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The Last: Naruto the Movie
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The Last: Naruto the Movie
Japanese film poster
Directed by
Tsuneo Kobayashi
Produced by
Takuyuki Hirobe
Naoji Hohnokidani
Shoji Matsui
Screenplay by
Maruo Kyozuka
Story by
Masashi Kishimoto
Based on
Naruto
by Masashi Kishimoto
Starring
Junko Takeuchi
Nana Mizuki
Chie Nakamura
Showtaro Morikubo
Satoshi Hino
Kazuhiko Inoue
Noriaki Sugiyama
Music by
Yasuharu Takanashi
Yaiba
Cinematography
Atsuho Matsumoto
Edited by
Seiji Morita
Production
company
Studio Pierrot
Distributed by
Toho
Release date
6 December 2014 (2014-12-06)
Running time
112 mins
Country
Japan
Language
Japanese
Box office
¥2.0 billion[1]
(US$19.84 million)
The Last: Naruto the Movie is a 2014 Japanese animated film based on Masashi Kishimoto's manga and anime series. It is the first entry in the Start of a New Era Project[Jp. 1], and the first to be an official part of the canon storyline set between chapter 699 and 700 for the manga series.
The film premiered on 6 December 2014[2][3] and became the highest-grossing film in the franchise,[4] before being surpassed by its sequel Boruto: Naruto the Movie.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Voice cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Critical response
4.2 Box office
5 Sequel
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Two years after the Fourth Ninja World War and Kakashi Hatake becomes the Sixth Hokage, the moon is falling towards Earth and will soon collide. The crisis is caused by Toneri Ōtsutsuki, a descendant of Hamura Ōtsutsuki of the Branch House, who is determined to fulfill his legacy and punish mankind for abusing chakra over a millennia. During the Rinne Festival, as Hinata Hyuga knits a red scarf that Naruto Uzumaki wore when they first met, Sakura offers to help her, but Hinata becomes doubtful as Naruto receives various gifts from everyone, including another scarf. Toneri infiltrates the Leaf Village but fails to kidnap Hinata due to Naruto's intervention, though Toneri successfully kidnaps Hanabi, Hinata's younger sister.
Naruto, Hinata, Sakura, Sai and Shikamaru Nara are assigned to rescue Hanabi after Kakashi gives a special clock to Shikamaru that counts down to doomsday. Traveling in an abandoned village of the Ōtsutsuki Clan, Naruto understands the concept of romantic love from watching Hinata's memories while being caught in a genjutsu and from spending more time with her. Toneri transplants Hanabi's eyes in himself to awaken the Tenseigan that his ancestors sealed over the last millennium and proposes to Hinata. To have a chance at saving Hanabi, Hinata accepts his offer after rejecting Naruto's love confession, which causes Naruto to fall into depression. Back on Earth, the villagers defend themselves and intercept the moon's meteorites, evacuating the civilians from Toneri's genocidal assault, while Sasuke Uchiha returns to protect the village.
After recovering for three days, Sakura reassures Naruto that Hinata truly loves him, and the group approaches Toneri's castle. Earlier, the spirit of Hamura contacts Hinata as the "Byakugan Princess", explaining that Toneri has misinterpreted his decree. Toneri refuses to listen to Hamura, ruins the scarf and brainwashes Hinata. Invading Toneri's castle, Sakura and Sai secure Hanabi, while Shikamaru holds off Toneri's puppets. Naruto saves Hinata from the ceremony and helps her destroy the Tenseigan altar. Toneri uses the remains to strengthen his power and slices the moon in half, as Naruto engages him in the Nine-Tails chakra mode. Naruto grasps a shred of the scarf and overpowers Toneri, making the moon return to orbit. Taking back Hanabi's eyes, Toneri realizes the truth about Hamura's decree and decides to stay on the moon to atone his sins. After Naruto tells Hinata that the scarf he wore earlier belonged to his late mother, the two confess their mutual love and return home.
During the end credits, Naruto and Hinata get married, while his friends attend the wedding. In a post-credits scene before the series' epilogue, the couple have two children, Boruto and Himawari.
