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Endomembrane system
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Detail of the endomembrane system and its components
The endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles. In eukaryotes the organelles of the endomembrane system include: the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, endosomes and the cell membrane, among others. The system is defined more accurately as the set of membranes that form a single functional and developmental unit, either being connected directly, or exchanging material through vesicle transport.[1] Importantly, the endomembrane system does not include the membranes of chloroplasts or mitochondria, but might have evolved from the latter (see below: Evolution).
The nuclear membrane contains a lipid bilayer that encompass the contents of the nucleus.[2] The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a synthesis and transport organelle that branches into the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells.[3] The Golgi apparatus is a series of multiple compartments where molecules are packaged for delivery to other cell components or for secretion from the cell.[4] Vacuoles, which are found in both plant and animal cells (though much bigger in plant cells), are responsible for maintaining the shape and structure of the cell as well as storing waste products.[5] A vesicle is a relatively small, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances.[6] The cell membrane is a protective barrier that regulates what enters and leaves the cell.[7] There is also an organelle known as the Spitzenkörper that is only found in fungi, and is connected with hyphal tip growth.[8]
In prokaryotes endomembranes are rare, although in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and most of the cell cytoplasm is filled with layers of light-gathering membrane.[9] These light-gathering membranes may even form enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria.[10]
The organelles of the endomembrane system are related through direct contact or by the transfer of membrane segments as vesicles. Despite these relationships, the various membranes are not identical in structure and function. The thickness, molecular composition, and metabolic behavior of a membrane are not fixed, they may be modified several times during the membrane's life. One unifying characteristic the membranes share is a lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or traversing them.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the concept
2 Components of the system
2.1 Nuclear envelope
2.2 Endoplasmic reticulum
2.2.1 Functions of the smooth ER
2.2.2 Functions of the rough ER
2.3 Golgi apparatus
2.4 Vacuoles
2.5 Vesicles
2.6 Lysosomes
2.7 Spitzenkörper
2.8 Plasma membrane
3 Evolution
4 See also
5 References
History of the concept[edit]
Most lipids are synthesized in yeast either in the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid particles, or the mitochondrion, with little or no lipid synthesis occurring in the plasma membrane or nuclear membrane.[12][13] Sphingolipid biosynthesis begins in the endoplasmic reticulum, but is completed in the Golgi apparatus.[14] The situation is similar in mammals, with the exception of the first few steps in ether lipid biosynthesis, which occur in peroxisomes.[15] The various membranes that enclose the other subcellular organelles must therefore be constructed by transfer of lipids from these sites of synthesis.[16] However, although it is clear that lipid transport is a central process in organelle biogenesis, the mechanisms by which lipids are transported through cells remain poorly understood.[17]
The first proposal that the membranes within cells form a single system that exchanges material between its components was by Morré and Mollenhauer in 1974.[18] This proposal was made as a way of explaining how the various lipid membranes are assembled in the cell, with these membranes being assembled through lipid flow from the sites of lipid synthesis.[19] The idea of lipid flow through a continuous system of membranes and vesicles was an alternative to the various membranes being independent entities that are formed from transport of free lipid components, such as fatty acids and sterols, through the cytosol. Importantly, the transport of lipids through the cytosol and lipid flow through a continuous endomembrane system are not mutually exclusive processes and both may occur in cells.[16]
Components of the system[edit]
Nuclear envelope[edit]
Diagram of the nucleus with the nuclear envelope shown as the orange portion.
Main article: Nuclear envelope
The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm. It has two membranes, each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins.[20] The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane, and like that structure, features ribosomes attached to the surface. The outer membrane is also continuous with the inner nuclear membrane since the two layers are fused together at numerous tiny holes called nuclear pores that perforate the nuclear envelope. These pores are about 120 nm in diameter and regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm, permitting some to pass through the membrane, but not others.[21] Since the nuclear pores are located in an area of high traffic, they play an important role in the physiology of cells. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the perinuclear space and is joined with the lumen of the rough ER.
