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Empire of the Sun (film)
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This article is about the film. For other uses, see Empire of the Sun (disambiguation).
Empire of the Sun
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Steven Spielberg
Produced by
Steven Spielberg
Kathleen Kennedy
Frank Marshall
Screenplay by
Tom Stoppard
Based on
Empire of the Sun
by J. G. Ballard
Starring
John Malkovich
Miranda Richardson
Nigel Havers
Christian Bale
Music by
John Williams
Cinematography
Allen Daviau
Edited by
Michael Kahn
Production
company
Amblin Entertainment
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
December 11, 1987 (1987-12-11) (Limited)
December 25, 1987 (1987-12-25) (United States)
Running time
154 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Japanese
Cantonese Chinese
Budget
$35 million[1]
Box office
$66.7 million[2]
Empire of the Sun is a 1987 American epic coming-of-age war film based on J. G. Ballard's semi-autobiographical novel of the same name. It was directed by Steven Spielberg and stars John Malkovich, Miranda Richardson, Nigel Havers, and Christian Bale. The film tells the story of Jamie "Jim" Graham, a young boy who goes from living in a wealthy British family in Shanghai, to becoming a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp, during World War II.
Harold Becker and David Lean were originally to direct before Spielberg came on board, initially as a producer for Lean.[3] Spielberg was attracted to directing the film because of a personal connection to Lean's films and World War II topics. He considers it to be his most profound work on "the loss of innocence".[1] The film received positive reviews but was not initially a box office success, earning only $22,238,696 at the US box office, but it eventually more than recouped its budget through revenues in other markets.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
3.3 Filming
3.4 Special effects
4 Reception
4.1 Critical response
4.2 Awards
5 Themes
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Sources
11 External links
Plot[edit]
Amidst Japan's invasion of China during World War II, Jamie Graham—a British upper middle class schoolboy—is enjoying a privileged and spoiled life in the Shanghai International Settlement. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese begin to occupy the settlement, and in the ensuing chaos, Jamie is separated from his parents. Jamie's mother shouts at him over the panicked mob to wait at their house and promises that they will come back for him. He spends some time living in his deserted home, but after eating all the food he ventures out into the city.
Hungry, Jamie tries to surrender to some Japanese soldiers, who shrug and laugh him off. After being chased by a street urchin, he is taken in by Basie—an American expatriate and hustler—and his partner Frank, who nicknames him "Jim". They intend to leave the boy in the streets when they are unable to sell his teeth for cash, but Jamie promises to lead them back to his neighborhood where there are valuables to loot. There, Jamie finds his house lit and sees a figure in the window whom he thinks is his mother. He runs to the door only to discover the house is occupied by Japanese troops, who take the trio prisoner. They are then taken to Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center in Shanghai for processing. A truck later arrives to take selected internees to the Suzhou Creek Internment Camp; Basie is among those selected to go but Jamie is not. Because he knows of the camp's location, a desperate Jamie convinces the soldiers to take him.
It is now 1945, nearing the end of the Pacific War. Despite the terror and poor living conditions of the camp, Jim survives by establishing a successful trading network—which even involves the camp's commander, Sergeant Nagata. Dr. Rawlins, the camp's British doctor, becomes a father figure and teacher to Jim. One night after a bombing raid, Nagata orders the destruction of the prisoners' infirmary as reprisal. He only stops when Jim (now fluent in Japanese) begs forgiveness. Through the barbed wire fencing, Jim befriends a Japanese teenager, who is a trainee pilot. Jim also visits Basie in the American POW barracks, where Jim idolizes the Americans and their culture.
One morning at dawn, Jim witnesses a kamikaze ritual. Overcome with emotion, he salutes and sings the Welsh song "Suo Gân". The base is suddenly attacked by a group of American P-51 Mustang fighter aircraft. Jim is overjoyed and climbs the ruins of a nearby pagoda to better watch the airstrike. Dr. Rawlins chases Jim up the pagoda to save him, where the boy breaks down in tears—he cannot remember what his parents look like. As a result of the attack the Japanese decide to evacuate the camp. Basie escapes during the confusion, though he had promised to take Jim with him. The camp's prisoners march through the wilderness where many die of fatigue, starvation, and disease.
Arriving at a football stadium near Nantao—filled with luxuries confiscated by the Japanese—Jim recognizes his parents' Packard. Jim spends the night there and witnesses flashes from the atomic bombing of Nagasaki hundreds of miles away.
Jim wanders back to Suzhou Creek. Along the way he hears news of Japan's surrender and the end of the war. He encounters the Japanese teenager he befriended earlier, who has since become a pilot but is now disillusioned. The youth remembers Jim and offers him a mango, and will cut it for him with his katana. Basie reappears with a group of armed Americans who have arrived to loot the Red Cross containers being airdropped over the area. One of the Americans, thinking Jim is in danger, shoots and kills the Japanese youth. Basie offers to help Jim find his parents, but Jim—infuriated over his friend's death—chooses to stay behind.
Jim is eventually found by American soldiers and placed in an orphanage, where he is reunited with his mother and father.
