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Solar flare
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For the class of stars that undergo similar phenomena, see flare star.
"Sun flare" redirects here. For the rose variety, see Rosa 'Sun Flare'.
Heliophysics
Phenomena
Coronal mass ejection
Geomagnetic storm
Solar flare
Solar prominence
Solar proton event
Sunspot
Nuclear EMP
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Solar flare and its prominence eruption recorded on June 7, 2011 by SDO in extreme ultraviolet
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Evolution of magnetism on the Sun.
On August 31, 2012 a long prominence/filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, erupted out into space at 4:36 p.m. EDT. Seen here from the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the flare caused an aurora on Earth on September 3.
A solar flare is a sudden flash of increased Sun's brightness, usually observed near its surface. Flares are often, but not always, accompanied by a coronal mass ejection.[1]
Solar flares fall on a very broad spectrum of emissions, an energy release of typically 1020 joules of energy is considered to be the median for a well-observed event, while a major event can emit up to 1025 joules[2]
The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms along with the electromagnetic waves through the Sun's corona into outer space. The phenomenon therefore provides an early example of multi-messenger astronomy. If ejection is in the direction of the Earth the particles hitting the upper atmosphere can cause bright auroras, and may even disrupt long range radio communication. It usually takes a day or two for these clouds to reach Earth.[3] The term is also used to refer to similar phenomena in other stars, where the term stellar flare applies.
Contents
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1 Physics
2 Cause
3 Classification
3.1 H-alpha classification
4 Hazards
5 Observations
5.1 History
5.2 Optical telescopes
5.3 Radio telescopes
5.4 Space telescopes
5.5 Examples of large solar flares
6 Flare spray
7 Prediction
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Physics[edit]
Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona), when the plasma medium is heated to tens of millions of degrees kelvin, while the cosmic-ray-like electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior. Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass ejections (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.
X-rays and UV radiation emitted by solar flares can affect Earth's ionosphere and disrupt long-range radio communications. Direct radio emission at decimetric wavelengths may disturb the operation of radars and other devices that use those frequencies.
Solar flares were first observed on the Sun by Richard Christopher Carrington and independently by Richard Hodgson in 1859[4] as localized visible brightenings of small areas within a sunspot group. Stellar flares can be inferred by looking at the lightcurves produced from the telescope or satellite data of variety of other stars.
The frequency of occurrence of solar flares varies, from several per day when the Sun is particularly "active" to less than one every week when the Sun is "quiet", following the 11-year cycle (the solar cycle). Large flares are less frequent than smaller ones.
On July 23, 2012, a massive, and potentially damaging, solar superstorm (solar flare, coronal mass ejection, solar EMP) barely missed Earth, according to NASA.[5][6] According to NASA, there may be as much as a 12% chance of a similar event occurring between 2012 and 2022,[5] although because this particular figure was based on an extreme extrapolation of the calculated frequency of future storms, the actual probability of this is quite uncertain.
Cause[edit]
Flares occur when sped up charged particles, mainly electrons, interact with the plasma medium. Abundant evidence implicates that the phenomenon of magnetic reconnection (also describable as magnetic flux transfer) leads to this copious acceleration of charged particles.[7] On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades – a series of closely occurring loops following magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy in this reconnection is the origin of the particle acceleration. The unconnected magnetic helical field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a coronal mass ejection.[8] This also explains why solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.
Although there is a general agreement on the source of a flare's energy, the mechanisms involved are still not well known. It is not clear how the magnetic energy is transformed into the particle kinetic energy, nor is it known how some particles can be accelerated to the GeV range (1012 electron volt) and beyond. There are also some inconsistencies regarding the total number of accelerated particles, which sometimes seems to be greater than the total number in the coronal loop. Scientists are unable to forecast flares, even to this day.[citation needed]
Classification[edit]
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Powerful X-class flares create radiation storms that produce auroras and can give airline passengers flying over the poles small radiation doses.
On August 1, 2010, the Sun shows a C3-class solar flare (white area on upper left), a solar tsunami (wave-like structure, upper right) and multiple filaments of magnetism lifting off the stellar surface.[9]
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Multi-spacecraft observations of the March 20, 2014 X-class flare.
The classification system for solar flares uses the letters A, B, C, M or X, according to the peak flux in watts per square metre (W/m2) of X-rays with wavelengths 100 to 800 picometre, as measured at the Earth's orbital distance by the GOES spacecraft.
Classification
Peak Flux Range at 100-800 picometre
(watts/square metre)
A < 10−7
B 10−7 – 10−6
C 10−6 – 10−5
M 10−5 – 10−4
X > 10−4
The strength of an event within a class is noted by a numerical suffix ranging from 1 to 9, which is also the factor for that event within the class. Hence, an X2 flare is twice the strength of an X1 flare, an X3 flare is three times as powerful as an X1, and only 50% more powerful than an X2 [10]. An X2 is four times more powerful than an M5 flare.[11]
H-alpha classification[edit]
An earlier flare classification is based on Hα spectral observations. The scheme uses both the intensity and emitting surface. The classification in intensity is qualitative, referring to the flares as: (f)aint, (n)ormal or (b)rilliant. The emitting surface is measured in terms of millionths of the hemisphere and is described below. (The total hemisphere area AH = 15.5 × 1012 km2.)
Classification
Corrected Area
[millionths of hemisphere]
S < 100
1 100 – 250
2 250 – 600
3 600 – 1200
4 > 1200
A flare then is classified taking S or a number that represents its size and a letter that represents its peak intensity, v.g.: Sn is a normal sunflare.[12]
Hazards[edit]
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Massive X6.9 class solar flare, August 9, 2011.
While this flare produced a coronal mass ejection (CME), this CME is not traveling towards the Earth, and no local effects are expected.[13]
Solar flares strongly influence the local space weather in the vicinity of the Earth. They can produce streams of highly energetic particles in the solar wind or stellar wind, known as a solar proton event. These particles can impact the Earth's magnetosphere (see main article at geomagnetic storm), and present radiation hazards to spacecraft and astronauts. Additionally, massive solar flares are sometimes accompanied by coronal mass ejections (CMEs) which can trigger geomagnetic storms that have been known to disable satellites and knock out terrestrial electric power grids for extended periods of time.
The soft X-ray flux of X class flares increases the ionization of the upper atmosphere, which can interfere with short-wave radio communication and can heat the outer atmosphere and thus increase the drag on low orbiting satellites, leading to orbital decay. Energetic particles in the magnetosphere contribute to the aurora borealis and aurora australis. Energy in the form of hard x-rays can be damaging to spacecraft electronics and are generally the result of large plasma ejection in the upper chromosphere.
The radiation risks posed by solar flares are a major concern in discussions of a manned mission to Mars, the Moon, or other planets. Energetic protons can pass through the human body, causing biochemical damage,[14] presenting a hazard to astronauts during interplanetary travel. Some kind of physical or magnetic shielding would be required to protect the astronauts. Most proton storms take at least two hours from the time of visual detection to reach Earth's orbit. A solar flare on January 20, 2005 released the highest concentration of protons ever directly measured,[15] giving astronauts as little as 15 minutes to reach shelter.
Observations[edit]
Flares produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, although with different intensity. They are not very intense at white light, but they can be very bright at particular atomic lines. They normally produce bremsstrahlung in X-rays and synchrotron radiation in radio.
History[edit]
Optical observations. Richard Carrington observed a flare for the first time on 1 September 1859 projecting the image produced by an optical telescope through a broad-band filter. It was an extraordinarily intense white light flare. Since flares produce copious amounts of radiation at Hα, adding a narrow ( ≈1 Å) passband filter centered at this wavelength to the optical telescope, allows the observation of not very bright flares with small telescopes. For years Hα was the main, if not the only, source of information about solar flares. Other passband filters are also used.

