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Committee of Public Safety
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For other uses, see Committee of Public Safety (disambiguation).
The Committee of Public Safety (French: Comité de salut public)—created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793—formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793–94), a stage of the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee—composed at first of nine, and later of twelve, members—was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful.
In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin, Maximilien Robespierre, was added to the Committee. The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794. In December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee.
The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a reactionary period against the Committee of Public Safety. This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction, as Robespierre's fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary calendar month of Thermidor. The Committee's influence diminished,[1] and it was disestablished in 1795.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins and evolution
1.1 Committee of discussion
1.1.1 Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists
1.2 Committee of rule
1.3 Fall of the Committee, and aftermath
2 Composition
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Origins and evolution[edit]
Committee of discussion[edit]
Lettre anglaise (English Letter) dated 29 June 1793 as published by the French National convention during the Revolution (1793). This document was used to prove English spying and conspiracy.
On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria, following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within.[2]
The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal."[2]
The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as "the Danton Committee".[3] Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. However, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.[4]
On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal,[5] the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order, and oversight of the state bureaucracy.[6]
The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention, and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror—for instance, the levée en masse, passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects, passed on 17 September 1793, and the Law of the Maximum, passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.[citation needed]
Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists[edit]
On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper initially aimed—with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety[7]—at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor, and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus, and expounding the "indulgent" views of the Dantonist faction.[citation needed]
Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested. Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.[8]
Committee of rule[edit]
Maximilien Robespierre, member of the Committee of Public Safety
The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The creation, in March 1794, of a "General Police Bureau"—reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety, but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just—served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety, and of Robespierre himself.
The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and, above it, the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death. From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.[9]
However, even as the Terror reached its height, and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety, and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief.[10] Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement.[11] Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.
Fall of the Committee, and aftermath[edit]
When it became evident, in mid-July 1794, that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security; however, on 26 July, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions."[12] In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.
On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar), Saint-Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne, and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused Saint-Just of intending to "murder the Convention."[13] Barère, Vadier, and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just was ordered, along with that of their supporters, Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.
A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas, and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide. Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July.[14]
The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.[citation needed]
Composition[edit]
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The Committee was initially composed of nine members, all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time, without term limits. Its first members, instated on 6 April 1793, were as follows, in order of election.
After Robespierre's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793, the Committee increased its membership to twelve. The list below represents the Committee's membership.
April 1793 – July 1793:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jean-François Delmas (1751–1798) Haute-Garonne Montagnard
Jean-Jacques Bréard (1751–1840) Charente-Inférieure Montagnard
Pierre-Joseph Cambon (1756–1820) Hérault Montagnard
Georges Danton (1759–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jean Debry (1760–1834) Aisne Montagnard
Jean-François Delacroix (1753–1794) Eure-et-Loir Maraisard
Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816) Côte-d'Or Girondin
Jean Baptiste Treilhard (1742–1810) Seine-et-Oise Girondin
July 1793 – July 1794:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819) Seine Montagnard
Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) Pas-de-Calais Maraisard
Georges Couthon (1755–1794) Puy-de-Dôme Montagnard
Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832) Côte-d'Or Montagnard
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796) Seine Montagnard
Robert Lindet (1746–1825) Eure Montagnard
Pierre Louis Prieur (1756–1827) Marne Montagnard
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jeanbon Saint-André (1749–1813) Lot Montagnard
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794) Aisne Montagnard
Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794) Seine-et-Oise Montagnard
See also[edit]
Commissioners of the Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
National Convention
Historiography of the French Revolution
Revolutionary Tribunal
Reflections on the Revolution in France
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Committee of Public Safety". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Belloc (1899), p. 210.
Jump up ^ Mantel (2009).
Jump up ^ Belloc (1899), p. 235.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 284.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 134.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 141.
Jump up ^ "Danton Versus Robespierre: The Quest for Revolutionary Power". www.ucumberlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 331.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 340.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 418.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 422.
Jump up ^ "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror". www.loyno.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Committee of Public Safety.
Belloc, Hillaire (1899). Danton: A Study. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Furet, François (1992). Revolutionary France, 1770–1880. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Linton, Marisa, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Madelin, Louis (1916). The French Revolution. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Mantel, Hilary (6 August 2009). "He Roared". London Review of Books. 3 (15): 3–6. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
Palmer, R.R. (September 1941). "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety". Journal of Modern History. 13 (3): 375–397. JSTOR 1871581.
