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Constitution of Japan
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The Constitution of Japan (Shinjitai: 日本国憲法 Kyūjitai: 日本國憲法, Nihon-Koku Kenpō) is the fundamental law of Japan. It was enacted on May 3, 1947, as a new constitution for a post-war Japan.
Contents
1 Outline
2 Historical origins
2.1 Meiji Constitution
2.2 The Potsdam Declaration
2.3 Drafting process
2.4 Adoption
2.5 Early proposals for amendment
3 Provisions
3.1 Edict
3.2 Preamble
3.3 The Emperor (Articles 1–8)
3.4 Renunciation of war (Article 9)
3.5 Individual rights (Articles 10–40)
3.6 Organs of government (Articles 41–95)
3.7 Amendments (Article 96)
3.8 Other provisions (Articles 97–103)
4 Amendments and revisions
4.1 Amendment Drafts by the LDP
4.1.1 2005 Draft
4.1.2 2012 Draft
5 Controversy
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Outline[edit]
The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms, the Emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty.
The constitution, also known as the "Post-war Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), is best known for its Article 9, by which Japan renounces its right to wage war; and to a lesser extent, the provision for de jure popular sovereignty in conjunction with the monarchy.
The constitution was drawn up during the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan's previous militaristic and system of quasi-absolute monarchy with a form of liberal democracy. No amendment has been made to it since its adoption.[1]
Historical origins[edit]
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Meiji Constitution[edit]
"Emperor's words"
The Meiji Constitution was the fundamental law of the Empire of Japan, propagated during the reign of Emperor Meiji (r. 1867–1912). It provided for a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, based on the Prussian and British models. In theory, the Emperor of Japan was the supreme ruler, and the cabinet, whose prime minister was elected by a privy council, were his followers; in practice, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Under the Meiji Constitution, the prime minister and his cabinet were not necessarily chosen from the elected members of the Diet. Pursuing the regular amending procedure of the "Meiji Constitution", it was entirely revised to become the "Post-war Constitution" on 3 November 1946. The Post-war Constitution has been in force since 3 May 1947.
The Potsdam Declaration[edit]
On 26 July 1945, Allied leaders Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman, and Chiang Kai-shek issued the Potsdam Declaration, which demanded Japan's unconditional surrender. This declaration also defined the major goals of the post-surrender Allied occupation: "The Japanese government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people. Freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established" (Section 10).
In addition, the document stated: "The occupying forces of the Allies shall be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been accomplished and there has been established in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people a peacefully inclined and responsible government" (Section 12). The Allies sought not merely punishment or reparations from a militaristic foe, but fundamental changes in the nature of its political system. In the words of political scientist Robert E. Ward: "The occupation was perhaps the single most exhaustively planned operation of massive and externally directed political change in world history."
Drafting process[edit]
The constitution of Japan was largely drafted by US lawyers in the occupation authority. This image is of a secret memo written by members of the authority on the subject of the new constitution.
The wording of the Potsdam Declaration—"The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles ..."—and the initial post-surrender measures taken by Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), suggest that neither he nor his superiors in Washington intended to impose a new political system on Japan unilaterally. Instead, they wished to encourage Japan's new leaders to initiate democratic reforms on their own. But by early 1946, MacArthur's staff and Japanese officials were at odds over the most fundamental issue, the writing of a new Constitution. Emperor Hirohito, Prime Minister Kijūrō Shidehara and most of the cabinet members were extremely reluctant to take the drastic step of replacing the 1889 Meiji Constitution with a more liberal document.[2]
In late 1945, Shidehara appointed Jōji Matsumoto, state minister without portfolio, head of a blue-ribbon committee of Constitutional scholars to suggest revisions. The Matsumoto Commission's recommendations (ja:松本試案), made public in February 1946, were quite conservative as "no more than a touching-up of the Meiji Constitution").[citation needed] MacArthur rejected them outright and ordered his staff to draft a completely new document. An additional reason for this was that on 24 January 1946, Prime Minister Shidehara had suggested to MacArthur that the new Constitution should contain an article renouncing war.
Much of the drafting was done by two senior army officers with law degrees: Milo Rowell and Courtney Whitney, although others chosen by MacArthur had a large say in the document. The articles about equality between men and women were written by Beate Sirota.[3][4]
Although the document's authors were non-Japanese, they took into account the Meiji Constitution, the demands of Japanese lawyers, the opinions of pacifist political leaders such as Shidehara and Shigeru Yoshida, and especially the draft presented by the Constitution Research Association (Kenpō Kenkyū-kai) under the chairmanship of Suzuki Yasuzō (ja:鈴木安蔵) (1904–1983), which had been translated into English in its entirety already by the end of December 1945. MacArthur gave the authors less than a week to complete the draft, which was presented to surprised Japanese officials on 13 February 1946. On 6 March 1946, the government publicly disclosed an outline of the pending Constitution. On 10 April, elections were held for the House of Representatives of the Ninetieth Imperial Diet, which would consider the proposed Constitution. The election law having been changed, this was the first general election in Japan in which women were permitted to vote.
The MacArthur draft, which proposed a unicameral legislature, was changed at the insistence of the Japanese to allow a bicameral one, with both houses being elected. In most other important respects, the government adopted the ideas embodied in the 13 February document in its own draft proposal of 6 March. These included the constitution's most distinctive features: the symbolic role of the Emperor, the prominence of guarantees of civil and human rights, and the renunciation of war.
In 1946, criticism of or reference to SCAP's role in drafting the constitution could be made subject to Civil Censorship Detachment (CCD) censorship (as was any reference to censorship itself).[5] Until late 1947, CCD exerted pre-publication censorship over about 70 daily newspapers, all books and magazines and many other publications.[6]
Adoption[edit]
The Preamble to the Constitution
The Imperial Signature (upper right) and Seal
It was decided that in adopting the new document the Meiji Constitution would not be violated, but rather legal continuity would be maintained. Thus the 1946 Constitution was adopted as an amendment to the Meiji Constitution in accordance with the provisions of Article 73 of that document. Under Article 73 the new constitution was formally submitted to the Imperial Diet by the Emperor, through an imperial rescript issued on 20 June. The draft constitution was submitted and deliberated upon as the Bill for Revision of the Imperial Constitution.