Voice cast[edit]
Character
Japanese voice
English voice
Naruto Uzumaki Junko Takeuchi Maile Flanagan
Hinata Hyuga Nana Mizuki Stephanie Sheh
Toneri Otsutsuki Jun Fukuyama Robbie Daymond
Sakura Haruno Chie Nakamura Kate Higgins
Shikamaru Nara Showtaro Morikubo Tom Gibis
Sai Satoshi Hino Ben Diskin
Sixth Hokage Kakashi Hatake Kazuhiko Inoue Dave Wittenberg
Hanabi Hyuga Kiyomi Asai Colleen Villard
Hiashi Hyuga Eizō Tsuda John DeMita
Kotetsu Hagane Tomoyuki Kōno Liam O'Brien
Izumo Kamizuki Tomohiro Tsuboi Richard Cansino
Konohamaru Sarutobi Ikue Ōtani Colleen Villard
Rock Lee Yōichi Masukawa Brian Donovan
Might Guy Masashi Ebara Skip Stellrecht
Ino Yamanaka Ryōka Yuzuki Colleen Villard
Choji Akimichi Kentarō Itō Robbie Rist
Tsunade Masako Katsuki Debi Mae West
Shizune Keiko Nemoto Megan Hollingshead
Iruka Umino Toshihiko Seki Quinton Flynn
Kurama Tesshō Genda Paul St. Peter
Fifth Kazekage Gaara Akira Ishida Liam O'Brien
Fourth Raikage Ay Hideaki Tezuka Beau Billingslea
Killer Bee Hisao Egawa Catero Colbert
Fifth Mizukage Mei Terumi Yurika Hino Mary Elizabeth McGlynn
Third Tsuchikage Onoki Tomomichi Nishimura Steven Blum
Sasuke Uchiha Noriaki Sugiyama Yuri Lowenthal
Akane Riho Takada Debi Mae West
Kaede Ai Hashizume Megan Hollingshead
Teuchi Eisuke Asakura Patrick Seitz
Kiba Inuzuka Kōsuke Toriumi Kyle Hebert
Kurenai Yuhi Rumi Ochiai Mary Elizabeth McGlynn
Hayate Gekko Nozomu Sasaki Lex Lang
Pain Kenyu Horiuchi Troy Baker
Katsuyu Mamiko Noto Mary Elizabeth McGlynn
Boruto Uzumaki Kokoro Kikuchi Maile Flanagan
Himawari Uzumaki Yūki Kuwahara Stephanie Sheh
Production[edit]
The film is directed by Tsuneo Kobayashi[5] while Masashi Kishimoto provides the story concept, character designs and exercising complete editorial supervision.[6] It was first announced at Jump Festa 2012.[7][8] It premiered on 6 December 2014, which made the first film in the franchise to be released two years after the previous film.[6] Its first teaser was revealed on 31 July 2014.[9]
The film was promoted in the lead up to the Naruto manga finale in Weekly Shonen Jump magazine, with new concept designs and information revealed on a weekly basis.[10][11] A new film character made an appearance voiced by Jun Fukuyama, who asked the fans to enjoy it after it was released.[12] A limited edition official data book was distributed with the film, and was to contain Kishimoto's one-shot tie-in chapter by. Maruo Kyōzuka wrote a novelization published by Shueisha on 8 December 2014.[13]
The male duo Sukima Switch performed the film's song, "Hoshi no Utsuwa" ("Star Vessel"); producer Takuyuki Hirobe asked the duo to make it invoking a gentle yet powerful outlook of the world diring production.[2] The single is set to be released on 3 December 2014.[14][needs update] A character CD song for Hinata Hyuga was announced as "Fuyu no Owari ni" ("At the End of Winter") by Nana Mizuki.[15]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
Amy McNulty of Anime News Network, while criticizing the unengaging villain, overarching plot and score for having no impact, praised the top-notch animation and story for taking a more character-driven romance approach to it than previous films, concluding that "Despite the (awkward) title, the movie is not actually the final film in the franchise, but it's the last of an era and a fitting capstone for the series and its fandom."[16] Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, saying that "If 'The Last' lacks some of the emotional punch of the previous feature, 'The Road to Ninja,' Kobayashi compensates with flamboyant visuals that mix CG, drawn animation and elegant calligraphic figures, fans should stay through the credits for a surprising final scene."[17] Naruto's romance with Hinata earned multiple positive reactions from the media to the point some wished The Last to be condensed so that their relationship was the main focus of it.[18][19][16]
Box office[edit]
During its first weekend, the film earned ¥515 million (US$4.35 million).[20] The film has grossed ¥1.29 billion after three weekends.[21] In December 2014, it earned about ¥1.75 billion (US$14.76 million) and became the top-grossing feature film in the franchise.[4]
Sequel[edit]
See also: Boruto: Naruto the Movie
After the post-credits scene of The Last, it has shown a teaser trailer for the film based on Naruto and Hinata's son, Boruto, along with Sasuke and Sakura's daughter, Sarada, and the new generation.[22] Kishimoto confirmed to be involved as a supervising executive producer, co-writer and character designer, conceiving the story about the next generation. The sequel is tied into the New Era Project. The film was released in Japan on 7 August 2015 and appeared with English subtitles in selected theaters in North America on 10 October 2015. After the film's success, it appeared in North America for a second time for a two night premiere on 18 and 19 December.
