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Moirai
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The three Moirai. Relief, grave of Alexander von der Mark (de) by Johann Gottfried Schadow. Old National Gallery, Berlin
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In Greek mythology, the Moirai or Moerae /ˈmɪrˌiː/ or /ˈmiːˌriː/ (Ancient Greek: Μοῖραι, "apportioners"), often known in English as the Fates (Latin: Fata), were the white-robed incarnations of destiny; their Roman equivalent was the Parcae (euphemistically the "sparing ones"). Their number became fixed at three: Clotho (spinner), Lachesis (allotter) and Atropos (literally 'unturnable' but metaphorically 'inflexible' or 'inevitable' - i.e. death).
They controlled the mother thread of life of every mortal from birth to death. They were independent, at the helm of necessity, directed fate, and watched that the fate assigned to every being by eternal laws might take its course without obstruction. The gods and men had to submit to them, although Zeus's relationship with them is a matter of debate: some sources say he is the only one who can command them (the Zeus Moiragetes), yet others suggest he was also bound to the Moirai's dictates.[1] In the Homeric poems Moira or Aisa, is related with the limit and end of life, and Zeus appears as the guider of destiny. In the Theogony of Hesiod, the three Moirai are personified, daughters of Nyx and are acting over the gods.[2] Later they are daughters of Zeus and Themis, who was the embodiment of divine order and law. In Plato's Republic the Three Fates are daughters of Ananke (necessity).[3]
It seems that Moira is related with Tekmor (proof, ordinance) and with Ananke (destiny, necessity), who were primeval goddesses in mythical cosmogonies. The ancient Greek writers might call this power Moira or Ananke, and even the gods could not alter what was ordained.[4] The concept of a universal principle of natural order has been compared to similar concepts in other cultures like the Vedic Rta, the Avestan Asha (Arta) and the Egyptian Maat.
In earliest Greek philosophy, the cosmogony of Anaximander is based on these mythical beliefs. The goddess Dike (justice, divine retribution), keeps the order and sets a limit to any actions.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 The three Moirai
3 Origins
4 The Homeric Moira
5 Mythical cosmogonies
6 Mythology
7 Zeus and the Moirai
8 Cross-cultural parallels
8.1 Europe
8.2 Asia
9 Astronomical objects
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
The three fates, Lachesis, Atropos, and Cloto; by Hans Vischer ca 1530 AD. Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin
The ancient Greek word moira (μοῖρα) means a portion or lot of the whole, and is related to meros, "part, lot" and moros, "fate, doom",[6] Latin meritum, "reward", English merit, derived from the PIE root *(s)mer, "to allot, assign".[7]
Moira may mean portion or share in the distribution of booty (ίση μοῖρα ísē moîra "equal booty"),[8] portion in life, lot, destiny, (μοῖραv ἔθηκαν ἀθάνατοι moîran éthēken athánatoi "the immortals fixed the destiny")[9] death (μοῖρα θανάτοιο moîra thanátoio "destiny of death"), portion of the distributed land.,[10] The word is also used for something which is meet and right (κατὰ μοῖραν, katà moîran, "according to fate, in order, rightly")[11]
It seems that originally the word moira did not indicate destiny but included ascertainment or proof, a non-abstract certainty. The word daemon, which was an agent related to unexpected events, came to be similar to the word moira.[12] This agent or cause against human control might be also called tyche (chance, fate): "You mistress moira, and tyche, and my daemon "[13]
The word nomos, "law", may have meant originally a portion or lot, as in the verb nemein, "to distribute", and thus "natural lot" came to mean "natural law".[14] The word dike, "justice", conveyed the notion that someone should stay within his own specified boundaries, respecting the ones of his neighbour. If someone broke his boundaries, thus getting more than his ordained part, then he would be punished by law. By extension, moira was one's portion or part in destiny which consisted of good and bad moments as was predetermined by the Moirai (Fates), and it was impossible for anyone to get more than his ordained part. In modern Greek the word came to mean "destiny" (μοίρα or ειμαρμένη).
Kismet, the predetermined course of events in the Muslim traditions, seems to have a similar etymology and function: Arabic qismat "lot" qasama, "to divide, allot" developed to mean Fate or destiny. As a loanword, qesmat 'fate' appears in Persian, whence in Urdu language, and eventually in English Kismet.
The three Moirai[edit]
The Three Fates by Paul Thumann (nineteenth century)
When they were three,[15] the Moirai were:
Clotho (/ˈkloʊθoʊ/, Greek Κλωθώ [klɔːˈtʰɔː] – "spinner") spun the thread of life from her Distaff onto her Spindle. Her Roman equivalent was Nona, (the 'Ninth'), who was originally a goddess called upon in the ninth month of pregnancy.
Lachesis (/ˈlækɪsɪs/, Greek Λάχεσις [ˈlakʰesis] – "allotter" or drawer of lots) measured the thread of life allotted to each person with her measuring rod. Her Roman equivalent was Decima (the 'Tenth').
Atropos (/ˈætrəpɒs/, Greek Ἄτροπος [ˈatropos] – "inexorable" or "inevitable", literally "unturning",[16] sometimes called Aisa) was the cutter of the thread of life. She chose the manner of each person's death; and when their time was come, she cut their life-thread with "her abhorred shears".[17] Her Roman equivalent was Morta ('Dead One').
In the Republic of Plato, the three Moirai sing in unison with the music of the Seirenes. Lachesis sings the things that were, Clotho the things that are, and Atropos the things that are to be.[18] Pindar in his Hymn to the Fates, holds them in high honour. He calls them to send their sisters Hours, Eunomia (Lawfulness), Dike (Right), and Eirene (Peace), to stop the internal civil strife:
Listen Fates, who sit nearest of gods to the throne of Zeus, and weave with shuttles of adamant, inescapable devices for councels of every kind beyond counting, Aisa, Clotho and Lachesis, fine-armed daughters of Night, hearken to our prayers, all-terrible goddesses, of sky and earth. Send us rose-bossomed Lawfulness, and her sisters on glittering thrones,
Right and crowned Peace, and make this city forget the misfortunes which lie heavily on her heart.[19]
Origins[edit]
The three Moirai, or the triumph of death, Flemish tapestry ca 1520, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
In ancient times caves were used for burial purposes in eastern Mediterranean, along with underground shrines or temples. The priests and the priestesses had considerable influence upon the world of the living. Births are recorded in such shrines, and the Greek legend of conception and birth in the tomb – as in the story of Danae- is based on the ancient belief that the dead know the future. Such caves were the caves of Ida and Dikte mountains in Crete, where myth situates the birth of Zeus and other gods, and the cave of Eileithyia near Knossos.[20] The relative Minoan goddesses were named Diktynna (later identified with Artemis), who was a mountain nymph of hunting, and Eileithyia who was the goddess of childbirth.[21]
It seems that in Pre-Greek religion Aisa was a daemon. In Mycenean religion Aisa or Moira was originally a living power related with the limit and end of life. At the moment of birth she spins the destiny, because birth ordains death.[22] Later Aisa is not alone, but she is accompanied by the "Spinners", who are the personifications of Fate.[23] The act of spinning is also associated with the gods, who at birth and at marriage do not spin the thread of life, but individual events like destruction, return or good fortune. Everything which has been spun must be winded on the spindle, and this was considered a cloth, like a net or loop which captured man.[24]
Invisible bonds and knots could be controlled from a loom, and twining was a magic art used by the magicians to harm a person, and control his individual fate.[25] Similar ideas appear in Norse mythology,[26] and in Greek folklore. The appearance of the gods and the Moirai may be related to the fairy tale motif, which is common in many Indo-European sagas and also in Greek folklore. The fairies appear beside the cradle of the newborn child and bring gifts to him.[27]
The services of the temples were performed by old women who were physically misshapen, though intellectually superior persons, giving rise to the fear of witches and of the misshapen.[citation needed] They might be considered representations of the Moirai, who belonged to the underworld, but secretly guided the lives of those in the upperworld. Their power could be sustained by witchcraft and oracles.[20] In Greek mythology the Moirai at birth are accompanied by Eileithyia. At the birth of Hercules they use together a magic art, to free the newborn from any "bonds" and "knots".[25]
The Homeric Moira[edit]
An 1886 bas-relief figure of Dike Astraea in the Old Supreme Court Chamber at the Vermont State House.