——— (1970). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05119-4.
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Scurr, Ruth (2006). Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. New York: Owl Books.
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Help
Category:World War II battleships of the United States
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World War II portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World War II battleships of the United States.
This category is for battleships designed, built, or operated by the United States during World War II (1939–1945).
Pages in category "World War II battleships of the United States"
The following 37 pages are in this category, out of 37 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
Colorado-class battleship
Iowa-class battleship
Nevada-class battleship
New Mexico-class battleship
New York-class battleship
North Carolina-class battleship
Pennsylvania-class battleship
South Dakota-class battleship (1939)
Tennessee-class battleship
Wyoming-class battleship
A
USS Alabama (BB-60)
USS Arizona (BB-39)
USS Arkansas (BB-33)
B
Battleship Row
C
USS California (BB-44)
USS Colorado (BB-45)
I
USS Idaho (BB-42)
USS Indiana (BB-58)
USS Iowa (BB-61)
M
USS Maryland (BB-46)
USS Massachusetts (BB-59)
USS Mississippi (BB-41)
USS Missouri (BB-63)
N
USS Nevada (BB-36)
USS New Jersey (BB-62)
USS New Mexico (BB-40)
USS New York (BB-34)
USS North Carolina (BB-55)
O
USS Oklahoma (BB-37)
P
USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)
S
USS South Dakota (BB-57)
T
USS Tennessee (BB-43)
USS Texas (BB-35)
W
USS Washington (BB-56)
USS West Virginia (BB-48)
USS Wisconsin (BB-64)
USS Wyoming (BB-32)
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Headroom (photographic framing)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In photography, headroom or head room is a concept of aesthetic composition that addresses the relative vertical position of the subject within the frame of the image. Headroom refers specifically to the distance between the top of the subject's head and the top of the frame, but the term is sometimes used instead of lead room, nose room or 'looking room'[1] to include the sense of space on both sides of the image. The amount of headroom that is considered aesthetically pleasing is a dynamic quantity; it changes relative to how much of the frame is filled by the subject.
One rule of thumb taken from classic portrait painting techniques,[2] called the "rule of thirds",[3][4] suggests that the subject's eyes, as a center of interest, are ideally positioned one-third of the way down from the top of the frame.[5][unreliable source?]
Moving images such as movie cameras and video cameras have the same headroom issues as still photography, but with the added factors of the movement of the subject, the movement of the camera, and the possibility of zooming in or out.
Perceptual psychological studies have been carried out[by whom?] with experimenters using a white dot placed in various positions within a frame to demonstrate that observers attribute potential motion to a static object within a frame, relative to its position. The unmoving object is described as 'pulling' toward the center or toward an edge or corner.[6] Proper headroom is achieved when the object is no longer seen to be slipping out of the frame—when its potential for motion is seen to be neutral in all directions.
Headroom changes as the camera zooms in or out, and the camera must simultaneously tilt up or down to keep the center of interest approximately one-third of the way down from the top of the frame.[5] The closer the subject, the less headroom needed.[7] In extreme close-ups, the top of the head is out of the frame,[1] but the concept of headroom still applies via the rule of thirds.[citation needed]
In television broadcast camera work, the amount of headroom seen by the production crew is slightly greater than the amount seen by home viewers, whose frames are reduced in area by about 5%.[1] To adjust for this, broadcast camera headroom is slightly expanded so that home viewers will see the correct amount of headroom.[1] Professional video camera viewfinders and professional video monitors often include an overscan setting to compare between full screen resolution and "domestic cut-off"[1] as an aid to achieving good headroom and lead room.
One of the most common mistakes that casual camera users make is to have too much headroom: too much space above the subject's head.[8]
Examples[edit]
A portrait of guitarist Adrian Legg demonstrates an excessive amount of headroom, with the subject's nose centered in the frame (a common mistake.)
A subtle lack of headroom with the subject's eyes only 28% of the way down from the top, not 33%
Good composition, with the subject's eyes one-third of the distance down from the top of the frame, following the rule of thirds
For moving images, the action of zooming in to fill the frame with the subject requires the simultaneous tilting up of the camera, shown by the red lines, to maintain the correct amount of headroom. Conversely, zooming out requires tilting down.