References[edit]
Japanese text
Jump up ^ 新時代開幕プロジェクト, Shinjidai Kaimaku Purojekuto
Specific
Jump up ^ "Boruto Becomes #1 Naruto Film at 2.02 Billion Yen". Anime News Network. 26 August 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sukima Switch Perform Song, Voice-Act in The Last -Naruto the Movie-". Anime News Network. 22 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "THE LAST -NARUTO THE MOVIE-(2014)". allcinema (in Japanese). Stingray. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Komatsu, Mikikazu (11 January 2015). ""The Last -Naruto The Movie-" Becomes the Top-Grossing Film in the Franchise". Crunchyroll. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Last -Naruto the Movie-'s Longer Teaser Streamed". Anime News Network. 31 July 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "2014 Naruto Movie Titled 'The Last,' Slated for December 6". Anime News Network. 23 July 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "New Naruto Movie Set for 2014". Shinigami List. 22 December 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Naruto Movie for 2014". Film Watch. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Last Naruto Anime Film Teased". Otaku USA Magazine. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Naruto Creator Makes New Character for The Last -Naruto the Movie-". Anime News Network. 24 October 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last -Naruto the Movie-'s Sasuke, Kakashi Character Sketches Unveiled". Anime News Network. 19 September 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last -Naruto the Movie- Casts Jun Fukuyama as New Character". Anime News Network. 29 October 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last -Naruto the Movie- to Get Novelization". Anime News Network. 28 October 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Theme Song". Naruto Movie. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last -Naruto the Movie-'s Hinata, Hanabi Character Sketches Unveiled". Anime News Network. 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b McNulty, Amy (February 20, 2015). "The Last: Naruto the Movie". Anime News Network.
Jump up ^ Solomon, Charles (20 February 2015). "Review: Elaborate 'Last' in Naruto series packs visual punch". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Publishing. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "ANIME REVIEW: Last, The: Naruto the Movie". UK Anime Network. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Beveridge, Chris (November 7, 2015). "The Last: Naruto The Movie Review". The Fandom Post. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ma, Kevin (10 December 2014). "Naruto overtakes Parasyte at Japan box office". Film Business Asia. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Ma, Kevin (24 December 2014). "Yo-kai Watch breaks Toho record in Japan". Film Business Asia. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Boruto -Naruto the Movie- Site Opens With Manga Excerpt". Anime News Network. 22 December 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
External links[edit]
Anime and manga portal
Film portal
2010s portal
The Last: Naruto the Movie on IMDb
Official website
TV-Tokyo's website
The Last: Naruto the Movie (film) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
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Biological thermodynamics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Biological thermodynamics is the quantitative study of the energy transductions that occur in or between living organisms, structures, and cells and of the nature and function of the chemical processes underlying these transductions. Biological thermodynamics may address the question of whether the benefit associated with any particular phenotypic trait is worth the energy investment it requires.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The focus of thermodynamics in biology
2.1 Energy Transformation in Biological Systems
3 Examples
3.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
3.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics
3.3 Gibbs Free Energy
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
History[edit]
German-British medical doctor and biochemist Hans Krebs' 1957 book Energy Transformations in Living Matter (written with Hans Kornberg)[1] was the first major publication on the thermodynamics of biochemical reactions. In addition, the appendix contained the first-ever published thermodynamic tables, written by Kenneth Burton, to contain equilibrium constants and Gibbs free energy of formations for chemical species, able to calculate biochemical reactions that had not yet occurred.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how biological organisms can develop from disorder. Ilya Prigogine developed methods for the thermodynamic treatment of such systems. He called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes that exchange energy between the system and its environment, and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. It may be said that they live in symbiosis with their environment. Energy transformations in biology are dependent primarily on photosynthesis. The total energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants from the solar radiation is about 2 x 1023 joules of energy per year.[2] Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants is about 4% of the total sunlight energy that reaches Earth. The energy transformations in biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents are exceptions; they oxidize sulfur, obtaining their energy via chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis.
The focus of thermodynamics in biology[edit]
The field of biological thermodynamics is focused on principles of chemical thermodynamics in biology and biochemistry. Principles covered include the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, statistical thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, and on hypotheses of the origin of life. Presently, biological thermodynamics concerns itself with the study of internal biochemical dynamics as: ATP hydrolysis, protein stability, DNA binding, membrane diffusion, enzyme kinetics,[3] and other such essential energy controlled pathways. In terms of thermodynamics, the amount of energy capable of doing work during a chemical reaction is measured quantitatively by the change in the Gibbs free energy. The physical biologist Alfred Lotka attempted to unify the change in the Gibbs free energy with evolutionary theory.
Energy Transformation in Biological Systems[edit]
The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly.[4] There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.