Much of the Mycenean religion survived into classical Greece, but it is not known to what extent Greek religious belief is Mycenean, nor how much is a product of the Greek Dark Ages or later. M.Finley detected only few authentic Mycenean beliefs in the eighth-century Homeric world.[28] The religion which later the Greeks considered Hellenic embodies a paradox. Though the world is dominated by a divine power bestowed in different ways on men, nothing but "darkness" lay ahead. Life was frail and unsubstantial, and man was like "a shadow in a dream".[29]
In the Homeric poems the words moira, aisa, moros mean "portion, part". Originally they did not indicate a power which led destiny, and must be considered to include the "ascertainment" or "proof". By extension Moira is the portion in glory, happiness, mishappenings, death (μοίρα θανάτοιο: destiny of death) which are unexpected events. The unexpected events were usually attributed to daemons, who appeared in special occurrences. In that regard Moira was later considered an agent, like the daemon of Pre-Greek religion.[30]
People believed that their portion in destiny was something similar with their portion in booty, which was distributed according to their descent, and traditional rules. It was possible to get more than their ordained portion (moira), but they had to face severe consequences because their action was "over moira" (υπέρ μοίραν:over the portion). It may be considered that they "broke the order". The most certain order in human lives is that every human should die, and this was determined by Aisa or Moira at the moment of birth.[22] The Myceneans believed that what comes should come (fatalism), and this was considered rightly offered (according to fate: in order). If someone died in battle, he would exist like a shadow in the gloomy space of the underworld.[30]
The kingdom of Moira is the kingdom of the limit and the end. In a passage in Iliad, Apollo tries three times to stop Patroclus in front of the walls of Troy, warning him that it is "over his portion" to sack the city. Aisa (moira) seems to set a limit on the most vigorous men's actions.[31]
Moira is a power acting in parallel with the gods, and even they could not change the destiny which was predetermined. In the Iliad, Zeus knows that his dearest Sarpedon will be killed by Patroclus, but he cannot save him.[32] In the famous scene of Kerostasia, Zeus the chief-deity of the Myceneans appears as the guider of destiny. Using a pair of scales he decides that Hector must die, according to his aisa (destiny).[33] His decision seems to be independent from his will, and is not related with any "moral purpose". His attitude is explained by Achilleus to Priam, in a parable of two jars at the door of Zeus, one of which contains good things, and the other evil. Zeus gives a mixture to some men, to others only evil and such are driven by hunger over the earth. This was the old "heroic outlook".[34]
The personification of Moira appears in the newer parts of the epos. In Odyssey, she is accompanied by the "Spinners", the personifications of Fate, who do not have separate names.[23] Moira seems to spin the predetermined course of events. Agamemnon claims that he is not responsible for his arrogance. He took the prize of Achilleus, because Zeus and Moira predetermined his decision.[35] In the last section of Iliad, Moira is the "mighty fate" (μοίρα κραταιά:moira krataia) who leads destiny and the course of events. Thetis the mother of Achilleus warns him that he will not live long because mighty fate stands hard by him, therefore he must give to Priam the corpse of Hector.[36] At Hector’s birth mighty fate predetermined that his corpse would be devoured by dogs after his death, and Hecabe is crying desperately asking for revenge.[37]
Mythical cosmogonies[edit]
Hekate and the Moirai (The Night of Enitharmon's Joy), by William Blake, Tate Gallery
The three Moirai are daughters of the primeval goddess Nyx (Night), and sisters of Keres (black Fates), Thanatos (Death) and Nemesis (retribution).[2] Later they are daughters of Zeus and the Titaness Themis (the "Institutor"),[38] who was the embodiment of divine order and law.[39][40] and sisters of Eunomia (lawfulness, order), Dike (Justice), and Eirene (Peace)[38]
Hesiod introduces a moral purpose which is absent in the Homeric poems. The Moirai represent a power to which even the gods have to conform. They give men at birth both evil and good moments, and they punish not only men but also gods for their sins.[2]
In the cosmogony of Alcman (7th century BC), first came Thetis (Disposer, Creation), and then simultaneously Poros (path) and Tekmor (end post, ordinance).[41][42] Poros is related with the beginning of all things, and Tekmor is related with the end of all things.[43]
Later in the Orphic cosmogony, first came Thesis (Disposer), whose ineffable nature is unexpressed. Ananke (necessity) is the primeval goddess of inevitability who is entwined with the time-god Chronos, at the very beginning of time. They represented the cosmic forces of Fate and Time, and they were called sometimes to control the fates of the gods. The three Moirai are daughters of Ananke.[44]
Mythology[edit]
Prometheus creates man. Clotho and Lachesis besides Poseidon (with his trident), and presumably Atropos besides Artemis (with the moon crescent). Roman sarcophagus, Louvre.
The Moirai were described as ugly old women, sometimes lame. They were severe, inflexible and stern. Clotho carries a spindle or a roll (the book of fate), Lachesis a staff with which she points to the horoscope on a globe, and Atropos (Aisa) a scroll, a wax tablet, a sundial, a pair of scales, or a cutting instrument. At other times the three were shown with staffs or sceptres, the symbols of dominion, and sometimes even with crowns. At the birth of each man they appeared spinning, measuring, and cutting the thread of life.[45]
The Moirai were supposed to appear three nights after a child's birth to determine the course of its life, as in the story of Meleager and the firebrand taken from the hearth and preserved by his mother to extend his life.[46] Bruce Karl Braswell from readings in the lexicon of Hesychius, associates the appearance of the Moirai at the family hearth on the seventh day with the ancient Greek custom of waiting seven days after birth to decide whether to accept the infant into the Gens and to give it a name, cemented with a ritual at the hearth.[47] At Sparta the temple to the Moirai stood near the communal hearth of the polis, as Pausanias observed.[48]
As goddesses of birth who even prophesied the fate of the newly born, Eileithyia, the ancient Minoan goddess of childbirth and divine midwifery, was their companion. Pausanias mentions an ancient role of Eileythia as "the clever spinner", relating her with destiny too.[49] Their appearance indicate the Greek desire for health which was connected with the Greek cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity.[50]
The Moirai assigned to the terrible chthonic goddesses Erinyes who inflicted the punishment for evil deeds their proper functions, and with them directed fate according to necessity. As goddesses of death they appeared together with the daemons of death Keres and the infernal Erinyes.[45]
Bas relief of Lachesis. Base of a lampstand in front of the Supreme Court of the United States Washington, D.C..
