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Blood diamond
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This article is about diamonds mined in war zones. For the 2006 film, see Blood Diamond. For other uses, see Blood diamond (disambiguation).
Panning for diamonds in Sierra Leone.
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Unsustainable diamond mining in Sierra Leone
Blood diamonds (also called conflict diamonds, war diamonds, hot diamonds, or red diamonds) is a term used for a diamond mined in a war zone and sold to finance an insurgency, an invading army's war efforts, or a warlord's activity. The term is used to highlight the negative consequences of the diamond trade in certain areas, or to label an individual diamond as having come from such an area. Diamonds mined during the recent civil wars in Angola, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana, and Guinea Bissau have been given the label.[1][2][3] The term conflict resource refers to analogous situations involving other natural resources.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Angola
1.2 Ivory Coast
1.3 Democratic Republic of the Congo
1.4 Liberia
1.5 Sierra Leone
1.6 Republic of the Congo
1.7 Zimbabwe
2 Conflict diamond campaign
2.1 Kimberley Process Certification Scheme
2.2 Shortcomings and criticism
2.3 Transparency
3 Policy responses
3.1 American policy
3.2 Canadian policy
4 Technology response
5 In popular culture
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Literature
7 External links
History[edit]
Angola[edit]
Reports estimated that as much as 20% of the total diamond production in the 1980s was being sold for illegal and unethical purposes and 19% was specifically conflict in nature.[4] By 1999, the illegal diamond trade was estimated by the World Diamond Council to have been reduced to 3.06% of the world's diamond production.[5][6] The World Diamond Council reported that by 2004 this percentage had fallen to approximately 1%, where it has remained.[4][6][7]
Despite the UN Resolution, UNITA was able to continue to sell or trade some diamonds in order to finance its war effort. The UN set out to find how this remaining illicit trade was being conducted and appointed Canadian ambassador Robert Fowler to investigate. In 2000, he produced the Fowler Report, which named those countries, organizations and individuals involved in the trade. The report is credited with establishing the link between diamonds and third world conflicts,[8] and led directly to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1295, as well as the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.
Ivory Coast[edit]
Ivory Coast began to develop a fledgling diamond mining industry in the early 1990s. A coup overthrew the government in 1999, starting a civil war. The country became a route for exporting diamonds from Liberia and war-torn Sierra Leone.[9][10] Foreign investment began to withdraw from Ivory Coast. To curtail the illegal trade, the nation stopped all diamond mining and the UN Security Council banned all exports of diamonds from Ivory Coast in December 2005.[9]
Despite UN sanctions the illicit diamond trade still exists in Ivory Coast. Rough diamonds are exported out of the country to neighboring states and international trading centers through the northern, Forces Nouvelles controlled section of the country, a group which is reported to be using these funds of chele to re-arm.[11][12]
Democratic Republic of the Congo[edit]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) has suffered numerous looting wars in the 1990s,[13] but has become a member of the Kimberley Process and now exports about 8% of the world's diamonds.[9] Once one of De Beers' most celebrated and priceless diamonds, the D-colour 777 carats (155.4 g) Millennium Star was discovered in the DRC and sold to De Beers, in open competition with other diamond buyers, between 1991 and 1992.[14]
Liberia[edit]
From 1989 to 2003, Liberia was engaged in a civil war. In 2000, the UN accused Liberian president Charles G. Taylor of supporting the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) insurgency in neighboring Sierra Leone with weapons and training in exchange for diamonds.[15] In 2001, the United Nations applied sanctions on the Liberian diamond trade. In August 2003, Taylor stepped down as president and, after being exiled to Nigeria, faced trial in The Hague. On July 21, 2006, he pleaded not guilty to crimes against humanity and war crimes,[9] of which he was found guilty in April 2012. On May 30, 2012, he began a 50-year sentence in a high security prison in the United Kingdom.[16]
Around the time of the 1998 United States embassy bombings, al-Qaeda allegedly bought gems from Liberia as some of its other financial assets were frozen.[17]
Having regained peace, Liberia is attempting to construct a legitimate diamond mining industry. The UN has lifted sanctions and Liberia is now a member of the Kimberley Process.[18]
In December 2014 however, Liberian diamonds were reported to be partly produced using child labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.
Sierra Leone[edit]
The civil war started in 1991 and continued until 2002, costing at least 50,000 lives and causing local people to suffer killings, mutilation, rape, torture and abduction, mainly due to the brutal warfare waged by rebel group, The Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The Revolutionary United Front (RUF) claimed that they supported causes of justice and democracy in the beginning, but later on they started to control the villages and to prevent local people from voting for the new government by chopping off their limbs. Victims included children and infants. It created numerous examples of physical and psychological human harm across Sierra Leone.