...
Radio observations. During World War II, on 25 and 26 February 1942, British radar operators observed radiation that Stanley Hey interpreted as solar emission. Their discovery did not go public until the end of the conflict. The same year Southworth also observed the Sun in radio, but as with Hey, his observations were only known after 1945. In 1943 Grote Reber was the first to report radioastronomical observations of the Sun at 160 MHz. The fast development of radioastronomy revealed new peculiarities of the solar activity like storms and bursts related to the flares. Today ground-based radiotelescopes observe the Sun from ~15 MHz up to 400 GHz.
Space telescopes. Since the beginning of space exploration, telescopes have been sent to space, where they work at wavelengths shorter than UV, which are completely absorbed by the atmosphere, and where flares may be very bright. Since the 1970s, the GOES series of satellites observe the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations became the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the Hα classification. Hard X-rays were observed by many different instruments, the most important today being the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). Nonetheless, UV observations are today the stars of solar imaging with their incredible fine details that reveal the complexity of the solar corona. Spacecraft may also bring radio detectors at extremely long wavelengths (as long as a few kilometers) that cannot propagate through the ionosphere.
Optical telescopes[edit]
Two successive photos of a solar flare phenomenon. The solar disc was blocked in these photos for better visualization of the flare's accompanying protruding prominence.
Big Bear Solar Observatory, located in Big Bear Lake, California and operated by the New Jersey Institute of Technology, is a solar dedicated observatory with different instruments, as well as a huge data bank of full disk Hα images.[16]
Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope, operated by the Institute for Solar Physics (Sweden), is located in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos on the island of La Palma (Spain).
McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope, located at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, is the world's largest solar telescope.
Radio telescopes[edit]
Nançay Radioheliographe (NRH) is an interferometer composed of 48 antennas observing at meter-decimeter wavelengths. The radioheliographe is installed at the Nançay Radio Observatory, France.[17]
Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA) is a radio interferometer operated by the New Jersey Institute of Technology consisting of 7 antennas, observing from 1 to 18 GHz in both left and right circular polarization. OVSA is located in Owens Valley, California. It is now being improved, increasing to 15 the total number of antennas and upgrading its control system.[18]
Nobeyama Radioheliograph (NoRH) is an interferometer installed at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory, Japan, formed by 84 small (80 cm) antennas, with receivers at 17 GHz (left and right polarization) and 34 GHz operating simultaneously. It continuously observes the Sun, producing daily snapshots.[19]
Siberian Solar Radio Telescope (SSRT) is a special-purpose solar radio telescope designed for studying solar activity in the microwave range (5.7 GHz) where the processes occurring in the solar corona are accessible to observation over the entire solar disk. It is a crossed interferometer, consisting of two arrays of 128x128 parabolic antennas 2.5 meters in diameter each, spaced equidistantly at 4.9 meters and oriented in the E-W and N-S directions. It is located in a wooded valley separating two mountain ridges of the Eastern Sayan Mountains and Khamar-Daban, 220 km from Irkutsk, Russia.[20]
Nobeyama Radio Polarimeters are a set of radio telescopes installed at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory that continuously observes the full Sun (no images) at the frequencies of 1, 2, 3.75, 9.4, 17, 35, and 80 GHz, at left and right circular polarization.[21]
Solar Submillimeter Telescope is a single dish telescope, that observes continuously the Sun at 212 and 405 GHz. It is installed at Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito in Argentina. It has a focal array composed by 4 beams at 212 GHz and 2 at 405 GHz, therefore it can instantaneously locate the position of the emitting source[22] SST is the only solar submillimeter telescope currently in operation.
Polarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun (POEMAS) is a system of two circular polarization solar radio telescopes, for observations of the Sun at 45 and 90 GHz. The novel characteristic of these instruments is the capability to measure circular right- and left-hand polarizations at these high frequencies. The system is installed at Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito in Argentina. It started operations in November 2011. In November 2013 it went offline for repairs. It is expected to return to observing in January 2015.
Bleien Radio Observatory is a set of radio telescopes operating near Gränichen (Switzerland). They continuously observe the solar flare radio emission from 10 MHz (ionospheric limit) to 5 GHz. The broadband spectrometers are known as Phoenix and CALLISTO.[23]
Space telescopes[edit]
The following spacecraft missions have flares as their main observation target.
