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History of Yahoo!
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2016)
Yahoo! was started at Stanford University. It was founded in January 1994 by Jerry Yang and David Filo, who were Electrical Engineering graduate students when they created a website named "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web". The Guide was a directory of other websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In April 1994, Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web was renamed "Yahoo!".[1][2] The yahoo.com domain was created on January 18, 1995.[3]
Yahoo! grew rapidly throughout the 1990s and diversified into a web portal, followed by numerous high-profile acquisitions. The company's stock price skyrocketed during the dot-com bubble and closed at an all-time high of US$118.75 in 2000;[4] however, after the dot-com bubble burst, it reached an all-time low of US$8.11 in 2001.[5] Yahoo! formally rejected an acquisition bid from the Microsoft Corporation in 2008.[6] In early 2012, the largest layoff in Yahoo!'s history was completed and 2,000 employees (14 percent of the workforce) lost their jobs.[7]
Carol Bartz replaced co-founder Jerry Yang as CEO in January 2009,[8] but was fired by the board of directors in September 2011; Tim Morse was appointed as interim CEO following Bartz's departure.[9] Former PayPal president Scott Thompson became CEO in January 2012 and after he resigned was replaced by Ross Levinsohn as the company's interim CEO on May 13, 2012. On July 16, former Google executive Marissa Mayer, became the CEO of the company.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history (1994–1996)
2 Growth (1997–1999)
3 Dot-com bubble (2000–2001)
4 Post dot-com bubble (2002–2005)
5 Yahoo! (2006–2008)
5.1 Acquisition attempt by Microsoft
6 Carol Bartz era (2009–2011)
7 Scott Thompson period (2012)
7.1 Employee layoffs
7.2 Facebook patent lawsuit
7.3 Reorganization
7.4 Thompson's College degree controversy
7.5 Thompson replaced by Ross Levinsohn (interim)
8 Marissa Mayer era (2012–present)
9 References
10 External links
Early history (1994–1996)[edit]
Upon the April 1994 renaming of Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web to Yahoo!, Yang and Filo said that "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle" was a suitable backronym for this name, but they insisted they had selected the name because they liked the word's general definition, as in Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift: "rude, unsophisticated, uncouth." Its URL was akebono.stanford.edu/yahoo.
David Filo
Jerry Yang
While the yahoo.com domain was created in January 1995,[3] by the end of 1994 Yahoo! had already received one million hits. Yang and Filo realized their website had massive business potential, and on March 2, 1995, Yahoo! was incorporated.[11] Yang and Filo sought out the advice of entrepreneur Randy Adams for a recommendation of a venture capital firm and Adams introduced them to Michael Moritz.[12] On April 5, 1995, Michael Moritz of Sequoia Capital provided Yahoo! with two rounds of venture capital, raising approximately $3 million.[13][14] On April 12, 1996, Yahoo! had its initial public offering, raising $33.8 million by selling 2.6 million shares at the opening bid of $13 each.
The word "Yahoo" had previously been trademarked for barbecue sauce, knives (by EBSCO Industries) and human propelled watercraft (by Old Town Canoe Co.). Therefore, in order to get control of the trademark, Yang and Filo added the exclamation mark to the name.[15] However, the exclamation mark is often incorrectly omitted when referring to Yahoo!.
Srinija Srinivasan, an alumna of Stanford University, was hired as Yahoo!'s fifth employee as "Ontological Yahoo!" to assist Yang and Filo with organizing the content on the internet.[16][17]
Yahoo! headquarters in Sunnyvale
Growth (1997–1999)[edit]
In the late 1990s, Yahoo!, MSN, Lycos, Excite and other web portals were growing rapidly. Web portal providers rushed to acquire companies to expand their range of services, generally with the goal of increasing the time each user stays within the portal.
On March 8, 1997, Yahoo! acquired online communications company Four11. Four11's webmail service, Rocketmail, became Yahoo! Mail. Yahoo! also acquired ClassicGames.com and turned it into Yahoo! Games. Yahoo! then acquired direct marketing company Yoyodyne Entertainment, Inc. on October 12, 1998.[18] In January 1999, Yahoo! acquired web hosting provider GeoCities. Another company Yahoo! took over was eGroups, which became Yahoo! Groups in June 2000. On March 8, 1998, Yahoo! launched Yahoo! Pager,[19] an instant messaging service that was renamed Yahoo! Messenger a year later.
When acquiring companies, Yahoo! often changed the relevant terms of service. For example, they claimed intellectual property rights for content on their servers, unlike the previous policies of the companies they acquired. As a result, many of the acquisitions were controversial and unpopular with users of the existing services.[citation needed]
Dot-com bubble (2000–2001)[edit]
Yahoo! stock doubled in price in the last month of 1999.[20] On January 3, 2000, at the height of the dot-com boom, Yahoo! stock closed at an all-time high of $118.75 a share. Sixteen days later, shares in Yahoo! Japan became the first stock in Japanese history to trade at over ¥100,000,000, reaching a price of 101.4 million yen ($962,140 at that time).[21]
On February 7, 2000, yahoo.com was brought to a halt for a few hours, as the victim of a distributed denial of service attack (DDoS).[22][23][24] On the next day, its shares rose about $16, or 4.5 percent as the failure was blamed on hackers rather than on an internal glitch, unlike a fault with eBay earlier that year.
During the dot-com boom, the cable news network CNBC reported that Yahoo! and eBay were discussing a 50/50 merger.[25][26] Although the merger never materialized, the two companies decided to form a marketing/advertising alliance six years later in 2006.[27]
On June 26, 2000, Yahoo! and Google signed an agreement which would tap the Google engine to power searches made on yahoo.com.[28]
Post dot-com bubble (2002–2005)[edit]
Yahoo! was one of the few surviving companies after the dot-com bubble burst. Nevertheless, on September 26, 2001, Yahoo! stock closed at an all-time low of $8.11.
