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Flag of Sweden
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Sweden
Use
Civil and state flag, civil and state ensign
Proportion
5:8
Adopted
22 June 1906
Design
A blue field with a yellow Scandinavian cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. Dimensions: 5:2:9 horizontally and 4:2:4 vertically.
Variant flag of Sweden
Use
War flag and naval ensign
Proportion
1:2
Adopted
Dates back to the mid-1600s. Described in law on 6 November 1663.[1] Current design: 22 June 1906
Design
Blue with a yellow Scandinavian cross that extends to the edges of the flag. Overall ratio, including the tails, is 1:2
The flag of Sweden consists of a yellow or gold Nordic Cross (i.e. an asymmetrical horizontal cross, with the crossbar closer to the hoist than the fly, with the cross extending to the edge of the flag) on a field of blue. The Nordic Cross design traditionally represents Christianity.[2][3] The design and colors of the Swedish flag are believed to have been inspired by the present coat of arms of Sweden of 1442, which is blue divided quarterly by a cross pattée of gold, and modeled on the Danish flag.[4] Blue and yellow have been used as Swedish colours at least since King Magnus III's royal coat of arms of 1275.
Contents
[hide]
1 Specifics
1.1 State flag and civil ensign
1.2 Military ensign
1.3 Sovereign's flag
2 History
2.1 Mythology
2.2 Early history
2.2.1 Triple-tailed flag
2.2.2 Blue ensign
2.3 Union between Sweden and Norway
2.3.1 Union flags of 1815 and 1818
2.3.2 Union flags of 1844
2.4 Flag of 1906
2.4.1 Present recommendations
2.4.2 Royal flag
2.5 Private use of the State flag
3 National flag days
4 Use outside Sweden
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Specifics[edit]
State flag and civil ensign[edit]
The dimensions of the Swedish flag are 5:2:9 horizontally and 4:2:4 vertically. The dimensions of the Swedish flag with a triple-tail are 5:2:5:8 horizontally and 4:2:4 vertically. The colors of the flag are officially established through the Natural Color System to be NCS 0580-Y10R for the shade of yellow, and NCS 4055-R95B for the shade of blue.[5] The square-cut Swedish state flag is identical to the civil ensign. The Swedish law does not regulate the design of the Swedish pennant, but it is recommended that its color scheme should correspond with that of the flag.[6]
Military ensign[edit]
The triple-tailed flag (tretungad flagga) is used as a military ensign (örlogsflaggan). Its overall ratio, including the tails, is 1:2. The flag is also used as the Swedish naval jack (örlogsgösen). The jacks are smaller than the ensigns, but they have the same proportions. The Swedish swallowtail flag was originally the King's personal emblem, or the emblem representing a command conferred by the King. It was at first two-pointed, but by the mid-17th century, the distinctive swallowtail with tongue appeared. The flag is also flown by the defence ministry, while civil ministries fly square flags.
Sovereign's flag[edit]
The Swedish royal flag (Kungliga flaggan) is still identical to the triple-tailed military flag, but usually includes in its center a white field with the greater or the lesser coat of arms with the Order of the Seraphim, which has the King of Sweden as its Grand Master. The King personally decides about the specific use of the royal flag.[7]
History[edit]
Mythology[edit]
One of the oldest preserved Swedish flags. This banner was made in 1620 and was used by soldiers on board ships of the Swedish navy.
According to early modern legend,[citation needed][year needed] the 12th-century King Eric IX saw a golden cross in the sky as he landed in Finland during the First Swedish Crusade in 1157. Seeing this as a sign from God he adopted the golden cross against a blue background as his banner.
It has been suggested[according to whom?] that the Swedish origin legend is chosen to counter a parallel origin story for the Danish flag, also recorded in the 16th century. According to this theory,[citation needed] the Swedish flag was created during the reign of King Charles VIII, who also introduced the coat of arms of Sweden in 1442. The national coat of arms is a combination of King Albert's coat of arms of 1364 and King Magnus III's coat of arms of 1275, and is blue divided quarterly by a golden cross pattée.
Other historians[who?] claim that the Swedish flag was blue with a white cross before 1420, and became blue with a golden cross only during the early reign King Gustav I, who deposed King Christian II in 1521.
Early history[edit]
Early variant of state flag and war ensign. This design was also used by the Swedish East India Company.
The exact age of the Swedish flag is not known, but the oldest recorded pictures of a blue cloth with a yellow cross date from the early 16th century, during the reign of King Gustav I.[citation needed] The first legal description of the flag was made in a royal warrant of 19 April 1562 as "yellow in a cross fashioned on blue".[8] As stipulated in a royal warrant of 1569, the yellow cross was always to be borne on Swedish battle standards and banners. Prior to this, a similar flag appeared in the coat of arms of King John III's duchy, which is today Southwest Finland. The same coat of arms is still used by the province.
Triple-tailed flag[edit]
Swedish historical flags at the Maritime Museum in Stockholm. The striped designs are some of the earliest variants on the general theme of the state colors of blue and yellow.
A royal warrant of 6 November 1663, regulated the use of the triple-tailed flag, to be used only as a state flag and military ensign.[1] According to the same royal warrant, merchant ships were only allowed to fly square-cut city flags in their respective provincial colours. In practice, however, the merchant fleet began using a square-cut civil ensign of the state flag. In a government instruction of ship building of 1730, this civil ensign should have the same proportions and colors as the state flag, with the notable difference of being square-cut.[9] In 1756, the use of pennants by private ships was prohibited.[10]
Blue ensign[edit]
A royal warrant of 18 August 1761, stipulated that an all blue triple-tailed flag to be used by the archipelago fleet, a branch of the army tasked with defending the archipelago along the Swedish coastlines. The commander of the fleet also had the right to order the use of the ordinary war ensign instead of the blue ensign when that was "appropriate".[11] The blue flag was used until 1813.