Yohkoh – The Yohkoh (originally Solar A) spacecraft observed the Sun with a variety of instruments from its launch in 1991 until its failure in 2001. The observations spanned a period from one solar maximum to the next. Two instruments of particular use for flare observations were the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT), a glancing incidence low energy X-ray telescope for photon energies of order 1 keV, and the Hard X-ray Telescope (HXT), a collimation counting instrument which produced images in higher energy X-rays (15-92 keV) by image synthesis.
WIND – The Wind spacecraft is devoted to the study of the interplanetary medium. Since the Solar Wind is its main driver, solar flares effects can be traced with the instruments aboard Wind. Some of the WIND experiments are: a very low frequency spectrometer, (WAVES), particles detectors (EPACT, SWE) and a magnetometer (MFI).
GOES – The GOES spacecraft are satellites in geostationary orbits around the Earth that have measured the soft X-ray flux from the Sun since the mid-1970s, following the use of similar instruments on the Solrad satellites. GOES X-ray observations are commonly used to classify flares, with A, B, C, M, and X representing different powers of ten – an X-class flare has a peak 1-8 Å flux above 0.0001 W/m2.
RHESSI – The Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectral Imager is designed to image solar flares in energetic photons from soft X rays (~3 keV) to gamma rays (up to ~20 MeV) and to provide high resolution spectroscopy up to gamma-ray energies of ~20 MeV. Furthermore, it has the capability to perform spatially resolved spectroscopy with high spectral resolution.
SOHO – The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory is collaboration between the ESA and NASA which is in operation since December 1995. It carries 12 different instruments, among them the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT), the Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) and the Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI). SOHO is in a halo orbit around the earth-sun L1 point.
TRACE – The Transition Region and Coronal Explorer is a NASA Small Explorer program (SMEX) to image the solar corona and transition region at high angular and temporal resolution. It has passband filters at 173 Å, 195 Å, 284 Å, 1600 Å with a spatial resolution of 0.5 arc sec, the best at these wavelengths.
SDO – The Solar Dynamics Observatory is a NASA project composed of 3 different instruments: the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI), the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) and the Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE). It has been operating since February 2010 in a geosynchronous earth orbit.[24]
Hinode –The Hinode spacecraft, originally called Solar B, was launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency in September 2006 to observe solar flares in more precise detail. Its instrumentation, supplied by an international collaboration including Norway, the U.K., the U.S., and Africa focuses on the powerful magnetic fields thought to be the source of solar flares. Such studies shed light on the causes of this activity, possibly helping to forecast future flares and thus minimize their dangerous effects on satellites and astronauts.[25]
ACE – The Advanced Composition Explorer was launched in 1997 into a halo orbit around the earth-sun L1 point. It carries spectrometers, magnetometers and charged particle detectors to analyze the solar wind. The Real Time Solar Wind (RTSW) beacon is continually monitored by a network of NOAA-sponsored ground stations to provide early warning of earth-bound CMEs.
MAVEN – The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) mission, which launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on November 18, 2013, is the first mission devoted to understanding the Martian upper atmosphere. The goal of MAVEN is to determine the role that loss of atmospheric gas to space played in changing the Martian climate through time. The Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) monitor on MAVEN is part of the Langmuir Probe and Waves (LPW) instrument and measures solar EUV input and variability, and wave heating of the Martian upper atmosphere.[26]
In addition to these solar observing facilities, many non-solar astronomical satellites observe flares either intentionally (e.g., NuSTAR), or simply because the penetrating hard radiations coming from a flare can readily penetrate most forms of shielding.
Examples of large solar flares[edit]
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Short narrated video about Fermi's observations of the highest-energy light ever associated with an eruption on the sun as of June 2012
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Active Region 1515 released an X1.1 class flare from the lower right of the sun on July 6, 2012, peaking at 7:08 PM EDT. This flare caused a radio blackout, labeled as an R3 on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations scale that goes from R1 to R5.
Space weather—March 2012.[27]