Yahoo! formed partnerships with telecommunications and Internet providers to create content-rich broadband services to compete with AOL. For example, on June 3, 2002, SBC and Yahoo! launched a national co-branded dialup service.[29][30] In July 2003, BT Openworld announced an alliance with Yahoo! [31][32] On August 23, 2005, Yahoo! and Verizon launched an integrated DSL service.[33]
In late 2002, Yahoo! began to bolster its search services by acquiring other search engines. In December 2002, Yahoo! acquired Inktomi. In February 2005, Yahoo! acquired Konfabulator and rebranded it Yahoo! Widgets,[34] a desktop application, and in July 2003, it acquired Overture Services, Inc. and its subsidiaries AltaVista and AlltheWeb. On February 18, 2004, Yahoo! dropped Google-powered results and returned to using its own technology to provide search results.[35]
In March 2004, Yahoo! launched a paid inclusion program whereby commercial websites were guaranteed listings on the Yahoo! search engine after payment.[36] This scheme was lucrative, but proved unpopular both with website marketers (who were reluctant to pay), and the public (who were unhappy about the paid-for listings being indistinguishable from other search results).[37] As of October 2006, Paid Inclusion ceased to guarantee any commercial listing and only helped the paid inclusion customers, by crawling their site more often and by providing some statistics on the searches that led to the page and some additional smart links (provided by customers as feeds) below the actual url.
In 2004, in response to Google's release of Gmail, Yahoo! upgraded the storage of all free Yahoo! Mail accounts from 4 MB to 1 GB, and all Yahoo! Mail Plus accounts to 2 GB. On July 9, 2004, Yahoo! acquired e-mail provider Oddpost to add an Ajax interface to Yahoo! Mail Beta.[38] Google also released Google Talk, a voice over IP and instant messaging service, on August 24, 2005. On October 13, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft announced that Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger would become interoperable. In 2007, Yahoo! took out the storage meters, thus allowing users unlimited storage.[39]
Yahoo! continued acquiring companies to expand its range of services, particularly Web 2.0 services. Yahoo! Launch became Yahoo! Music in February 2005. On March 20, 2005, Yahoo! purchased photo sharing service Flickr.[40] That same month, the company launched its blogging and social networking service Yahoo! 360°. In June 2005, Yahoo! acquired blo.gs, a service based on RSS feed aggregation. Yahoo! then bought online social event calendar Upcoming.org, in October 2005. Yahoo! acquired social bookmark site del.icio.us in December 2005 and then playlist sharing community webjay in January 2009.
Yahoo! (2006–2008)[edit]
Yahoo! Next is an incubation ground for future Yahoo! technologies currently in their beta testing phase, similar to Google Labs. It contains forums for Yahoo! users to give feedback to assist in the development of these future Yahoo! technologies.
In early 2006, Yahoo! offered users the chance to beta test a new version of the Yahoo! homepage. However, it currently only supports Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Users of other browsers, such as Opera, have criticized Yahoo! for this move. Yahoo! says they intend to support additional browsers in the future.
On August 27, 2007, Yahoo! released a new version of Yahoo! Mail. It added Yahoo! Messenger integration (which included Windows Live Messenger due to the networks' federation) and free text messages (not necessarily free to the receiver) to mobile phones in the U.S., Canada, India, and the Philippines.[41]
On January 29, 2008, Yahoo! announced that the company was laying off 1,000 employees, as the company had suffered severely in its inability to effectively compete with industry search leader Google. The cuts represented 7 percent of the company's workforce of 14,300.[42]
In February 2008, Yahoo! acquired Cambridge, Massachusetts-based Maven Networks, a supplier of internet video players and video advertising tools, for approximately $160 million.
Yahoo! announced on November 17, 2008, that Yang would be stepping down as CEO.[43]
On December 10, 2008, Yahoo! began laying off 1,520 employees around the world as the company managed its way through the global economic downturn[44]
Acquisition attempt by Microsoft[edit]
Microsoft and Yahoo! pursued merger discussions in 2005, 2006, and 2007, that were all ultimately unsuccessful. At the time, analysts were skeptical about the wisdom of a business combination by these two firms.[45][46]
On February 1, 2008, after its friendly takeover offer was rebuffed by Yahoo!, Microsoft made an unsolicited takeover bid to buy Yahoo! for $44.6 billion in cash and stock.[47][48] Days later, Yahoo! considered alternatives to the merger with Microsoft, including a merger with Internet giant Google[49] or a potential transaction with News Corp.[50] However, on February 11, 2008, Yahoo! decided to reject Microsoft's offer as "substantially undervaluing" Yahoo!'s brand, audience, investments, and growth prospects.[51]
On February 22, two Detroit-based pension companies sued Yahoo! and its board of directors for allegedly breaching their duty to shareholders by opposing Microsoft's takeover bid and pursuing "value destructive" third-party deals.[52] In early March, Google CEO Eric Schmidt went on record saying that he was concerned that a potential Microsoft-Yahoo! merger might hurt the internet by compromising its openness.[53] The value of Microsoft's cash and stock offer declined with Microsoft's stock price, falling to $42.2 billion by April 4.[54] On April 5, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer sent a letter to Yahoo!'s board of directors stating that if within three weeks they had not accepted the deal, Microsoft would approach shareholders directly in hopes of electing a new board and moving forward with merger talks (a hostile takeover).[55] In response, Yahoo! stated on April 7 that they were not against a merger, but that they wanted a better offer. In addition, they stated that Microsoft's "aggressive" approach was worsening their relationship and the chances of a "friendly" merger.[56] Later the same day, Yahoo! stated that the original $44.6 billion offer was not acceptable.[56] Following this, there was considerable discussion of having Time Warner's AOL and Yahoo! merge, instead of the originally proposed Microsoft deal.[57]
On May 3, 2008, Microsoft withdrew the offer. During a meeting between Ballmer and Yang, Microsoft had offered to raise its offer by $5 billion to $33 per share, while Yahoo! demanded $37 per share. One of Ballmer's lieutenants suggested that Yang would implement a poison pill to make the takeover as difficult as possible, saying "They are going to burn the furniture if we go hostile. They are going to destroy the place."[58][59]
Analysts said that Yahoo!'s shares, which closed at $28.67 per share on May 2, were likely to drop below $25 per share and perhaps as low as $20 per share on May 5, which would put significant pressure on Yang to engineer a turnaround of the company. Some suggested that institutional investors would file lawsuits against Yahoo!'s board of directors for not acting in shareholder interest by refusing Microsoft's offer.[60][61]
On May 5, 2008, following Microsoft's withdrawal, Yahoo!'s stock plunged some 15% lower to $23.02 per share in Monday trading and trimmed about $6 billion off of its market capitalization.[62]
On June 12, 2008, Yahoo! announced that it had ended all talks with Microsoft about purchasing either part of the business (the search advertising business) or all of the company. Talks had taken place the previous weekend (June 8), during which Microsoft allegedly told Yahoo! that it was no longer interested in a purchase of the entire company at the price offered earlier – $33 per share. Also, on June 12, Yahoo! announced a non-exclusive search advertising alliance with Google.[63] Upon this announcement, many executives and senior employees announced their plans to leave the company as it appeared they had lost confidence in Yahoo!'s strategies. According to market analysts, these pending departures impacted Wall Street's perception of the company.[64]
On July 7, 2008, Microsoft said it would reconsider proposing another bid for Yahoo! if the company's nine directors were ousted at the annual meeting scheduled to be held on August 1, 2008. Microsoft believed it would be able to better negotiate with a new board.[65]
Billionaire investor Carl Icahn, calling the current board irrational in its approach to talks with Microsoft, launched a proxy fight to replace Yahoo!'s board. On July 21, 2008, Yahoo! settled with Carl Icahn, agreeing to appoint him and two allies to an expanded board.