Union between Sweden and Norway[edit]
Union flags of 1815 and 1818[edit]
Swedish and Norwegian civil ensign 1818–1844, with the saltire on red in the canton symbolizing Norway.
On 6 June 1815, a common military ensign was introduced for the two united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway. This flag was identical to the former triple-tailed military ensign of Sweden, with a white saltire on red to be included in the canton. Proposed by the Norwegian Prime Minister and unionist Peder Anker, the white saltire on a red background was supposed to symbolise Norway, as the country had previously been united with Denmark and initially continued to use the same flag as an independent country, but with the national arms in the canton.[12]
Norwegian ships continued to use the Danish civil ensign distinguished with the national arms in the canton north of Cape Finisterre, but had to fly the Swedish civil ensign in the Mediterranean to be protected from pirate attacks. A common civil ensign for both countries was introduced in 1818, on the pattern of the naval ensign, but square-cut. This flag was optional for Swedish vessels, but compulsory for Norwegian ones in distant waters. In 1821, Norway adopted a new national civil ensign, identical to the present flag of Norway.
Following the adoption of a separate Norwegian flag, a royal regulation of 17 July 1821, stipulated that ships of both kingdoms use the common square-cut civil ensign (with the saltire included) in "distant waters" (i.e. beyond Cape Finisterre).[13] In "distant waters", they had the right to use any of the square-cut civil ensigns of their respective countries, or the uniform Union civil ensign. This system was in force until 1838.
Union flags of 1844[edit]
Flags of Sweden and Norway in 1899, after the removal of the union mark from the Norwegian merchant flag. Plate published by the foreign ministry of the united kingdoms to announce the recent change. Note the dark blue color and the correct proportions of the union mark in Swedish flags.
Union mark used in Swedish flags 1844–1905, with proportions 5:4. This version of the union mark was also used as a common naval jack by the navies of both countries, and as their common diplomatic flag. Norwegian flags had a square union mark.
Naval ensign of Sweden with union mark 1844–1905.
Swedish civil ensign 1844–1905, with the union mark in the canton.
Color change of the Swedish flag. (1906)
A royal resolution of 20 June 1844, introduced new flags and heraldry to denote the equal status of the two kingdoms within the union. Both countries were granted civil and military ensigns on the same pattern, their respective national flags with the addition of a union mark in the canton, combining the flag colours of both countries. The naval ensign was based on the traditional triple-tailed Swedish model. In addition, the new union mark was to be used as the naval jack and as the flag for the common diplomatic representations abroad. The warrant also stipulated that the merchant fleet use their respective countries' square-cut civil ensigns, including the new union mark. Also, royal ensigns were introduced for both countries, their respective naval ensigns with the union mark, with the addition of the union arms at the center of the cross. The new union flags were well received by the Norwegians, who had demanded their own military ensign since the union was formed. In Sweden, however, the new union mark in particular became quite unpopular and was contemptuously nicknamed the Sillsallaten (Swedish) or Sildesalaten (Norwegian) after a colorful dish of pickled herring, decorated with red beets and apples in a radial pattern. It is believed that the name was first used in a speech by Lord Brakel in the Swedish House of Lords in Stockholm.[14]
During the 19th century, a number of regulations were issued regarding the use of Swedish flags. The military ensign was also to be used by civil government ships and buildings, such as the Customs, Harbor pilots and the Royal Mail. For this use, the military ensign would have a white field included with a golden marker: For the Harbor pilots (as of 1881, based on a proposal of 1825) an anchor with a star;[15] for the Customs (as of 1844) the letter "T" topped a royal crown;[16] for the Royal Mail (as of 1844) a postal horn with a royal crown. On 7 May 1897, an alternate State flag was introduced. This double-tailed flag was used by government owned ships and buildings, which did not fly the triple-tailed military ensign.
During the late 19th century, increasing Norwegian dissatisfaction with the union led to the demand for a return to the "pure" flag of 1821 without the union mark. Opponents of the union began to use this flag several years before it was officially recognised. During the 1890s, two consecutive sessions of the Norwegian parliament voted to abolish the mark, but the decision was overruled by royal veto. However, in 1898, when the flag law was passed for the third time, the king had to sanction it. On 12 October 1899, the union mark was removed from the Norwegian civil ensign. As the Norwegian military ensign according to the constitution of 1814 was to be a union ensign, the union mark remained on military flags until the dissolution of the union with Sweden. "Pure" military ensigns were hoisted on fortresses and naval vessels on 9 June 1905.
The union mark, however, remained a part of the Swedish flag until 1905, when a Law of 28 October 1905, stipulated the exclusion of the union mark as of 1 November 1905.[17]
Flag of 1906[edit]
On 1 November 1905, the triple-tailed flag also became the Swedish naval jack. The Flag law of 22 June 1906 further regulated the use and design of the flag, notably was a lighter blue colour than was used before. The Swedish state flag became identical to the square-cut civil ensign, and all private use of the triple-tailed flag was prohibited.
Present recommendations[edit]
When used from a standalone flagpole, the size of the flag is recommended to have a width equaling a fourth of the height of the pole. When used from a flagpole extending from a building, the flag is recommended to have a width equaling a third of the height (length) of the pole. It is further recommended to fly the flag only during daytime, and to lower it no later than 9 pm. Only when the country is at war is it recommended to fly the flag also at night.
