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Money multiplier
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In monetary economics, a money multiplier is one of various closely related ratios of commercial bank money to central bank money under a fractional-reserve banking system.[1] Most often, it measures an estimate of the maximum amount of commercial bank money that can be created, given a certain amount of central bank money. That is, in a fractional-reserve banking system, the total amount of loans that commercial banks are allowed to extend (the commercial bank money that they can legally create) is equal to an amount which is a multiple of the amount of reserves. This multiple is the reciprocal of the reserve ratio, and it is an economic multiplier.[2]
Although the money multiplier concept is a traditional portrayal of fractional reserve banking, it has been criticized as being misleading. The Bank of England and the Standard & Poor's rating agency (amongst others) have issued detailed refutations of the concept together with factual descriptions of banking operations.[3][4] Several countries (such as Canada, the UK, Australia and Sweden) set no legal reserve requirements.[5] Even in those countries that do (such as the USA), the reserve requirement is as a ratio to deposits held, not a ratio to loans that can be extended.[5] Under the Basel III global regulatory standard, it is the level of bank capital that determines the maximum amount that banks can lend.[6] Basel III does stipulate a liquidity requirement to cover 30 days net cash outflow expected under a modeled stressed scenario (note this is not a ratio to loans that can be extended) however liquidity coverage does not need to be held as reserves but rather as any high-quality liquid assets [7][8]
In equations, writing M for commercial bank money (loans), R for reserves (central bank money), and RR for the reserve ratio, the reserve ratio requirement is that R / M ≥ R R ; {\displaystyle R/M\geq RR;} the fraction of reserves must be at least the reserve ratio. Taking the reciprocal, M / R ≤ 1 / R R , {\displaystyle M/R\leq 1/RR,} which yields M ≤ R × ( 1 / R R ) , {\displaystyle M\leq R\times (1/RR),} meaning that commercial bank money is at most reserves times ( 1 / R R ) , {\displaystyle (1/RR),} the latter being the multiplier.
If banks lend out close to the maximum allowed by their reserves, then the inequality becomes an approximate equality, and commercial bank money is central bank money times the multiplier. If banks instead lend less than the maximum, accumulating excess reserves, then commercial bank money will be less than central bank money times the theoretical multiplier.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Mechanism
2.1 Reserves first model
2.1.1 Formula
2.1.2 Table
2.1.3 Example
2.2 Loans first model
3 Implications for monetary policy
4 References
5 Notes
Definition[edit]
The money multiplier is defined in various ways.[1] Most simply, it can be defined either as the statistic of "commercial bank money"/"central bank money", based on the actual observed quantities of various empirical measures of money supply,[9] such as M2 (broad money) over M0 (base money), or it can be the theoretical "maximum commercial bank money/central bank money" ratio, defined as the reciprocal of the reserve ratio, 1 / R R . {\displaystyle 1/RR.} [2] The multiplier in the first (statistic) sense fluctuates continuously based on changes in commercial bank money and central bank money (though it is at most the theoretical multiplier), while the multiplier in the second (legal) sense depends only on the reserve ratio, and thus does not change unless the law changes.
For purposes of monetary policy, what is of most interest is the predicted impact of changes in central bank money on commercial bank money, and in various models of monetary creation, the associated multiple (the ratio of these two changes) is called the money multiplier (associated to that model).[10] For example, if one assumes that people hold a constant fraction of deposits as cash, one may add a "currency drain" variable (currency–deposit ratio), and obtain a multiplier of ( 1 + C D ) / ( R R + C D ) . {\displaystyle (1+CD)/(RR+CD).}
These concepts are not generally distinguished by different names; if one wishes to distinguish them, one may gloss them by names such as empirical (or observed) multiplier, legal (or theoretical) multiplier, or model multiplier, but these are not standard usages.[9]
Similarly, one may distinguish the observed reserve–deposit ratio from the legal (minimum) reserve ratio, and the observed currency–deposit ratio from an assumed model one. Note that in this case the reserve–deposit ratio and currency–deposit ratio are outputs of observations, and fluctuate over time. If one then uses these observed ratios as model parameters (inputs) for the predictions of effects of monetary policy and assumes that they remain constant, computing a constant multiplier, the resulting predictions are valid only if these ratios do not in fact change. Sometimes this holds, and sometimes it does not; for example, increases in central bank money may result in increases in commercial bank money – and will, if these ratios (and thus multiplier) stay constant – or may result in increases in excess reserves but little or no change in commercial bank money, in which case the reserve–deposit ratio will grow and the multiplier will fall.[11]
Mechanism[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Fractional-reserve banking.
There are two suggested mechanisms for how money creation occurs in a fractional-reserve banking system: either reserves are first injected by the central bank, and then lent on by the commercial banks, or loans are first extended by commercial banks, and then backed by reserves borrowed from the central bank. The "reserves first" model is that taught in mainstream economics textbooks,[1][2] while the "loans first" model is advanced by endogenous money theorists.
Reserves first model[edit]
The expansion of $100 through fractional-reserve lending at varying rates, under the re-lending model. Each curve approaches a limit. This limit is the value that the money multiplier calculates.
In the "reserves first" model of money creation, a given reserve is lent out by a bank, then deposited at a bank (possibly different), which is then lent out again, the process repeating[2] and the ultimate result being a geometric series.
Formula[edit]
The money multiplier, m, is the inverse of the reserve requirement, RR:[2]
m = 1 R R {\displaystyle m={\frac {1}{RR}}}
This formula stems from the fact that the sum of the "amount loaned out" column above can be expressed mathematically as a geometric series[12] with a common ratio of 1 − R R . {\displaystyle 1-RR.}
To correct for currency drain (a lessening of the impact of monetary policy due to peoples' desire to hold some currency in the form of cash) and for banks' desire to hold reserves in excess of the required amount, the formula:
m = ( 1 + C u r r e n c y D r a i n R a t i o ) ( C u r r e n c y D r a i n R a t i o + D e s i r e d R e s e r v e R a t i o ) {\displaystyle m={\frac {(1+CurrencyDrainRatio)}{(CurrencyDrainRatio+DesiredReserveRatio)}}}
can be used, where "Currency Drain Ratio" is the ratio of cash to deposits, i.e. C/D, and the Desired Reserve Ratio is the sum of the Required Reserve Ratio and the Excess Reserve Ratio.[10]
The formula above is derived from the following procedure. Let the monetary base be normalized to unity. Define the legal reserve ratio, α ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle \alpha \in \left(0,1\right)\;} , the excess reserves ratio, β ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle \beta \in \left(0,1\right)\;} , the currency drain ratio with respect to deposits, γ ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle \gamma \in \left(0,1\right)\;} ; suppose the demand for funds is unlimited; then the theoretical superior limit for deposits is defined by the following series:
D e p o s i t s = ∑ n = 0 ∞ [ ( 1 − α − β − γ ) ] n = 1 α + β + γ {\displaystyle Deposits=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left[\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)\right]^{n}={\frac {1}{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}}
.