Moreover, they also occupied the diamond mines in order to get access to funding and continue support of their actions.[19] For example, during that time, RUF was mining up to $125 million of diamonds yearly. Since diamonds are used as a funding source, they also created opportunities for tax evasion and financial support of crime.[20] Therefore, United Nations Security Council imposed diamond sanctions in 2000, which were then lifted in 2003. According to National Geographic News, all of these civil wars and conflicts created by rebel groups resulted in over four million deaths in the African population and injuries to over two million civilians. [21]Another latest conflict diamond statistic from Statistic Brain, revealed that Sierra Leone has been listed as second highest in the production of conflict diamonds which is shown as 1% of the World Production, after Angola which had produced 2.1% in 2016. The percentage of Sierra Leone’s diamond production that is conflict diamonds is 15% in total. It shows that the production of conflict diamonds still exists in Sierra Leone nowadays.[22]
According to the 2005 Country Reports on Human Right Practices of Africa from the United States, it also disclosed that serious human right issues in Sierra Leone still exist even though the 11-year civil conflict had officially ended by 2002. Sierra Leone remains in an unstable political situation; the country has already elected a new government. The huge consequences of blood diamonds still remain a mainstream issue in Sierra Leone. One of the biggest issues is people still being abused by security forces, including rape, and the use of excessive force with detainees, including teenagers. Also, child abuse and child labor are other serious issues which took place in Sierra Leone after civil conflicts.[23] As they need a huge number of workers, they started kidnapping and forcing young adults to be their slaves; children were forced to join their army to be child soldiers, and women were raped; they even burnt villages they came across. Thousands of men, women and children are treated as slaves to collect diamonds; they are forced to use their bare hands to dig in mud along river banks instead of digging with tools.[24]
[25]
Based on the report, The Truth About Diamonds:Conflict and Development from Global Witness, it mentioned that Sierra Leone is listed as second from the bottom of the United Nation Human Development Index. It also shows that Sierra Leone still makes slow progress, in 2016, in such different aspects as, for example, education, health and human rights, since 1990, which is also the year that conflicts took place in Sierra Leone. It shows that it is a huge consequence of blood diamonds that it brought into Sierra Leone.[26] Even though the war had ended in 2002 and the government tried to improve and adjust the cooperation of the diamond industry. Sierra Leone resulted in an increase of over US$140 million in 2005 and attempted a percentage return of export tax to diamond mining communities. However, it does not improve anything — the money is not reaching the public and it has not provided benefit to anyone in the communities. For instance, the Kono district in Sierra Leone has been mined for 70 years, but they still have no basic facilities, like electricity and repairing of roads. Houses are destroyed because of the civil wars. [27] It also examines the unethical issues of how rebel groups treat those locals. They used brainwashing of inexperienced young children and forced them to be child soldiers as they lost their personal freedom and rights under command that included violence and intimidation. [28]
Republic of the Congo[edit]
The Republic of the Congo (Congo-Brazzaville) was expelled from the Kimberley Process in 2004[29] because, despite having no official diamond mining industry, the country was exporting large quantities of diamonds, the origin of which it could not detail. It was also accused of falsifying certificates of origin. The Republic of the Congo was readmitted in 2007.[29]
Zimbabwe[edit]
Zimbabwe Diamonds are not considered conflict diamonds by the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.
In July 2010, the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme agreed that diamonds from the country's disputed Marange Diamond Fields could be sold on the international market,[30] after a report from the Scheme's monitor a month earlier described diamonds mined from the fields as conflict-free.[31]
Conflict diamond campaign[edit]
Global Witness was one of the first organizations to pick up on the link between diamonds and conflicts in Africa in its 1998 report entitled "A Rough Trade".[32][33] With the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1173 in 1998, the United Nations too identified the conflict diamond issue as a funding for war. The Fowler Report in 2000 detailed in depth how UNITA was financing its war activities, and in May 2000, led directly to the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1295 and the diamond producing countries of southern Africa meeting in Kimberley, South Africa to plan a method by which the trade in conflict diamonds could be halted, and buyers of diamonds could be assured that their diamonds have not contributed to violence.[34][35] In this resolution the Security Council wrote:
Welcomes the proposal that a meeting of experts be convened for the purpose of devising a system of controls to facilitate the implementation of the measures contained in Resolution 1173 (1998), including arrangements that would allow for increased transparency and accountability in the control of diamonds from their point of origin to the bourses, emphasizes that it is important that, in devising such controls, every effort be made to avoid inflicting collateral damage on the legitimate diamond trade, and welcomes the intention of the Republic of South Africa to host a relevant conference this year.[36]
Kimberley Process Certification Scheme[edit]
Main article: Kimberley Process Certification Scheme
On July 19, 2000, the World Diamond Congress at Antwerp adopted a resolution to strengthen the diamond industry's ability to block sales of conflict diamonds.[37][38] The resolution called for an international certification system on the export and import of diamonds, legislation in all countries to accept only officially sealed packages of diamonds, for countries to impose criminal charges on anyone trafficking in conflict diamonds, and instituted a ban on any individual found trading in conflict diamonds from the diamond bourses of the World Federation of Diamond Bourses.[38] The Kimberley Process was led by the diamond-producing African countries themselves and this system tracks diamonds from the mine to the market and regulates the policing surrounding the export, manufacture and sale of the products. Also in tourist countries like Dubai and the United Kingdom,[clarification needed] before a gemstone is allowed through the airports to other countries, the Kimberley Certification must be presented by the gem's owner or obtained from a renowned attorney.[39] On January 17–18 of 2001, diamond industry figures convened and formed the new organization, the World Diamond Council. This new body set out to draft a new process, whereby all diamond rough could be certified as coming from a non-conflict source.[40]
The KPCS was given approval by the UN on March 13, 2002,[41] and in November, after two years of negotiation between governments, diamond producers, and Non-Government organizations, the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme was created.
