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Worst Cooks in America
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Worst Cooks in America
Genre
Reality television
Cooking show
Judges
Anne Burrell (season 1–present)
Beau MacMillan (season 1)
Robert Irvine (season 2)
Bobby Flay (season 3–5)
Tyler Florence (season 6, 8, 12)
Rachael Ray (season 7, 9–11)
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
11
No. of episodes
39
Production
Executive producer(s)
Bob Kirsh
Nicola Moody
Pip Wells
Location(s)
Los Angeles, California and New York City
Running time
42 Minutes
Production company(s)
Optomen Productions, Inc.
Release
Original network
Food Network
Original release
January 3, 2010 (2010-01-03) – present
Chronology
Followed by
Worst Bakers in America
External links
Production website
Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits") with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set.[1][2] The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three-course meal for three food critics.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Season 1: 2010
2.1 Recruits
2.2 Contestant progress
3 Season 2: 2011
3.1 Recruits
3.2 Contestant progress
3.3 Differences between seasons 1 and 2
4 Season 3: 2012
4.1 Recruits
4.2 Contestant progress
5 Season 4: 2013
5.1 Recruits
5.2 Contestant progress
6 Season 5: 2014
6.1 Recruits
6.2 Contestant progress
7 Season 6: 2015
7.1 Recruits
7.2 Contestant progress
8 Season 7: Celebrity Edition
8.1 Recruits
8.2 Contestant progress
9 Season 8: 2016
9.1 Recruits
9.2 Contestant progress
10 Season 9: Celebrity Edition 2
10.1 Recruits
10.2 Contestant progress
11 Season 10: 2017
11.1 Recruits
11.2 Contestant progress
12 Season 11: Celebrity Edition 3
12.1 Recruits
12.2 Contestant progress
13 Season 12: 2018
13.1 Recruits
14 References
15 External links
History[edit]
The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3–5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Anne Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4–5. Rachael Ray and Anne Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence.
Season 1: 2010[edit]
Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three-course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs.
Recruits[edit]
Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website.[3][4] Chef Anne's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau's team was known as the Blue Team.
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Rachel Coleman 23 Brooklyn, New York Marketing Website editor Winner February 1
Jennifer "Jenny" Cross 21 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Waitress Runner-up February 1
Jennifer "Jen" Vecchio 38 Cumberland, Rhode Island Dance Studio Owner Eliminated January 31
Eddie Chang 32 Jersey City, New Jersey IT project manager
Marque Hernandez 41 Brea, California Director of Clinical Operations Eliminated January 24
Rebecca Hooper 43 Sandy, Utah Salon Owner
Sophia Gettys 27 Aurora, Colorado Stay-at-home Mom Eliminated January 17
Susie Shoman 53 Georgetown, South Carolina Grants administrator and entrepreneur
Kelly Johnson 31 Scottsdale, Arizona Corporate litigation attorney Eliminated January 10
David Summey 29 Charlotte, North Carolina Salesman
Wilhelmina Josephine 29 Aliso Viejo, California Insurance claims adjuster Eliminated January 3
Hamed Hamad 24 North Hollywood, California Journalist and fashion consultant
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
Rachel IN IN IN IN WIN BTM WIN WINNER
2
Jenny* IN IN IN WIN IN BTM WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Jen IN IN WIN IN WIN WIN OUT
4
Eddie BTM WIN BTM BTM IN WIN OUT
5
Marque WIN WIN BTM BTM IN OUT
6
Rebecca WIN BTM IN WIN IN OUT
7
Sophia* IN IN IN OUT
8
Susie IN BTM IN OUT
9
Kelly IN OUT
10
David BTM OUT
11
Wilhelmina OUT
12
Hamed OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
* Initially a member of the other team but switched after Chef Beau won the bet on whose team member made the best crepes.
Season 2: 2011[edit]
Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010.[5] The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2.[6] Food Network's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011.[7] In this season the chefs had eight recruits each.
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Joshie Berger 36 Brooklyn, New York Attorney Winner February 20
Georgann "Georg" Coleman 38 Chicago, Illinois Speech pathologist Runner-up February 20
Carlos Manuel 28 Atlanta, Georgia Banker Eliminated February 13
Kelsey Milos 22 Kings, Illinois Hair stylist
Kat Rose 37 Newnan, Georgia Stay-at-home mother Eliminated February 6
Tyrone "Ty" Miller 33 Trenton, New Jersey Property manager
Jennifer "Jen" MacLean 43 Sparta, New Jersey Operating room nurse Eliminated January 30
Kelly Gray 32 New York, New York Aerobics instructor
Erika Rumsey 27 Elgin, Illinois Account manager Eliminated January 23
Anna Altomari 44 Aliso Viejo, California RN Case manager
Priscilla Harden 60 Sugar Land, Texas Retired teacher Eliminated January 16
Matt Crespi 24 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania PhD Student
Anthony Scinto 32 Crestwood, Illinois Mechanical engineer Eliminated January 9
Jeff Longcor 25 Somerville, Massachusetts Environmental contractor
Lina Yu 28 Arcadia, California Production manager Eliminated January 2
Eric Ricupero 34 Quincy, Massachusetts Bar owner
Contestant progress[edit]
Episode
Rank
Contestant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Joshie IN IN WIN WIN WIN 9th IN IN BTM BTM IN WINNER
2
Georg IN WIN IN IN IN WIN IN WIN BTM WIN WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Carlos IN IN WIN WIN IN 6th WIN WIN WIN WIN OUT
4
Kelsey* WIN IN IN WIN BTM 2nd BTM IN WIN IN OUT
5
Kat* WIN IN BTM IN IN BTM BTM BTM OUT
6
Ty IN IN IN IN BTM 3rd IN BTM OUT
7
Jen IN BTM IN WIN IN 7th IN OUT
8
Kelly IN IN IN IN IN 5th WIN OUT
9
Erika BTM WIN IN WIN IN 8th OUT
10
Anna IN IN IN IN WIN 4th OUT
11
Priscilla IN IN BTM WIN OUT
12
Matt BTM IN WIN IN OUT
13
Anthony IN IN OUT
14
Jeff IN BTM OUT
15
Lina OUT
16
Eric OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
* Initially a member of the other team but switched after Chef Robert won the bet on whose team member made the best burgers.
Differences between seasons 1 and 2[edit]
In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode.
In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish.
After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season’s main dishes were an improved version of the recruits’ audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them.
Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant.