The nuclear envelope's structure is determined by a network of intermediate filaments (protein filaments). This network is organized into lining similar to mesh called the nuclear lamina, which binds to chromatin, integral membrane proteins, and other nuclear components along the inner surface of the nucleus. The nuclear lamina is thought to help materials inside the nucleus reach the nuclear pores and in the disintegration of the nuclear envelope during mitosis and its reassembly at the end of the process.[2]
The nuclear pores are highly efficient at selectively allowing the passage of materials to and from the nucleus, because the nuclear envelope has a considerable amount of traffic. RNA and ribosomal subunits must be continually transferred from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Histones, gene regulatory proteins, DNA and RNA polymerases, and other substances essential for nuclear activities must be imported from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope of a typical mammalian cell contains 3000–4000 pore complexes. If the cell is synthesizing DNA each pore complex needs to transport about 100 histone molecules per minute. If the cell is growing rapidly, each complex also needs to transport about 6 newly assembled large and small ribosomal subunits per minute from the nucleus to the cytosol, where they are used to synthesize proteins.[22]
Endoplasmic reticulum[edit]
1 Nucleus 2 Nuclear pore 3 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) 5 Ribosome on the rough ER 6 Proteins that are transported 7 Transport vesicle 8 Golgi apparatus 9 Cis face of the Golgi apparatus 10 Trans face of the Golgi apparatus 11 Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus
Main article: Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous synthesis and transport organelle that is an extension of the nuclear envelope. More than half the total membrane in eukaryotic cells is accounted for by the ER. The ER is made up of flattened sacs and branching tubules that are thought to interconnect, so that the ER membrane forms a continuous sheet enclosing a single internal space. This highly convoluted space is called the ER lumen and is also referred to as the ER cisternal space. The lumen takes up about ten percent of the entire cell volume. The endoplasmic reticulum membrane allows molecules to be selectively transferred between the lumen and the cytoplasm, and since it is connected to the nuclear envelope, it provides a channel between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.[23]
The ER has a central role in producing, processing, and transporting biochemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. Its membrane is the site of production of all the transmembrane proteins and lipids for most of the cell's organelles, including the ER itself, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles, and the plasma membrane. Furthermore, almost all of the proteins that will exit the cell, plus those destined for the lumen of the ER, Golgi apparatus, or lysosomes, are originally delivered to the ER lumen. Consequently, many of the proteins found in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen are there only temporarily as they pass on their way to other locations. Other proteins, however, constantly remain in the lumen and are known as endoplasmic reticulum resident proteins. These special proteins contain a specialized retention signal made up of a specific sequence of amino acids that enables them to be retained by the organelle. An example of an important endoplasmic reticulum resident protein is the chaperon protein known as BiP which identifies other proteins that have been improperly built or processed and keeps them from being sent to their final destinations.[24]
The ER is involved in cotranslational sorting of proteins. A polypeptide which contains an ER signal sequence is recognised by a signal recognition protein which halts the production of the protein. the SRP transports the polypeptide to the ER membrane where its released in through a membrane pore and translation resumes.[25]
There are two distinct, though connected, regions of ER that differ in structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so named because the cytoplasmic surface is covered with ribosomes, giving it a bumpy appearance when viewed through an electron microscope. The smooth ER appears smooth since its cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes.[26]
Functions of the smooth ER[edit]
In the great majority of cells, smooth ER regions are scarce and are often partly smooth and partly rough. They are sometimes called transitional ER because they contain ER exit sites from which transport vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins and lipids bud off for transport to the Golgi apparatus. In certain specialized cells, however, the smooth ER is abundant and has additional functions. The smooth ER of these specialized cells functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons.[23][26]
Enzymes of the smooth ER are vital to the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Sex hormones of vertebrates and the steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands are among the steroids produced by the smooth ER in animal cells. The cells that synthesize these hormones are rich in smooth ER.[23][26]