In earlier times they were represented as only a few—perhaps only one—individual goddess. Homer's Iliad (xxiv.209) speaks generally of the Moira, who spins the thread of life for men at their birth; she is Moira Krataia "powerful Moira" (xvi.334) or there are several Moirai (xxiv.49). In the Odyssey (vii.197) there is a reference to the Klôthes, or Spinners. At Delphi, only the Fates of Birth and Death were revered.[51] In Athens, Aphrodite, who had an earlier, pre-Olympic existence, was called Aphrodite Urania the "eldest of the Fates" according to Pausanias (x.24.4).

Some Greek mythographers went so far as to claim that the Moirai were the daughters of Zeus—paired with Themis ("Fundament"), as Hesiod had it in one passage.[52] In the older myths they are daughters of primeval beings like Nyx ("Night") in Theogony, or Ananke ("Necessity") in Orphic cosmogony. Whether or not providing a father even for the Moirai was a symptom of how far Greek mythographers were willing to go, in order to modify the old myths to suit the patrilineal Olympic order,[53] the claim of a paternity was certainly not acceptable to Aeschylus, Herodotus, or Plato.
Despite their forbidding reputation, the Moirai could be placated as goddesses. Brides in Athens offered them locks of hair, and women swore by them. They may have originated as birth goddesses and only later acquired their reputation as the agents of destiny.
According to the mythographer Apollodorus, in the Gigantomachy, the war between the Giants and Olympians, the Moirai killed the Giants Agrios and Thoon with their bronze clubs.[54]
Zeus and the Moirai[edit]
Bas relief of Atropos cutting the thread of life
In the Homeric poems Moira, who is almost always one, is acting independently from the gods. Only Zeus, the chief sky-deity of the Myceneans is close to Moira, and in a passage he is the being of this power.[30] Using a weighing scale (balance) Zeus weighs Hector's "lot of death" (Ker) against the one of Achilleus. Hector's lot weighs down, and he dies according to Fate. Zeus appears as the guider of destiny, who gives everyone the right portion.[55][56]
In a Mycenean vase, Zeus holds a weighing scale (balance) in front of two warriors, indicating that he is measuring their destiny before the battle. The belief (fatalism) was that if they die in battle, they must die, and this was rightly offered (according to fate).[57]
In Theogony, the three Moirai are daughters of the primeval goddess, Nyx ("Night"),[58] representing a power acting over the gods.[2] Later they are daughters of Zeus who gives them the greatest honour, and Themis, the ancient goddess of law and divine order.[39][40]
Bas relief of Clotho. Base of a lampstand in front of the Supreme Court of the United States, Washington
Even the gods feared the Moirai or Fates, which according to Herodotus a god could not escape.[59] The Pythian priestess at Delphi once admitted, that Zeus was also subject to their power, though no classic writing clarifies as to what exact extent the lives of immortals were affected by the whims of the Fates. It is to be expected that the relationship of Zeus and the Moirai was not immutable over the centuries. In either case in antiquity we can see a feeling towards a notion of an order to which even the gods have to conform. Simonides names this power Ananke (necessity) (the mother of the Moirai in Orphic cosmogony) and says that even the gods don't fight against it.[60] Aeschylus combines Fate and necessity in a scheme, and claims that even Zeus cannot alter which is ordained.[4]
A supposed epithet Zeus Moiragetes, meaning "Zeus Leader of the Moirai" was inferred by Pausanias from an inscription he saw in the 2nd century AD at Olympia: "As you go to the starting-point for the chariot-race there is an altar with an inscription to the Bringer of Fate.[61] This is plainly a surname of Zeus, who knows the affairs of men, all that the Fates give them, and all that is not destined for them."[62] At the Temple of Zeus at Megara, Pausanias inferred from the relief sculptures he saw "Above the head of Zeus are the Horai and Moirai, and all may see that he is the only god obeyed by Moira." Pausanias' inferred assertion is unsupported in cult practice, though he noted a sanctuary of the Moirai there at Olympia (v.15.4), and also at Corinth (ii.4.7) and Sparta (iii.11.8), and adjoining the sanctuary of Themis outside a city gate of Thebes.[63]
Cross-cultural parallels[edit]
Europe[edit]
The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree of the world.
In Roman mythology the three Moirai are the Parcae or Fata, plural of "fatum" meaning prophetic declaration, oracle, or destiny. The English words fate (native wyrd) and fairy (magic, enchantment), are both derived from "fata", "fatum" .[64]
In Norse mythology the Norns are female beings who rule the destiny of gods and men, twining the thread of life. They set up the laws and decided on the lives of the children of men.[65] Their names were Urðr, related with Wyrd, weird (fate), Verðandi, and Skuld, and it has often been inferred that they ruled over the past, present and future respectively, based on the sequence and partly the etymology of the names, of which the first two (literally 'Fate' and 'Becoming') are derived from the past and present stems of the verb verða, "to be", respectively[66], and the name of the third one means 'Debt' or 'Guilt', originally 'That which must happen'.[67]
In younger legendary sagas, the Norns appear to have been synonymous with witches (Völvas), and they arrive at the birth of the hero to shape his destiny. It seems that originally all of them were Disir, ghosts or deities associated with destruction and destiny. The notion that they were three may be due to a late influence from Greek and Roman mythology.[68] The same applies to their (disputed) association with the past, present and future.
The Valkyries (choosers of the slain), were originally daemons of death. They were female figures who decided who will die in battle, and brought their chosen to the afterlife hall of the slain. They were also related with spinning, and one of them was named Skuld (debt, guilt).[69] They may be related to Keres, the daemons of death in Greek mythology, who accompanied the dead to the entrance of Hades. In the scene of Kerostasie Keres are the "lots of death", and in some cases Ker (destruction) has the same meaning, with Moira interpreted as "destiny of death" (moira thanatoio :μοίρα θανάτοιο) .[2][70]
The Celtic Matres and Matrones, female deities almost entirely in a group of three, have been proposed as connected to the Norns and the Valkyries.[71]
Macbeth and Banquo meeting the three weird sisters in a woodcut from Holinshed's Chronicles.