The old constitution required that the bill receive the support of a two-thirds majority in both houses of the Diet to become law. After both chambers had made amendments the House of Peers approved the document on 6 October; the House of Representatives adopted it in the same form the following day, with only five members voting against, and became law when it received the Emperor's assent on 3 November 1946. Under its own terms the constitution came into effect on 3 May 1947.
A government organisation, the Kenpō Fukyū Kai ("Constitution Popularisation Society"), was established to promote the acceptance of the new constitution among the populace.[7]
Early proposals for amendment[edit]
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The new constitution would not have been written the way it was had MacArthur and his staff allowed Japanese politicians and constitutional experts to resolve the issue as they wished.[citation needed] The document's foreign origins have, understandably, been a focus of controversy since Japan recovered its sovereignty in 1952.[citation needed] Yet in late 1945 and 1946, there was much public discussion on constitutional reform, and the MacArthur draft was apparently greatly influenced by the ideas of certain Japanese liberals. The MacArthur draft did not attempt to impose a United States-style presidential or federal system. Instead, the proposed constitution conformed to the British model of parliamentary government, which was seen by the liberals as the most viable alternative to the European absolutism of the Meiji Constitution.[citation needed]
After 1952 conservatives and nationalists attempted to revise the constitution to make it more "Japanese", but these attempts were frustrated for a number of reasons. One was the extreme difficulty of amending it. Amendments require approval by two-thirds of the members of both houses of the National Diet before they can be presented to the people in a referendum (Article 96). Also, opposition parties, occupying more than one-third of the Diet seats, were firm supporters of the constitutional status quo. Even for members of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), the constitution was advantageous. They had been able to fashion a policy-making process congenial to their interests within its framework. Yasuhiro Nakasone, a strong advocate of constitutional revision during much of his political career, for example, downplayed the issue while serving as prime minister between 1982 and 1987.
Provisions[edit]
The constitution has a length of approximately 5,000 words and consists of a preamble and 103 articles grouped into eleven chapters. These are:
I. The Emperor (Articles 1–8)
II. Renunciation of War (Article 9)
III. Rights and Duties of the People (Articles 10–40)
IV. The Diet (Articles 41–64)
V. The Cabinet (Articles 65–75)
VI. Judiciary (Articles 76–82)
VII. Finance (Articles 83–91)
VIII. Local Self–Government (Articles 92–95)
IX. Amendments (Article 96)
X. Supreme Law (Articles 97–99)
XI. Supplementary Provisions (Articles 100–103)
Edict[edit]
The constitution starts with an imperial edict made by the Emperor. It contains the Emperor's Privy Seal and signature, and is countersigned by the Prime Minister and other Ministers of State as required by the previous constitution of the Empire of Japan. The edict states:
I rejoice that the foundation for the construction of a new Japan has been laid according to the will of the Japanese people, and hereby sanction and promulgate the amendments of the Imperial Japanese Constitution effected following the consultation with the Privy Council and the decision of the Imperial Diet made in accordance with Article 73 of the said Constitution.[8][9]
Preamble[edit]
The constitution contains a firm declaration of the principle of popular sovereignty in the preamble. This is proclaimed in the name of the "Japanese people" and declares that "sovereign power resides with the people" and that:
Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people.
Part of the purpose of this language is to refute the previous constitutional theory that sovereignty resided in the Emperor. The constitution asserts that the Emperor is merely a symbol of the state, and that he derives "his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power" (Article 1). The text of the constitution also asserts the liberal doctrine of fundamental human rights. In particular Article 97 states that:
the fundamental human rights by this constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate.
The Emperor (Articles 1–8)[edit]
Main article: Emperor of Japan
Under the constitution, the Emperor is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people". The Emperor carries out most functions of a head of state, formally appointing the Prime Minister and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, convoking the National Diet and dissolving the House of Representatives, under the advice of the Cabinet, and also promulgating statutes and treaties and exercising other enumerated functions.
In contrast with the Meiji Constitution, the Emperor's role is almost entirely ceremonial, and he does not have powers related to government. Unlike other constitutional monarchies, he is not even the nominal chief executive or even the nominal commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF). The constitution explicitly limits the Emperor's role to matters of state delineated in the constitution. The constitution also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law.
Succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne is regulated by the Imperial Household Law and is managed by a ten-member body called the Imperial Household Council. The budget for the maintenance of the Imperial House is managed by resolution of the Diet.
Renunciation of war (Article 9)[edit]
Main article: Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution
Under Article 9, the "Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes". To this end the article provides that "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained". The necessity and practical extent of Article 9 has been debated in Japan since its enactment, particularly following the establishment of the Japan Self-Defence Forces (JSDF), a de facto post-war Japanese military force that substitute for the pre-war Armed Forces, since 1 July 1954. Various political groups have called for either revising or abolishing the restrictions of Article 9 to permit collective defence efforts and strengthen Japan's military capabilities.
Individual rights (Articles 10–40)[edit]
See also: Human rights in Japan
"The rights and duties of the people" are featured prominently in the post-war constitution. Thirty-one of its 103 articles are devoted to describing them in detail, reflecting the commitment to "respect for the fundamental human rights" of the Potsdam Declaration. Although the Meiji Constitution had a section devoted to the "rights and duties of subjects" which guaranteed "liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meetings, and associations", these rights were granted "within the limits of law". Freedom of religious belief was allowed "insofar as it does not interfere with the duties of subjects" (all Japanese were required to acknowledge the Emperor's divinity, and those, such as Christians, who refused to do so out of religious conviction were accused of lèse-majesté). Such freedoms are delineated in the post-war constitution without qualification.