Liver cells are another example of specialized cells that contain an abundance of smooth ER. These cells provide an example of the role of smooth ER in carbohydrate metabolism. Liver cells store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. The breakdown of glycogen eventually leads to the release of glucose from the liver cells, which is important in the regulation of sugar concentration in the blood. However, the primary product of glycogen breakdown is glucose-1-phosphate. This is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and then an enzyme of the liver cell's smooth ER removes the phosphate from the glucose, so that it can then leave the cell.[23][26]
Enzymes of the smooth ER can also help detoxify drugs and poisons. Detoxification usually involves the addition of a hydroxyl group to a drug, making the drug more soluble and thus easier to purge from the body. One extensively studied detoxification reaction is carried out by the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes, which catalyze water-insoluble drugs or metabolites that would otherwise accumulate to toxic levels in cell membrane.[23][26]
Muscle cells have another specialized function of smooth ER. The ER membrane pumps calcium ions from the cytosol into the cisternal space. When a muscle cell becomes stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium goes back across the ER membrane into the cytosol and generates the contraction of the muscle cell.[23][26]
Functions of the rough ER[edit]
Many types of cells export proteins produced by ribosomes attached to the rough ER. The ribosomes assemble amino acids into protein units, which are carried into the rough ER for further adjustments. These proteins may be either transmembrane proteins, which become embedded in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, or water-soluble proteins, which are able to pass through the membrane into the lumen. Those that reach the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum are folded into the correct three-dimensional conformation. Chemicals, such as carbohydrates or sugars, are added, then the endoplasmic reticulum either transports the completed proteins, called secretory proteins, to areas of the cell where they are needed, or they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing and modification.[23][26]
Once secretory proteins are formed, the ER membrane separates them from the proteins that will remain in the cytosol. Secretory proteins depart from the ER enfolded in the membranes of vesicles that bud like bubbles from the transitional ER. These vesicles in transit to another part of the cell are called transport vesicles.[23][26] An alternative mechanism for transport of lipids and proteins out of the ER are through lipid transfer proteins at regions called membrane contact sites where the ER becomes closely and stably associated with the membranes of other organelles, such as the plasma membrane, Golgi or lysosomes.[27]
In addition to making secretory proteins, the rough ER makes membranes that grows in place from the addition of proteins and phospholipids. As polypeptides intended to be membrane proteins grow from the ribosomes, they are inserted into the ER membrane itself and are kept there by their hydrophobic portions. The rough ER also produces its own membrane phospholipids; enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids. The ER membrane expands and can be transferred by transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system.[23][26]
Golgi apparatus[edit]
Micrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom. Numerous circular vesicles can be seen in proximity to the organelle
Main article: Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi body and the Golgi complex) is composed of interconnected sacs called cisternae. Its shape is similar to a stack of pancakes. The number of these stacks varies with the specific function of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is used by the cell for further protein modification. The section of the Golgi apparatus that receives the vesicles from the ER is known as the cis face, and is usually near the ER. The opposite end of the Golgi apparatus is called the trans face, this is where the modified compounds leave. The trans face is usually facing the plasma membrane, which is where most of the substances the Golgi apparatus modifies are sent.[28]
Vesicles sent off by the ER containing proteins are further altered at the Golgi apparatus and then prepared for secretion from the cell or transport to other parts of the cell. Various things can happen to the proteins on their journey through the enzyme covered space of the Golgi apparatus. The modification and synthesis of the carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins is common in protein processing. The Golgi apparatus removes and substitutes sugar monomers, producing a large variety of oligosaccharides. In addition to modifying proteins, the Golgi also manufactures macromolecules itself. In plant cells, the Golgi produces pectins and other polysaccharides needed by the plant structure.[29]
Once the modification process is completed, the Golgi apparatus sorts the products of its processing and sends them to various parts of the cell. Molecular identification labels or tags are added by the Golgi enzymes to help with this. After everything is organized, the Golgi apparatus sends off its products by budding vesicles from its trans face.[30]
Vacuoles[edit]
Main article: Vacuole
Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membrane-bound sacs within the cell. They are larger than vesicles and their specific function varies. The operations of vacuoles are different for plant and animal vacuoles.
