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Seahorse
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This article is about the genus of fish. For the creature in mythology, see Hippocampus (mythology). For other uses, see Seahorse (disambiguation).
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Seahorses
Temporal range: Lower Miocene to present – 23–0 Ma
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Hippocampus sp.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Syngnathiformes
Family: Syngnathidae
Subfamily: Hippocampinae
Genus: Hippocampus
Rafinesque, 1810[1][2]
Type species
Hippocampus heptagonus
Rafinesque, 1810
Species
see Species.
Synonyms
Acentronura Kaup, 1853
Farlapiscis Whitley, 1931
Jamsus Ginsburg, 1937
Macleayina Fowler, 1907
Phyllopteryx Swainson 1839
Seahorse (also written sea-horse and sea horse) is the name given to 45 species of small marine fishes in the genus Hippocampus. "Hippocampus" comes from the Ancient Greek hippokampos (ἱππόκαμπος hippókampos), itself from hippos (ἵππος híppos) meaning "horse" and kampos (κάμπος kámpos) meaning "sea monster".[3][4] Having a head and neck suggestive of a horse, seahorses also feature segmented bony armour, an upright posture and a curled prehensile tail.[5]
Contents
1 Habitat
2 Description
3 Evolution and fossil record
4 Reproduction
4.1 Courtship
4.2 Fertilization
4.3 Gestation
4.4 Birth
4.5 Reproductive roles
4.6 Monogamy
5 Feeding habits
6 Threats of extinction
7 Aquaria
8 Use in Chinese medicine
9 Species
10 Pygmy seahorses
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Habitat
Seahorses are mainly found in shallow tropical and temperate saltwater throughout the world, from about 45°S to 45°N [6]. They live in sheltered areas such as seagrass beds, estuaries, coral reefs, and mangroves. Four species are found in Pacific waters from North America to South America. In the Atlantic, H. erectus ranges from Nova Scotia to Uruguay. H. zosterae, known as the dwarf seahorse, is found in the Bahamas.
Colonies have been found in European waters such as the Thames Estuary.[7]
Three species live in the Mediterranean Sea: H. guttulatus (the long-snouted seahorse), H. hippocampus (the short-snouted seahorse), and H. fuscus (the sea pony). These species form territories; males stay within 1 m2 (11 sq ft) of habitat, while females range about one hundred times that.
Description
Spiny seahorse H. histrix from East Timor holding on to soft coral with its prehensile tail
Seahorses range in size from 1.5 to 35.5 cm (0.6 to 14.0 in).[8] They are named for their equine appearance with bent necks and long snouted heads followed by their distinctive trunk and tail. Although they are bony fish, they do not have scales, but rather thin skin stretched over a series of bony plates, which are arranged in rings throughout their bodies. Each species has a distinct number of rings.[9] The armor of bony plates also protects them against predators, and because of this outer skeleton, they no longer have ribs.[10] Seahorses swim upright, another characteristic not shared by their close pipefish relatives, which swim horizontally. Razorfish are the only other fish that swim vertically. They swim upright propelling themselves by using the dorsal fin. The pectoral fins located on either side of the head are used for maneuvering. They lack the caudal fin typical of fishes. Their prehensile tail can only be unlocked in the most extreme conditions. They are adept at camouflage with the ability to grow and reabsorb spiny appendages depending on their habitat.[11]
Unusual among fish, a seahorse has a flexible, well-defined neck. It also sports a crown-like spine or horn on its head, termed a "coronet," which is distinct for each species.[12]
Seahorses swim very poorly, rapidly fluttering a dorsal fin and using pectoral fins (located behind their eyes) to steer. The slowest-moving fish in the world is H. zosterae (the dwarf seahorse), with a top speed of about 5 ft (1.5 m) per hour.[13] Since they are poor swimmers, they are most likely to be found resting with their prehensile tails wound around a stationary object. They have long snouts, which they use to suck up food, and their eyes can move independently of each other like those of a chameleon.[14]
Evolution and fossil record
Anatomical evidence, supported by molecular, physical, and genetic evidence, demonstrates seahorses are highly modified pipefish. The fossil record of seahorses, however, is very sparse. The best known and best studied fossils are specimens of H. guttulatus (though literature more commonly refers to them under the synonym of H. ramulosus), from the Marecchia River Formation of Rimini Province, Italy, dating back to the Lower Pliocene, about 3 million years ago. The earliest known seahorse fossils are of two pipefish-like species, H. sarmaticus and H. slovenicus from the coprolitic horizon of Tunjice Hills, a middle Miocene lagerstätte in Slovenia dating back about 13 million years.[15] Molecular dating finds that pipefish and seahorses diverged during the Late Oligocene. This has led to speculation that seahorses evolved in response to large areas of shallow water, newly created as the result of tectonic events. The shallow water would have allowed the expansion of seagrass habitats that selected for the camouflage offered by the seahorses’ upright posture.[16] These tectonic changes occurred in the western Pacific Ocean, pointing to an origin there, with molecular data suggesting two later, separate invasions of the Atlantic Ocean.[17] In 2016, a study published in Nature found the seahorse genome to be the most rapidly evolving fish genome studied so far.[18]
Reproduction
Seahorse life-cycle
See also: Animal sexual behavior § Seahorse
The male seahorse is equipped with a pouch on the ventral, or front-facing, side of the tail. When mating, the female seahorse deposits up to 1,500 eggs in the male's pouch. The male carries the eggs for 9 to 45 days until the seahorses emerge fully developed, but very small. The young are then released into the water, and the male often mates again within hours or days during the breeding season.[19]
Courtship