Season 3: 2012[edit]
Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3.[8][9]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Kelli Powers 40 Los Angeles, California Stay-at-home mother Winner April 1
Vinnie Caligiuri 47 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mortgage broker Runner-up April 1
Melissa Rhodes 28 Naples, Florida Nursing Student Eliminated March 25
David Shelton 26 Longview, Texas Unemployed
Tiffany Michelle 27 Los Angeles, California Poker player and actress Eliminated March 18
Dorothy Strouhal 38 Cove, Texas Make-up artist
Anthony Schiano 33 Massapequa, New York Mechanical engineer Eliminated March 11
Benjamin Dennis 37 Dallas, Texas Stay-at-home father Quit March 11
Sean "Bennett" Bennett 36 New York City Automotive Spokesperson Eliminated March 4
Sarina Weeraprajuk 31 West Covina, California Wedding photographer
Erica Weidner 53 Long Beach, New York Court Reporter Student Eliminated February 26
Robert "Bob" Tamke 44 Massapequa Park, New York DJ
Sherrill Moss-Solomon 55 New York, New York Fundraiser Eliminated February 19
Rachel Margolin 31 New York, New York Night Club Promoter
Richard Chen 55 Queens, New York Attorney Eliminated February 12
Libby Floyd 46 Eden Prairie, Minnesota ShopNBC host[10]
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
Kelli WIN IN IN IN IN IN BTM WIN BTM WIN WIN WIN WIN WINNER
2
Vinnie IN WIN WIN IN IN IN WIN IN BTM IN WIN WIN WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Melissa1 IN IN IN IN IN IN IN WIN WIN IN BTM IN OUT
4
David1 IN IN IN BTM IN IN WIN WIN IN WIN BTM IN OUT
5
Tiffany WIN IN IN WIN IN BTM BTM IN BTM IN OUT
6
Dorothy IN IN WIN IN BTM WIN IN WIN WIN WIN OUT
7
Anthony IN IN IN IN IN IN IN WIN OUT
8
Benjamin IN IN IN IN WIN WIN IN IN QUIT
9
Bennett IN IN BTM BTM WIN BTM OUT
10
Sarina BTM IN IN IN BTM IN OUT
11
Erica IN IN BTM IN OUT
12
Bob IN WIN IN IN OUT
13
Sherrill IN BTM OUT
14
Rachel BTM BTM OUT
15
Richard OUT
16
Libby OUT
^Note 1 : In Episode 3, Team Bobby (blue team) won the first challenge, he therefore got to choose one person from Team Anne (red team) to go to his team, and then choose one person from his team to go to the other team. He chose David to go to Team Anne's team and chose Melissa from Team Anne's team to join his team.
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition
(QUIT) The contestant volunteered to quit
Season 4: 2013[edit]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Alina Bolshakova 28 Riga, Latvia Caretaker/Actress Winner March 31
Rasheeda Brown 30 Germantown, Maryland Correctional Officer Runner-up March 31
Chet Pourciau 40 New Orleans, Louisiana Interior Designer Eliminated March 24
Suzanne "Sue" Mangogna 42 Northport, New York Single Mother
Carla Johnson 47 Long Beach, California Alcohol & Drug Counselor Eliminated March 17
Michael Haydin 25 Rye Brook, New York Accountant
Carrie Lee Riggins 32 Carmel, New York Ballerina/Actress Eliminated March 10
Crystal Lonneberg 30 Weehawken, New Jersey Actress/Artist
Aadip Desai 36 Sacramento, California Writer/Musician Eliminated March 3
Alex Stein 26 Dallas, Texas Bail Bondsman
Michael "Big Mike" Paul 24 Thomson, Georgia Woodworker Eliminated February 24
Robert "Dr. Bob" Schaefer 58 Pleasant Hill, California Chiropractor
Tim Burger 42 Novi, Michigan Former Marine Eliminated February 17
Diana De Rosa 62 Huntington, New York Photographer
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Alina BTM WIN WIN IN IN IN WIN WIN WIN IN WIN WINNER
2
Rasheeda IN IN BTM IN IN WIN WIN WIN BTM WIN WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Chet WIN IN IN IN WIN WIN IN WIN BTM IN OUT
4
Sue IN IN WIN BTM BTM IN BTM IN WIN WIN OUT
5
Carla IN IN BTM WIN IN BTM BTM WIN OUT
6
Michael WIN IN IN BTM WIN IN BTM IN OUT
7
Carrie Lee IN IN IN BTM BTM IN OUT
8
Crystal IN WIN IN IN IN BTM OUT
9
Aadip IN IN IN IN OUT
10
Alex IN IN IN IN OUT
11
Mike IN BTM OUT
12
Bob BTM BTM OUT
13
Tim OUT
14
Diana OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
Season 5: 2014[edit]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Amber Brauner 37 Redlands, California Tattoo Artist Winner March 31
Jamie Thomas 41 New York, New York Flight Attendant Runner-up March 31
Daniel "Danny" Beyda 43 Long Island, New York Radiologist Eliminated March 24
Mike Glazer 30 Chicago, Illinois Writer
Carie Pullano-Keller 34 Chester, Virginia Promotional Model Eliminated March 17
Stephanie St. Aubin 26 Washington, DC Secretary
Danielle Ruiz-Wiley 25 Staten Island, New York Stay at Home Mom Eliminated March 10
Carol Holder 64 New York, New York Real Estate Broker
Joe Slaughter 28 Los Angeles, California Actor/Dancer Eliminated March 3
Ken Hsu 29 Seattle, Washington Personal Trainer
Lance Green 31 New York, New York Music Producer Eliminated February 24
Benjamin "Benji" Hunter Brown III 29 Nashville, Tennessee Live Music Booking Agent
Muneerah Warner 33 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Abstinence Advisor Eliminated February 16
Casey Pentony 26 Hollywood, California Nurse
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Amber WIN IN IN IN WIN WIN BTM IN WIN IN WIN WINNER
2
Jamie WIN IN WIN BTM IN IN WIN WIN WIN WIN WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Danny IN IN BTM IN IN WIN WIN WIN BTM IN OUT
4
Mike IN IN IN WIN WIN IN IN IN BTM WIN OUT
5
Carie1 IN IN IN IN IN IN BTM IN OUT
6
Stephanie1 IN IN BTM IN IN WIN IN IN OUT
7
Danielle IN WIN IN IN BTM WIN OUT
8
Carol IN WIN IN BTM BTM IN OUT
9
Joe IN IN WIN WIN OUT
10
Ken IN IN IN IN OUT
11
Lance BTM IN OUT
12
Benji BTM IN OUT
13
Muneerah OUT
14
Casey OUT
^Note 1 : In Episode 3 Team Anne (red team) won the first challenge, she therefore got to choose one person from Team Bobby (blue team) to go to her team, and then chose one person from her team to go to the other team. She chose Stephanie to go to Team Bobby's team and chose Carie from Team Bobby's team to join her team.