Royal flag[edit]
Royal Standard of Sweden
Standard used by the Royal Family
The king and queen use a royal flag with the greater national coat of arms. Other members of the royal house use a royal flag with the lesser national coat of arms. On naval ships the flag of the king is raised together with a split pennat with the greater national coat of arms. Likewise the flag of the heir apparent is raised together with a split pennat with the lesser national coat of arms on naval ships.
The Swedish Marshal of the Realm (Riksmarskalken) has published a series of decisions regarding the royal flag of Sweden. In a decision of 6 April 1987, rules are defined on how to fly the royal flag at the Royal Palace of Stockholm.[18]
The royal flag with the greater national coat of arms is hoisted at the Royal Palace when H.M. the King is within the realm, and is upholding his duties as the Head of state.
The royal flag with the lesser national coat of arms is hoisted at the Royal Palace, if by reason of illness, foreign travel or for any other cause, the King is unavoidably prevented from performing his duties; a member of the Royal House under the valid order of succession who is not prevented there from, assumes and performs the duties of the Head of State in the capacity of Regent ad interim.
The "plain" triple-tailed flag (without the coat of arms) is flown at the Royal Palace when the Riksdag has appointed a person to serve, at a Government order, as Regent ad interim when no member of the Royal House under the valid order of succession is in a position to serve. The three-tailed war flag is also flown at the Royal Palace when the Speaker, or, in his unavoidable absence, one of the Deputy Speakers, serves, at a Government order, as Regent ad interim when no member of the Royal House under the valid order of succession is in a position to serve.[19]
Under King Carl XVI Gustaf, king since 1973, the plain triple-tailed flag has flown at the Royal Palace only once. This occurred on 2-3 July 1988, when the King went on a private visit to Wuppertal, Germany; at the same time, the Duke of Halland, his uncle and the only person in the line of succession, was on a private visit to Sainte-Maxime, France. The Government therefore ordered the Speaker of the Riksdag, Ingemund Bengtsson, to serve as Regent ad interim for two days.
Private use of the State flag[edit]
There have been a few notable exemptions regarding the prohibition of private parties to use the State flag. All these privileges were terminated in accordance with the new specific flag regulation of 22 June 1906.
According to a royal warrant of 31 October 1786, the Swedish East India Company had the right to use the triple-tailed war ensign in "Indian waters", when not being under immediate protection by the Swedish navy. In the merchant fleet, there was a common practice to illegally use the war ensign to indicate that the ship was armed.[20]
In 1838, it was decided that private ships contracted by the Royal Mail were to fly a double-tailed flag.
On 27 February 1832, the Royal Swedish Yacht Club received the right to use the triple-tailed war ensign, including a centere white field with a golden "O" topped with a duke's crown (as of 1878 a royal crown).
On 7 June 1893, the Royal Gothenburg Yacht Club received the right to use the triple-tailed military ensign, including a centered white field with the golden "G K S S" topped with a star.
National flag days[edit]
Swedish coastal defence ship HSwMS Wasa with the union jack (1903)
Coastal defence ship HSwMS Gustav V with the current navy ensign, and the greater coat of arms in the stern.
Main article: Flag days in Sweden
Date
English Name
Local Name
Notes
1 January
New Year's Day Nyårsdagen
28 January
The King's name day Konungens namnsdag H.M. King Carl XVI Gustaf
12 March
Name day of the Crown Princess Kronprinsessans namnsdag HRH Crown Princess Victoria
Moveable Sunday
Easter Day Påskdagen First Sunday after the first full moon on or after 21 March
30 April
The King's birthday Konungens födelsedag HM King Carl XVI Gustaf
1 May
May Day Första maj
Moveable Sunday
Pentecost Pingstdagen 50 days after Easter
6 June
National Day of Sweden Sveriges Nationaldag Flag day. Official holiday from 2005.
Third Saturday of June
Midsummer Day Midsommardagen
14 July
Birthday of the Crown Princess Kronprinsessans födelsedag HRH Crown Princess Victoria
8 August
The Queen's name day Drottningens namnsdag HM Queen Silvia
Third Sunday of September
Election Day to the Riksdag Dag för val till riksdagen Elections held every four years
24 October
United Nations Day FN-dagen
6 November
Gustavus Adolphus Day Gustav Adolfsdagen Battle of Lützen (1632)
10 December
Nobel Day Nobeldagen The Nobel Awards Ceremony
23 December
The Queen's birthday Drottningens födelsedag HM Queen Silvia
25 December
Christmas Day Juldagen
Use outside Sweden[edit]
Flag of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Flag of Verona, Italy.
The flag of Sweden appears in coat of arms of Finland´s province Southwest Finland.
The flag of Wilmington, Delaware in the United States is modelled after the Swedish flag in remembrance of the short-lived colony of New Sweden, with the cross affixed with the seal of the city. The flag of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which also lies within historic New Sweden, is a vertical triband rather than a Nordic Cross, but the blue and yellow colours of the flag were chosen to commemorate the Swedish settlement of the region.[21] The flag of Verona (Italy) resembles the flag of Sweden in colours and features. The former flag has a symmetric yellow cross, although the similarities between the two flags may be historically unrelated. According to a legend, the Argentine football team, Boca Juniors' flag and colours were inspired by the flag of Sweden.[22]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Sweden.
Coat of arms of Sweden
Flag days in Sweden
Flag of Denmark
Flag of Norway
List of flags of Sweden
Nordic Cross flag
Union badge of Norway and Sweden
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Plakat, av den 6. Nov. 1663, angående den åtskillnad som härefter bör observeras emellan de flaggor som Kongl. Maj:ts enskilda skepp och farkoster föra, så ock de skepps och farkosters flaggor, som private personer tillhöra och af dem brukas skola.