The most powerful flare ever observed was the first one to be observed,[28] on September 1, 1859, and was reported by British astronomer Richard Carrington and independently by an observer named Richard Hodgson. The event is named the Solar storm of 1859, or the "Carrington event". The flare was visible to a naked eye (in white light), and produced stunning auroras down to tropical latitudes such as Cuba or Hawaii, and set telegraph systems on fire.[29] The flare left a trace in Greenland ice in the form of nitrates and beryllium-10, which allow its strength to be measured today.[30] Cliver and Svalgaard[31] reconstructed the effects of this flare and compared with other events of the last 150 years. In their words: While the 1859 event has close rivals or superiors in each of the above categories of space weather activity, it is the only documented event of the last ∼150 years that appears at or near the top of all of the lists.
In modern times, the largest solar flare measured with instruments occurred on November 4, 2003. This event saturated the GOES detectors, and because of this its classification is only approximate. Initially, extrapolating the GOES curve, it was estimated to be X28.[32] Later analysis of the ionospheric effects suggested increasing this estimate to X45.[33] This event produced the first clear evidence of a new spectral component above 100 GHz.[34]
Other large solar flares also occurred on April 2, 2001 (X20),[35] October 28, 2003 (X17.2 and 10),[36] September 7, 2005 (X17),[35] February 17, 2011 (X2),[37][38][39] August 9, 2011 (X6.9),[13][40] March 7, 2012 (X5.4),[41][42] July 6, 2012 (X1.1).[43] On July 6, 2012, a solar storm hit just after midnight UK time,[44] when an X1.1 solar flare fired out of the AR1515 sunspot. Another X1.4 solar flare from AR 1520 region of the Sun,[45] second in the week, reached the Earth on July 15, 2012[46] with a geomagnetic storm of G1–G2 level.[47][48] A X1.8-class flare was recorded on October 24, 2012.[49] There has been major solar flare activity in early 2013, notably within a 48-hour period starting on May 12, 2013, a total of four X-class solar flares were emitted ranging from an X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2,[50] the latter of which was one of the largest year 2013 flares.[51][52] Departing sunspot complex AR2035-AR2046 erupted on April 25, 2014 at 0032 UT, producing a strong X1.3-class solar flare and an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the explosion.The Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded an X9.3-class flare at around 1200 UTC on September 6, 2017.[53]
Flare spray[edit]
Flare sprays are a type of eruption associated with solar flares.[54] They involve faster ejections of material than eruptive prominences,[55] and reach velocities of 20 to 2000 kilometers per second.[56]
Prediction[edit]
Current methods of flare prediction are problematic, and there is no certain indication that an active region on the Sun will produce a flare. However, many properties of sunspots and active regions correlate with flaring. For example, magnetically complex regions (based on line-of-sight magnetic field) called delta spots produce the largest flares. A simple scheme of sunspot classification due to McIntosh, or related to fractal complexity.[57] is commonly used as a starting point for flare prediction.[58] Predictions are usually stated in terms of probabilities for occurrence of flares above M or X GOES class within 24 or 48 hours. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issues forecasts of this kind.[59]
See also[edit]
Aurora
Flare star
Gamma-ray burst
List of plasma (physics) articles
List of solar storms
Moreton wave
Neupert effect
Superflare
Supra-arcade downflows
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"Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts". NewScientist.com. Retrieved 17 June 2005.
Mewaldt, R.A., et al. 2005. Space weather implications of the 20 January 2005 solar energetic particle event. Joint meeting of the American Geophysical Union and the Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society. May 23–27. New Orleans. Abstract.
Solar Flares NASA Video from 2003
Solar Flares Solar & Heliospheric Observatory Video from 2002 Miracle of the Sun (speculated)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solar flares.
Real-time space weather on the iPhone, iPad, and Android from 150 data streams and 19 institutions.
Live Solar Images and Data Site Includes x-ray flare, geomagnetic, space weather information detailing current solar events.
Solar Cycle 24 and VHF Aurora Website (www.solarcycle24.com)
Solar Weather Site
Current Solar Flare – and geomagnetic activity in dashboard style (www.solar-flares.info)
STEREO Spacecraft Site
BBC report on the November 4, 2003 flare
NASA SOHO observations of flares
'The Sun Kings', lecture by Dr Stuart Clark on the discovery of solar flares given at Gresham College, 12 September 2007 (available as a video or audio download as well as a text file).
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: An X Class Flare Region on the Sun (6 November 2007)
Sun trek website An educational resource for teachers and students about the Sun and its effect on the Earth
NASA – Carrington Super Flare NASA May 6, 2008
Archive of the most severe solar storms
Animated explanation of Solar Flares from the Photosphere (University of South Wales)
1 min. 35 sec. Mini documentary: How big are solar flares' prominences? A simplified explanation of the size of solar flares' prominences as compared to Earth.
The Most Powerful Solar Flares Ever Recorded – spaceweather.com (X9+ summary)
Most Energetic Flares since 1976 (X5.7+ details)
Davis, Chris. "Tracking the X Flare". Backstage Science. Brady Haran.
Study solar flares with Sunspot Data. ( )
Solar Flare Monitoring Network by DLR Projectlab Neustrelitz. ( )
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Solar proton event