Individual rights under the Japanese constitution are rooted in Article 13 where the constitution asserts the right of the people "to be respected as individuals" and, subject to "the public welfare", to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". This article's core notion is jinkaku, which represents "the elements of character and personality that come together to define each person as an individual", and which represents the aspects of each individual's life that the government is obligated to respect in the exercise of its power.[10] Article 13 has been used as the basis to establish constitutional rights to privacy, self-determination and the control of an individual's own image, rights which are not explicitly stated in the constitution.
Subsequent provisions provide for:
Equality before the law: The constitution guarantees equality before the law and outlaws discrimination against Japanese citizens based on "political, economic or social relations" or "race, creed, sex, social status or family origin" (Article 14). The right to vote cannot be denied on the grounds of "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income" (Article 44). Equality between the sexes is explicitly guaranteed in relation to marriage (Article 24) and childhood education (Article 26).
Prohibition of peerage: Article 14 forbids the state from recognising peerage. Honours may be conferred but they must not be hereditary or grant special privileges.
Democratic elections: Article 15 provides that "the people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them". It guarantees universal adult (in Japan, persons age 20 and older) suffrage and the secret ballot.
Prohibition of slavery: Guaranteed by Article 18. Involuntary servitude is permitted only as punishment for a crime.
Separation of Religion and State: The state is prohibited from granting privileges or political authority to a religion, or conducting religious education (Article 20).
Freedom of assembly, association, speech, and secrecy of communications: All guaranteed without qualification by Article 21, which forbids censorship.
Workers' rights: Work is declared both a right and obligation by Article 27 which also states that "standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law" and that children shall not be exploited. Workers have the right to participate in a trade union (Article 28).
Right to property: Guaranteed subject to the "public welfare". The state may take property for public use if it pays just compensation (Article 29). The state also has the right to levy taxes (Article 30).
Right to due process: Article 31 provides that no one may be punished "except according to procedure established by law". Article 32, which provides that "No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts", originally drafted to recognize criminal due process rights, is now understood as source of due process rights for civil and administrative law cases.[11]
Protection against unlawful detention: Article 33 provides that no one may be apprehended without an arrest warrant, save where caught in flagrante delicto. Article 34 guarantees habeas corpus, right to counsel, and right to be informed of charges. Article 40 enshrines the right to sue the state for wrongful detention.
Right to a fair trial: Article 37 guarantees the right to a public trial before an impartial tribunal with counsel for one's defence and compulsory access to witnesses.
Protection against self-incrimination: Article 38 provides that no one may be compelled to testify against themselves, that confessions obtained under duress are not admissible and that no one may be convicted solely on the basis of their own confession.
Other guarantees:
Right to petition government (Article 16)
Right to sue the state (Article 17)
Freedom of thought and conscience (Article 19)
Freedom of expression (Article 19)
Freedom of religion (Article 20)
Rights to change residence, choose employment, move abroad and relinquish nationality (Article 22)
Academic freedom (Article 23)
Prohibition of forced marriage (Article 24)
Compulsory education (Article 26)
Protection against entries, search and seizures (Article 35)
Prohibition of torture and cruel punishments (Article 36)
Prohibition of ex post facto laws (Article 39)
Prohibition of double jeopardy (Article 39)
Under Japanese case law, constitutional human rights apply to corporations to the extent possible given their corporate nature. Constitutional human rights also apply to foreign nationals to the extent that such rights are not by their nature only applicable to citizens (for example, foreigners have no right to enter Japan under Article 22 and no right to vote under Article 15, and their other political rights may be restricted to the extent that they interfere with the state's decision making).
Organs of government (Articles 41–95)[edit]
Politics under the Post-war Constitution
Main article: Government of Japan
The constitution establishes a parliamentary system of government in which legislative authority is vested in a bicameral National Diet. Although a bicameral Diet existed under the existing constitution, the new constitution abolished the upper House of Peers, which consisted of members of the nobility (similar to the British House of Lords). The new constitution provides that both chambers be directly elected, with a lower House of Representatives and an upper House of Councillors. The House of Representatives has the sole ability to pass a vote of no confidence in the Cabinet, can override the House of Councillors' veto on any bill, and has priority in determining the national budget, approving treaties and nominating the prime minister when the two houses disagree.
Executive authority is vested in a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. The prime minister and a majority of the cabinet members must be members of the Diet, and have the right and obligation to attend sessions of the Diet. The Cabinet may also advise the Emperor to dissolve the House of Representatives and call for a general election to be held.
The judiciary consists of several lower courts headed by a Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is nominated by the Cabinet and appointed by the Emperor, while other justices are nominated and appointed by the Cabinet and attested by the Emperor. Lower court judges are nominated by the Supreme Court, appointed by the Cabinet and attested by the Emperor. All courts have the power of judicial review and may interpret the constitution to overrule statutes and other government acts, but only in the event that such interpretation is relevant to an actual dispute.
The constitution also provides a framework for local government, requiring that local entities have elected heads and assemblies, and providing that government acts applicable to particular local areas must be approved by the residents of those areas. These provisions formed the framework of the Local Autonomy Law of 1947, which established the modern system of prefectures, municipalities and other local government entities.
Amendments (Article 96)[edit]
Main article: Article 96 of the Japanese Constitution
Under Article 96, amendments to the constitution "shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify". The constitution has not been amended since its implementation in 1947, although there have been movements led by the Liberal Democratic Party to make various amendments to it.
Other provisions (Articles 97–103)[edit]
Article 97 provides for the inviolability of fundamental human rights. Article 98 provides that the constitution takes precedence over any "law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government" that offends against its provisions, and that "the treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed". In most nations it is for the legislature to determine to what extent, if at all, treaties concluded by the state will be reflected in its domestic law; under Article 98, however, international law and the treaties Japan has ratified automatically form a part of domestic law. Article 99 binds the Emperor and public officials to observe the constitution.