In plant cells, vacuoles cover anywhere from 30% to 90% of the total cell volume.[31] Most mature plant cells contain one large central vacuole encompassed by a membrane called the tonoplast. Vacuoles of plant cells act as storage compartments for the nutrients and waste of a cell. The solution that these molecules are stored in is called the cell sap. Pigments that color the cell are sometime located in the cell sap. Vacuoles can also increase the size of the cell, which elongates as water is added, and they control the turgor pressure (the osmotic pressure that keeps the cell wall from caving in). Like lysosomes of animal cells, vacuoles have an acidic pH and contain hydrolytic enzymes. The pH of vacuoles enables them to perform homeostatic procedures in the cell. For example, when the pH in the cells environment drops, the H+ ions surging into the cytosol can be transferred to a vacuole in order to keep the cytosol's pH constant.[32]
In animals, vacuoles serve in exocytosis and endocytosis processes. Endocytosis refers to when substances are taken into the cell, whereas for exocytosis substances are moved from the cell into the extracellular space. Material to be taken-in is surrounded by the plasma membrane, and then transferred to a vacuole. There are two types of endocytosis, phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell drinking). In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles such as bacteria. Pinocytosis is the same process, except the substances being ingested are in the fluid form.[33]
Vesicles[edit]
Main article: Vesicle (biology)
Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments. Most vesicles transfer the membranes assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, and then from the Golgi apparatus to various locations.[34]
There are various types of vesicles each with a different protein configuration. Most are formed from specific regions of membranes. When a vesicle buds off from a membrane it contains specific proteins on its cytosolic surface. Each membrane a vesicle travels to contains a marker on its cytosolic surface. This marker corresponds with the proteins on the vesicle traveling to the membrane. Once the vesicle finds the membrane, they fuse.[35]
There are three well known types of vesicles. They are clathrin-coated, COPI-coated, and COPII-coated vesicles. Each performs different functions in the cell. For example, clathrin-coated vesicles transport substances between the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane. COPI- and COPII-coated vesicles are frequently used for transportation between the ER and the Golgi apparatus.[35]
Lysosomes[edit]
Main article: Lysosomes
Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that are used for intracellular digestion. The main functions of a lysosome are to process molecules taken in by the cell and to recycle worn out cell parts. The enzymes inside of lysosomes are acid hydrolases which require an acidic environment for optimal performance. Lysosomes provide such an environment by maintaining a pH of 5.0 inside of the organelle.[36] If a lysosome were to rupture, the enzymes released would not be very active because of the cytosol's neutral pH. However, if numerous lysosomes leaked the cell could be destroyed from autodigestion.
Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion, in a process called phagocytosis (from the Greek phagein, to eat and kytos, vessel, referring here to the cell), by fusing with a vacuole and releasing their enzymes into the vacuole. Through this process, sugars, amino acids, and other monomers pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's obsolete organelles in a process called autophagy. The lysosome engulfs another organelle and uses its enzymes to take apart the ingested material. The resulting organic monomers are then returned to the cytosol for reuse. The last function of a lysosome is to digest the cell itself through autolysis.[37]
Spitzenkörper[edit]
Main article: Spitzenkörper
The spitzenkörper is a component of the endomembrane system found only in fungi, and is associated with hyphal tip growth. It is a phase-dark body that is composed of an aggregation of membrane-bound vesicles containing cell wall components, serving as a point of assemblage and release of such components intermediate between the Golgi and the cell membrane. The spitzenkörper is motile and generates new hyphal tip growth as it moves forward.[8]
Detailed illustration of the plasma membrane. Including the structure of a phospholipid.
Plasma membrane[edit]
Main article: Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell. Embedded in the membrane are proteins that perform the functions of the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is not a fixed or rigid structure, the molecules that compose the membrane are capable of lateral movement. This movement and the multiple components of the membrane are why it is referred to as a fluid mosaic. Smaller molecules such as carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen can pass through the plasma membrane freely by diffusion or osmosis. Larger molecules needed by the cell are assisted by proteins through active transport.[38]
The plasma membrane of a cell has multiple functions. These include transporting nutrients into the cell, allowing waste to leave, preventing materials from entering the cell, averting needed materials from leaving the cell, maintaining the pH of the cytosol, and preserving the osmotic pressure of the cytosol. Transport proteins which allow some materials to pass through but not others are used for these functions. These proteins use ATP hydrolysis to pump materials against their concentration gradients.[38]
In addition to these universal functions, the plasma membrane has a more specific role in multicellular organisms. Glycoproteins on the membrane assist the cell in recognizing other cells, in order to exchange metabolites and form tissues. Other proteins on the plasma membrane allow attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; a function that maintains cell shape and fixes the location of membrane proteins. Enzymes that catalyze reactions are also found on the plasma membrane. Receptor proteins on the membrane have a shape that matches with a chemical messenger, resulting in various cellular responses.[39]
Evolution[edit]
The origin of the endomembrane system is linked to the origin of eukaryotes themselves and the origin of eukaryoties to the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria. Many models have been put forward to explain the origin of the endomembrane system (reviewed in[40]). The most recent concept suggests that the endomembrane system evolved from outer membrane vesicles the endosymbiotic mitochondrion secreted.[41] This OMV-based model for the origin of the endomembrane system is currently the one that requires the least amount of novel inventions at eukaryote origin and explains the many connections of mitochondria with other compartments of the cell.[42]
See also[edit]
[hide]
v
t
e
Structures of the cell / organelles (TH H1.00.01.2-3)
Endomembrane system
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Parenthesome
Autophagosome
Vesicles
Exosome
Lysosome
Endosome
Phagosome
Vacuole
Acrosome
Cytoplasmic granules
Melanosome
Microbody
Glyoxysome
Peroxisome
Weibel–Palade body
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
MTOCs
Centrosome
Centriole
Basal body
Spindle pole body
Myofibril
Endosymbionts
Mitochondrion
Plastids
Chloroplast
Chromoplast
Gerontoplast
Leucoplast
Amyloplast
Elaioplast
Proteinoplast
Tannosome
Other internal
RNA
Ribosome
Spliceosome
Vault
Cytoplasm
Proteasome
External
Undulipodium
Cilium
Flagellum
Axoneme
Radial spoke
Extracellular matrix
Cell wall
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Forensic pathology
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The heart of a murder victim
Forensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse. A post mortem is performed by a medical examiner, usually during the investigation of criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions. Coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. Also see forensic medicine.