Cast[edit]
Christian Bale as Jim
John Malkovich as Basie
Miranda Richardson as Mrs. Victor
Nigel Havers as Dr. Rawlins
Joe Pantoliano as Frank Demarest
Leslie Phillips as Maxton
Masatō Ibu as Sergeant Nagata
Emily Richard as Mary Graham, Jim's mother
Rupert Frazer as John Graham, Jim's father
Peter Gale as Mr. Victor
Takatarô Kataoka as Kamikaze Boy Pilot
Ben Stiller as Dainty
Robert Stephens as Mr. Lockwood
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
Warner Bros. purchased the film rights, intending Harold Becker to direct and Robert Shapiro to produce.[5] Tom Stoppard wrote the first draft of the screenplay, on which Ballard briefly collaborated.[2] Becker dropped out, and David Lean came to direct with Spielberg as producer. Lean explained, "I worked on it for about a year and in the end I gave it up because I thought it was too similar to a diary. It was well-written and interesting, but I gave it to Steve."[5] Spielberg felt "from the moment I read J. G. Ballard's novel I secretly wanted to direct myself."[5] Spielberg found the project to be very personal. As a child, his favorite film was Lean's The Bridge on the River Kwai, which similarly takes place in a Japanese prisoner of war camp. Spielberg's fascination with World War II and the aircraft of that era was stimulated by his father's stories of his experience as a radio operator on North American B-25 Mitchell bombers in the China-Burma Theater.[5] Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes to do an uncredited rewrite before Stoppard was brought back to write the shooting script.[2]
Casting[edit]
J.G. Ballard felt Bale had a physical resemblance to himself at the same age.[6] The actor was 12 years old when he was cast. Amy Irving, Bale's co-star in the television movie Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna, recommended Bale to her then-husband, Steven Spielberg, for the role. More than 4,000 child actors auditioned.[7] Jim's singing voice was provided by English performer James Rainbird.[8]
Filming[edit]
Empire of the Sun was filmed at Elstree Studios in the United Kingdom, and on location in Shanghai and Spain. The filmmakers searched across Asia in an attempt to find locations that resembled 1941 Shanghai. They entered negotiations with Shanghai Film Studios and China Film Co-Production Corporation in 1985.[9] After a year of negotiations, permission was granted for a three-week shoot in early March 1987. It was the first American film shot in Shanghai since the 1940s.[2] The Chinese authorities allowed the crew to alter signs to traditional Chinese characters, as well as closing down city blocks for filming.[9] Over 5,000 local extras were used, some old enough to remember the Japanese occupation of Shanghai 40 years earlier. Members of the People's Liberation Army played Japanese soldiers.[6] Other locations included Trebujena in Andalusia, Knutsford in Cheshire and Sunningdale in Berkshire.[9] Lean often visited the set during the England shoot.[2]
Spielberg attempted to portray the era accurately, using period vehicles and aircraft. Four Harvard SNJ aircraft were lightly modified in France to resemble Mitsubishi A6M Zero aircraft.[10] Two additional non-flying replicas were used. Three restored P-51D Mustangs, two from 'The Fighter Collection' of England, and one from the 'Old Flying Machine Company', were flown in the film.[10] These P-51s were flown by Ray Hanna (who was featured in the film flying at low-level past the child star with the canopy back, waving), his son Mark and "Hoof" Proudfoot and took over 10 days of filming to complete due to the complexity of the planned aerial sequences, which included the P-51s actually dropping plaster-filled replica 500 lb bombs at low level, with simulated bomb blasts. A number of large scale remote control flying models were also used, including an 18-foot wingspan B-29, but Spielberg felt the results were disappointing, so he extended the film contract with the full-size examples and pilots on set in Trebujena, Spain.[11][12] J.G. Ballard makes a cameo appearance at the costume party scene.[6]
Special effects[edit]
Industrial Light & Magic designed the visual effects sequences with some computer-generated imagery also used for the atomic bombing of Nagasaki. Norman Reynolds was hired as the production designer while Vic Armstrong served as the stunt coordinator.[12]
Reception [edit]
Empire of the Sun was given a limited release on December 11, 1987, before being wide released on Christmas Day, 1987. The film earned $22.24 million in North America,[4] and $44.46 million in other countries, accumulating a worldwide total of $66.7 million, earning more than its budget but still considered a box office disappointment by Spielberg.[N 1][2]
Critical response[edit]
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 71% based on reviews from 47 critics.[14] By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 62 out of 100 based on 22 reviews.[15] J. G. Ballard gave positive feedback, and was especially impressed with Christian Bale's performance.[6] Critical reaction was not universally affirmative,[5] but Richard Corliss of Time stated that Spielberg "has energized each frame with allusive legerdemain and an intelligent density of images and emotions."[16] Janet Maslin from The New York Times called the film "a visual splendor, a heroic adventurousness and an immense scope that make it unforgettable."[17] Julie Salamon of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the film as "an edgy, intelligent script by playwright Tom Stoppard, Spielberg has made an extraordinary film out of Mr. Ballard's extraordinary war experience."[18] J. Hoberman from The Village Voice decried that the serious subject was undermined by Spielberg's "shamelessly kiddiecentric" approach.[5] Roger Ebert gave a mixed reaction, "Despite the emotional potential in the story, it didn't much move me. Maybe, like the kid, I decided that no world where you can play with airplanes can be all that bad."[19] On his TV show with Gene Siskel, Ebert said that the film "is basically a good idea for a film that never gets off the ground." Siskel added, "I don't know what the film is about. It's so totally confused and taking things from different parts. On one hand, if it wants to say something about a child's-eye view of war, you got a movie made by John Boorman called Hope and Glory that was just released that is much better, and much more daring in showing the whimsy that children's view of war is. On the other hand, this film wants to hedge its bet and make it like an adventure film, so you've got like Indiana Jones with the John Malkovich character helping the little kid through all the fun of war. I don't know what Spielberg wanted to do."[20]