In Anglo-Saxon culture Wyrd (Weird) is a concept corresponding to fate or personal destiny (literally: what befalls one). Its Norse cognate is Urðr, and both names are deriven from the PIE root wert, "to turn, wind",[72] related with "spindle, distaff".[73] In Old English literature Wyrd goes ever as she shall, and remains wholly inevitable.[74][75]
In Shakespeare's Macbeth the Weird sisters (or Three Witches), are prophetesses, who are deeply entrenched in both worlds of reality and supernatural. Their creation was influenced by British folklore, witchcraft, and the legends of the Norns and the Moirai.[76] Hecate, the chthonic Greek goddess associated with magic, witchcraft, necromancy, and three-way crossroads,[77] appears as the master of the "Three witches". In Ancient Greek religion, Hecate as goddess of childbirth is identified with Artemis,[78] who was the leader (ηγεμόνη: hegemone ) of the nymphs.[79]
In Lithuanian mythology Laima is the personification of destiny, and her most important duty was to prophecy how the life of a newborn will take place. She may be related to the Hindu goddess Laksmi, who was the personification of wealth and prosperity, and associated with good fortune.[80][81] In Latvian mythology, Laima and her sisters were a trinity of fate deities.[82]
The Moirai were usually described as cold, remorseless and unfeeling, and depicted as old crones or hags. The independent spinster has always inspired fear rather than matrimony: "this sinister connotation we inherit from the spinning goddess," write Ruck and Staples (Ruck and Staples 1994:). See weaving (mythology).
Asia[edit]
A section of the Egyptian Book of the Dead written on papyrus showing the "Weighing of the Heart" in the Duat using the feather of Maat as the measure in balance.
The notion of a universal principle of natural order has been compared to similar ideas in other cultures, such as aša, (Asha) in Avestan religion, Rta in Vedic religion, and Maat in Ancient Egyptian religion.[83]
In the Avestan religion and Zoroastrianism, aša, is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of "truth", "right(eousness)", "order". Aša and its Vedic equivalent, Rta, are both derived from a PIE root meaning "properly joined, right, true". The word is the proper name of the divinity Asha, the personification of "Truth" and "Righteousness". Aša corresponds to an objective, material reality which embraces all of existence.[84] This cosmic force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order.[85] In the literature of the Mandeans, an angelic being has the responsibility of weighing the souls of the deceased to determine their worthiness, using a set of scales.[86]
In the Vedic religion, Rta is an ontological principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe. The term is now interpreted abstractly as "cosmic order", or simply as "truth",[87] although it was never abstract at the time.[88] It seems that this idea originally arose in the Indo-Aryan period, from a con-sideration (so denoted to indicate the original meaning of communing with the star beings) of the qualities of nature which either remain constant or which occur on a regular basis.[89]
The individuals fulfill their true natures when they follow the path set for them by the ordinances of Rta, acting according to the Dharma, which is related to social and moral spheres.[90] The god of the waters Varuna was probably originally conceived as the personalized aspect of the otherwise impersonal Ṛta.[91] The gods are never portrayed as having command over Ṛta, but instead they remain subject to it like all created beings.[90]
In Egyptian religion, maat was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. The word is the proper name of the divinity Maat, who was the goddess of harmony, justice, and truth represented as a young woman. It was considered that she set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation.[92] Maat was the norm and basic values that formed the backdrop for the application of justice that had to be carried out in the spirit of truth and fairness.[93]
In Egyptian mythology, Maat dealt with the weighing of souls that took place in the underworld. Her feather was the measure that determined whether the souls (considered to reside in the heart) of the departed would reach the paradise of afterlife successfully. In the famous scene of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Anubis, using a scale, weighs the sins of a man's heart against the feather of truth, which represents maat. If man's heart weighs down, then he is devoured by a monster[94]
Astronomical objects[edit]
The asteroids (97) Klotho, (120) Lachesis, and (273) Atropos are named for the Three Fates.
See also[edit]
Ananke
Asha
Istustaya and Papaya
Kallone
Enchanted Moura
Laima
Matrones
Narecnitsi
Norns
Parcae
Rta
Sudice (mythology)
Tekmor
Three Witches
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Theoi project: Moirae and the Throne of Zeus". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hesiod, Theogony 221–225. "Also Night (Nyx) bare the destinies (Moirai), and ruthless avenging Fates (Keres), who give men at their birth both evil and good to have, and they pursue the transgressions of men and gods... until they punish the sinner with a sore penalty." online The Theogony of Hesiod. Transl. Hugh Evelyn White (1914) 221–225.
Jump up ^ Plato, Republic 617c (trans. Shorey) (Greek philosopher 4th century BC): Theoi Project – Ananke.
^ Jump up to: a b Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, 510–518: "Not in this way is Moira (Fate) who brings all to fulfillment, destined to complete this course. Skill is weaker far than Ananke (necessity). Yes in that even he (Zeus) cannot escape what is foretold." Theoi Project – Ananke
Jump up ^ Simplicius, In Physica 24.13. The Greek peers of Anaximander echoed his sentiment with the belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate: Bertrand Russell (1946). A history of Western Philosophy, and its connections with Political and Social Circumstances from the earliest times to the Present Day. New York. Simon and Schuster p. 148.
Jump up ^ Moira, Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ merit, Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ Iliad, 9.318:Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα,
Jump up ^ Odyssey 19.152: :Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα
Jump up ^ The citizents of Sparta were called omoioi (equals), indicating that they had equal parts ("isomoiria" ἰσομοιρία) of the allotted land
Jump up ^ Iliad 16.367: :Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα
Jump up ^ M.Nillson, Vol I, p.217
Jump up ^ Euripides, Iph.Aul. V 113: " ΄'ω πότνια μοίρα καί τύχη, δαίμων τ΄εμός "Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: τύχη.
Jump up ^ L.H.Jeffery (1976) Archaic Greece. The City-States c. 700–500 BC . Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge p. 42 ISBN 0-510-03271-0
Jump up ^ The expectation that there would be three was strong by the 2nd century CE: when Pausanias visited the temple of Apollo at Delphi, with Apollo and Zeus each accompanied by a Fate, he remarked "There are also images of two Moirai; but in place of the third Moira there stand by their side Zeus Moiragetes and Apollon Moiragetes."
Jump up ^ Compare the ancient goddess Adrasteia, the "inescapable".
