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Deforestation by region
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This graph shows values of total forest cover for various regions and sub-regions of the world using FAO data, with deforestation in some areas and reforestation in others.
Main article: Deforestation
Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, 2/3 of the world forests were in 10 top countries: 1) Russia, 2) Brazil, 3) Canada, 4) United States, 5) China, 6) Australia, 7) Congo, 8) Indonesia, 9) Peru and 10) India.[1]
World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year, equal to the area of Greece. Only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth. In addition to directly human-induced deforestation, the growing forests have also been affected by climate change, increasing risks of storms, and diseases. Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
1.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo
1.2 Ethiopia
1.3 Kenya
1.4 Madagascar
1.5 Nigeria
2 Asia
2.1 Russia
2.2 Southeast Asia
2.2.1 Cambodia
2.2.2 Indonesia
2.2.3 Malaysia
2.2.4 Philippines
2.2.5 Thailand
2.2.6 Vietnam
2.3 Japan
2.4 Sri Lanka
3 Europe
3.1 Iceland
3.2 Italy
3.3 Russia
4 North America
4.1 Canada
4.2 United States
5 Central America and the Caribbean
5.1 Haiti
6 South America
6.1 Amazon Rainforest
6.1.1 Brazil
6.2 Colombia
6.3 Peru
7 Oceania
7.1 Australia
7.2 New Zealand
7.3 Papua New Guinea
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Further reading
10 External links
Africa[edit]
Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).[2][3][4] Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90% of West Africa's original forests.[5][6] Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa.[7] According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of tropical forests of any continent during the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s.[8] According to the figures from the FAO (1997), only 22.8% of West Africa's moist forests remain, much of this degraded.[9] Nigeria has lost 81% of its old-growth forests in just 15 years (1990–2005).[10] Massive deforestation threatens food security in some African countries.[11] One factor contributing to the continent's high rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90% of its population on wood as fuel for heating and cooking.[12]
Research carried out by WWF International in 2006 shows that in Africa, rates of illegal logging vary from 50% in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea to 70% in Gabon and 80% in Liberia[13] – where timber revenues played a major role in financing the Sierra Leone Civil War[14] and other regional armed conflicts until the UN Security Council imposed a ban on all Liberian timber in 2003.[15]
Democratic Republic of the Congo[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Democratic Republic of the Congo
Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated logging and mining, but mostly by the demands made by the subsistence activities of a poor population. In the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a day's walk from Virunga National Park. Wood from the park's forests is used by many of those people as firewood, as lumber for construction, and in the production of charcoal. Deforestation caused by subsistence living is an acute threat to the park in general, and to the habitat of the critically endangered mountain gorilla in particular.[16]
Ethiopia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Ethiopia
The main cause of deforestation in the East African country of Ethiopia is a growing population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production and fuel wood.[17] Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government,[18] although the current government has taken some steps to tackle deforestation.[19] Organizations such as Farm Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest management.[20] Ethiopia, the third largest country in Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of getting rain, which is already low, and thus causes erosion. Bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer, offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of wildlife, but that overpopulation caused people to come to that land and clear it to plant crops, cutting all trees to sell as firewood.[21]
Ethiopia has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years.[20] At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km² or 35% of Ethiopia's land was covered with forests. Recent reports indicate that forests cover less than 14.2%[20] or even only 11.9% as of 2005[update].[22] Between 1990 and 2005, the country lost 14% of its forests or 21,000 km².
Kenya[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Kenya
In 1963 Kenya had forest cover of some 10 percent and by 2006 1.7 percent.[23]
Madagascar[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Madagascar
Deforestation[24] with resulting desertification, water resource degradation and soil loss has affected approximately 94% of Madagascar's previously biologically productive lands. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest.[25] Most of this loss has occurred since independence from the French, and is the result of local people using slash-and-burn agricultural practices as they try to subsist.[26] Largely due to deforestation, the country is currently unable to provide adequate food, fresh water and sanitation for its fast growing population.[27][28]
Nigeria[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Nigeria
According to the FAO, Nigeria has the world's highest deforestation rate of primary forests. It has lost more than half of its primary forest in the last five years. Causes cited are logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of fuel wood. Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed.[29]
Asia[edit]
Russia[edit]
See also: Environmental issues in Russia § Deforestation
Russia has the largest area of forests of any state on Earth, with around 12 million km2 of boreal forest, larger than the Amazon rainforest. Russia's forests contain 55% of the world's conifers and represent 11% of biomass on Earth. It is estimated that 20,000 km2 are deforested each year.[30] The present scale of deforestation in Russia is most easily seen using Google Earth. Areas nearer to China are most affected, as it is the main market for the timber.[31] Deforestation in Russia is particularly damaging as the forests have a short growing season due to extremely cold winters and therefore will take longer to recover.