On November 20, 2008, almost 10 months after Microsoft's initial offer of $33 per share, Yahoo!'s stock (YHOO) dropped to a 52-week low, trading at only $8.94 per share.[66]
On November 30, 2008, Microsoft offered to buy Yahoo!'s search business for $20 billion.[67]
On July 29, 2009, it was announced in a 10-year deal that Microsoft would have full access to Yahoo!'s search engine to be used in future Microsoft projects for its search engine, Bing.[68] Under the deal, Microsoft was not required to pay any cash up front to Yahoo!. The day after the deal was announced, Yahoo!'s share price declined more than 10% to $15.14 per share, about 60% lower than Microsoft's takeover bid a year earlier.
Carol Bartz era (2009–2011)[edit]
On January 13, 2009, Yahoo! appointed Carol Bartz, former executive chairman of Autodesk, as its new chief executive officer and a member of the board of directors.[69] Yahoo! tried to change its direction after chief executive Carol Bartz replaced co-founder Jerry Yang.[8]
In July 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo! agreed to a deal that would see Yahoo!'s websites use both Microsoft's search technology and search advertising.[70] Yahoo! in turn would become the sales team for banner advertising for both companies.[70] While Microsoft would provide algorithmic search results, Yahoo! would control the presentation and personalization of results for searches on its pages.[70]
On July 21, 2009, Yahoo! launched a new version of its front page, called Metro. The new page allowed users to customize it through the prominent "My Favorites" panel on the left side and integrate third-party web services and launch them within one page. Such third-party applications include pages of Netflix, E-trade, Facebook, and other sites.[71]
On October 28, 2009, Bartz told PCWorld that she struggled with the question of what Yahoo! is when she took over as CEO in January 2009. After talking to many users in about 10 countries, she said, Yahoo! executives concluded that users consider it their "home on the Internet."[72]
In September 2011, Bartz sent an email to Yahoo! employees saying she was removed from her position at Yahoo! by the company's chairman Roy Bostock via a phone call.[73] CFO Tim Morse was named as Interim CEO of the company.[74][75]
Scott Thompson period (2012)[edit]
On January 4, 2012, Scott Thompson, former President of PayPal, was named the new chief executive officer.[76]
Employee layoffs[edit]
In early 2012, after the appointment of Scott Thompson as the new CEO, many rumors spread about large layoffs looming. Kara Swisher who covers Yahoo at All Things Digital reported that Yahoo's Chief Product Officer Blake Irving Resigned,[77] Andrei Broder, who was VP of computational advertising and chief scientist of the Advertising Product Group, as well as Jianchang (JC) Mao, who headed advertising sciences left the company. This followed the departures of Yahoo! Labs head Prabhakar Raghavan who left for Google, and Raghu Ramakrishnan, who went to Microsoft.[78]
On April 4, 2012, Yahoo announced a cut of 2,000 jobs or about 14 percent of 14,100 workers employed by Yahoo. Yahoo! said it will save around $375 million annually after the layoffs are completed at end of 2012.[79]
Facebook patent lawsuit[edit]
On March 14, Yahoo! filed a lawsuit against Facebook over the alleged infringement of 10 patents.[80][81][82] Facebook responded by counter suing Yahoo!.[83][84][85]
Reorganization[edit]
In an email memo sent to employees in April 2012, Scott Thomson re-iterated his view that customers should come first at Yahoo. He defined customers as both users and advertisers. He also completely re-organized the company. The reorganization took effect on May 1, 2012 and included operations in three major groups for Yahoo! — Consumer, Regions and Technology.
The Consumer group has three groups: Media, Connections, and Commerce. The customers of this group are the users of Yahoo!.
The Regions group operates three regions: • Americas, APAC, and EMEA. The customers of this group are the advertisers of Yahoo!.
The Technology group includes Core Platforms, and Central Technology. It provides technology and support to the other two major groups.