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
(IN) The contestant get switched by the host to the other team. Ex: A member of the red team goes to the blue team, and a member of the blue team goes to the red team.
Season 6: 2015[edit]
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers.[11] The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers,[12] with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers[13] and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers.[14] the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers.[15]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Kristen Redmond 25 Austin, Texas Singer/Songwriter Winner February 15
Genique Freeman 33 Fayetteville, North Carolina Esthetician Runner-up February 15
Leopold "Leo" Nunan 36 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Performance Artist Eliminated February 8
Sarah Bettendorf 33 Los Angeles, California Art Teacher
Norman Wilson 46 Detroit, Michigan Executive Protection Eliminated February 1
Sharif Dean 27 Los Angeles, California Personal Trainer
David Eric Rosenberg 51 Las Vegas, Nevada Theatre Usher Eliminated January 25
Kortni Montgomery 25 New Orleans, Louisiana Customer Service Rep
Michael "Six" Muldoon 25 Queens, New York Magician Eliminated January 18
Mike Kennedy 45 Scottsdale, Arizona Private Investigator
Stephanie Streisand* 25 Los Angeles, California Writer Withdrew January 11
Susie Babin 61 Bush, Louisiana Retired Eliminated January 11
Jason Dixon 30 Chicago, Illinois Artist Eliminated January 5
Christina Oster 38 Zion, Illinois Single Mom
Contestant Stephanie Streisand was deemed too ill to continue on January 11
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Kristen IN WIN WIN IN IN WIN BTM IN WIN WIN WIN WINNER
2
Genique IN IN WIN IN IN WIN IN IN WIN WIN WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Leo IN IN IN IN IN IN WIN IN BTM WIN OUT
4
Sarah WIN IN IN BTM BTM IN WIN WIN BTM WIN OUT
5
Norman WIN IN IN IN BTM IN IN WIN OUT
6
Sharif IN WIN BTM WIN IN IN BTM IN OUT
7
David BTM IN BTM IN WIN BTM OUT
8
Kortni BTM IN BTM BTM WIN BTM OUT
9
Six IN IN IN IN OUT
10
Mike IN BTM IN IN OUT
11
Stephanie IN IN WDR
12
Susie IN BTM OUT
13
Jason OUT
14
Christina OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
(WDR) The contestant withdrew from the competition due to illness.
Season 7: Celebrity Edition[edit]
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team's worst recruit from that week's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated.
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Occupation
Status
Jenni "JWoww" Farley 29 Reality Television Star Winner October 28
Kendra Wilkinson 30 Former Playboy Model & Television Personality Runner-up October 28
Ellen Cleghorne 49 Saturday Night Live Actress Eliminated October 21
Barry Williams 60 The Brady Bunch Actor Eliminated October 14
Chris Soules 33 The Bachelor Star Eliminated October 7
Jaleel White 38 Actor & Television Host Eliminated September 30
Dean Cain 48 Television Actor Eliminated September 23
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
Jenni IN WIN IN WIN WIN WINNER
2
Kendra IN WIN BTM WIN BTM RUNNER-UP
3
Ellen WIN IN WIN BTM OUT
4
Barry BTM BTM WIN OUT
5
Chris WIN IN OUT
6
Jaleel IN OUT
7
Dean OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
Season 8: 2016[edit]
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8.
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Nick Slater 24 Rancho Cucamonga, California Construction Worker Winner February 14
Lawrence Crawford 26 Deptford, New Jersey Army Combat Medic Runner-up February 14
Ginny Meerman 50 Millersville, Maryland Project Supervisor Eliminated February 7
Taylor Hooper 24 Boston, Massachusetts Marine Veteran
Holgie Forrester 66 Twentynine Palms, California Retired/Actress Eliminated January 31
Chanda Hvard 36 Chicago, Illinois Real Estate Agent
Donna Koen 60 Newburyport, Massachusetts Lunch Lady & Hairdresser Eliminated January 24
Rachel Thomas 27 Tampa, Florida Stay-at-Home Wife
Ernie Adkins 44 Mardela Springs, Maryland Truck driver Eliminated January 17
Glenda Galeano 40 Miami, Florida Event Coordinator/Actress
Ty Snow 39 Pasadena, California Special Education Teacher Eliminated January 10
Cindy Nguyen 28 Las Vegas, Nevada Bartender
David Fouts 42 Wales, Wisconsin Senior Project Manager Eliminated January 4
Jeni Erdman 51 Dousman, Wisconsin Group Tour Coordinator
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Nick WIN WIN IN IN IN IN IN IN TIE WIN WINNER
2
Lawrence IN IN IN IN IN IN WIN IN BTM WIN RUNNER-UP
3
Ginny WIN BTM WIN IN BTM TIE IN WIN WIN OUT
4
Taylor IN IN IN IN BTM IN WIN WIN TIE OUT
5
Holgie IN WIN IN IN IN TIE BTM IN OUT
6
Chanda BTM IN IN IN WIN WIN BTM IN OUT
7
Donna IN BTM WIN IN IN BTM OUT
8
Rachel BTM IN BTM WIN WIN BTM OUT
9
Ernie IN BTM IN IN OUT
10
Glenda IN BTM BTM IN OUT
11
Ty IN IN OUT
12
Cindy IN IN OUT
13
David OUT
14
Jeni OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(TIE) The contestant tied with another contestant as the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
Season 9: Celebrity Edition 2[edit]
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers.[16]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Occupation
Status
Loni Love 44 The Real Co-Host & Comedian Winner November 2
Nicole Sullivan 46 Former MadTV Star, Comedian, & Actress Runner-up November 2
John Henson 49 Former Talk Soup & Wipeout host Eliminated October 26
Mike Situation Sorrentino 34 Reality Television Personality