The relationship between the energy of the incoming sunlight and its wavelength λ or frequency ν is given by
E = h c λ = h ν , {\displaystyle E={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}=h\nu ,}
where h is the Planck constant (6.63x10−34Js) and c is the speed of light (2.998x108 m/s). Plants trap this energy from the sunlight and undergo photosynthesis, effectively converting solar energy into chemical energy. To transfer the energy once again, animals will feed on plants and use the energy of digested plant materials to create biological macromolecules.
Examples[edit]
First Law of Thermodynamics[edit]
The First Law of Thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy; though it can be changed from one form to another, energy can be neither created nor destroyed.[5] From the first law, a principle called Hess's Law arises. Hess’s Law states that the heat absorbed or evolved in a given reaction must always be constant and independent of the manner in which the reaction takes place. Although some intermediate reactions may be endothermic and others may be exothermic, the total heat exchange is equal to the heat exchange had the process occurred directly. This principle is the basis for the calorimeter, a device used to determine the amount of heat in a chemical reaction. Since all incoming energy enters the body as food and is ultimately oxidized, the total heat production may be estimated by measuring the heat produced by the oxidation of food in a calorimeter. This heat is expressed in kilocalories, which are the common unit of food energy found on nutrition labels.[6]
Second Law of Thermodynamics[edit]
The Second Law of Thermodynamics is concerned primarily with whether or not a given process is possible. The Second Law states that no natural process can occur unless it is accompanied by an increase in the entropy of the universe.[7] Stated differently, an isolated system will always tend to disorder. Living organisms are often mistakenly believed to defy the Second Law because they are able to increase their level of organization. To correct this misinterpretation, one must refer simply to the definition of systems and boundaries. A living organism is an open system, able to exchange both matter and energy with its environment. For example, a human being takes in food, breaks it down into its components, and then uses those to build up cells, tissues, ligaments, etc. This process increases order in the body, and thus decreases entropy. However, humans also 1) conduct heat to clothing and other objects they are in contact with, 2) generate convection due to differences in body temperature and the environment, 3) radiate heat into space, 4) consume energy-containing substances (i.e., food), and 5) eliminate waste (e.g., carbon dioxide, water, and other components of breath, urine, feces, sweat, etc.). When taking all these processes into account, the total entropy of the greater system (i.e., the human and her/his environment) increases. When the human ceases to live, none of these processes (1-5) take place, and any interruption in the processes (esp. 4 or 5) will quickly lead to morbidity and/or mortality.
Gibbs Free Energy[edit]
In biological systems, in general energy and entropy change together. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to define a state function that accounts for these changes simultaneously. This state function is the Gibbs Free Energy, G.
G = H − TS
where:
H is the enthalpy (SI unit: joule)
T is the temperature (SI unit: kelvin)
S is the entropy (SI unit: joule per kelvin)
The change in Gibbs Free Energy can be used to determine whether a given chemical reaction can occur spontaneously. If ∆G is negative, the reaction can occur spontaneously. Likewise, if ∆G is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.[8] Chemical reactions can be “coupled” together if they share intermediates. In this case, the overall Gibbs Free Energy change is simply the sum of the ∆G values for each reaction. Therefore, an unfavorable reaction (positive ∆G1) can be driven by a second, highly favorable reaction (negative ∆G2 where the magnitude of ∆G2 > magnitude of ∆G1). For example, the reaction of glucose with fructose to form sucrose has a ∆G value of +5.5 kcal/mole. Therefore, this reaction will not occur spontaneously. The breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate has a ∆G value of -7.3 kcal/mole. These two reactions can be coupled together, so that glucose binds with ATP to form glucose-1-phosphate and ADP. The glucose-1-phosphate is then able to bond with fructose yielding sucrose and inorganic phosphate. The ∆G value of the coupled reaction is -1.8 kcal/mole, indicating that the reaction will occur spontaneously. This principle of coupling reactions to alter the change in Gibbs Free Energy is the basic principle behind all enzymatic action in biological organisms.[9]
See also[edit]
Sustainable development portal
Bioenergetics
Ecological energetics
Harris-Benedict Equations
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alberty R (2004). "A short history of the thermodynamics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions". J Biol Chem. 279 (27): 27831–6. doi:10.1074/jbc.X400003200. PMID 15073189.
Jump up ^ Akihiko Ito & Takehisa Oikawa. "Global Mapping of Terrestrial Primary Productivity and Light-Use Efficiency with a Process-Based Model". In M. Shiyomi; et al. Global Environmental Change in the Ocean and on Land (PDF). pp. 343–358.
Jump up ^ M.J. Farabee. "Reactions and Enzymes". On-Line Biology Book. Estrella Mountain Community College.
Jump up ^ Haynie, Donald T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–16.
Jump up ^ Haynie, Donald T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge UP. ISBN 9780521795494.