Before breeding, seahorses may court for several days. Scientists believe the courtship behavior synchronizes the animals' movements and reproductive states so the male can receive the eggs when the female is ready to deposit them. During this time, they may change color, swim side by side holding tails or grip the same strand of sea grass with their tails, and wheel around in unison in what is known as a "predawn dance". They eventually engage in a "true courtship dance" lasting about 8 hours, during which the male pumps water through the egg pouch on his trunk which expands and opens to display its emptiness. When the female’s eggs reach maturity, she and her mate let go of any anchors and drift upward snout-to-snout, out of the seagrass, often spiraling as they rise. They interact for about 6 minutes, reminiscent of courtship. The female then swims away until the next morning, and the male returns to sucking up food through his snout.[20] The female inserts her ovipositor into the male’s brood pouch and deposits dozens to thousands of eggs. As the female releases her eggs, her body slims while his swells. Both animals then sink back into the seagrass and she swims away.[21]
Fertilization
During fertilization in Hippocampus kuda the brood pouch was found to be open only for six seconds while egg deposition occurred. During this time seawater entered the pouch where the spermatozoa and eggs meet in a seawater milieu. This hyperosmotic environment facilitates sperm activation and motility. The fertilization is therefore regarded as being physiologically ‘external’ within a physically ‘internal’ environment after the closure of the pouch.[22] It is believed that this protected form of fertilization reduces sperm competition among males. Within the Syngnathidae (pipefishes and seahorses) protected fertilization has not been documented in the pipefishes but the lack of any distinct differences in the relation of testes size to body size suggests that pipefishes may also have evolved mechanisms for more efficient fertilization with reduced sperm competition.[23]
Gestation
Pregnant male seahorse at the New York Aquarium
The fertilized eggs are then embedded in the pouch wall and become surrounded by a spongy tissue.[24] The male supplies the eggs with prolactin, the same hormone responsible for milk production in pregnant mammals. The pouch provides oxygen, as well as a controlled environment incubator. Though the egg yolk contribute nourishment to the developing embryo, the male sea horses contribute additional nutrients such as energy-rich lipids and also calcium to allow them to build their skeletal system, by secreting them into the brood pouch that are absorbed by the embryos. Further they also offer immunological protection, osmoregulation, gas exchange and waste transport [25]
The eggs then hatch in the pouch, where the salinity of the water is regulated; this prepares the newborns for life in the sea.[20][26][27] Throughout gestation, which in most species requires two to four weeks, his mate visits him daily for “morning greetings”.
Birth
The number of young released by the male seahorse averages 100–1000 for most species, but may be as low as 5 for the smaller species, or as high as 2,500. When the fry are ready to be born, the male expels them with muscular contractions. He typically gives birth at night and is ready for the next batch of eggs by morning when his mate returns. Like almost all other fish species, seahorses do not nurture their young after birth. Infants are susceptible to predators or ocean currents which wash them away from feeding grounds or into temperatures too extreme for their delicate bodies. Less than 0.5% of infants survive to adulthood, explaining why litters are so large. These survival rates are actually fairly high compared to other fish, because of their protected gestation, making the process worth the great cost to the father. The eggs of most other fish are abandoned immediately after fertilization.[27]
Reproductive roles
Reproduction is energetically costly to the male. This brings into question why the sexual role reversal even takes place. In an environment where one partner incurs more energy costs than the other, Bateman's principle suggests that the lesser contributor takes the role of the aggressor. Male seahorses are more aggressive and sometimes “fight” for female attention. According to Amanda Vincent of Project Seahorse, only males tail-wrestle and snap their heads at each other. This discovery prompted further study of energy costs. To estimate the female’s direct contribution, researchers chemically analyzed the energy stored in each egg. To measure the burden on the males, oxygen consumption was used. By the end of incubation, the male consumed almost 33% more oxygen than before mating. The study concluded that the female's energy expenditure while generating eggs is twice that of males during incubation, confirming the standard hypothesis.[20]
Why the male seahorse (and other members of the Syngnathidae) carries the offspring through gestation is unknown, though some researchers believe it allows for shorter birthing intervals, in turn resulting in more offspring.[28] Given an unlimited number of ready and willing partners, males have the potential to produce 17% more offspring than females in a breeding season. Also, females have “time-outs” from the reproductive cycle 1.2 times longer than those of males. This seems to be based on mate choice, rather than physiology. When the female’s eggs are ready, she must lay them in a few hours or eject them into the water column. Making eggs is a huge cost to her physically, since they amount to about a third of her body weight. To protect against losing a clutch, the female demands a long courtship. The daily greetings help to cement the bond between the pair.[29]
Monogamy
Though seahorses are not known to mate for life, many species form pair bonds that last through at least the breeding season. Some species show a higher level of mate fidelity than others.[30][31] However, many species readily switch mates when the opportunity arises. H. abdominalis and H. breviceps have been shown to breed in groups, showing no continuous mate preference. Many more species' mating habits have not been studied, so it is unknown how many species are actually monogamous, or how long those bonds actually last.[32]