Jump up ^ Jeroen Temperman. State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Retrieved 2007-12-31. Many predominantly Christian states show a cross, symbolising Christianity, on their national flag. Scandinavian crosses or Nordic crosses on the flags of the Nordic countries–Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden–also represent Christianity.
Jump up ^ Carol A. Foley. The Australian Flag: Colonial Relic or Contemporary Icon. William Gaunt & Sons. Retrieved 2007-12-31. The Christian cross, for instance, is one of the oldest and most widely used symbols in the world, and many European countries, such as the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Greece and Switzerland, adopted and currently retain the Christian cross on their national flags.
Jump up ^ Andrew Evans. Iceland. Bradt. Retrieved 2007-12-31. Legend states that a red cloth with the white cross simply fell from the sky in the middle of the 13th-century Battle of Valdemar, after which the Danes were victorious. As a badge of divine right, Denmark flew its cross in the other Scandinavian countries it ruled and as each nation gained independence, they incorporated the Christian symbol.
Jump up ^ Förordning 1983 nr. 826 med riktlinjer för färgnyanserna i Sveriges flagga.
Jump up ^ Vimpel National Archives of Sweden, official website
Jump up ^ "Svensk författningssamling (SFS) - Riksdagen". Riksdagen.se. Retrieved 2010-04-12.
Jump up ^ Original quote: "gult udi korssvijs fördeelt påå blott"; Kongl. bref, den 19. April 1562
Jump up ^ Tomas Rajalin, Nödig underrättelse om skiepz-byggeriet och der utaf härflytande högnödige och siöväsendet samt taklingen tilhörige proportioner, Carlscrona : 1730
Jump up ^ Kongl. Maj:ts förbud, den 19. November 1756, emot vimplars bruk på kofferdi- och privata fartyg.
Jump up ^ Kongl. bref, den 18. Augusti 1761
Jump up ^ See further: Krigskollegii samt Förvaltningens af sjöärendena kungörelse, den 3 Maj 1815, om den för konungarikena Sverige och Norge fastställda örlogsflaggans allmänna anläggnade.
Jump up ^ Kungl. Maj:ts kungörelse, den 17. Juli 1821, om de förenade konungarikena Sveriges och Norges handelsflagga.
Jump up ^ The Brakel family was introduced to the Swedish House of Lords in 1756 and is best known for their participation in the Great Northern War in Finland. C.O. Brakel was a secretary of the Swedish House of Lords (Riddarhussekreterare), and his remark was made in a speech in 1868.
Jump up ^ Kongl. Maj:ts skrivelse 1825 till Förvaltningen af sjöärendena om förslag till en särskild lotsflagg
Jump up ^ General-tullstyrelsens cirkulär, 26. September 1844, till herrar tulldistriktschefer och tullkamrarne med tillkännagifvande, att en särskild flagga för tullverkets fartyg blifvit av Kongl. Maj:t fastställd.
Jump up ^ Lag, den 28. Oktober 1905, om upphäfvande för Sveriges del af den till bestämmande af de genom föreningen emellan Sverige och Norge uppkomna konstitutionella förhållanden antagna riksakt.
Jump up ^ Riksmarskalkens beslut den 6. April 1987, för flaggning.
Jump up ^ This is also one of the royal flags, and rumours that the three-tailed war flag is mainly chosen since the Royal Palace is the home of the Palace Guard - is not correct.
Jump up ^ One of the oldest flags preserved is a double-tailed flag from 1760 at the Maritime Museum in Stockholm
Jump up ^ Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (U.S.) at Flags of the World
Jump up ^ Boca Juniors Archived 2 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Lag (1982:269) om Sveriges flagga
Flag of Sweden – Riksarkivet
Sweden — Flags of the World
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Environmental issues in the Philippines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Philippines' evident risk to natural disasters is due to its location. Being a country that lies in the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to earthquake and volcanic eruptions. In addition, the country is surrounded by large bodies of water and faces the Pacific Ocean where 60% of the world's typhoons are made. One of the most devastating typhoons that hit the Philippines in 2013 was Typhoon Haiyan, or "Yolanda", that killed over 10,000 people and destroyed over a trillion pesos worth of properties and damage to various sectors. Other environmental problems that the country is facing include pollution, illegal mining and logging, deforestation, dynamite fishing, landslides, coastal erosion, wildlife extinction, global warming and climate change.