The Corporate group (Finance, Legal, and HR) remains unchanged and continues to support the new groups.[86][87][88][89][90][91]
Thompson's College degree controversy[edit]
On May 3, 2012, news broke out that Thompson's biography at Yahoo was incorrect. The CEO's biography stated that he held a dual accounting and computer science degree from Stonehill College, whereas investigation revealed that Thompson's degree was solely in accounting, and not in Computer Science. The revelation came from Dan Loeb, founder of Third Point LLC, which held 5.8% of Yahoo! stock, who had been trying to gain seats on the board of directors of Yahoo![92][93][94]
In response to the crisis, Yahoo!'s board of directors formed a three-member committee to review Thompson's academic credentials and the vetting process that preceded his selection as CEO. The review committee's chairman is Alfred Amoroso, who joined Yahoo!'s board in February 2012. The other directors on the panel are John Hayes and Thomas McInerney, who both joined in April 2012. The committee retained Terry Bird as independent counsel.[95]
Thompson replaced by Ross Levinsohn (interim)[edit]
On May 13, 2012, Scott Thompson was replaced by Ross Levinsohn as the company's interim CEO.[96] In June 2012, Yahoo! hired former Google director, Michael G. Barrett as its Chief Revenue Officer.[97][98]
Marissa Mayer era (2012–present)[edit]
On July 16, 2012, former Google executive and Walmart corporate director Marissa Mayer was named as Yahoo! CEO and President, and youngest CEO of a Fortune 500 company.[99]
On May 19, 2013, the Wall Street Journal reported that Yahoo's board had approved an all-cash deal to purchase the six-year-old blogging website Tumblr. The announcement reportedly signifies a changing trend in the technology industry, as large corporations like Yahoo, Facebook, and Google acquire start-up Internet companies that generate low amounts of revenue as a way in which to connect with sizeable, fast-growing online communities. The Wall Street Journal stated that the purchase of Tumblr would satisfy the company's need for "a thriving social-networking and communications hub." Yahoo will pay US$1.1 billion for Tumblr, and the company's CEO and founder David Karp will remain a large shareholder.[100]
The revamp of the Yahoo-owned photography service Flickr was launched in Times Square, New York, U.S. on May 20, 2013 in an event that was attended by the city's mayor and a large contingency of journalists. Eleven billboards in Times Square advertised the website's new tagline "biggr, spectaculr, wherevr." as part of the launch and Yahoo stated that it will provide Flickr users with a free terabyte of storage. The official announcement of the Tumblr acquisition was also included in the May 20 event.[101]
The media reported on Yahoo!'s interest in the video streaming site Hulu on May 26, 2013. Under Mayer's leadership, Yahoo!'s bid is worth between US$600 and $800 million, as a variety of options that consist of different circumstances were put forward by the company.[102] As of May 28, 2013, Yahoo!'s videos attract 45 million unique visitors a month, while Hulu has 24 million visitors—the combination of the two audiences can place Yahoo! in the second-most popular position after Google and its subsidiary YouTube.[103]
On August 2, 2013 Yahoo Inc announced the acquisition of social web browser concern RockMelt. With the acquisition, RockMelt team, including the concern's CEO Eric Vishria and CTO Tim Howes will be the part of Yahoo team. As a result, all the RockMelt apps and existing web services will go off from August 31.[104]
On August 7, 2013, at around midnight EDT, Yahoo! announced that it will be introducing the final version of the new logo on 5 September 2013 at 4:00 a.m. UTC. To mark the occasion, the company launched a "30 days of change" campaign that involved releasing a variation of the logo on each of the 30 days leading up to the revelation date.[105][106]
Data collated by comScore during July 2013 revealed that more people in the U.S. visited Yahoo! websites during the month in comparison to Google websites—the occasion was the first time that Yahoo! outperformed Google since 2011. The data did not incorporate visit statistics for the Yahoo!-owned Tumblr website or mobile phone usage.[107]
On February 11, 2014, Yahoo! has acquired a social diary company named Wander.[108]
On February 13, 2014, Yahoo! acquired Distill, a technical recruiting company.[109]
On September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach in which hackers stole information associated with at least 500 million user accounts in late 2014.[110] According to the BBC, this was the largest technical breach reported to date.[111] Specific details of material taken include names, email addresses, telephone numbers, encrypted or unencrypted security questions and answers, dates of birth, and encrypted passwords.[112] The breach used manufactured web cookies to falsify login credentials, allowing hackers to gain access to any account without a password.[113][114][115] On December 14, 2016 a separate data breach, occurring earlier around August 2013 was reported. This breach affected over 1 billion user accounts and is again considered the largest discovered in the history of the Internet.[116]
On January 9, 2017, Yahoo! CEO Marissa Mayer announces she will step down from Yahoo's board of directors if its sale to Verizon goes through. She also announced that when that deal closed Yahoo! will rename itself to Altaba.[117][118][119][120][121]
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^ Jump up to: a b c Goldman, David (29 July 2009). "Microsoft and Yahoo: Search partners". CNNMoney.com. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
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Jump up ^ Fiegerman, Seth (9 January 2017). "Marissa Mayer to resign from Yahoo board after sale". CNNMoney. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Merced, Michael J. De La (9 January 2017). "After Verizon Deal, Yahoo to Become 'Altaba' and Marissa Mayer to Step Down From Board". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
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Jump up ^ Mascarenhas, Hyacinth (10 January 2017). "Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer to step down after Verizon deal as remaining business to be named Altaba". International Business Times UK. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Marissa Mayer is resigning from Yahoo's board". Business Insider. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
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History of Purgatory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Image of a fiery purgatory in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
Image of a non-fiery purgatory (Gustave Doré: illustration for Dante's Purgatorio, Canto 24)
The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestial Hades" appears in the writings of Plato and Heraclides Ponticus and in many other pagan writers. This concept is distinguished from the Hades of the underworld described in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In contrast, the celestial Hades was understood as an intermediary place where souls spent an undetermined time after death before either moving on to a higher level of existence or being reincarnated back on earth. Its exact location varied from author to author. Heraclides of Pontus thought it was in the Milky Way; the Academicians, the Stoics, Cicero, Virgil, Plutarch, the Hermetical writings situated it between the Moon and the Earth or around the Moon; while Numenius and the Latin Neoplatonists thought it was located between the sphere of the fixed stars and the Earth.[1]
Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, we find another intermediate state entering Jewish religious thought in the last centuries B.C.E. In Maccabees we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification[2] a practice accepted by some Christians. The same practice appears in other traditions, such as the medieval Chinese Buddhist practice of making offerings on behalf of the dead, who are said to suffer numerous trials.[3] Among other reasons, Catholic belief in purgatory is based on the practice of prayer for the dead.[4]
Descriptions and doctrine regarding purgatory developed over the centuries.[5] Those who believe in purgatory interpret extra-biblical passages such as 2 Maccabees 12:41-46 (not accepted as Scripture by Protestants but recognized by Orthodox and Catholics), and biblical passages such as 2 Timothy 1:18, Matthew 12:32, Luke 16:19-16:26, Luke 23:43, 1 Corinthians 3:11-3:15 and Hebrews 12:29 as support for prayer for the dead, an active interim state for the dead prior to the resurrection, and purifying flames after death.[3] The first Christians looked forward to the imminent return of Christ and did not develop detailed beliefs about the interim state.[6] Gradually, Christians, especially in the West,[6] took an interest in circumstances of the interim state between one's death and the future resurrection. Christians both East and West prayed for the dead in this interim state, although theologians in the East refrained from defining it.[6] Augustine of Hippo distinguished between the purifying fire that saves and eternal consuming fire for the unrepentant.[3] Gregory the Great established a connection between earthly penance and purification after death. All Soul's Day, established in the 10th century, turned popular attention to the condition of departed souls.[3]
The idea of Purgatory as a physical place (like heaven and hell) was "born" in the late 11th century.[7] Medieval theologians concluded that the purgatorial punishments consisted of material fire. The Western formulation of purgatory proved to be a sticking point in the Great Schism between East and West. The Catholic Church believes that the living can help those whose purification from their sins is not yet completed not only by praying for them but also by gaining indulgences for them[8] as an act of intercession.[9] The later Middle Ages saw the growth of considerable abuses, such as the unrestricted sale of indulgences by professional "pardoners"[9] sent to collect contributions to projects such as the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These abuses were one of the factors that led to the Protestant Reformation. Most Protestants rejected the idea of purgatory, as never clearly mentioned in Luther's canon of the Bible, which excludes the Deuterocanonical books. Modern Catholic theologians have softened the punitive aspects of purgatory and stress instead the willingness of the dead to undergo purification as preparation for the happiness of heaven[3]
The English Anglican scholar John Henry Newman argued, in a book that he wrote before becoming Catholic, that the essence of the doctrine on purgatory is locatable in ancient tradition, and that the core consistency of such beliefs are evidence that Christianity was "originally given to us from heaven".[10]
Contents
1 Christian Antiquity
1.1 Prayer for the dead
1.2 Purification after death
1.3 Interim state
2 Early Middle Ages
2.1 Gregory the Great
2.2 Visions of purgatory
2.3 Other influential writers
3 High Middle Ages
3.1 East-West Schism
3.2 All Soul's Day
3.3 Twelfth century
3.4 "Birth of purgatory"
3.5 Thomas Aquinas
3.6 First Council of Lyon
3.7 Late Middle Ages
4 Subsequent history
4.1 Latin-Greek relations
4.2 Protestant Reformation
5 References
6 External links
Christian Antiquity[edit]
A procession in the Catacombs of St. Callistus, Rome. The catacombs contain inscriptions that are often prayers for the dead.[11]
See also: Early Christianity
Prayer for the dead[edit]
Prayers for the dead were known to ancient Jewish practice, and it has been speculated that Christianity may have taken its similar practice from its Jewish heritage.[12] In Christianity, prayer for the dead is attested since at least the 2nd century,[13] evidenced in part by the tomb inscription of Abercius, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (d. c. 200).[14] Celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested to since at least the 3rd century.[15]
Purification after death[edit]
Specific examples of belief in purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the Church Fathers.[16] Irenaeus (c. 130-202) mentioned an abode where the souls of the dead remained until the universal judgment, a process that has been described as one which "contains the concept of... purgatory."[17] Both St. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215) and his pupil, Origen of Alexandria (c. 185-254), developed a view of purification after death;[18] this view drew upon the notion that fire is a divine instrument from the Old Testament, and understood this in the context of New Testament teachings such as baptism by fire, from the Gospels, and a purificatory trial after death, from St. Paul.[19] Origen, in arguing against soul sleep, stated that the souls of the elect immediately entered paradise unless not yet purified, in which case they passed into a state of punishment, a penal fire, which is to be conceived as a place of purification.[20] For both Clement and Origen, the fire was neither a material thing nor a metaphor, but a "spiritual fire".[21] An early Latin author, Tertullian (c. 160-225), also articulated a view of purification after death.[22] In Tertullian's understanding of the afterlife, the souls of martyrs entered directly into eternal blessedness,[23] whereas the rest entered a generic realm of the dead. There the wicked suffered a foretaste of their eternal punishments,[23] whilst the good experienced various stages and places of bliss wherein "the idea of a kind of purgatory… is quite plainly found," an idea that is representative of a view widely dispersed in antiquity.[24] Later examples, wherein further elaborations are articulated, include St. Cyprian (d. 258),[25] St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407),[26] and St. Augustine (354-430),[27] among others.
Interim state[edit]
Main article: Interim state
The notion of an interim state of souls after death developed only gradually. This may be in part because it was of little interest as long as Christians looked for an imminent end of the world, as many scholars believe they did. The Eastern Church came to admit the existence of an intermediate state, but refrained from defining it, while at the same time maintaining the belief in prayer for the dead that was a constant feature of both Eastern and Western liturgies, and which is unintelligible without belief in an interim state in which the dead may be benefited. Christians in the West demonstrated much more curiosity about this interim state than those in the East: The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity and occasional remarks by Saint Augustine give expression to their belief that sins can be purged by suffering in an afterlife and that the process can be accelerated by prayer.[6]
In the early 5th century, Augustine spoke of the pain that purgatorial fire causes as more severe than anything a man can suffer in this life.[28] And Gregory the Great said that those who after this life "will expiate their faults by purgatorial flames," and he adds "that the pain be more intolerable than any one can suffer in this life."[29]
Early Middle Ages[edit]
Gregory the Great with a dove alighting on his shoulder while the pontiff writes his homilies, an ancient tradition about the saint.[30]
During the Early Middle Ages, the doctrine of final purification developed distinctive features in the Latin-speaking West - these differed from developments in the Greek-speaking East.