Jump up ^ "Comes the blind Fury with th'abhorred shears, / And slits the thin spun life." John Milton, Lycidas, l. 75. Works related to Lycidas at Wikisource
Jump up ^ Plato, Republic, 617c (translated by Sorrey). Theoi Project – Ananke
Jump up ^ Pindar, Fragmenta Chorica Adespota, 5. Diehl
^ Jump up to: a b R. G. Wunderlich (1994). The secret of Crete. Efstathiadis group, Athens pp. 290–291, 295–296. (British Edition, Souvenir Press Ltd. London 1975) ISBN 960-226-261-3
Jump up ^ Burkert, Walter. (1985). The Greek Religion, Harvard University Press. pp 32–47
^ Jump up to: a b "Not yet is thy fate (moira) to die and meet thy doom" (Ilias 7.52), "But thereafter he (Achilleus) shall suffer whatever Fate (Aisa) spun for him at his birth, when his mother bore him": (Ilias 20.128 ): M. Nilsson. (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion’’ Vol I, C.F.Beck Verlag., Műnchen pp. 363–364
^ Jump up to: a b "But thereafter he shall suffer whatever Fate (Aisa) and the dread Spinners spun with her thread for him at his birth, when his mother bore him." (Odyssey 7.198)
Jump up ^ "Easily known is the seed of that man for whom the son of Cronos spins the seed of good fortune at marriage and at birth." (Odyssey, 4.208 ): M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 363–364
^ Jump up to: a b M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 114, 200
Jump up ^ "If a lady loosened a knot in the woof, she could liberate the leg of her hero. But if she tied a knot, she could stop the enemy from moving. ":Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007): Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. P. 72 ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9
Jump up ^ M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 363–364
Jump up ^ M.Finley (1978). The world of Odysseus. p.124
Jump up ^ "Man's life is a day. What is he, what is he not? A shadow in a dream is man.: Pindar, Pythionikos VIII 95-7: C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience. The World publishing company. Cleveland and New York. p. 64
^ Jump up to: a b c M.Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, Vol I . C.F.Beck Verlag. München. p.361-368
Jump up ^ Iliad 16.705: "Draw back noble Patrolos, it is not your lot (aisa) to sack the city of the Trojan chieftains, nor yet it will be that of Achilleus, who is far better than you are.": C.Castoriades (2004), Ce que fait La Grece. 1 D' Homere a Heraclite. La creation Humaine II . Edition du Seuils, Paris p.300
Jump up ^ Iliad 16.433: "Ah, woe is me, for that it is fated that Sarpedon, dearest of men to me, be slain by Patroclus, son of Menoetius! And in twofold wise is my heart divided in counsel as I ponder in my thought whether I shall snatch him up while yet he liveth and set him afar from the tearful war in the rich land of Lycia, or whether I shall slay him now beneath the hands of the son of Menoetius."
Jump up ^ Morrison, J. V. (1997). "Kerostasia, the Dictates of Fate, and the Will of Zeus in the Iliad". Arethusa. 30 (2): 276–296. doi:10.1353/are.1997.0008.
Jump up ^ Iliad 24.527-33: C. M. Bowra (1957). ‘’The Greek experience’’. The World publishing company. Cleveland and New York. p. 53
Jump up ^ Iliad 19.87:"Howbeit it is not I that am at fault, but Zeus and Fate (Moira) and Erinys, that walketh in darkness, seeing that in the midst of the place of gathering they cast upon my soul fierce blindness on that day, when of mine own arrogance I took from Achilles his prize."
Jump up ^ Iliad 24.131: "For I tell thee, thou shall not thyself be long in life, but even nowdoth death stand hard by thee and mighty fate (moira krataia)".
Jump up ^ Iliad 24.209: On this wise for him did mighty fate spin with her thread at his birth, when myself did bear him, that he should glut swift-footed dogs far from his parents, in the abode of a violent man. "
^ Jump up to: a b Theogony 901:The Theogony of Hesiod.Transl. Hugh Evelyn White (1914) 901–906 online
^ Jump up to: a b M. Finley (1978) The world of Odysseus rev.ed. New York Viking Press p.78 Note.
^ Jump up to: a b In Odyssey,Themistes: "dooms, things laid down originally by divine authority", the themistes of Zeus. Body: council of elders who stored in the collective memory. Thesmos: unwritten law, based on precedent: L.H.Jeffery (1976) Archaic Greece.The City-States c. 700–500 BC . Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge p. 42 ISBN 0-510-03271-0
Jump up ^ τέκμωρ (Τekmor): fixed mark or boundary, end post, purpose τέκμαρ,
Jump up ^ Old English: Takn, sign, mark, English: token, sign, omen. Compare Sanskrit, Laksmi. token, Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ Alcman, frag 5, (from Scholia), Transl Cambell, Vol Greek Lyric II: Theoi Project – Ananke.
Jump up ^ Orphica. Theogonies frag 54 (from Damascius). Greek hymns 3rd to 2nd centuries BC Theoi Project – Ananke.
^ Jump up to: a b "Theoi Project Moirai". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
Jump up ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, story of Meleager in Bibliotheke 1.65.
Jump up ^ Braswell, Bruce Karl (1991). "Meleager and the Moirai: A Note on Ps.-Apollodorus 1. 65". Hermes. 119 (4): 488–489. JSTOR 4476850.
Jump up ^ Pausanias, 3.11. 10–11.
Jump up ^ Pausanias, 8.21.3.
Jump up ^ Pindar, Nemean VII 1–4
Jump up ^ Kerenyi 1951:32.
Jump up ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 904.
Jump up ^ "Zeus obviously had to assimilate this spinning Goddess, and he made them into his daughters, too, although not by all accounts, for even he was bound ultimately by Fate", observe Ruck and Staples (1994:57).
Jump up ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1–2.
Jump up ^ Ilias X 209 ff. O.Crusius Rl, Harisson Prolegomena 5.43 ff: M. Nillson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I . C.F.Beck Verlag. München pp. 217, 222
Jump up ^ This is similar to the famous scene in the Egyptian book of the dead, although the conception is different. Anubis weighs the sins of a man's heart against the feather of truth. If man's heart weighs down, then he is devoured by a monster: Taylor, John H. (Editor- 2009), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife. British Museum Press, London, 2010. pp. 209, 215 ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
Jump up ^ M.P.Nilsson, "Zeus-Schiksalwaage ". Homer and Mycenea D 56. The same belief in Kismet. Also the soldiers in the World-War believed that they wouldn't die by a bullet, unless their name was written on the bullet: M. Nillson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I . C.F.Beck Verlag. München pp. 366, 367
Jump up ^ H.J. Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology, p.24
Jump up ^ Herodotus, Histories I 91
Jump up ^ Diels-Kranz. Fr.420
Jump up ^ The Greek is Moiragetes (Pausanias, 5.15.5).
Jump up ^ Pausanias, v.15.5.
Jump up ^ "There is a sanctuary of Themis, with an image of white marble; adjoining it is a sanctuary of the Fates, while the third is of Zeus of the Market. Zeus is made of stone; the Fates have no images." (Pausanias, ix.25.4).
