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2022 FIFA World Cup
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2022 FIFA World Cup
كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2022
Kaʾs al-ʿālam kurat al-qadam 2022
Qatar 2022
Bid logo
Tournament details
Host country
Qatar
Dates
21 November – 18 December (28 days)
Teams
32 (from 5 or 6 confederations)
Venue(s)
8 or 12 (in 7 municipalities)
← 2018
2026 →
The 2022 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to be the 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Qatar in 2022. This will be the first World Cup held in Asia since 2002 and also this will be the first World Cup ever to be held in the Middle East, and in an Arab and a majority-Muslim country. This tournament will be the last to involve 32 teams, with an increase to 48 teams scheduled from the 2026 tournament.
This will also mark the first World Cup not to be held in June or July; the tournament is instead scheduled for late November until mid-December.[1] It is to be played in a reduced timeframe of around 28 days, with the final being held on 18 December 2022, which is also Qatar National Day.[2]
Accusations of corruption have been made relating to how Qatar won the right to host the event. FIFA completed an internal investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing, but the chief investigator Michael J. Garcia has since described FIFA's report on his inquiry as "materially incomplete and erroneous".[3] On 27 May 2015, Swiss federal prosecutors opened an investigation into corruption and money laundering related to the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cups.[4][5]
On 7 June 2015, it was announced that Qatar would possibly no longer be eligible to host the event, if evidence of bribery was proven. According to Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit And Compliance Committee: "Should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled".[6][7]
Qatar has faced strong criticism due to the treatment of foreign workers involved in preparation for the World Cup, with Amnesty International referring to "forced labour" and stating that workers have been suffering human rights abuses, despite worker welfare standards being drafted in 2014.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Host selection
2 Qualification
2.1 Qualified teams
3 Venues
4 Schedule
5 Controversies
5.1 Workers' conditions
5.2 Move to November and December
5.3 Bidding corruption allegations
6 Broadcasting rights
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Host selection[edit]
Main articles: 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup bids and Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup bid
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest.[9] Initially, eleven bids were made for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings,[10][11] and Indonesia's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian Football Association failed to submit a letter of Indonesian government guarantee to support the bid.[12] Indonesian officials had not ruled out a bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, until Qatar took the 2022 cup. During the bidding process, all non-UEFA nations gradually withdrew from the 2022 bids for the 2018 one, thus making the UEFA nations ineligible for the bid.
In the end, there were five bids for the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea and the United States. The twenty-two member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments.[13] Two FIFA executive committee members were suspended before the vote in relation to allegations of corruption regarding their votes.[14] The decision to host the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which was graded as having "high operational risk",[15] generated criticism from media commentators.[16] It has been criticised as many to be part of the FIFA corruption scandals.[17]
The voting patterns were as follows:[18]
2022 FIFA bidding (majority 12 votes)
Bidders
Votes
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Qatar 11 10 11 14
United States 3 5 6 8
South Korea 4 5 5 Eliminated
Japan 3 2 Eliminated
Australia 1 Eliminated
There have been allegations of bribery and corruption in the selection process involving members of FIFA's executive committee. These allegations are being investigated by FIFA. (See § Bidding corruption allegations, below.)
Qatar is the smallest nation by area ever to have been awarded a FIFA World Cup – the next smallest by area is Switzerland, host of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which is more than three times as large as Qatar and only needed to host 16 teams instead of the current 32.
Qualification[edit]
The qualification process for the 2022 World Cup has not yet been announced. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, the AFC allowed Qatar to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If they reach the final stage, their choice on whether to continue with World Cup qualifying is subject to FIFA approval. If the hosts choose not to compete, the next-ranked team will advance instead.[19] For the first time after the initial two tournaments of 1930 and 1934, the World Cup will be hosted by a country whose national team has never played in the finals before.[20]
The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress.[21] It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.[22]
The qualifying draw is scheduled to take place in July 2019.[23]
Qualified teams[edit]