Southeast Asia[edit]
See also: Southeast Asian haze
Forest loss is acute in Southeast Asia,[32] the second of the world's great biodiversity hot spots.[33] According to 2005 report conducted by the FAO, Vietnam has the second highest rate of deforestation of primary forests in the world second to only Nigeria.[34] More than 90% of the old-growth rainforests of the Philippine Archipelago have been cut.[35] Other Southeast Asian countries where major deforestation is ongoing are Cambodia and Laos. According to a documentary by TelePool, the deforestation is being directed by corrupt military personnel and government (forestry services).[36][37]
Cambodia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Cambodia
Indonesia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Indonesia
See also: Deforestation of Borneo
As of 2008[update], at present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years, Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.[38]
Indonesia had lost over 72% of intact forests and 40% of all forests completely in 2005. Illegal logging took place in 37 out of 41 national parks. The illegal logging costs up to US$4 billion a year. The lowland forests of Sumatra and Borneo were in risk to be wiped out by 2022. According to Transparency International numerous controversial court decisions in this area have raised concerns about the integrity of the judiciary.[39]
Malaysia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Malaysia
Philippines[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in the Philippines
Thailand[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Thailand
Vietnam[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Vietnam
Japan[edit]
Yoichi Kuroda sketches a history and current outline of 'large scale land and landscape destruction' here See also Mudslides and Erosion.
Sri Lanka[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Sri Lanka
Europe[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2010)
Countryside of central Sicily
Iceland[edit]
Iceland has undergone extensive deforestation since Scandinavians settled in the ninth century. At the time of human settlement about 1140 years ago, birch forest and woodland covered 'at least 25%' of Iceland's land area. The settlers began by cutting down the forests and burning scrubland to create fields and grazing land. Deforestation did not end in Iceland until the middle of the 20th century. Afforestation and revegetation has restored small areas of land.[40] However, pastoralism was the main reason birch forest and woodland did not grow back.
Italy[edit]
Sicily is an often-quoted example of man-made deforestation, which was practiced since Roman times, when the island was made an agricultural region,[41] and continued to this day. This gradually dampened the climate, leading to decline of rainfall and drying of rivers. Today, entire central and southwest provinces are practically without any forests.[42] That also affected the island's wild fauna, of which is little left in the pastures and crop fields of the inland.[41]
Russia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Russia
North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
Though replanted in 1987, this forest near Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia lost much topsoil and resembled a desert by 1993
In 2005, an estimated 56,000 hectares were deforested in Canada. Deforestation affected less than 0.02% of Canada’s forests in 2005. The agricultural sector accounted for just over half of the deforestation in 2005, the result of forests having been cleared for pasture or crops. The remainder was caused by urban development, transportation corridors, and recreation (19%); hydroelectric development (10%); the forest sector (10%); and other natural resource extraction industries (8%). About two thirds of this deforestation occurred in Canada’s boreal forest, mainly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba where the forest borders the Prairies. [43]
In Canada, prior to 2000, less than 8% of the boreal forest was protected from development and more than 50% has been allocated to logging companies for cutting.[44]
United States[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in the United States
Clearcutting in Clatsop County, Oregon
In 1600, prior to the arrival of European-Americans, roughly half of the land area of the present-day United States was forest—about 4,000,000 square kilometres (990,000,000 acres). For the next 300 years land was cleared, mostly for agriculture, at a rate that matched the rate of population growth. For every person added to the population, one to two hectares of land was cultivated. This trend continued until the 1920s when the amount of crop land stabilized in spite of continued population growth. As abandoned farmland reverted to forest, the amount of forestland increased from 1952, reaching a peak in 1963 of 3,080,000 square kilometres (760,000,000 acres). Since 1963 there has been a steady decrease of forest area with the exception of some gains from 1997.
