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Hung parliament
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In a parliamentary system of government, a hung parliament is an expression used to describe a state of a parliament when no single political party (or bloc of allied parties) has an absolute majority of seats in the parliament (legislature) and therefore has no legitimate mandate to form a government. It is also less commonly known as a balanced parliament[1][2] or a legislature under no overall control.[3][4][5] If the legislature is bicameral, and the government is responsible only to the lower house, then "hung parliament" is used only with respect to that chamber. It is the objective of parliamentary systems for the parliament to be able to form a stable government, preferably one that lasts until the next election. This requires the government to be able to muster up sufficient votes in parliament to pass important legislation, especially the government's budget. It also needs sufficient votes to defeat votes of no-confidence in the government. If the state of the parliament is such that a majority government cannot be formed, the government may be referred to as a "minority government". The term hung parliament is used mainly in systems with two parties or two party blocs. Most general elections in such a system will result in one or other party having an absolute majority and thus quickly forming a new government; a "hung parliament" is an exception to this pattern, and may by some be considered anomalous or undesirable, and by others ideal as it blocks the dangers of absolute power. One or both main parties may seek to form a coalition government with smaller third parties, or a minority government relying on confidence and supply support from third parties or independents. If these efforts fail, a dissolution of parliament and a fresh election may be the last resort.
In a multi-party system with legislatures elected by proportional representation, it is rare for a party to win an outright majority of seats, so a "hung parliament" is the norm and the term is rarely used. However, the term may be used to describe an election in which no established alliance among the parties wins an outright majority, such as the 2005 German election.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Ireland
1.2 United Kingdom
1.3 Canada
1.4 Australia
1.5 New Zealand
2 Consequences
2.1 Australia
2.2 India
2.3 New Zealand
2.4 United Kingdom
3 Working majority
3.1 United Kingdom
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
6.1 United Kingdom
History[edit]
Ireland[edit]
Because Ireland uses PR-STV, it is rare for any one party to have a majority on its own. The last such occasion was 1977. However, one or other coalitions are known to be possible before and during the election. Therefore, a "hung Dáil" (Dáil Éireann being the lower and most dominant chamber of the Oireachtas/Parliament) in Ireland refers more to the inability of a coalition of parties who traditionally enter government together or would be expected to govern together, from doing so.
The President has no direct role in the formation of governments in the case of a hung parliament. However he retains the power to convene a meeting of either or both the Dáil and Senate which could become important if there was a government trying to use parliamentary recess to prevent confidence votes and hold onto power. The President may also refuse to dissolve Dáil Eireann and call an election if the Taoiseach loses a vote of confidence, instead giving the other parties a chance to see if they can put together a government without proceeding to another election.
In 2016, Fine Gael and Labour, who had been in government the previous five years, were unable, due to Labours collapse, to enter government again. Fianna Fáil had enough seats to put together a rainbow government with the other centre-left, hard left parties and independents but negotiations broke down. Fianna Fáil had also promised not to enter coalition with Sinn Féin due to the current leaderships Provisional IRA connections.
The press began to speculate about a Germany style "Grand Coalition" similar to the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats there. Many members of FF considered FG too right wing to enter coalition with and threatened to leave the party this came to pass. As talks continued on without a new government (the old government, constitutionally, which had just been voted out, remaining in power including ministers who had lost their seats) FF agreed to allow a government to form by abstention. The parliamentary arithmetic fell in such a way that if FF TD's abstained on confidence and supply matters, a FG minority govt could, with the support of a group of independents, form a new government. This was agreed in exchange for a number of policy concessions. Once the deal with FF was signed, Taoiseach Enda Kenny conducted talks with the independents and entered government for a second term.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, before World War I, a largely stable two-party system existed for generations; traditionally, only the Tories and Whigs, or from the mid-19th century the Conservative and Liberal parties, managed to deliver Members of Parliament in significant numbers. Hung parliaments were thus rare, especially during the 19th century. The possibility of change arose when, in the aftermath of the Act of Union, 1800, a number of Irish MPs took seats in the House, though initially these followed the traditional alignments. However, two Reform Acts (in 1867 and in 1884) significantly extended the franchise and redrew the constituencies, and coincided with a change in Irish politics. After the 1885 general election, neither party had an overall majority. The Irish Parliamentary Party held the balance of power and made Irish Home Rule a condition of their support. However, the Liberal Party split on the issue of Irish Home Rule, leading to another general election in 1886, in which the Conservatives won the most seats and governed with the support of the fragment of Liberalism opposed to Home Rule, the Liberal Unionist Party.