Matt Dallas 33 Television Actor & YouTube Personality Eliminated October 19
Mindy Cohn 50 The Facts of Life & Scooby-Doo Actress Eliminated October 12
Tommy Davidson 52 Comedian & Actor Eliminated September 28
Barbara Eden 85 Film & Television Actress (I Dream of Jeannie & Harper Valley P.T.A.) Eliminated September 21
Kenya Moore 45 Miss USA 1993 & The Real Housewives of Atlanta Star Eliminated September 14
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
Loni IN IN TIE IN WIN IN IN WINNER
2
Nicole IN WIN IN BTM WIN IN IN RUNNER-UP
3
John WIN WIN BTM WIN IN BTM OUT
4
Mike IN BTM WIN WIN IN WIN OUT
5
Matt WIN IN IN IN BTM OUT
6
Mindy IN IN TIE BTM OUT
7
Tommy IN IN OUT
8
Barbara BTM OUT
9
Kenya OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(TIE) The contestant tied with another contestant as the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
Season 10: 2017[edit]
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017.[17]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Daniel Mar 35 Burbank, California Photographer Winner March 5
Ann Odogwu 34 Houston, Texas Flight Attendant Runner-Up March 5
Laura Docker 36 Fort Worth, Texas Lawyer Eliminated February 26
Mandy Thornton 24 Hanover, Massachusetts Medical Assistant Eliminated February 26
Adam Cooke 32 Rancho Cucamonga, California Auto Mechanic Eliminated February 19
Brittany Lenore 27 Chicago, Illinois Spiritual Speaker Eliminated February 19
Jeff West 36 Douglassville, Pennsylvania Vending Machine President Eliminated February 12
Kayla Kurtz 27 Kent, Ohio Stay-at-Home Mom Eliminated January 29
Maria Marcello 40 Torrance, California Stay-at-Home Mom Eliminated January 29
Matt Josephs 35 Richmond, Virginia Sports Radio Producer Eliminated January 22
Jake Michaels 21 Manteno, Illinois Model & Singer Eliminated January 15
Jetta Linda Ostrofsky 66 Sacramento, California Retired Eliminated January 15
Stephen Hawkins 67 Temecula, California Retired Eliminated January 8
Buffy Mykkanen 29 Portland, Oregon Tech Support Eliminated January 8
Cedrick Miller 22 El Paso, Texas Cashier Eliminated January 1
Lester Turchin 65 Fort Lauderdale, Florida Retired Eliminated January 1
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
Daniel IN IN WIN BTM BTM IN IN IN WIN IN IN IN WINNER
2
Ann WIN IN IN WIN BTM BTM IN BTM IN SAVE IN IN RUNNER-UP
3
Mandy IN IN IN TIE IN WIN WIN BTM IN BTM IN OUT
4
Laura IN WIN IN IN IN WIN IN BTM WIN WIN IN OUT
5
Brittany WIN IN IN TIE WIN IN IN BTM IN WIN OUT
6
Adam IN IN BTM BTM IN IN IN WIN IN IN OUT
7
Jeff IN WIN IN IN IN BTM IN WIN IN OUT
8
Maria IN IN WIN IN WIN OUT
9
Kayla IN IN IN TIE SAVE OUT
10
Matt IN IN IN IN OUT
11
Jetta IN IN BTM OUT
12
Jake BTM IN IN OUT
13
Stephen BTM IN OUT
14
Buffy IN IN OUT
15
Cedrick OUT
16
Lester OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(TIE) The contestant tied with another contestant as the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge, but was not eliminated.
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
(SAVE) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge but was saved by their respective team mentor.
In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home.
Season 11: Celebrity Edition 3[edit]
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017[18][19]
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Occupation
Status
Perez Hilton 39 Gossip Blogger Winner October 11
Melissa Peterman 46 Actress & Comedienne Runner-up October 11
Nora Dunn 65 Actress & Comedienne Eliminated October 4
Vivica A. Fox 53 Actress Eliminated October 4
Sean Lowe 33 Reality Star Eliminated September 27
Carmen Electra 45 Model & Actress Withdrew September 13 due to injuries
Carson Kressley 47 TV Personality Eliminated September 6
Erik Estrada 68 Star of CHiPs Eliminated August 30
•Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge.
Contestant progress[edit]
Rank
Contestant
Episode
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Perez IN IN IN IN IN WIN IN IN IN IN IN IN WIN WINNER
2 Melissa IN WIN IN WIN WIN IN SAVE IN BTM IN IN IN WIN RUNNER-UP
3 Nora SAVE TIE IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN BTM IN OUT
4 Vivica IN IN IN IN WIN TIE SAVE IN OUT RTN OUT
5 Sean IN IN IN IN BTM TIE IN IN IN IN OUT
6 Carmen BTM IN BTM WIN IN WDR
7 Carson IN TIE WIN IN OUT
8 Erik IN TIE OUT
Key
(WINNER) This contestant won the competition and was crowned "Best of the Worst".
(RUNNER-UP) The contestant was the runner-up in the finals of the competition.
(WIN) The contestant did the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill and was considered the winner.
(TIE) The contestant tied with another contestant as the best on their team in the week's Main Dish challenge or Skill Drill.
(BTM) The contestant was selected as one of the bottom entries in the Main Dish challenge but was not eliminated
(OUT) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge and was out of the competition.
(WDR) The contestant withdrew from the competition due to illness or injury.
(RTN) The contestant won the redemption Skill Drill and returned to the competition.
(SAVE) The contestant lost that week's Main Dish challenge but was saved by their respective team mentor.
Season 12: 2018[edit]
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12.
Recruits[edit]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Occupation
Status
Brandon Arroyo 27 Cleveland, Ohio Sports Reporter
Steven Crowley 31 New York, New York Real Estate Broker
Kayrene Curtis 44 Rocky River, Ohio Stay-at-Home Mom.