Central America and the Caribbean[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Central America
The history of most Central American countries involves cycles of deforestation and reforestation. By the fifteenth century, intensive Mayan agriculture had significantly thinned the forests. Before Europeans arrived, forests covered 500,000 square kilometers – approximately 90% of the region. Eventually, the forcing of "Europe's money economy on Latin America" created the demand for the exportation of primary products, which introduced the need for large amounts of cleared agricultural land to produce those products.[45] Since the 1960s, cattle ranching has become the primary reason for land clearing. The lean grass-fed cattle produced by Central American ranches (as opposed to grain-fed cattle raised elsewhere) was perfectly suited for American fast-food restaurants and this seemingly bottomless market has created the so-called "hamburger connection" which links "consumer lifestyles in North America with deforestation in Central America".[45]
Haiti[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Haiti
South America[edit]
Amazon Rainforest[edit]
Main article: Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest
Brazil[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Brazil
Deforestation in Mato Grosso, Brazil
1992
2006
There is no agreement on what drives deforestation in Brazil, though a broad consensus exists that expansion of croplands and pastures is important. Increases in commodity prices may increase the rate of deforestation.[46][47] Recent development of a new variety of soybean has led to the displacement of beef ranches and farms of other crops, which, in turn, move farther into the forest.[48] Certain areas such as the Atlantic Rainforest have been diminished to just 7% of their original size.[49] Although much conservation work has been done, few national parks or reserves are efficiently enforced.[50] Some 80% of logging in the Amazon is illegal.[51]
In 2008, Brazil's Government has announced a record rate of deforestation in the Amazon.[52][53] Deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data.[54] Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon rainforest by 2030, says a new report from WWF.[55]
Colombia[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Colombia
Peru[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Peru
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
Main article: Land clearing in Australia
Due to relatively recent colonisation, Australia has had high rates of deforestation, primarily due to clearing for agricultural purposes. In recent years[when?] much of the clearing has occurred in Tasmania and Queensland,[56] but rates are expected to decrease with the implementation of new legislation.[57][58] In 1998, deforestation is thought to have been responsible for around 12% of Australia's total carbon emissions.
An additional factor currently causing the loss of forest cover is the expansion of urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.[59]
Earlier in 2014, there were plans to cleared large areas of forests, but that decision was later abandoned.[60]
New Zealand[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in New Zealand
In the 800 years of human occupation of New Zealand 75% of the forests were lost. Initially it was by wholesale burning by English but remaining forests were logged for lumber for the burgeoning population. By 2000 all logging of native trees on public land was stopped. Logging on private land is controlled with a permit system and with the Resource Management Act.
Papua New Guinea[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (PNG) has one of the world’s largest rainforests. Illegal logging was among highest in the world in 2007, estimated as ca 70-90% of all timber export.[61]
See also[edit]
List of conservation issues
List of environmental issues
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD)
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Al Gore: Our Choice,A plan to solve the climate crises, Bloomsbury 2009,Chapter 9 Forests 170-195; pages 174, 192, 184, 186, 192, 172
Jump up ^ Nature laid waste: The destruction of Africa, The Independent, June 11, 2008
Jump up ^ Africa's deforestation twice world rate, says atlas, Reuters, June 10, 2008
Jump up ^ Deforestation reaches worrying level - UN Archived 2008-12-06 at the Wayback Machine.. AfricaNews.
Jump up ^ Forests and deforestation in Africa - the wasting of an immense resource Archived 2009-05-20 at the Wayback Machine., afrol News
Jump up ^ African Rainforest, Steve Nix
Jump up ^ Deforestation accelerating in Central Africa, June 8, 2007
Jump up ^ Africa's deforestation rate may be underestimated. mongabay.com. June 22, 2006.
Jump up ^ Tropical Deforestation Rates in Africa. mongabay.com. Retrieved on May 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Nigeria: Environmental Profile". Rainforests.mongabay.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Raphael Mweninguwe. "Massive deforestation threatens food security". Newsfromafrica.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Agyei, Yvonne. Deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Technology Forum, Volume 8, Number 1. Retrieved on May 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ Paul Toyne, Cliona O’Brien and Rod Nelson. "The Timber Footprint of the G8 and China" Archived July 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. WWF International. June 2002. pp. 35-36.
Jump up ^ Blondel, Alice. "The Logs of War". Monde Diplomatique. January 2004.
Jump up ^ Black, Richard. "New Dawn for Liberia's 'Blood Forests'". BBC News. October 12, 2006.
Jump up ^ These deforesting activities have been amply documented by numerous authors (Accion contra el Hambre, 1999; Biswas & Tortajada-Quiroz, 1996; Fuelwood Crisis Consortium, 1994; Henquin & Blondel, 1996; Lodhi et al., 1998; Blondel, 1997; Leusch, 1995; and Languy, 1995).
Jump up ^ Sucoff, E. (2003). Deforestation. In Environmental Encyclopedia. (P.g.358-359). Detroit: Gale.