See also[edit]
Photography portal
Highlight headroom
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thompson, Roy. Grammar of the shot, Focal Press, 1998, p. 64. ISBN 0-240-51398-3
Jump up ^ Hurter, Bill. The Best of Portrait Photography: Techniques and Images from the Pros, Amherst Media, Inc, 2003, p. 38. ISBN 1-58428-101-4
Jump up ^ Camera Terms, Retrieved on June 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ MediaCollege.com. Framing, Retrieved on June 25, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Barbash, Ilisa; Taylor, Lucien. Cross-cultural Filmmaking: A Handbook for Making Documentary and Ethnographic Films and Videos, University of California Press, 1997, p. 97. ISBN 0-520-08760-7
Jump up ^ Ward, Peter. Picture composition for film and television, Elsevier, 2003, p. 84. ISBN 0-240-51681-8
Jump up ^ Millerson, 1994, p. 80.
Jump up ^ Trem.ca, digital photography. Basic Rules of Photography, Retrieved on June 25, 2009.
Further reading[edit]
Millerson, Gerald. Video camera techniques, Focal Press, 1994, p. 80. ISBN 0-240-51376-2
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Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales
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This article needs to be updated. In particular: Largely only refers to plans as they were in 2007 – few references to the enacting of these changes in the past tense. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2016)
Raising of the school leaving age in England and Wales
Initial
1870
Latest
2015
Related Acts:
Elementary Education Act 1870
Elementary Education Act 1880
Education Act 1918
Education Act 1944
Act 1973 (unofficial title)
Act 2013
See raising of school leaving age for worldwide overview
The raising of school leaving age (shortened to ROSLA) is the name given by the government to refer to changes regarding the legal age a child is permitted to leave compulsory education as specified under an Education Act. In most countries, the school leaving age often reflects when young people are seen to be mature enough within their society, but not necessarily when they are old enough to be regarded as an adult.
In England and Wales, this age has been raised numerous times since the introduction of compulsory education in 1870. On 1 September 1972, the age was raised from 15 to 16, following preparations which began eight years earlier in 1964. This left a gap year of school leavers who, by law, had to complete an additional year of education from 1973 onwards.
There are several reasons why the government may wish to increase the school leaving age, considering it has raised the age numerous times over the 19th and 20th centuries, the last time being in 2015. With past age raisings, the reasons given have been focused mainly on generating more skilled labour by providing additional time for students to gain additional skills and qualifications. In recent years, it became apparent that most 16 to 18 year-olds have not been motivated to continue their education after completion of their GCSEs, thus increasing the overall unemployment rate given many are unable to find work.[1] The British government hoped that by making education compulsory up to the age of 17 by 2013 and 18 by 2015,[2] it could change this.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 19th century
2 20th century
2.1 The Fisher Act of 1918
2.2 Butler's post-war education changes
2.2.1 Reasons
2.2.2 Effects
2.3 Leaving age raised to 16
2.3.1 ROSLA Buildings
2.4 Education Act 1996
3 21st century
3.1 Education and Skills Act 2008
3.1.1 Participation Age
3.1.2 Reasons
3.1.3 Opposition
3.1.4 Effects
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 References
7 External links
19th century[edit]
William Edward Forster drafted the first Education Act in 1870
Prior to the 19th century, there were very few schools. Most of those that existed were run by the church, for the church, stressing religious education. In the latter part of the 19th Century, compulsory attendance at school ceased to be a matter for local option, with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 a milestone in the British school education system.[4] Children had to attend between the ages of 5 and 10 though with some local discretion such as early leaving in agricultural areas.[5]
The introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 (applying to England and Wales), commonly known as Forster's Education Act having been drawn up by William Edward Forster, created the concept of compulsory education for children under thirteen, although the decision to make education compulsory was at the discretion of school boards; education was compulsory in approximately 40% of schools by 1873.[6] In areas where education was considered a problem, elected school boards could be set up. These boards could, at their discretion, create local by-laws, confirmed by Parliament, to require attendance and fine the parents of children who did not attend.[4] There were exemptions for illness, living more than a certain distance (typically one mile) from a school, or certification of having reached the required standard (which varied by board) which were made mandatory across England and Wales by the 1880 Act.