Analogously, the theoretical superior limit for the money held by public is defined by the following series:
P u b l i c l y H e l d C u r r e n c y = γ ⋅ D e p o s i t s = γ α + β + γ {\displaystyle PubliclyHeldCurrency=\gamma \cdot Deposits={\frac {\gamma }{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}}
and the theoretical superior limit for the total loans lent in the market is defined by the following series:
L o a n s = ( 1 − α − β ) ⋅ D e p o s i t s = 1 − α − β α + β + γ {\displaystyle Loans=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)\cdot Deposits={\frac {1-\alpha -\beta }{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}}
By summing up the two quantities, the theoretical money multiplier is defined as
m = M o n e y S t o c k M o n e t a r y B a s e = D e p o s i t s + P u b l i c l y H e l d C u r r e n c y M o n e t a r y B a s e = 1 + γ α + β + γ {\displaystyle m={\frac {MoneyStock}{MonetaryBase}}={\frac {Deposits+PubliclyHeldCurrency}{MonetaryBase}}={\frac {1+\gamma }{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}}
where α + β = D e s i r e d R e s e r v e R a t i o {\displaystyle \alpha +\beta =DesiredReserveRatio} and γ = C u r r e n c y D r a i n R a t i o {\displaystyle \gamma =CurrencyDrainRatio}
The process described above by the geometric series can be represented in the following table, where
loans at stage k {\displaystyle k\;} are a function of the deposits at the precedent stage: L k = ( 1 − α − β ) ⋅ D k − 1 {\displaystyle L_{k}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)\cdot D_{k-1}}
publicly held money at stage k {\displaystyle k\;} is a function of the deposits at the precedent stage: P H M k = γ ⋅ D k − 1 {\displaystyle PHM_{k}=\gamma \cdot D_{k-1}}
deposits at stage k {\displaystyle k\;} are the difference between additional loans and publicly held money relative to the same stage: D k = L k − P H M k {\displaystyle D_{k}=L_{k}-PHM_{k}\;}
Process of money multiplication
n {\displaystyle n\;}
Deposits
Loans
Publicly Held Money
n = 0 {\displaystyle n=0\;} D 0 = 1 {\displaystyle D_{0}=1\;} - -
n = 1 {\displaystyle n=1\;} D 1 = ( 1 − α − β − γ ) {\displaystyle D_{1}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)} L 1 = ( 1 − α − β ) {\displaystyle L_{1}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)} P H M 1 = γ {\displaystyle PHM_{1}=\gamma \;}
n = 2 {\displaystyle n=2\;} D 2 = ( 1 − α − β − γ ) 2 {\displaystyle D_{2}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{2}} L 2 = ( 1 − α − β ) ( 1 − α − β − γ ) {\displaystyle L_{2}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)} P H M 2 = γ ( 1 − α − β − γ ) {\displaystyle PHM_{2}=\gamma \left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)}
n = 3 {\displaystyle n=3\;} D 3 = ( 1 − α − β − γ ) 3 {\displaystyle D_{3}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{3}} L 3 = ( 1 − α − β ) ( 1 − α − β − γ ) 2 {\displaystyle L_{3}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{2}} P H M 3 = γ ( 1 − α − β − γ ) 2 {\displaystyle PHM_{3}=\gamma \left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{2}}
… … … …
n = k {\displaystyle n=k\;} D k = ( 1 − α − β − γ ) k {\displaystyle D_{k}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{k}} L k = ( 1 − α − β ) ( 1 − α − β − γ ) k − 1 {\displaystyle L_{k}=\left(1-\alpha -\beta \right)\left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{k-1}} P H M k = γ ( 1 − α − β − γ ) k − 1 {\displaystyle PHM_{k}=\gamma \left(1-\alpha -\beta -\gamma \right)^{k-1}}
… … … …
n → ∞ {\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty } D ∞ = 0 {\displaystyle D_{\infty }=0} L ∞ = 0 {\displaystyle L_{\infty }=0} P H M ∞ = 0 {\displaystyle PHM_{\infty }=0}

Total Deposits: Total Loans: Total Publicly Held Money:

D = 1 α + β + γ {\displaystyle D={\frac {1}{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}} L = 1 − α − β α + β + γ {\displaystyle L={\frac {1-\alpha -\beta }{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}} P H M = γ α + β + γ {\displaystyle PHM={\frac {\gamma }{\alpha +\beta +\gamma }}}
Table[edit]
This re-lending process (with no currency drain) can be depicted as follows, assuming a 20% reserve ratio and a $100 initial deposit:
Table Sources:[13][14][15][16]
Individual Bank
Amount Deposited
Lent Out
Reserves
A 100.00 80.00 20.00
B 80.00 64.00 16.00
C 64.00 51.20 12.80
D 51.20 40.96 10.24
E 40.96 32.77 8.19
F 32.77 26.21 6.55
G 26.21 20.97 5.24
H 20.97 16.78 4.19
I 16.78 13.42 3.36
J 13.42 10.74 2.68
K 10.74

Total Reserves:

89.26

Total Amount of Deposits: Total Amount Lent Out: Total Reserves + Last Amount Deposited:

457.05 357.05 100.00
Example[edit]
For example, with the reserve ratio of 20 percent, this reserve ratio, RR, can also be expressed as a fraction:
R R = 1 5 {\displaystyle RR={\tfrac {1}{5}}}
So then the money multiplier, m, will be calculated as:
m = 1 / 1 5 = 5 {\displaystyle m=1/{\tfrac {1}{5}}=5}
This number is multiplied by the initial deposit to show the maximum amount of money it can be expanded to.[17]
Another way to look at the monetary multiplier is derived from the concept of money supply and money base. It is the number of dollars of money supply that can be created for every dollar of monetary base. Money supply, denoted by M, is the stock of money held by public. It is measured by the amount of currency and deposits. Money Base, denoted by B, is the summation of currency and reserves. Currency and Reserves are monetary policy that can be affected by the Federal Reserve. For example, the Federal Reserve can increase currency by printing more money and they can similarly increase reserve by requiring a higher percentage of deposits to be stored in the Federal Reserve.
Mathematically: Let M = C + D {\displaystyle M=C+D} and B = C + R {\displaystyle B=C+R} where
M=Money Supply
C=Currency
D=Deposits
B=Money Base
R=Reserve
By algebraic manipulation
M B = C + D C + R = C + D C + R . D / ( C R ) D / ( C R ) M = B . C + D C + R . D / ( C R ) D / ( C R ) = B . D R ( 1 + D C ) D R + D C ⏟ multiplier {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {M}{B}}&={\frac {C+D}{C+R}}={\frac {C+D}{C+R}}.{\frac {D/(CR)}{D/(CR)}}\\M&=B.{\frac {C+D}{C+R}}.{\frac {D/(CR)}{D/(CR)}}\\&=B.\underbrace {\frac {{\tfrac {D}{R}}(1+{\tfrac {D}{C}})}{{\tfrac {D}{R}}+{\tfrac {D}{C}}}} _{\textrm {multiplier}}\end{aligned}}}
D R ( 1 + D C ) D R + D C {\displaystyle {\frac {{\tfrac {D}{R}}(1+{\tfrac {D}{C}})}{{\tfrac {D}{R}}+{\tfrac {D}{C}}}}} is the multiplier. Therefore, if money base is held constant, the ratio of D/R and D/C affects the money supply. When the ratio of deposits to reserves (D/R) reduces, the multiplier reduces. Similarly, if the ratio of deposits to currency (D/C) falls, the multiplier falls as well. [nb 1]
The multiplier effect is relevant to considering monetary and fiscal policies, as well how the banking system works. For example, the deposit, the monetary amount a customer deposits at a bank, is used by the bank to loan out to others, thereby generating the money supply. Most banks are FDIC insured (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation), so that customers are assured that their savings, up to a certain amount, is insured by the federal government. Banks are required to reserve a certain ratio of the customer's deposits in reserve, either in the form of vault cash or of a deposit maintained by a Federal Reserve Bank.[1] . Therefore, if the Federal Reserve Bank (and hence its monetary policy) requires a higher percentage of reserve, then it lowers the bank's financial ability to loan.