Gregory the Great[edit]
Pope Gregory the Great's Dialogues, written in the late 6th century, evidence a development in the understanding of the afterlife distinctive of the direction that Latin Christendom would take:
As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in the age to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.[31]
Visions of purgatory[edit]
Visions of purgatory abounded; Bede (died 735) mentioned a vision of a beautiful heaven and a lurid hell with adjacent temporary abodes,[32] as did Saint Boniface (died 754).[33] In the 7th century, the Irish abbot St. Fursa described his foretaste of the afterlife, where, though protected by angels, he was pursued by demons who said: "It is not fitting that he should enjoy the blessed life unscathed..., for every transgression that is not purged on earth must be avenged in heaven", and on his return he was engulfed in a billowing fire that threatened to burn him, "for it stretches out each one according to their merits... For just as the body burns through unlawful desire, so the soul will burn, as the lawful, due penalty for every sin."[34]
Other influential writers[edit]
Others who expounded upon purgatory include Haymo (died 853), Rabanus Maurus (c. 780 – 856), and Walafrid Strabo (c. 808 – 849).[35]
High Middle Ages[edit]
East-West Schism[edit]
In 1054, the Bishop of Rome and the four Greek-speaking patriarchs of the East excommunicated each other, triggering the East-West Schism. The schism split the church basically into the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. In the West, the understanding of purification through fire in the intermediate state continued to develop.
All Soul's Day[edit]
The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates several All Souls' Days in the year,[36] but in the West only one such annual commemoration is celebrated. The establishment, at the end of the 10th century, of this remembrance helped focus popular imagination on the fate of the departed, and fostered a sense of solidarity between the living and the dead. Then, in the 12th century, the elaboration of the theology of penance helped create a notion of purgatory as a place to complete penances unfinished in this life.[6]
Twelfth century[edit]
By the 12th century, the process of purification had acquired the Latin name, "purgatorium", from the verb purgare: to purge.[37] In that same century, around 1128, Diego Gelmírez, then Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, berated his enemy, Arias Pérez, saying to him, "I fear, therefore, that if such that you are you leave this world, you will lose eternal life and incur the perpetual condemnation of your soul." These words make no mention of an intermediate state,[38] but deny its existence no more than does the Catechism of the Catholic Church, when it says: "Immediately after death the souls of those who die in a state of mortal sin descend into hell, where they suffer the punishments of hell, 'eternal fire'. The chief punishment of hell is eternal separation from God, in whom alone man can possess the life and happiness for which he was created and for which he longs."[39]
"Birth of purgatory"[edit]
Medievalist Jacques Le Goff defines the "birth of purgatory", i.e. the conception of purgatory as a physical place, rather than merely as a state, as occurring between 1170 and 1200.[40] Le Goff acknowledged that the notion of purification after death, without the medieval notion of a physical place, existed in antiquity, arguing specifically that Clement of Alexandria, and his pupil Origen of Alexandria, derived their view from a combination of biblical teachings, though he considered vague concepts of purifying and punishing fire to predate Christianity.[41] Le Goff also considered Peter the Lombard (d. 1160), in expounding on the teachings of St. Augustine and Gregory the Great, to have contributed significantly to the birth of purgatory in the sense of a physical place.
While the idea of purgatory as a process of cleansing thus dated back to early Christianity, the 12th century was the heyday of medieval otherworld-journey narratives such as the Irish Visio Tnugdali, and of pilgrims' tales about St. Patrick's Purgatory, a cavelike entrance to purgatory on a remote island in Ireland.[42] The legend of St Patrick's Purgatory (Tractatus de Purgatorio Sancti Patricii) written in that century by Hugh of Saltry, also known as Henry of Sawtry, was "part of a huge, repetitive contemporary genre of literature of which the most familiar today is Dante's";[43] another is the Visio Tnugdali. Other legends localized the entrance to Purgatory in places such as a cave on the volcanic Mount Etna in Sicily.[44] Thus the idea of purgatory as a physical place became widespread on a popular level, and was defended also by some theologians.
Thomas Aquinas[edit]
What has been called the classic formulation of the doctrine of purgatory, namely the means by which any unforgiven guilt of venial sins is expiated and punishment for any kind of sins is borne, is attributed to Thomas Aquinas[6] although he ceased work on his Summa Theologica before reaching the part in which he would have dealt with Purgatory, which is treated in the "Supplement" added after his death. According to Aquinas and the other scholastics, the dead in purgatory are at peace because they are sure of salvation, and may be helped by the prayers of the faithful and especially the offering of the Eucharist, because they are still part of the Communion of Saints, from which only those in hell or limbo are excluded.[6]
First Council of Lyon[edit]
Dogmatic definition of purgatory was given in 1245: the First Council of Lyon declared that, on Scriptural grounds and because the Greeks too "are said to believe and to affirm that the souls of those who after a penance has been received yet not performed, or who, without mortal sin yet die with venial and slight sin, can be cleansed after death and can be helped by the suffrages of the Church, we, since they say a place of purgation of this kind has not been indicated to them with a certain and proper name by their teachers, we indeed, calling it purgatory according to the traditions and authority of the Holy Fathers, wish that in the future it be called by that name in their area. For in that transitory fire certainly sins, though not criminal or capital, which before have not been remitted through penance but were small and minor sins, are cleansed, and these weigh heavily even after death, if they have been forgiven in this life."[45]
Late Middle Ages[edit]
Through theology, literature, and indulgences, purgatory became central to late medieval religion[6] and became associated with indulgences and other penitential practices, such as fasting. This was another step in the development of this doctrine.
See also: Anima sola, Gertrude the Great, Sabbatine privilege
Subsequent history[edit]
Latin-Greek relations[edit]
Basil Bessarion (c. 1403-1472), Latin Patriarch of Constantinople.
The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "there is a state beyond death where believers continue to be perfected and led to full divinization".[46] But in the 15th century, at the Council of Florence, authorities of the Eastern Orthodox Church identified some aspects of the Latin idea of purgatory as a point on which there were principal differences between Greek and Latin doctrine.[47] The Eastern Christians objected especially to the legalistic distinction between guilt and punishment[6] and to the fire of purgatory being material fire. The decrees of the Council, which contained no reference to fire and, without using the word "purgatory" ("purgatorium"), spoke only of "pains of cleansing" ("poenis purgatoriis"),[48] were rejected at the time by the Eastern churches but formed the basis on which certain Eastern communities were later received into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church.[49] At the Council itself, the Greek Metropolitan Bessarion argued against the existence of real purgatorial fire. In effecting full communion between the Roman Catholic Church and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church by the Union of Brest (1595), the two agreed, "We shall not debate about purgatory, but we entrust ourselves to the teaching of the Holy Church."[50] Furthermore, the Council of Trent, in its discussion of purgatory, instructed the bishops not to preach on such "difficult and subtle questions".[51]
Protestant Reformation[edit]
During the Protestant Reformation, certain Protestant theologians developed a view of salvation (soteriology) that excluded purgatory. This was in part a result from a doctrinal change concerning justification and sanctification on the part of the reformers. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of divine grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works; however, in Martin Luther's doctrine, justification rather meant "the declaring of one to be righteous", where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit.[52] In this process, good works done in faith (i.e. through penance) are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness; hence, in Protestant theology, "becoming perfect" came to be understood as an instantaneous act of God and not a process or journey of purification that continues in the afterlife.