Jonathan Farhat 27 Livermore, California Safety Professional
Lily Frey 63 Anaheim, California Retired
Asaf Goren 25 Los Angeles, California Dancer
Robyn Hayden 31 Charleston, South Carolina Balloon Artist
Sylvia Jefferies 47 Charleston, South Carolina
Hazell Mckenzie 36 Brooklyn, New York Graduate Student
Priscilla Nguyen 26 Hattiesburg, Mississippi Receptionist
Skyler Nick 25 Chicago, Illinois Graduate Student
Spencer Nick 25 Chicago, Illinois Graduate Student
Kevin Pettice 24 Charlotte, North Carolina Administrative Assistant
Shatima Ruffin 34 Hampton Roads, Virginia Receptionist
Sharon Shvarzman 32 Staten Island, New York Drag Performer
Lacey Stout 28 Collinsville, Oklahoma Stay-at-Home Mom
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "'Worst Cooks in America' isn't just a title: They're horrible". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'Worst Cooks in America': Worst thing I watched most of last night". Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Worst Cooks in America: Red Team (Chef Anne Burrell)". Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Worst Cooks in America: Blue Team (Chef Beau MacMillan)". Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Scattergood, Amy (March 16, 2010). "Casting Calls: Season 2 of Worst Cooks in America Wants You! – Los Angeles Restaurants and Dining – Squid Ink". Blogs.laweekly.com. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Food Network is looking for HOPELESS HOME COOKS!". Worstcookscasting.wordpress.com. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Powered by Google Docs". Docs.google.com. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Superstar Chefs Anne Burrell And Bobby Flay Transform Kitchen-Challenged Contestants in Season Three of Primetime Competition Series Worst Cooks in America" (pdf). Food Network. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "WORST COOKS IN AMERICA: Season Three – Contestant Overview" (pdf). Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "National Television Host on Shop NBC". Libby Floyd. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 25 Sunday Cable Originals (& Network Update): 1.4.2015". Retrieved 30 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 25 Sunday Cable Originals (& Network Update): 1.11.2015". Retrieved 30 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 25 Sunday Cable Originals (& Network Update): 1.18.2015". Retrieved 30 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 25 Sunday Cable Originals (& Network Update): 1.25.2015". Retrieved 30 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (February 10, 2015). "Sunday Cable Ratings: 'The Walking Dead' Tops Night + 'Better Call Saul', 'Talking Dead', 'The Real Housewives of Atlanta' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 15, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.14.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved September 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Anne Burrell and Rachael Ray Kick Off the New Year with Season 10 of Worst Cooks in America | FN Dish – Food Network Blog". FN Dish – Food Network Blog. 2016-11-23. Retrieved 2016-12-07.
Jump up ^ http://www.foodnetwork.com/shows/worst-cooks-in-america/episodes/social-media-food-failures
Jump up ^ http://www.foodnetwork.com/shows/worst-cooks-in-america/photos/worst-cooks-in-america-season-11-meet-the-celebrity-recruits
External links[edit]
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See also: Food Network pilots and specials
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Bake with Anna Olson (since 2012)
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Halloween Wars (since 2011)
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I Hart Food (since 2017)
Kids Baking Championship (since 2015)
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Cooking Live (1997–2003)
Door Knock Dinners (1999–2002)
East Meets West (1998–2003)
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The 100 Mile Challenge (2009)
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Chef Academy (2009–2010)
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Christine Cushing Live (2004–2007)
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Crash My Kitchen (2005)
Dinner: Impossible (2007–2010)
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Food Jammers (2006–2010)
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French Food at Home (2007–2010)
Fresh with Anna Olson (2008–2010)
Giada at Home (2008–2015)
Giada's Weekend Getaways (2007–2008)
Glutton for Punishment (2007–2011)
Good Deal with Dave Lieberman (since 2005–2007)
Guy's Big Bite (2006–unknown)
Ham on the Street (2006)
The Heat with Mark McEwan (2008–2010)
Honey, We're Killing the Kids (2005–unknown)
How'd That Get On My Plate? (2008)
I Do, Let's Eat (2005–2007)
In Search of Perfection (2006–2007)
Iron Chef America (2005–2014)
Jamie at Home (2008)
Jamie's Great Italian Escape (2005)
Jamie's Kitchen Australia (2008)
Just One Bite (2005–2008)
Kitchen Crimes (2005–2006)
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Kylie Kwong: Simply Magic (2006)
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The Manic Organic (2003–2004)
Martin Yan's Chinatown (2002)
New Classics With Chef Rob Feenie (2000–2004)
The Next Iron Chef (2007–2012)
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Opening Soon (2001–2006)
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Private Chefs of Beverly Hills (2009–2011)
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The Supersizers Go... (2008–2009)
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Family Cook Off (2012)
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Photoreceptor cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about cellular photoreceptors. For other types of photoreceptors, see Photoreceptor (disambiguation).
Photoreceptor cell
Functional parts of the rods and cones, which are two of the three types of photosensitive cells in the retina
Identifiers
NeuroLex ID
sao226523927
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of sensory neuron found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction. The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals that can stimulate biological processes. To be more specific, photoreceptor proteins in the cell absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's membrane potential.
There are currently three known types of photoreceptor cells in mammalian eyes: rods, cones, and photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. The two classic photoreceptor cells are rods and cones, each contributing information used by the visual system to form a representation of the visual world, sight. The rods are narrower than the cones and distributed differently across the retina, but the chemical process in each that supports phototransduction is similar.[1] A third class of mammalian photoreceptor cell was discovered during the 1990s:[2] the photosensitive ganglion cells. These cells do not contribute to sight directly, but are thought to support circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex.
There are major functional differences between the rods and cones. Rods are extremely sensitive, and can be triggered by a single photon.[3][4] At very low light levels, visual experience is based solely on the rod signal. This explains why colors cannot be seen at low light levels: only one type of photoreceptor cell is active.
Cones require significantly brighter light (i.e., a larger numbers of photons) in order to produce a signal. In humans, there are three different types of cone cell, distinguished by their pattern of response to different wavelengths of light. Color experience is calculated from these three distinct signals, perhaps via an opponent process.[5] The three types of cone cell respond (roughly) to light of short, medium, and long wavelengths. Note that, due to the principle of univariance, the firing of the cell depends upon only the number of photons absorbed. The different responses of the three types of cone cells are determined by the likelihoods that their respective photoreceptor proteins will absorb photons of different wavelengths. So, for example, an L cone cell contains a photoreceptor protein that more readily absorbs long wavelengths of light (i.e., more "red"). Light of a shorter wavelength can also produce the same response, but it must be much brighter to do so.
The human retina contains about 120 million rod cells, and 6 million cone cells. The number and ratio of rods to cones varies among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the tawny owl,[6] have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. In addition, there are about 2.4 million to 3 million ganglion cells in the human visual system, 1 to 2% of them photosensitive. The axons of ganglion cells form the two optic nerves.
The pineal and parapineal glands are photoreceptive in non-mammalian vertebrates, but not in mammals. Birds have photoactive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-contacting neurons within the paraventricular organ that respond to light in the absence of input from the eyes or neurotransmitters.[7] Invertebrate photoreceptors in organisms such as insects and molluscs are different in both their morphological organization and their underlying biochemical pathways. Described here are human photoreceptors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Histology
2 Humans
3 Phototransduction
3.1 Dark current
3.2 Signal transduction pathway
3.3 Advantages
3.4 Difference between rods and cones
4 Function
5 Development
6 Signaling
7 Ganglion cell (non-rod non-cone) photoreceptors
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Histology[edit]
Anatomy of cones and rods varies slightly.