Team
Qualified as
Qualified on
Previous appearances in tournament1
Previous best
performance
Qatar Host nation 01 !2 December 2010 None (debut) —
1 Bold indicates champion for that year. Italic indicates host for that year.
Venues[edit]
The first five proposed venues for the World Cup were unveiled at the beginning of March 2010. The stadiums aim to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to 20 °C (36 °F), and the upper tiers of the stadiums will be disassembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure.[24] All of the five stadium projects launched have been designed by German architect Albert Speer & Partners.[25] Leading football clubs in Europe wanted the World Cup to take place from 28 April to 29 May rather than the typical June and July staging, due to concerns about the heat.[26]
A report released on 9 December 2010 quoted FIFA President Sepp Blatter as stating that other nations could host some matches during the World Cup. However, no specific countries were named in the report.[27] Blatter added that any such decision must be taken by Qatar first and then endorsed by FIFA's executive committee.[28] Prince Ali bin Al Hussein of Jordan told the Australian Associated Press that holding games in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and possibly Saudi Arabia would help to incorporate the people of the region during the tournament.[29]
According to a report released in April 2013 by Merrill Lynch, the investment banking division of Bank of America, the organisers in Qatar have requested FIFA to approve a smaller number of stadiums due to the growing costs.[30] Bloomberg.com said that Qatar wishes to cut the number of venues to eight or nine from the 12 originally planned.[31]
Although as of April 2017, FIFA had yet to finalise the number of stadiums Qatar must have ready in five years' time, Qatar's Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy said it expected there would be eight.[32][33]
Doha
Khalifa International Stadium Qatar Foundation Stadium Ras Abu Aboud Stadium Al Thumama Stadium
Capacity: 40,000
(upgraded)[34] Capacity: 40,000
(under construction)[35] Capacity: 40,000
(planned)[36] Capacity: 40,000
(under construction)[37]
Al Khor
Lusail
Doha
Al-Khor
Al-Wakrah
Al-Rayyan
2022 FIFA World Cup (Qatar)
Al Wakrah
Al-Bayt Stadium Al Wakrah Stadium
Capacity: 60,000
(under construction)[38] Capacity: 40,000
(under construction)[39]
Al Rayyan
Lusail
Ahmed bin Ali Stadium Lusail Iconic Stadium
Capacity: 21,282
(being expanded to 40,000)[40] Capacity: 86,250
(under construction)
Schedule[edit]
The final draw is scheduled to take place in April 2022.[23]
Controversies[edit]
Main article: List of 2022 FIFA World Cup controversies
A number of groups and media outlets have expressed concern over the suitability of Qatar to host the event,[41][42] with regard to interpretations of human rights, particularly worker conditions, the rights of fans in the LGBT community,[42][43][44][45] climatic conditions and accusations of Qatar for supporting terrorism both diplomatically and financially.[46]
The selection of Qatar as the host country has been controversial; FIFA officials were accused of corruption and allowing Qatar to "buy" the World Cup,[47] the treatment of construction workers was called into question by human rights groups,[48] and the high costs needed to make the plans a reality were criticised. The climate conditions caused some to call hosting the tournament in Qatar infeasible, with initial plans for air-conditioned stadiums giving way to a potential date switch from summer to winter. Sepp Blatter, who was FIFA President when Qatar was selected, later remarked that awarding the World Cup to Qatar was a "mistake" because of the extreme heat.[49][50]
Workers' conditions[edit]
The issue of migrant workers' rights has also attracted attention, with an investigation by The Guardian newspaper claiming that many workers are denied food and water, have their identity papers taken away from them, and that they are not paid on time or at all, making some of them in effect slaves. The Guardian has estimated that up to 4,000 workers may die due to lax safety and other causes by the time the competition is held.[48] These claims are based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese[51] workers and over 700 Indian[52] workers have died since 2010, when Qatar's bid as World Cup's host was won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year.[53] Given that there are half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the Indian government says that is quite a normal number of deaths.[53] In the United Kingdom, in any group of half a million 25–30-year-old men, an average of 300 die each year, a higher rate than among Indian workers in Qatar.[53]
In 2015, a crew of four journalists from the BBC were arrested and held for two days after they attempted to report on the condition of workers in the country.[54] The reporters had been invited to visit the country as guests of the Qatari government.[54]
The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2015 the International Trade Union Confederation's claim that over 1,200 workers had died while working on infrastructure and real-estate projects related to the World Cup, and the Qatar government's counter-claim that no-one had.[55] The BBC later reported that this often-cited figure of 1,200 workers having died in World Cup construction in Qatar between 2011 and 2013 is not correct, and that the 1,200 number is instead representing deaths from all Indians and Nepalese working in Qatar, not just of those workers involved in the preparation for the World Cup, and not just of construction workers.[53] Most Qatar nationals avoid doing manual work or low-skilled jobs; additionally, they are given preference at the workplace.[56]
In October 2017, The International Trade Union Confederation said that Qatar has signed an agreement to improve the situation of more than 2 million migrant workers in the country. According to the ITUC, the agreement provided for establishing substantial reforms in labour system, including ending Al-Kafala system. ITUC also said the agreement would positively affect the general situation of the worker, especially, who work in the projects of Qatar World Cup 2022. The workers will no longer need their employer's permission to leave the country or change their jobs.[57]