Awards [edit]
The film won awards from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures for Best Film and Best Director, and Bale received a special citation for Best Performance by a Juvenile Actor, the first National Board award bestowed on a child actor.[21][22] At the 60th Academy Awards, Empire of the Sun was nominated for Art Direction, Cinematography, Editing, Original Music Score, Costume Design (Bob Ringwood), and Sound (Robert Knudson, Don Digirolamo, John Boyd and Tony Dawe). It did not convert any of the nominations into awards.[23] Allen Daviau, who was nominated as cinematographer, publicly complained, "I can't second-guess the Academy, but I feel very sorry that I get nominations and Steven doesn't. It's his vision that makes it all come together, and if Steven wasn't making these films, none of us would be here."[2] The film won awards for cinematography, sound design, and music score at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards. The nominations included production design, costume design, and adapted screenplay.[24] Spielberg was honored for this work by the Directors Guild of America,[25] while the American Society of Cinematographers honored Allen Daviau.[26] Empire of the Sun was nominated for Best Motion Picture (Drama) and Original Score at the 45th Golden Globe Awards.[27] John Williams earned a Grammy Award nomination.[28]
Themes[edit]
Jim's growing alienation from his prewar self and society is reflected in his hero-worship of the Japanese aviators based at the airfield adjoining the camp. "I think it's true that the Japanese were pretty brutal with the Chinese, so I don't have any particularly sentimental view of them," Ballard recalled. "But small boys tend to find their heroes where they can. One thing there was no doubt about, and that was that the Japanese were extremely brave. One had very complicated views about patriotism [and] loyalty to one's own nation. Jim is constantly identifying himself, first with the Japanese; then, when the Americans start flying over in their Mustangs and B-29s, he's very drawn to the American."[5]
The apocalyptic wartime setting and the climactic moment when Jim sees the distant white flash of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki gave Spielberg powerful visual metaphors "to draw a parallel story between the death of this boy's innocence and the death of the innocence of the entire world."[29] Spielberg reflected he "was attracted to the idea that this was a death of innocence, not an attenuation of childhood, which by my own admission and everybody's impression of me is what my life has been. This was the opposite of Peter Pan. This was a boy who had grown up too quickly."[1] Other topics that Spielberg previously dealt with, and are presented in Empire of the Sun, include a child being separated from his parents (The Sugarland Express, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind and Poltergeist)[N 2] and World War II (1941, and Raiders of the Lost Ark).[30] Spielberg explained "My parents got a divorce when I was 14, 15. The whole thing about separation is something that runs very deep in anyone exposed to divorce."[1]
In popular culture[edit]
The dramatic attack on the Japanese prisoner of war camp carried out by P-51 Mustangs is accompanied by Jim's whoops of "...the Cadillac of the skies!", a phrase believed to be first used in Ballard's text as "Cadillac of air combat".[31] Steven Bull quotes the catchwords in the Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation (2004) as originating in 1941.[32] John Williams' soundtrack includes "Cadillac of the Skies" as an individual score cue.
Ben Stiller conceived the idea for Tropic Thunder while performing in Empire of the Sun.[33]
See also[edit]
Empire of the Sun (soundtrack)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In 1989, Spielberg was quoted as saying: "...Empire of the Sun wasn't a very commercial project, it wasn't going to have a broad audience appeal... I've earned the right to fail commercially."[13]
Jump up ^ Film historian and author Kowalski collectively links these films as Spielberg's "family" or conversely, as his "displaced father" films.[30]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Forsberg, Myra. "Spielberg at 40: The Man and the Child". The New York Times, October 1, 2008. Retrieved: September 17, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g McBride 1997, pp. 394–398.
Jump up ^ McBride 1997, p. 391.
^ Jump up to: a b " Empire of the Sun". Box Office Mojo (Amazon.com). Retrieved: September 16, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g McBride 1997, p. 392.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sheen, Martin (narrator), Steven Spielberg, J.G. Ballard, and Christian Bale. The China Odyssey: Empire of the Sun American Broadcasting Company, 1987.
Jump up ^ Wills, Dominic. "Christian Bale Biography" Archived 2008-09-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Tiscali. Retrieved: September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ Bullock, Paul. "Spielberg Questions #4: Did Christian Bale sing in Empire of the Sun?". From Director Steven Spielberg. Retrieved: March 5th 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Walker 1988, p. 49.
^ Jump up to: a b Air Classics: 10. January 1988. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Air Classics: 63. January 1988. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Walker 1988, pp. 63–65.
Jump up ^ Friedman and Notbohn 2000, p. 137.