John Calvin, unknown artist, British School, inscribed 1564
Thus, Protestant soteriology developed the view that each one of the elect (saved) experienced instantaneous glorification upon death. As such, there was little reason to pray for the dead. Luther wrote in Question No. 211 in his expanded Small Catechism: "We should pray for ourselves and for all other people, even for our enemies, but not for the souls of the dead." Luther, after he stopped believing in purgatory around 1530,[53] openly affirmed the doctrine of soul sleep.[54] Purgatory came to be seen as one of the "unbiblical corruptions" that had entered Church teachings sometime subsequent to the apostolic age. Hence, the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England produced during the English Reformation stated: "The Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory...is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture; but rather repugnant to the word of God" (article 22). Likewise, John Calvin, central theologian of Reformed Protestantism, considered purgatory a superstition, writing in his Institutes (5.10): "The doctrine of purgatory ancient, but refuted by a more ancient Apostle. Not supported by ancient writers, by Scripture, or solid argument. Introduced by custom and a zeal not duly regulated by the word of God… we must hold by the word of God, which rejects this fiction." In general, this position remains indicative of Protestant belief today, with the notable exception of certain Anglo-Catholics, such as the Guild of All Souls, which describe themselves as Reformed and Catholic (and specifically not Protestant) and believe in purgatory.
In response to Protestant Reformation critics, the Council of Trent reaffirmed purgatory as already taught by the First Council of Lyon, confining itself to the concepts of purification after death and the efficacy of prayers for the dead.[6] It simply affirmed the existence of purgatory and the great value of praying for the deceased, but sternly instructed preachers not to push beyond that and distract, confuse, and mislead the faithful with unnecessary speculations concerning the nature and duration of purgatorial punishments.[55] It thus forbade presentation as Church teaching of the elaborate medieval speculation that had grown up around the concept of purgatory.
Anglican apologist C. S. Lewis gave as an example of this speculation, which he interpreted as what the Church of England's Thirty-Nine Articles, XXII meant by "the Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory",[56] the depiction of the state of purgatory as just a temporary hell with horrible devils tormenting souls. The etymology of the word "purgatory", he remarked, indicates cleansing, not simply retributive punishment. Lewis declared his personal belief in purgatory, a process of after-death purification.[57]
Later speculations include the idea advocated by Saints Robert Bellarmine and Alphonsus Liguori of asking for the prayers of the souls in purgatory,[6] a notion not accepted by all theologians. Saint Francis de Sales argued that, in the mention in Philippians 2:10 of every knee bowing at the name of Jesus "in heaven, on earth, and under the earth", "under the earth" was a reference to those in purgatory, since it could not apply to those in hell.[58] Frederick William Faber said that there have been private revelations of souls who "abide their purification in the air, or by their graves, or near altars where the Blessed Sacrament is, or in the rooms of those who pray for them, or amid the scenes of their former vanity and frivolity".[59][60]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Adrian Mihai,"L'Hadès céleste. Histoire du purgatoire dans l'Antiquité"(Garnier: 2015), pp.185-188
Jump up ^ cf. 2 Maccabees 12:42-44
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Purgatory in Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1032
Jump up ^ Isabel Moreira, Heaven's Purge (Oxford University Press, 2010) pp. 3-13
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Purgatory
Jump up ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984)
Jump up ^ CCC, 1479 Archived 6 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Cross, F. L., ed., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005), article indulgences
Jump up ^ John Henry Newman, An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, chapter 2, section 3, paragraph 2.
Jump up ^ Cabrol and Leclercq, Monumenta Ecclesiæ Liturgica. Volume I: Reliquiæ Liturgicæ Vetustissimæ (Paris, 1900-2) pp. ci-cvi, cxxxix.
Jump up ^ George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 106
Jump up ^ Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 106; cf. Pastor I, iii. 7, also Ambrose, De Excessu fratris Satyri 80
Jump up ^ Gerald O' Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 217
Jump up ^ Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 106
Jump up ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27.
Jump up ^ Christian Dogmatics vol. 2 (Philadelphia : Fortress Press, 1984) p. 503; cf. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.31.2, in The Ante-Nicene Fathers eds. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979) 1:560 cf. 5.36.2 / 1:567; cf. George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 107
Jump up ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27; cf. Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London, Williams & Norgate, 1995) p. 337; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 6:14
Jump up ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) p. 53; cf. Leviticus 10:1-2, Deuteronomy 32:22, 1Corinthians 3:10-15
Jump up ^ Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London: Williams & Norgate, 1905) p. 377. read online.
Jump up ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 55-57; cf. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 7:6 and 5:14
Jump up ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27; cf. Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London, Williams & Norgate, 1995) p. 296 n. 1; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912); Tertullian De Anima
^ Jump up to: a b A. J. Visser, "A Bird's-Eye View of Ancient Christian Eschatology", in Numen (1967) p. 13
Jump up ^ Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London: Williams & Norgate, 1905) p. 296 n. 1. read online; cf. Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 58-59
Jump up ^ Cyprian, Letters 51:20; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
Jump up ^ John Chrysostom, Homily on First Corinthians 41:5; Homily on Philippians 3:9-10; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
Jump up ^ Augustine, Sermons 159:1, 172:2; City of God 21:13; Handbook on Faith, Hope, and Charity 18:69, 29:109; Confessions 2.27; Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
Jump up ^ "gravior erit ignis quam quidquid potest homo pati in hac vita" (P. L., col. 397), quoted in Catholic Encyclopedia: Purgatory.
Jump up ^ Ps. 3 poenit., n. 1, quoted in Catholic Encyclopedia: Purgatory
Jump up ^ Vita Gregorii, ed. B. Colgrave, chapter 26 (see also Colgrave's introduction p. 51); John the Deacon, Life of Saint Gregory, IV, 70.