Move to November and December[edit]
Sports Illustrated reported on 18 February 2015 that the event will be staged from mid-November to mid-December.[58] Owing to the climate in Qatar, concerns have been expressed since the bid was made about holding the event during the traditional months for the World Cup finals of June and July. In October 2013, a task force was commissioned to consider alternative dates and report after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.[59] On 24 February 2015, the FIFA Task Force proposed that the tournament be played from late November to late December 2022,[60] to avoid the summer heat between May and September and also avoid clashing with the 2022 Winter Olympics in February and Ramadan in April.[61]
The notion of staging the tournament in November is controversial since it would interfere with the regular season schedules of domestic leagues around the world. Commentators have noted the clash with the Western Christmas season is likely to cause disruption, whilst there is concern about how short the tournament is intended to be.[62] It would also force the postponement of the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations from January to June to prevent African players from having a quick turnaround. FIFA executive committee member Theo Zwanziger said that awarding the 2022 World Cup to Qatar's desert state was a "blatant mistake".[63] Frank Lowy, chairman of Football Federation Australia, said that if the 2022 World Cup were moved to November and thus upset the schedule of the A-League, they would seek compensation from FIFA.[64] Richard Scudamore, chief executive of the Premier League, stated that they would consider legal action against FIFA because a move would interfere with the Premier League's popular Christmas and New Year fixture programme.[65] On 19 March 2015, FIFA sources confirmed that the 2022 World Cup final would be played on 18 December.[66]
Bidding corruption allegations[edit]
See also: Garcia Report
Qatar has faced growing pressure over its hosting of the World Cup in relation to allegations over the role of former top football official Mohammed bin Hammam played in securing the bid.[67]
A former employee of the Qatar bid team alleged[year needed] that several African officials were paid $1.5m by Qatar.[68] She retracted her claims, but later said she was coerced to do so by Qatari bid officials.[69][70] More suspicions emerged in March 2014 when it was discovered that disgraced former CONCACAF president Jack Warner and his family were paid almost $2 million from a firm linked to Qatar's successful campaign. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating Warner and his alleged links to the Qatari bid.[71]
Five of FIFA's six primary sponsors, Sony, Adidas, Visa, Hyundai and Coca-Cola, have called upon FIFA to investigate the claims.[72][73] The Sunday Times published bribery allegations based on a leak of millions of secret documents.[74] FIFA vice-president Jim Boyce has gone on record stating he would support a re-vote to find a new host if the corruption allegations are proven.[75][76] FIFA completed a lengthy investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing.
Despite the claims, the Qataris insist that the corruption allegations are being driven by envy and mistrust while Sepp Blatter said it is fueled by racism in the British media.[77][78]
In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.[79]
On 7 June 2015, Phaedra Almajid, the former media officer for the Qatar bid team claimed that the allegations would result in Qatar not hosting the World Cup.[80] In an interview published on the same day, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled".[6][7]
Broadcasting rights[edit]
Albania – RTSH[81]
Armenia – ARMTV[81]
Australia – SBS[82]
Austria – ORF[81]
Azerbaijan – İTV[81]
Belarus – BTRC[81]
Belgium – VRT, RTBF[81]
Bosnia and Herzegovina – BHRT[81]
Brazil – Rede Globo, SporTV[83]
Bulgaria – BNT[81]
Canada – CTV, TSN, RDS[84]
Caribbean – International Media Content, SportsMax[85]
China – CCTV[86]
Croatia – HRT[81]
Cyprus – CyBC[81]
Czech Republic – ČT[81]
Estonia – ERR[81]
Finland – Yle[81]
Georgia – GPB[81]
Hungary – MTVA[81]
Iceland – RÚV[81]
India – Sony SIX[citation needed]
Iran – IRIB[citation needed]
Europe – European Broadcasting Union (37 countries)[81]
Germany – ARD, ZDF[87]
Ireland – RTÉ[81]
Israel – IPBC[81]
Latvia – LTV[81]
Lithuania – LRT[81]
Macedonia – MRT[81]
Malta – PBS[81]
Mexico – Televisa, TV Azteca[81]
Moldova – TRM[81]
Montenegro – RTCG[81]
Netherlands – NOS[81]
New Zealand – Sky Sport[88]
Poland – TVP[81]
Portugal – RTP[89]
Romania – TVR[81]
Serbia – RTS[81]
South Korea – SBS, KBS, MBC
United Kingdom – BBC, ITV
Middle East – beIN Sports
United States – Fox Sports,[90] Telemundo Deportes[91]
See also[edit]
2021 FIFA Confederations Cup
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to FIFA World Cup 2022.
FIFA.com 2022 website
Qatar 2022 official website
[show]
v
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2022 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Lusail Iconic Stadium (Lusail)
Khalifa International Stadium (Doha)
Al-Bayt Stadium (Al Khor)
Al Wakrah Stadium (Al Wakrah)
Ras Abu Aboud Stadium (Doha)
Qatar Foundation Stadium (Doha)
Ahmed bin Ali Stadium (Al Rayyan)
Al Thumama Stadium (Al Thumama)
[show]
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text:
1968 in South Africa
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1967
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Decades:
1940s
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See also:
List of years in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1968 in South Africa.
Contents
1 Incumbents
2 Events
3 Births
4 Deaths
5 Railways
5.1 Locomotives
6 Sports
7 References
Incumbents[edit]
State President:
Jozua François Naudé (acting until 9 April).[1]
Jim Fouché (from 10 April).[1]
Prime Minister: John Vorster.
Chief Justice: Lucas Cornelius Steyn.