Jump up ^ Stacy, Ralph W., David T. Williams, Ralph E. Worden, and Rex O. McMorris. Essentials of Biological and Medical Physics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book, 1955. Print.
Jump up ^ Haynie, Donald T. Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. Print.
Jump up ^ Bergethon, P. R. The Physical Basis of Biochemistry: The Foundations of Molecular Biophysics. New York: Springer, 1998. Print.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce. Essential Cell Biology. New York: Garland Science, 2009. Print.
Further reading[edit]
Haynie, D. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics (textbook). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lehninger, A., Nelson, D., & Cox, M. (1993). Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd Ed (textbook). New York: Worth Publishers.
Alberty, Robert, A. (2006). Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of Mathematica (Methods of Biochemical Analysis), Wiley-Interscience.
External links[edit]
Cellular Thermodynamics - Wolfe, J. (2002), Encyclopedia of Life Sciences.
Bioenergetics
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History of social work
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Social work has its roots in the attempts of society at large to deal with the problem of poverty and inequality. Social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions,[1]
Contents
1 Pre-modern antecedents
2 Modern development
2.1 Poverty relief
2.2 Private philanthropy
2.3 Social action
2.4 Further Development
3 Medical Social Work
4 State Welfare
5 Today
6 Links
7 References
Pre-modern antecedents[edit]
Even before the rise of modern European states, the church was providing social services. When Constantine I legalized the Christian Church in the 4th century, the newly legitimised church set up burial societies, poorhouses, homes for the aged, shelter for the homeless, hospitals, and orphanages.[2][3][4] These were often funded, at least in part, from grants from the Empire.[5]
By 580 AD the church had a system for circulating consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon. Monasteries also often served as comprehensive social service agencies, acting as hospitals, homes for the aged, orphanages, travelers' aid stations.
During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was in the form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of poverty. As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of large scale charitable activities, the clergy carried out this role until the Early Modern Period.
Modern development[edit]
It was not until the emergence of industrialization and urbanization that the informal helping systems of the church and family began to be replaced by social welfare services.
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin,[6] and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organisation Society in the mid-19th century. The second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century, but was first systematized through the efforts of the Charity Organisation Society. The third consisted of social action - rather than engaging in the resolution of immediate individual requirements, the emphasis was placed on political action working through the community and the group to improve their social conditions and thereby alleviate poverty. This approach was developed originally by the settlement house movement.[7]
This was accompanied by a less easily defined movement; the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the nineteenth century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work, both in theory and in practice.[8]
Professional social work originated in 19th century England, and had its roots in the social and economic upheaval wrought by the Industrial Revolution, in particular the societal struggle to deal with the resultant mass urban-based poverty and its related problems. Because poverty was the main focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work.[8] (Today, it is common for social workers to find themselves dealing with consequences arising from other social problems such as racism, sexism, homophobia, and discrimination based on age or on physical or mental disability.)
Poverty relief[edit]
The Poor Laws in the aftermath of the Black Death (pictured), when labour was in short supply, were concerned with making the able bodied work.[9](also see: Sturdy beggar)
With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a more direct threat to the social order.[10] As they were often not associated to a particular feudal manor, the government moved towards the formation of an organized poverty relief system to care for them.
The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced as far back as late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy but it was only during the Tudor period that the Poor Law system became codified. Monasteries, the primary source of poor relief, were dissolved by the Tudors Reformation causing poor relief to move from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level.[11] Early legislation was concerned with vagrants and making the able-bodied work, especially while labour was in short supply following the Black Death.
The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and some provision for the "deserving poor" was eventually made in the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601.[12] It created a system administered at parish level,[13] paid for by levying local rates on rate payers.[14] Relief for those too ill or old to work, the so-called 'impotent poor', was in the form of a payment or items of food ('the parish loaf') or clothing also known as outdoor relief. Some aged people might be accommodated in parish alms houses, though these were usually private charitable institutions. Meanwhile, able-bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in Houses of Correction or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes.[15]
As populations grew in Colonial America, almhouses were built to house vulnerable people with no other support, including people with a long term illness or older people without families. The first recorded Almshouse was built in 1713 near Philadelphia by William Penn, and was only open to Quakers. A second one was built nearby in 1728, this time with public money. In 1736 New York opened the Poor House of the City of New York (later renamed Bellevue Hospital) and in 1737 New Orleans opened the Saint John's Hospital to serve the poor of the city.[16]
The Poor Law Amendment Act completely overhauled the existing system in Britain[17] and established a Poor Law Commission to oversee the national operation of the system.[18] This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions[19] and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief. Although the aim of the legislation was to reduce costs to rate payers, one area not reformed was the method of financing of the Poor Law system which continued to be paid for by levying a "poor rate"[20] on the property owning middle classes.