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values: File:Evolution of Magnetism on the Sun.ogv

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/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejections
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Coronal mass ejections

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/wiki/UV_radiation
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UV radiation

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)

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Geomagnetic storms

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Aurora borealis

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/wiki/Aurora_australis
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Aurora australis

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Manned mission to Mars

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Solar corona

values: Nançay Radioheliographe (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Nan%C3%A7ay_Radio_Observatory
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Nançay Radio Observatory

values: Nobeyama Radioheliograph (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Nobeyama_Radio_Observatory
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Nobeyama Radio Observatory

values: Nobeyama Radio Polarimeters (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Complejo_Astronomico_El_Leoncito
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Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito

values: POlarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun

values: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

values: Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager

values: Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph

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/wiki/Michelson_Doppler_Imager
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Michelson Doppler Imager

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/wiki/Helioseismic_and_Magnetic_Imager
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Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager

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/wiki/Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly
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Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

values: Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment

values: Edit section: Examples of large solar flares

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text:
Becca Tobin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Becca Tobin
Tobin at a Trevor Project event in 2013
Born
Rebecca Grace Tobin
(1986-01-18) January 18, 1986 (age 31)
Marietta, Georgia, U.S.
Alma mater
American Musical and Dramatic Academy
Occupation
Actress
dancer
singer
Years active
2005–present
Spouse(s)
Zach Martin (m. 2016)
Rebecca Grace "Becca" Tobin (born January 18, 1986)[1][2] is an American actress, singer, and dancer. She is best known for having portrayed Kitty Wilde in the Fox comedy-drama television series Glee.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Stage
6 Discography
7 Awards and nominations
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Tobin grew up in Marietta, Georgia, the youngest of two daughters. Both of her parents were attorneys. Tobin's first acting performance was at age four, when she played a Christmas tree in her school's holiday pageant.[3] For high school, Tobin was predominantly educated at Pebblebrook High School, but she transferred to Joseph Wheeler High School halfway through her senior year and was a victim of bullying as a result.[4] Because of the bullying, Tobin did not walk at her graduation.[4] She is an alumna of the American Musical and Dramatic Academy in New York City, from which she graduated in 2007.[5]
Career[edit]
Tobin began her professional career on the stage in Houston, in a Theatre Under the Stars production of the musical Cats. She performed as Etcetera in the ensemble cast.[6] The following year, she starred in the ensemble of the Theater Under the Stars' production of West Side Story, also in Houston. In 2008, Tobin performed in the ensemble of Paper Mill Playhouse's production of High School Musical on Stage! in New Jersey.[7] From 2008 to 2009, she performed in the ensemble of Oklahoma! in Atlanta with the Theater of the Stars company.[8] Tobin made her Broadway debut as a replacement for the role of Sherrie Christian and a swing for the musical Rock of Ages.[9] In 2011, she toured with the Trans-Siberian Orchestra.[5]
From 2012 until its ending in 2015, Tobin portrayed cheerleader and glee club member Kitty Wilde in the Fox musical comedy-drama television series Glee.[10] She made her first appearance as the character in the fourth season premiere episode "The New Rachel", and was a regular recurring cast member for throughout that season. She was upgraded to a main cast member for the series' fifth season.[11] Kitty's debut received a mixed reception from critics, but opinions on the character soon changed.[12] Several songs performed by Tobin as Kitty on the series have been released as singles available for digital download, and have also featured on the soundtrack albums.
In 2014, Tobin guest starred in Lifetime's legal comedy-drama series Drop Dead Diva as Empress Katia in the episode "Afterlife".[13] That same year, she appeared as Kimmee Kittson in the episode "Passing the Torch" of ABC Family's sitcom Mystery Girls.[14] In 2015, Tobin guest starred as Blaze Talcott, a computer coder, in an episode of CBS' procedural action-drama series NCIS: Los Angeles titled "Blaze of Glory".[15] Since December 2015, Tobin has co-hosted the female-centric podcast series "The Lady Gang" with Keltie Knight and Jac Vanek.[16]
Personal life[edit]
Tobin was in a relationship with nightclub entrepreneur Matt Bendik until his death on July 10, 2014.[17] She became engaged to entrepreneur Zach Martin in May 2016.[18] They married in a private ceremony, officiated by Tobin's Glee co-star Jane Lynch, in Jackson Hole, Wyoming on December 3, 2016.[19][20]
Since 2012, Tobin has been a spokeswoman for the anti-bullying program BullyVille.com.[21] In May 2013, she appeared in an issue of Maxim.[22]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2009 Wiener & Wiener Heather Episode: "Beyonce's Walk-In Closet"
2012–2015 Glee Kitty Wilde Main role, 42 episodes
2014 Drop Dead Diva Empress Katia Episode: "Afterlife"
2014 Mystery Girls Kimmee Kittson Episode: "Passing the Torch"
2015 NCIS: Los Angeles Blaze Talcott Episode: "Blaze of Glory"
2017 Dropping the Soap Tammy O'Rourke Episode: "Julian's Choice"
2017 Before You Say I Do Jessica Bender Completed
2017 A Song for Christmas Adelaide Kay In post-production
Stage[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Location
2005 Cats Etcetera Hobby Center for the Performing Arts, Houston
2006–2007 West Side Story Velma the Jet
2008 High School Musical on Stage! Ensemble Paper Mill Playhouse, New Jersey
2008–2009 Oklahoma! Ensemble Fox Theatre, Atlanta
2009–2011 Rock of Ages Sherrie Christian Brooks Atkinson Theatre, Broadway
Discography[edit]
Main article: Glee discography
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
2013 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV Villain Glee Nominated