Jump up ^ Mccann, J.C. (1999).Green land, Brown land, Black land: An environmental history of Africa 1800-1990. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Jump up ^ Maddox, G.H. (2006). Sub-Saharan Africa: An environmental history. Santabarbara, CA: ABC-CLIO
^ Jump up to: a b c Parry, J. (2003).
Jump up ^ Haileselassie, A. Ethiopia's struggle over land reform. World press Review 51.4 (April 2004):32(2). Expanded Academic ASAP
Jump up ^ "Statistics: Ethiopia". Rhett A. Butler, mongabay.com. n.d. Retrieved June 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ Global Corruption Report 2011: Climate Change, The plunder of Kenya’s forests Resettling the settlers and holding the loggers accountable Sheila Masinde and Lisa Karanja (Transparency International Kenya) 280-282
Jump up ^ Saving the Wildlife of Madagascar, TIME, September 25, 2008
Jump up ^ World Wildlife Fund (2001). "Madagascar subhumid forests". WildWorld Ecoregion Profile. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Deforestation causes species extinction in Madagascar". News.mongabay.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ "What are rainforests?". Kids.mongabay.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ "Deforestation in Madagascar". American.edu. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ "Rainforests & Agriculture". Csupomona.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-09-30. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Russia’s Boreal Forests WWF November 2007
Jump up ^ China: Exporting deforestation and promoting tree monocultures http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/45/China.html
Jump up ^ CHINA: China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, March 24, 2016
Jump up ^ SE Asia faces 'catastrophic' extinction rate, BBC News
Jump up ^ "News.monabay.com". News.mongabay.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ "The Lost Forest". Fieldmuseum.org. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ “” (2008-11-08). "Die Tropenholz-Mafia – Kriminelle Geschäfte mit dem Regenwald – Telepool, 2008". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Alternative site for Die Tropenholz-Mafia documentary". Yourepeat.com. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
Jump up ^ China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, 24 March 2008.
Jump up ^ corruption report 2009 Corruption and the Private Sector Transparency International August 2009 page 264 Ref: Greenpeace Southeast Asia: Indonesia, a Great Country? 30.8.2005
Jump up ^ "LandUse: Why Iceland". Landbunadur.is. 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Darwin Porter; Danforth Prince (2009). Frommer's Sicily. Frommer's. p. 268.
Jump up ^ Trabia, Carlo (2002). "A Sicilian Desert?". Best of Sicily Magazine.
Jump up ^ "Deforestation in Canada - What Are the Facts?". Cfs.nrcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Global Forest Watch Canada 2000. Canada's Forests At A Crossroads — An Assessment in the Year 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Myers, Norman, and Richard Tucker. "Deforestation in Central America: Spanish Legacy and North American Consumers." Environmental Review: ER 11, no. 1 (1987): 55-71.
Jump up ^ "U.S. ethanol may drive Amazon deforestation". News.mongabay.com. 2007-05-17. Archived from the original on 2012-07-13. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Amazon rainforest threatened by new wave of oil and gas exploration, guardian.co.uk, August 13, 2008
Jump up ^ "Booming Soybean Business Means Continued Deforestation in the Amazon". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ WWF - Atlantic Forests - A Global Ecoregion
Jump up ^ Brazil national parks mismanaged and raided-govt, Reuters
Jump up ^ WWF International (2002) The Timber Footprint of the G8 and China
Jump up ^ "Record Amazon deforestation in Brazil". Irishtimes.com. 2008-01-24. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ Brazil Amazon deforestation soars, BBC
Jump up ^ Amazon Destruction Jumps 69 Percent in Brazil, FOXNews.com, 30 August 2008
Jump up ^ More than half of Amazon will be lost by 2030, report warns, guardian.co.uk, December 6, 2007
Jump up ^ [1] Australian Greenhouse Office 2000, Land Clearing: A Social History, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
Jump up ^ [2] Forest Practices Authority. (2007) Information on land clearing controls in Tasmania.
Jump up ^ [3] WWF-Australia. World class legislation - new land clearing policy for Queensland
Jump up ^ "Littoral Rainforest—Why is it threatened?". Pittwater.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
Jump up ^ http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/unesco-rejects-feeble-abbott-government-bid-to-wind-back-protection-of-tasmanian-forests-20140623-zsjhz.html
Jump up ^ Global Corruption Report 2011: Climate Change, Corruption A root cause of deforestation and forest degradation Patrick Alley (director of Global Witness). See map on page 301, 299-311
Further reading[edit]
Cheung, Sze Pang; Chung, Tiy; Stark, Tamara (April 17, 2007). "Merbau’s Last Stand: How Industrial Logging Is Driving the Destruction of the Paradise Forests of Asia Pacific." (PDF). Netherlands: Greenpeace International.