The Elementary Education Act 1880 insisted on compulsory attendance from 5–10 years.[4] For poorer families, ensuring their children attended school proved difficult, as it was more tempting to send them working if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available. Attendance Officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school, which often proved to be ineffective. Children under the age of 13 who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard; employers of these children who weren't able to show this were penalised.[7] An act brought into force thirteen years later went under the name of the Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act 1893, which stated a raised minimum leaving age to 11. Later the same year, the act was also extended for blind and deaf children, who previously had no means of an official education. This act was later amended in 1899 to raise the school leaving age up to 12 years of age.[7][8]
20th century[edit]
The start of the 20th century saw school boards abolished in 1902 and replaced with local education authorities, which are still in use to the present day.[4]
The Fisher Act of 1918[edit]
The year 1918 saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918, commonly also known as the Fisher Act as it was devised by Herbert Fisher. The act enforced compulsory education from 5–14 years, but also included provision for compulsory part-time education for all 14 to 18-year-olds. There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education, by raising the participation age to 18 though cuts in public spending after World War I made this impractical. This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18.[9] The 1918 act was not implemented until a further act of 1921 was passed.[10]
Butler's post-war education changes[edit]
HORSA Huts, constructed circa 1947 to handle the increased student numbers as a result of the leaving age increase
In 1944, Rab Butler introduced the Education Act 1944 which amongst other changes, including the introduction of the Tripartite System, included raising the school leaving age to 15. Although the act should have been brought into effect as from September 1939, it was not implemented because of the effects of World War II, but was eventually enforced from April 1947.[7][3] The Comprehensive school system has since replaced the Tripartite System brought in by this act across most of England.[11] This act also recommended compulsory part-time education for all children until the age of 18, but was dropped, in similar fashion to the 1918 Act, to cut spending after World War II.[9]
Reasons[edit]
Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14, as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education, as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height. It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment, with around 80% of children in 1938 leaving education at this age, many having only had primary-school level education.[12] Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children, it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified, skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour.[13]
Effects[edit]
This act introduced the 11+ examination to determine if a child should be eligible for a grammar school, secondary modern or technical college, under the Tripartite System,[3] but has since been phased out across the majority of the United Kingdom, with just several boroughs in England[14] and Northern Ireland[15] still using it. League tables published in March 2007 showed grammar schools throughout the country were outperforming comprehensive schools;[16] data published ten years later in 2017 suggested a similar clear division between student attainment in grammar schools compared to comprehensive schools.[17]
Changes in society and approaches towards education, including equal opportunities, has meant that it is now recognised that all children deserve to have the same educational opportunities without singling out those who learn at a slower rate than others, thus every child has the opportunity to gain secondary school level qualifications or similar, regardless of background or intelligence.
Leaving age raised to 16[edit]
In 1964, preparations began to raise the school leaving age to 16.[18] These were delayed in 1968, and eventually the decision was taken in 1971 that the new upper age limit be enforced from 1 September 1972 onwards.[7] As well as raising the school leaving age in 1972, the year also saw the introduction of the Education (Work Experience) Act, allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students.[19] In some counties around the country, these changes also led to the introduction of middle schools in 1968,[19] where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year, meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change.[3] In others, more radical changes led to middle schools for pupils aged up to 13 opening in smaller secondary school buildings, with other schools accommodating students over 13. As of 2010, there are fewer than 300 middle schools across England, situated in just 22 local education authorities; the number of remaining middle schools has gradually fallen since the mid-1980s.[20][3]
ROSLA Buildings[edit]
For many secondary schools around England and Wales in areas without a Middle School, accommodating for the new 5th year students would be a struggle. A popular solution was to provide those schools with a pre-fabricated building (often referred to as ROSLA Buildings or ROSLA Blocks) that were in need of additional capacity,[3] providing them with the resources to cope with the new generation of 5th year students. This solution proved popular with many schools across the country, not least due to the low cost involved for materials and construction, but also the speed which these buildings could be erected. Many were supplied by F. Pratten and Co Ltd.[21][22][23][24]
The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs, being assembled by a team often within days, regardless of weather conditions. Consequently, they were not intended to stand long-term, though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned.[3] Many ROSLA Buildings shared similar exterior attributes such as their design, with the only difference being the separation of rooms within the building. The room separation within the building was decided upon by senior school management, hence many walls are false from being added in after construction.
Although the majority of schools around England and Wales have since replaced the ROSLA Building at their site, there are still numerous schools around the country which are still actively using these buildings.[citation needed]
Education Act 1996[edit]
Between 1976 and 1997, the minimum school leaving arrangements were:
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 September to 31 January inclusive, may leave compulsory schooling at the end of the Spring term (the following Easter).