Rod and cone photoreceptors are found on the outermost layer of the retina; they both have the same basic structure. Closest to the visual field (and farthest from the brain) is the axon terminal, which releases a neurotransmitter called glutamate to bipolar cells. Farther back is the cell body, which contains the cell's organelles. Farther back still is the inner segment, a specialized part of the cell full of mitochondria. The chief function of the inner segment is to provide ATP (energy) for the sodium-potassium pump. Finally, closest to the brain (and farthest from the field of view) is the outer segment, the part of the photoreceptor that absorbs light. Outer segments are actually modified cilia[9][10] that contain disks filled with opsin, the molecule that absorbs photons, as well as voltage-gated sodium channels.
The membranous photoreceptor protein opsin contains a pigment molecule called retinal. In rod cells, these together are called rhodopsin. In cone cells, there are different types of opsins that combine with retinal to form pigments called photopsins. Three different classes of photopsins in the cones react to different ranges of light frequency, a differentiation that allows the visual system to calculate color. The function of the photoreceptor cell is to convert the light energy of the photon into a form of energy communicable to the nervous system and readily usable to the organism: This conversion is called signal transduction.
The opsin found in the photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina is called melanopsin. These cells are involved in various reflexive responses of the brain and body to the presence of (day)light, such as the regulation of circadian rhythms, pupillary reflex and other non-visual responses to light. Melanopsin functionally resembles invertebrate opsins.
When light activates the melanopsin signaling system, the melanopsin-containing ganglion cells discharge nerve impulses that are conducted through their axons to specific brain targets. These targets include the olivary pretectal nucleus (a center responsible for controlling the pupil of the eye), the LGN, and, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (the master pacemaker of circadian rhythms). Melanopsin-containing ganglion cells are thought to influence these targets by releasing from their axon terminals the neurotransmitters glutamate and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP).
Humans[edit]
Normalized human photoreceptor absorbances for different wavelengths of light[11]
Illustration of the distribution of cone cells in the fovea of an individual with normal color vision (left), and a color blind (protanopic) retina. Note that the center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive cones.
Distribution of rods and cones along a line passing through the fovea and the blind spot of a human eye[12]
The human retina has approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods.[13] Signals from the rods and cones converge on ganglion and bipolar cells for preprocessing before they are sent to the lateral geniculate nucleus. At the "center" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) lies the fovea (or fovea centralis), which contains only cone cells; and is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity or highest resolution. Across the rest of the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye.[14]
The photoreceptor proteins in the three types of cones differ in their sensitivity to photons of different wavelengths (see graph). Since cones respond to both the wavelength and intensity of light, the cone's sensitivity to wavelength is measured in terms of its relative rate of response if the intensity of a stimulus is held fixed, while the wavelength is varied. From this, in turn, is inferred the absorbance.[15] The graph normalizes the degree of absorbance on a hundred-point scale. For example, the S cone's relative response peaks around 420 nm (nanometers, a measure of wavelength). This tells us that an S cone is more likely to absorb a photon at 420 nm than at any other wavelength. If light of a different wavelength to which it is less sensitive, say 480 nm, is increased in brightness appropriately, however, it will produce exactly the same response in the S cone. So, the colors of the curves are misleading. Cones cannot detect color by themselves; rather, color vision requires comparison of the signal across different cone types.
Phototransduction[edit]
The process of phototransduction occurs in the retina.[13] The retina has many layers of various cell types.[13] The best-known photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) form the outermost layer, closest to the sclera, and furthest from the pupil.[13] They are the photoreceptors responsible for sight. The middle layer contains bipolar cells, which collect neural signals from the rods and the cones and then transmit them to the innermost layer of the retina,[13] where the neurons called retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), a small percentage of which are themselves photosensitive, organize the signals and send them to the brain.[13] The bundled RGC axons form the optic nerve, which leaves the eye through a hole in the retina creating the blind spot.[13]
Activation of rods and cones is actually hyperpolarization; when they are not being stimulated, they depolarize and release glutamate continuously. In the dark, cells have a relatively high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3'-5' monophosphate (cGMP), which opens ion channels (largely sodium channels, though calcium can enter through these channels as well). The positive charges of the ions that enter the cell down its electrochemical gradient change the cell's membrane potential, cause depolarization, and lead to the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate can depolarize some neurons and hyperpolarize others.
When light hits a photoreceptive pigment within the photoreceptor cell, the pigment changes shape. The pigment, called iodopsin or rhodopsin, consists of large proteins called opsin (situated in the plasma membrane), attached to a covalently bound prosthetic group: an organic molecule called retinal (a derivative of vitamin A). The retinal exists in the 11-cis-retinal form when in the dark, and stimulation by light causes its structure to change to all-trans-retinal. This structural change causes it to activate a regulatory protein called transducin, which leads to the activation of cGMP phosphodiesterase, which breaks cGMP down into 5'-GMP. Reduction in cGMP allows the ion channels to close, preventing the influx of positive ions, hyperpolarizing the cell, and stopping the release of neurotransmitters.[16] The entire process by which light initiates a sensory response is called visual phototransduction.
Dark current[edit]
Unstimulated (in the dark), cyclic-nucleotide gated channels in the outer segment are open because cyclic GMP (cGMP) is bound to them. Hence, positively charged ions (namely sodium ions) enter the photoreceptor, depolarizing it to about −40 mV (resting potential in other nerve cells is usually −65 mV). This depolarizing current is often known as dark current.
Signal transduction pathway[edit]
The absorption of light leads to an isomeric change in the retinal molecule.
The signal transduction pathway is the mechanism by which the energy of a photon signals a mechanism in the cell that leads to its electrical polarization. This polarization ultimately leads to either the transmittance or inhibition of a neural signal that will be fed to the brain via the optic nerve. The steps, or signal transduction pathway, in the vertebrate eye's rod and cone photoreceptors are then:
The rhodopsin or iodopsin in the disc membrane of the outer segment absorbs a photon, changing the configuration of a retinal Schiff base cofactor inside the protein from the cis-form to the trans-form, causing the retinal to change shape.
This results in a series of unstable intermediates, the last of which binds stronger to a G protein in the membrane, called transducin, and activates it. This is the first amplification step – each photoactivated rhodopsin triggers activation of about 100 transducins.
Each transducin then activates the enzyme cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE).