Corlett, Richard T. (2013). "Becoming Europe: Southeast Asia in the Anthropocene". Elementa. doi:10.12952/journal.elementa.000016.
External links[edit]
Encyclopedia of Earth: Deforestation in Amazonia
Amazon deforestation (Google maps)
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Germ layer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Germ cell
A germ layer is a primary layer of cells that form during embryogenesis.[1] The three germ layers in vertebrates are particularly pronounced; however, all eumetazoans, (animals more complex than the sponge) produce two or three primary germ layers. Animals with radial symmetry, like cnidarians, produce two germ layers (the ectoderm and endoderm) making them diploblastic. Animals with bilateral symmetry produce a third layer (the mesoderm), between these two layers. making them triploblastic. Germ layers eventually give rise to all of an animal’s tissues and organs through the process of organogenesis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Germ layers
1.1 Development
1.2 Endoderm
1.3 Mesoderm
1.4 Ectoderm
1.5 Neural crest
2 See also
3 References
Germ layers[edit]
Gastrulation of a diploblast: The formation of germ layers from a (1) blastula to a (2) gastrula. Some of the ectoderm cells (orange) move inward forming the endoderm (red).
Micrograph of a teratoma, a tumour that characteristically has tissue from all three germ layers. The image shows tissue derived from the mesoderm (immature cartilage - left-upper corner of image), endoderm (gastrointestinal glands - center-bottom of image) and ectoderm (epidermis - right of image). H&E stain.
Caspar Friedrich Wolff observed organization of the early embryo in leaf-like layers. In 1817, Heinz Christian Pander discovered three primordial germ layers while studying chick embryos. Between 1850 and 1855, Robert Remak had further refined the germ cell layer concept, and introduced into English were the terms "mesoderm" by Huxley in 1871 and "ectoderm" and "endoderm" by Lankester in 1873.
Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Although they have differentiated cells (e.g. collar cells), they lack true tissue coordination. Diploblastic animals, Cnidaria and Ctenophora, show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm. Diploblastic animals are organized into recognisable tissues. All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) are triploblastic, possessing a mesoderm in addition to the germ layers found in Diploblasts. Triploblastic animals develop recognizable organs.
Development[edit]
Fertilization leads to the formation of a zygote. During the next stage, cleavage, mitotic cell divisions transform the zygote into a hollow ball of cells, a blastula. This early embryonic form undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all vertebrates, these progenitor cells differentiate into all adult tissues and organs.[2]
In the human embryo, after about three days, the zygote forms a solid mass of cells by mitotic division, called a morula. This then changes to a blastocyst, consisting of an outer layer called a trophoblast, and an inner cell mass called the embryoblast. Filled with uterine fluid, the blastocyst breaks out of the zona pellucida and undergoes implantation. The inner cell mass initially has two layers: the hypoblast and epiblast. At the end of the second week, a primitive streak appears. The epiblast in this region moves towards the primitive streak, dives down into it, and forms a new layer, called the endoderm, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the amnion.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The top layer is now called the ectoderm.[3]
Endoderm[edit]
The endoderm produces tissue within the lungs, thyroid, and pancreas.
Main article: Endoderm
The endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm.
The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the mouth and pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm). It also forms the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tract, including those of the liver and pancreas; the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity; the trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the lungs; the bladder and part of the urethra; and the follicle lining of the thyroid gland and thymus.
The endoderm forms: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the bladder, the epithelial parts of trachea, the lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines.
Mesoderm[edit]
The mesoderm aids in the production of cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, tissues within the kidneys, and red blood cells.
Main article: Mesoderm
The mesoderm germ layer forms in the embryos of triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating inward contribute to the mesoderm, an additional layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm.[citation needed] The formation of a mesoderm leads to the development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.[citation needed]
The mesoderm has several components which develop into tissues: intermediate mesoderm, paraxial mesoderm, lateral plate mesoderm, and chorda-mesoderm. The chorda-mesoderm develops into the notochord. The intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. The paraxial mesoderm develops into cartilage, skeletal muscle, and dermis. The lateral plate mesoderm develops into the circulatory system (including the heart and spleen), the wall of the gut, and wall of the human body.[4]
Through cell signaling cascades and interactions with the ectodermal and endodermal cells, the mesodermal cells begin the process of differentiation.[5]
The mesoderm forms: muscle (smooth and striated), bone, cartilage, connective tissue, adipose tissue, circulatory system, lymphatic system, dermis, genitourinary system, serous membranes, and notochord.