Events[edit]
January
1 – Magnus Malan is appointed as Officer Commanding of the Military Academy in Saldanha.[2]
April
10 – Jacobus Johannes Fouché becomes the 3rd State President of South Africa.[1]
20 – A South African Airways Boeing 707 crashes after take-off from Windhoek, killing 122 of the 129 on board.
30 – The bill establishing five universities for Blacks comes into force.
Unknown date
The Liberal Party of South Africa is banned by the government.
Dorothy Nyembe is arrested for the second time and charged under the Suppression of Communism Act.
In the Villa Peri campaign, the Azanian People's Liberation Army tries to infiltrate members into South Africa via Botswana and Mozambique.
The South African Bureau of State Security is formed independently of the South African Police, accountable to the Prime Minister.
Births[edit]
28 April – Andy Flower, Zimbabwean cricketer
16 September – Loren Wulfsohn, synchronized swimmer
Deaths[edit]
7 January – J.L.B. Smith, ichthyologist. (b. 1897)
10 January – Eben Dönges, politician and elected State President. (b. 1898)
Railways[edit]
Class 33-400 (GE U20C)
Locomotives[edit]
In July, the South African Railways places the first of 115 Class 33-400 General Electric type U20C diesel-electric locomotives in service in South West Africa.[3][4]
Sports[edit]
17 September – The Marylebone Cricket Club tour of South Africa is cancelled when South Africa refuses to accept the presence of Basil D'Oliveira in the side.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Archontology.org: A Guide for Study of Historical Offices: South Africa: Heads of State: 1961-1994 (Accessed on 14 April 2017)
Jump up ^ Malan, Magnus (2006). My lewe saam met die SA Weermag (1st ed.). Hatfield, Pretoria: Protea Boekhuis. ISBN 978-1-86919-113-9.
Jump up ^ Paxton, Leith; Bourne, David (1985). Locomotives of the South African Railways (1st ed.). Cape Town: Struik. pp. 139–140. ISBN 0869772112.
Jump up ^ South African Railways Index and Diagrams Electric and Diesel Locomotives, 610mm and 1065mm Gauges, Ref LXD 14/1/100/20, 28 January 1975, as amended
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1968 in Africa
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text:
Social status
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Social status is the relative respect, competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society.[1][2] At its core, status is about who is thought to be comparatively better.[3] These beliefs about who is better or worse are broadly shared among members of a society.[4] As such, status hierarchies decide who gets to "call the shots," who is worthy, and who deserves access to valuable resources. In so doing, shared cultural beliefs uphold systems of social stratification by making inequality in society appear natural and fair.[5] Status hierarchies appear to be universal across human societies, affording valued benefits to those who occupy the higher rungs, such as better health, social approval, resources, influence, and freedom.[2]
Status hierarchies depend primarily on the possession and use of status symbols. These are cues people use to determine how much status a person holds and how they should be treated.[6] Such symbols can include possession of socially valuable attributes, like being conventionally beautiful or having a prestigious degree. Wealth and the display of it through conspicuous consumption are also indicators of status.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Determination
2 In different societies
3 In nonhuman animals
4 Status inconsistency
5 Inborn and acquired
6 Social mobility
7 Social stratification
8 Max Weber's three dimensions of stratification
8.1 Status group
9 Pierre Bourdieu's theory on class distinction
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
Determination[edit]
Some perspectives on status emphasize its relatively fixed and fluid aspects. Ascribed statuses are fixed for an individual at birth, while achieved status is determined by social rewards an individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of ability and/or perseverance.[8] Examples of ascribed status include castes, race, and beauty among others. Meanwhile, achieved statuses are akin to one's educational credentials or occupation: these things require a person to exercise effort and often undergo years of training.
The status that is the most important for an individual at a given time is called master status.[9][10]
In different societies[edit]
Status refers to the relative rank that an individual holds; this includes attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. Status has two different types that come along with it: achieved, and ascribed. The word status refers to social stratification on a vertical scale.
In modern societies, occupation is usually thought of as the main determinant of status, but other memberships or affiliations (such as ethnic group, religion, gender, voluntary associations, fandom, hobby) can have an influence.[11][12] Achieved status is when people are placed in the stratification structure based on their individual merits or achievements. This status can be achieved through education, occupation, and marital status. Their place within the stratification structure is determined by society's bar, which often judges them on success, success being financial, academic, political and so on. America most commonly uses this form of status with jobs. The higher you are in rank the better off you are and the more control you have over your co-workers.
In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied. In some cases it can be quite rigid and class based, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, and some Indigenous Australian societies. In these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wife's mother quite seriously (a non-joking relationship), although the mother-in-law has no special "status" over anyone except her son-in-law—and only then in specific contexts. All societies have a form of social status.
Status is an important idea in social stratification. Max Weber distinguishes status from social class,[13] though some contemporary empirical sociologists combine the two ideas to create socioeconomic status or SES, usually operationalised as a simple index of income, education and occupational prestige.