Although monogamy within fish is not common, it does appear to exist for some. In this case, the mate-guarding hypothesis may be an explanation. This hypothesis states, “males remain with a single female because of ecological factors that make male parental care and protection of offspring especially advantageous.”[33] Because the rates of survival for newborn seahorses are so low, incubation is essential. Though not proven, males could have taken on this role because of the lengthy period the females require to produce their eggs. If males incubate while females prepare the next clutch (amounting to a third of body weight), they can reduce the interval between clutches.[citation needed]
Feeding habits
Seahorses rely on stealth to ambush small prey such as copepods. They use pivot feeding to catch the copepod, which involves rotating their snout at high speed and then sucking in the copepod.[34]
Seahorses feed on small crustaceans floating in the water or crawling on the bottom. With excellent camouflage and patience, seahorses ambush prey that floats within striking range. Mysid shrimp and other small crustaceans are favorites, but some seahorses have been observed eating other kinds of invertebrates and even larval fish. In a study of seahorses, the distinctive head morphology was found to give it a hydrodynamic advantage that creates minimal interference while approaching an evasive prey. Therefore, the seahorse has the ability to come within a very close range of the copepods on which they prey.[34][35] After successfully closing in on the prey without alerting it, the sea horse gives an upward thrust rapidly rotates the head aided by large tendons that store and release elastic energy, to bring its long snout close to the prey. This step is crucial for prey capture as suction only works with the mouth at a close range. This two-phase prey capture mechanism is termed pivot-feeding.[35][36]
While feeding, they produce a distinctive click each time a food item is ingested. The same clicks are heard with social interactions.
Threats of extinction
Because data is lacking on the sizes of the various seahorse populations, as well as other issues including how many seahorses are dying each year, how many are being born, and the number used for souvenirs, there is insufficient information to assess their risk of extinction, and the risk of losing more seahorses remains a concern. Some species, such as the Paradoxical Seahorse, H. paradoxus,[37] may already be extinct. Coral reefs and seagrass beds are deteriorating, reducing viable habitats for seahorses.[38] Additionally, bycatch in many areas causes high cumulative effects on seahorses, with an estimated 37 million individuals being removed annually over 21 countries.[39]
Aquaria
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Seahorse and scorpion skewers as street food
While many aquarium hobbyists keep them as pets, seahorses collected from the wild tend to fare poorly in home aquaria. Many eat only live foods such as brine shrimp and are prone to stress, which damages their immune systems and makes them susceptible to disease.[citation needed]
Seahorses (Hippocampus erectus) at the New England Aquarium
In recent years, however, captive breeding has become more popular. Such seahorses survive better in captivity, and are less likely to carry diseases. They eat frozen mysidacea (crustaceans) that are readily available from aquarium stores,[40] and do not experience the stress of moving out of the wild. Although captive-bred seahorses are more expensive, they take no toll on wild populations.[citation needed]
Seahorses should be kept in an aquarium with low flow and placid tank mates. They are slow feeders, so fast, aggressive feeders will leave them without food.[40] Seahorses can coexist with many species of shrimp and other bottom-feeding creatures. Gobies also make good tank-mates. Keepers are generally advised to avoid eels, tangs, triggerfish, squid, octopus, and sea anemones.[41]
Water quality is very important for the survival of seahorses in an aquarium. They are delicate species which should not be added to a new tank. The water parameters are recommended to be as follows although these fish may acclimatise to different water over time:
Temperature: 23–28 °C (73–82 °F)
pH: 8.1–8.4
Ammonia: 0 mg/l (0 ppm) (0.01 mg/l (0.01 ppm) may be tolerated for short periods)
Nitrite: 0 mg/l (0 ppm) (0.125 mg/l (0.125 ppm) may be tolerated for short periods)
S.G.: 1.021–1.024 at 23–24 °C (73–75 °F)[citation needed]
A water-quality problem will affect fish behaviour and can be shown by clamped fins, reduced feeding, erratic swimming, and gasping at the surface.[42] Seahorses swim up and down, as well as using the length of the aquarium. Therefore, the tanks should ideally be twice as deep as the length of the adult seahorse.[citation needed]
Animals sold as "freshwater seahorses" are usually the closely related pipefish, of which a few species live in the lower reaches of rivers. The supposed true "freshwater seahorse" called H. aimei is not a valid species, but a synonym sometimes used for Barbour's and hedgehog seahorses. The latter, which is often confused with the former, can be found in estuarine environments, but is not actually a freshwater fish.[43]
Use in Chinese medicine
Dried seahorse
Seahorse populations are thought to be endangered as a result of overfishing and habitat destruction. Despite a lack of scientific studies or clinical trials,[44][45] the consumption of seahorses is widespread in traditional Chinese medicine, primarily in connection with impotence, wheezing, nocturnal enuresis, and pain, as well as labor induction.[46] Up to 20 million seahorses may be caught each year to be sold for such uses.[47] Preferred species of seahorses include H. kellogii, H. histrix, H. kuda, H. trimaculatus, and H. mohnikei.[46] Seahorses are also consumed by the Indonesians, the central Filipinos, and many other ethnic groups.