Ectoderm[edit]
The ectoderm produces tissues within the epidermis, aids in the formation of neurons within the brain, and constructs melanocytes.
Main article: Ectoderm
The ectoderm generates the outer layer of the embryo, and it forms from the embryo's epiblast.[6] The ectoderm develops into the surface ectoderm, neural crest, and the neural tube.[7]
The surface ectoderm develops into: epidermis, hair, nails, lens of the eye, sebaceous glands, cornea, tooth enamel, the epithelium of the mouth and nose.
The neural crest of the ectoderm develops into: peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage, dentin of teeth.
The neural tube of the ectoderm develops into: brain, spinal cord, posterior pituitary, motor neurons, retina.
Note: The anterior pituitary develops from the ectodermal tissue of Rathke's pouch.
Neural crest[edit]
Because of its great importance, the neural crest is sometimes considered a fourth germ layer.[8] It is, however, derived from the ectoderm.
See also[edit]
Histogenesis
Neurulation
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2000). "Comparative Embryology". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2000). "Early Mammalian Development". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "Paraxial and Intermediate Mesoderm". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Brand, Thomas (1 June 2003). "Heart development: molecular insights into cardiac specification and early morphogenesis". Developmental Biology. 258 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00112-X.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "Early Mammalian Development". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "The Central Nervous System and The Epidermis". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Hall BK (2000). "The neural crest as a fourth germ layer and vertebrates as quadroblastic not triploblastic". Evolution & Development. 2: 3–5. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00032.x. PMID 11256415.
[hide]
v
t
e
Human embryogenesis in the first three weeks
Week 1
Fertilization
Oocyte activation
Zygote
Cleavage
Blastomere
Morula
Blastocoele
Blastocyst
Blastula
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Week 2
(Bilaminar)
Hypoblast
Epiblast
Week 3
(Trilaminar)
Germ layers
Archenteron/Primitive streak
Primitive pit
Primitive knot/Blastopore
Primitive groove
Gastrula
Gastrulation
Regional specification
Embryonic disc
Ectoderm
Surface ectoderm
Neuroectoderm
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
Neurulation
Neural crest
Endoderm
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Mesoderm
Axial mesoderm
Paraxial
Somite
Somitomere
Intermediate
Lateral plate
Intraembryonic coelom
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
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System Restore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
System Restore
A component of Microsoft Windows
The System Restore wizard in Windows 10
Details
Type
System recovery
Included with
Windows ME
Windows XP
Windows Vista
Windows 7
Windows 8
Windows 8.1
Windows 10
Related components
Shadow Copy, Windows File Protection
System Restore is a feature in Microsoft Windows that allows the user to revert their computer's state (including system files, installed applications, Windows Registry, and system settings) to that of a previous point in time, which can be used to recover from system malfunctions or other problems. First included in Windows ME, it has been included in all following desktop versions of Windows released since, excluding the Windows Server.[1] In Windows 10, System Restore is turned off by default and must be enabled by users in order to function.[2]
In prior Windows versions it was based on a file filter that watched changes for a certain set of file extensions, and then copied files before they were overwritten.[3][4] An updated version of System Restore introduced by Windows Vista uses the Shadow Copy service as a backend (allowing block-level changes in files located in any directory on the volume to be monitored and backed up regardless of their location) and allows System Restore to be used from the Windows Recovery Environment in case the Windows installation no longer boots at all.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Resources monitored
3 Disk space consumption
4 Restore points
5 Implementation differences
6 Restoring the system
7 Limitations and complications
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Overview[edit]
In System Restore, the user may create a new restore point manually (as opposed to the system creating one automatically), roll back to an existing restore point, or change the System Restore configuration. Moreover, the restore itself can be undone. Old restore points are discarded in order to keep the volume's usage within the specified amount. For many users, this can provide restore points covering the past several weeks. Users concerned with performance or space usage may also opt to disable System Restore entirely. Files stored on volumes not monitored by System Restore are never backed up or restored.
System Restore backs up system files of certain extensions (.exe, .dll, etc.) and saves them for later recovery and use.[6] It also backs up the registry and most drivers.