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 February to 31 August, may leave on the Friday before the last Monday in May.
Under the Education Act 1996, a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter. This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16.[25]
21st century[edit]
Education and Skills Act 2008[edit]
Graph showing the percentage of young people in employment or training, at ages 16 and 18 respectively.[26]
Reports published in November 2006 suggested that Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England to 18, just over 40 years later than the last rise in 1972, pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment.[3]
Participation Age[edit]
A year later, on 6 November 2007, Prime Minister Gordon Brown unveiled the government's plans in his Queen's Speech. The plans included the duty for parents to assist their children in education or training participation until the date of their 18th birthday, as well as detailing proposed moves to reform the apprenticeship system and to improve achievement for children in care. The Education and Skills Act 2008, when it came into force in the 2013 academic year, initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17, followed by the age being raised to the young person's 18th birthday in 2015.[27] This was referred to as raising the "participation age"[28] to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16.[29] To qualify as participation the young person must be in education or training for the equivalent of one day a week (at a minimum). The local council is responsible for ensuring that a suitable place is available.[28] The Act makes similar powers available to the National Assembly for Wales. A spokesperson for the Welsh Assembly indicated that it would want to encourage more young people to stay in education, but without compulsion,[30] so school leavers there are not required to continue with any education or training.[29]
Reasons[edit]
Figures were published in June 2006 showing that 76.2% of all young people aged 16–18 are already in further education or training, meaning that the rise might only affect around 25% of young people who may have otherwise sought employment immediately upon finishing compulsory education. This did not specifically state that young people would remain in secondary school, but rather by law be required to continue their education full or part-time, whether that be in sixth form, college or work based training.[5][31] Around 80% of 16-year-olds stay in full-time academic or vocational education, or go on a government-financed training course.[32] In a survey of 859 people, 9/10 supported the plans for the age increase.[33]
Proportion of 16-18 year olds in Education & training, employment and NEET.[34]
Reports published by the DfES showed that although there are around 70% of 16 year olds who remain in full-time education, this declines to less than 50% by the time they reach 18, with the majority finding unskilled employment and even fewer going into employment where their training has relevance. There is also a small increase in those who become unemployed by the time they reach 18, which the government hoped to reduce with the act.[26] It is these cases of unemployment which the government believes to be the toughest, whom it classifies as NEET (Not in Education, Employment or Training). In 2006 an additional 7% of 16 year olds fell into this category and the proportion rose to 13% among 18 year olds.[26] In practice, only 1% of young people are classified as NEET during their time aged 16–18, due to churn between training, employment and NEET classification.[34] In 2015 the percentage of 16-18 classified as NEET fell to 7.5%, the lowest figure since 2000.[35]
The government believed that the changes were needed because of the collapse in unskilled jobs in the economy, which means that young school leavers at 16 years of age are finding it increasingly more difficult to find employment, consequentially in many cases making them unemployable. Within the last 40 years, the number of unskilled jobs available have more than halved, from 8 million in the 1960s to 3.5 by 2007, with predictions of further drops to just 600,000 by 2020 due to the increasing demand for skilled labour.[36] This, together with fewer students continuing their further education, increase the difficulty for young school leavers to find work if they were either not able, or chose not to, stay on at school and complete further education. s
Opposition[edit]
Whilst the government is eager to implement the changes, many oppose the proposal,[37] some on civil liberties grounds.[38] Compulsory school attendance is usually justified by reference to the argument that minors are incapable of making sufficiently reasoned choices. However, the 16-18 age group falls into a grey area, being regarded as effectively adult in a number of contexts. Indeed, in some jurisdictions (e.g. Scotland), individuals are considered to reach full maturity at 16.