The Kimberley Process attempted to curtail the flow of conflict diamonds, help stabilize fragile countries and support their development. As the Kimberley Process has made life harder for criminals, it has brought large volumes of diamonds onto the legal market that would not otherwise have made it there. This has increased the revenues of poor governments, and helped them to address their countries’ development challenges. For instance, around $125 million worth of diamonds were legally exported from Sierra Leone in 2006, compared to almost none at the end of the 1990s.[42]
Shortcomings and criticism[edit]
The Kimberley Process has ultimately failed to stem the flow of blood diamonds, leading key proponents such as Global Witness to abandon the scheme.[43] In addition, there is no guarantee that diamonds with a Kimberley Process Certification are in fact conflict-free. This is due to the nature of the corrupt government officials in the leading diamond producing countries. It is common for these officials to be bribed with $50 to $100 a day in exchange for paperwork declaring that blood diamonds are Kimberley Process Certified.[44]
Transparency[edit]
The Kimberley system attempted to increase governments' transparency by forcing them to keep records of the diamonds they are exporting and importing and how much they are worth. In theory, this would show governments their finances so that they can be held accountable for how much they are spending for the benefit of the country's population. However non-compliance by countries such as Venezuela has led to the failure of accountability.[43]
The company Materialytics claims that it can trace the origin of virtually any diamond using Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy.[45] However, there is no way to know whether a diamond purchased online is blood free or not. [46]
Policy responses[edit]
American policy[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Executive Order 13194
On January 18, 2001, President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order 13194 which prohibited the importation of rough diamonds from Sierra Leone into the United States in accordance with the UN resolutions.[47] On May 22, 2001, President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13213 which banned rough diamond importation from Liberia into the United States. Liberia had been recognized by the United Nations as acting as a pipeline for conflict diamonds from Sierra Leone.[48]
United States enacted the Clean Diamond Trade Act (CDTA) on April 25, 2003,[49] implemented on July 29, 2003, by Executive Order 13312.[50][51] The CDTA installed the legislation to implement the KPCS in law in the United States. The implementation of this legislation was key to the success of the KPCS, as the United States is the largest consumer of diamonds. The CDTA states: 'As the consumer of a majority of the world’s supply of diamonds, the United States has an obligation to help sever the link between diamonds and conflict and press for implementation of an effective solution.[49]
The United States Department of State also maintains an office for a Special Adviser for Conflict Diamonds. As of October 14, 2015, the position is held by Ashley Orbach.[52]
Canadian policy[edit]
During the 1990s diamond-rich areas were discovered in Northern Canada. Canada is one of the key players in the diamond industry. Partnership Africa Canada was created in 1986 to help with the crisis in Africa. This organization is also part of the Diamond Development Initiative. The Diamond Development Initiative helps improve and regulate the legal diamond industry.
The Kimberley Process was initiated in May 2000 by South Africa with Canada a major supporter of instituting the scheme. Canada has now passed several laws that help stop the trade of conflict diamonds. The laws deal with the export and import of rough diamonds, and also how they are transferred. In December 2002 the Export and Import of Rough Diamonds Act was passed by the Canadian government. This law acts as a system that helps control the importing, exporting and transporting of rough diamonds through Canada. The Export and Import of Rough Diamonds Act also states that the Kimberley Process is the minimum requirement of certifying rough diamonds and a certificate is also required for all shipments of diamonds. This certificate is called the Canadian Certificate, it gives permission for an officer to seize any shipment of diamonds that does not meet the requirements of the Export and Import of Rough Diamonds Act.[53]
The Government of the Northwest Territories of Canada (GNWT) also has a unique certification program. They offer a Government certificate on all diamonds that are mined, cut, and polished in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Canadian diamonds are tracked from the mine, through the refining process, to the retail jeweler with a unique diamond identification number (DIN) laser inscribed on the diamond's girdle. To obtain this certificate one must cut and polish the diamond in the NWT.
Technology response[edit]
Technical services have emerged that may act as a solution for tracking diamond movement across borders. A service was launched in July 2016 that allows managers to build systems using a blockchain database for tracking high-value or highly regulated items through a supply chain. Everledger is one using such a system to "record the movement of diamonds from mines to jewelry stores" and is one of the inaugural clients of a new blockchain-based tracking service from IBM.[54]
In popular culture[edit]
Conflict diamonds are a central plot point throughout the James Bond film Die Another Day (2002).
The origins of the Kimberley Process were dramatized in Ed Zwick's motion picture Blood Diamond (2006), starring Leonardo DiCaprio and Djimon Hounsou. The film helped to publicize the controversy surrounding conflict diamonds and led to worldwide awareness of the Western African involvement in the diamond trade.
The CSI: Miami episode "Man Down" (2007) involves the trafficking of African blood diamonds.
CSI: NY episode "Not What It Looks Like" (2006) involves when a group of robbers stole blood diamonds and the men who brought them into the country wanted them back.
Law & Order episode "Soldier of Fortune" (2001) involves the murder of a diamond broker who has knowledge of a blood diamond connection between Sierra Leone and a Swiss diamond company.
Danish filmmaker Mads Brügger's documentary Ambassadøren (2011, in English: "The Ambassador") addresses the trade in diplomatic passports in order to make money with blood diamonds.
Players compete in Diamond Trust of London to extract diamonds out of Angola before the implementation of the Kimberley Process.
The remix version of Grammy-winning song Diamonds from Sierra Leone performed by American artist Kanye West, has verses that detail the blood diamond trade in Sierra Leone, and comments about the Western public unawareness of the origins of the diamonds linked to the conflict.