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: fate, fairy
Jump up ^ Voluspa 20: Henry Adams Bellows' translation for The American-Scandinavian Foundation with clickable names Völuspá Archived 2007-07-18 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Swedish Etymological dictionary
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary shall
Jump up ^ Nordisk familjebook (1913)/ Uggleupplagan.19.Mykenai-Newpada. Nordisk Familjebook
Jump up ^ Davidson H.R. Ellis (1988). Myths and symbols in Pagan Europe. Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Manchester University Press p. 58-61 ISBN 0-7190-2579-6
Jump up ^ Keres, derived from the Greek verb kirainein (κηραίνειν) meaning "to be destroyed". Compare Kir (κηρ), "candle". M.Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p 218, 366
Jump up ^ Lindow John (2001). Norse Mythology, a guide to the ghosts, heroes, rituals and beliefs , Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-515382-0
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: wyrd
Jump up ^ Latin vertere and Russian vreteno: Online Etymology Dictionary: versus
Jump up ^ Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0-393-32097-9
Jump up ^ The Wanderer. Alternative translation by Clifford A. Truesdell IV
Jump up ^ Coddon, Karin S. "'Unreal Mockery': Unreason and the Problem of Spectacle in Macbeth." ELH. (Oct 1989) 56.3 pp. 485–501.
Jump up ^ "Theoi project Hecate". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
Jump up ^ Heidel, William Arthur (1929). The Day of Yahweh: A Study of Sacred Days and Ritual Forms in the Ancient Near East, p. 514. American Historical Association.
Jump up ^ Martin Nilsson (1967). ‘’Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion’’. Vol I. C.F.Beck Verlag, Muenchen, pp. 499–500
Jump up ^ Greimas Algirdas Julien (1992). Of gods and men. Studies in Lithuanian Mythology. Indiana University Press. p. 111, ISBN 0-253-32652-4
Jump up ^ Related to "Iaksmlka", mark, sign or token (Rigveda X, 71,2 ): Monier Williams. Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Jump up ^ Bojtar Endre (1999). Forward to the past. A cultural history of Baltic people. CEU Press, p. 301, ISBN 963-9116-42-4
Jump up ^ Cf. Ramakrishna (1965:153–168), James (1969:35–36)
Jump up ^ Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1963), "Heraclitus and Iran", History of Religions, 3 (1): 34–49, doi:10.1086/462470
Jump up ^ Boyce, Mary (1970), "Zoroaster the Priest", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 33 (1): 22–38, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00145100
Jump up ^ Matthew Bunson, Angels A to Z (New York:Crown), 1996.
Jump up ^ Mahony (1998:3).
Jump up ^ See the philological work of Own Barfield, e.g Poetic Diction or Speaker's Meaning
Jump up ^ Oldenberg, Hermann (1894). Die Religion des Veda. Berlin: Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz. Pp. 30,195–198
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, W. N. (1992). "Some Ethical Concepts for the Modern World from Hindu and Indian Buddhist Tradition" in: Radhakrishnan, S. (Ed.) Rabindranath Tagore: A Centenary Volume 1861 – 1961. Calcutta: Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-7201-332-9.
Jump up ^ Ramakrishna, G. (1965). "Origin and Growth of the Concept of Ṛta in Vedic Literature". Doctoral Dissertation: University of MysoreCf.
Jump up ^ Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt, Robert A. Armour, American Univ in Cairo Press, p167, 2001, ISBN 977-424-669-1
Jump up ^ Egyptian Religion, Siegfried Morenz, Translated by Ann E. Keep, p. 117–125, Cornell University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8014-8029-9.
Jump up ^ Taylor, John H. (editor; 2009), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife. British Museum Press, London, 2010. pp. 209, 215. ISBN 978-0-7141-1989-2.
References[edit]
Armour, Robert A, 2001, Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt, American Univ. in Cairo Press, ISBN 977-424-669-1.
Homer. The Iliad with an English translation. A. T. Murray, Ph.D. (1924), in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd.
Homer. The Odyssey with an English translation. A. T. Murray, Ph.D. (1919), in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd.
Thomas Blisniewski, 1992. Kinder der dunkelen Nacht: Die Ikonographie der Parzen vom späten Mittelalter bis zum späten 18. Jahrhundert. (Cologne) Iconography of the Fates from the late Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century.
Markos Giannoulis, 2010. Die Moiren. Tradition und Wandel des Motivs der Schicksalsgöttinnen in der antiken und byzantinischen Kunst, Ergänzungsband zu Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum, Kleine Reihe 6 (F. J. Dölger Institut). Aschendorff Verlag, Münster, ISBN 978-3-402-10913-7.
Robert Graves, Greek Myths.
Jane Ellen Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion 1903. Chapter VI, "The Maiden-Trinities".
L. H. Jeffery, 1976. Archaic Greece. The City-States c. 700–500 BC . Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge, ISBN 0-510-03271-0.
Karl Kerenyi, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks (Thames and Hudson).
Martin P. Nilsson,1967. Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I, C.F. Beck Verlag., München.
Bertrand Russell, 1946. A history of Western Philosophy, and its connections with Political and Social Circumstances from the earliest times to the Present Day. New York. Simon & Schuster p. 148
Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 1898. perseus.tufts.edu
Herbert Jennings Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology, 1928.
Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth, 1994.
William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, article on Moira, ancientlibrary.com
R. G. Wunderlich (1994). The secret of Crete. Efstathiadis group, Athens pp. 290–291, 295–296. (British Edition, Souvenir Press Ltd. London 1975) ISBN 960-226-261-3
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moirai.
Theoi Project: "Moirai"
The Theogony of Hesiod.Transl.H.E.White (1914)
Theoi Project – Ananke
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moirai&oldid=815976681"
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text:
List of people convicted of treason
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This is a list of people convicted of treason.
Some countries have a high constitutional hurdle to conviction for treason, while many countries have less stringent definitions.
Contents
1 Armenia
2 Austria
3 Austria-Hungary
4 Canada
5 China
6 Republic of Congo
7 Czechoslovakia
8 Denmark (under the Nazi occupational government)
9 East Germany
10 England
11 Estonia
12 Fiji
13 Finland
14 France
15 Germany
16 Great Britain
17 Greece
18 Hawaii
19 Hungary
20 Israel
21 Japan
22 Kenya
23 Kuwait
24 Mexico
25 Netherlands
26 New Zealand
27 Norway
28 Pakistan
29 Poland
30 Russia
31 Scotland
32 Soviet Union
33 Spain
34 Sri Lanka
35 Sweden
36 Switzerland
37 Turkey
38 United Kingdom
39 United States
40 Zambia
41 Zimbabwe
42 See also
43 Footnotes
Armenia[edit]
Meruzhan Artzruni, Lord Prince of Vaspurakan (? – 369), for conspiring with one of the Great Persian Kings, Shapur II against his liege-lord, Armenian King Arsaces II (Arshak II), whom he betrayed to Persia. He was captured by Arsaces II's son King Papas (Pap) and executed.
Austria[edit]
Count Lajos Batthyány de Németújvár, for involvement in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Executed by firing squad on the same day as the 13 Martyrs of Arad.
Austria-Hungary[edit]
Nedeljko Čabrinović, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Vaso Čubrilović, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Veljko Čubrilović, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Trifko Grabez, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Danilo Ilić, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Muhamed Mehmedbašić, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Cvjetko Popović, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Gavrilo Princip, for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Nazario Sauro, for fighting for Italy in the First World War
Canada[edit]
Louis Riel, executed for leading the Métis in the North-West Rebellion against Canada's expansion into the west.