In nonhuman animals[edit]
Social status hierarchies have been documented in a wide range of animals: apes,[14] baboons,[15] wolves,[16] cows/bulls,[17] hens,[18] even fish,[19] and ants.[20] Natural selection produces status-seeking behavior because animals tend to have more surviving offspring when they raise their status in their social group.[21] Such behaviors vary widely because they are adaptations to a wide range of environmental niches. Some social dominance behaviors tend to increase reproductive opportunity,[22] while others tend to raise the survival rates of an individual’s offspring.[23] Neurochemicals, particularly serotonin,[24] prompt social dominance behaviors without need for an organism to have abstract conceptualizations of status as a means to an end. Social dominance hierarchy emerges from individual survival-seeking behaviors.
Status inconsistency[edit]
Main article: Status inconsistency
Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on his or her social status. For example, a teacher may have a positive societal image (respect, prestige) which increases their status but may earn little money, which simultaneously decreases their status.
Inborn and acquired[edit]
Social status is often associated with clothing and possessions. Compare the foreman with a horse and high hat with the inquilino in picture. Image from 19th century rural Chile.
Statuses based on inborn characteristics, such as ethnicity, are called ascribed statuses, while statuses that individuals gained through their own efforts are called achieved statuses. Specific behaviors are associated with social stigmas, which can affect status.
Ascribed status is when one's position is inherited through family. Monarchy is a widely recognized use of this method, to keep the rulers in one family. This usually occurs at birth without any reference as to how that person may turn out to be a good or bad leader.
Social mobility[edit]
Status can be changed through a process of social mobility. Social mobility is change of position within the stratification system. A move in status can be upward (upward mobility), or downward (downward mobility). Social mobility allows a person to move to another social status other than the one he or she was born in. Social mobility is more frequent in societies where achievement rather than ascription is the primary basis for social status.
Social mobility is especially prominent in the United States in recent years with an ever-increasing number of women entering into the workplace as well as a steady increase in the number of full-time college students.[25][26] This increased education as well as the massive increase in multiple household incomes has greatly contributed to the rise in social mobility obtained by so many today. With this upward mobility; however, comes the philosophy of "Keeping up with the Joneses" that so many Americans obtain. Although this sounds good on the surface, it actually poses a problem because millions of Americans are in credit card debt due to conspicuous consumption and purchasing goods that they do not have the money to pay for.
Social stratification[edit]
Main article: Social stratification
Social stratification describes the way people are placed or "stratified" in society. It is associated with the ability of individuals to live up to some set of ideals or principles regarded as important by the society or some social group within it. The members of a social group interact mainly within their own group and to a lesser degree with those of higher or lower status in a recognized system of social stratification. Such ties between people are often fluid and amorphous. Some of the more common bases for such raking include:
Groups:
Wealth/Income (most common): Ties between persons with the same personal income
Gender: Ties between persons of the same sex and sexuality
Political status: Ties between persons of the same political views/status
Religion: Ties between persons of the same religion
Race/Ethnicity: Ties between persons of the same ethnic/racial group
Social class: Ties between persons born into the same economic group
Coolness: Ties between persons who have similar levels of popularity
Max Weber's three dimensions of stratification[edit]
Main article: Three-component theory of stratification
The German sociologist Max Weber developed a theory proposing that stratification is based on three factors that have become known as "the three p's of stratification": property, prestige and power. He claimed that social stratification is a result of the interaction of wealth (class), prestige status (or in German Stand) and power (party).[27]
Prestige is a significant factor in determining one's place in the stratification system. The ownership of property is not always going to assure power, but there are frequently people with prestige and little property.
Property refers to one's material possessions and their life chances. If someone has control of property, that person has power over others and can use the property to his or her own benefit.
Power is the ability to do what one wants, regardless of the will of others. (Domination, a closely related concept, is the power to make others' behavior conform to one's commands). This refers to two different types of power, which are possession of power and exercising power. For example, some people in charge of the government have an immense amount of power, and yet they do not make much money.
Max Weber developed various ways that societies are organized in hierarchical systems of power. These ways are social status, class power and political power.
Class Power: This refers to unequal access to resources. If you have access to something that someone else needs, that can make you more powerful than the person in need. The person with the resource thus has bargaining power over the other.
Social Status (Social Power): If you view someone as a social superior, that person will have power over you because you believe that person has a higher status than you do.
Political Power: Political power can influence the hierarchical system of power because those that can influence what laws are passed and how they are applied can exercise power over others.