Blood diamonds play a part in Far Cry 2, serving as the player's currency, acquired by missions from the two warlord factions or from guarded briefcases. One of the endings also involves delivering a case of stolen diamonds to a border guard as a bribe.
Blood Diamonds is a thriller fiction book title by Jon Land, copyright 2002; ISBN 0-765-30226-8
The 2013 game Splinter Cell: Blacklist features an optional mission: Infiltrating and shutting down a blood diamond mine in Equatorial Guinea.
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Conflict Diamonds. United Nations Department of Public Information, March 21, 2001, archived online 23 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Conflict resources: from 'curse' to blessing" by Ernest Harsch. Africa Renewal: January 2007.
Jump up ^ "Global Summary 2008" (PDF). Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-01-16. Retrieved 2007-01-13.
Jump up ^ "WORLDDIAMONDCOUNCIL.COM". worlddiamondcouncil.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-11. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Conflict Diamonds". Venetia Major - Bespoke Jewellery. Archived from the original on 2013-04-10.
Jump up ^ Arthur V. Levy (2003). Diamonds and Conflict: Problems and Solutions. N ova Publishers. pp. 5–6. ISBN 1-59033-715-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-13. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-01-20. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-09-02. Retrieved 2011-05-24.
Jump up ^ ODS Team. "ODS HOME PAGE" (PDF). un.org.
Jump up ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo". Mining Africa. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
Jump up ^ MacAskill, Ewen; McGreal, Chris; Vidal, John (9 November 2000). "Blood, sweat and ice". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Bornstein, Maya (September 2012). "Pressure Makes Diamonds".
Jump up ^ Simons, Marlise (May 30, 2012). "Ex-Liberian Leader Gets 50 Years for War Crimes". New York Times.
Jump up ^ "BBC NEWS - Africa - Al-Qaeda 'traded blood diamonds'". bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "UN Security Council votes to lift ban on Liberian diamond exports". Associated Press. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Smillie, I (2013). "Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law". Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 46(04): 1004–1004.
Jump up ^ Global Witness (2006). "The Truth About Diamonds : Conflict and Development" (PDF). Global Witness.
Jump up ^ Hoyt, A. "How the African Diamond Trade Works". Howstuffworks.com.
Jump up ^ Statistics Brain (2016). "Conflict Diamond statistics". Archived from the original on 2012-03-14.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of State (2006). "2005 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices in Africa : Sierra Leone".
Jump up ^ Paul, Armstrong (2012). "How diamonds fuel Africa's conflicts". CNN.
Jump up ^ Tammy, Hanna (2012). "Ethical Issue Analysis: Blood Diamond Analysis".
Jump up ^ Human Development Report (2016). "Human Development Report - Sierra Leone".
Jump up ^ Global Witness (2006). "The Truth About Diamonds: Conflict and Development" (PDF). The Truth About Diamonds: Conflict and Development.
Jump up ^ Tammy, Hanna (2012). "Ethical Issue Analysis : Blood Diamond Analysis".
^ Jump up to: a b "Blood Diamonds No Longer Congo-Brazzaville's Best Friend". IPS. 30 Nov 2007. Archived from the original on 2009-01-17. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe gets go-ahead to sell diamonds again". The Independent.
Jump up ^ Farai Mutsaka; Peter Wonacott; Sarah Childress (28 May 2010). "Zimbabwe Nears Approval for Marange-Field Diamond Exports - WSJ". WSJ.
Jump up ^ Dan Brown (1998-12-01). "A Rough Trade: The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict" (PDF). Global Witness. Retrieved 2011-04-11.
Jump up ^ Janine P. Roberts (2003). Glitter & Greed: The Secret World of the Diamond Empire. The Disinformation Company. p. 233. ISBN 0-9713942-9-6.
Jump up ^ Robert Fowler (2000-03-10). "Final Report of the UN Panel of Experts ("The "Fowler Report")". Global Policy Forum. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
Jump up ^ "Resolution 1295 (2000)" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "RESOLUTIONS AND STATEMENTS OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL 2000". un.org.
Jump up ^ "Fact #6- The Facts - DiamondFacts.org". diamondfacts.org.
^ Jump up to: a b "Diamond leaders in pact to ban 'conflict gems' funding African wars". CNN. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Oppenheimer, Nicky. "Diamonds, Development, and Democracy" (PDF). debeersgroup.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-05.
Jump up ^ "WORLDDIAMONDCOUNCIL.COM". www.worlddiamondcouncil.com. Retrieved 2017-07-18.
Jump up ^ "UN Resolution 56/263 - The role of diamonds in fueling conflict: breaking the link between the illicit transaction of rough diamonds and armed conflict as a contribution to prevention and settlement of conflicts" (PDF). UN 96th plenary meeting, 13 March 2002, accessed online November 6, 2006
Jump up ^ "Kimberley Process basics". Kimberley Process. Archived from the original on 2012-09-05.
^ Jump up to: a b "NGO Global Witness leaves diamond vetting scheme". BBC News. 5 December 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Ryan, E. Kieron (11 August 2010). "Blood Diamond Farce". Retrieved 12 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Diamonds: GSA 2015: Determination of Diamond Provenance". materialytics.com.
Jump up ^ "The Real Story & History of Conflict Blood Diamonds". www.thediamondringreview.com. Retrieved 2017-10-20.