The final four articles set forth a six-month transitional period between adoption and implementation of the Constitution. This transitional period took place from November 3, 1946, to May 3, 1947. Pursuant to Article 100, the first House of Councillors election was held during this period in April 1947, and pursuant to Article 102, half of the elected Councillors were given three-year terms. A general election was also held during this period, as a result of which several former House of Peers members moved to the House of Representatives. Article 103 provided that public officials currently in office would not be removed as a direct result of the adoption or implementation of the new Constitution.
Amendments and revisions[edit]
Main article: Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution Referendum
The Constitution has not been amended since its enactment in 1947. Article 96 provides that amendments can be made to the Constitution if approved by super majority of two-thirds of both houses of the Diet, and by simple majority in a referendum. The Emperor promulgates the successful amendment in the name of the people, and cannot veto it.
Some commentators have suggested that the Constitution's American authors favoured the difficulty of the amendment process from a desire that the fundamentals of the regime they had imposed would be resistant to change. Among the Japanese themselves, any change to the document and to the post-war settlement it embodies is highly controversial. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Constitutional revision was rarely debated.[12] In the 1990s, right-leaning and conservative voices broke some taboos,[12] for example, when the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun published a suggestion for Constitutional revision in 1994.[12] This period saw a number of right-leaning groups pushing aggressively for Constitutional revision and a significant number of organizations and individuals speaking out against revision[13] and in support of "the peace Constitution".
The debate has been highly polarised. The most controversial issues are proposed changes to Article 9—the "peace article"—and provisions relating to the role of the Emperor. Progressive, left, centre-left and peace movement-related individuals and organizations, as well as the opposition parties,[14] labor[15] and youth groups advocate keeping or strengthening the existing Constitution in these areas, while right-leaning, nationalist and conservative groups and individuals advocate changes to increase the prestige of the Emperor (though not granting him political powers) and to allow a more aggressive stance of the JSDF by turning it officially into a military. Others areas of the Constitution and connected laws discussed for potential revision related to the status of women, the education system and the system of public corporations (including social welfare, non-profit and religious organizations as well as foundations), and structural reform of the election process, e.g. to allow for direct election of the prime minister.[12] Numerous grassroots groups, associations, NGOs, think tanks, scholars, and politicians speak out on either side of the issue.[16]
Amendment Drafts by the LDP[edit]
The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), one of the most influential political parties in Japan that has been in majority in the Diet for the most of the time since its 1955 establishment, adopts several party platforms every of which lists "revision of the current constitution" as a political motive. One of the earliest platforms, "The Duties of the Party" in 1955, points out as follows:[17]
Although democracy and liberalism emphasized under the control of the Allied occupation should be respected and upheld as a new principle for Japan, the initial objective of the occupying forces of the Allies was mainly to demoralize the State; therefore, many of the reforms implemented by the forces including those of the constitution, education and other governmental systems have been unjustly suppressing the notion of the State and patriotism of the people and excessively disuniting the national sovereignty.
In recent years the LDP has committed itself more to constitutional revision, following its victory in the September 2005 general election of the representatives. Currently, the party has released two versions of amendment drafts, each in 2005 and 2012.
2005 Draft[edit]
In August 2005, the then Japanese Prime Minister, Jun'ichirō Koizumi, proposed an amendment to the constitution to increase Japan's Defence Forces' roles in international affairs. A draft of the proposed constitution was released by the LDP on 22 November 2005 as part of the fiftieth anniversary of the party's founding. The proposed changes included:
New wording for the Preamble.
First paragraph of Article 9, renouncing war, is retained. The second paragraph, forbidding the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential" is replaced by an Article 9-2 which permits a "defence force", under control of the Prime Minister, to defend the nation and which may participate in international activities. This new section uses the term "軍" (gun, "army" or "military"), which has been avoided in the current constitution. It also adds an Article 76 about military courts; members of the JSDF are currently tried as civilians by civilian courts.
Modified wording in Article 13, regarding respect for individual rights.
Changes in Article 20, which gives the state limited permission within "the scope of socially acceptable protocol" for "ethno-cultural practices". Changes Article 89 to permit corresponding state funding of religious institutions.
Changes to Articles 92 and 95, concerning local self-government and relations between local and national governments.
Changes to Article 96, reducing the vote requirement for constitutional amendments in the Diet from two thirds to a simple majority. A national referendum would still be required.
This draft prompted debate, with strong opposition coming even from non-governmental organisations of other countries, as well as established and newly formed grassroots Japanese organisations, such as Save Article 9. Per the current constitution, a proposal for constitutional changes must be passed by a two-thirds vote in the Diet, then be put to a national referendum. However, there was in 2005 no legislation in place for such a referendum.
Koizumi's successor Shinzō Abe vowed to push aggressively for Constitutional revision. A major step toward this was getting legislation passed to allow for a national referendum in April 2007.[18] By that time there was little public support for changing the Constitution, with a survey showing 34.5% of Japanese not wanting any changes, 44.5% wanting no changes to Article 9, and 54.6% supporting the current interpretation on self-defense.[18] On the 60th anniversary of the Constitution, on 3 May 2007, thousands took to the streets in support of Article 9.[18] The Chief Cabinet secretary and other top government officials interpreted the survey to mean that the public wanted a pacifist Constitution that renounces war, and may need to be better informed about the details of the revision debate.[19] The legislation passed by parliament specifies that a referendum on Constitutional reform could take place at the earliest in 2010, and would need approval from a majority of voters.
2012 Draft[edit]
On 27 April 2012, the LDP drafted a new version of amendment[20] with an explanatory booklet[21] for general readers. The booklet states that the spirit of the amendment is to "make the Constitution more suitable for Japan" by "drastically revising the translationese wording and the provisions based on the theory of natural human rights currently adopted in the Constitution".[22] The proposed changes includes:
Preamble: In the LDP draft, the Preamble declares that Japan is reigned by the Emperor and adopts the popular sovereignty and trias politica principles. The current Preamble refers to the government as a trust of the people (implying the "natural rights codified into the constitution by the social contract" model) and ensures people "the right to live in peace, free from fear and want", but both mentions are deleted in the LDP draft.