Contents
1 Duties
2 Investigation of death
2.1 Terminology is not consistent across jurisdictions
2.2 Canadian coroners
2.3 Coroners and medical examiners in the United States
3 History
4 Education
4.1 Australia
4.2 Canada
4.3 India
4.4 Indonesia
4.5 United Kingdom
4.6 United States
5 In popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
9.1 Becoming a pathologist
Duties[edit]
Forensic pathology is an application of medical jurisprudence. A forensic pathologist is a medical doctor who has completed training in anatomical pathology and has subsequently specialized in forensic pathology. The requirements for becoming a "fully qualified" forensic pathologist vary from country to country. Some of the different requirements are discussed below.
The forensic pathologist performs autopsies/postmortem examinations to determine the cause of death. The autopsy report contains an opinion about the following:
The pathologic process, injury, or disease that directly results in or initiates a series of events that lead to a person's death (also called the mechanism of death), such as a bullet wound to the head, exsanguination caused by a stab wound, manual or ligature strangulation, myocardial infarction resulting from coronary artery disease, etc.)
The manner of death, the circumstances surrounding the cause of death, which, in most jurisdictions, include the following:[1]
Homicide
Accidental
Natural
Undetermined
The autopsy also provides an opportunity for other issues raised by the death to be addressed, such as the collection of trace evidence or determining the identity of the deceased.
The forensic pathology examines and documents wounds and injuries, both at autopsy and occasionally in a clinical setting.
Forensic pathologists collect and examine tissue specimens under the microscope (histology) to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings such as asbestos bodies in the lungs or gunpowder particles around a gunshot wound.
They collect and interpret toxicological analyses on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of accidental overdoses or deliberate poisonings.
Forensic pathologists work closely with the medico-legal authority for the area concerned with the investigation of sudden and unexpected deaths: the coroner (England and Wales), procurator fiscal (Scotland), or coroner or medical examiner (United States).
They serve as expert witnesses in courts of law testifying in civil or criminal law cases.
In an autopsy, the forensic pathologist is often assisted by an autopsy/mortuary technician (sometimes called a diener in the US).
Forensic physicians, sometimes referred to as "forensic medical examiners" or "police surgeons" (in the UK until recently), are medical doctors trained in the examination of, and provision of medical treatment to, living victims of assault, including sexual assault, and individuals who find themselves in police custody. Many forensic physicians in the UK practice clinical forensic medicine part-time, and they also practice family medicine or another medical specialty.
In the United Kingdom, membership of the Royal College of Pathologists is not a prerequisite of appointment as a coroner's medical expert. Doctors in the UK who are not forensic pathologists or pathologists are allowed to perform medicolegal autopsies, as the wording of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, which merely stipulates a "registered medical practitioner": anyone on the General Medical Council register.
Investigation of death[edit]
Main article: Coroner
Deaths where there is a known cause and those considered unnatural are investigated. In most jurisdictions this is done by a "forensic pathologist", coroner, medical examiner, or hybrid medical examiner-coroner offices.