Import and export of seahorses has been controlled under CITES since 15 May 2004. However, Indonesia, Japan, Norway, and South Korea have chosen to opt out of the trade rules set by CITES.
The problem may be exacerbated by the growth of pills and capsules as the preferred method of ingesting seahorses. Pills are cheaper and more available than traditional, individually tailored prescriptions of whole seahorses, but the contents are harder to track. Seahorses once had to be of a certain size and quality before they were accepted by TCM practitioners and consumers. Declining availability of the preferred large, pale, and smooth seahorses has been offset by the shift towards prepackaged preparations, which makes it possible for TCM merchants to sell previously unused, or otherwise undesirable juvenile, spiny, and dark-coloured animals. Today, almost a third of the seahorses sold in China are packaged, adding to the pressure on the species.[48]
Dried seahorse retails from US$600 to $3000 per kilogram, with larger, paler, and smoother animals commanding the highest prices. In terms of value based on weight, seahorses retail for more than the price of silver and almost that of gold in Asia.[49]
Species
Based on the newest overall taxonomic review[50] of the genus Hippocampus with further new species and partial taxonomic review,[51][52][53] the number of recognized species in this genus is considered to be 45 (retrieved Aug 2018):
H. kuda, known as the "common seahorse"
H. subelongatus, known as the "West Australian seahorse"
H. whitei, known as "White's seahorse"
Hippocampus abdominalis Lesson, 1827 (big-belly seahorse)
Hippocampus algiricus Kaup, 1856 (West African seahorse)
Hippocampus angustus Günther, 1870 (narrow-bellied seahorse)
Hippocampus barbouri Jordan & Richardson, 1908 (Barbour's seahorse)
Hippocampus bargibanti Whitley, 1970 (pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus breviceps Peters, 1869 (short-headed seahorse)
Hippocampus camelopardalis Bianconi, 1854 (giraffe seahorse)
Hippocampus capensis Boulenger, 1900 (Knysna seahorse)
Hippocampus casscsio Zhang, Qin, Wang & Lin, 2016[52] (Beibu Bay seahorse)
Hippocampus colemani Kuiter, 2003 (Coleman's pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus comes Cantor, 1850 (tiger-tail seahorse)
Hippocampus coronatus Temminck & Schlegel, 1850 (crowned seahorse)
Hippocampus dahli Ogilby, 1908 (lowcrown seahorse)
Hippocampus debelius Gomon & Kuiter, 2009 (softcoral seahorse)
Hippocampus denise Lourie & Randall, 2003 (Denise's pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810 (lined seahorse)
Hippocampus fisheri Jordan & Evermann, 1903 (Fisher's seahorse)
Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier, 1829 (long-snouted seahorse)
Hippocampus haema Han, Kim, Kai & Senou, 2017[53] (Korean seahorse)
Hippocampus hippocampus (Linnaeus, 1758) (short-snouted seahorse)
Hippocampus histrix Kaup, 1856 (spiny seahorse)
Hippocampus ingens Girard, 1858 (Pacific seahorse)
Hippocampus japapigu Short, Smith, Motomura, Harasti & Hamilton, 2018[51] (Japanese pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus jayakari Boulenger, 1900 (Jayakar's seahorse)
Hippocampus jugumus Kuiter, 2001 (collared seahorse)
Hippocampus kelloggi Jordan & Snyder, 1901 (great seahorse)
Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 (spotted seahorse)
Hippocampus minotaur Gomon, 1997 (bullneck seahorse)
Hippocampus mohnikei Bleeker, 1854 (Japanese seahorse)
Hippocampus paradoxus Foster & Gomon, 2010 (paradoxical seahorse)
Hippocampus patagonicus Piacentino & Luzzatto, 2004 (Patagonian seahorse)
Hippocampus planifrons Peters, 1877 (flatface seahorse, false-eye seahorse)
Hippocampus pontohi Lourie & Kuiter, 2008 (Pontoh's pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus pusillus Fricke, 2004 (pygmy thorny seahorse)
Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg, 1933 (longsnout seahorse)
Hippocampus satomiae Lourie & Kuiter, 2008 (Satomi's pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus sindonis Jordan & Snyder, 1901 (Sindo's seahorse)
Hippocampus spinosissimus Weber, 1913 (hedgehog seahorse)
Hippocampus subelongatus Castelnau, 1873 (West Australian seahorse)
Hippocampus trimaculatus Leach, 1814 (longnose seahorse)
Hippocampus tyro Randall & Lourie, 2009 (Tyro seahorse)
Hippocampus waleananus Gomon & Kuiter, 2009[51] (Walea soft coral pygmy seahorse)
Hippocampus whitei Bleeker, 1855 (White's seahorse)
Hippocampus zebra Whitley, 1964 (zebra seahorse)
Hippocampus zosterae Jordan & Gilbert, 1882 (dwarf seahorse)
Hippocampus satomiae (Satomi's pygmy seahorse) attached to coral
Pygmy seahorses
Main article: Hippocampinae