Loans first model[edit]
In the alternative model of money creation, loans are first extended by commercial banks – say, $1,000 of loans (following the example above), which may then require that the bank borrow $100 of reserves either from depositors (or other private sources of financing), or from the central bank. This view is advanced in endogenous money theories, such as the Post-Keynesian school of monetary circuit theory, as advanced by such economists as Basil Moore and Steve Keen.[18]
Finn E. Kydland and Edward C. Prescott argue that there is no evidence that either the monetary base or Ml leads the cycle.[19]
Jaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof of the IMF Research Department, argue that: the “deposit multiplier“ of the undergraduate economics textbook, where monetary aggregates are created at the initiative of the central bank, through an initial injection of high-powered money into the banking system that gets multiplied through bank lending, turns the actual operation of the monetary transmission mechanism on its head. At all times, when banks ask for reserves, the central bank obliges. According to this model, reserves therefore impose no constraint and the deposit multiplier is therefore a myth. The authors therefore argue that private banks are almost fully in control of the money creation process.[20]
Implications for monetary policy[edit]
See also: Monetary policy
The multiplier plays a key role in monetary policy, and the distinction between the multiplier being the maximum amount of commercial bank money created by a given unit of central bank money and approximately equal to the amount created has important implications in monetary policy.
If banks maintain low levels of excess reserves, as they did in the US from 1959 to August 2008, then central banks can finely control broad (commercial bank) money supply by controlling central bank money creation, as the multiplier gives a direct and fixed connection between these.
If, on the other hand, banks accumulate excess reserves, as occurs in some financial crises such as the Great Depression and the Financial crisis of 2007–2010, then this relationship breaks down and central banks can force the broad money supply to shrink, but not force it to grow:
By increasing the volume of their government securities and loans and by lowering Member Bank legal reserve requirements, the Reserve Banks can encourage an increase in the supply of money and bank deposits. They can encourage but, without taking drastic action, they cannot compel. For in the middle of a deep depression just when we want Reserve policy to be most effective, the Member Banks are likely to be timid about buying new investments or making loans. If the Reserve authorities buy government bonds in the open market and thereby swell bank reserves, the banks will not put these funds to work but will simply hold reserves. Result: no 5 for 1, “no nothing,” simply a substitution on the bank’s balance sheet of idle cash for old government bonds.
—  (Samuelson 1948, pp. 353–354)
Restated, increases in central bank money may not result in commercial bank money because the money is not required to be lent out – it may instead result in a growth of unlent reserves (excess reserves). This situation is referred to as "pushing on a string": withdrawal of central bank money compels commercial banks to curtail lending (one can pull money via this mechanism), but input of central bank money does not compel commercial banks to lend (one cannot push via this mechanism).
This described growth in excess reserves has indeed occurred in the Financial crisis of 2007–2010, US bank excess reserves growing over 500-fold, from under $2 billion in August 2008 to over $1,000 billion in November 2009.[21][22]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c (Krugman & Wells 2009, Chapter 14: Money, Banking, and the Federal Reserve System: Reserves, Bank Deposits, and the Money Multiplier, pp. 393–396)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e (Mankiw 2008, Part VI: Money and Prices in the Long Run: The Money Multiplier, pp. 347–349)
Jump up ^ http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/2014/qb14q1prereleasemoneycreation.pdf
Jump up ^ http://ommekeer-nederland.nl/documents/standard-poors-rating-services-lending-creating-deposits.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2011/wp1136.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs189.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs238.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.bis.org/bcbs/basel3/b3summarytable.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b (Krugman & Wells 2009, p. 395) calls the observed multiplier the "actual money multiplier".
^ Jump up to: a b (Mankiw 2002, Chapter 18: Money Supply and Money Demand: A Model of the Money Supply, pp. 486–487)
Jump up ^ (Mankiw 2002, p. 489)
Jump up ^ http://www.mhhe.com/economics/mcconnell15e/graphics/mcconnell15eco/common/dothemath/moneymultiplier.html
Jump up ^ Table created with the OpenOffice.org Calc spreadsheet program using data and information from the references listed.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Education - How does the Fed Create Money? http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101_html/policy/money_print.htm
See the link to "The Principle of Multiple Deposit Creation" pdf document towards bottom of page.
Jump up ^ An explanation of how it works from the New York Regional Reserve Bank of the US Federal Reserve system. Scroll down to the "Reserve Requirements and Money Creation" section. Here is what it says:
"Reserve requirements affect the potential of the banking system to create transaction deposits. If the reserve requirement is 10%, for example, a bank that receives a $100 deposit may lend out $90 of that deposit. If the borrower then writes a check to someone who deposits the $90, the bank receiving that deposit can lend out $81. As the process continues, the banking system can expand the initial deposit of $100 into a maximum of $1,000 of money ($100+$90+81+$72.90+...=$1,000). In contrast, with a 20% reserve requirement, the banking system would be able to expand the initial $100 deposit into a maximum of $500 ($100+$80+$64+$51.20+...=$500). Thus, higher reserve requirements should result in reduced money creation and, in turn, in reduced economic activity."
The link to this page is: http://www.newyorkfed.org/aboutthefed/fedpoint/fed45.html
Jump up ^ Bank for International Settlements - The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems. See page 9, titled, "The coexistence of central and commercial bank monies: multiple issuers, one currency": http://www.bis.org/publ/cpss55.pdf A quick quote in reference to the 2 different types of money is listed on page 3. It is the first sentence of the document:
"Contemporary monetary systems are based on the mutually reinforcing roles of central bank money and commercial bank monies."
Jump up ^ Mankiw, N. Gregory (2001), Principles of Macroeconomics
Jump up ^ Debtwatch No. 38: The GFC—Pothole or Mountain?, August 30, 2009
Jump up ^ https://www.minneapolisfed.org/research/qr/qr1421.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2012/wp12202.pdf
Jump up ^ EXCRESNS series, St. Louis Fed
Jump up ^ Followup on Samuelson and monetary policy, Paul Krugman, New York Times, December 14, 2009
Kydland, Finn E.; Prescott, Edward C., "Business Cycles: Real Facts and a Monetary Myth", Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, 14 (2): 3–18
Krugman, Paul; Wells, Robin (2009), ISBN 978-0-7167-7161-6; a mainstream introductory text in macroeconomics. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Mankiw, N. Gregory (2008), Principles of Macroeconomics (5th ed.), ISBN 978-0-324-58999-3; a mainstream general introductory text to economics.