There has been discussion about how Weber's three dimensions of stratification are more useful for specifying social inequality than more traditional terms like Socioeconomic Status.[28]
Status group[edit]
Main article: Status group
Max Weber developed the idea of "status group" which is a translation of the German Stand (pl. Stände). Status groups are communities that are based on ideas of lifestyles and the honor the status group both asserts, and is given by others. Status groups exist in the context of beliefs about relative prestige, privilege, and honor and can be of both a positive and negative sort. People in status groups are only supposed to engage with people of like status, and in particular, marriage inside or outside the group is discouraged. Status groups can include professions, club-like organizations, ethnicity, race, and other groups for which pattern association.[29]
Pierre Bourdieu's theory on class distinction[edit]
The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu developed theories of social stratification based on aesthetic taste in his work Distinction. Bourdieu claims that how one chooses to present one's social space to the world, one's aesthetic dispositions, depicts one's status and distances oneself from lower groups. Specifically, Bourdieu hypothesizes that these dispositions are internalized at an early age and guide the young towards their appropriate social positions, towards the behaviors that are suitable for them, and an aversion towards other lifestyles.
Bourdieu theorizes that class fractions teach aesthetic preferences to their young. Class fractions are determined by a combination of the varying degrees of social, economic, and cultural capital. Society incorporates "symbolic goods, especially those regarded as the attributes of excellence, […as] the ideal weapon in strategies of distinction".[30] Those attributes deemed excellent are shaped by the interests of the dominating class. He emphasizes the dominance of cultural capital early on by stating that "differences in cultural capital mark the differences between the classes".[31]
Aesthetic dispositions are the result of social origin rather than accumulated capital and experience over time. The acquisition of cultural capital depends heavily on "[t]otal, early, imperceptible learning, performed within the family from the earliest days of life".[30] Bourdieu hypothetically guarantees that the opinions of the young are those that they are born into, the accepted "definitions that their elders offer them".[32]
He asserts the primacy of social origin and cultural capital by claiming that social capital and economic capital, though acquired cumulatively over time, depend upon it. Bourdieu claims that "one has to take account of all the characteristics of social condition which are (statistically) associated from earliest childhood with possession of high or low income and which tend to shape tastes adjusted to these conditions".[33]
According to Bourdieu, tastes in food, culture and presentation, are indicators of class, because trends in their consumption seemingly correlate with an individual's fit in society.[34] Each fraction of the dominant class develops its own aesthetic criteria. A multitude of consumer interests based on differing social positions necessitates that each fraction "has its own artists and philosophers, newspapers and critics, just as it has its hairdresser, interior decorator or tailor."[35]
Bourdieu does not wholly disregard the importance of social capital and economic capital in the formation of cultural capital. In fact, the production of art and the ability to play an instrument "presuppose not only dispositions associated with long establishment in the world of art and culture but also economic means…and spare time".[36] However, regardless of one's ability to act upon one's preferences, Bourdieu specifies that "respondents are only required to express a status-induced familiarity with legitimate... culture".[37]
"[Taste] functions as a sort of social orientation, a 'sense of one's place', guiding the occupants of a given... social space towards the social positions adjusted to their properties, and towards the practices or goods which befit the occupants of that position".[38] Thus, different modes of acquisition yield differences in the nature of preferences.[39]
These "cognitive structures…are internalized, 'embodied' social structures", becoming a natural entity to the individual.[40] Different tastes are thus seen as unnatural and rejected, resulting in "disgust provoked by horror or visceral intolerance ('sick-making') of the tastes of others."[41]
Bourdieu himself believes class distinction and preferences are "most marked in the ordinary choices of everyday existence, such as furniture, clothing or cooking, which are particularly revealing of deep-rooted and long-standing dispositions because, lying outside the scope of the educational system, they have to be confronted, as it were, by naked taste".[42] Indeed, Bordieu believes that "the strongest and most indelible mark of infant learning" would probably be in the tastes of food.[43] Bourdieu thinks that meals served on special occasions are "an interesting indicator of the mode of self-presentation adopted in 'showing off' a life-style (in which furniture also plays a part)".[43] The idea is that their likes and dislikes should mirror those of their class fractions.
Children from the lower end of the social hierarchy are predicted to choose "heavy, fatty fattening foods, which are also cheap" in their dinner layouts, opting for "plentiful and good" meals as opposed to foods that are "original and exotic".[33][43] These potential outcomes would reinforce Bourdieu's "ethic of sobriety for the sake of slimness, which is most recognized at the highest levels of the social hierarchy," that contrasts the "convivial indulgence" characteristic of the lower classes.[44] Demonstrations of the tastes of luxury (or freedom) and the tastes of necessity reveal a distinction among the social classes.
The degree to which social origin affects these preferences surpasses both educational and economic capital. In fact, at equivalent levels of educational capital, social origin remains an influential factor in determining these dispositions.[37] How one describes one's social environment relates closely to social origin because the instinctive narrative springs from early stages of development.[45] Also, across the divisions of labor "economic constraints tend to relax without any fundamental change in the pattern of spending".[46] This observation reinforces the idea that social origin, more than economic capital, produces aesthetic preferences because regardless of economic capability consumption patterns remain stable.
