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History of mobile phones
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A man talks on his mobile phone while standing near a conventional telephone box, which stands empty. Enabling technology for mobile phones was first developed in the 1940s but it was not until the mid 1980s that they became widely available. By 2011, it was estimated in the United Kingdom that more calls were made using mobile phones than wired devices.[1]
The history of mobile phones covers mobile communication devices that connect wirelessly to the public switched telephone network.
While the transmission of speech by radio has a long history, the first models that were wireless, mobile, and also capable of connecting to the standard telephone network are much more recent. The first such devices were barely portable compared to today's compact hand-held devices, and their use was clumsy.
Along with the process of developing a more portable technology, and a better interconnections system, drastic changes have taken place in both the networking of wireless communication and the prevalence of its use, with smartphones becoming common globally and a growing proportion of Internet access now done via mobile broadband.
Contents
[hide]
1 Predecessors
2 Early services
2.1 MTS
2.2 IMTS
2.3 Radio Common Carrier
2.4 Other services
2.5 European mobile radio networks
3 The cellular concept
4 Emergence of automated services
5 Handheld mobile phone
6 The early generations
6.1 1G – Analogue cellular
6.2 2G – Digital cellular
6.3 3G – Mobile broadband
7 4G – Native IP networks
8 Satellite mobile
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Predecessors[edit]
Before the devices existed that are now referred to as mobile phones or cell phones, there were some precursors. In 1908, a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production.[2] Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen.[3] In 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie A. G. was founded to supply train telephony equipment and, in 1926, telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first-class travelers.[4]
Karl Arnold drawing of public use of mobile telephones
Fiction anticipated the development of real world mobile telephones. In 1906, the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch magazine entitled "Forecasts for 1907" in which he showed a man and a woman in London's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless telephony equipment.[5] Then, in 1926, the artist Karl Arnold created a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony", published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus.[6]
The Second World War made military use of radio telephony links. Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications.
In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. The introduction of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.
In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957-1961 developed and presented a number of experimental models of handheld mobile phones. The weight of one model, presented in 19kdn61, was only 70 g and could fit on a palm.[7][8] However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai" phone was made.[9]
In 1965, Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika" presented on the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow the mobile automatic phone combined with a base station. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.[10]
The advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G" services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first-generation (1G) analog cellular network, second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks, third-generation (3G) broadband data services to the state-of-the-art, fourth-generation (4G) native-IP networks.
Early services[edit]
MTS[edit]
In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about 80 lb.[11]
Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.[12] Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing 15 USD per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about 176 USD per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.[11]
In the UK, there was also a vehicle-based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service,"[13] which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.
IMTS[edit]
AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.[11]
Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just 40,000 customers system wide. In New York City, for example, 2,000 customers shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.[11]
Radio Common Carrier[edit]
A mobile radio telephone
Radio Common Carrier[14] or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454/459 MHz and VHF 152/158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.
Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming" because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska–based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two-tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half-duplex, push-to-talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand-helds or RCA 700-series conventional two-way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full-duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)
At the end of RCC's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600/1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.
Other services[edit]
In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the 360 km New York-Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.[12]
In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit" phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell" base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device. [15][better source needed] With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple's new 4G "smart watch" so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.
European mobile radio networks[edit]
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In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.
In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.
In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.[16]
West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B-Netz which connected calls automatically.
The cellular concept[edit]
See also: Cellular network
A multi-directional, cellular network antenna array ("cell tower")
In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles.[17] At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now-familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right)[18] Porter also invented the dial-then-send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.
In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer,[19] invented a "three-sided trunk circuit" to aid in the "call handoff" process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.
A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973,[20] and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in hipatitas by Hachenburg et al.[21]
Emergence of automated services[edit]
The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed 40 kg. In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push-button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success.[22][23] The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.
In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR.[24] The "Altay" national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.
In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.[citation needed]
In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10 (RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers ("Radio" magazine, 2, 1967; "Novosti dnya" newsreel, 37, 1966).
One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.[citation needed]
Handheld mobile phone[edit]
Martin Cooper photographed in 2007 with his 1973 handheld mobile phone prototype
Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[19] Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival.[25][26] The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed 1.1 kg (2.42 lb) and measured 23 cm long, 13 cm deep and 4.45 cm wide. The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.[27]
John F. Mitchell,[28][29][30] Motorola's chief of portable communication products and Cooper's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell successfully pushed Motorola to develop wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.[31][32]
The early generations[edit]
Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation" terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retroactively when referring to the earlier systems.