PDE then catalyzes the hydrolysis of cGMP to 5' GMP. This is the second amplification step, where a single PDE hydrolyses about 1000 cGMP molecules.
The net concentration of intracellular cGMP is reduced (due to its conversion to 5' GMP via PDE), resulting in the closure of cyclic nucleotide-gated Na+ ion channels located in the photoreceptor outer segment membrane.
As a result, sodium ions can no longer enter the cell, and the photoreceptor outer segment membrane becomes hyperpolarized, due to the charge inside the membrane becoming more negative.
This change in the cell's membrane potential causes voltage-gated calcium channels to close. This leads to a decrease in the influx of calcium ions into the cell and thus the intracellular calcium ion concentration falls.
A decrease in the intracellular calcium concentration means that less glutamate is released via calcium-induced exocytosis to the bipolar cell (see below). (The decreased calcium level slows the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which excites the postsynaptic bipolar cells and horizontal cells.)
Reduction in the release of glutamate means one population of bipolar cells will be depolarized and a separate population of bipolar cells will be hyperpolarized, depending on the nature of receptors (ionotropic or metabotropic) in the postsynaptic terminal (see receptive field).
Thus, a rod or cone photoreceptor actually releases less neurotransmitter when stimulated by light. Less neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft between a photoreceptor and bipolar cell will serve to either excite (depolarize) ON bipolar cells or inhibit (hyperpolarize) OFF bipolar cells. Thus, it is at the photoreceptor-bipolar cell synapse where visual signals are split into ON and OFF pathways.[17]
ATP provided by the inner segment powers the sodium-potassium pump. This pump is necessary to reset the initial state of the outer segment by taking the sodium ions that are entering the cell and pumping them back out.
Although photoreceptors are neurons, they do not conduct action potentials with the exception of the photosensitive ganglion cell – which are involved mainly in the regulation of circadian rhythms, melatonin, and pupil dilation.
Advantages[edit]
Phototransduction in rods and cones is unique in that the stimulus (in this case, light) actually reduces the cell's response or firing rate, which is unusual for a sensory system where the stimulus usually increases the cell's response or firing rate. However, this system offers several key advantages.
First, the classic (rod or cone) photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, which means many sodium ions are flowing into the cell. Thus, the random opening or closing of sodium channels will not affect the membrane potential of the cell; only the closing of a large number of channels, through absorption of a photon, will affect it and signal that light is in the visual field. Hence, the system is noiseless.
Second, there is a lot of amplification in two stages of classic phototransduction: one pigment will activate many molecules of transducin, and one PDE will cleave many cGMPs. This amplification means that even the absorption of one photon will affect membrane potential and signal to the brain that light is in the visual field. This is the main feature that differentiates rod photoreceptors from cone photoreceptors. Rods are extremely sensitive and have the capacity of registering a single photon of light, unlike cones. On the other hand, cones are known to have very fast kinetics in terms of rate of amplification of phototransduction, unlike rods.
Difference between rods and cones[edit]
Comparison of human rod and cone cells, from Eric Kandel et al. in Principles of Neural Science.[16]
Rods
Cones
Used for scotopic vision (vision under low light conditions) Used for photopic vision (vision under high light conditions)
Very light sensitive; sensitive to scattered light Not very light sensitive; sensitive to only direct light
Loss causes night blindness Loss causes legal blindness
Low visual acuity High visual acuity; better spatial resolution
Not present in fovea Concentrated in fovea
Slow response to light, stimuli added over time Fast response to light, can perceive more rapid changes in stimuli
Have more pigment than cones, so can detect lower light levels Have less pigment than rods, require more light to detect images
Stacks of membrane-enclosed disks are unattached to cell membrane directly Disks are attached to outer membrane
About 120 million rods distributed around the retina[13] About 6 million cones distributed in each retina[13]
One type of photosensitive pigment Three types of photosensitive pigment in humans
Confer achromatic vision Confer color vision
Function[edit]
Photoreceptors do not signal color; they only signal the presence of light in the visual field.
A given photoreceptor responds to both the wavelength and intensity of a light source. For example, red light at a certain intensity can produce the same exact response in a photoreceptor as green light of a different intensity. Therefore, the response of a single photoreceptor is ambiguous when it comes to color.
To determine color, the visual system compares responses across a population of photoreceptors (specifically, the three different cones with differing absorption spectra). To determine intensity, the visual system computes how many photoreceptors are responding. This is the mechanism that allows trichromatic color vision in humans and some other animals.
Development[edit]
The key events mediating rod versus S cone versus M cone differentiation are induced by several transcription factors, including RORbeta, OTX2, NRL, CRX, NR2E3 and TRbeta2. The S cone fate represents the default photoreceptor program, however differential transcriptional activity can bring about rod or M cone generation. L cones are present in primates, however there is not much known for their developmental program due to use of rodents in research. There are five steps to developing photoreceptors: proliferation of multi-potent retinal progenitor cells (RPCs); restriction of competence of RPCs; cell fate specification; photoreceptor gene expression; and lastly axonal growth, synapse formation and outer segment growth.
Early Notch signaling maintains progenitor cycling. Photoreceptor precursors come about through inhibition of Notch signaling and increased activity of various factors including achaete-scute homologue 1. OTX2 activity commits cells to the photoreceptor fate. CRX further defines the photoreceptor specific panel of genes being expressed. NRL expression leads to the rod fate. NR2E3 further restricts cells to the rod fate by repressing cone genes. RORbeta is needed for both rod and cone development. TRbeta2 mediates the M cone fate. If any of the previously mentioned factors' functions are ablated, the default photoreceptor is a S cone. These events take place at different time periods for different species and include a complex pattern of activities that bring about a spectrum of phenotypes. If these regulatory networks are disrupted, retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration or other visual deficits may result.[18]
Signaling[edit]
The rod and cone photoreceptors signal their absorption of photons via a decrease in the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate to bipolar cells at its axon terminal. Since the photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, a high amount of glutamate is being released to bipolar cells in the dark. Absorption of a photon will hyperpolarize the photoreceptor and therefore result in the release of less glutamate at the presynaptic terminal to the bipolar cell.
Every rod or cone photoreceptor releases the same neurotransmitter, glutamate. However, the effect of glutamate differs in the bipolar cells, depending upon the type of receptor imbedded in that cell's membrane. When glutamate binds to an ionotropic receptor, the bipolar cell will depolarize (and therefore will hyperpolarize with light as less glutamate is released). On the other hand, binding of glutamate to a metabotropic receptor results in a hyperpolarization, so this bipolar cell will depolarize to light as less glutamate is released.