Jump up ^ "Empire of the Sun". Rotten Tomatoes (Flixster). Retrieved September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Empire of the Sun (1987): Reviews". Metacritic (CBS). Retrieved September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard. "The Man-Child Who Fell to Earth: Empire of the Sun". Time, December 7, 1987. Retrieved: September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ Maislin, Janet. "Empire of the Sun". The New York Times, December 9, 1987. Retrieved: September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ Salmon, Julie. "Empire of the Sun". The Wall Street Journal, December 9, 1987. Retrieved: January 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger. "Empire of the Sun". Chicago Sun-Times, December 11, 1987. Retrieved: September 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Empire of the Sun". Siskel & Ebert. Disney-ABC Domestic Television. December 12, 1987. Television.
Jump up ^ "'Empire of Sun' said best film by National Board". The San Bernardino County Sun. San Bernardino, CA. AP. February 17, 1988. Retrieved October 20, 2016 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "National Board of Review 1987 Award Winners". National Board of Review. Retrieved: October 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Nominees & Winners for the 60th Academy Awards" Archived 2010-04-08 at the Wayback Machine. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Retrieved: January 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ "42nd British Academy Awards". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved: September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ "DGA Awards: 1988". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved: September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ "ASC Awards: 1988". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved: September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ "The 45th Annual Golden Globe Awards (1988)" Archived November 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.. Golden Globes. Retrieved: January 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Grammy Awards: 1988". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved: September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ McBride 1997, p. 393.
^ Jump up to: a b Kowalski 2008, pp. 35, 67.
Jump up ^ Ballard 1984, p. 151.
Jump up ^ Bull 2004, p. 184.
Jump up ^ Vary, Adam B. "First Look: Tropic Thunder". Entertainment Weekly, March 5, 2008. Retrieved: May 27, 2008.
Sources[edit]
Ballard, J.G. Empire of the Sun. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., First edition 1984. ISBN 0-575-03483-1.
Bull, Steven. Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood, 2004. ISBN 978-1-57356-557-8.
Dolan, Edward F. Hollywood Goes to War. London: Hamlyn, 1985. ISBN 0-86124-229-7.
Evans, Alun. Brassey's Guide to War Films. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2000. ISBN 1-57488-263-5.
Friedman, Lester D. and Brent Notbohm. Steven Spielberg: Interviews (Conversations with Filmmakers Series). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2000. ISBN 978-1-57806-113-6.
Gordon, Andrew and Frank Gormile. The Films of Steven Spielberg. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2002, pp. 109–123, 127–137. ISBN 0-8108-4182-7.
Hardwick, Jack and Ed Schnepf. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies". The Making of the Great Aviation Films (General Aviation Series), Volume 2, 1989.
Kowalski, Dean A. Steven Spielberg and Philosophy: We're Gonna Need a Bigger Book. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8131-2527-5.
McBride, Joseph. Steven Spielberg: A Biography. New York: Faber & Faber, 1997. ISBN 0-571-19177-0.
Walker, Jeff. "Empire of the Sun". Air Classics, Volume 24, January 1988.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Empire of the Sun
Empire of the Sun on IMDb
Empire of the Sun at the TCM Movie Database
Empire of the Sun at AllMovie
Empire of the Sun at Rotten Tomatoes
Empire of the Sun at Box Office Mojo
Empire of the Sun at Metacritic
[show]
v
t
e
Steven Spielberg
Filmography
Awards and nominations
Films directed
Firelight (1964)
Slipstream (1967)
Amblin' (1968)
Night Gallery ("Eyes" segment, 1969)
L.A. 2017 (1971)
Duel (1971)
Something Evil (1972)
Savage (1973)
The Sugarland Express (1974, also wrote)
Jaws (1975)
Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977, also wrote)
1941 (1979)
Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)
Twilight Zone: The Movie ("Kick the Can" segment, 1983)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)
The Color Purple (1985)
Empire of the Sun (1987)
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)
Always (1989)
Hook (1991)
Jurassic Park (1993)
Schindler's List (1993)
The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997)
Amistad (1997)
Saving Private Ryan (1998)
A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001, also wrote)
Minority Report (2002)
Catch Me If You Can (2002)
The Terminal (2004)
War of the Worlds (2005)
Munich (2005)
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008)
The Adventures of Tintin (2011)
War Horse (2011)
Lincoln (2012)
Bridge of Spies (2015)
The BFG (2016)
The Post (2017)
Ready Player One (2018)
Films written
Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies (1973)
Poltergeist (1982, also produced)
The Goonies (1985)
Films produced
An American Tail: Fievel Goes West (1991)
Memoirs of a Geisha (2005)
Flags of Our Fathers (2006)
Letters from Iwo Jima (2006)
Super 8 (2011)
The Hundred-Foot Journey (2014)
Television
Amazing Stories (1985–87)
High Incident (1996–97)
Invasion America (1998)
See also
Steven Spielberg bibliography
Amblin Partners
Amblin Entertainment
Amblin Television
DreamWorks Television
Amblimation
DreamWorks