Mankiw, N. Gregory (2002), Macroeconomics (5th ed.), ISBN 978-0-7167-5237-0; a mainstream intermediate text in macroeconomics.
Samuelson, Paul (1948), Economics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This can be proved mathematically as follows. Letting x = D / R {\displaystyle x=D/R} and y = D / C {\displaystyle y=D/C} for notational conciseness, the money supply can be written as a function of two variables M ( x , y ) = B x ( 1 + y ) x + y {\displaystyle M(x,y)=B{\frac {x(1+y)}{x+y}}} defined over the domain { x ≥ 1 , y ≥ 1 } {\displaystyle \{x\geq 1,y\geq 1\}} . The partial derivatives of M with respect to both variables are positive, implying that this function is marginally increasing (i.e., considered as a function of either variable keeping the other constant) over its domain in both of its variables. Note that the domain of definition, which is determined by economic considerations, is crucial in establishing both the differentiability and the marginal monotonicity of M {\displaystyle M} .
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text:
Eye in the Sky (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"Eye in the Sky"
Single by The Alan Parsons Project
from the album Eye in the Sky
B-side
"Gemini",
"Mammagamma" (Germany)
Released
August 1982
Format
7"
Recorded
Late 1981
Abbey Road Studios
Genre
Soft rock, progressive rock
Length
4:36
3:55 (7" version)
Label
Arista
Songwriter(s)
Alan Parsons, Eric Woolfson
Producer(s)
Alan Parsons, Eric Woolfson
The Alan Parsons Project singles chronology
"Snake Eyes"
(1981) "Eye in the Sky"
(1982) "Psychobabble"
(1982)
"Snake Eyes"
(1981) "Eye in the Sky"
(1982) "Psychobabble"
(1982)
Eye in the Sky track listing
"Sirius"
(1) "Eye in the Sky"
(2) "Children of the Moon"
(3)
"Eye in the Sky" is a 1982 song by the British rock band The Alan Parsons Project from the album Eye in the Sky. It hit #3 on the Billboard charts in the U.S. in October 1982,[1] #1 in both Canada and Spain, and #6 in New Zealand and was their most successful release. The instrumental piece entitled "Sirius" segues into "Eye in the Sky"' on the original recording.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Personnel
3 Charts
3.1 Weekly charts
3.2 Year-end charts
4 Cover versions
5 References
6 External links
Overview[edit]
The 1:54 minute instrumental piece entitled "Sirius" immediately precedes "Eye in the Sky"' on the original recording, which then segues into "Eye in the Sky". On the single release, "Eye In The Sky" appears on its own, with "Sirius" edited out; this is the version that was usually played on pop radio at the time. However, album-oriented rock and classic rock stations almost exclusively include the "Sirius" intro.
Personnel[edit]
Alan Parsons – Fairlight CMI, production, engineering, composer
Eric Woolfson – Wurlitzer electric piano, vocals, composer, lyrics
Ian Bairnson – acoustic and electric guitars
David Paton – bass
Stuart Elliott – drums
Chris Rainbow – backing vocals
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Charts (1982)
Peak
position
Australian Kent Music Report[2] 22
Canadian RPM Top Singles[3] 1
Canadian RPM Top Adult Contemporary[4] 7
French Singles Chart[5] 16
Germany (Official German Charts)[6] 38
Italian Singles Chart[7] 5
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[8] 6
Spain (AFYVE)[9] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[10] 3
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[11] 3
US Mainstream Rock (Billboard)[12] 11
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1982)
Rank
Canadian RPM Top Singles[13] 31
Italian Singles Chart[7] 45
Spanish Singles Chart 1
US Billboard Hot 100[14] 32
US Cashbox Top 100[15] 28
Cover versions[edit]
Asia Featuring John Payne released a cover of this song on their album Recollections: A Tribute to British Prog in 2014.
Synthpop artist Parralox released a cover of this song as a single in 2013.
Disco band "Mad" covered this song in 1983.
Folk rock artist Jonatha Brooke covered this song on her 2004 album, Back in the Circus.[16]
Israeli artist Noa covered this song on her 2002 album, Now.
Rapper Immortal Technique sampled the song on his 2011 album, The Martyr.
Gary War covered the song on his 2008 album New Raytheonport.
"The Saga Continues" by P. Diddy on his 2001 album The Saga Continues...
"Ja no brillen mai" by Joan Dausà i els Tipus d'Interès (in Catalan).
The song was covered in 2013 by Red Band and Marina Maximilian Blumin on Israeli TV show The Red and Dvir Show (המופע של רד ודביר).
An instrumental cover of the song was released on jazz guitarist Gilad Hekselman's 2013 album "This Just In".
The Portland, Oregon band Viva Voce recorded the song in 2007 as part of a compilation album called Bridging the Distance, made to benefit p:ear, a local program designed to assist homeless and transitional youth.
Critics in Europe and North America have pointed to similarities between the melody of Lady Antebellum's 2010 single "Need You Now" and "Eye in the Sky".[17][18]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Trust, Gary (27 October 2009). "Backwards Bullets: This Week In Charts 1982". Billboard.com. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992. Australian Chart Book. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
Jump up ^ "Eye in the Sky in Canadian Charts". CollectionsCanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Eye in the Sky in Canadian Adult Contemporary Charts". CollectionsCanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Artists". InfoDisc.fr. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Alan Parsons Project: Eye in the Sky (song)". Retrieved 8 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "I singoli più venduti del 1982". HitParade Italia (in Italian). Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – THE ALAN PARSONS PROJECT – EYE IN THE SKY". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ Salaverri, Fernando (September 2005). Sólo éxitos: año a año, 1959–2002 (1st ed.). Spain: Fundación Autor-SGAE. ISBN 84-8048-639-2.
Jump up ^ "THE ALAN PARSONS PROJECT Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "THE ALAN PARSONS PROJECT Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "THE ALAN PARSONS PROJECT Chart History (Mainstream Rock)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Singles". RPM. republished online at CollectionsCanada.gc.ca. 37 (19). 25 December 1982. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1982/Top 100 Songs of 1982". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ "The CASH BOX Year-End Charts: 1982 Top 100 Pop Singles, December 25, 1982". Cashbox. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Hermann, Andy (23 February 2004). "Jonatha Brooke: Back in the Circus". PopMatters. Retrieved 11 October 2015. Even better is her completely unexpected take on that old Alan Parsons Project chestnut, "Eye in the Sky", which she reclaims as a heart-wrenching folk ballad.
Jump up ^ RODGERS, D. PATRICK, "Alan Parsons' Camp Alleges Lady Antebellum Rip-Off," Nashville Scene (NOV 11, 2010).
Jump up ^ "Is this an Awards Show or What?". NOW Toronto. 14 February 2011.