Jump up ^ Clinton, William "FR Doc. 01–2140 - Executive Order 13194 of January 18, 2001 - Prohibiting the Importation of Rough Diamonds From Sierra Leone" (PDF). The White House, January 18, 2001, accessed online December 24, 2006
Jump up ^ Bush, George W. "FR Doc. 01–13381 - Executive Order 13213—Additional Measures With Respect To Prohibiting the Importation of Rough Diamonds From Sierra Leone" (PDF). The White House, May 22, 2001, accessed online December 24, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b "Public Law 108–19 - An Act To implement effective measures to stop trade in conflict diamonds, and for other purposes. Apr. 25, 2003" (PDF). (42.1 KiB) 108th Congress of the United States, April 25, 2003, accessed online December 24, 2006
Jump up ^ Bush, George W "FR Doc. 03–19676 - Executive Order 13312 of July 29, 2003 - Implementing the Clean Diamond Trade Act" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 29, 2007. (26.3 KiB) The White House, July 29, 2003, accessed online December 24, 2006
Jump up ^ "GAO-06-978, Conflict Diamonds: Agency Actions Needed to Enhance Implementation of the Clean Diamond Trade Act". gao.gov. 27 September 2006.
Jump up ^ https://www.state.gov/e/eb/diamonds/
Jump up ^ "Stop Blood Diamonds - Creating a Conflict Free Diamond World". stopblooddiamonds.org. Archived from the original on 2007-05-10.
Jump up ^ Nash, Kim S. (2016-07-14). "IBM Pushes Blockchain into the Supply Chain". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2016-07-24.
Literature[edit]
Bell, Udy (2000). "Sierra Leone: Building on a Hard-Won Peace". UN Chronicle Online Edition (4). Retrieved 2007-05-31.
Bergner, Daniel (2003). In the Land of Magic Soldiers: A Story of White and Black in West Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-26653-0.
Campbell, Greg (2002). Blood Diamonds: Tracing the Deadly Path of the World's Most Precious Stones. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3939-1.
Cilliers, Jakkie; Christian Dietrich (2000). Angola’s War Economy. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. ISBN 978-0-620-26645-1.
Epstein, Edward Jay (1982). The Rise and Fall of Diamonds: The Shattering of a Brilliant Illusion. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-41289-2.
Billon, Philippe Le (2005). Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-37970-9.
Levy, Arthur V. (2003). Diamonds and Conflict: Problems and Solutions. New York: Hauppauge. ISBN 1-59033-715-8.
Le Billon, Philippe (2006). "Fatal Transactions: Conflict Diamonds and the (Anti)terrorist Consumer". Antipode. 38 (4): 778–801. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2006.00476.x.
Reno, William (1995). Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47179-6.
Roberts, Janine (2007) [2003]. Glitter and Greed: The Secret World of the Diamond Cartel. New York: Disinformation. ISBN 978-1-932857-60-3.
Tamm, Ingrid J. (2002). Diamonds In Peace and War: Severing the Conflict Diamond Connection. Cambridge, Mass: World peace foundation. ISBN 0-9721033-5-X. "PDF" (PDF). (673 KiB)
Zoellner, Tom (2006). The Heartless Stone: A Journey the Money Through the World of Diamonds, Deceit and Desire. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-33969-0.
External links[edit]
The Truth About Blood Diamonds — The international focus on "conflict minerals" is a self-serving charade.; The Wall Street Journal
Diamonds in Conflict - Global Policy Forum
PAWSS Conflict Topics - Conflict Diamonds
DiamondFacts.org - World Diamond Council
AllAsOne.org - Blood diamond trade awareness
Stop Blood Diamonds - Blood diamonds awareness initiative
Stopping Blood Diamonds - The success of the Kimberley Process
Africa's War with Blood Diamonds
Canadian Mined Diamonds
Diamond Dealers in Deep Trouble as Bank Documents Shine Light on Secret Ways - Documentation about financial flows between HSBC Private Bank and blood diamond dealers, see also Swiss Leaks
Editora Oferece "Diamantes de Sangue" em Formato Digital a Todos. Maka Angola, Editora da Tinta da China
(in Portuguese)
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Languages of Hong Kong
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Basic Law of Hong Kong stipulates that Chinese and English are the two official languages of Hong Kong.[1] During the British colonial era, English was the sole official language until 1974. As the majority of the population in Hong Kong are descendants of migrants from China's Canton Province, the vast majority speak standard Cantonese or other Yue Chinese varieties as a first language, with smaller numbers of speakers of Hakka Language or the Teochew dialect of Southern Min. In addition, immigrants and expatriates from the West and other Asian countries have contributed much to Hong Kong's linguistic and demographic diversity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Official languages
2 Sinitic Languages
2.1 Cantonese
2.2 Native Yue dialects
2.3 Hakka
2.4 Minnan Chinese
2.5 Languages of mainland Chinese origin
2.5.1 Taishanese
2.5.2 Shanghainese
2.5.3 Mandarin
3 English
3.1 Code-switching between Cantonese and English
4 Other European languages
4.1 French
4.2 German
5 Other East Asian languages
5.1 Japanese
5.2 Korean
6 Southeast Asian languages
6.1 Filipino
6.2 Indonesian
6.3 Thai
6.4 Vietnamese
7 South Asian languages
7.1 Hindi
8 Middle Eastern languages
8.1 Arabic
9 Sign language
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
Official languages[edit]
Languages of Hong Kong (2011)[2]
Languages percent
Cantonese (official)
87.5%
English (official)
4.2%
Native dialects
3.5%
Filipino
1.9%
Others
1.6%
Mandarin
1.3%
Chinese and English are both official languages of Hong Kong under the Hong Kong Basic Law (article 9) and the Official Languages Ordinance (chapter 5 of the Laws of Hong Kong). No law stipulates choice of spoken Chinese dialect.[citation needed]
Historically, English was the sole official language of Hong Kong from 1883 to 1974. Only after demonstrations and petitions from Hong Kong people demanding equal status for Chinese[3] did the language become official in Hong Kong from 1974 onward. In March 1987, the Official Languages Ordinance was amended to require all new legislation to be enacted bilingually in both English and Chinese. In 1990, the Hong Kong Basic Law declared English's co-official language status with Chinese after the 1997 handover.