Kanao Inouye, Kamloops-born sergeant in the Imperial Japanese army in World War II, executed for killing eight Canadian prisoners of war captured at the Battle of Hong Kong.
China[edit]
Zhou Fohai, for serving in the Wang Jingwei government in the Second World War
Chen Gongbo, for serving in the Wang Jingwei government in the Second World War
Wang Jingwei, president of the Reorganized National Government of China (puppet government controlled by Japan) in the Second World War
Republic of Congo[edit]
Pascal Lissouba, former President of the Republic of Congo
Czechoslovakia[edit]
Karel Čurda, for betraying the Czech Resistance and the assassins of Reinhard Heydrich.
Denmark (under the Nazi occupational government)[edit]
Henrik Kauffmann was charged with grand (high) treason by the Nazi-occupied Danish government, for helping the Allies.
East Germany[edit]
Werner Teske
England[edit]
For those convicted on or after 1 May 1707, see Great Britain and United Kingdom.
Main article: List of people convicted of high treason in England before 1 May 1707
Estonia[edit]
Aleksei Dressen
Herman Simm
Vladimir Veitman[citation needed]
Fiji[edit]
George Speight, for plotting the Fiji coup of 2000. Death sentence commuted to life in prison.
Ratu Jope Seniloli, incumbent Vice-President (in 2004), for his role in the coup of 2000. Sentenced to four years in gaol; released by a sympathetic government after three months.
Finland[edit]
Lauri Törni, for having served with the German Army at the end of World War II, later received a presidential pardon
France[edit]
Image taken from Trial of Marshal Ney for high treason taken in short-hand at the time of trial, 1816
François Achille Bazaine[1]
Robert Brasillach
Marcel Bucard
Louis-Ferdinand Céline
Cinq-Mars[2]
Joseph Darnand, for leading the Vichy French Milice.
Émile Dewoitine, aviation industrialist sentenced to 20 years forced labour sentence for collaboration.
Charles François Dumouriez[3]
Isabeau of Bavaria[4]
John the Fearless[5]
Pierre Laval, for being Prime Minister of Vichy France.
Jean Victor Marie Moreau[6]
Michel Ney[7]
Philippe Pétain
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord[8]
Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI
Germany[edit]
Main page: Category:People executed for treason against Germany
Adolf Hitler, for his role in the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923
Marinus van der Lubbe, for high treason and arson in the Reichstag fire case, in 1933
Anton Schmid, for saving Jews and helping Jewish partisans, in 1942. The Bundeswehr has named two barracks after him.
Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl and Christoph Probst in 1943 for their involvement in the anti-Nazi White Rose movement
Ulrich Wilhelm Graf Schwerin von Schwanenfeld (1902–1944), a key conspirator in the failed assassination attempt in the July 20 plot in 1944 on Hitler's life
Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, for the attempted assassination of Hitler in the July 20 plot in 1944
Günter Guillaume, Private Secretary to then-chancellor Willy Brandt, and his wife Christel Guillaume, both officers of East German Staatssicherheit, in 1975
Clyde Lee Conrad, former US Army NCO, the only person to have been handed down a lifetime sentence for treason by a court of the Federal Republic of Germany, in 1990
Klaus Kuron (de), counter-intelligence officer with the Bundesverfassungsschutz who had spied for East German Staatssicherheit, in 1992
Great Britain[edit]
For those before 1 May 1707, see England and Scotland. For those convicted on or after 1 January 1801, see United Kingdom
Archibald Cameron of Locheil, for his part in the 1745 Jacobite rising
Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, for his part in the 1745 Jacobite rising
William Maxwell, 5th Earl of Nithsdale, for supporting the Jacobite rising of 1715
Thomas Paine,[9] for publishing anti-British revolutionary literature
Charles Radclyffe, for supporting the Jacobite rising of 1715
Greece[edit]
Dimitrios Gounaris, Prime Minister of Greece (1921–1922), convicted of treason in 1922 for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Petros Protopapadakis, Minister of Economy in Dimitrios Gounaris' government and later Prime Minister of Greece (1922), convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Nikolaos Stratos, Minister of Internal Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Georgios Baltatzis (el), Minister of Foreign Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Nikolaos Theotokis (el), Minister of Military Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Georgios Hatzanestis, commanding officer of the Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace Greek army, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
Michail Goudas (el), rear admiral and minister in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Sentenced to life imprisonment.
Xenophon Stratigos, major general and minister in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Sentenced to life imprisonment.
George Papadopoulos, Greek colonel, leader of a military junta (1967–1973), convicted of treason and jailed for life, died in Korydallos prison 27 June 1999.
Hawaii[edit]
The Republic of Hawaii government had one trial for treason after the failed 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii. Those charged were found guilty, but pardoned after serving time in prison.[10]
Charles T. Gulick (1841–1897), former cabinet minister
Robert William Wilcox (1855–1903), military leader, later delegate to US Congress
Hungary[edit]
Imre Nagy, Prime Minister of Hungary, for leading the 1956 Hungarian Revolution.
Count Fidel Palffy
László Rajk
Sándor Szűcs, international footballer, for defecting.
Israel[edit]
Meir Tobianski, falsely accused of treason during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Executed by firing squad but pardoned after his death.
Mordechai Vanunu, for revealing details of Israel's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986.
"Prisoner X2", a mole within Mossad.
Japan[edit]
Ozaki Hotsumi, journalist and Soviet agent (nominally convicted under the Peace Preservation Law)
Daisuke Namba, Japanese left-wing activist
Kotoku Shusui, Japanese anarchist
Kenya[edit]
Hezekiah Ochuka, Kenya airforce soldier, for conspiring to overthrow the government of Daniel Moi in 1982
Kuwait[edit]
Alaa Hussein Ali, for heading the Iraqi puppet government during the Gulf War
Mexico[edit]
Agustín de Iturbide, for fighting for the royalists' army during the Mexican War of Independence.
Netherlands[edit]
Anton Mussert, for leading the Dutch puppet regime under Nazi occupation.
New Zealand[edit]
Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan, for passing information to the Japanese during World War II (was not convicted under New Zealand civil law)
Hamiora Pere, for fighting against the British government in Te Kooti's War; only person executed for treason in New Zealand
Norway[edit]
Albert Viljam Hagelin, member of Quisling's government.
Vidkun Quisling, for being Minister President of Nazi-occupied Norway during World War II. The word 'quisling' now means 'traitor'.
Ragnar Skancke, Quisling's minister of Church and Educational Affairs.
Arne Treholt Norwegian diplomat, turned by the KGB
Pakistan[edit]
Shakil Afridi, for spying for the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States
Hussain Haqqani, for involvement with a secret memo to Admiral Michael Mullen asking for US intervention in changing Pakistan's military and intelligence agencies.