External links[edit]
Songfacts - Eye in the Sky by The Alan Parsons Project
hide
v
t
e
The Alan Parsons Project
Alan Parsons
Eric Woolfson
Ian Bairnson
Andrew Powell
David Paton
Stuart Elliott
Stuart Tosh
Laurence Cottle
Duncan Mackay
Mel Collins
Lenny Zakatek
Chris Rainbow
Geoff Barradale
John Miles
Colin Blunstone
Jack Harris
Dave Townsend
Studio albums
Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976)
I Robot (1977)
Pyramid (1978)
Eve (1979)
The Turn of a Friendly Card (1980)
Eye in the Sky (1982)
Ammonia Avenue (1984)
Vulture Culture (1984)
Stereotomy (1985)
Gaudi (1987)
Freudiana (1990)
The Sicilian Defence (2014)
Compilations
The Best of The Alan Parsons Project (1983)
The Best of The Alan Parsons Project, Vol. 2 (1988)
The Instrumental Works (1988)
The Definitive Collection (1997)
The Best of The Alan Parsons Project (2002)
The Essential Alan Parsons Project (2007)
Songs
"(The System of) Dr. Tarr and Professor Fether"
"The Raven"
"I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You"
"Games People Play"
"Time"
"Snake Eyes"
"Sirius"
"Eye in the Sky"
"Old and Wise"
"Don't Answer Me"
Related articles
Discography
Keats
Freudiana
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1982 songs
The Alan Parsons Project songs
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Songs written by Eric Woolfson
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Songs written by Alan Parsons
Song recordings produced by Alan Parsons
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1980s ballads
Hidden categories:
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text:
Nitrogen fixation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH3) or other molecules available to living organisms.[1] Atmospheric nitrogen or molecular dinitrogen (N2) is relatively inert: it does not easily react with other chemicals to form new compounds. The fixation process frees nitrogen atoms from their triply bonded diatomic form, N≡N, to be used in other ways.
Nitrogen fixation is essential for some forms of life because inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of the basic building blocks of plants, animals and other life forms, e.g., nucleotides for DNA and RNA, the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide for its role in metabolism (transferring electrons between molecules), and amino acids for proteins. Therefore, as part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, dyes, etc. Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with some plant groups, especially legumes. Looser relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants are often referred to as associative or non-symbiotic, as seen in nitrogen fixation occurring on rice roots. It also occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning.[2][3]
All biological nitrogen fixation is done by way of metalloenzymes called nitrogenases. These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium. Microorganisms that can fix nitrogen are prokaryotes (both bacteria and archaea, distributed throughout their respective Domains) called diazotrophs. Some higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations (symbiosis) with diazotrophs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Non-biological natural nitrogen fixation
2 Biological nitrogen fixation
2.1 Microorganisms that fix nitrogen
2.2 Root nodule symbioses
2.2.1 The Legume family
2.2.2 Non-leguminous
2.3 Endosymbiosis in diatoms
3 Industrial nitrogen fixation
3.1 Haber process
3.2 Ambient nitrogen reduction
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Non-biological natural nitrogen fixation[edit]
Nitrogen can be fixed by lightning converting nitrogen and oxygen into NOx (nitrogen oxides), if there is oxygen in the air. NOx may react with water to make nitrous acid or nitric acid, which seeps into the soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants.
Biological nitrogen fixation[edit]
Schematic representation of the nitrogen cycle. Abiotic nitrogen fixation has been omitted.
Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel[4] and Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.[5] Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called a nitrogenase.[1] The overall reaction for BNF is:
N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e− → 2 NH3 + H2
The process is coupled to the hydrolysis of 16 equivalents of ATP and is accompanied by the co-formation of one molecule of H2.[6] The conversion of N2 into ammonia occurs at a cluster called FeMoco, an abbreviation for the iron-molybdenum cofactor. The mechanism proceeds via a series of protonation and reduction steps wherein the FeMoco active site hydrogenates the N2 substrate.[7]
In free-living diazotrophs, the nitrogenase-generated ammonium is assimilated into glutamate through the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway.
The microbial genes required for nitrogen fixation are widely distributed in diverse environments.[8][9]
Enzymes responsible for nitrogenase action are often very susceptible to destruction by oxygen. For this reason, many bacteria cease production of the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Many nitrogen-fixing organisms exist only in anaerobic conditions, respiring to draw down oxygen levels, or binding the oxygen with a protein such as leghemoglobin.[1]
Microorganisms that fix nitrogen[edit]
Main article: Diazotroph
Diazotrophs are a diverse group of prokaryotes that includes cyanobacteria (e.g. the highly significant Trichodesmium and Cyanothece), as well as green sulfur bacteria, Azotobacteraceae, rhizobia and Frankia.
Cyanobacteria inhabit nearly all illuminated environments on Earth and play key roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycle of the biosphere. In general, cyanobacteria can use various inorganic and organic sources of combined nitrogen, like nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea, or some amino acids. Several cyanobacterial strains are also capable of diazotrophic growth, an ability that may have been present in their last common ancestor in the Archean eon.[10] Nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria in coral reefs can fix twice as much nitrogen as on land—around 1.8 kg of nitrogen is fixed per hectare per day (around 660 kg/ha/year). The colonial marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium is thought to fix nitrogen on such a scale that it accounts for almost half of the nitrogen fixation in marine systems globally.[11]
Root nodule symbioses[edit]
The Legume family[edit]
Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include those of the legume family – Fabaceae – with taxa such as kudzu, clovers, soybeans, alfalfa, lupines, peanuts, and rooibos. They contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants [12]. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants; this helps to fertilize the soil.[1][13] The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., Styphnolobium) do not. In many traditional and organic farming practices, fields are rotated through various types of crops, which usually include one consisting mainly or entirely of clover or buckwheat (non-legume family Polygonaceae), often referred to as "green manure".[14]
The efficiency of nitrogen fixation in soil is dependent on many factors, including the legume as well as air and soil conditions. For example, nitrogen fixation by red clover can range from 50 - 200 lb/acre depending on these variables.[15]
Inga alley farming relies on the leguminous genus Inga, a small tropical, tough-leaved, nitrogen-fixing tree.[16]
Non-leguminous[edit]
A sectioned alder tree root nodule.
Although by far the majority of plant species able to form nitrogen-fixing root nodules are in the legume family Fabaceae, there are exceptions:
Parasponia, a tropical genus in the Cannabaceae also able to interact with rhizobia and form nitrogen-fixing nodules[17]
Actinorhizal plants such as alder and bayberry can also form nitrogen-fixing nodules, thanks to a symbiotic association with Frankia bacteria. These plants belong to 25 genera[18] distributed among 8 plant families.
The ability to fix nitrogen is present in the families listed below. They belong to the orders Cucurbitales, Fagales, and Rosales, which together with the Fabales form a clade of eurosids. The ability to fix nitrogen is not universally present in these families. For example, of 122 genera in the Rosaceae, only 4 genera are capable of fixing nitrogen. Fabales were the first lineage to branch off this nitrogen-fixing clade; thus, the ability to fix nitrogen may be plesiomorphic and subsequently lost in most descendants of the original nitrogen-fixing plant; however, it may be that the basic genetic and physiological requirements were present in an incipient state in the last common ancestors of all these plants, but only evolved to full function in some of them.