See also[edit]
Sociology portal
Achieved status
Ascribed status
Dominance hierarchy
Economic mobility
Power (social and political)
Ranked society
Social class
Social inequality
Social stratification
Socioeconomic status
Sociometric status
Status attainment
Status set
Status symbol
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sauder, Michael; Lynn, Freda; Podolny, Joel (2012). "Status: Insights from Organizational Sociology". Annual Review of Sociology. 38: 267–283. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145503.
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, Cameron; Hildreth, John; Howland, Laura (2015). "Is the Desire for Status a Fundamental Human Motive? A Review of the Empirical Literature". Psychological Bulletin. 141 (3): 574–601. doi:10.1037/a0038781. PMID 25774679.
Jump up ^ Sedikides, C.; Guinote, A. (2018). ""How Status Shapes Social Cognition: Introduction to the Special Issue,"The Status of Status: Vistas from Social Cognition". Social Cognition. 36 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1521/soco.2018.36.1.1.
Jump up ^ Simandan, D., 2018. Rethinking the health consequences of social class and social mobility. Social Science & Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.11.037
Jump up ^ Ridgeway, Cecilia L.; Correll, Shelley (2006). "Consensus and the Creation of Status Beliefs". Social Forces. 85: 431–453. doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0139.
Jump up ^ Goffman, Erving (1951). "Symbols of Class Status". British Journal of Sociology. 2 (4): 294–304. doi:10.2307/588083. JSTOR 588083.
Jump up ^ Veblen, Thornstein (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions. MacMillan.
Jump up ^ Linton, Ralph (1936). The Study of Man. Appleton Century Crofts.
Jump up ^ Robert Brym; John Lie (11 June 2009). Sociology: Your Compass for a New World, Brief Edition: Enhanced Edition. Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN 0-495-59893-3.
Jump up ^ Ferris, Kelly, and Jill Stein. "The Self and Interaction." Chapter 4 of The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology. W. W. Norton & Company Inc, Dec. 2011. Accessed 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.virginia.edu/topnews/textonlyarchive/September_1996/nerd.txt
Jump up ^ "The Effect of Middle School Extra Curricular Activities on Adolescents' Popularity and Peer Status – EDER and KINNEY 26 (3): 298 – Youth & Society". Yas.sagepub.com. 1995-03-01. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Weber, Max. 1946. "Class, Status, Party." pp. 180–95 in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (eds.). New York: Oxford University.
Jump up ^ Chimpanzee Politics (1982, 2007) deWaal, Frans, Johns Hopkins University Press
Jump up ^ Sapolsy, R.M. "Cortisol concentrations and the social significance of rank instability among wild baboons". Journal of Psychoneuroendocrinology. 17: 701–09.
Jump up ^ Accessed 10 September 2012
Jump up ^ Rutberg, Allen T. (2010). "Factors Influencing Dominance Status in American Bison Cows (Bison bison)". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 63 (2–3): 206–212. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1983.tb00087.x. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Schjelderup-Ebbe, T. 1922. Beitrage zurSozialpsycholgie des Haushuhns. Zeitschrift Psychologie 88: 225–52. Reprinted in Benchmark Papers in Animal Behaviour/3. Ed. M.W.Schein. 1975
Jump up ^ Natalie Angier (1991-11-12). "In Fish, Social Status Goes Right to the Brain - New York Times". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Wilson, E.O, The Insect Societies (1971) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Jump up ^ Wilson, E.O, Sociobiology (1975, 2000) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Jump up ^ Wrangham, R. and Peterson, D. (1996). Demonic males. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-87743-2.
Jump up ^ Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L. Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., & Struhsaker, T.T. (Eds.) (1987). Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76715-9
Jump up ^ Raleigh, Michael J. (1985). "Dominant social status facilitates the behavioral effects of serotonergic agonists". Brain Res. 348: 274–82. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(85)90445-7.
Jump up ^ "OLMIS – Women in the Labor Force". Qualityinfo.org. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Digest of Education Statistics, 2007 - Introduction". Nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, translators and eds., (2015). Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society. Palgrave Macmillan.
Jump up ^ Waters, Tony and Dagmar Waters 2016 Are the terms "socio-economic status" and "social status" a warped form of reasoning for Max Weber?" Palgrave Communications 2, Article number: 16002 (2016) http://www.palgrave-journals.com/articles/palcomms20162
Jump up ^ Weber 48-56
^ Jump up to: a b Bourdieu 66
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 69
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 477
^ Jump up to: a b Bourdieu 177
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 184
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 231–32
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 75
^ Jump up to: a b Bourdieu 63
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 466
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 65
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 468
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 56
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 77
^ Jump up to: a b c Bourdieu 79
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 179
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 78
Jump up ^ Bourdieu 185
Further reading[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rank
Botton, Alain De (2004), Status Anxiety, Hamish Hamilton
Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
Social status. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:
Stark, Rodney (2007). Sociology (10th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-09344-0.
Gould, Roger (2002). "The Origins of Status Hierarchy: A Formal Theory and Empirical Test". American Journal of Sociology. 107 (5): 1143–78. doi:10.1086/341744.