In essence, this property allows for one population of bipolar cells that gets excited by light and another population that gets inhibited by it, even though all photoreceptors show the same response to light. This complexity becomes both important and necessary for detecting color, contrast, edges, etc.
Further complexity arises from the various interconnections among bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells in the retina. The final result is differing populations of ganglion cells in the retina, a sub-population of which is also intrinsically photosensitive, using the photopigment melanopsin.
Ganglion cell (non-rod non-cone) photoreceptors[edit]
A non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in the eyes of mice, which was shown to mediate circadian rhythms, was discovered in 1991 by Foster et al.[2] These neuronal cells, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC), are a small subset (≈1–3%) of the retinal ganglion cells located in the inner retina, that is, in front[19] of the rods and cones located in the outer retina. These light sensitive neurons contain a photopigment, melanopsin,[20][21][22][23][24] which has an absorption peak of the light at a different wavelength (≈480 nm[25]) than rods and cones. Beside circadian / behavioral functions, ipRGCs have a role in initiating the pupillary light reflex.[26]
Dennis Dacey with colleagues showed in a species of Old World monkey that giant ganglion cells expressing melanopsin projected to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).[27] Previously only projections to the midbrain (pre-tectal nucleus) and hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus) had been shown. However a visual role for the receptor was still unsuspected and unproven.
In 2007, Farhan H. Zaidi and colleagues published pioneering work using rodless coneless humans. Current Biology subsequently announced in their 2008 editorial, commentary and despatches to scientists and ophthalmologists, that the non-rod non-cone photoreceptor had been conclusively discovered in humans using landmark experiments on rodless coneless humans by Zaidi and colleagues[24][28][29][30] As had been found in other mammals, the identity of the non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in humans was found to be a ganglion cell in the inner retina. The workers had tracked down patients with rare diseases wiping out classic rod and cone photoreceptor function but preserving ganglion cell function.[28][29][30] Despite having no rods or cones the patients continued to exhibit circadian photoentrainment, circadian behavioural patterns, melanopsin suppression, and pupil reactions, with peak spectral sensitivities to environmental and experimental light matching that for the melanopsin photopigment. Their brains could also associate vision with light of this frequency.
In humans the retinal ganglion cell photoreceptor contributes to conscious sight as well as to non-image-forming functions like circadian rhythms, behaviour and pupil reactions.[31] Since these cells respond mostly to blue light, it has been suggested that they have a role in mesopic vision.[citation needed] Zaidi and colleagues' work with rodless coneless human subjects hence also opened the door into image-forming (visual) roles for the ganglion cell photoreceptor. It was discovered that there are parallel pathways for vision – one classic rod and cone-based pathway arising from the outer retina, and the other a rudimentary visual brightness detector pathway arising from the inner retina, which seems to be activated by light before the other.[31] Classic photoreceptors also feed into the novel photoreceptor system, and colour constancy may be an important role as suggested by Foster. The receptor could be instrumental in understanding many diseases including major causes of blindness worldwide like glaucoma, a disease that affects ganglion cells, and the study of the receptor offered potential as a new avenue to explore in trying to find treatments for blindness. It is in these discoveries of the novel photoreceptor in humans and in the receptors role in vision, rather than its non-image-forming functions, where the receptor may have the greatest impact on society as a whole, though the impact of disturbed circadian rhythms is another area of relevance to clinical medicine.
Most work suggests that the peak spectral sensitivity of the receptor is between 460 and 482 nm. Steven Lockley et al. in 2003 showed that 460 nm wavelengths of light suppress melatonin twice as much as longer 555 nm light. However, in more recent work by Farhan Zaidi et al., using rodless coneless humans, it was found that what consciously led to light perception was a very intense 481 nm stimulus; this means that the receptor, in visual terms, enables some rudimentary vision maximally for blue light.[31]
See also[edit]
Visual phototransduction
G protein-coupled receptor
Sensory system
Photosensitive
Photosensitive ganglion cell
Horizontal cell
Bipolar cell
Amacrine cell
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Berson, David M. (2007). "Phototransduction in ganglion-cell photoreceptors". Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology. 454 (5): 849–55. doi:10.1007/s00424-007-0242-2. PMID 17351786.
Jump up ^ Lucas, Robert J.; Douglas, Ronald H.; Foster, Russell G. (2001). "Characterization of an ocular photopigment capable of driving pupillary constriction in mice". Nature Neuroscience. 4 (6): 621–6. doi:10.1038/88443. PMID 11369943.
Jump up ^ Dacey, Dennis M.; Liao, Hsi-Wen; Peterson, Beth B.; Robinson, Farrel R.; Smith, Vivianne C.; Pokorny, Joel; Yau, King-Wai; Gamlin, Paul D. (2005). "Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal colour and irradiance and project to the LGN". Nature. 433 (7027): 749–54. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..749D. doi:10.1038/nature03387. PMID 15716953.
^ Jump up to: a b Genova, Cathleen, Blind humans lacking rods and cones retain normal responses to nonvisual effects of light. Cell Press, December 13, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Coghlan A. Blind people 'see' sunrise and sunset. New Scientist, 26 December 2007, issue 2635.
^ Jump up to: a b Medical News Today. Normal Responses To Non-visual Effects Of Light Retained By Blind Humans Lacking Rods And Cones. 14 December 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zaidi FH, et al. (2007). "Short-wavelength light sensitivity of circadian, pupillary, and visual awareness in humans lacking an outer retina". Current Biology. 17 (24): 2122–8. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.034. PMC 2151130  . PMID 18082405.
Bibliography[edit]
Campbell, Neil A. & Reece, Jane B. (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. pp. 1064–1067. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
Freeman, Scott (2002). Biological Science (2nd Edition). Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall. pp. 835–837. ISBN 0-13-140941-7.
External links[edit]
NIF Search – Photoreceptor Cell via the Neuroscience Information Framework
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t
e
Anatomy of the globe of the eye
Fibrous tunic (outer)
Sclera
Episcleral layer
Schlemm's canal
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Photoreceptor cells (Cone cell, Rod cell) → (Horizontal cell) → Bipolar cell → (Amacrine cell) → Retina ganglion cell (Midget cell, Parasol cell, Bistratified cell, Giant retina ganglion cells, Photosensitive ganglion cell) → Diencephalon: P cell, M cell, K cell, Muller glia
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Sensory neuron
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Ia or Aα
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II or Aβ and Aγ
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