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Interview: Cobb native Becca Tobin shines in "Glee" role". AJC.com. January 2, 2013. Archived from the original on January 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Whitney Port." The LadyGang. June 20, 2017. 1:56 minutes in.
Jump up ^ "Glee's Becca Tobin Shares Christmas Flashback: Her 'Hilarious' and 'Awkward' First Role". Celebuzz.com. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Becca Tobin Opens Up About Being Bullied in High School – and Reveals What's Next for Kitty on Glee Season 4! Exclusive". Wetpaint.com. November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alumna Becca Tobin Joins "Glee"!". American Musical and Dramatic Academy. November 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ Jones, Kenneth (December 6, 2005). "Cats in Houston Gets Broadway Vets – Veterans, Not Veterinarians – Dec. 6-18". Playbill.
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew (November 5, 2008). "Paper's Mill's High School Musical Begins Performances Nov. 5". Playbill.
Jump up ^ Hetrick, Adam (June 24, 2008). "Oklahoma! Saddles Up for Atlanta's Theater of the Stars June 24". Playbill.
Jump up ^ "Broadway Vet Becca Tobin and Melissa Benoist Join Glee's New Freshman Class". Broadway.com. August 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Gioia, Michael (August 2, 2012). "Becca Tobin and Melissa Benoist Join Fox's "Glee"; Ryan Murphy Dishes on Upcoming Season Via Twitter". Playbill.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (June 28, 2013). "UPDATED Glee Exclusive: 4 Original Cast Members are Returning as Series Regulars for Season 5; Plus – Who's Getting Promoted?". TVLine. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'Glee' Star Dianna Agron Talks Quinn's Thanksgiving Return, Kitty and Catfights With Santana (Q&A)". Celebuzz.com. November 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ Gadjewski, Ryan (April 24, 2014). "Glee Cast Member Lands Role on Drop Dead Diva". Wetpaint.com.
Jump up ^ Leffler, Samantha (August 7, 2014). "See Becca Tobin on Mystery Girls Set (PHOTO)". Wetpaint.com.
Jump up ^ Pena, Azalea (March 24, 2015). "'NCIS: LA' season 6 spoilers: Deeks and Kensi reveal their relationship in episode 18, Blaze Talcott becomes part of the team for a case in episode 19". Christian Today.
Jump up ^ Shewfelt, Raechal Leone (December 7, 2015). "Lea Michele and Other Celebs to Join the New 'Fempire'". Yahoo! News.
Jump up ^ Chiu, Melody (July 11, 2014). "Glee Star Becca Tobin's Boyfriend Found Dead, Cause of Death Unknown". People. Retrieved July 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Zach (May 17, 2016). "Glee's Becca Tobin Is Engaged to Zach Martin". E! News. Retrieved May 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Sands, Nicole (December 3, 2016). "It's a Glee-union! Lea Michele Shares Photo with Cast at Becca Tobin's Wedding". People.
Jump up ^ Cuccinelli, Jamie (December 4, 2016). "Glee's Becca Tobin is Married! See Her Exclusive Wedding Photos". Brides.
Jump up ^ "Becca Tobin joins BullyVille.com to help put an end to bullying!". PR Newswire. November 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ ""Glee" Newcomer Becca Tobin Strips for Maxim". TooFab.com. April 18, 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Becca Tobin.
Official website
Becca Tobin on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Becca_Tobin&oldid=802702522"
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Lumbricals of the foot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the muscle of the hand, see Lumbrical muscle (hand).
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Lumbrical muscle of the foot
Muscles of the sole of the right foot, viewed from below. Second layer. (Lumbricals visible at bottom.)
Details
Origin
Medial borders of long flexor tendons
Insertion
Proximal phalanges and extensor tendons of the 4 lateral toes
Artery
Medial and Lateral plantar arteries
Nerve
medial and lateral plantar nerves (S3)
Actions
Flexes metatarsophalangeal joints, extends interphalangeal joints
Identifiers
Latin
musculus lumbricalis pedis
TA
A04.7.02.069
FMA
37453
Anatomical terms of muscle
[edit on Wikidata]
The lumbricals are four small skeletal muscles, accessory to the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus and numbered from the medial side of the foot; they arise from these tendons, as far back as their angles of division, each springing from two tendons, except the first.So the first lumbricle is unipenate and second, third and fourth are bipenate.
The muscles end in tendons, which pass forward on the medial sides of the four lesser toes, and are inserted into the expansions of the tendons of the Extensor digitorum longus on the dorsal surfaces of the proximal phalanges. All four lumbricals insert into extensor hoods of the phalanges, thus creating extension at the inter-phalangeal (PIP and DIP) joints. However, as the tendons also pass inferior to the metatarsal phalangeal (MTP) joints it creates flexion at this joint.
Contents
[hide]
1 Variations
2 Innervation
3 Additional images
4 References
5 External links
Variations[edit]
Absence of one or more; doubling of the third or fourth even the fifth. Insertion partly or wholly into the first phalanges.
Innervation[edit]
The most medial lumbrical is innervated by the medial plantar nerve while the remaining three lumbricals are supplied by the lateral plantar nerve.
Additional images[edit]
The lumbricals of the foot flex the metatarsophalangeal joints and extend the interphalangeal joints.
References[edit]
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 493 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
External links[edit]
PTCentral
[hide]
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Muscles of the hip and human leg
Iliac region
Iliopsoas
psoas major/psoas minor
iliacus
Buttocks
Gluteal muscles
maximus
medius
minimus
tensor fasciae latae
lateral rotator group:
quadratus femoris
inferior gemellus
superior gemellus
internal obturator
external obturator
piriformis
Thigh /
compartments
Anterior
sartorius
quadriceps
rectus femoris
vastus lateralis
vastus intermedius
vastus medialis
articularis genus
Posterior
hamstring
biceps femoris
semitendinosus
semimembranosus
Medial
pectineus
external obturator
gracilis
adductor
longus
brevis
magnus
minimus
Fascia
Femoral sheath
Femoral canal
Femoral ring
Adductor canal
Adductor hiatus
Muscular lacuna
fascia lata
Iliotibial tract
Lateral intermuscular septum of thigh
Medial intermuscular septum of thigh
Cribriform fascia
Leg/
compartments
Anterior
tibialis anterior
extensor hallucis longus
extensor digitorum longus
peroneus tertius
Posterior
superficial
triceps surae
gastrocnemius
soleus
accessory soleus
Achilles tendon
plantaris
deep
tarsal tunnel
flexor hallucis longus
flexor digitorum longus
tibialis posterior
popliteus
Lateral
peroneus muscles
longus
brevis
Fascia
Pes anserinus
Intermuscular septa
anterior
posterior
transverse
Foot
Dorsal
extensor hallucis brevis
extensor digitorum brevis
Plantar
1st layer
abductor hallucis
flexor digitorum brevis
abductor digiti minimi
2nd layer
quadratus plantae
lumbrical muscle
3rd layer
flexor hallucis brevis
adductor hallucis
flexor digiti minimi brevis
4th layer
dorsal interossei
plantar interossei
Fascia
Plantar fascia
retinacula
Peroneal
Inferior extensor
Superior extensor
Flexor