1G – Analogue cellular[edit]
Main article: 1G
First automatic analogue cellular systems deployed were NTT's system first used in Tokyo in 1979, later spreading to the whole of Japan, and NMT in the Nordic countries in 1981.
The first analogue cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).[33] It was commercially introduced in the Americas in 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning" and it used a Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.
On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market.[34] The phone had a talk time of just thirty-five minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.[35][36]
Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.
In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.
2G – Digital cellular[edit]
Main articles: 2G, 2.5G, and 2.75G
Two 1991 GSM mobile phones with several AC adapters
In the 1990s, the 'second generation' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out-of-band phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.
In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in America, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In America the IS-54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.
In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard.[37] The IBM Simon had a stylus you used to tap the touch screen with. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA 1.8 MB memory card into the phone.[38] Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick" phones toward tiny 100 – 200 gram hand-held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy-efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.
Personal Handy-phone System mobiles and modems used in Japan around 1997–2003
The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person-to-person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.
2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.
Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca-Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.
The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.
3G – Mobile broadband[edit]
Main article: 3G
As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever-increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission.[39] In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit/s outdoors, for example).
Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV-DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:
Introduction of several new forward link data rates that increase the maximum burst rate from 2.45 Mbit/s to 3.1 Mbit/s
Protocols that would decrease connection establishment time
Ability for more than one mobile to share the same time slot
Introduction of QoS flags
All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.[40]
The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV-DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three/Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV-DO standard.
During the development of 3G systems, 2.5G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000-1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit/s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.
The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible,[41] with companies such as RealNetworks[42] and Disney[43] among the early pioneers in this type of offering.
In the mid-2000s (decade), an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s.
By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.
Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles", plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so-called "compact wireless router" such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi-Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug-in.
Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.
4G – Native IP networks[edit]
Main article: 4G
By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[44] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, utilizing packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.[45]
Satellite mobile[edit]
Main article: Satellite phone
As well as the now-common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth-orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.
The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.
See also[edit]
The Mobile Revolution
Autopatch
History of the prepaid mobile phone
History of the telephone
List of best-selling mobile phones
Personal Communications Service PCS
Pager
Babylonokia
Smartphone § History
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Jump up ^ "Internet Archive Wayback Machine". Web.archive.org. 20 September 2005. Archived from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Gonsalves, Antone (19 September 2005). "RealNetworks Launches Streaming Music on Sprint Phones". Informationweek.com. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Media Week, 20 September 2005, 12:00 am (20 September 2005). "Disney will offer mobile content – Media news". Media Week. Retrieved 16 October 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Fahd Ahmad Saeed. "Capacity Limit Problem in 3G Networks". Purdue School of Engineering. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "VoIP Support in Nokia Devices". Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2009.
Further reading[edit]
Agar, Jon (2004). Constant Touch: a Global History of the Mobile Phone. Cambridge: Icon. ISBN 978-1840465419.
Farley, Tom (2007). "The Cell-Phone Revolution". American Heritage of Invention & Technology. New York: American Heritage. 22 (3): 8–19. ISSN 8756-7296. OCLC 108126426. BL Shelfmark 0817.734000.