McPherson, Miller; Smith-Lovin, Lynn; Cook, James M (2001). "Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks". American Journal of Sociology. 27: 415–44. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415.
Bolender, Ronald Keith (2006). "Max Weber 1864–1920". LLC: Bolender Initiatives. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Chernoff, Seth David (2015). "What is Success".
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
Ridgeway, Cecilia (2014). "Why Status Matters for Inequality". American Sociological Review. 79 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1177/0003122413515997.
Weber, Max (2015) "Classes, Stände, Parties," pp. 37–58 in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Wilhelm scream
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the band, see A Wilhelm Scream. For the song by James Blake, see The Wilhelm Scream.
The Wilhelm scream
The Wilhelm scream is a stock sound effect of a man screaming that has been used in 372 movies and countless television series,[1] beginning in 1951 for the film Distant Drums.[2] The scream is often used when someone is shot, falls from a great height, or is thrown from an explosion, and is most commonly used in films and television.
Most likely voiced by actor and singer Sheb Wooley, the sound is named after Private Wilhelm, a character in The Charge at Feather River, a 1953 Western in which the character gets shot in the thigh with an arrow.[3] This was its first use from the Warner Bros. stock sound library, although The Charge at Feather River is believed to have been the third movie to use the effect.[4]
The effect gained new popularity (its use often becoming an in-joke) after it was used in the Star Wars series, the Indiana Jones series, Disney cartoons, and many other blockbuster films, as well as many television programs and video games.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
The Wilhelm scream originates from a series of sound effects recorded for the 1951 movie Distant Drums. In a scene from the film, soldiers are wading through a swamp in the Everglades, and one of them is bitten and dragged underwater by an alligator. The scream for that scene was recorded later in a single take, along with five other short, pained screams, which were labelled "man getting bit by an alligator, and he screamed." The fifth scream was used for the soldier in the alligator scene—but the fourth, fifth, and sixth screams recorded in the session were also used earlier in the film—when three Native Americans are shot during a raid on a fort. Although takes 4, 5, and 6 are the most recognizable, all the screams are referred to as "Wilhelm" by those in the sound community.[citation needed]
The Wilhelm scream's major breakout in popular culture came from motion picture sound designer Ben Burtt, who discovered the original recording (which he found as a studio reel labeled "Man being eaten by alligator") and incorporated it into a scene in Star Wars in which Luke Skywalker shoots a Stormtrooper off of a ledge, with the effect being used as the Stormtrooper is falling.[6] Burtt is credited with naming the scream after Private Wilhelm (see The Charge at Feather River).[7] Over the next decade, Burtt began incorporating the effect in other films on which he worked, including most projects involving George Lucas or Steven Spielberg, notably the rest of the subsequent Star Wars films, as well as the Indiana Jones movies. Other sound designers picked up on the effect, and inclusion of the sound in films became a tradition among the community of sound designers.[5] In what is perhaps an in-joke within an in-joke, one of the scenes from Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom actually features a man being eaten by a crocodile (closely related to the alligator) accompanied by the scream.[citation needed]
Research by Burtt suggests that Sheb Wooley, best known for his novelty song "The Purple People Eater" in 1958 and as scout Pete Nolan on the television series Rawhide, is likely to have been the voice actor who originally performed the scream. This has been supported by an interview in 2005 with Linda Dotson, Wooley's widow. Burtt discovered records at Warner Brothers from the editor of Distant Drums including a short list of names of actors scheduled to record lines of dialogue for miscellaneous roles in the movie. Wooley played the uncredited role of Private Jessup in Distant Drums, and was one of the few actors assembled for the recording of additional vocal elements for the film. Wooley performed additional vocal elements, including the screams for a man being bitten by an alligator.[citation needed] Dotson confirmed Wooley's scream had been in many Westerns, adding, "He always used to joke about how he was so great about screaming and dying in films."[4] Despite the usage of the sound, no royalties are paid.
See also[edit]
Howie scream, another frequently used stock sound effect.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "IMDB list of movies allegedly incorporating the Wilhelm scream". Retrieved 27 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Lee, Jaes (25 September 2007). "Cue the Screa: Meet Hollywood's Go-To Shriek". Wired Magazine (15.10).
Jump up ^ "Does That Scream Sound Familiar?". ABC News. 14 October 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Malvern, Jack (May 21, 2005). "Aaaaaaaarrrrrrrrgggggghhh!!". The Times. Retrieved 12 December 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Garfield, Bob; Gladstone, Brooke (30 December 2005). "Wilhelm". On the Media.
Jump up ^ Rinzler, J. (2010). The Sounds of Star Wars. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-8118-7546-2.
Jump up ^ Lee, Steve (17 May 2005). "The Wilhelm Scream". Hollywood Lost and Found.
External links[edit]
Times article in which Sheb Wooley's widow states her belief that her husband was the man behind the scream
IMDB list of movies allegedly incorporating the Wilhelm scream
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_scream&oldid=815921628"
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