Jump up ^ Gregory the Great, Dialogues 4, 39: PL 77, 396; cf. Matthew 12:31
Jump up ^ George Cross, "The Medieval Catholic Doctrine of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 192; cf. Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.19
Jump up ^ George Cross, "The Medieval Catholic Doctrine of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 192; cf. Epistula ad Eadburgham 20
Jump up ^ Brown, Rise of Western Christendom (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003) p. 259; cf. Vision of Fursa 8.16, 16.5
Jump up ^ George Cross, "The Medieval Catholic Doctrine of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 192
Jump up ^ See the Wikipedia article for a list.
Jump up ^ See C. S. Watkins, "Sin, penance and purgatory in the Anglo-Norman realm: the evidence of visions and ghost stories", in Past and Present 175 (May 2002) pp. 3-33.
Jump up ^ Ermelindo Portela Silva (1985), "Muerte y sociedad en la Galicia medieval (siglos XII–XIV)", Anuario de estudios medievales, 15, 194, who quotes Diego, from the Historia compostelana, in Spanish: Temo, por tanto, que, si tal cual eres, te vas de este mundo, perderás la vida eterna e incurrirás en la perpetua condenación de tu alma.
Jump up ^ CCC, 1035 Archived 9 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Jacques Le Goff, La naissance du purgatoire. (Bibliothèque des Histoires) Paris: Gallimard, 1981; an English translation is available under the title The Birth of Purgatory, published by the University of Chicago Press (the English is referenced here).
Jump up ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 55-57.
Jump up ^ Online Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Lough Derg: the spirit of a holy place Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.; cf. Visions of the Other World in Middle English by Robert Easting, p. 16; The legend of the "Purgatory of Saint Patrick": from Ireland, until Dante and beyond.
Jump up ^ A History of the Church in the Middle Ages by F. Donald Logan
Jump up ^ Denzinger, 456
Jump up ^ Ted A. Campbell, Christian Confessions: a Historical Introduction (Westminster John Knox Press 1996 ISBN 0-664-25650-3), p. 54
Jump up ^ The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999) p. 201; cf. Orthodoxinfo.com, The Orthodox Response to the Latin Doctrine of Purgatory
Jump up ^ Denzinger, 1304
Jump up ^ The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999) p. 202
Jump up ^ Union of Brest (1595) Article 5
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1913), entry on Purgatory; cf. Council of Trent, Session XXV, "De Purgatorio"
Jump up ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 119
Jump up ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 580; cf. Koslofsky, Reformation of the Dead pp. 34-39
Jump up ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) pp. 580-581; cf. Koslofsky, Reformation of the Dead p. 48
Jump up ^ Decree on Purgatory (1563)
Jump up ^ "Articles of Religion". Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Lewis, C.S. (Cllive Staples) (2002). Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 108. ISBN 9780547541396. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Francis de Sales. "The Doctrine of Purgatory, chapter VII". Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Faber, Frederick William (1854). All for Jesus: or, The Easy Ways of Divine Love (40th American ed.). Baltimore and New York: John Murphy. p. 393. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Meynell (compiler), Wilfrid (1914). The Spirit of Father Faber, Apostle of London. New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: Benziger Brothers. pp. 196–197. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
External links[edit]
"purgatory". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Purgatory&oldid=847522066"
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Thinking (poem)
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Thinking
"Thinking" is a poem written by Walter D. Wintle, a poet who lived in the late 19th and early 20th century. Little to nothing is known about any details of his life. "Thinking" is also known as "The Man Who Thinks He Can".
In the 20th century, different versions of the poem have been published. To this date, it is unknown which version correctly represents the original version, but it is strongly believed that the version below, published at least as early as 1905 ("Unity" College Magazine), embodies the original and unaltered poem. The exact date of the first, original publication of "Thinking" is unknown.
Contents
[hide]
1 Publications
2 Poem
3 References
4 Sources
Publications[edit]
Early publications of this poem - citing Walter D. Wintle as being the author - include:
1905 - Unity
Published in 1905 by Unity Tract Society, Unity School of Christianity
Called "Thinking", by Walter D. Wintle
1916 - Ohio Educational Monthly
Published in 1916 by Ohio Education Association
Called "Thinking", by Walter Wintle
1927 - The World's Best-loved Poems - By James Gilchrist Lawson
Published in 1927 by Harper & Brothers
Called "Thinking", by Walter D. Wintle
1931 - 'Ethics notebook for nurses
Published in 1931 by Lippincott
Called "Thinking", by Walter Wintle
1937 - Think and Grow Rich, by Napoleon Hill
Published in 1937 by The Ralston Society
Poem written without any credits (anonymous author)
1940 - The Filipino Nurse
Published in 1940 by Philippine Nurses Association
Called "Thinking", by Walter Wintle
Later sources gave this poem, which originally carried the title "Thinking", the title "The Man Who Thinks He Can" and "It's All In The State Of Mind". In recent years the title "The Man Who Thinks He Can" has been adapted as the (wrongfully) assumed correct and original title. [1]
Poem[edit]
If you think you are beaten, you are;
If you think you dare not, you don't.
If you'd like to win, but you think you can't,
It is almost a certain - you won't.
If you think you'll lose, you're lost;
For out in this world we find
Success begins with a fellow's will
It's all in the state of mind.
If you think you're outclassed, you are;
You've got to think high to rise.
You've got to be sure of yourself before
You can ever win the prize.
Life's battles don't always go
To the stronger or faster man;
But sooner or later the man who wins
Is the one who thinks he can!
The Little Things & Such: Motivational Poems You Know and Love Now with Reflection Questions by Roger Edwardo
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "THINKING",copr 1923 The House of Art.N.Y lithography No.248
Sources[edit]
Sources used for this article:
https://books.google.com/advanced_book_search
Unity, 1905 edition, by Unity Tract Society, Unity School of Christianity
The Filipino Nurse (newsletter), 1940-1941 edition, by Philippine Nurses Association
Think and Grow Rich, Napoleon Hill, 1937, published by The Ralston Society
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thinking_(poem)&oldid=803009834"
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values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Thinking_poem rootpage-Thinking_poem vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view