Family: Genera
Betulaceae: Alnus (alders)
Cannabaceae: Trema
Casuarinaceae:
Allocasuarina
Casuarina
Ceuthostoma
Gymnostoma
……

Coriariaceae: Coriaria
Datiscaceae: Datisca
Elaeagnaceae:
Elaeagnus (silverberries)
Hippophae (sea-buckthorns)
Shepherdia (buffaloberries)
……

Myricaceae:
Comptonia (plant)Comptonia (sweetfern)
Morella
Myrica (bayberries)
……

Rhamnaceae:
Ceanothus
Colletia
Discaria
Kentrothamnus
Retanilla
Talguenea
Trevoa
……

Rosaceae:
Cercocarpus (mountain mahoganies)
Chamaebatia (mountain miseries)
Dryas
Purshia/Cowania (bitterbrushes/cliffroses)
There are also several nitrogen-fixing symbiotic associations that involve cyanobacteria (such as Nostoc):
Some lichens such as Lobaria and Peltigera
Mosquito fern (Azolla species)
Cycads
Gunnera
Endosymbiosis in diatoms[edit]
Rhopalodia gibba, a diatom alga, is a eukaryote with cyanobacterial N2-fixing endosymbiont organelles. The spheroid bodies reside in the cytoplasm of the diatoms and are inseparable from their hosts.[19][20]
Industrial nitrogen fixation[edit]
The possibility that atmospheric nitrogen reacts with certain chemicals was first observed by Desfosses in 1828. He observed that mixtures of alkali metal oxides and carbon react at high temperatures with nitrogen. With the use of barium carbonate as starting material the first commercially used process became available in the 1860s developed by Margueritte and Sourdeval. The resulting barium cyanide could be reacted with steam yielding ammonia. In 1898 Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro decoupled the process and first produced calcium carbide and in a subsequent step reacted it with nitrogen to calcium cyanamide. The Ostwald process for the production of nitric acid was discovered in 1902. Frank-Caro process and Ostwald process dominated the industrial fixation of nitrogen until the discovery of the Haber process in 1909.[21][22] Prior to 1900, Nikola Tesla also experimented with the industrial fixation of nitrogen "by using currents of extremely high frequency or rate of vibration".[23][24]
Haber process[edit]
Main article: Haber process
Equipment for a study of nitrogen fixation by alpha rays (Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1926)
Artificial fertilizer production is now the largest source of human-produced fixed nitrogen in the Earth's ecosystem. Ammonia is a required precursor to fertilizers, explosives, and other products. The most common method is the Haber process. The Haber process requires high pressures (around 200 atm) and high temperatures (at least 400 °C), routine conditions for industrial catalysis. This highly efficient process uses natural gas as a hydrogen source and air as a nitrogen source.[25]
Much research has been conducted on the discovery of catalysts for nitrogen fixation, often with the goal of reducing the energy required for this conversion. However, such research has thus far failed to even approach the efficiency and ease of the Haber process. Many compounds react with atmospheric nitrogen to give dinitrogen complexes. The first dinitrogen complex to be reported was Ru(NH3)5(N2)2+.[26]
Ambient nitrogen reduction[edit]
Catalytic chemical nitrogen fixation at ambient conditions is an ongoing scientific endeavor. Guided by the example of nitrogenase, this area of homogeneous catalysis is ongoing, with particular emphasis on hydrogenation to give ammonia.[27]
Metallic lithium has long been known for burning in an atmosphere of nitrogen and then converting to lithium nitride. Hydrolysis of the resulting nitride gives ammonia. In a related process, trimethylsilyl chloride, lithium, and nitrogen react in the presence of a catalyst to give tris(trimethylsilyl)amine. Tris(trimethylsilyl)amine can then be used for reaction with α,δ,ω-triketones to give tricyclic pyrroles.[28] Processes involving lithium metal are however of no practical interest since they are noncatalytic and re-reducing the Li+ ion residue is difficult.
Beginning in the 1960s several homogeneous systems were identified that convert nitrogen to ammonia, sometimes even catalytically but often operating via ill-defined mechanisms. The original discovery is described in an early review:
"Vol'pin and co-workers, using a non-protic Lewis acid, aluminium tribromide, were able to demonstrate the truly catalytic effect of titanium by treating dinitrogen with a mixture of titanium tetrachloride, metallic aluminium, and aluminium tribromide at 50 °C, either in the absence or in the presence of a solvent, e.g. benzene. As much as 200 mol of ammonia per mol of TiCl4 was obtained after hydrolysis.…"[29]
Synthetic nitrogen reduction[30]
The quest for well defined intermediates led to the characterization of many transition metal dinitrogen complexes. Few of these well defined complexes function catalytically, their behavior illuminated likely stages in nitrogen fixation. Most fruitful of all of these early studies focused on M(N2)2(dppe)2 (M = Mo, W). For example, double protonation of such low valent complexes gave intermediates with the linkage M=N−NH2. In 1995, a molybdenum(III) amido complex was discovered that cleaved N2 to give the corresponding molybdenum(VI) nitride.[31] This and related terminal nitrido complexes have been used to make nitriles.[32]
In 2003 a related molybdenum amido complex was found to catalyze the reduction of N2. In addition to a source of protons, the catalyst requires a strong reducing agent.[30][33][34][35] However, this catalytic reduction fixates only a few nitrogen molecules. In these systems, like the biological one, hydrogen is provided to the substrate heterolytically, by means of protons and reducing equivalents rather than with H2 itself.
In 2011 Arashiba et al. reported yet another system with a catalyst again based on molybdenum but with a diphosphorus pincer ligand.[36] Photolytic nitrogen splitting is also considered.[37][38][39][40][41]
See also[edit]
Birkeland–Eyde process: an industrial fertiliser production process
Denitrification: an organic process of nitrogen release
George Washington Carver: an American botanist
Nif gene: a gene found in nitrogen fixing bacteria
Nitrification: biological production of nitrogen
Nitrogen cycle: the flow and transformation of nitrogen through the environment
Nitrogen deficiency
Nitrogen fixation package for quantitative measurement of nitrogen fixation by plants
Nitrogenase: enzymes used by organisms to fix nitrogen
Ostwald process: a chemical process for making nitric acid HNO3
Push–pull technology: the use of both repellent and attractive organisms in agriculture
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Postgate, J. (1998). Nitrogen Fixation (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Slosson, Edwin (1919). Creative Chemistry. New York, NY: The Century Co. pp. 19–37.
Jump up ^ Hill, R. D.; Rinker, R. G.; Wilson, H. Dale (1979). "Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation by Lightning". J. Atmos. Sci. 37 (1): 179–192. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0179:ANFBL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Hellriegel, H.; Wilfarth, H. (1888). Untersuchungen über die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen und Leguminosen [Studies on the nitrogen intake of Gramineae and Leguminosae]. Berlin: Buchdruckerei der "Post" Kayssler & Co.
Jump up ^ Beijerinck, M. W. (1901). "Über oligonitrophile Mikroben" [On oligonitrophilic microbes]. Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. 7 (2): 561–582.
Jump up ^ Chi Chung, Lee; Markus W., Ribbe; Yilin, Hu (2014). "Chapter 7. Cleaving the N,N Triple Bond: The Transformation of Dinitrogen to Ammonia by Nitrogenases". In Kroneck, Peter M. H.; Sosa Torres, Martha E. The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 147–174. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_6.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, B. M.; Lukoyanov, D.; Dean, D. R.; Seefeldt, L. C. (2013). "Nitrogenase: A Draft Mechanism". Acc. Chem. Res. 46: 587–595. doi:10.1021/ar300267m. PMC 3578145  .