Sinitic Languages[edit]
As a result of immigration into Hong Kong from Canton Province, Cantonese is the dominant Chinese variant spoken in the territory with smaller numbers of speakers from other dialects. There are also numerous sinitic languages spoken by the native peoples of the New Territories, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Cantonese is a vernacular and when reduced to writing is normally converted to a standard written Chinese quite dissimilar to the spoken word.
There is also a written language based on the vocabulary and grammar of spoken Cantonese known as written Cantonese (粵文). Although the "biliterate and trilingual" policy implies an absence of support for written Cantonese, it has gained popularity in news media where entertainment and local news are related. Written Cantonese is unintelligible to non-Cantonese speakers and is considered nonstandard by educators despite its widespread usage in Hong Kong. Some have also credited written Cantonese for solving the challenges that standard written Chinese had faced in popular culture.
Traditional Chinese characters are widely used, and are the de facto writing standard in Hong Kong. Simplified Chinese is seen in some posters, leaflets, flyers and signs in the tourist areas.
Cantonese[edit]
Main article: Hong Kong Cantonese
The principal language of Hong Kong is standard Cantonese, spoken by 87.5% of the population at home daily.(粵語/廣州話/廣東話/廣府話/白話/本地話),[4] As an official language, it is used in education, broadcasting, government administration, legislation and judiciary, as well as for daily communication. As a result of its predominance throughout the community, Cantonese is virtually the exclusive language of official discourse at all levels of the executive, legislature and courts of Hong Kong.[citation needed]
Part of a multilingual welcoming signboard at the former KCR East Tsim Sha Tsui Station. (From the top: French, Japanese, Spanish and Korean).
Road signs in Hong Kong are written in both Chinese and English.
Native Yue dialects[edit]
A few closely related dialects to standard Cantonese continue to be spoken in Hong Kong. Most notable is the Weitou dialect (圍頭話), which is mostly spoken by the older generation living in walled villages in New Territories. Additionally, the Tanka people (蜑家人/疍家人/水上人) from the fishing villages on outlying islands speak their own variant of Cantonese. However, this dialect is now largely limited to those middle aged and above.
Hakka[edit]
Hakka is indigenous to many villages in the New Territories and within Hakka communities in Hong Kong. Nowadays, outside these rural villages and older populations, younger Hakka Chinese populations communicate primarily in Cantonese.[5][6]
Minnan Chinese[edit]
Teochew, Hokkien, and Taiwanese are the Minnan (Southern Min) Chinese dialects commonly found in Hong Kong. However, their usage is largely limited to recent migrants from Taiwan or Fujian and middle aged descendants of immigrants from native Chinese regions of these variants.
Languages of mainland Chinese origin[edit]
Taishanese[edit]
Taishanese originates from migrants from Taishan County in Mainland China. The variant can still be found in some areas in Hong Kong where migrants concentrated, such as Sai Wan.
Shanghainese[edit]
Shanghainese is commonly spoken by migrants who escaped Shanghai after the communist takeover of China in 1949. Their descendants seldom speak the language nowadays.
Mandarin[edit]
When Hong Kong was a colony of the United Kingdom, Mandarin Chinese (普通話/現代標準漢語/國語/北方話) was not widely used in Hong Kong. Since the 1997 Handover, the huge increase in inbound tourism from the mainland has led to much more widespread use of Mandarin, particularly in tourism-related commerce, though little impact has been seen in locally based commerce or public services.[citation needed] In addition, the large number of shuangfei (Traditional:雙非, Simplified:双非） children (children born in Hong Kong whose parents are both from the Mainland) has increased the number of Mandarin speaking people, particularly in districts close to the border, such that Mandarin speaking children make up large proportions or even the majority of primary school students in those districts, causing the beginnings of a language shift in those areas.
English[edit]
A bilingual sale banner hung in front of a shop in Causeway Bay.
For more details on this topic, see Hong Kong English.
English is a major working language in Hong Kong, and is widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Although the sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC by the United Kingdom in 1997, English remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong as enshrined in the Basic Law.
Code-switching between Cantonese and English[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Code-switching in Hong Kong.
Many Hong Kong people use both Cantonese and English, or "code-switch", in the same sentence when speaking. For example, "唓，都唔 make sense!" ("Wow, it does not make sense!"). The code-switching can freely mix English words and Chinese grammar, for instance "你 un 唔 understand?" ("Do you understand?") which follows the Chinese grammar syntax 'verb - 唔 - verb' to ask "Do you (verb)?".