The proposal of using criminal sanctions to enforce attendance under this new system was opposed by MPs from both the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, who believed compulsion and threats were the wrong approach to increasing participation.[9] A spokesperson for the DfES said the proposals were not about "forcing young people to do something they don't want to", and that "we are letting young people down if we allow them to leave education and training without skills at the age of 16."[39] However, the Prime Minister's Queen's Speech in November 2007, which discussed the raise in school leaving age, suggested that pupils who failed to comply with new laws are to be expected to face fines or community service, rather than custodial sentencing which had previously been proposed. Local Authorities will also be expected to ensure pupils are participating up to 18 years of age.[30]
Effects[edit]
The downward trend in the number of unskilled jobs available throughout the country is continuing. The government believes that the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18 will mean many more young people will leave education in a much better position to find skilled employment. Speaking in March 2007, Chancellor Gordon Brown stated that around 50,000 teenagers would be paid a training allowance to sign up to college-based courses, with estimates on the available number of apprenticeships available to double to around 500,000 by 2020,[40] with 80% being available in England, which will be an increase from the current 250,000 apprenticeships available, offered by 130,000 employers.[30]
A skills commission report released in 2013, backed by Labour MP Barry Sheerman, suggests that young people were being let down by the education system, with particular criticism aimed towards the lack of information, advice and guidance available to 14-19 year olds.[41] The government were hopeful that the changes would have an effect on preventing the increase in crime levels, as figures reported a substantial percentage of young people leaving school were turning to a life of crime, with many being unable to find suitable work due to lack of skills and qualifications.[33]
See also[edit]
School leaving age
Education in England
Compulsory education
Tripartite System
Further reading[edit]
http://www.thepotteries.org/dates/education.htm
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "School leaving age set to be 18". BBC News. 12 January 2007.
Jump up ^ What happens after the age of 16? BBC.co.uk, 19 November 2014
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Education leaving age brief Politics.co.uk, 12 June 2007
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lincolnshire School Resources Genuki.org.uk
^ Jump up to: a b School leaving age may be raised news.bbc.co.uk, 10 November 2006
Jump up ^ "Education Acts 1870 1873 1876". Intriguing History. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "15 Crucial Events in the History of English Schools". Oxford Royale. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Key dates in British Education (1000-1899) ThePotteries.org
^ Jump up to: a b c "Q&A: The new school leaving age". The Guardian. 29 November 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Education in England - 3 www.educationengland.org.uk
Jump up ^ "From tripartite to comprehensive schools and the New Right". Sociology Twynham. 21 December 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rab Butler's 1944 act brings free secondary education for all". BBC News. 17 January 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Dent, H. C. (1 January 1947). "Raising the School-Leaving Age in Britain". The School Review. 55 (9): 523–525. JSTOR 1082674.
Jump up ^ "Grammar school and the 11+ explained". Relocate Global. 20 July 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "11+ exam 'put people off study'". The Herald Scotland. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Grammars still dominate league tables". The Telegraph. 2 March 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Grammar school children excel while comprehensives fall behind, figures show". The Telegraph. 19 January 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Education leaving age". politics.co.uk. Retrieved 28 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Education in England - Timeline educationengland.org.uk
Jump up ^ "Middle Schools in the UK". UK Middle Schools. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Spaxton V.C.Primary School".
Jump up ^ "Wiltshire Community History". Wiltshire Council. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pratten Hut – St Dunstan School, Calne, Wiltshire - UK Schools".
Jump up ^ "School website for The Rainbow Pre-School Learning Centre Warminster with Ofsted inspection report".
Jump up ^ "Guidance for maintained schools, academies, independent schools and local authorities" (PDF). Gov.uk. November 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Staying on - The best days of their lives will soon drag on a bit longer". The Economist. 18 January 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Raising the Participation Age - Timeline HMSO, 24 August 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Participation Age Myth Buster HMSO, 29 July 2013
^ Jump up to: a b School leaving age HMSO, 19 November 2014
^ Jump up to: a b c School leaving age plans unveiled BBC News, 6 November 2007
Jump up ^ "Brown backs idea of raising school-leaving age". The Guardian. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Sponsored by (18 January 2007). "School-leaving age: Staying on". The Economist. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Education until 18 will prevent life of crime". The Telegraph. 7 March 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b http://readingroom.lsc.gov.uk/lsc/National/45_-_2006_NEET.pdf
Jump up ^ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/454401/Quarterly_Brief_NEET_Q2_2015.pdf
Jump up ^ "Education and Training to be Compulsory for Under-18s". TrainingZone. 15 January 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Plan to raise school leaving age to 18 'will leave thousands with worthless qualifications'". Daily Mail. 14 January 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Sentenced to rot in their failed schools Sunday Times, 25 March 2007
Jump up ^ Staying on 'must not be forced' news.bbc.co.uk, 11 June 2007
Jump up ^ "School leaving age will be raised to 18". Telegraph.co.uk. 23 March 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Barry Sheerman backs Skills Commission report that says young people are being let down the education system". The Huddersfield Daily Examiner. 1 November 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales.