Resources monitored[edit]
Starting with Windows Vista, System Restore takes a snapshot of all volumes it is monitoring. However, on Windows XP, it only monitors the following:[7][8]
Windows Registry
Files in the Windows File Protection folder (Dllcache)
Local user profiles
COM+ and WMI databases
IIS metabase
Specific file types monitored[6]
The list of file types and directories to be included or excluded from monitoring by System Restore can be customized on Windows Me and Windows XP by editing %windir%\system32\restore\Filelist.xml.[9]
Disk space consumption[edit]
The amount of disk space System Restore consumes can be configured. Starting with Windows XP, the disk space allotted is configurable per volume and the data stores are also stored per volume. File are stored using NTFS compression and a Disk Cleanup handler allows deleting all but the most recent Restore Point to free up disk space. System Restore can be disabled completely to regain disk space. It automatically disables itself if the disk free space is too low for it to operate.
Restore points[edit]
Windows creates restore points:
When software is installed using Windows Installer or other installers that are aware of System Restore[10]
When Windows Update installs new updates
When the user installs a driver that is not digitally signed by Windows Hardware Quality Labs
Periodically. By default:
Windows XP creates a restore point every 24 hours[11]
Windows Vista creates a restore point if none is created within the last 24 hours[11]
Windows 7 creates a restore point if none has been created within the last seven days[11]
On user's command
Windows XP stores restore-point files in a hidden folder named "System Volume Information" on the root of every drive, partition or volume, including most external drives and some USB flash drives.[3]
The operating system deletes older restore points per the configured space constraint on a first in, first out basis.
Implementation differences[edit]
There are considerable differences between how System Restore works under Windows XP and later Windows versions.
Configuration UI - In Windows XP, there is a graphical slider to configure the amount of disk space allotted to System Restore. In Windows Vista, the GUI to configure the disk space is not available. Using the command-line tool Vssadmin.exe or by editing the appropriate registry key,[12][13] the space reserved can be adjusted. Starting with Windows 7, the slider is available once again.
Maximum space - In Windows XP, System Restore can be configured to use up to a maximum of 12% of the volume's space for most disk sizes;[8] however, this may be less depending on the volume's size. Restore points over 90 days old are automatically deleted, as specified by the registry value RPLifeInterval (Time to Live - TTL) default value of 7776000 seconds. In Windows Vista and later, System Restore is designed for larger volumes.[14] By default, it uses 15% of the volume's space.[10]
File paths monitored - Up to Windows XP, files are backed up only from certain directories. On Windows Vista and later, this set of files is defined by monitored extensions outside of the Windows folder, and everything under the Windows folder.[15]
File types monitored - Up to Windows XP, it excludes any file types used for users' personal data files, such as documents, digital photographs, media files, e-mail, etc. It also excludes the monitored set of file types (.DLL, .EXE etc.) from folders such as My Documents. Microsoft recommends that if a user is unsure as to whether certain files will be modified by a rollback, they should keep those files under My Documents.[8] When a rollback is performed, the files that were being monitored by System Restore are restored and newly created folders are removed. However, on Windows Vista and later, it excludes only document file types; it does not exclude any monitored system file type regardless of its location.
Configuring advanced System Restore settings - Windows XP supports customizing System Restore settings via Windows Registry and a file at %windir%\system32\restore\Filelist.xml.[9][16] Windows Vista and later no longer support this.[17]
FAT32 volume support: On Windows Vista and later, System Restore no longer works on FAT32 disks and cannot be enabled on disks smaller than 1 GB.[14]
Restoring the system[edit]
Up to Windows XP, the system can be restored as long as it is in an online state, that is, as long as Windows boots normally or from Safe mode. It is not possible to restore the system if Windows is unbootable without using a 3rd-party bootable recovery media such as ERD Commander. Under Windows Vista and later, the Windows Recovery Environment can be used to launch System Restore and restore a system in an offline state, that is, in case the Windows installation is unbootable.[5] Since the advent of Microsoft Desktop Optimization Pack, Diagnostics and Recovery Toolset from it can be used to create a bootable recovery disc that can log on to an unbootable Windows installation and start System Restores. The toolset includes ERD commander for Windows XP that was previously a 3rd-party product by Wininternals.
Limitations and complications[edit]
A bug existed in System Restore that shipped with Windows Millennium Edition wherein the rollback procedure does not work after 8 September 2001 due to the limitations of the algorithm used to generate checkpoints. Microsoft had created an update to address this issue.[18]
A limitation which applies to System Restore in Windows versions prior to Windows Vista is that only certain file types and files in certain locations on the volume are monitored, therefore unwanted software installations and especially in-place software upgrades may be incompletely reverted by System Restore.[19] Consequently, there may be little or no practical beneficial impact. Certain issues may also arise when attempting to run or completely uninstall that application. In contrast, various other utilities have been designed to provide much more complete reversal of system changes including software upgrades. However, beginning with Windows Vista, System Restore monitors all system file types on all file paths on a given volume, so there is no issue of incomplete restoration.