Although the Poor Law Amendment Act did not ban all forms of outdoor relief,[21] it stated that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other help from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse. Conditions in workhouses were to be made harsh to discourage people from claiming. Workhouses were to be built in every parish and, if parishes were too small, parishes could group together to form Workhouse Unions. The Poor Law Commissioners were to be responsible for overseeing the implementation of the Act.
Private philanthropy[edit]
Social work involves ameliorating social problems such as poverty and homelessness.
The 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a great migration to urban areas throughout the Western world, which led to many social problems. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses.[22] This was coupled with a religious revival, and many Protestant mission efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve the problems inherent in large cities like poverty, prostitution, disease, and other afflictions. A new philosophy of "scientific charity" emerged, which stated charity should be "secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic.[23]"
During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more appropriate means of self-support for women involved in prostitution.[citation needed] State-built Mental asylums were built from the 1840s to assist in taking care of the mentally ill.
Most historians identify the Charity Organization Society, founded by Helen Bosanquet and Octavia Hill in London in 1869,[24] as the pioneering organization of the social theory that led to the emergence of social work as a professional occupation.[7] COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty. The organisation claimed to use "scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed".[25]
Octavia Hill pioneered many aspects of social work. Portrait by John Singer Sargent, 1898
Alsager Hay Hill was prominent from its foundation, acting as honorary secretary of the council until July 1870, and as an active member of the council until 1880.[26] Hill also worked as an almoner to the Society for the Relief of Distress in the East of London. He campaigned about the many flaws in the poor laws and urged for a more scientific classification of paupers. His 1867 pamphlet, on Our Unemployed, was one of the earliest attempts to highlight the problem of systemic unemployment; he suggested a national system of labour registration. In 1871, Hill pioneered a system of labour exchanges in England, establishing 'The Employment Inquiry Office and Labour Registry,'. There, Hill advised applicants for assistance, and founded and edited Labour News to improve communication between masters and men seeking work.[27]
Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of modern social work. She was a moving force behind the development of social housing, and her early friendship with John Ruskin enabled her to put her theories into practice with the aid of his initial investment. She believed in self-reliance, and made it a key part of her housing system that she and her assistants knew their tenants personally and encouraged them to better themselves. She was opposed to municipal provision of housing, believing it to be bureaucratic and impersonal. Under her guidance, the Charity Organisation Society organised charitable grants and pioneered a home-visiting service that formed the basis for modern social work.
A Marylebone slum in the nineteenth century.
She also provided housing for the poor; after being improved her properties were let to those on intermittent and low incomes. At the heart of the Octavia Hill system was the weekly visit to collect rent. From the outset, Hill conceived this as a job for women only. She and her assistants, including Emma Cons combined the weekly rent collection with checking every detail of the premises and getting to know the tenants personally, acting as early social workers.[28] At first Hill believed, "Voluntary workers are a necessity. They are better than paid workers, and can be had in sufficient numbers."[29] Later, she found it expedient to maintain a paid workforce.[28]
Hill's principles were summed up in an article of 1869: "Where a man persistently refuses to exert himself, external help is worse than useless." She was an outspoken critic of the principles of "outdoor relief" or the Speenhamland system of poor relief as operated by various Poor Law Boards. Because these systems did not encourage recipients to work, she regarded them as "a profligate use of public funds."[30] Under her methods, personal responsibility was encouraged. She insisted on dealing with arrears promptly; she appointed reliable caretakers; she took up of references on prospective tenants, and visited them in their homes; she paid careful attention to allocations and the placing of tenants, with regard to size of families and the size and location of the accommodation to be offered; and she made no rules that could not be properly enforced.[30]
Social action[edit]
Toynbee Hall settlement house, Whitechapel was founded in 1884 as part of the Settlement movement. Pictured here in 1902.
A stress on social action that developed in the 1880s, was pioneered by the Settlement house movement.[31] This Movement (creating integrated mixed communities of rich and poor) grew directly out of Octavia Hill's work. Her colleagues Samuel and Henrietta Barnett, founded Toynbee Hall, Oxford House[32] in 1884 in Bethnal Green as the first university-sponsored settlement. Another early organization was Mansfield House Settlement, also in east London.
The settlement was named after Arnold Toynbee, an economic historian who's intellectual work laid the foundations of the movement. Toynbee was actively involved in improving the living conditions of the labourer. He read for workers in large industrial centres and encouraged the creation of trade unions and co-operatives. A focal point of his commitment was the slum of Whitechapel, in east London, where he helped to establish public libraries for the working class population. Toynbee also encouraged his students to offer free courses for working class audiences in their own neighbourhoods.