USC Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual History and Education
[show]
v
t
e
Tom Stoppard
Stage plays
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
Enter a Free Man
The Real Inspector Hound
After Magritte
Jumpers
Travesties
Dirty Linen and New-Found-Land
Professional Foul
Every Good Boy Deserves Favour
Night and Day
Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth
15-Minute Hamlet
Undiscovered Country
On the Razzle
The Real Thing
Rough Crossing
Dalliance
Hapgood
Arcadia
Indian Ink
The Invention of Love
The Coast of Utopia
Rock 'n' Roll
The Hard Problem
Radio plays
Artist Descending a Staircase
The Dog It Was That Died
In the Native State
Darkside
Screenplays
Three Men in a Boat
The Boundary
Despair
Brazil
Empire of the Sun
Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (also directed)
The Russia House
Billy Bathgate
Poodle Springs
Shakespeare in Love
Enigma
Anna Karenina
Parade's End
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[show]
v
t
e
Works by J. G. Ballard
Novels
The Wind from Nowhere (1961)
The Drowned World (1962)
The Burning World (1964)
The Crystal World (1966)
The Atrocity Exhibition (1969)
Crash (1973)
Concrete Island (1974)
High-Rise (1975)
The Unlimited Dream Company (1979)
Hello America (1981)
Empire of the Sun (1984)
The Day of Creation (1987)
Running Wild (1988)
The Kindness of Women (1991)
Rushing to Paradise (1994)
Cocaine Nights (1996)
Super-Cannes (2000)
Millennium People (2003)
Kingdom Come (2006)
Short stories
"Mobile" (1957)
"The Concentration City" (1957)
"Track 12" (1958)
"Zone of Terror" (1960)
"The Sound-Sweep" (1960)
"The Voices of Time" (1960)
"Studio 5, The Stars" (1961)
"Deep End" (1961)
"Mr F. is Mr F." (1961)
"Billennium" (1962)
"Minus One" (1963)
"The Recognition" (1967)
" The Day of Forever" (1967)
"Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan" (1968)
"Venus Smiles" (1971)
Short story
collections
The Voices of Time and Other Stories (1962)
Billennium (1962)
Passport to Eternity (1963)
The Four-Dimensional Nightmare (1963)
The Terminal Beach (1964)
The Impossible Man (1966)
The Overloaded Man (1967)
The Disaster Area (1967)
The Day of Forever (1967)
Vermilion Sands (1971)
Chronopolis and Other Stories (1971)
Low-Flying Aircraft and Other Stories (1976)
The Best of J. G. Ballard (1977)
The Best Short Stories of J. G. Ballard (1978)
The Venus Hunters (1980)
Myths of the Near Future (1982)
The Voices of Time (1985)
Memories of the Space Age (1988)
War Fever (1990)
The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 1 (2006)
The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 2 (2006)
Essays, reviews
and interviews
A User's Guide to the Millennium (1996)
Extreme Metaphors (2012)
Autobiography
Miracles of Life (2008)
Film adaptations
When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970)
Crash! (1971)
Empire of the Sun (1987)
Crash (1996)
The Atrocity Exhibition (2001)
Aparelho Voador a Baixa Altitude (2002)
High-Rise (2015)
Authority control
GND: 1033242004
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Northern Pacific seastar in Australia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Northern Pacific starfish (Asterias amurensis.
The Northern Pacific starfish, (Asterias amurensis) is an invasive species in Australia. The starfish is native to the coasts of northern China, North Korea, South Korea, Russia and Japan and distribution of this species into other countries has increased. It is on the Invasive Species Specialist Group list of the world's 100 worst invasive species.[1]
In Australia spawning occurs from July to October at temperatures of 10°C to 12°C. Fertilized eggs develop into free-swimming larvae that live in the water for around 90 days before settling and metamorphosing into juvenile seastars. In one year the northern Pacific seastar is capable of increasing its diameter by 8 cm; when fully grown the northern Pacific seastar lives up to five years, and can reach sizes up to 40 to 50 cm in diameter. Larval survival is constrained by temperature and salinity of the surrounding marine habitat, with the optimal ranges respectively 8°C to 16°C, and 3‰ to 8.75‰. Generally, seastars are sensitive to salinity fluctuations, and are unlikely to be found in places of high salinity. In Japan its numbers increase and reach outbreak proportions for two to three years; outbreaks have been found to occur in three or ten year cycles. Native to the coasts of northern China, Korea, Russia and Japan, the northern Pacific seastar lives in waters between 7 °C and 22 °C. It lives in mainly shallow water, but also is found as deep as 200 metres. It is rarely found on reefs or high wave action areas, instead sitting on mud, sand or pebbles.
In Tasmania, due to the plague of these seastars, hunting days have been organized, where volunteers work together to physically remove as many of the seastars as possible. Efforts of this kind in 1993 resulted in the collection of more than 30,000 seastars. During the first attempts to remove the seastar from Tasmania, many of the seastars that were captured were cut up and thrown back into the sea. Unfortunately, each part that was thrown back was able to regenerate and grow a new seastar as long as it had part of the central disc remaining.
Seastar poisons are not specific and in the ocean, could damage many other natural marine communities. Also, the amount of chemicals needed to poison seastars in estuaries would be uneconomical, and very impractical. In Australia, northern Pacific seastars don't have any pathogens, though in Japan, northern Pacific seastars are attacked by a unicelled animal called Orchitophrya. Orchitophrya invades seastars' testes, kills sperm, and castrates the seastar. However scientists later discovered that Orchitophrya doesn't usually invade all 10 of the seastar's testes and doesn't have the effect hoped for.