Poland[edit]
For the betrayal of General Stefan Rowecki to the Gestapo:
Blanka Kaczorowska (pl) ("Sroka"), as above, emigrated to France in 1971
Ludwik Kalkstein ("Hanka"), protected by the Gestapo during the war, emigrated to France in 1982
Eugeniusz Świerczewski ("Gens"), executed 1944
For betrayal of the Polish People's Republic:
Witold Pilecki ("Druh"), death for espionage for the Polish Government-in-exile, executed in 1948, posthumously acquitted in 1990
Ryszard Kukliński ("Jack Strong"), escaped to the USA in 1981, sentenced to death in absentia in 1984, in 1990 sentence changed to 25 years of imprisonment, in 1995 sentence cancelled due to search of the 1st President of the Supreme Court, fully pardoned in 1997
Adam Kaczmarczyk, death for espionage for MI16, executed in 1969
Russia[edit]
Valentin Danilov – 14 years for espionage for China
Mikhail Shein
Boris Yeltsin - Belavezha Accords
Igor Sutyagin (2004) – 15 years for espionage for USA. Exchanged for Russian spies in 2010.
Scotland[edit]
For those convicted on or after 1 May 1707, see Great Britain and United Kingdom.
Robert Baillie, for involvement in the Rye House Plot
William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, for leading the Raid of Ruthven on King James VI
Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany
Patrick Stewart, Earl of Orkney, for usurping King James VI on the Orkney Islands
Soviet Union[edit]
For those convicted on or after 25 December 1991, see Russia .
Leonid Eitingon circa 1953
Oleg Penkovsky
Adolf Tolkachev, worked with CIA, executed 1986
Gennady Varenik KGB, worked for CIA
Andrey Vlasov
Genrikh Yagoda
Spain[edit]
Francisco Xavier Mina, for fighting against the Spanish government in the Mexican War of Independence.
Camilo Torres Tenorio, for leading the independence movement in Colombia
Sri Lanka[edit]
Velupillai Prabhakaran, the Tamil rebel leader who fought with the government for 30 years.
Sweden[edit]
Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt, attempted to overthrow the guardian-government of King Gustav IV Adolf with Russian military assistance.
Johann Patkul, protested the land-recovery project of Charles XI of Sweden and, when unsuccessful, sided with Augustus the Strong and tried to wrest Livonia from Sweden.
Magdalena Rudenschöld, for taking part in the Armfelt conspiracy.
Brita Tott, for exposing military movements to Denmark
Switzerland[edit]
Jean-Louis Jeanmaire, sentenced to 18 years of prison (released after 12 for good behavior) for leaking information to the Soviet KGB.
Turkey[edit]
Abdullah Öcalan, life sentence (originally death penalty) for trying to establish a Kurdish state in Turkey.
United Kingdom[edit]
For those before 1 January 1801, see England, Scotland, and Great Britain.
John Amery, for trying to recruit soldiers and broadcasting propaganda for Nazi Germany.
Roger Casement, for negotiating with Germany to provide arms to Irish revolutionaries during the First World War for use in the Irish Easter 1916 rising; hanged in August 1916.
William Comstive, Charles Stanfield, Richard Addy, Benjamin Hanson and eighteen others were tried and convicted for High Treason for revolt in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1820.
William Joyce, alias 'Lord Haw-Haw', for broadcasting Nazi propaganda to the United Kingdom during World War II. Hanged on 3 January 1946
Members of the British Free Corps: Thomas Haller Cooper and Walter Purdy (death sentences commuted)
Participants in the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland: Patrick Pearse, Thomas J. Clarke, Thomas MacDonagh, Joseph Mary Plunkett, Edward (Ned) Daly, William Pearse, Michael O'Hanrahan, John MacBride, Éamonn Ceannt, Michael Mallin, Cornelius Colbert, Seán Heuston, Seán Mac Diarmada, James Connolly, and Thomas Kent were shot by firing squad in May 1916.
Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, William Davidson, James Ings, Richard Tidd, Charles Cooper, Richard Bradburn, John Harrison, James Wilson and John Shaw Strange participants of the 1820 Cato Street Conspiracy
James Wilson (revolutionary) convicted and executed for High Treason, following his part in the Scottish Insurrection of 1820.
Jeremiah Brandreth, Isaac Ludlam and William Turner convicted and executed for High Treason following their part in the Pentrich Revolution of 1817. [11]
United States[edit]
Further information: Category:People convicted of treason against the United States
Philip Vigol and John Mitchell, convicted of treason and sentenced to hanging; pardoned by George Washington; see Whiskey Rebellion.
John Fries, the leader of Fries' Rebellion, convicted of treason in 1800 along with two accomplices, and pardoned that same year by John Adams.
Governor Thomas Dorr 1844, convicted of treason against the state of Rhode Island; see Dorr Rebellion; released in 1845; civil rights restored in 1851; verdict annulled in 1854.
John Brown, convicted of treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1859 and executed for attempting to organize armed resistance to slavery.
Aaron Dwight Stevens, took part in John Brown's raid and was executed in 1860 for treason against Virginia.
William Bruce Mumford, convicted of treason and hanged in 1862 for tearing down a United States flag during the American Civil War.
Walter Allen was convicted of treason on September 16, 1922 for taking part in the 1921 Miner's March with the coal companies and the US Army on Blair Mountain, West Virginia. He was sentenced to 10 years and fined. During his appeal to the Supreme Court he disappeared while out on bail. United Mineworkers of America leader William Blizzard was acquitted of the charge of treason by the jury on May 25, 1922.[12]
Martin James Monti, United States Army Air Forces pilot, convicted of treason for defecting to the Waffen SS in 1944. He was paroled in 1960.
Robert Henry Best, convicted of treason on April 16, 1948 and served a life sentence.
Iva Toguri D'Aquino, who is frequently identified by the name "Tokyo Rose", convicted 1949. Subsequently, pardoned by President Gerald Ford.
Mildred Gillars, also known as "Axis Sally", convicted of treason on March 8, 1949; served 12 years of a 10- to 30-year prison sentence.
Tomoya Kawakita, sentenced to death for treason in 1952, but eventually released by President John F. Kennedy to be deported to Japan.
Zambia[edit]
Steven Lungu, also known as Captain Solo. Sentenced to death for an attempted coup in 1997, he was pardoned in 2010 by President Rupiah Banda.
Zimbabwe[edit]
Ndabaningi Sithole, for conspiring to kill Robert Mugabe
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
See also[edit]
Treason trial
Footnotes[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Treason.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 233.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 155.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 175.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 112.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 95.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 214.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Valode, Philippe (2007). Les Grands traitres de l'histoire. Paris, France: First Edition. p. 203.
Jump up ^ Conway, Moncure Daniel (1893) [1892]. The Life of Thomas Paine. New York: Knickerbocker Press. p. 375. Archived from the original on 2009-04-18. Retrieved 2006-07-06.
Jump up ^ "Prisoners Pardoned". Hawaiian Gazette. Honolulu. January 3, 1896. Retrieved June 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ http://www.visitambervalley.co.uk/culture/history-heritage/pentrich-revolution.aspx
Jump up ^ http://www.wvencyclopedia.org/articles/205
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