Jump up ^ Gaby, J. C.; Buckley, D. H. (2011). "A global census of nitrogenase diversity". Environ. Microbiol. 13 (7): 1790–1799. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02488.x. PMID 21535343.
Jump up ^ Hoppe, B.; Kahl, T.; Karasch, P.; Wubet, T.; Bauhus, J.; Buscot, F.; Krüger, D. (2014). "Network analysis reveals ecological links between N-fixing bacteria and wood-decaying fungi". PLoS ONE. 9 (2): e88141. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988141H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088141. PMC 3914916  . PMID 24505405.
Jump up ^ Latysheva, N.; Junker, V. L.; Palmer, W. J.; Codd, G. A.; Barker, D. (2012). "The evolution of nitrogen fixation in cyanobacteria". Bioinformatics. 28 (5): 603–606. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bts008.
Jump up ^ Bergman, B.; Sandh, G.; Lin, S.; Larsson, H.; Carpenter, E. J. (2012). "Trichodesmium – a widespread marine cyanobacterium with unusual nitrogen fixation properties". FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 37 (3): 1–17. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00352.x.
Jump up ^ Kuypers, MMM; Marchant, HK; Kartal, B (2011). "The Microbial Nitrogen-Cycling Network". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 1 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2018.9. PMID 29398704.
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (2000). Cycles of Life. Scientific American Library.
Jump up ^ By who?
Jump up ^ "Nitrogen Fixation and Inoculation of Forage Legumes" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Elkan, Daniel (21 April 2004). "Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Op den Camp, Rik; Streng, A.; De Mita, S.; Cao, Q.; Polone, E.; Liu, W.; Ammiraju, J. S. S.; Kudrna, D.; Wing, R.; Untergasser, A.; Bisseling, T.; Geurts, R. (2010). "LysM-Type Mycorrhizal Receptor Recruited for Rhizobium Symbiosis in Nonlegume Parasponia". Science. 331 (6019): 909–912. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..909O. doi:10.1126/science.1198181. PMID 21205637.
Jump up ^ Dawson, J. O. (2008). "Ecology of actinorhizal plants". Nitrogen-fixing Actinorhizal Symbioses. 6. Springer. pp. 199–234. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-3547-0_8.
Jump up ^ Prechtl, Julia; Kneip, Christoph; Lockhart, Peter; Wenderoth, Klaus; Maier, Uwe-G. (2004). "Intracellular spheroid bodies of Rhopalodia gibba have nitrogen-fixing apparatus of cyanobacterial origin". Mol. Biol. Evol. 21 (8): 1477–1481. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh086. PMID 14963089.
Jump up ^ Nakayama, Takuro; Inagaki, Yuji (2014). "Unique genome evolution in an intracellular N2-fixing symbiont of a rhopalodiacean diatom". Acta Soc. Bot. Polon. 83 (4): 409–413. doi:10.5586/asbp.2014.046.
Jump up ^ Heinrich, H.; Nevbner, Rolf (1934). "Die Umwandlungsgleichung Ba(CN)2 → BaCN2 + C im Temperaturgebiet von 500 bis 1000 °C" [The conversion reaction Ba(CN)2 → BaCN2 + C in the temperature range from 500 to 1,000 °C]. Z. Elektrochem. Angew. Phys. Chem. 40 (10): 693–698. doi:10.1002/bbpc.19340401005. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Harry Alfred (1932). Fixed nitrogen.
Jump up ^ ""The Problem of Increasing Human Energy" by Nikola Tesla". Retrieved 22 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Tesla, Nikola (1900). "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy". The Century Magazine. 60 (n.s. v. 38) (1900 May–Oct): 175.
Jump up ^ Vitousek, Peter M.; Aber, John; Howarth, Robert W.; Likens, Gene E.; Matson, Pamela A.; Schindler, David W.; Schlesinger, William H.; Tilman, G. David. "Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Causes and Consequences" (PDF). US Environmental Protection Agency.
Jump up ^ Allen, A. D.; Senoff, C. V. (1965). "Nitrogenopentammineruthenium(II) complexes". J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (24): 621. doi:10.1039/C19650000621.
Jump up ^ Schrock, Richard R. (2006). "Reduction of dinitrogen". PNAS. 103 (46): 17087. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603633103.
Jump up ^ Brook, Michael A. (2000). Silicon in Organic, Organometallic, and Polymer Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 193–194.
Jump up ^ Chatt, J.; Leigh, G. J. (1972). "Nitrogen Fixation". Chem. Soc. Rev. 1: 121. doi:10.1039/cs9720100121.
^ Jump up to: a b Yandulov, Dmitry V.; Schrock, Richard R.; Rheingold, Arnold L.; Ceccarelli, Christopher; Davis, William M. (2003). "Synthesis and Reactions of Molybdenum Triamidoamine Complexes Containing Hexaisopropylterphenyl Substituents". Inorg. Chem. 42 (3): 796–813. doi:10.1021/ic020505l.
Jump up ^ Laplaza, Catalina E.; Cummins, Christopher C. (1995). "Dinitrogen Cleavage by a Three-Coordinate Molybdenum(III) Complex". Science. 268 (5212): 861–863. doi:10.1126/science.268.5212.861.
Jump up ^ Curley, John J.; Sceats, Emma L.; Cummins, Christopher C. (2006). "A Cycle for Organic Nitrile Synthesis via Dinitrogen Cleavage". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (43): 14036–14037. doi:10.1021/ja066090a.
Jump up ^ Yandulov, Dmitry V.; Schrock, Richard R. (2003). "Catalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia at a Single Molybdenum Center". Science. 301 (5629): 76–78. doi:10.1126/science.1085326. PMID 12843387.
Jump up ^ The catalyst is derived from molybdenum(V) chloride and tris(2-aminoethyl)amine N-substituted with three very bulky hexa-isopropylterphenyl (HIPT) groups. Nitrogen adds end-on to the molybdenum atom, and the bulky HIPT substituents prevent the formation of the stable and nonreactive Mo−N=N−Mo dimer. In this isolated pocket is the Mo−N2. The proton donor is a pyridinium salt of weakly coordinating counter anion. The reducing agent is decamethylchromocene. All ammonia formed is collected as the HCl salt by trapping the distillate with a HCl solution.
Jump up ^ Note also that, although the dinitrogen complex is shown in brackets, this species can be isolated and characterized. Here the brackets do not indicate that the intermediate is not observed.
Jump up ^ Arashiba, Kazuya; Miyake, Yoshihiro; Nishibayashi, Yoshiaki (2011). "A molybdenum complex bearing PNP-type pincer ligands leads to the catalytic reduction of dinitrogen into ammonia". Nature Chemistry. 3: 120–125. doi:10.1038/nchem.906.
Jump up ^ Rebreyend, C.; de Bruin, B. (2014). "Photolytic N2 Splitting: A Road to Sustainable NH3 Production?". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54: 42–44. doi:10.1002/anie.201409727.
Jump up ^ Solari, E.; Da Silva, C.; Iacono, B.; Hesschenbrouck, J.; Rizzoli, C.; Scopelliti, R.; Floriani, C. (2001). "Photochemical Activation of the N≡N Bond in a Dimolybdenum–Dinitrogen Complex: Formation of a Molybdenum Nitride". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 40: 3907–3909. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20011015)40:20<3907::AID-ANIE3907>3.0.CO;2-#.