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Chief of Naval Staff (Nigeria)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Chief of Naval Staff is the highest ranking military officer of the Nigerian Navy.[1] The position is often occupied by the most senior commissioned officer appointed by the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Nigeria.The Chief of Naval Staff reports to the Chief of Defence Staff, who also reports to the Defence Minister.[2] The Statutory duty of the Officer is to formulate and execute policies towards the highest attainment of National Security and operational competence of the Nigerian Navy.[3] The current Chief of Naval Staff is Ibok Ekwe Ibas who was appointed on July 13, 2015 by President Muhammadu Buhari to succeeded Usman Oyibe Jibrin.[4]

Chiefs of Naval Staff[edit]
Table below is a chronological list of officers holding the position of Chief of Naval Staff (CNS).[5]
Officer
Title
Period Served
Remarks
Captain F.W. Skutil CNS 1956–1958
Commodore A.R. Kennedy CNS 1958 –1964
Vice Commodore J.E.A. Wey OFR FSS CNS 1964 –1973
Vice Admiral N.B. Soroh MFR FSS IDC CNS 1973–1975
Vice Admiral M.A Adelanwa GCON FSS rcds CNS 1975–1980
Vice Admiral A.A. Aduwo CFR FSS FBIM CNS 1980 - 1983
Rear Admiral A.A. Aikhomu FSS psc mni CNS 1984 -1986
Vice Admiral Patrick Koshoni FSS psc mni CNS 1986 -1990
Vice Admiral Murtala Nyako FSS psc mni CNS 1990 - 1992
Vice Admiral D.P.E Omotsola FSS DSO psc rcds CNS 1992 - 1993
Rear Admiral Suleiman Saidu FSS LSS MSS DSS rcds CNS September 1993 - November 1993
Rear Admiral A.A. Madueke FSS DSS MRNI mni CNS 1993- 1994
Rear Admiral O.M Akhigbe FSS DSS psc mni CNS 1994 - 1998
Vice Admiral J. Ayinla DSS psc Usnwc fwc GCON CNS 1998 - 1999
Vice Admiral V.K. Ombu CFR mni CNS 1999 - 2001
Vice Admiral S.O. Afolayan DSS psc fwc CNS 2001 - 2005
Vice Admiral G.T.A. Adekeye DSS psc mirss mni CNS 2005 - 2008
Vice Admiral I.I. Ibrahim CFR DSS psc fwc CNS 2008 - 2010
Vice Admiral O.S. Ibrahim DSS psc rcds fwc LLB (Hons) MA CNS 2010 - 2012
Vice Admiral D.J. Ezeoba GSS fwc Msc MRIN FCIS CNS 2012 - 2013
Vice Admiral U.O. Jibrin GSS AM psc+ mni LLB PGCPA CNS 2013- 2015
Rear Admiral Ibok-Ete Ekwe Ibas CNS July 2015 –
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Minimah, Jibrin, Amosu Appointed Service Chiefs, Articles - THISDAY LIVE". thisdaylive.com. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Buhari appoints new Service Chiefs". DailyPost Nigeria. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "President Buhari Appoints New Service Chiefs And NSA - Channels Television". Channels Television. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cross River governor lauds buhari over new naval chief". Premium Times Nigeria. Retrieved June 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Chronicles of Command". Nigerian Navy. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
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Pholcidae
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other arthropods called "daddy longlegs", see Daddy longlegs.
Cellar spiders
Pholcus phalangioides
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Pholcidae
C. L. Koch, 1851[1]
Genera
See text.
Diversity[2]
79 genera, 1461 species
Estimated range of Pholcidae.
Pholcidae, commonly known as cellar spiders, are a spider family in the suborder Araneomorphae. The family contains about 1500 species divided into about 80 genera.
Some species, especially Pholcus phalangioides, are commonly called daddy long-legs spider, granddaddy long-legs spider, carpenter spider, daddy long-legger, or vibrating spider. Confusion often arises because the name "daddy long-legs" is also applied to two distantly related arthropod groups: the harvestmen (which are arachnids but not spiders), and crane flies (which are insects).
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearance
2 Habitat
3 Behavior
3.1 Trapping
3.2 Threat response
3.3 Diet
3.4 Gait
4 Systematics
5 Misconceptions
6 References
7 External links
Appearance[edit]
Pholcids are fragile arachnids, the body being 2–10 mm in length with legs which may be up to 50 mm long. Pholcus and Smeringopus have cylindrical abdomens and the eyes are arranged in two lateral groups of three and two smaller median contiguous eyes. Eight and six eyes both occur in this family. Spermophora has a small globose abdomen and its eyes are arranged in two groups of three and no median eyes. Pholcids are gray to brown with banding or chevron markings. The shape of the Pholcus and Smeringopus's body resembles that of a peanut. The cellar spiders torso is thin and doesn't have a fixed colour. It can be clear, clear brown, brown or gray.
Habitat[edit]
Pholcids are found in every continent in the world except Antarctica where it is too cold for them to survive. They hang inverted in messy, irregular, tangled webs. These webs are constructed in dark and damp recesses, such as: caves, under rocks and loose bark, abandoned mammal burrows, and undisturbed areas in buildings, such as cellars (hence the common name "cellar spider"). However, Pholcids are also quite commonly found in warm, dry places, such as household windows and attics.
Behavior[edit]
Trapping[edit]
The web has no adhesive properties but the irregular structure traps insects, making escape difficult. The spider quickly envelops its prey with silk and then inflicts the fatal bite. The prey may be eaten immediately or stored for later.