This muscle article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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OCSP stapling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
OCSP stapling, formally known as the TLS Certificate Status Request extension, is an alternative approach to the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) for checking the revocation status of X.509 digital certificates.[1] It allows the presenter of a certificate to bear the resource cost involved in providing OCSP responses by appending ("stapling") a time-stamped OCSP response signed by the CA to the initial TLS handshake, eliminating the need for clients to contact the CA.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Motivation
2 Solution
3 Specification
4 Deployment
5 Limitations
6 References
Motivation[edit]
OCSP stapling addresses most of the issues with the original OCSP implementation.[3]
The original OCSP implementation can introduce a significant cost for the certificate authorities (CA) because it requires them to provide responses to every client of a given certificate in real time. For example, when a certificate is issued to a high traffic website, the servers of CAs are likely to be hit by enormous volumes of OCSP requests querying the validity of the certificate.[4]
OCSP checking potentially impairs users' privacy and slows down browsing, since it requires the client to contact a third party (the CA) to confirm the validity of each certificate that it encounters.[4]
Moreover, if the client fails to connect to the CA for an OCSP response, then it is forced to decide between two options, neither of which is desirable. The client may either choose to continue the connection anyway, defeating the purpose of OCSP revocation checking, or it may choose to terminate the connection based on the assumption that there is an attack, which decreases usability and could result in excessive false warnings and blocks.[5]
Solution[edit]
OCSP stapling resolves both problems in a fashion reminiscent of the Kerberos ticket. In a stapling scenario, the certificate holder queries the OCSP server themselves at regular intervals, obtaining a signed time-stamped OCSP response. When the site's visitors attempt to connect to the site, this response is included ("stapled") with the TLS/SSL handshake via the Certificate Status Request extension response (note: the TLS client must explicitly include a Certificate Status Request extension in its ClientHello TLS/SSL handshake message).[6] While it may appear that allowing the site operator to control verification responses would allow a fraudulent site to issue false verification for a revoked certificate, the stapled responses can't be forged as they need to be directly signed by the certificate authority, not the server.[3] If the client does not receive a stapled response, it will just contact the OCSP server by itself.[5] However, if the client receives an invalid stapled response, it will abort the connection.[1] The only increased risk of OCSP stapling is that the notification of revocation for a certificate may be delayed until the last-signed OCSP response expires.
As a result, clients continue to have verifiable assurance from the certificate authority that the certificate is presently valid (or was quite recently), but no longer need to individually contact the OCSP server. This means that the brunt of the resource burden is now placed back on the certificate holder. It also means that the client software no longer needs to disclose users' browsing habits to any third party.[4]
Overall performance is also improved: When the client fetches the OCSP response directly from the CA, it usually involves the lookup of the domain name of the CA's OCSP server in the DNS as well as establishing a connection to the OCSP server. When OCSP stapling is used, the certificate status information is delivered to the client through an already established channel, reducing overhead and improving performance.[2]
Specification[edit]
The TLS Certificate Status Request extension is specified in RFC 6066, Section 8.
RFC 6961 defines a Multiple Certificate Status Request extension, which allows a server to send multiple OCSP responses in the TLS handshake.
A draft proposal for an X509v3 extension field, which expired in April 2013, specified that a compliant server presenting a certificate carrying the extension must return a valid OCSP token in its response if the status_request extension is specified in the TLS client hello.[7] The current version of the proposal has been extended to support additional TLS extensions.[8] TLS developer Adam Langley discussed the extension in an April 2014 article following the repair of the Heartbleed OpenSSL bug.[9]
Deployment[edit]
OCSP stapling support is being progressively implemented. The OpenSSL project included support in their 0.9.8g release with the assistance of a grant from the Mozilla Foundation.