Emperor: Overall, the LDP draft adopts a wording that sounds as though the Emperor has greater power than under the current Constitution.[23] The draft defines him as "the head of the State" (Article 1).[24] Compared to the current Constitution, he is exempted from "the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution" (Article 102). The draft defines Nisshōki as the national flag and Kimigayo the national anthem (Article 3).
Human rights: The LDP draft, as the accompanying booklet states, revises many of the human right provisions currently adopted in the Constitution. The booklet describes the reason of these changes as: "Human rights should have ground on the State's history, culture and tradition" and "Several of the current Constitutional provisions are based on the Western-European theory of natural human rights; such provisions therefore require to be changed."[25] The draft lists every instance of the basic rights as something that is entitled by the State – as opposed to something that human beings inherently possess – as seen in the draft provisions of "new human rights" (see below).
The current Constitution has the phrase "public welfare" in four articles (Articles 12, 13, 22 and 29) and states that any human right is subject to restriction when it "interferes with the public welfare". The majority of legal professionals argue that the spirit of such restriction against rights based on "public welfare" is to protect other people's rights from infringement.[26] In the LDP draft, every instance of the phrase "public welfare" is replaced with a new phrase: "public interest and public order". The booklet describes the reason for this change as "to enable the State to restrict human rights for the sake of purposes other than protecting people's rights from infringement",[25] but it remains unclear under what conditions the State can restrict human rights. It also explains that what "public order" means is "order of society" and its intention is not to prohibit the people from making an objection to the government,[27] but it explains nothing about "public interest".
Provisions regarding the people's rights modified or added in the LDP draft include:
[Individualism]: The LDP draft replaces the word "individuals" with "persons" (Article 13). This change reflects the draft authors' view that "excessive individualism" is an ethically unacceptable thought.[citation needed][28]
Human rights and the supremacy of the constitution: The current constitution has Article 97 at the beginning of the "Supreme Law" chapter, which stipulates that the constitution guarantees the basic human rights to the people. The current, prevalent interpretation of Article 97 is that this article describes the essential reason why this constitution is the supreme law, which is the fact that the constitution's spirit is to guarantee human rights.[29] In the LDP draft, this article is deleted and the booklet does not explain any reason for the deletion.
Freedom of assembly, association, speech and all other forms of expression: The LDP draft adds a new paragraph on Article 21, which enables the State to prohibit the people from performing expressions "for the purpose of interfering with public interest and public order". The LDP explain that this change makes it easy for the State to take countermeasures against criminal organizations like Aum Shinrikyo.[30]
Right to property: The LDP draft adds a new paragraph stating that the State shall define intellectual property rights "for the sake of promotion of the people's intellectual creativity" (Article 29).
Workers' rights: Workers have the right to participate in a labour union, but currently there is a dispute on whether public officials should be entitled to this right. The LDP draft add a new paragraph to make it clear that public officials shall not enjoy this right or part thereof (Article 28).
Freedom from torture and cruel punishments: Under the current constitution, torture and cruel punishments are "absolutely forbidden", but the LDP draft deletes the word "absolutely" (Article 36). The reason for this change is not presented in the booklet.
"New human rights": The LDP draft adds four provisions regarding the concept collectively called "new human rights":[31] protection of privacy (Article 19-2), accountability of the State (Article 21-2), environmental protection (Article 25-2), and rights of crime victims (Article 25-4). However, the draft only requires the State to make a good faith effort to meet the stated goals and does not entitle the people to these "rights", as the booklet points out.[32]
Obligations of the people: The LDP draft can be characterized by its obligation clauses imposed on the people. The current constitution lists three obligations: to work (Article 27), to pay taxes as provided for by law (Article 30), and to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary education as provided for by law (Article 26). The LDP draft adds six more:
The people must respect the national anthem and flag (Article 3).
The people must be conscious of the fact that there are responsibilities and obligations in compensation for freedom and rights (Article 12).
The people must comply with the public interest and public order (Article 12).
The people must help one another among the members of a household (Article 24).
The people must obey commands from the State or the subordinate offices thereof in a state of emergency (Article 99).
The people must uphold the constitution (Article 102).
Additionally, although defence of the national territory (Article 9-3) and environmental protection (Article 25-2) are literally listed under the LDP draft as obligations of the State, these provisions let the State call for the "cooperation with the people" to meet the goals provided, effectively functioning as obligation clauses on the people's side.
Equality: The current constitution guarantees equality to citizens, prohibiting any discrimination based on "race, creed, sex, social status or family origin". The LDP draft adds "handicaps" (Articles 14 and 44) between "sex" and "social status", improving the equality under the law. On the other hand, the sentence "No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction" in the current paragraph (2) of Article 14 is deleted in the LDP draft, which means that the State shall be allowed to grant "privilege" as part of national awards. The reason for this change is not presented in the booklet.
National security: The LDP draft deletes the current provision declaring that armed forces and other war potential shall never be maintained, and adds new Articles 9-2 and 9-3 stating that the "National Defense Force" shall be set up and the Prime Minister shall be its commander-in-chief. According to the paragraph (3) of the new Article 9-2, the National Defense Force not only can defend the territory from a foreign attack and can participate in international peacekeeping operations, but also can operate to either maintain domestic public order or to protect individual rights.
State of emergency: The LDP draft grants the Prime Minister the authority to declare a "state of emergency" in a national emergency including foreign invasions, domestic rebellions and natural disasters (Article 98). When in a state of emergency, the Cabinet can enact orders that have the effect of the laws passed by the [National Diet] (Article 99).