Contents
1 Water pollution
2 Deforestation
3 Air pollution
4 Climate change
4.1 Impacts of global warming
4.1.1 Climate history
4.1.2 Super typhoon Haiyan
4.1.3 Future projections
4.2 Vulnerabilities of different sectors
4.2.1 Agriculture
4.2.1.1 Agricultural production and civil conflict
4.2.1.2 Gender disparities among farmers
4.2.2 Energy
4.2.3 Water
4.2.4 Infrastructure
4.2.4.1 Risk to "double exposure"
4.2.5 Human health
4.2.6 Coastal ecosystems and fisheries
5 Government policy
5.1 Sustainable development
5.2 Environmental protection
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Water pollution[edit]
Further information: Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines
The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most polluted rivers.[1]
Although water resources have become scarce in some regions and seasons, the Philippines as a whole has more than enough surface and groundwater. However, neglecting to have a coherent environmental policy has led to the contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the Philippines.[2] The main source of pollution is untreated domestic and industrial wastewater.[1] Only one third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.[2]
It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins.[3] Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems in the fishing and tourism industries.[4] The national government recognized the problem and since 2004 has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management (see below).[5]
Only 5% of the total population is connected to a sewer network. The vast majority uses flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities are rare, most effluents are discharged without treatment.[6] According to the Asian Development Bank, the Pasig River is one of the world's most polluted rivers.[1] In March 2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant will be constructed in Taguig.[7] The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700 households was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan City which has been used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities.[8]
Deforestation[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in the Philippines
Over the course of the 20th century the forest cover of the Philippines dropped from 70 percent down to 20 percent.[9] In total, 46 species are endangered, and 4 were already eradicated completely. 3.2 percent of total rainforest has been left. Based on an analysis of land use pattern maps and a road map an estimated 9.8 million ha of forests were lost in the Philippines from 1934 to 1988.[10] Illegal logging occurs in the Philippines [11] and intensify flood damage in some areas.[12]
According to scholar Jessica Mathews, short-sighted policies by the Filipino government have contributed to the high rate of deforestation:
The government regularly granted logging concessions of less than ten years. Since it takes 30–35 years for a second-growth forest to mature, loggers had no incentive to replant. Compounding the error, flat royalties encouraged the loggers to remove only the most valuable species. A horrendous 40 percent of the harvestable lumber never left the forests but, having been damaged in the logging, rotted or was burned in place. The unsurprising result of these and related policies is that out of 17 million hectares of closed forests that flourished early in the century only 1.2 million remain today.[13]
Air pollution[edit]
Due to industrial waste and automobiles, Manila suffers from air pollution,[14][15] affecting 98% of the population.[16] Annually, the air pollution causes more than 4,000 deaths. Ermita is Manila's most air polluted district due to open dump sites and industrial waste.[17] According to a report in 2003, The Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with 150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.[18]
Climate change[edit]
Two of the most pressing environmental issues impacting the Philippines is climate change. As an island country located in the Southeast Asia Pacific region, the Philippines is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Some of these impacts include increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, global warming, resource shortages, and environmental degradation.[19] All of these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines’ agriculture, energy, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the Philippines.[19]
Impacts of global warming[edit]
Climate history[edit]
Due to its geographical location, climate, and topography, the Philippines is ranked third on the World Risk Index for highest disaster risk and exposure to natural disasters.[20] 16 of its provinces, including Manila, Benguet, and Batanes, are included in the top 50 most vulnerable places in Southeast Asia, with Manila being ranked 7th.[21] Four cities in the Philippines, Manila, San Jose, Roxas, and Cotaboato, are included in the top 10 cities most vulnerable to sea level rise in the East Asia and Pacific region.[22] The country is consistently at risk from severe natural hazards including typhoons, floods, landslides, and drought.[22] It is located within a region that experiences the highest rate of typhoons in the world, averaging 20 typhoons annually, with about 7-9 that actually make landfall.[19] In 2009, the Philippines had the third highest number of casualties from natural disasters with the second most victims.[23]
Climate change has had and will continue to have drastic effects on the climate of the Philippines. From 1951-2010, the Philippines saw its average temperature rise by 0.65 degrees Celsius, with fewer recorded cold nights and more hot days.[19] Since the 1970s, the number of typhoons during the El Niño season has increased.[19] The Philippines has not only seen 0.15 meters of sea level rise since 1940, but also seen 0.6 to 1 degree Celsius increase in sea surface temperatures since 1910, and 0.09 degree c increase in ocean temperatures since 1950.[19][22] During the time period from 1990 to 2006, the Philippines experienced a number of record-breaking weather events, including the strongest typhoon (wind speeds), the most destructive typhoons (damages), the deadliest storm (casualties), and the typhoon with the highest 24 hour rainfall on record.[22]
Super typhoon Haiyan[edit]
Main Article: Typhoon Haiyan
At 04:40 on November 8th, 2013, Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known locally as “Yolanda”, made landfall in the Philippines in the Guiuan municipality.[23] The category 5 typhoon continued to travel west, making landfall in several municipalities, and ultimately devastated enormous stretches of the Philippines islands of Samar, Leyte, Cebu, and the Visaya archipelago.[20] Tied for being the strongest landfalling tropical typhoon on record, Typhoon Haiyan had wind speeds of over 300 km/h (almost 190 mph) which triggered major storm surges that wreaked havoc on many places in the country.[20] Leaving over 6,300 dead, 28,688 injured, and 1062 missing, Typhoon Haiyan is the deadliest typhoon on record in the Philippines.[24] More than 16 million people were affected by the storm, suffering from the storm surge, flash floods, landslides, and extreme winds and rainfall that took lives, destroyed homes, and devastated many.[23][24] Typhoon Haiyan crucially damaged over 1.1 million houses across the country and displaced over 4.1 million people.[23][24] According to the NDRRMC, the storm cost the Philippines about 3.64 billion US dollars.[24]
Future projections[edit]
Future projections for the current trajectory of climate change predict that global warming is likely to exceed 3degrees Celsius, potentially 4degrees, by 2060.[22] Specifically in the Philippines, average temperatures are “virtually certain” to see an increase of 1.8 to 2.2 degrees Celsius.[22] This temperature increase will stratify the local climate and cause the wet and dry seasons to be wetter and drier, respectively.[19] Most areas in the Philippines will see reduced rainfall from March to May, while Luzon and Visayas will see increased heavy rainfall.[19] There will also be an increase in: the number of days that exceed 35degree C; that have less than 2.5 mm of rainfall; and that have more than 300mm of rainfall.[19] Additionally, climate change will continue to increase the intensity of typhoons and tropical storms.[22] Sea levels around the Philippines are projected to rise 0.48 to 0.65 meters by 2100, which exceeds the global average for rates of sea level rise.[25] Combined with sea level rise, this stratification into more extreme seasons and climates increases the frequency and severity of storm surge, floods, landslides, and droughts. These exacerbate risks to agriculture, energy, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems.