Threat response[edit]
When the arachnid is threatened by a touch to the web or when too large a prey becomes entangled, the arachnid vibrates rapidly in a gyrating motion in its web and becomes blurred and difficult to focus on. For this reason pholcids have sometimes been called "vibrating spiders", although they are not the only species to exhibit this behavior. Doing so might make it difficult for a predator to see exactly where the spider is, may be intended to signal an assumed rival to leave, or may increase the chances of capturing insects that have just brushed their web and are still hovering nearby.[3] If the spider continues to be harassed it will retreat into a corner or drop from its web and escape.
Diet[edit]
Certain species of these seemingly benign spiders invade webs of other spiders and eat the host, the eggs, or the prey. In some cases the spider vibrates the web of other spiders, mimicking the struggle of trapped prey to lure the host of the web closer. Pholcids are natural predators of the Tegenaria species, and are known to attack and eat redback spiders, huntsman spiders, and house spiders.[4][5] It is this competition that helps keep Tegenaria populations in check, which may be advantageous to humans who live in regions with dense hobo spider populations.[citation needed]
Close-up of a cellar spider's head, showing two groups of three closely clustered eyes
Gait[edit]
Pholcus phalangioides often uses an alternating tetrapod gait (first right leg, then second left leg, then third right leg, etc.), which is commonly found in many spider species. However, frequent variations from this pattern have been documented during observations of the spiders’ movements.
Systematics[edit]
Two Crossopriza lyoni. The bottom one is male. The female is clutching her egg bundle (magnified).
Smeringopus pallidus female with egg sac.
A cellar spider stays close to her young in Tulare, California.
A marbled cellar spider (Holocnemus pluchei) carrying prey.
Male shortbodied cellar spider (Spermophora senoculata) from the United States
As of November 2015[update], the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera:[1]
Aetana Huber, 2005
Anansus Huber, 2007
Anopsicus Chamberlin & Ivie, 1938
Artema Walckenaer, 1837
Aucana Huber, 2000
Aymaria Huber, 2000
Belisana Thorell, 1898
Blancoa Huber, 2000
Buitinga Huber, 2003
Calapnita Simon, 1892
Canaima Huber, 2000
Carapoia González-Sponga, 1998
Cenemus Saaristo, 2001
Chibchea Huber, 2000
Chichiriviche González-Sponga, 2011b
Chisosa Huber, 2000
Ciboneya Pérez, 2001
Codazziella González-Sponga, 2005
Coryssocnemis Simon, 1893
Crossopriza Simon, 1893
Enetea Huber, 2000
Galapa Huber, 2000
Gertschiola Brignoli, 1981
Guaranita Huber, 2000
Holocneminus Berland, 1942
Holocnemus Simon, 1873
Hoplopholcus Kulczy?ski, 1908
Ibotyporanga Mello-Leitão, 1944
Ixchela Huber, 2000
Kambiwa Huber, 2000
Khorata Huber, 2005
Leptopholcus Simon, 1893
Litoporus Simon, 1893
Mecolaesthus Simon, 1893
Mesabolivar González-Sponga, 1998
Metagonia Simon, 1893
Micromerys Bradley, 1877
Micropholcus Deeleman-Reinhold & Prinsen, 1987
Modisimus Simon, 1893
Nerudia Huber, 2000
Ninetis Simon, 1890
Nita Huber & El-Hennawy, 2007
Nyikoa Huber, 2007
Ossinissa Dimitrov & Ribera, 2005
Otavaloa Huber, 2000
Panjange Deeleman-Reinhold & Deeleman, 1983
Papiamenta Huber, 2000
Paramicromerys Millot, 1946
Pehrforsskalia Deeleman-Reinhold & van Harten, 2001
Pholcophora Banks, 1896
Pholcus Walckenaer, 1805
Physocyclus Simon, 1893
Pisaboa Huber, 2000
Platnicknia Özdikmen & Demir, 2009
Pomboa Huber, 2000
Priscula Simon, 1893
Psilochorus Simon, 1893
Quamtana Huber, 2003
Queliceria González-Sponga, 2003
Savarna Huber, 2005
Sihala Huber, 2011
Smeringopina Kraus, 1957
Smeringopus Simon, 1890
Spermophora Hentz, 1841
Spermophorides Wunderlich, 1992
Stenosfemuraia González-Sponga, 1998
Stygopholcus Absolon & Kratochvíl, 1932
Systenita Simon, 1893
Tainonia Huber, 2000
Teuia Huber, 2000
Tibetia Zhang, Zhu & Song, 2006
Tolteca Huber, 2000
Trichocyclus Simon, 1908
Tupigea Huber, 2000
Uthina Simon, 1893
Wanniyala Huber & Benjamin, 2005
Waunana Huber, 2000
Wugigarra Huber, 2001
Zatavua Huber, 2003
Misconceptions[edit]