Relaxation of separation of religion and the State: The LDP draft deletes the current clause that prohibits the State from granting "political authority" to a religious organization, and enables the State to perform religious acts itself within the scope of "social protocol or ethno-cultural practices" (Article 20).
Political control over the courts: Unlike the current constitution, which guarantees that the Supreme Court judges shall not be dismissed unless the "review" procedure stipulated by the constitution, the LDP draft enables the Diet to define this review procedure through a Diet-enacted law, not the constitution (Article 79). The draft also states that salary of a judge – of both the Supreme Court and inferior courts – could be decreased in the same manner as any other kinds of public officials (Articles 79 and 80) by the subordinate offices of the State (namely, the National Personnel Authority).
Further amendments: The LDP draft states that a simple majority in the two Houses shall be adequate for a motion for constitutional amendment (Article 96). An actual amendment shall still require a national referendum, but a simple majority in "the number of valid votes actually cast", as opposed to "the number of a qualified voters" or "the number of votes", shall enact the amendment (Article 96).
Controversy[edit]
On 15 August 2016, during his campaign rally speech for Hillary Clinton, U.S. Vice President Joe Biden remarked that America had written Japan's Constitution following World War II. These comments were seen as insensitive and arrogant by a column in Japan's Asahi newspaper.[33]
On 7 December 2016, a CNN article stated that the Japanese constitution was "imposed by the United States after World War II".[34][further explanation needed]
See also[edit]
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
Constitution Memorial Day
Constitution of Italy
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ito, Masami, "Constitution again faces calls for revision to meet reality", Japan Times, 1 May 2012, p. 3.
Jump up ^ John Dower, Embracing Defeat, 1999, pp. 374, 375, 383, 384.
Jump up ^ Dower, John W. (1999). Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Co/New Press. pp. 365–367. ISBN 0393046869.
Jump up ^ "Beate Gordon, a drafter of Japan's Constitution, dies at 89". The Mainichi. 1 January 2013. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
Jump up ^ John Dower, Embracing Defeat, p.411: "categories of deletions and suppressions" in CCD's key log in June 1946.
Jump up ^ Dower, p. 407
Jump up ^ "Publication and Work of the Constitution Popularization Society". Birth of the Constitution of Japan. National Diet Library of Japan. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of Japan". Retrieved 8 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "日本国憲法". National Archives of Japan. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Mark A. Levin, Essential Commodities and Racial Justice: Using Constitutional Protection of Japan's Indigenous Ainu People to Inform Understandings of the United States and Japan (2001). New York University of International Law and Politics, Vol. 33 (2001), pp. 484, 488. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1635451.
Jump up ^ Mark A. Levin, Civil Justice and the Constitution: Limits on Instrumental Judicial Administration in Japan. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal, Volume 20, No. 2, March 2011. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1653992; Eiji Sasada, Saibankan Seido (The Court System) (Yuhikaku 1997) at 86.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Japanese Studies: Constitutional Revision Research Project". Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University. 2007. Archived from the original on 18 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Citizens' Groups/NGOs". Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University. 2007. Archived from the original on 21 June 2007.
Jump up ^ "Political Parties". Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Labor Groups". Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University. 2007. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Constitutional revision research project: Web archives". Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University. 2007. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Response to Abe's drive: Support falls for amending Constitution". The Japan Times. 17 April 2007. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Japan approves Constitution steps". BBC News. 14 May 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Support falls for amending Constitution | The Japan Times Online
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan, http://www.jimin.jp/policy/policy_topics/pdf/seisaku-109.pdf
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, http://www.jimin.jp/policy/pamphlet/pdf/kenpou_qa.pdf
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 3.
Jump up ^ For example, the paragraph (4) of Article 6 of the LDP draft requires that the Emperor should obtain the shingen ("advice", especially one given from a subordinate to his superior) from the Cabinet, as opposed to the jogen to shōnin ("advice and approval") as stipulated in the current Constitution, for his all acts in matters of the State. The booklet explains that the reason for this change is because the phrase jogen to shōnin sounds "offensive to the Emperor" (Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 8).
Jump up ^ The LDP explains that the reason of this change is because the Emperor was formerly defined as "the head of the Empire" in the Article 4 of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 7).
^ Jump up to: a b Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 14.
Jump up ^ For example, Ashibe, Nobuyoshi, Kenpou, fifth edition, edited by Takahashi, Kazuyuki, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten (2011), pp. 100-101.
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, pp. 14–15.
Jump up ^ For example, one of the draft authors (Shibayama Masahiko, http://blogos.com/article/38240/ ) discusses that "the current constitution is unable to conduct measures promptly against domestic situations including excessive individualism".
Jump up ^ Ashibe-Takahashi (2011), p. 12.
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Ashibe-Takahashi (2011), pp. 118–124.
Jump up ^ Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A, p. 15.
Jump up ^ "Biden's remark on Japan Constitution raises eyebrows". Associated Press. 18 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Resurgent Japan military 'can stand toe to toe with anybody". CNN. 7 December 2016.
References[edit]
The Constitution of Japan Project 2004. Rethinking the Constitution: An Anthology of Japanese Opinion. Trans. by F. Uleman. Kawasaki, Japan: Japan Research Inc., 2008. ISBN 1-4196-4165-4.
Kishimoto, Koichi. Politics in Modern Japan. Tokyo: Japan Echo, 1988. ISBN 4-915226-01-8. Pages 7–21.
Matsui, Shigenori. The Constitution of Japan: A Contextual Analysis. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1-84113-792-6.
Hook, edited by Glenn D. (2005). Contested governance in Japan : sites and issues. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0415364981. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Moore, Ray A.; Robinson, Donald L. (2004). Partners for democracy : crafting the new Japanese state under MacArthur. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195171764.
"Special Issue Constitutional Law in Japan and the United Kingdom". King's Law Journal. 2 (2). 2015.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Constitution of Japan
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constitution of Japan.