Both the election of January 1910, and that of December 1910 produced a hung parliament with an almost identical number of seats won by the governing Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. This was due both to the constitutional crisis and to the rise of the Labour Party. The elections of 1929 resulted in the last hung parliament for many years; in the meantime, Labour had replaced the Liberals as one of the two dominating parties.
Since the elections of 1929, there have been three general elections that resulted in hung parliaments in the UK. The first was the election in February 1974, and the ensuing parliament lasted only until October. The second was the May 2010 election, the result of which was a hung parliament with the Conservative party as the largest single party. The results for the 3 main parties were: Conservatives 306, Labour 258, Liberal Democrats 57.[6] The third one resulted from the snap election held in June 2017 that had been called for by Theresa May in order to strengthen her majority heading into Brexit negotiations later in 2017. However, this election backfired on May and her Conservative Party, resulting in a hung parliament after the snap election.[7]
The formation of the coalition resulting from the 2010 election led to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which instituted fixed five-year Parliaments and transferred the power to call early elections from the Prime Minister to Parliament itself. This was the idea of the Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, then the leader of the Liberal Democrats, who said that this would stop the Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party, David Cameron, from calling a snap election to end the hung parliament, as many other Conservatives had requested.
Hung parliaments can also arise when slim government majorities are eroded by by-election defeats and defection of Members of Parliament to opposition parties, as well as resignations of MPs from the House of Commons. This happened in December 1996 to the Conservative government of John Major (1990–97) and in mid-1978 to the Labour government of James Callaghan (1976–79); this latter period covers the era known as the Winter of Discontent. The minority government of Jim Callaghan came when Labour ended their 15-month Lib-Lab pact with the Liberals having lost their majority in early 1977.
According to researchers Andrew Blick and Stuart Wilks-Heeg, the phrase "hung parliament" did not enter into common usage in the UK until the mid-1970s. It was first used in the press by journalist Simon Hoggart in The Guardian in 1974.[8]
Academic treatments of hung parliaments include David Butler's Governing Without a Majority: Dilemmas for Hung Parliaments in Britain (Sheridan House, 1986) and Vernon Bogdanor's 'Multi-Party Politics and the Constitution' (Cambridge University Press, 1983).
Canada[edit]
Further information: Federal minority governments in Canada
Three recent Canadian Parliaments (the 38th, the 39th, and the 40th Parliaments) were hung parliaments, although that term is not used in Canada. Rather, the term "minority government" is used to describe the situation in which the party with the greatest number of seats in the House of Commons (but less than a majority) forms the Government. The aftermath of all three of these elections was that the largest party ruled as a "minority government". Although minority governments have tended to be short-lived, the two successive minorities under Prime Minister Stephen Harper managed to hold on to power from February 2006 until a no confidence vote in March 2011 resulted in the dissolution of Parliament and elections held on 2 May 2011. The subsequent election saw a majority parliament elected with Harper's Conservative Party obtaining a 24-seat majority. The make-up of the 40th Canadian Parliament hung parliament resulted in the 2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute. The Conservative Party had a plurality of seats, however, the Liberal Party and New Democratic Party together held enough seats to have a larger plurality and reached an accord to form a minority coalition government. The Bloc Québécois agreed to provide support on confidence votes. On 4 December 2008, Governor General Michaëlle Jean granted Prime Minister Stephen Harper a prorogation on the condition that parliament reconvene early in the new year; the date was set as 26 January 2009. The first session of the 40th parliament thus ended, delaying a vote of no-confidence.[9]
Australia[edit]
Australian parliaments are modelled on the Westminster system, with a hung parliament typically defined as a lack of a lower house parliamentary majority from either the Australian Labor Party or Liberal/National Coalition.