It is not possible to create a permanent restore point. All restore points will eventually be deleted after the time specified in the RPLifeInterval registry setting is reached or earlier if allotted disk space is insufficient. Even if no user or software triggered restore points are generated allotted disk space is consumed by automatic restore points.[8] Consequently, in systems with little space allocated, if a user does not notice a new problem within a few days, it may be too late to restore to a configuration from before the problem arose.
For data integrity purposes, System Restore does not allow other applications or users to modify or delete files in the directory where the restore points are saved. On NTFS volumes, the Restore Points are protected using ACLs. Since its method of backup is fairly simplistic, it may end up archiving malware such as viruses, for example in a restore point created before using antivirus software to clean an infection. Antivirus software is usually unable to remove infected files from System Restore;[20] the only way actually to delete the infected files is to disable System Restore, which will result in losing all saved restore points; otherwise they will remain until Windows deletes the affected restore points. However stored infected files in themselves are harmless unless executed; they will only pose a threat if the affected restore point is reinstated. Windows System Restore is not compatible with restore points made by third party applications.
Changes made to a volume from another OS (in case of dual-boot OS scenarios) cannot be monitored. In addition, dual-booting different versions of Windows can disrupt the operation of System Restore. Specifically, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 delete the checkpoints created by Windows Vista and later.[21] Also, checkpoints created by Windows 8 may be destroyed by previous versions of Windows.[22]
See also[edit]
Backup
References[edit]
Jump up ^ No restore point for you, Cnet, 2007-12-28
Jump up ^ Jim Tanous, "Why and How to Enable System Restore in Windows 10", Tekrevue, 2015-07-28
^ Jump up to: a b Russinovich, Mark E.; Solomon, David A. (2005). Microsoft Windows Internals: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 (4 ed.). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. pp. 706–711. ISBN 0-7356-1917-4.
Jump up ^ "Windows Backup". Windows Vista portal. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Fok, Christine (September 2007). "A Guide to Windows Vista Backup Technologies". TechNet Magazine. Microsoft. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b MSDN System Restore Reference: Monitored File Extensions
Jump up ^ "Monitoring the System". MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Frequently Asked Questions Regarding System Restore in Windows XP". TechNet. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b System Restore: Monitored File Name Extensions
^ Jump up to: a b "Selected Scenarios for Maintaining Data Integrity with Windows Vista". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "About System Restore". MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
Jump up ^ MSFN's Unattended Windows : Reduce Disk Space Used By System Restore
Jump up ^ "The Registry Keys and Values for the System Restore Utility". 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Windows Vista Help: System Restore FAQs
Jump up ^ Windows Vista System Restore FAQs: Bert Kinney - System Restore MVP Archived March 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The Registry Keys and Values for the System Restore Utility
Jump up ^ Vista System Restore Q&A - System Restore MVP Bert Kinney
Jump up ^ Checkpoints that you create after September 8, 2001 do not restore your computer. Retrieved 15 August 2013 from Microsoft website.
Jump up ^ Windows Server Hacks: Hacking System Restore - O'Reilly Media
Jump up ^ "Antivirus Tools Cannot Clean Infected Files in the _Restore Folder". Microsoft Corporation.
Jump up ^ "How restore points and other recovery features in Windows Vista are affected when you dual-boot with Windows XP". File Cabinet Blog. Microsoft. July 14, 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
Jump up ^ "Calling SRSetRestorePoint". MSDN Library. Microsoft. Retrieved 2015-02-01. Snapshots of the boot volume created by System Restore running on Windows 8 may be deleted if the snapshot is subsequently exposed by an earlier version of Windows.
Further reading[edit]
"Use System Restore to Undo Changes if Problems Occur". Windows XP Help. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 15 January 2008.
"Windows XP System Restore". MSDN. Microsoft. April 2001. Archived from the original on 1 September 2008.
"Checkpoints that you create after September 8, 2001 do not restore your computer". Support (3.8 ed.). Microsoft. 26 October 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
"The Registry Keys and Values for the System Restore Utility". Support (1.3 ed.). Microsoft. 15 January 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
External links[edit]
Microsoft Windows Backup and Restore Team Blog
Accessing Windows 8 System Recovery Console
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