Full text of Constitution from the Cabinet
Constitution of Japan at Project Gutenberg
The Constitution of Japan public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Birth of the Constitution of Japan
Teruki Tsunemoto, Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Judicial Decisions for 2004, trans. Daryl Takeno, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
Teruki Tsunemoto, Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2005, trans. John Donovan, Yuko Funaki, and Jennifer Shimada, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
Teruki Tsunemoto, Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2006, trans. Asami Miyazawa and Angela Thompson, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
Teruki Tsunemoto, Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2007, trans. Mark A. Levin and Jesse Smith, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
Library of Congress Country Study on Japan
Beate Sirota Gordon (Blog about Beate Sirota Gordon and the documentary film "The Gift from Beate")
[1] of the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University
新憲法草案 (PDF). Liberal Democratic Party's Center to Promote Enactment of a New Constitution website (in Japanese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2006. Retrieved February 3, 2006. Shin Kenpou Sou-an, Draft New Constitution. As released by the Liberal Democratic Party on 22 November 2005.
新憲法制定推進本部. Liberal Democratic Party website (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 10 January 2006. Retrieved 3 February 2006. Web page of the Shin Kenpou Seitei Suishin Honbu, Center to Promote Enactment of a New Constitution, of the Liberal Democratic Party.
日本国憲法改正草案 (PDF). Liberal Democratic Party (in Japanese). Retrieved 27 December 2012. Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan, Amendment Draft of the Constitution of Japan. As released by the Liberal Democratic Party on 27 April 2012.
日本国憲法改正草案Q&A (PDF). Liberal Democratic Party (in Japanese). Retrieved 27 December 2012. Nihon-koku Kenpou Kaisei Souan Q & A. As released by the Liberal Democratic Party in October 2012.
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Game of Thrones (season 8)
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Game of Thrones (season 8)
Promotional poster
Starring
See List of Game of Thrones cast
Country of origin
United States
Release
Original network
HBO
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 7
List of Game of Thrones episodes
The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones was announced by HBO in July 2016.[1][2] Unlike the first six seasons that each had ten episodes and the seventh that had seven episodes, the eighth season will have only six episodes. Like the previous season, it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series, and will instead adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring.[3]
The season will be adapted for television by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. Filming officially began on October 23, 2017. The season is scheduled to premiere in 2019.
Contents
[hide]
1 Episodes
2 Cast
2.1 Main cast
2.2 Supporting cast
3 Production
3.1 Crew
3.2 Writing
3.3 Filming
3.4 Episodes
3.5 Music
4 References
5 External links
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Game of Thrones episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by [4][5]
Written by [6]
Original air date [7]
U.S. viewers
(millions)
68
1 TBA David Nutter Dave Hill 2019 (2019) TBD
69
2 TBA David Nutter Bryan Cogman 2019 (2019) TBD
70
3 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 (2019) TBD
71
4 TBA David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 (2019) TBD
72
5 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 (2019) TBD
73
6 TBA David Benioff & D. B. Weiss David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 (2019) TBD
Cast[edit]
See also: List of Game of Thrones characters
Peter Dinklage (Tyrion Lannister)
Nikolaj Coster-Waldau
(Jaime Lannister)
Lena Headey (Cersei Lannister)
Emilia Clarke (Daenerys Targaryen)
Main cast[edit]
Peter Dinklage as Tyrion Lannister[8]
Nikolaj Coster-Waldau as Jaime Lannister[8]
Lena Headey as Cersei Lannister[8]
Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen[8]
Kit Harington as Jon Snow[8]
Liam Cunningham as Davos Seaworth[9]
Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark[10]
Maisie Williams as Arya Stark[11]
Nathalie Emmanuel as Missandei[12]
Gwendoline Christie as Brienne of Tarth[12]
John Bradley as Samwell Tarly[13]
Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark[14]
Hannah Murray as Gilly[15]
Rory McCann as Sandor "The Hound" Clegane[16]
Iain Glen as Jorah Mormont[17]
Conleth Hill as Varys[18]
Carice van Houten as Melisandre[19]
Jerome Flynn as Bronn[20]
Joe Dempsie as Gendry[21]
Supporting cast[edit]
Ben Crompton as Eddison Tollett[22]
Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson as Gregor Clegane[23]
Jacob Anderson as Grey Worm[12]
Daniel Portman as Podrick Payne[24]
Rupert Vansittart as Yohn Royce[12]
Marc Rissmann as Harry Strickland[25]
Production[edit]
Crew[edit]
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss will serve as showrunners for the eighth season. The directors for the eighth season were announced in September 2017. Miguel Sapochnik, who previously directed "The Gift" and "Hardhome" on season 5, as well as "Battle of the Bastards" and "The Winds of Winter" on season 6 will return as director. He will divide up direction of the first five episodes with David Nutter, who had directed two episodes on seasons two, three and five. The final episode of the show will be directed by Benioff and Weiss, who have previously directed one episode each.[4]
At the show's South by Southwest panel on March 12, 2017, Benioff and Weiss announced the writers for the show to be Dave Hill (episode 1) and Bryan Cogman (episode 2). The showrunners will then divide up the screenplay for the remaining four episodes amongst themselves.[26]
Writing[edit]
Writing for the eighth season started with a 140-page outline. Benioff said that the divvying up process and who should write what section became more difficult, being that "this would be the last time that we would be doing this".[27]
Filming[edit]
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, HBO programming president Casey Bloys stated that instead of the series finale being a feature film, the final season would be "six one-hour movies" on television. He continued, "The show has proven that TV is every bit as impressive and in many cases more so, than film. What they're doing is monumental."[28] Filming officially began on October 23, 2017.[29]
Episodes[edit]
Co-creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss have said that the seventh and eighth season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating that after season six, they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We're heading into the final lap."[30][31] Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said, "It's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule."[30] HBO confirmed in July 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule.[32] Benioff and Weiss later confirmed that the eighth season will consist of six episodes, and is expected to premiere later than usual for the same reason.[33]