Hung parliaments are rare at the federal level in Australia, as a virtual two-party system, in which the Australian Labor Party competes against an alliance of the conservative parties, has existed with only brief interruptions since the early 20th century. Prior to 1910, no party had a majority in the House of Representatives. As a result, there were frequent changes of government, several of which took place during parliamentary terms. Since 1910, when the two-party system was cemented, there have been two hung parliaments, the first in 1940, and the second in 2010. At the 1940 federal election, incumbent Prime Minister Robert Menzies secured the support of the two crossbenchers and continued to govern, but in 1941 the independents switched their support to Labor, bringing John Curtin to power.
Declining support for the major parties in recent times is leading to more non-majoritarian outcomes at elections.[10] At the 2010 federal election, which resulted in an exact 72-72 seat tie between Labor and The Liberal-National Coalition, incumbent Prime Minister Julia Gillard secured the support of four out of six Independent and Green Party crossbenchers and continued to govern.
Having hung Parliaments in both Australia and the United Kingdom at the same time, and also briefly including Canada as well, is unprecedented in the history of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Hung parliaments are rather more common at a state level. The Tasmanian House of Assembly and the unicameral Parliament of the Australian Capital Territory are both elected by Hare-Clark proportional representation, thus, elections commonly return hung parliaments. In other states and territories, candidates contest single-member seats. With far fewer seats than federal parliament, hung parliaments are more likely to be elected. Recent examples include New South Wales in 1991, Queensland in 1998 and 2015, Victoria in 1999, South Australia in 1997 and 2002, Western Australia in 2008, the Australian Capital Territory in 2008, and Tasmania in 2010.
New Zealand[edit]
Hung parliaments had a relatively uncommon place in New Zealand politics prior to the introduction of proportional representation in 1993. Only on five occasions since the beginnings of modern party politics in 1890 has a hung parliament occurred, in 1911, 1922, 1928, 1931 & 1993 respectively. The rarity between 1936 and 1996 was due to the regression into a two party system, alternating between the long dominating New Zealand Labour Party and New Zealand National Party.[11] Since the first MMP election in 1996 no single party has gained an outright majority in parliament. Subsequent governments have all been formed as either coalitions or under confidence and supply agreements.[citation needed]
Consequences[edit]
In countries used to decisive election outcomes, a hung parliament is often viewed as an unfavourable outcome, leading to relatively weak and unstable government. A period of uncertainty after the election is common, as major party leaders negotiate with independents and minor parties to establish a working majority.
An aspiring head of government may seek to build a coalition government; in Westminster systems, this typically involves agreement on a joint legislative programme and a number of ministerial posts going to the minor coalition partners, in return for a stable majority. Alternatively, a minority government may be formed, establishing confidence and supply agreements in return for policy concessions agreed in advance, or relying on case by case support.
Australia[edit]
In the Western Australian state election of 2008 the Australian Labor Party won more seats than the Liberal Party at 28 to 24. The National Party along with three independents had the seats needed to give either party a majority. To help the Liberal Party form government, the Nationals supported the party on the condition that the Royalties for Regions policy was implemented.
In the 1999 Victorian state election, the Labor Party won 42 seats, while the incumbent Liberal National Coalition retained 43, with 3 seats falling to independents. The Labor Party formed a minority government with the 3 independents.
The 2010 Tasmanian state election resulted in a hung parliament. After a period of negotiation, the incumbent Labor government led by David Bartlett was recommissioned, but containing the Leader of the Tasmanian Greens, Nick McKim, as a minister, and the Greens' Cassy O'Connor as Cabinet Secretary.
In the 2010 federal election, neither Labor nor the Liberal coalition secured the majority of seats required to form a Government in their own right. In order to counter the potential instability of minority government involved groups may negotiate written agreements defining their terms of support. Such measures were undertaken by the Gillard Government in 2010.[12]
India[edit]
In India if an election results in a 'hung assembly' in one of the state Legislative Assemblies and no party is capable of gaining confidence then fresh elections are announced to be held as soon as possible. Until this occurs President's Rule (or in the State of Jammu and Kashmir 'Governor's Rule') is applied. In India there have been many situations of hung assemblies in the state legislatures.