Terminology is not consistent across jurisdictions[edit]
In some jurisdictions, the title of "Medical Examiner" is used by a non-physician, elected official involved in medicolegal death investigation. In others, the law requires the medical examiner to be a physician, pathologist, or forensic pathologist.
Similarly, the title "coroner" is applied to both physicians and non-physicians. Historically, coroners were not all physicians (most often serving primarily as the town mortician). However, in some jurisdictions the title of "Coroner" is exclusively used by physicians.
Canadian coroners[edit]
In Canada, there is a mix of coroner and medical examiner systems, depending on the province or territory. In Ontario, coroners are licensed physicians, usually but not exclusively family physicians. In Quebec, there is a mix of medical and non-medical coroners, whereas in British Columbia, there is predominantly a non-physician coroner system. Alberta and Nova Scotia are examples of ME systems [2][3]
Coroners and medical examiners in the United States[edit]
In the United States, a coroner is typically an elected public official in a particular geographic jurisdiction who investigates and certifies deaths. The vast majority of coroners lack a Doctor of Medicine degree and the amount of medical training that they have received is highly variable, depending on their profession (e.g. law enforcement, judges, funeral directors, emergency medical technicians, nurses).
In contrast, a medical examiner is typically a physician who holds the degree of Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. Ideally, a medical examiner has completed both a pathology residency and a fellowship in forensic pathology. In some jurisdictions, a medical examiner must be both a doctor and a lawyer, with additional training in forensic pathology.
History[edit]
In German-speaking Europe, lectures on forensic pathology were regularly held in Freiburg in the mid 18th century and Vienna in 1804. Scientists like Auguste Ambroise Tardieu, Johann Ludwig Casper and Carl Liman made great effort to develop forensic pathology into a science based on empirics.
Forensic pathology was first recognized in the United States by the American Board of Pathology in 1959.[4]
In Canada, it was formally recognized in 2003,[5][6] and a formal training program (a fellowship) is currently being established under the auspices of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.[7]
Education[edit]
In most English speaking countries, forensic pathology is a subspecialty of anatomical pathology. Training requirements differ from country to country.
Australia[edit]
There are currently three paths to qualify as a forensic pathologist in Australia. The first is to train solely in forensic pathology (although a significant amount of anatomical pathology knowledge is still required) and pass two examinations for forensic pathology only. The second is to commence training in anatomical pathology, and complete an initial anatomical pathology examination, which takes a minimum of three years; then go on to train solely in forensic pathology and complete a forensic pathology examination, which takes a minimum of two years. The third is to complete a minimum 5 years' training in anatomical pathology to qualify as a fellow in anatomical pathology, then complete a post-fellowship year in forensic pathology (a minimum twelve months further training plus successful completion of an examination).[8]
Canada[edit]
In Canada,[9] anatomical pathology is a five-year residency. Residents who wish to become forensic pathologists must then complete a one-year fellowship in forensic pathology. Forensic pathology is a sub-specialty by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. Three schools that have training programs are the University of Toronto, University of Alberta, and Mcmaster University.
India[edit]
In India, the speciality is commonly referred to as Forensic Medicine and Toxicology or Legal Medicine. After completion of medical graduation (MBBS), one has to complete three years of study and training including thesis research, which leads to award of degree of MD (Forensic Medicine). One can also alternately pass the board examination conducted by National Board of Examinations, leading to awarding of Diplomate of National Board (DNB).
The majority of the specialists are attached to the Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology in various medical colleges. The classification of posts includes Assistant Professor (Lecturer), Associate Professor (Reader) and Professor. The work profile of the specialists includes conducting autopsies and clinical forensic examinations; apart from teaching the medical students. They have to regularly appear in the courts as expert witnesses. A typical department in a government institution conducts 100 to 5,000 autopsies a year depending upon the jurisdiction. Apart from this the clinical forensic examinations constitute a major part of the work and number of cases can run up to ten thousand a year in an average institution.
The largest association of the specialty is Indian Academy of Forensic Medicine [1] (IAFM), which also publishes its quarterly Journal of Indian Academy of Forensic Medicine [2] regularly. This association has a specialist member strength of more than 1000.
Indonesia[edit]
In Indonesia, forensic medicine, also known as legal medicine ("kedokteran kehakiman"), is a 3-year specialty program that can be taken directly after completing medical school. It is separate from anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Upon completion of the program, a forensic medicine specialist will obtain the title Spesialis Forensik, or Sp.F. He or she may be addressed in public as Dokter Forensik ("forensic doctor"). Note that there is no pre-medicine program, making the total duration of formal education for one to become a forensic specialist 9 years.
