frequently Asked Questions. United States Social Security Administration. May 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ 26 U.S.C. § 6109(d).
Jump up ^ See 26 U.S.C. § 6109(a).
Jump up ^ See 26 C.F.R. sec. 31.6011(b)-2(a)(1)(ii).
Jump up ^ "New algorithm guesses SSNs using date and place of birth". Ars Technica. July 2009.
Jump up ^ Broache, Anne. "Congress may slap restrictions on SSN use - CNET News". News.cnet.com. Archived from the original on 2012-07-11. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Your Social Security Number And Card, "How can I protect my Social Security number?"". Social Security Administration.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Bill (August 2009). "How many Americans' Social Security numbers were officially duplicated for Pacific islanders?". The Plain Dealer. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Social Security: Frequently Asked Questions - Can I change my Social Security number?". Social Security Administration. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Numbers for Domestic Violence Victims" (PDF). Social Security Administration. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Social Security Administration. "The SSN Numbering Scheme". Retrieved December 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Social Security Number Randomization". Socialsecurity.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
Jump up ^ "The SSN Numbering Scheme". Socialsecurity.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
Jump up ^ "List of valid area numbers". Social Security Administration. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Taxpayer Identification Numbers (TIN)". Internal Revenue Service.
^ Jump up to: a b "Which Social Security numbers are invalid?". Social Security Administration. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "RM 10201.035 Invalid Social Security Numbers (SSNs)". Program Operations Manual System (POMS). United States Social Security Administration. June 23, 2011. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "List currently allocated group numbers for each area number". Social Security Administration. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Q20: Are Social Security numbers reused after a person dies?". Frequently Asked Questions. United States Social Security Administration. Retrieved July 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "A tale of two women: same birthday, same Social Security number, same big-data mess". PC World. Retrieved November 12, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The story of the most misused number of all time..." Social Security Administration.
Jump up ^ Zetter, Kim (May 18, 2010). "LifeLock CEO's Identity Stolen 13 Times". Wired.
Jump up ^ Vijayan, Jaikumar (May 19, 2010). "LifeLock CEO said to be victim of identity theft 13 times". ComputerWorld.
External links[edit]
Social Security Administration
Social Security Death Index Database listing over 85 million SSNs, all of which entered the public domain upon the death of their owners
Replacing a Lost or Stolen Social Security Card
The Woolworth Card: The SSN 078-05-1120 has been claimed by thousands of people since the late 1930s
Social Security Cards Issued by Woolworth: "The story of the most misused number of all time"
Complete list of area number groups from the Social Security Administration
Social Security Administration's FAQ for Social Security Numbers
Social Security card application
Hearing on Removing Social Security Numbers from Medicare Cards: Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Social Security and Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, August 1, 2012
Look up public information about Social Security Numbers derived from the SSN enumeration pattern prior to 2011
Carolyn Puckett (2009). "The Story of the Social Security Number". Social Security Bulletin. 69 (2). (PDF version)
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