Vulnerabilities of different sectors[edit]
Agriculture[edit]
Agriculture is one of the Philippines’ largest sectors and will continue to be adversely impacted by the effects of climate change. The agriculture sector employs 35% of the working population and generated 13% of the country’s GDP in 2009.[26] The two most important crops, rice and corn, account for 67% of the land under cultivation and stand to see reduced yields from heat and water stress.[26] Rice, wheat, and corn crops are expected to see a 10% decrease in yield for every 1degree C increase over a 30dC average annual temperature.[19] Increases in extreme weather events will have devastating affects on agriculture. Typhoons (high winds) and heavy rainfall contribute to the destruction of crops, reduced soil fertility, altered agricultural productivity through severe flooding, increased runoff, and soil erosion.[19] Droughts and reduced rainfall leads to increased pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation.[19] Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation water.[19] All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased demand for imports, which hurts the general economy as well as individual livelihoods.[19] From 2006 to 2013, the Philippines experienced a total of 75 disasters that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages.[19] Typhoon Haiyan alone cost the Philippines' agricultural sector an estimated US$724 million after causing 1.1 million tonnes of crop loss and destroying 600,000 ha of farmland.[27] The agricultural sector is expected to see an estimated annual GDP loss of 2.2% by 2100 due to climate impacts on agriculture.[19]
Agricultural production and civil conflict[edit]
In the Philippines, there is a correlation between rainfall and civil conflict, and manifests through agricultural production.[26] The increased rainfall during the wet season in the Philippines is proven to be harmful to agriculture as it leads to flooding and/or water logging.[26] This above average rainfall is associated with “more conflict related incidents and casualties”.[26] The rainfall has a negative effect on rice which is an important crop that a majority of the country depends on as both a food sources and employment. A poor rice crop can lead to large impacts on the wellbeing of poor Filipinx and cause widespread contempt for the government and more support for insurgent groups.[26] Climate change is expected to amplify the seasonal variation of rainfall in the Philippines and exacerbate ongoing civil conflict in the country.[26]
Gender disparities among farmers[edit]
Smallholder farmers in the Philippines are expected to be among the most vulnerable and impacted by the effects of climate change in the region. However, there are differences in how men and women experience these impacts and often lead to differences in farming patterns and coping strategies.[27] Some of the problems caused by extreme climate events in agrarian areas that are prone to civil conflict that disproportionately affect women include loss of customary rights to land, forced migration, increased discrimination, resource poverty and food insecurity.[27] The effect that the combination of severe climate events and civil conflict has on Filipino women is further exacerbated by discriminatory policies, belief and practices, and restricted access to resources.[27] For example, climate change is linked to increase civil conflict in the Mindanao region which increases the amount of casualties and deaths of young men in the area.[27] This effectively widows women married to those men and leaves them on their own to take care of them and their children, even when the society and government makes it difficult for single mothers to succeed.[27] Women are often relegated to be the caretakers of children which increases the burden and stress placed on them as well as inhibiting them from escaping from conflict ridden areas[27]
Energy[edit]
Climate change could simultaneously reduce the Philippines’ supply of energy and increase its demand for energy.[19] The increased chance of extreme weather events would reduce hydropower production, which accounts for 20% of the country’s energy supply, as well as cause widespread damage to energy infrastructure and services.[19] There will be more power outages on average in addition to an increased demand for power, specifically cooling.[19]
Water[edit]
Several factors of climate change are impacting the availability of water in the Philippines. The increasing number of intense droughts are reducing water levels and river flows and thus creating a shortage in water.[19] The floods and landslides caused by extreme rainfall degrade watershed health and water quality by increasing runoff and erosion that increases sedimentation in reservoirs.[19] Many freshwater coastal aquifers have seen saltwater intrusion which reduces the amount of freshwater available for use. About 25% of coastal municipalities in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are affected by this and the issue is expected to get worse with sea level rise.[19]
Infrastructure[edit]
Rising sea levels, heavy rainfall and flooding, and strong typhoons pose an enormous risk to the Philippines’ infrastructure. 45% of Philippines’ urban population lives in informal settlements with already weak infrastructure and are extremely vulnerable to flooding and typhoons.[22] A giant storm would wreak havoc on these informal settlements and cause the deaths and displacement of millions of people who inhabit 25 different coastline cities.[19] These natural disasters will also cause millions of dollars in damages to urban infrastructure like bridges and roads. In 2009, Tropical Storm Ketsana cost the Philippines $33 million to repair damaged roads and bridges.[19]
Risk to "double exposure"[edit]
Large cities in the Philippines such as Manila, Quezon City, Cebu, and Davao City see an increased risk from both climate change and globalization.[28] For example, in addition to being one of the world's most vulnerable cities to climate change due to geographical location, Manila has also been shaped by globalization and abides by many tenants of neoliberal urbanism, including "a strong focus on private sector led development, attracting global capital, market oriented policies and decentralization".[28] These cities experience challenges to their own climate resilience due to this double exposure to climate change and globalization, where many cities are most at risk to climate events in addition to having a large percentage of the population live in informal settlements with weak infrastructure.[28] Four million people, or about a third of Manila's population, lives in informal settlements which puts them at higher risk and danger from tropical storms and flooding, and they often have fewer resources available to recover from damages caused by environmental hazards.[28] Several factors and governments in the history of the Philippines has contributed to a large focus on urban development and its connection to "globalized systems of material production and consumption.[28] Spanish colonial rule from the 1500s to 1898, America's annexation from 1898 to 1946, Japanese occupation and bombing during World War ll, Ferdinand Marcos' authoritarian regime from 1965 till 1986, and more have all contributed to an urban development focused on globalization, market oriented development, privatization, and decentralization.[28]