Forensic medicine is also a mandatory round during medical school clerkship. Medical students assist the doctors on autopsies, and they may also be allowed to perform an autopsy under supervision, and to witness in the court.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the UK, anatomical pathology is a five-year residency. Successful candidates are eligible for inclusion on the specialist register of the General Medical Council (GMC) having obtained Membership of the Royal College of Pathologists (United Kingdom).
A specialist training (ST) post is applied for after the foundation year to enter a training program in Histopathology. Imminent changes as a result of the Tooke report may require two years or more to be fulfilled on general rotational placements before the option of histopathology arises. However, the Royal College have not yet issued their response to this matter. It is then necessary to obtain the MRCPath Part I examination in Histopathology, after which it is then possible to apply to one of few training posts in Forensic Pathology in the UK. Current approved centres include Belfast, Liverpool, Leicester, Cardiff, London, Sheffield, Glasgow and Dundee. Not all the posts are currently actively training. Following 3 years training in Forensic Pathology and completion of the FRCPath Part II slanted to Forensic Pathology you may then obtain CCT (certificate of completion of training) and work as a Consultant Forensic Pathologist. Another option is to obtain the full FRCPath in general histopathology, followed by another 18–24 months of training in forensic pathology, which will qualify the candidates with either the Diploma of the Royal College of Pathologists in Forensic Pathology (DipRCPath (forensic)), or the Diploma in Medical Jurisprudence (DMJ). In England & Wales you will also need to be Home Office Accredited, which will require checks of your training portfolio and completion of a security check and the Expert Witness Training Course run by the Forensic Science Service.
Foreign graduates and specialists need to apply to the GMC and the RCPath directly to practise Forensic Pathology in the United Kingdom.
United States[edit]
In the United States, forensic pathologists typically complete at least one year of additional training (a fellowship) after completing an anatomical pathology residency and having passed the "board" examination administered by The American Board of Pathology or The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology ("board-certified"). Becoming an anatomic pathologist in the United States requires completing a residency in anatomic pathology, which is on-the-job training one must perform upon completing medical school before one may practice unsupervised. Anatomic pathology (as it is called) by itself is a three-year residency. Most U.S. pathologists complete a combined residency in both anatomic and clinical pathology, which requires a total of four years.
In the United States, all told, the education after high school is typically 13–15 years in duration (4 years undergraduate training + 4 years medical school + 4–5 years residency [anatomic and clinical pathology combined] + 1-2 year forensic pathology fellowship). Generally, the biggest hurdle is gaining admission to medical school, although the pass rate for anatomic and forensic pathology board examinations (in the U.S.) is approximately 80-90 and 90-100 percent, respectively. The courts do not require American Board of Pathology certification in order for a witness to be qualified as an expert in the field of forensic pathology, and there are several "diploma mills" that give online certificates in the field.[10]
The University of Florida College of Medicine offers a Master of Science degree with a concentration in Forensic Medicine, which is the first fully online advanced degree program in Forensic Medicine in the United States. The program focuses on the application of medical knowledge to the investigation of crime, particularly in establishing the causes of injury or death. It is unique in that it emphasizes the practical application of forensic medicine to the forensic sciences and crime scene investigation. Particularly, the Forensic Medicine Program focuses on education based in casework – developed by industry-leading professionals currently working in their specialized fields – that students can directly apply to their current or future careers in the forensic sciences, including as a forensic pathologist.[11]
In popular culture[edit]
Pathologists are common characters in crime fiction. The following characters appear in police procedural television series. (The following entries are alphabetically by character.)
Jordan Cavanaugh M.D., is a forensic pathologist in the Massachusetts Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, in the series Crossing Jordan'
Dr. Max Debryn, Home Office forensic pathologist in detective series Endeavour and Inspector Morse.
Sven Nyberg, Ystad police department's forensic pathologist in the Swedish, and British, series Wallander.
Dr. Pasquano, Vigàta's local forensic pathologist in the Italian series, Inspector Montalbano.
Dr. Samantha Ryan, the primary character in the British drama series Silent Witness.
Isabelle Lightwood, said to be the best forensic pathologist in New York the TV series, Shadowhunters.