The northern Pacific seastar has also been found in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, for some years now. The seastar has migrated inland in the Maribyrnong River, reaching as far inland as Essendon. The Maribyrnong is a salty river (previously known as Saltwater River), but finding the seastar this far inland is unusual.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". Global Invasive Species Database. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
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Personality type
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the generic aspects of type indicator theory. For the book by Jung, see Psychological Types.
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might be construed as quantitative differences.[1] According to type theories, for example, introverts and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people. According to trait theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Clinically effective personality typologies
2 Types vs. traits
3 Type theories
4 Carl Jung
4.1 Four functions of consciousness
4.2 Attitudes: extraversion and introversion
4.3 Four functions: sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling
4.4 Dominant function
4.5 Personality types and worrying
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Clinically effective personality typologies[edit]
Effective personality typologies reveal and increase knowledge and understanding of individuals, as opposed to diminishing knowledge and understanding as occurs in the case of stereotyping. Effective typologies also allow for increased ability to predict clinically relevant information about people and to develop effective treatment strategies.[2] There is an extensive literature on the topic of classifying the various types of human temperament and an equally extensive literature on personality traits or domains. These classification systems attempt to describe normal temperament and personality and emphasize the predominant features of different temperament and personality types; they are largely the province of the discipline of psychology. Personality disorders, on the other hand, reflect the work of psychiatry, a medical specialty, and are disease-oriented. They are classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), a product of the American Psychiatric Association.[3]
Types vs. traits[edit]
The term type has not been used consistently in psychology and has become the source of some confusion. Furthermore, because personality test scores usually fall on a bell curve rather than in distinct categories,[4] personality type theories have received considerable criticism among psychometric researchers. One study that directly compared a “type” instrument (the MBTI) to a “trait” instrument (the NEO PI) found that the trait measure was a better predictor of personality disorders.[5] Because of these problems, personality type theories have fallen out of favor in psychology. Most researchers now believe that it is impossible to explain the diversity of human personality with a small number of discrete types. They recommend trait models instead, such as the five-factor model.[6][7][8]
Type theories[edit]
Further information: Table of similar systems of comparison of temperaments
An early form of personality type indicator theory was the Four Temperaments system of Galen, based on the four humours model of Hippocrates; an extended Five Temperaments system based on the classical theory was published in 1958.
One example of personality types is Type A and Type B personality theory. According to this theory, impatient, achievement-oriented people are classified as Type A, whereas easy-going, relaxed individuals are designated as Type B. The theory originally suggested that Type A individuals were more at risk for coronary heart disease, but this claim has not been supported by empirical research.[9]
One study suggests that people with Type A personalities are more likely to develop personality disorders whereas Type B personalities are more likely to become alcoholics.[10]
Developmental psychologist Jerome Kagan is a prominent advocate of type indicator theory. He suggests that shy, withdrawn children are best viewed as having an inhibited temperament, which is qualitatively different from that of other children.[11]
As a matter of convenience, trait theorists sometimes use the term type to describe someone who scores exceptionally high or low on a particular personality trait. Hans Eysenck refers to superordinate personality factors as types, and more specific associated traits as traits.
Several pop psychology theories (e.g., Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus, the enneagram) rely on the idea of distinctively different types of people.
Carl Jung[edit]
One of the more influential ideas originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung as published in the book Psychological Types. The original German language edition, Psychologische Typen, was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich, in 1921.[12] Typologies such as Socionics, the MBTI assessment, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter have roots in Jungian theory.[13][14]
Jung's interest in typology grew from his desire to reconcile the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, and to define how his own perspective differed from theirs. Jung wrote, “In attempting to answer this question, I came across the problem of types; for it is one's psychological type which from the outset determines and limits a person's judgment.” (Jung, [1961] 1989:207) He concluded that Freud's theory was extraverted and Adler's introverted. (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 91) Jung became convinced that acrimony between the Adlerian and Freudian camps was due to this unrecognized existence of different fundamental psychological attitudes, which led Jung “to conceive the two controversial theories of neurosis as manifestations of a type-antagonism.” (Jung, 1966: par. 64)
Four functions of consciousness[edit]
In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function.
Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:
The “rational” (judging) functions: thinking and feeling
The “irrational” (perceiving) functions: sensation and intuition
Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form.[15]:17
According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:[16]
sensation—perception by means of immediate apprehension of the visible relationship between subject and object
intuition—perception of processes in the background; e.g. unconscious drives and/or motivations of other people
thinking—function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions
feeling—function of subjective estimation, value oriented thinking
Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational. According to Jung, rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason — a point of view based on objective value, which is set by practical experience. Nonrationality is not based in reason. Jung notes that elementary facts are also nonrational, not because they are illogical but because, as thoughts, they are not judgments.
Attitudes: extraversion and introversion[edit]
Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments.
Extravert (Jung's spelling, although some dictionaries prefer the variant extrovert)
Introvert
Extraversion means “outward-turning” and introversion means “inward-turning”.[17] These specific definitions vary somewhat from the popular usage of the words.
The preferences for extraversion and introversion are often called attitudes. Each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people, and things (extraverted attitude) or the internal world of ideas and reflection (introverted attitude).
People who prefer extraversion draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their motivation tends to decline. To rebuild their energy, extraverts need breaks from time spent in reflection. Conversely, those who prefer introversion expend energy through action: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again. To rebuild their energy, introverts need quiet time alone, away from activity.