Pygmy seahorses are less than 15 millimeters (0.59 in) tall and 17 millimeters (0.67 in) wide members of the genus. Previously the term was applied exclusively to the species H. bargibanti but since 1997, discoveries have made this term obsolete. The species H. minotaur, H. denise, H. colemani, H. pontohi, H. severnsi, H. satomiae, H. waleananus, and H. japapigu have been described. Other species that are believed to be unclassified have also been reported in books, dive magazines and on the Internet. They can be distinguished from other species of seahorse by their 12 trunk rings, low number of tail rings (26–29), the location in which young are brooded in the trunk region of males and their extremely small size.[54] Molecular analysis (of ribosomal RNA) of 32 Hippocampus species found that H. bargibanti belongs in a separate clade from other members of the genus and therefore that the species diverged from the other species in the "ancient" past.[55]
Most pygmy seahorses are well camouflaged and live in close association with other organisms including colonial hydrozoans (Lytocarpus and Antennellopsis), coralline algae (Halimeda) sea fans (Muricella, Annella, Acanthogorgia). This combined with their small size accounts for why most species have only been noticed and classified since 2001.[54][56]
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Jump up ^ "Why Do Male Seahorses Get Pregnant?". Petseahorse.com.
Jump up ^ Kvarnemo C; Moore G.I; Jones A.G; Nelson W.S; Avise J.C. (2000). "Monogamous pair bonds and mate switching in the Western Australian seahorse Hippocampus subelongatus". J. Evol. Biol. 13 (6): 882–8. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2000.00228.x.
Jump up ^ Vincent C.J.; Sadler L.M. (1995). "Faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses, Hippocampus whitei" (PDF). Anim. Behav. 50 (6): 1557–1569. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80011-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Tami (10 April 2010). "What's Love Got to Do With It? The Truth About Seahorse Monogamy". fusedjaw.com.
Jump up ^ Alcock, John (2005). Animal Behavior (8th ed.). Massachusetts: Sinauer. pp. 370–1. ISBN 978-0878930050.
^ Jump up to: a b Langley, Liz (26 November 2013). "Why Does the Seahorse Have Its Odd Head? Mystery Solved – News Watch". Newswatch.nationalgeographic.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Gemmell, B. J.; Sheng, J.; Buskey, E. J. (2013). "Morphology of seahorse head hydrodynamically aids in capture of evasive prey". Nature Communications. 4: 2840. doi:10.1038/ncomms3840. PMID 24281430.
Jump up ^ Wassenbergh, Sam Van; Strother, James A.; Flammang, Brooke E.; Ferry-Graham, Lara A.; Aerts, Peter (2008-03-06). "Extremely fast prey capture in pipefish is powered by elastic recoil". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 5 (20): 285–296. doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1124. ISSN 1742-5689. PMC 2607401. PMID 17626004.
Jump up ^ "New species of seahorse found... after sitting in a museum for more than a decade". Daily Mail. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Lourie, Sarah A.; Foster, Sarah J.; Cooper, Ernest W.T. and Vincent, Amanda C.J. (2004) A Guide to the Identification of Seahorses. Project Seahorse Advancing Marine Conservation, ISBN 0-89164-169-6.
Jump up ^ Lawson, J. M., Foster, S. J., & Vincent, A. C. J. (01/2017). Low bycatch rates add up to big numbers for a genus of small fishes American Fisheries Society.10.1080/03632415.2017.1259944
^ Jump up to: a b "Seahorse and Pipefish Foods | Tami Weiss". Fusedjaw.com. 25 June 2005. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "Seahorse Tankmates | Will Wooten". Fusedjaw.com. 25 June 2004. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
Jump up ^ How to care for Seahorses & Pipefish. seahorseaquariums.ie
Jump up ^ "Hippocampus spinosissimus". Fishbase. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Stephen Barrett, M.D. "Be Wary of Acupuncture, Qigong, and "Chinese Medicine"". Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Still, J. (2003). "Use of animal products in traditional Chinese medicine: Environmental impact and health hazards". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 11 (2): 118–22. doi:10.1016/S0965-2299(03)00055-4. PMID 12801499.
^ Jump up to: a b Bensky, D., Clavey, S., Stoger, E. (2004) Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica. Eastland Press, Inc. Seattle, 3rd ed. ISBN 0939616424. p. 815
Jump up ^ "Seahorse Crusader Amanda Vincent" on Nova television show
Jump up ^ Parry-Jones, Rob & Vincent, Amanda (3 January 1998). "Can we tame wild medicine?". New Scientist.
Jump up ^ "Save Our Seahorses". Save Our Seahorses. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
Jump up ^ LOURIE, SARA A.; POLLOM, RILEY A.; FOSTER, SARAH J. (2016-08-01). "A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research". Zootaxa. 4146 (1): 1–66. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 27515600.