There is a legend that daddy long-legs spiders have the most potent venom of any spider, but that their fangs are either too small or too weak to puncture human skin; the same legend is also repeated of the harvestman and crane fly, also known as "daddy long-legs" in some regions. Indeed, pholcid spiders do have a short fang structure (called uncate due to its "hooked" shape). Brown recluse spiders also have uncate fang structure, but are able to deliver medically significant bites. Possible explanations include: pholcid venom is not toxic to humans; pholcid uncate are smaller than those of brown recluse; or there is a musculature difference between the two arachnids, with recluses, being hunting spiders, possessing stronger muscles for fang penetration.[6]
During 2004, the Discovery Channel television show MythBusters tested the daddy long-legs venom myth in episode 13 - "Buried in concrete". Hosts Jamie Hyneman and Adam Savage first established that the spider's venom was not as toxic as other venoms, after being told about an experiment whereby mice were injected with venom from both a daddy long-legs and a black widow, with the black widow venom producing a much stronger reaction. After measuring the spider's fangs at approximately 0.25 mm, Adam Savage inserted his hand into a container with several daddy-long-legs, and reported that he felt a bite which produced a mild, short-lived burning sensation. The bite did in fact penetrate his skin, but did not cause any notable harm.[7] Additionally, recent research has shown that pholcid venom is relatively weak in its effects on insects.[8]
According to Rick Vetter of the University of California at Riverside, the daddy long-legs spider has never harmed a human and there is no evidence that they are dangerous to humans.[9]
The legend may result from the fact that the daddy long-legs spider preys upon deadly venomous spiders, such as the redback, a member of the black widow genus Latrodectus.[10] To the extent that such entomological information was known to the general public, it was perhaps thought that if the daddy long-legs spider could kill a spider capable of delivering fatal bites to humans, then it must be more venomous, and the uncate fangs were regarded as prohibiting it from killing people. In reality, it is able to cast lengths of silk onto its prey, incapacitating them from a safe distance.[11]
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b "Family: Pholcidae C. L. Koch, 1850 (genus list)", World Spider Catalog, Natural History Museum Bern, retrieved 2015-11-10
Jump up ^ "Currently valid spider genera and species", World Spider Catalog, Natural History Museum Bern, retrieved 2015-11-10
Jump up ^ Bruce Marlin (2006-04-25). "Video of the "vibrating spider" vibrating" (QuickTime Movie).
Jump up ^ "Daddy Long Legs". Queensland Museum.
Jump up ^ Wim van Egmond. "Pholcus phalangioides, the daddy-long-legs spider, in 3D".
Jump up ^ "Daddy Long Legs Site on UCR".
Jump up ^ "Myth Files on the Discovery site". Discovery channel.
Jump up ^ "The Spider Myths Site". Burke Museum. 2005-05-12.
Jump up ^ Spider Myths-DaddyLongLegs
Jump up ^ "FAMILY PHOLCIDAE – Daddy long-leg Spiders". Brisbane Insects and Spiders: The Expression of our Love of Nature. 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
Jump up ^ http://www.tepapa.govt.nz/researchattepapa/enquiries/spidersweb/what/pages/daddylonglegs.aspx
Bibliography
Pinto-da-Rocha, R., Machado, G. & Giribet, G (eds.) (2007) Harvestmen – The Biology of Opiliones. Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-02343-9
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to: Pholcidae
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pholcidae.
North American Spiders, Family Pholcidae Information and reference quality photos of cellar spiders. Includes QuickTime movie of spiders "vibrating".
Good information and pictures of European Pholcidae
Tree of Life Pholcidae
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Extant Araneae families
Kingdom: Animalia
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Subphylum: Chelicerata
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Suborder Mesothelae
Liphistiidae (segmented spiders)
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Theraphosidae (true tarantulas)
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Austrochilidae
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Agelenidae (araneomorph funnel weavers)
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Synaphridae
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List of families of spiders
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