An extravert's flow is directed outward toward people and objects, an introvert's is directed inward toward concepts and ideas. Contrasting characteristics between extraverts and introverts include the following:
Extraverts are action-oriented, while introverts are thought-oriented.
Extraverts seek breadth of knowledge and influence, while introverts seek depth of knowledge and influence.
Extraverts often prefer more frequent interaction, while introverts prefer more substantial interaction.
Extraverts recharge and get their energy from spending time with people, while introverts recharge and get their energy from spending time alone.[18]
The attitude type could be thought of as the flow of libido (psychic energy). The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. In any person, the degree of introversion or extraversion of one function can be quite different from that of another function.
Four functions: sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling[edit]
Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:
The two perceiving functions, sensation and intuition
The two judging functions, thinking and feeling
Sensation and intuition are the information-gathering (perceiving) functions. They describe how new information is understood and interpreted. Individuals who prefer the sensation function are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete: that is, information that can be understood by the five senses. They tend to distrust hunches, which seem to come “out of nowhere”.[15]:2 They prefer to look for details and facts. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer the intuition function tend to trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be associated with other information (either remembered or discovered by seeking a wider context or pattern). They may be more interested in future possibilities. They tend to trust those flashes of insight that seem to bubble up from the unconscious mind. The meaning is in how the data relates to the pattern or theory.
Thinking and feeling are the decision-making (judging) functions. The thinking and feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer the thinking function tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer the feeling function tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it “from the inside” and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved.
As noted already, people who prefer the thinking function do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, “think better” than their feeling counterparts; the opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a measure of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer the feeling function do not necessarily have “better” emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.
Dominant function[edit]
All four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances. However, one of the four functions is generally used more dominantly and proficiently than the other three, in a more conscious and confident way. According to Jung the dominant function is supported by two auxiliary functions. (In MBTI publications the first auxiliary is usually called the auxiliary or secondary function and the second auxiliary function is usually called the tertiary function.) The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Jung called this the "inferior function" and Myers sometimes also called it the "shadow function".[15]:84
Jung's typological model regards psychological type as similar to left- or right-handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of thinking and acting. These psychological differences are sorted into four opposite pairs, or dichotomies, with a resulting eight possible psychological types. People tend to find using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, even if they can become more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development.
The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (extraversion and introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or introverted way. A person whose dominant function is extraverted intuition, for example, uses intuition very differently from someone whose dominant function is introverted intuition.
The eight psychological types are as follows:
Extraverted sensation
Introverted sensation
Extraverted intuition
Introverted intuition
Extraverted thinking
Introverted thinking
Extraverted feeling
Introverted feeling
Jung theorized that the dominant function characterizes consciousness, while its opposite is repressed and characterizes unconscious behavior. Generally, we tend to favor our most developed dominant function, while we can broaden our personality by developing the others. Related to this, Jung noted that the unconscious often tends to reveal itself most easily through a person's least developed inferior function. The encounter with the unconscious and development of the underdeveloped functions thus tend to progress together.
When the unconscious inferior functions fail to develop, imbalance results. In Psychological Types, Jung describes in detail the effects of tensions between the complexes associated with the dominant and inferior differentiating functions in highly one-sided individuals.
Personality types and worrying[edit]
The relationship between worry – the tendency of one's thoughts and mental images to revolve around and create negative emotions, and the experience of a frequent level of fear – and Jung's model of psychological types has been the subject of recent studies. In particular, correlational analysis has shown that the tendency to worry is significantly related to Jung's Introversion and Feeling dimensions. Similarly, worry has shown robust correlations with shyness and fear of social situations. The worrier's tendency to be fearful of social situations might make them appear more withdrawn.[19]
Jung's model suggests that the superordinate dimension of personality is introversion and extraversion. Introverts are likely to relate to the external world by listening, reflecting, being reserved, and having focused interests. Extraverts on the other hand, are adaptable and in tune with the external world. They prefer interacting with the outer world by talking, actively participating, being sociable, expressive, and having a variety of interests. Jung (1921) also identified two other dimensions of personality: Intuition - Sensing and Thinking - Feeling. Sensing types tend to focus on the reality of present situations, pay close attention to detail, and are concerned with practicalities. Intuitive types focus on envisioning a wide range of possibilities to a situation and favor ideas, concepts, and theories over data. Thinking types use objective and logical reasoning in making their decisions, are more likely to analyze stimuli in a logical and detached manner, be more emotionally stable, and score higher on intelligence. Feeling types make judgments based on subjective and personal values. In interpersonal decision-making, feeling types tend to emphasize compromise to ensure a beneficial solution for everyone. They also tend to be somewhat more neurotic than thinking types. The worrier's tendency to experience a fearful affect, could be manifested in Jung's feeling type.
See also[edit]
General overview:
Personality
Personality psychology
Personality tests
Psychological typologies
Trait theory
Trait leadership
Three modern theories closely associated with Jung's personality types:
Keirsey Temperament Sorter
Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
Socionics
Other theories:
16 Personality Factors
Big Five personality traits
DISC assessment
Enneagram of Personality
Eysenck's three-factor model
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Five Temperaments
Four Temperaments
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
HEXACO model of personality structure
Humorism
Type A and Type B personality theory
Holland Codes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, & Roy (2008). Psychology, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Jump up ^ Totton and Jacobs (2001). Character and Personality Types. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Jump up ^ Flaskerud, Jacquelyn H.Issues in Mental Health Nursing, Vol 33(9), Sep, 2012. pp. 631-634.