Some code-switched words are used so often that they have become loanwords in Cantonese,[7] for example,
"like", pronounced "lai-kee" /laːi55kʰi35/.
"Partner", pronounced "pat-la" /pʰaːt̚55laː21/.
"File", pronounced "fai-lo" /faːi55lou35/.
"Number", pronounced "lum-ba" /lɐm55pa35/.
"Case", pronounced "kei-see" /kʰei55si35/.
Other European languages[edit]
French[edit]
In Hong Kong, French is the second most studied foreign language after Japanese. Many institutions in Hong Kong, like Alliance française, provide French courses. Local universities, such as the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and Hong Kong Baptist University, offer programmes which aim at developing proficiency in French language and culture. The language is included as a subject in the HKCEE, but not in HKALE with accordance to British International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) standards. The IGCSE French syllabus used by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) is adopted in the examination. The only French book store, Librairie Parentheses, in Hong Kong is located on Wellington Street, Central.[8]
Real estate developers in Hong Kong often give their buildings French names, such as Bel-Air, Les Saisons and Belle Mer. This kind of foreign branding is also used in boutiques and restaurants. An example is Yucca de Lac in Ma Liu Shui. Sometimes only French elements such as articles and prepositions are added to the name, as in the case of the restaurant chain Café de Coral. Similar mixing of English and French can be seen on the menu of Délifrance, a French-style restaurant chain in Hong Kong.
German[edit]
The number of German speakers in Hong Kong is about 5000, significant enough for the establishment of the German Swiss International School (Deutsch-Schweizerische Internationale Schule), which claims to number more than 1,000 students, at The Peak of Hong Kong Island.[9] Many institutions in Hong Kong provide German courses. The most well-known one is the Goethe-Institut, which is located in Wan Chai. After spending a certain period in learning German, students can take the German Test as a Foreign Language (Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache; TestDaF for short) and Start German A1-C2. There are currently two test centres for TestDaF in Hong Kong: the Goethe-Institut and the Hong Kong Baptist University. The latter one also offers a European Studies degree course of German Stream, Bachelor of Social Science in European Studies (German Stream), in parallel with the French stream. A minor program of German is offered at the Language Centre of HKBU. The Hong Kong University offers a Major in German after 4 years of study. The Chinese University offers a Minor in German and popular summer courses. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology offers German for science and technology.
Other East Asian languages[edit]
Japanese[edit]
See also: Japanese people in Hong Kong
There are over 25,000 Japanese people in Hong Kong, so it is not uncommon to hear Japanese conversations. More than 10,000 people in Hong Kong had taken the JLPT in 2005.[10] Hong Kong-based R by R Production produces a television travel show set in Japan, which, as of April 2016, is broadcast on ViuTV. However, the language is often misused.[11]
The signboard of the shopping mall Nu Front at Causeway Bay. The character 站, replaced by 駅 in the name, also appears, serving as a footnote.
Japanese culture, especially the popular culture, has been popular in Hong Kong for decades. Hong Kong people occasionally replace Chinese characters with Japanese. In addition, the Companies Registry also permits the hiragana の (no) in Chinese business names that are registered in Hong Kong.[12] The hiragana の is usually used in place of the Chinese character 之 (zi1) and read as such in Hong Kong. In fact, Aji Ichiban has adopted の in their company name (優の良品). There are also borrowings from Japanese shinjitai kanji 駅 (eki) to substitute 站 (Sidney Lau: jaam6)(both 站 and 駅 mean "station" in their respective languages), as in Nu Front (東角駅), a shopping mall for Hong Kong youngsters in Causeway Bay. There are also some private estates named with the kanji 駅. These loanwords are pronounced by Hong Kong people as if they were their Chinese counterparts (i.e. の as 之, and 駅 as 站). The Japanese 駅 is the shinjitai of the hanzi 驛 (Sidney Lau: yik6). However, 驛 has fallen out of usage to 站 in modern Chinese and became obsolete. Therefore, it is not uncommon to mispronounce 駅 as its phonetic compound 尺(Sidney Lau: chek3)).
Korean[edit]
See also: Koreans in Hong Kong
Koreans in Hong Kong only make up a small minority while Korean culture has gained popularity since the early 2000s. Korean pop music was the first Korean media to enter Hong Kong's market. Since then, several Korean TV series such as Dae Jang Geum have been broadcast to numerous audiences.[13] There are roughly 1,000 students that took Korean courses at the Chinese University of Hong Kong each year, including undergraduates as well as professionals who enrolled in continuing education programs. Roughly 3,000 people have taken the Test of Proficiency in Korean since its introduction to Hong Kong in 2003.[14] Surveys and statistics from course enrollments have shown that nine-tenths of the students studying Korean in Hong Kong are female.[15]
Southeast Asian languages[edit]
Filipino[edit]
See also: Filipinos in Hong Kong
Filipino and other Philippine languages are used by Filipinos in Hong Kong, most of whom are employed as foreign domestic workers.
Newspapers and magazines in Filipino can also be easily bought in Central, Hong Kong. There are also a small number of churches in Hong Kong that have masses or services in Filipino, for example the afternoon masses provided by the St. John's Cathedral in Central.