In America, the settlement movement was established by Jane Addams, a young medical student, and Ellen Gates Starr after Addams visited Toynbee Hall and was impressed by the system. She founded Chicago's Hull House in 1889, which focused on providing education and recreational facilities for European immigrant women and children.[32] By 1913, there were 413 settlements in 32 states.[33] The house was both a community service centre and a social research program. Precursors to modern social work arose at Hull House as health professionals began to work with social determinants of poor health.[16]
Bohemian immigrant youth at the Lessie Bates Davis Neighborhood House in 1918 in East St. Louis, Illinois.
The concept of the Settlement house movement was to bring upper and middle class students into lower-class neighbourhoods, not only to provide education and social aid, but to actually live and work together with their inhabitants. This soon inspired a worldwide movement of university settlements. The idea was to help members of the future elite understand the problems of wider society; this was especially important at a time when class divisions were much stronger, social mobility was minimal, and the living conditions of the poor were completely unknown to many members of the upper class.[34]
The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty through the "three Rs" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services including educational, legal, and health services. These programs also advocated changes in social policy. Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves in the culture of those they were helping. There were basic commonalities in the movement. These institutions were more concerned with societal causes for poverty, especially the changes that came with industrialization, rather than personal causes which their predecessors believed were the main reason for poverty. The settlement movement believed that social reform was best pursued and pushed for by private charities.[31]
The movement gave rise to many social policy initiatives and innovative ways of working to improve the conditions of the most excluded members of society. Participating universities settled students in slums to live and work alongside the poor local people. Settlement houses focused on education, savings, sports, and arts. The Poor Man's Lawyer service came about because a barrister volunteered his time and encouraged his friends to do the same. In general, the settlement movement, and settlement houses in particular, were "...a foundation for social work practice in this country".[35]
One important participant in the scheme was the philanthropist Charles Booth who published his study Life and Labour of the People in London in 1889 while working at Toynbee Hall. The study was the first systematic attempt at gathering comprehensive statistics and mapping poverty and influenced both social research and the fight against poverty for decades afterwards.
Further Development[edit]
Poverty in towns, slum dwellers in Dublin, Ireland circa 1901.
By the beginning of the 20th century, these different organizations with their diverse intellectual underpinnings were beginning to coalesce into modern social work. Foundations were established to examine the root causes of social problems such as poverty, and social workers became more professional and scientific in their methodology. The Quaker philanthropist and chocolate manufacturer Joseph Rowntree believed that social evils could be tackled by systematic research, and to that end founded the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 1904.[36] Rowntree wanted to tackle the root causes of social problems, rather than treating their symptoms. His Memorandum of 1904 stated: "I feel that much of the current philanthropic effort is directed to remedying the more superficial manifestations of weakness or evil, while little thought or effort is directed to search out their underlying causes ... [seek] to search out the under-lying causes of weakness or evil in the community, rather than ... remedying their more superficial manifestations."[37]
Rowntree's son, Seebohm Rowntree, carried out a series of seminal surveys into poverty in the city of York that greatly influenced public and governmental attitudes towards poverty and deprivation. His first York study of 1899 (this was followed up in 1935 and 1951) was a comprehensive survey into the living conditions of the poor in York during which investigators visited every working class home. This amounted to the detailed study of 11,560 families or 46,754 individuals.[38] The results of this study were published in 1901 in his book Poverty, A Study of Town Life and claimed that 27.84 percent of the total population of York lived below the poverty line.[39]
Rowntree defined the poverty line in terms of a minimum weekly sum of money "necessary to enable families... to secure the necessaries of a healthy life", including fuel and light, rent, food, clothing, and household and personal items. This was quantified using scientific methods that hadn't been applied to the study of poverty before. For example, he consulted leading nutritionists of the period to discover the minimum calorific intake and nutritional balance necessary before people got ill or lost weight. He then surveyed the prices of food in York to discover what the cheapest prices in the area for the food needed for this minimum diet were and used this information to set his poverty line.
In analysing the results of the investigation he found that people at certain stages of life, for example in old age and early childhood, were more likely to be in abject poverty, living below the poverty line, than at other stages of life. From this he formulated the idea of the poverty cycle[40] in which some people moved in and out of absolute poverty during their lives. Rowntree's argument that poverty was the result of low wages went against the traditionally held view that the poor were responsible for their own plight.[41]
The differing approaches to social work often led to heated debates. In the early 20th century, Mary Richmond of the Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams of the Settlement House Movement engaged in a public dispute over the optimal approach; whether the problem should be tackled with COS' traditional, scientific method that focused on efficiency and prevention, or whether the Settlement House Movement's immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client, was superior.[42]
Even as schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to be developed, the question "is social work a profession?" lingered. In 1915, at the American National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems.[43] This led to the professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method..
Medical Social Work[edit]
Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a founder of the U.S. Settlement House movement and is considered one of the early influences on professional social work in the United States.