^ Jump up to: a b c Short, Graham; Smith, Richard; Motomura, Hiroyuki; Harasti, David; Hamilton, Healy (2018-08-02). "Hippocampus japapigu, a new species of pygmy seahorse from Japan, with a redescription of H. pontohi (Teleostei, Syngnathidae)". ZooKeys. 779: 27–49. doi:10.3897/zookeys.779.24799. ISSN 1313-2970.
^ Jump up to: a b ZHANG, YAN-HONG; QIN, GENG; WANG, XIN; LIN, QIANG (2016-09-23). "A new species of seahorse (Teleostei: Syngnathidae) from the South China Sea". Zootaxa. 4170 (2): 384–392. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4170.2.11. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 27701270.
^ Jump up to: a b Han, Sang-Yun; Kim, Jin-Koo; Kai, Yoshiaki; Senou, Hiroshi (2017-10-30). "Seahorses of the Hippocampus coronatus complex: taxonomic revision, and description of Hippocampus haema, a new species from Korea and Japan (Teleostei, Syngnathidae)". ZooKeys. 712 (712): 113–139. doi:10.3897/zookeys.712.14955. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 5704180. PMID 29187790.
^ Jump up to: a b Lourie, Sara; Rudie Kuiter (2008). "Three new pygmy seahorse species from Indonesia (Teleostei: Syngnathidae: Hippocampus)" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1963: 54–68. ISSN 1175-5334. Retrieved 9 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Teske, Peter; Michael Cherry; Conrad Matthee (February 2004). "The evolutionary history of seahorses (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus): molecular data suggest a West Pacific origin and two invasions of the Atlantic Ocean". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 30 (2): 273–286. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00214-8. PMID 14715220.
Jump up ^ "Science in Pictures: Pygmy Seahorses." The Epoch Times, Northern California Edition (8 November 2011).
Further reading
Amanda C.J. Vincent & Laila M. Sadler (1995). "Faithful pair bonds in wild seahorse, Hippocampus whitei". Animal Behaviour. 50 (6): 1557–69. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80011-5.
Amanda C.J. Vincent (1995). "A role for daily greetings in maintaining seahorse pair bonds". Animal Behaviour. 49: 258–260. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80178-2.
Amanda C.J. Vincent (1990). "A seahorse father makes a good mother". Natural History. 12: 34–43.
Amanda C.J. Vincent & Rosie Woodroffe (1994). "Mothers little helpers: patterns of male care in mammals". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 9 (8): 294–7. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(94)90033-7. PMID 21236858.
John Sparks (1999). Battle of the Sexes: The Natural History of Sex. London: BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-37145-8.
Sara A. Lourie, Amanda C.J. Vincent and Heather J. Hall (1999). Seahorses: An Identification Guide to the World's Species and their Conversation. London: Project Seahorse.
Teske P. R., Hamilton H., Matthee C. A. & Barker N. P. (2007). "Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7: 138. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-138. PMC 1978501. PMID 17697373. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Leslee Matsushige, Curator, Birch Aquarium at Scripps, UCSD and Dawn Navarro Ericson, Natural Science Illustrator "Sea Horses & their Relatives", WEEKEND NATURALIST: An Identification and Natural Science Guide (2011) ISBN 9780982835623 Manta Publications 2011 first edition.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seahorse.
Vimeo.com, Video of various seahorse species at the Monterey Bay Aquarium
ARKive—images and movies of the pygmy seahorse (Hippocampus bargibanti)
Seahorse at the Encyclopedia of Life
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q74363
Wikispecies: Hippocampus
ADW: Hippocampus
BioLib: 126803
EoL: 24646
EPPO: 1HPPCG
Fossilworks: 35862
GBIF: 5201029
iNaturalist: 54541
ITIS: 166487
NBN: NHMSYS0021053453
NCBI: 72046
NZOR: 4bf897d7-d588-4513-87f3-84900dd7b516
uBio: 5758410
WoRMS: 126224
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text:
Hematidrosis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Hematidrosis
Synonyms
blood sweat, haematidrosis, hematohidrosis, hemidrosis
Red-tinted sweat (or "blood sweat") caused by hematohidrosis
Classification and external resources
[edit on Wikidata]
Hematidrosis, also called blood sweat, is a very rare condition in which a human sweats blood.[1] The term is from Ancient Greek haîma/haímatos (αἷμα/αἵματος), meaning blood, and hīdrṓs (ἱδρώς), meaning sweat.
Contents
[hide]
1 Signs and symptoms
2 Causes
3 Diagnosis
4 Treatment
5 Instances
6 See also
7 References
Signs and symptoms[edit]
Blood usually oozes from the forehead, nails, umbilicus, and other skin surfaces. In addition, oozing from mucocutaneous surfaces causing nosebleeds, bloodstained tears, and vicarious menstruation are common.[2] The episodes may be preceded by intense headache and abdominal pain and are usually self-limiting. In some conditions, the secreted fluid is more dilute and appears to be blood-tinged, while others may have darker bright red secretions resembling blood.[3]
While the extent of blood loss generally is minimal, hematidrosis also results in the skin becoming extremely tender and fragile.