Indonesian[edit]
See also: Indonesians in Hong Kong
Indonesian is the common language for the significant number of Indonesians working in Hong Kong, though Javanese is also widely spoken. Most are domestic workers; on their days off, they often gather at Victoria Park in Causeway Bay to socialise and the language can be heard.[16]
Thai[edit]
See also: Thais in Hong Kong
Thai prevails among the Thai population in Hong Kong, who mostly work as domestic workers. The Thai language is found in many shops and restaurants opened by Thais in Kowloon City. A number of Thai movies have been imported since the early 2000s, such as The Wheel in the medley Three, Jan Dara, the Iron Ladies, My Little Girl, and Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom-Yum-Goong starring Tony Jaa.
Vietnamese[edit]
See also: Vietnamese people in Hong Kong
Vietnamese is used in Hong Kong among the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam who had initially settled in Vietnam and returned to Hong Kong. Vietnamese refugees who left their home during the Vietnam War are another group.
South Asian languages[edit]
Main article: South Asians in Hong Kong
See also: Indians in Hong Kong, Pakistanis in Hong Kong, and Nepalese in Hong Kong
In 2006, there were at least 44,744 persons of South Asian descent in Hong Kong.[17] Signboards written in Hindi or Urdu can be seen, and conversation in South Asian languages including Nepali, Sindhi and Punjabi, as well as Urdu, Hindi and Tamil can be heard.
Hong Kong has two Nepalese newspapers, The Everest and the Sunrise Weekly Hong Kong. In 2004, the Home Affairs Bureau and Metro Plus AM 1044 jointly launched radio shows Hong Kong-Pak Tonight in Urdu and Harmo Sagarmatha in Nepalese.[18]
Hindi[edit]
See also: Indians in Hong Kong
The history of Indians in Hong Kong can be traced back to the early days of British Hong Kong. When the Union flag of the United Kingdom was hoisted on 26 January 1841, there were around 2,700 Indian troops that participated, and they played an important role in the development of Hong Kong in the early days. The most prominent contributions were the founding of the University of Hong Kong (HKU), the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and the Star Ferry.
Although nearly all of the Indian people who live in Hong Kong speak and write Indian English, some have maintained the usage of Hindi as a second language.
Middle Eastern languages[edit]
Arabic[edit]
Arabic is used frequently among members of Muslim communities in Hong Kong. Some Islamic organisations do teach the language as well, but the current status can best be described as up-and-coming.[19]
Sign language[edit]
Main article: Hong Kong Sign Language
See also[edit]
Bilingualism in Hong Kong
Code-switching in Hong Kong
Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters
Hong Kong Cantonese
Hong Kong English
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hong Kong Basic Law: Chapter I". Hong Kong Basic Law. Retrieved 17 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "East & Southeast Asia :: HONG KONG". CIA The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 2010-10-10.
Jump up ^ http://www.cusu.hk/archive/cu40.htm Archived July 21, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/main-table/A124.html
Jump up ^ http://www.hkilang.org (in Chinese Traditional)
Jump up ^ http://podcast.rthk.hk/podcast/item_epi.php?pid=315&lang=zh-CN&id=16160 RTHK《漫遊百科 - Ep. 17》(in Cantonese)
Jump up ^ Chan, Mimi and Helen Kwok (1982). A Study of Lexical Borrowing from English in Hong Kong Cantonese. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-02-26. Librairie Parentheses, "only French bookstore"
Jump up ^ "Principal's Welcome". German Swiss International School. 2006-12-09. Archived from the original on 2007-01-11. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
Jump up ^ "Number of Applicants and Examines by Test Site of the JLPT 2005" Archived 2007-01-13 at the Wayback Machine., The Japan Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
Jump up ^ "2005年10月　ニホンコンゴ★ ついに映像化！", Archived February 18, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. R by R Production. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. (in Japanese)
Jump up ^ "Business" Required to be Registered and Application for Business Registration: Business Name, Inland Revenue Department
Jump up ^ "學習韓語秘技傍身" Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine., Centaline Human Resources Consultants Limited, 2005-03-03. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. (in Traditional Chinese)
Jump up ^ "The Woman Who Taught Hong Kong to Speak Korean", Chosun Ilbo, 2010-01-28, retrieved 2010-01-28
Jump up ^ Kim, Hyewon Kang (2010), "Korean Language and Korean Studies in Hong Kong (1998–2009)", Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 7 (1): 141–153
Jump up ^ "Indonesian migrant workers in Hong Kong". Radio International Singapore. 2006-02-25. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
Jump up ^ "Thematic Report: Ethnic Minorities" (PDF). Publications and Products of the 2006 Population By-census. Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong (xvi). 2007-12-28. Retrieved 2008-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Urdu and Nepali radio programmes to launch". Hong Kong Information Services Department. 2004-11-19. Archived from the original on 2005-03-17. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
Jump up ^ "古蘭經及阿文新課程 (Qur'an and Arabic language class)". Islam.org.hk. 2006-04-03. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
Bibliography[edit]
Bruce, Nigel (1996). Language in Hong Kong Education & Society: A Bibliography
Pennington, Martha C. ed. (1998). Language in Hong Kong at Century's End. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-418-X.
External links[edit]
Website of Official Languages Division, Civil Service Bureau.
Website of Standing Committee on Language Education and Research (SCOLAR)[permanent dead link], Education and Manpower Bureau.
The British Council, Hong Kong.
Alliance Française, Hong Kong.
French at The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Goethe-Institut, Hong Kong.
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