Human health[edit]
Climate change, heavy rains, and increased temperatures are linked with the increased transmission of vector and waterborne diseases like malaria, dengue, and diarrhea (who). The heavy rains and increased temperatures lead to increased humidity which increases the chance of mosquito breeding and survival.[19] Increased natural disasters not only directly contribute to the loss of human life, but also indirectly through food insecurity and the destruction of health services.[19]
Coastal ecosystems and fisheries[edit]
Climate change and global warming and the rising amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere has contributed to ocean warming and ocean acidification. The ocean has acted as a carbon sink for earth for millennia and is currently slowing the rate of global warming through the sequestration of carbon. This comes at a cost however as the oceans are becoming more and more acidic as they sequester more carbon dioxide. Ocean acidification has dire consequences as it causes coral bleaching and ultimately leads to the collapse of coral reefs (usaid). Rising sea levels cause increased salinity that can have damaging impacts on the country’s extensive system of mangroves.[19] Both coral reefs and mangroves help to reduce coastal erosion and supports water quality.[19] This erosion from the loss of coral reefs and mangroves increase the chance of coastal flooding and the loss of land.[19] Coral reefs and mangroves also act as important feeding and spawning areas for many fish species that many fisher folk depend on for survival.[22] Over 60% of the coastal population depends on marine resources like coral reefs or mangroves for their contributions to fisheries, tourism, and storm protection.[19]
Government policy[edit]
Sustainable development[edit]
Recognizing the need to tackle the environment issues as well as the need to sustain development and growth, the Philippines came up with the Sustainable Development Strategy.[29] The nation for the Sustainable Development Strategy includes assimilating environmental considerations in administration, apposite pricing of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of ecosystems, control of population growth and human resources development, inducing growth in rural areas, promotion of environmental education, strengthening citizens’ participation, and promoting small to medium-sized enterprises and sustainable agricultural and forestry practices.[30] One of the initiatives signed in part of the strategy was the 1992 Earth Summit.
Upon signing the 1992 Earth Summit,[31] the government of Philippines has been constantly looking into many different initiatives to improve the environmental aspects of the country.
Environmental protection[edit]
Currently, the Philippines' Department of Environment and Natural Resources has been busy tracking down illegal loggers and been spearheading projects to preserve the quality of many remaining rivers that are not yet polluted.
See also[edit]
Pollution of the Pasig River
Anti-nuclear movement in the Philippines
Green politics in the Philippines
Ecoregions in the Philippines
List of protected areas of the Philippines
Species:
Wildlife of the Philippines
List of threatened species of the Philippines
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
^ Jump up to: a b c Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum (2007). "Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007". Retrieved 2008-04-14. , p. 4
^ Jump up to: a b Asian Development Bank (ADB) (August 2009). "Country Environmental Analysis for Philippines". Retrieved 2008-04-16.
Jump up ^ Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum (2007). "Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007". Retrieved 2008-04-14. , p. 8
Jump up ^ World Bank (December 2003). "Philippines Environment Monitor 2003" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-04-16. , p. 18–19
Jump up ^ Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum (2007). "Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007". Retrieved 2008-04-14. , p. 6
Jump up ^ World Bank (December 2005). "Philippines: Meeting Infrastructure Challenges" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-04-09. , p. 107
Jump up ^ Manila Water Company Ltd. (2008-03-18). "Manila Water Company: Manila Water to build P105-M sewage treatment plant in Taguig". Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
Jump up ^ Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (January 2010). "Case study of sustainable sanitation projects. Constructed wetland for a peri-urban housing area Bayawan City, Philippines" (PDF). Bayawan City. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Lasco, R. D.; R. D. (2001). "Secondary forests in the Philippines: formation and transformation in the 20th century" (PDF). Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 13 (4): 652–670.
Jump up ^ Liu, D; L Iverson; S Brown (1993). "Rates and patterns of deforestation in the Philippines: application of geographic information system analysis" (PDF). Forest Ecology and Management. 57 (1–4): 1–16. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(93)90158-J. ISSN 0378-1127.
Jump up ^ Teehankee, Julio C. (1993). "The State, Illegal Logging, and Environmental NGOs, in the Philippines". Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies. 9 (1). ISSN 2012-080X.
Jump up ^ "Illegal logging a major factor in flood devastation of Philippines". Terra Daily (AFP). 1 December 2004. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Mathews, Jessica Tuchman (1989). "Redefining Security" (PDF). Foreign Affairs. 68 (2). [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "City Profiles:Manila, Philippines". United Nations. Archived from the original on 15 August 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Alave, Kristine L. (18 August 2004). "METRO MANILA AIR POLLUTED BEYOND ACCEPTABLE LEVELS". Clean Air Initiative – Asia. Manila: Cleanairnet.org. Archived from the original on 3 December 2005. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "POLLUTION ADVERSELY AFFECTS 98% OF METRO MANILA RESIDENTS". Hong Kong: Cleanairnet.org. 31 January 2005. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Fajardo, Feliciano (1995). Economics. Philippines: Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 357. ISBN 978-971-23-1794-1. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
Jump up ^ de Guzman, Lawrence (11 November 2006). "Pasig now one of world's most polluted rivers". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad USAID (February 2017). "CLIMATE CHANGE RISK IN THE PHILIPPINES: COUNTRY FACT SHEET" (PDF). USAID.
^ Jump up to: a b c Matthias, Garschagen,; Michael, Hagenlocher,; Martina, Comes,; Mirjam, Dubbert,; Robert, Sabelfeld,; Jin, Lee, Yew; Ludwig, Grunewald,; Matthias, Lanzendörfer,; Peter, Mucke, (2016-08-25). "World Risk Report 2016".