Apache HTTP Server supports OCSP stapling since version 2.3.3,[10] the nginx web server since version 1.3.7,[11] LiteSpeed Web Server since version 4.2.4,[12] Microsoft's IIS since Windows Server 2008,[13] HAProxy since version 1.5.0,[14] F5 Networks BIG-IP since version 11.6.0[15] and KEMP LoadMasters since Version 7.2.37.1.
On the browser side, OCSP stapling was implemented in Firefox 26,[5][16] in Internet Explorer since Windows Vista,[17] and Google Chrome in Linux, Chrome OS, and Windows since Vista.[18]
For SMTP the Exim message transfer agent supports OCSP stapling in both client [19] and server [20] modes.
Limitations[edit]
OCSP stapling is designed to reduce the cost of an OCSP validation---both for the client and the OCSP responder---especially for large sites serving many simultaneous users. However, OCSP stapling supports only one OCSP response at a time, which is insufficient for certificate chains with intermediate CA certs.[21][22]
This limitation has been addressed by Multiple Certificate Status Request Extension, specified in RFC 6961. It adds the support for sending multiple OCSP responses.[23]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Eastlake, D. (January 2011). "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions: Extension Definitions: Certificate Status Request". Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Retrieved March 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Prince, Matthew (October 29, 2012). "OCSP Stapling: How CloudFlare Just Made SSL 30% Faster". CloudFlare, Inc. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gibson, Steve. "Security Certificate Revocation Awareness: The case for “OCSP Must-Staple”". Gibson Research Corporation. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c A., Jesin (June 12, 2014). "How To Configure OCSP Stapling on Apache and Nginx". Community Tutorials. Digital Ocean, Inc. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Keeler, David (July 29, 2013). "OCSP Stapling in Firefox". Mozilla Security Blog. Mozilla Foundation. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "OCSP Stapling". GlobalSign Support. GMO GlobalSign Inc. August 1, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ P. Hallam-Baker, X.509v3 Extension: OCSP Stapling Required
Jump up ^ P. Hallam-Baker X.509v3 TLS Feature Extension draft-hallambaker-tlsfeature-05
Jump up ^ A. Langley, No, don't enable revocation checking, April 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ Apache HTTP Server mod_ssl documentation - SSLUseStapling directive
Jump up ^ nginx-announce mailing list - nginx-1.3.7
Jump up ^ Release Log - Litespeed Tech. Retrieved 2014-02-07,
Jump up ^ Duncan, Robert. "Microsoft Achieves World Domination (in OCSP Stapling)". Netcraft Ltd. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
Jump up ^ HAProxy website
Jump up ^ Release Note: BIG-IP LTM and TMOS 11.6.0
Jump up ^ Improving Revocation - MozillaWiki, retrieved 2014-04-28
Jump up ^ "How Certificate Revocation Works". TechNet. Microsoft. 16 March 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Issue 361820: Check For Server Certificate Revocation checkbox is confusing". Google Code. Google. 10 April 2014.
Jump up ^ The smtp transport, retrieved 2015-01-24
Jump up ^ Main configuration, retrieved 2015-01-24
Jump up ^ Mozilla NSS Bug 360420, Comment by Adam Langley
Jump up ^ Mozilla NSS Bug 611836 - Implement multiple OCSP stapling extension
Jump up ^ Pettersen, Yngve N. (June 2013). "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Multiple Certificate Status Request Extension". Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
[hide]
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TLS and SSL
Protocols and technologies
Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer (TLS/SSL)
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
DNS Certification Authority Authorization (CAA)
DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE)
HTTPS
HTTP Public Key Pinning (HPKP)
HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS)
OCSP stapling
Perfect forward secrecy
Server Name Indication (SNI)
STARTTLS
Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN)
Public-key infrastructure
Automated Certificate Management Environment (ACME)
Certificate authority (CA)
CA/Browser Forum
Certificate policy
Certificate revocation list (CRL)
Domain-validated certificate (DV)
Extended Validation Certificate (EV)
Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP)
Public key certificate
Public-key cryptography
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Root certificate
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See also
Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC)
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)
Secure Shell (SSH)
History
Export of cryptography from the United States
Server-Gated Cryptography
Implementations
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Protocol
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Implementation
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Random number generator attacks
FREAK
goto fail
Heartbleed
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