Jump up ^ Bess, T.L. & Harvey, R.J. (2001). Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper presented at the 2001 Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, USA.
Jump up ^ Furnham, A., & Crump, J. (2005). Personality Traits, Types, and Disorders: An Examination of the Relationship Between Three Self-Report Measures. European Journal of Personality, 19, 167-184.
Jump up ^ Asendorpf, J. B. (2003). Head-to-head comparison of the predictive validity of personality types and dimensions. European Journal of Personality, 17, 327–346.
Jump up ^ Pittenger, D. J. (2004). The limitations of extracting typologies from trait measures of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 779–787.
Jump up ^ McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., Costa, P. T., & Ozer, D. J. (2006). Person-factors in the California adult Q-set: Closing the door on personality types? European Journal of Personality, 20, 29-44.
Jump up ^ "Bates, K. L. (2006). Type A personality not linked to heart disease". Retrieved 2006-11-05.
Jump up ^ Bottlender, Miriam; Preuss U.; Soyka M. (2006). "Association of personality disorders with Type A and Type B alcoholics". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 256 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0601-y. PMID 16041558. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature. New York: Basic Books.
Jump up ^ Jung, Carl (1976). Campbell, Joseph, ed. The Portable Jung. New York, NY: Penguin Books. p. 178.
Jump up ^ Myers, Isabel Briggs with Peter B. Myers (1995) [1980]. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 0-89106-074-X.
Jump up ^ Keirsey, David (May 1, 1998) [1978]. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence (1st ed.). Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. p. 3. ISBN 1-885705-02-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Myers, Isabel Briggs with Peter B. Myers (1995) [1980]. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 0-89106-074-X.
Jump up ^ Jung, C.G., Psychological Types (The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Vol.6), ), ISBN
Jump up ^ Zeisset, Carolyn (2006). The Art of Dialogue: Exploring Personality Differences for More Effective Communication. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc. p. 13. ISBN 0-935652-77-9.
Jump up ^ Tieger, Paul D.; Barbara Barron-Tieger (1999). The Art of SpeedReading People. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-316-84518-2.
Jump up ^ Ragozzino, Rachel; W. Kelly (Summer 2011). "TYPING THE WORRIER: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORRY AND JUNG'S PERSONALITY TYPES". Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. 131 (4): 791–797. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Further reading[edit]
Jung, C.G. ([1921] 1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.
Jung, C.G. (1966). Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, Collected Works, Volume 7, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01782-4.
Jung, C.G. ([1961] 1989). Memories, Dreams, Reflections, New York, N.Y.: Vantage Books. ISBN 0-679-72395-1.
[show]
v
t
e
Carl Gustav Jung
Theories
Analytical psychology
Cognitive functions
Interpretation of religion
Personality type
Synchronicity
Theory of neurosis
Concepts
The psyche
Anima and animus
Collective unconscious
Complex
Electra complex
Inner child
Personal unconscious
Persona
Self
Shadow
Jungian archetypes
Apollo
Trickster
Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman
Wounded healer
Other
Active imagination
Enantiodromia
Extraversion and introversion
Individuation
Participation mystique
Works and
publications
Early
Psychology of the Unconscious
Two Essays on Analytical Psychology
Psychological Types
Later
Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self
Answer to Job
Synchronicity
Symbols of Transformation
Posthumous
Man and His Symbols
Memories, Dreams, Reflections
Red Book
Black Books
Seven Sermons to the Dead
The Collected Works
of C. G. Jung
Psychiatric Studies (1970)
Experimental Researches (1973)
Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (1960)
Freud & Psychoanalysis (1961)
Symbols of Transformation (1967, a revision of Psychology of the Unconscious, 1912) .
Psychological Types (1971)
Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1967)
Structure & Dynamics of the Psyche (1969)
Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (1969)
Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self (1969)
Civilization in Transition (1970)
Psychology and Religion: West and East (1970)
Psychology and Alchemy (1968)
Alchemical Studies (1968)
Mysterium Coniunctionis (1970)
Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature (1966)
Practice of Psychotherapy (1966)
Development of Personality (1954)
The Symbolic Life (1977)
General Bibliography (Revised Edition) (1990)
General Index (1979)
People
Jungfrauen
Marie-Louise von Franz
Barbara Hannah
Jolande Jacobi
Aniela Jaffé
Emma Jung
Toni Wolff
Colleagues
Sigmund Freud
Wolfgang Pauli
Sabina Spielrein
Victor White
Richard Wilhelm
Followers
Joseph Campbell
James Hillman
Erich Neumann
Laurens van der Post
Sonu Shamdasani
June Singer
Anthony Stevens
Organizations
Bollingen Foundation
C. G. Jung Institute in Zürich
Int'l Assoc. for Analytical Psychology
Int'l Assoc. for Jungian Studies
Philemon Foundation
Popular culture
A Dangerous Method
Synchronicity (album
song 1
2)
Shadow Man
The Soul Keeper
Other
Archetypal literary criticism
Archetypal pedagogy
Bollingen Prize
Bollingen Tower
Burghölzli
Eranos
I Ching
The Secret of the Golden Flower
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