Causes[edit]
Hematidrosis is a condition in which capillary blood vessels that feed the sweat glands rupture, causing them to exude blood, occurring under conditions of extreme physical or emotional stress.[4] Severe mental anxiety activates the sympathetic nervous system to invoke the stress-fight or flight reaction to such a degree as to cause hemorrhage of the vessels supplying the sweat glands into the ducts of the sweat glands.[5] It has been suggested that acute fear and extreme stress can cause hematidrosis.[6]
Diagnosis[edit]
Investigation such as platelets count, platelet aggregation test, coagulation profile and skin biopsy reveal no abnormalities and direct light microscopy of fluid demonstrates presence of normal red blood cells. Investigations also failed to show any vasculitis or skin appendages (i.e. sweat glands, sebaceous glands and hair follicles) abnormalities.[3][7]
A 2015 case study investigated hematidrosis with a patient who has epilepsy.[8]
Treatment[edit]
Effect on the body is weakness and mild to moderate dehydration from the severe anxiety and both blood and sweat loss.[9]
The condition is very rare but there are reports in medical literature of successful treatment with beta blockers (propranolol 10 mg)[10][11] with significant reduction in the frequency of spontaneous blood oozing. The successful use of beta blockers supports the theory that the condition is induced by stress and anxiety yet this etiology is not established yet as the high prevalence of stress and anxiety in the modern era did not change the incidence of this extremely rare disease, suggesting that other co-abnormality also play a key role in this disease.[7] Atropine sulfate transdermal patches have also been used successfully.[3]
Favorable results with psychiatric counselling to reduce stress highlight the relationship between psychogenic causes and hematohidrosis.[5]
Jesus on the Mount of Olives
Instances[edit]
Dermatological research notes the presence of hematidrosis in people awaiting execution.[5] It has also been proposed as a possible explanation for Jesus' agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:44)[12] and for claims associated with stigmata.[13][14]
Leonardo da Vinci described a soldier who sweated blood before battle. The phenomenon has also been observed in individuals condemned to execution, a case occurring during the London blitz, and a case of fear of a storm while sailing, etc.[13]
See also[edit]
Haemolacria – blood in tears
Hyperhidrosis
List of cutaneous conditions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tshifularo, M. (2014). "Blood otorrhea: blood stained sweaty ear discharges: hematohidrosis; four case series (2001-2013)". American Journal of Otolaryngology. 35 (2): 271–3. doi:10.1016/j.amjoto.2013.09.006. PMID 24315735.
Jump up ^ Holoubek, J. E.; Holoubek, A. B. (1996). "Blood, sweat and fear. "A classification of hematidrosis"". Journal of medicine. 27 (3–4): 115–33. PMID 8982961.
^ Jump up to: a b c Biswas, S.; Surana, T.; De, A.; Nag, F. (2013). "A curious case of sweating blood". Indian Journal of Dermatology. 58 (6): 478–80. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.119964. PMC 3827523  . PMID 24249903.
Jump up ^ Freddrick Z., Dr "Hematidrosis"
^ Jump up to: a b c Jerajani, H. R.; Jaju, Bhagyashri; Phiske, M. M.; Lade, Nitin (2009). "Hematohidrosis – A rare clinical phenomenon". Indian Journal of Dermatology. Wolters Kluwer. 54 (3): 290–292. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.55645. PMC 2810702  . PMID 20161867.
Jump up ^ Holoubek JE, Holoubek AB. (1996). Blood, Sweat and Fear: A Classification of Hematidrosis. Journal of Medicine 27: 115-133.
^ Jump up to: a b Mora, E; Lucas, J (2013). "Hematidrosis: Blood sweat". Blood. 121 (9): 1493. doi:10.1182/blood-2012-09-450031. PMID 23570065.
Jump up ^ Shen, H., Wang, Z., Wu, T., Wang, J.; Ren, C.; Chen, H., Yu, Z., Don, W. (2015). Haematidrosis associated with epilepsy in a girl successfully Treated with oxcarbazepine: Case report. Journal of International Medical 43 (2): 263–69.
Jump up ^ Zhang FK, Zheng YL, Liu JH, Chen HS, Liu SH, Xu MQ, et al. "Clinical and laboratory study of a case of hematidrosis". Zhonghua Xue Ye Xue Za Zhi. 2004;25:147–50
Jump up ^ Wang, Z.; Yu, Z.; Su, J.; Cao, L.; Zhao, X.; Bai, X.; Zhan, S.; Wu, T.; Jin, L.; Zhou, P.; Ruan, C. (2010). "A Case of Hematidrosis Successfully Treated with Propranolol". American Journal of Clinical Dermatology. 11 (6): 440–43. doi:10.2165/11531690-000000000-00000. PMID 20666570.
Jump up ^ Khalid, S. R.; Maqbool, S; Raza, N; Mukhtar, T; Ikram, A; Qureshi, S (2013). "Ghost spell or hematohidrosis". Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons (JCPSP). Pakistan. 23 (4): 293–94. PMID 23552544.