See also[edit]
Forensic science
Post-mortem chemistry
References[edit]
Jump up ^ DiMaio, Dominick. Forensic Pathology (2nd ed.). Florida: CRC Press LLC. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-8493-0072-X.
Jump up ^ The Coroner System. USW. http://www.usw.ca/program/content/3179.php Archived 2009-11-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed on: 7 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Coroners' law resource. King's College London. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/law/research/coroners/canada.html. Accessed on: 7 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Eckert WG (1988). "The forensic pathology specialty certifications". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 9 (1): 85–9. doi:10.1097/00000433-198803000-00023. PMID 3354533.
Jump up ^ Lett D (July 2007). "National standards for forensic pathology training slow to develop". CMAJ. 177 (3): 240–1. doi:10.1503/cmaj.070881. PMC 1930175. PMID 17664437.
Jump up ^ Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Information by Specialty or Subspecialty. Available at: http://rcpsc.medical.org/information/index.php?specialty=417&submit=Select. Accessed on: 15 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Two new pathologists to restart Ottawa forensic unit. cbc.ca. URL: http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/01/11/ot-pathologist-080111.html. Accessed on: 15 July 2008.
Jump up ^ RCPA website www.rcpa.edu.au. Accessed 30 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Residency Training Programs. Dalhousie University. URL: http://pathology.medicine.dal.ca/anatomical.html. Accessed on: 7 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Top 10 Things to Look For in Finding a Qualified Forensic Pathologist Expert Witness
Jump up ^ "Forensic Medicine » Education Program » College of Medicine » University of Florida". forensicmedicine.med.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2018-04-03.
Sources[edit]
Bartos, Leah, "No Forensic Background? No Problem", ProPublica, April 17, 2012.
Burton, Julian N.; Rutty, Guy N. (eds.) (2010). The Hospital Autopsy: A Manual of Fundamental Autopsy Practice (3rd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-96514-6. OCLC 653083337. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Gorea, R. K.; Dogra, T. D.; Aggarwal, A. D. (2010). Practical Aspects of Forensic Medicine A Manual for Undergraduates and General Practitioners. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. ISBN 978-81-8448-994-1. OCLC 729254521.
Payne-James, Jason (ed.; et al.) (2005). Encyclopedia of Forensic & Legal Medicine. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-547970-0. OCLC 60834620.
Payne-James, Jason; Busuttil, Anthony; Smock, William S. (eds.) (2003). Forensic Medicine: Clinical and Pathological Aspects. London; San Francisco: Greenwich Medical Media. ISBN 1-84110-026-9. OCLC 51678652. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Saukko, Pekka J.; Knight, Bernard (2004). Knight's Forensic Pathology (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold (Publishers). ISBN 0-340-76044-3. OCLC 56440239.
Spitz, Werner U.; Spitz, Daniel J. (eds.) (2006). Spitz and Fisher's Medicolegal Investigation of Death: Guidelines for the Application of Pathology to Crime Investigation (4th ed.). Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. ISBN 0-398-07544-1. OCLC 56614481. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
"The Real CSI, PBS Frontline documentary, April 17, 2012.
External links[edit]
National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME)
American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Forensic Science Society
British Association in Forensic Medicine
British Association for Human Identification
British Academy of Forensic Science
Forensic Medicine for Medical Students - a website providing educational resources in forensic medicine
Faculty of Forensic & Legal Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians
Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia
Forensic Oral Pathology Journal - FOPJ
Punjab Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology
2011 books for forensic pathology.
Indian Congress of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology
Becoming a pathologist[edit]
Forensic Medicine Online Master's Degree at the University of Florida- the first fully online advanced degree program in forensic medicine in the United States
A career in forensic pathology - educational website on career pathways for forensic pathology in the UK and USA
So, you want to be a forensic scientist? - Simon Fraser University.
When I grow up: becoming a pathologist by G. William Moore, MD, PhD. - netautopsy.org.
What is a Pathologist? - a perspective from UK pathologist Fraser Charlton.
Forensic Pathology Resource
Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia - Follow the "Careers and Training" Link, & go to "Disciplines and Career Brochures", or go to this page directly
Royal College of Pathologists UK
Forensic Pathology by David Webb, University of Huddersfield
Forensic Pathology Pathway in Residency and fellowship - USMLE Forums
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