The first professional medical social workers in England were called hospital almoners, and were based in medical institutions. The Royal Free Hospital, London hired Mary Stewart as the first almoner in 1895. Her role was to assess people requesting treatment at the hospital to ensure that they were considered "deserving enough" of the free treatment. The role soon developed to cover the provision of other social programs, and by 1905 other hospitals had created similar roles. By this time, the Hospital Almoners Council had been formed to oversee the new profession.[16]
The first professional medical social workers to be hired in the United States were Garnet Pelton (6 months) and Ida Cannon (40 years), in 1905 at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Dr. Richard Clarke Cabot was a key advocate in the creation of the role, as he believed there to be a link between tuberculosis and sanitary conditions. Both Pelton and Cannon had trained as nurses before taking up the role. After graduating from Simmons College in 1907, Cabot was in charge of the outpatient ward of the hospital, and together with the newly created social workers, they redefined the way in which health and wellbeing was managed. The economic, social, family and psychological conditions that underpinned many of the conditions that patients presented with were recognised for the first time. Social workers would work in a complementary relationship with doctors, the former concentrating on physiological health, and the latter on social health. In addition to this, he saw that social work could improve medicine by providing a critical perspective on it while working alongside it in an organisational setting.
This approach soon spread through other American hospitals, and in 1911, there were 44 social work departments in 14 different cities. Two years later, the number of social work departments had grown to 200. After 1905, most social workers were trained as nurses. The American Association of Hospital Social Workers was set up in 1918 to increase the links between formal education and hospital practice. In 1929 there were ten university courses in medical social work. Around this time, psychiatry and psychology began to compete with social work as the complementary discourse to medicine in hospitals. Social work practice adapted to this by aligning itself more closely with psychoanalytic ideas, and became less concerned with living conditions and social health. While this detracted from the social concerns, it added a more scientific basis to dealing with patients, and challenging behaviours were more likely to be seen as a mental dysfunction than poor moral character.[16] The increase of social spending after World War Two saw another rise in the number of social workers.
State Welfare[edit]
William Beveridge's Beveridge Report of 1942 laid the foundations for the welfare state.
As the problem of poverty moved up the public agenda, it became increasingly clear that laissez-faire economic policies were not working and that governments had to take proactive measures to reduce poverty, rather than leave the task to privately run organizations. The principles of classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged by downturns in economic growth, a growing perception of the evils of poverty, unemployment and relative deprivation present within modern industrial cities, and the agitation of organized labour. New liberals began to adapt the old language of liberalism to confront these difficult circumstances, which they believed could only be resolved through a broader and more interventionist conception of the state.[44] A liberal convert to greater government intervention was Thomas Hill Green, who believed that the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their consciences. The state should intervene only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of a liberty to enslave the individual.[45]
This strand began to coalesce into the social liberalism movement at the turn of the twentieth century in Britain.[46] In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. In the early 1900s, the Liberals under H.H. Asquith introduced various reforms, including health insurance, unemployment insurance, and pensions for elderly workers, thereby laying the groundwork for the future British welfare state.[47]
William Beveridge, often called the 'architect of the welfare state', was pivotal in framing the debate about social work in the context of state welfare provision. His 1942 report on Social Insurance and Allied Services,[48] known commonly as the Beveridge Report, identified five "Giant Evils" in society: squalor, ignorance, want, idleness, and disease, and went on to propose widespread reform to the system of social welfare to mitigate these problems.[49] The report proved very popular with a war-weary public, and went on to form the basis to the post-war expansion of the Welfare State and the creation of the National Health Service, a free at the point of delivery healthcare provider.
Today[edit]
Currently, social work is known for its critical and holistic approach to understanding and intervening in social problems. This has led, for example, to the recognition of poverty as having a social and economic basis rooted in social policies rather than representing a personal moral defect. This trend also points to another historical development in the evolution of social work: once a profession engages in social control, it is directed at social and personal empowerment.
This is not to say that modern social workers do not engage in social control (consider, for example, child protection workers), and many, if not most, social workers likely would agree that there is an ongoing tension between these forces within the profession. For example, see the debate between structural social work and humanistic social work.[50]
Links[edit]
History of social work timeline
References[edit]
Social Welfare and Social Work portal
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^ Jump up to: a b Huff, Dan. "Chapter II. Settlements (1880-1900)". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20. External link in |work= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Victor J. Danilov (26 September 2013). "Social Activists". Famous Americans: A Directory of Museums, Historic Sites, and Memorials. Scarecrow Press. pp. 356–357. ISBN 978-0-8108-9186-9.
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Jump up ^ Reyes, J. M. (2008). Common space, safe place: Lived experiences of former settlement house participants from the West Town and Humboldt Park neighborhoods of Chicago Dissertation Abstract International, 69(5), 1682A. (UMI No. AAI3314871) Retrieved July 13, 2009, from Dissertations and Theses Database.
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