Text of the Education Act 1996 (c. 56) as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk
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A Most Unusual Camera
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"A Most Unusual Camera"
The Twilight Zone episode
Episode no.
Season 2
Episode 10
Directed by
John Rich
Written by
Rod Serling
Production code
173-3606
Original air date
December 16, 1960
Recurring/Guest appearances
Fred Clark as Chester
Jean Carson as Paula
Adam Williams as Woodward
Marcel Hillaire as Waiter
Episode chronology
← Previous
"The Trouble With Templeton" Next →
"The Night of the Meek"
List of season 2 episodes
List of Twilight Zone episodes
"A Most Unusual Camera" is episode 46 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. It originally aired on December 16, 1960 on CBS.
Contents
[hide]
1 Opening narration
2 Plot
3 Closing narration
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Opening narration[edit]
“ A hotel suite that, in this instance, serves as a den of crime, the aftermath of a rather minor event to be noted on a police blotter, an insurance claim, perhaps a three-inch box on page twelve of the evening paper. Small addenda to be added to the list of the loot: a camera, a most unimposing addition to the flotsam and jetsam that it came with, hardly worth mentioning really, because cameras are cameras, some expensive, some purchasable at five-and-dime stores. But this camera, this one's unusual because in just a moment we'll watch it inject itself into the destinies of three people. It happens to be a fact that the pictures that it takes can only be developed in The Twilight Zone. ”
Plot[edit]
Two thieves, husband and wife Chester (Fred Clark) and Paula Diedrich (Jean Carson), have just robbed a curio shop, and among the things they have stolen is a strange camera. Through accident, the pair discover that it produces photos of the future, about five minutes ahead. After Paula's jail-escapee brother Woodward (Adam Williams) shows up, Chester uses the camera to take pictures of the blank winner's board before races at the local racetrack and then use the camera's "predictions" in making bets. The trio win $9,500 on the first race. They bet and win on five other races and leave with a considerable load of cash.
Back at their hotel, a French waiter named Pierre (Marcel Hillaire) takes notice of their camera and its French inscription dix à la propriétaire, meaning ten to an owner. When the waiter exits, Paula, Chester and Woodward discuss the use of the camera's last two pictures and fail to come to any agreement. While tugging over the camera, a picture of Paula—screaming and recoiling in horror—is accidentally taken. In further struggle, Chester and Woodward begin to fight, and they fall out of an open window to their deaths. Paula screams—as in the picture—but recovers immediately when she realizes that all the money and loot is now hers.
She takes a picture (the last picture) of Chester and Woodward's bodies in the courtyard below the window, and begins collecting the day's winnings, planning to check out of the hotel. Before Paula can leave, Pierre returns and robs her, telling her that he knows about their crimes and will turn her in to the police if she calls them for help. He notes that her last picture shows "more than two" bodies in the courtyard. Panicked, Paula runs to look out the window, trips over a cord on the floor, and falls to her demise leaving only one of her high heels behind in the room.
Pierre then counts the corpses in the picture. "Yes, there are more than two bodies down there. Just like the picture shows. One, two, three ... four?!" In shock upon his realization, he falls out of the window as well, leaving only the camera lying on the floor in the now empty hotel suite.
Closing narration[edit]
“ Object known as a camera, vintage uncertain, origin unknown. But for the greedy, the avaricious, the fleet of foot, who can run a four-minute mile so long as they're chasing a fast buck, it makes believe that it's an ally, but it isn't at all. It's a beckoning come-on for a quick walk around the block—in The Twilight Zone. ”
See also[edit]
List of The Twilight Zone episodes
Goosebumps children's novel, Say Cheese and Die and Say Cheese and Die–Again also the Goosebumps HorrorLand Say Cheese–and Die Screaming
Killer Camera, a short story from Anthony Horowitz's Horowitz Horror
Treehouse of Horror XV's The Ned Zone
References[edit]
DeVoe, Bill. (2008). Trivia from The Twilight Zone. Albany, GA: Bear Manor Media. ISBN 978-1-59393-136-0
Grams, Martin. (2008). The Twilight Zone: Unlocking the Door to a Television Classic. Churchville, MD: OTR Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9703310-9-0
External links[edit]
"A Most Unusual Camera" on IMDb
"A Most Unusual Camera" at TV.com
[hide]
v
t
e
The Twilight Zone (1959) episodes
Season 1
"Where Is Everybody?"