Jump up ^ William D. Edwards; Wesley J. Gabel; Floyd E. Hosmer (March 21, 1986). "On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ" (PDF). JAMA. American Medical Association. 255 (11): 1455−1463. doi:10.1001/jama.1986.03370110077025. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Manonukul J, Wisuthsarewong W, Chantorn R, Vongirad A, Omeapinyan P. (2008). Hematidrosis: A pathologic process or stigmata. A case report with comprehensive histopathologic and immunoperoxidase studies. Am J Dermatopathol 30: 135-139.
Jump up ^ Kluger, N; Cribier, B. (2013). Stigmata: From Saint-Francis of Assisi to Idiopathic Haematidrosis. Ann Dermatol Venereol 140: 771-777.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hematidrosis&oldid=843548968"
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Tiger trout
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Tiger trout
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Subfamily: Salmoninae
Binomial name
Salmo trutta × Salvelinus fontinalis
The tiger trout (Salmo trutta × Salvelinus fontinalis) is a sterile, intergeneric hybrid of the brown trout (Salmo trutta) and the brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). The name derives from the pronounced vermiculations, which evoke the stripes of a tiger. The fish is an anomaly in the wild, with the brook trout having 84 chromosomes and the brown trout 80.[1][2] Records show instances as far back as 1944.[3] The cross itself is unusual in that the parents are members of different genera.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Artificial production
2 Wild tiger trout
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Artificial production[edit]
Tiger trout can be produced reliably in hatcheries. This is done by fertilizing brown trout eggs with brook trout milt and heat shocking, causing the creation of an extra set of chromosomes and increasing survival rates from 5% to 85%.[5] Tiger trout have been reported to grow faster than natural species,[6] though this assessment is not universal,[7] and they have been widely stocked for sport fishing.
Tiger trout are known to be highly piscivorous (fish-eating), and are a good control against rough fish populations. This makes tigers popular with many fish stocking programs, such as with the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources.[8] Their own population numbers can be tightly controlled as well, since they are sterile.
Many US states have had stocking programs for tiger trout. Wisconsin discontinued its program in the late 1970s. Tigers were exclusively stocked in the Great Lakes. After the stocking program was discontinued, a 20-pound-plus (9-kg-plus) world-record tiger trout was caught in the Great Lakes.
Hybridization experiments with salmonids were carried out with several world known sperm activating mediums for artificial insemination of eggs from freshwater fishes. In Bulgarian fish farms, experiments were carried to study the viability, performance traits and the fertility of hybrids.[9] It was achieved 100% fertilizing brook trout - Salvelinus fontinalis М. eggs with semen from brown trout - Salmo trutta m. fario L. using of medium 49282 - single or along with extender 49283, but embryonic mortality was 100%. The ultimate variant /♂ Salvelinus fontinalis М. Х ♀ Salmo trutta m. fario L./ was successful for optimize crossbreeding. Medium 49282 have the best sperm activating effect and may use along with extender 49283 for artificial insemination to produce tiger trout. Obtained fry are more vital and energetic with faster grow and developing. It was made basic definition of produced trout hybrids – soft snout, low situated eyes and typicalness tiger color. The experiment is continuing, it is evident that more research is necessary before the potential value of obtained hybrids for fish farming can be properly assessed.
Wild tiger trout[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Wisconsin currently has no stocking program for tiger trout, but the hybrids show up naturally in the state's small streams (in particular in the Driftless Area). As brook trout populations have rebounded, incidences of tiger trout have improved from "exceedingly rare" to a "a bit better than rare."[10]
Michigan tends to have a number of tiger trout in its streams, due to its high population of brook trout.[citation needed] Catching them consistently would not be possible.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Splake
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mark A. Nale When a Trout is a Tiger! Pennsylvania Council of Trout Unlimited. Retrieved 11 September 2006
Jump up ^ The Brown Trout Brook Trout hybrid aka Tiger trout - Brown Trout Facts about Spawning, Habitat & Fly Fishing Guide
Jump up ^ Salmo x Salvel hi inus trutta x fontinalis USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species database. Retrieved 11 September 2006
Jump up ^ Beautiful Bastards: Check Out These Tiger Trout Photos | Field & Stream
Jump up ^ Thousands of tigers released in Utah (trout that is!) Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 24 May 2005. Retrieved 11 September 2006
Jump up ^ Watch out, Utah chubs: Tiger trout placed in Scofield Reservoir Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 24 May 2005. Retrieved 11 September 2006
Jump up ^ Tiger Trout & Hybrids Archived 2006-08-28 at the Wayback Machine. Pennsylvania Fish & Boat Commission. Retrieved 11 September 2006
Jump up ^ Tiger Trout Fishing - Utah Fish Species - Utah Fishing Info
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Searock, Kevin (2013). Troutsmith: An Angler's Tales and Travels. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 32–35. ISBN 9780299293734.
External links[edit]
http://www.thejump.net/id/tiger-trout.htm
http://agris.fao.org/aos/records/BG2011000259
http://www.utahfishinginfo.com/utahfish/tigertrout.php
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiger_trout&oldid=822032412"
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Fish hybrids
Salmo
Salvelinus
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