Benioff and Weiss spoke about the end of the show, saying, "From the beginning we've wanted to tell a 70-hour movie. It will turn out to be a 73-hour movie, but it's stayed relatively the same of having the beginning, middle and now we're coming to the end. It would have been really tough if we lost any core cast members along the way, I'm very happy we've kept everyone and we get to finish it the way we want to."[33] The season is set to air in 2019.[7]
Music[edit]
Ramin Djawadi is set to return as the composer of the show for the eighth season.[34]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (July 30, 2016). "Game of Thrones: HBO confirms season 8 will be last". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Birnbaum, Debra (July 30, 2016). "HBO Confirms 'Game of Thrones' Will End With Eighth Season". Variety. Archived from the original on September 2, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (May 24, 2016). "George R.R. Martin revealed 3 huge shocks to Game of Thrones producers". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Hooton, Christopher (September 27, 2017). "Game of Thrones season 8: Directors revealed for all episodes". The Independent. Archived from the original on October 20, 2017. Retrieved October 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (December 15, 2017). "'Justice League' DP Fabian Wagner on Zack Snyder's Cut, Superman's Black Suit & 'Game of Thrones'". Collider. Archived from the original on December 16, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Carson, Biz (March 12, 2017). "The final season of 'Game of Thrones' will only be six episodes". Business Insider. Archived from the original on April 12, 2017. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Game of Thrones Will Return in 2019". HBO. Archived from the original on January 4, 2018. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Goldberg, Lesley (June 21, 2016). "'Game of Thrones' Stars Score Hefty Pay Raises for Season 8". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Liam Cunningham (Davos) talks about the filming schedule for Game of Thrones Season 8". Winteriscoming.net. January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Avery (February 15, 2017). "Sophie Turner Drops Massive Spoiler About Sansa Stark's Fate In Season 8". Hollywood Life. Archived from the original on October 2, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morton, Ashley (August 28, 2017). "Maisie Williams Thinks Arya Went Hunting for Trouble This Season". Making Off Game of Thrones. Archived from the original on September 16, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Shepherd, Jack (October 24, 2017). "Game of Thrones season 8 filming looks to be underway as cast members spotted in Belfast". The Independent. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradley, John (August 29, 2017). "There's a new tag team in town. 💪 Hope you enjoyed season 7. Thanks for watching and we'll be back. The wait starts now. 😊 #gameofthrones #GOT". Instagram. Archived from the original on March 22, 2018. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Bill (August 30, 2017). "'Game Of Thrones' Actor Says Cut Scene Would've Explained Confusing Finale Moment". HuffPost. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ ChristineDoesCons (May 28, 2018). "Hannah Murray @ COT 2018". YouTube. Retrieved June 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Bill (August 28, 2017). "'Game Of Thrones' Actor Rory McCann Says He's Already Training For Cleganebowl". HuffPost. Archived from the original on March 22, 2018. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Comic Con Stockholm 2017 - Iain Glen Q&A". YouTube. October 5, 2017. Archived from the original on December 19, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kinkaid, Ben (January 5, 2018). "What News From Westeros? Everything we know about Game Of Thrones Season 8". GQ. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ Stolworthy, Jacob (January 17, 2018). "Game of Thrones season 8: Melisandre return confirmed as fans theorise on character storyline". The Independent. Retrieved January 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nolan, Emma (January 21, 2018). "Game of Thrones season 8 cast: Who will be in the final series?". Daily Express. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ Deen, Sarah (March 24, 2018). "Game Of Thrones star Joe Dempsie is scared he'll get drunk and reveal final season secrets". Metro. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ McCreesh, Louise (November 6, 2017). "The Night's Watch WILL be in Game of Thrones season 8, confirms Lord Commander actor". Digital Spy. Archived from the original on December 6, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Medeiros, Madison (August 30, 2017). "Attention Cleganebowl Fans: The Hound & The Mountain Are Already Bashing Each Other IRL". Refinery29. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Riddell, Rose (May 29, 2018). "Interview: Daniel Portman on 'Game of Thrones' and his upcoming visit to New Zealand". Coup de Main. Retrieved June 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Stolworthy, Jacob (October 18, 2017). "Game of Thrones season 8 casting announcement debunks fan theory". The Independent. Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Miller, Liz Shannon (August 28, 2017). "'Game of Thrones' Season 8: Everything We Know About the Final Season". Indiewire. Archived from the original on October 20, 2017. Retrieved October 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morton, Ashley (March 13, 2017). "Everything You Missed From Game of Thrones at SXSW 2017". Making Game of Thrones. Archived from the original on June 6, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ James Hibberd, James Hibberd (June 2, 2017). "Game of Thrones: HBO clarifies prequels, final seasons plan". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on June 2, 2017. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Shepherd, Jack (October 23, 2017). "Game of Thrones season 8 filming looks to be underway as cast members spotted in Belfast". The Independent. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Birnbaum, Debra (April 14, 2016). "'Game of Thrones' Creators Mull Shorter Final Seasons (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (April 14, 2016). "'Game of Thrones' Considering Shorter Final Seasons". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 18, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (July 18, 2016). "Game of Thrones: HBO announces summer return, 7 episodes". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Hibberd, James (March 12, 2017). "Game of Thrones producers confirm final season only 6 episodes". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Bill (January 26, 2017). "'Game Of Thrones' Composer Says You're Not Hearing What You Think You Are". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
External links[edit]
Game of Thrones – official US site
Game of Thrones – official UK site
Game of Thrones – The Viewers Guide on HBO.com
Making Game of Thrones on HBO.com
List of Game of Thrones episodes on IMDb
List of Game of Thrones episodes at TV.com
show
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George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire
A Game of Thrones (1996)
A Clash of Kings (1998)
A Storm of Swords (2000)
A Feast for Crows (2005)
A Dance with Dragons (2011)
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