Jump up ^ Yusuf, Arief Anshory (2010). Hotspots! Mapping Climate Change Vulnerability in Southeast Asia. IRSA. ISBN 9789810862930.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Getting a Grip on Climate Change in the Philippines". World Bank. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d World Health Organization. Climate change and health in the Western Pacific region: synthesis of evidence, profiles of selected countries and policy direction. Manila: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d User, Super. "Situational Report re Effects of Typhoon YOLANDA (HAIYAN)". ndrrmc.gov.ph. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
Jump up ^ Kahana, Ron, et al. "Projections of mean sea level change for the Philippines." (2016).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Crost, Benjamin, et al. "Climate Change, Agricultural Production and Civil Conflict: Evidence from the Philippines." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 88, 01 Mar. 2018, pp. 379-395. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2018.01.005.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Chandra, Alvin, et al. "Gendered vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers to climate change in conflict-prone areas: A case study from Mindanao, Philippines." Journal of rural studies 50 (2017): 45-59.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Meerow, Sara. "Double exposure, infrastructure planning, and urban climate resilience in coastal megacities: A case study of Manila". Environment and Planning A. 49 (11): 2649–2672. doi:10.1177/0308518x17723630.
Jump up ^ "PHILIPPINE STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A Conceptual Framework". PA 21 PSDN. Retrieved 2011-09-13.
Jump up ^ Belinda Yuen, Associate Professor, National University of Singapore. "http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-1256566800920/6505269-1268260567624/Yuen.pdf" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-09-13. External link in |title= (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Government Policies Pertaining to the Manufacturing Sector". Department of Public Information. Retrieved 2011-09-13.
Further reading[edit]
Cavanagh, John; Broad, Robin (1994). Plundering paradise: the struggle for the environment in the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08921-9.
Magno, Francisco A. (1993). "The Growth of Philippine Environmentalism". Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies. 9 (1). ISSN 2012-080X.
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Democratic republic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A democratic republic is a form of government operating on principles adopted from a republic and a democracy. Rather than being a cross between two entirely separate systems, democratic republics may function on principles shared by both republics and democracies.
Contents
1 Theory
2 History
3 Global use of the term
4 See also
5 References
Theory[edit]
Common definitions of the terms democracy and republic often feature overlapping concerns, suggesting that many democracies function as republics, and many republics operate on democratic principles, as shown by these definitions from the Oxford dictionary online:
Republic: "A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives..."[1]
Democracy: "A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives."[2]
Eugene Volokh of the UCLA School of Law notes that the United States exemplifies the varied nature of a democratic republic—a country where some decisions (often local) are made by direct democratic processes, while others (often federal) are made by democratically elected representatives.[3] As with many large systems, US governance is incompletely described by any single term. It also employs the concept, for instance, of a constitutional democracy in which a court system is involved in matters of jurisprudence.[3]
As with other democracies, not all persons in a democratic republic are necessarily citizens, and not all citizens are necessarily entitled to vote.[4] Suffrage is commonly restricted by criteria such as voting age.[5]
History[edit]
In the US, the notion that a republic was a form of democracy was common from the time of its founding, and the concepts associated with representative democracy (and hence with a democratic republic) are suggested by John Adams (writing in 1784):
No determinations are carried, it is true, in a simple representative democracy, but by consent of the majority or their representatives.[6]
Historically, some inconsistency around the term is frequent. China claims to be the oldest of Asia's democratic republics, though its recent history of democratic process is largely linked only to Taiwan.[7] Likewise, Africa's oldest democratic republic, Liberia (formed in 1822), has had its political stability rocked by periodic violence and coups.[8]
Global use of the term[edit]
Many countries that use the term "democratic republic" in their official names (such as Algeria,[9] Congo-Kinshasa,[10] Ethiopia,[11] North Korea,[12] Laos,[13] and Nepal[13]) are considered undemocratic "hybrid regimes" or "authoritarian regimes" by the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index[14] and "not free" by the U.S.-based, U.S.-government-funded non-governmental organization Freedom House.[15] In addition, East Germany was also officially known as the German Democratic Republic, but, like the Somali Democratic Republic,[16] the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,[17] was controlled by a bureaucratic government espousing Marxism–Leninism.[18]
There are also countries which use the term "Democratic Republic" in the name and have a good track of general election and were rated "flawed democracy" or "full democracy" in the Democracy Index, such as the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste and the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
See also[edit]
Democracy
Republic
Federal republic
People's republic
Liberal democracy
Indices of freedom
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "republic | Definition of republic in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
Jump up ^ "democracy | Definition of democracy in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Volokh, Eugene (2015-05-13). "Is the United States of America a republic or a democracy?". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Characteristics of Democratic Republic". Government VS. softUsvista Inc.
Jump up ^ "Voter Registration Age Requirements by State". USA.gov. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Adams, John (1851). The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: With a Life of the Author, Notes and Illustrations. Little, Brown.
Jump up ^ Yongnian, Zheng; Fook, Lye Liang; Hofmeister, Wilhelm (2013-10-23). Parliaments in Asia: Institution Building and Political Development. Routledge. ISBN 9781134469659.
Jump up ^ "Elections history in Africa's oldest democratic republic: Liberia". euronews. 2017-10-08. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "EIU Democracy Index 2016". infographics.economist.com. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Freedom in the World 2017". freedomhouse.org. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Somali Democratic Republic". www.onwar.com. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
Jump up ^ Clapham, Christopher (1987-06-01). "The constitution of the people's democratic Republic of Ethiopia". Journal of Communist Studies. 3 (2): 192–195. doi:10.1080/13523278708414865. ISSN 0268-4535.
Jump up ^ "Berlin Wall - Cold War - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democratic_republic&oldid=864894584"
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