Jump up ^ Huss, Adam S.; Curley, John J.; Cummins, Christopher C.; Blank, David A. (2013). "Relaxation and Dissociation Following Photoexcitation of the (μ-N2)[Mo(N[t-Bu]Ar)3]2 Dinitrogen Cleavage Intermediate". J. Phys. Chem. B. 117 (5): 1429–1436. doi:10.1021/jp310122x.
Jump up ^ Kunkely, H.; Vogler, A. (2010). "Photolysis of Aqueous [(NH3)5Os(μ-N2)Os(NH3)5]5+: Cleavage of Dinitrogen by an Intramolecular Photoredox Reaction". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49: 1591–1593. doi:10.1002/anie.200905026.
Jump up ^ Miyazaki, T.; Tanaka, H.; Tanabe, Y.; Yuki, M.; Nakajima, K.; Yoshizawa, K.; Nishibayashi, Y. (2014). "Cleavage and Formation of Molecular Dinitrogen in a Single System Assisted by Molybdenum Complexes Bearing Ferrocenyldiphosphine". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53: 11488–11492. doi:10.1002/anie.201405673.
External links[edit]
Hirsch, Ann M. (2009). "A Brief History of the Discovery of Nitrogen-fixing Organisms" (PDF). University of California, Los Angeles.
"Marine Nitrogen Fixation laboratory". University of Southern California.
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Society of the Sacred Heart
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Society of the Sacred Heart (Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus) is an international Roman Catholic religious congregation for women established in France by St. Madeleine Sophie Barat in 1800. Members use the suffix "RSCJ" which represents Religieuses du Sacré-Cœur de Jésus or Religiosa Sanctissimi Cordis Jesu or Religious of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. It has a presence in 41 countries.
They should not be confused with the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary (RSHM), another teaching order of sisters.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Ministry
3 Notable members
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Madeleine Sophie Barat founded the Society of the Sacred Heart in the wake of the French Revolution to provide educational opportunities for girls. The manner of life was to be simple without the prescribed austerities of the older orders, which would be incompatible with the work of education. In some houses the religious conducted just one school, but in several places, especially in the larger houses in cities there were at least two schools, a boarding school and a school for poor children.[1] The first convent was opened at Amiens in 1801. Other houses were opened in Grenoble, Poitiers, Niort, and Cuigniers. In 1826 the society obtained the formal approbation of Pope Leo XII and the first cardinal protector was appointed.[2] Barat remained superior general of the Society from 1806 until her death in 1865. The Society of the Sacred Heart quickly expanded within Europe and beyond.[3]
In 1818 Rose Philippine Duchesne first brought the Society to the Americas, establishing the first free school west of the Mississippi in St. Charles Missouri. The Society opened institutions of higher education for women in Cincinnati; Grand Coteau, Louisiana; Lake Forest, Illinois; New York; Torresdale (a suburb of Philadelphia), Pennsylvania; Omaha; St. Louis; San Francisco; Seattle; Newton, Massachusetts; and San Diego.[3]
The Society came to England in 1842, founding a girl's boarding school at Elm Grove in Roehampton. That school evolved into a teacher training school Digby Stuart College. The Sisters have been involved in education ever since, and founded schools around the country. Most are no longer directly run by the order but are under its trusteeship or the diocese. In 2004 Digby Stuart College federated with three other local colleges to become the University of Roehampton. The England and Wales province are largely centered in Roehampton where it maintains two houses. The Barat House community consists of a group of RSCJ sisters and university students who live in the community house in the grounds of Digby Stuart College.[4] The Duchesne House is also a registered care house for elderly sisters. Its community plays an active role in the pastoral care of pupils at the nearby Sacred Heart Primary School.[5]
The first RSCJ arrived in New Zealand in 1880. In 1909 RSCJ established a Catholic girls school, Baradene College of the Sacred Heart in Remuera, Auckland, New Zealand.[6] Sr. Philomene (Phil) Tiernan, RSCJ of the Australis/New Zealand Province was among the passengers of Malaysia Airlines flight MH17 shot down over the Ukraine in 2014.[7]
Between 1906 and 1909, the French government forced the closing of forty-seven houses of the Society in that country, and 2500 religious were dispersed to other countries. The motherhouse was relocated to Ixelles, Belgium. The rule of cloister was removed at the General Chapter of 1964.[3]
The first foundation in Uganda was established by six RSCJ in 1962. In 1984 RSCJ took over management of the St. Charles Lwanga Girls' Training Centre, in Kalungu, founded in 1967 by Fr. Emiliano La Croix of the Missionaries of Africa.[8]
Ministry[edit]
As of 2015 about 2,600 religious serve in 41 countries around the world. Members do many works, but focus on education, particularly girls' education. There are about 75 RSCJ in the Province of England and Wales. Since 1979, members of the Llannerchwen Community have operated a retreat centre near Brecon, Wales.[4]
The Society of the Sacred Heart operates Sprout Creek Farm, a non-profit working farm and educational center located in Poughkeepsie, New York. In addition to its production of vegetables, meat, and cheese, the farm also offers educational programs to children throughout the year.
In Uganda and Kenya, sisters are involved in teaching from Primary level to University level, in counseling, pastoral work, development of village women, work in prisons, health care, AIDS education, home-based care of those with AIDS and a home for children with disabilities.[8]
Association Mondiale des Anciennes et Anciens du Sacré-Coeur (AMASC) is a worldwide organization of alumnae and alumni of Sacred Heart schools established in 1960 to cooperate effectively with the Society of the Sacred Heart in its mission and ministries. One of its projects is providing support for the Sacred Heart School at Kyamusansala Hill, Uganda. Support included the construction of a residential school which as of 2015 provides education for 530 girls.[9]
The society holds NGO status at the UN as a special consultant with the Economic and Social Council.
Notable members[edit]
St. Madeleine Sophie Barat
St. Rose Philippine Duchesne
Yelizaveta Golitsyna
Janet Erskine Stuart, fifth Superior General of the Society of the Sacred Heart, author of The Education of Catholic Girls.
Mary Aloysia Hardey
Karuna Mary Braganza
See also[edit]
Schools of the Sacred Heart
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gimber RSCJ, Frances. "Keepers of the Flame", 2011
Jump up ^ Stuart, Janet. "The Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 22 Sept. 2015
^ Jump up to: a b c "Our heritage", Society of the Sacred Heart, United States - Canada
^ Jump up to: a b Society of the Sacred Heart, England & Wales Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Where we live and what we do: Duchesne House". Society of the Sacred Heart (England and Wales).
Jump up ^ Baradene College of the Sacred Heart, Remuera, Auckland
Jump up ^ "MH17 Tragedy: Prayers for Philomene Tiernan RSCJ", Society of the Sacred Heart, International, July 18, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Society of the Sacred Heart, Uganda/Kenya Province
Jump up ^ "Projects", AMASC
External links[edit]
RSCJ International - International official website.
Mother Janet Erskine Stuart, RSCJ
United States - Canada Province
Network of Sacred Heart Schools in the United States and Canada
World Association of Alumnae and Alumni of the Sacred Heart (schools)

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