"One for the Angels"
"Mr. Denton on Doomsday"
"The Sixteen-Millimeter Shrine"
"Walking Distance"
"Escape Clause"
"The Lonely"
"Time Enough at Last"
"Perchance to Dream"
"Judgment Night"
"And When the Sky Was Opened"
"What You Need"
"The Four of Us Are Dying"
"Third from the Sun"
"I Shot an Arrow into the Air"
"The Hitch-Hiker"
"The Fever"
"The Last Flight"
"The Purple Testament"
"Elegy"
"Mirror Image"
"The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street"
"A World of Difference"
"Long Live Walter Jameson"
"People Are Alike All Over"
"Execution"
"The Big Tall Wish"
"A Nice Place to Visit"
"Nightmare as a Child"
"A Stop at Willoughby"
"The Chaser"
"A Passage for Trumpet"
"Mr. Bevis"
"The After Hours"
"The Mighty Casey"
"A World of His Own"
Season 2
"King Nine Will Not Return"
"The Man in the Bottle"
"Nervous Man in a Four Dollar Room"
"A Thing About Machines"
"The Howling Man"
"The Eye of the Beholder"
"Nick of Time"
"The Lateness of the Hour"
"The Trouble with Templeton"
"A Most Unusual Camera"
"The Night of the Meek"
"Dust"
"Back There"
"The Whole Truth"
"The Invaders"
"A Penny for Your Thoughts"
"Twenty Two"
"The Odyssey of Flight 33"
"Mr. Dingle, the Strong"
"Static"
"The Prime Mover"
"Long Distance Call"
"A Hundred Yards Over the Rim"
"The Rip Van Winkle Caper"
"The Silence"
"Shadow Play"
"The Mind and the Matter"
"Will the Real Martian Please Stand Up?"
"The Obsolete Man"
Season 3
"Two"
"The Arrival"
"The Shelter"
"The Passersby"
"A Game of Pool"
"The Mirror"
"The Grave"
"It's a Good Life"
"Deaths-Head Revisited"
"The Midnight Sun"
"Still Valley"
"The Jungle"
"Once Upon a Time"
"Five Characters in Search of an Exit"
"A Quality of Mercy"
"Nothing in the Dark"
"One More Pallbearer"
"Dead Man's Shoes"
"The Hunt"
"Showdown with Rance McGrew"
"Kick the Can"
"A Piano in the House"
"The Last Rites of Jeff Myrtlebank"
"To Serve Man"
"The Fugitive"
"Little Girl Lost"
"Person or Persons Unknown"
"The Little People"
"Four O'Clock"
"Hocus-Pocus and Frisby"
"The Trade-Ins"
"The Gift"
"The Dummy"
"Young Man's Fancy"
"I Sing the Body Electric"
"Cavender Is Coming"
"The Changing of the Guard"
Season 4
"In His Image"
"The Thirty-Fathom Grave"
"Valley of the Shadow"
"He's Alive"
"Mute"
"Death Ship"
"Jess-Belle"
"Miniature"
"Printer's Devil"
"No Time Like the Past"
"The Parallel"
"I Dream of Genie"
"The New Exhibit"
"Of Late I Think of Cliffordville"
"The Incredible World of Horace Ford"
"On Thursday We Leave for Home"
"Passage on the Lady Anne"
"The Bard"
Season 5
"In Praise of Pip"
"Steel"
"Nightmare at 20,000 Feet"
"A Kind of a Stopwatch"
"The Last Night of a Jockey"
"Living Doll"
"The Old Man in the Cave"
"Uncle Simon"
"Probe 7, Over and Out"
"The 7th Is Made Up of Phantoms"
"A Short Drink from a Certain Fountain"
"Ninety Years Without Slumbering"
"Ring-a-Ding Girl"
"You Drive"
"The Long Morrow"
"The Self-Improvement of Salvadore Ross"
"Number 12 Looks Just Like You"
"Black Leather Jackets"
"Night Call"
"From Agnes—With Love"
"Spur of the Moment"
"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge"
"Queen of the Nile"
"What's in the Box"
"The Masks"
"I Am the Night—Color Me Black"
"Sounds and Silences"
"Caesar and Me"
"The Jeopardy Room"
"Stopover in a Quiet Town"
"The Encounter"
"Mr. Garrity and the Graves"
"The Brain Center at Whipple's"
"Come Wander with Me"
"The Fear"
"The Bewitchin' Pool"
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