New Zealand[edit]
The first such occasion was in 1911 when the Liberal Party won less seats than the opposition Reform Party despite tallying the most votes. The Liberal's scathed through a vote of no confidence by just one vote. This prompted Prime Minister Sir Joseph Ward to resign, his replacement Thomas Mackenzie was later defeated in July 1912 in a vote with several MPs and Labour crossing the floor to vote with the opposition, the last time in New Zealand history a government has changed on a confidence vote. This broke 23 years of Liberal governance and William Massey formed a new Reform Party government. Massey governed through to his death in 1925, though in 1922 the Reform Party suffered major losses and Massey was forced negotiate with several Independent MPs to retain power.
In 1928, Reform were ousted from governance and Joseph Ward once again won back power. However, the Reform and United (Liberal) parties were tied on seats with Labour holding the balance of power. They chose to back Ward rather than let Reform leader Gordon Coates remain. In the next election in 1931, there was again a three-way deadlock. On this occasion the Reform and United parties became a coalition government out of mutual fear of Labour's ever increasing appeal as the Great Depression worsened.
1993 was the last time a hung parliament occurred in New Zealand. Governor-General Dame Catherine Tizard asked Sir David Beattie to form a committee, along with three retired appeal court judges, to decide whom to appoint as Prime Minister. [13] However National won an extra seat after special votes were counted, giving National 50 seats and Labour 45 seats (4 were won by third party candidates). Labour's Sir Peter Tapsell agreed to become Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. As a result, National did not lose a vote in the house and maintained a dubious majority for three years.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the February 1974 General Election, no party gained an overall parliamentary majority. Labour won the most seats (301, which was 17 seats short of an overall majority) with the Conservatives on 297 seats, although the Conservatives had a larger share of the popular vote. As the incumbent Prime Minister, Edward Heath remained in office, attempting to build a coalition with the Liberals. When these negotiations were unsuccessful Heath resigned and Labour led by Harold Wilson took over in a minority government.
In the 2010 UK General Election, another hung parliament occurred with the Conservatives as the largest party, and discussions followed to help create a stable government. This resulted in agreement on a coalition government, which was also a majority government, between the Conservative Party, which won the most votes and seats in the election, and the Liberal Democrats.
In the 2017 UK General Election, a hung parliament occurred for the second time in seven years with the Conservatives again being the largest party. Conservative led by Theresa May in a minority government, with the support of the Democratic Unionist Party.
Working majority[edit]
There have been occasions when, although a parliament or assembly is technically hung, the party in power has a working majority. For example, in the United Kingdom, the tradition is that the Speaker and Deputy Speakers do not vote and Sinn Féin MPs never take their seats, so these members can be discounted from the opposition numbers.
United Kingdom[edit]
In 2005, this was the case in the 60-seat National Assembly for Wales, where Labour lost their majority when Peter Law was expelled for standing against the official candidate in the 2005 Westminster election in the Blaenau Gwent constituency. When the Assembly was first elected on 1 May 2003, Labour won 30 seats, Plaid Cymru won 12, the Conservatives won 11, Liberal Democrats won 6, and the John Marek Independent Party won a seat.
When Dafydd Elis-Thomas (Plaid Cymru) was reelected as the presiding officer, this reduced the number of opposition AMs who could vote to 29, as the presiding officer votes only in the event of a tie and, even then, not on party political lines but according to Speaker Denison's rule. Thus, Labour had a working majority of one seat until Law ran in Blaenau Gwent.[14]
See also[edit]
Divided government
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Balanced parliament: No need to rush". The Guardian. London. 2010-05-05.
Jump up ^ "SNP puts case for hung parliament". BBC News. 2010-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Q+A - What happens if no party gets a majority in UK election?". Reuters. May 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ Paun, Akash (2009-12-04). "Hung up on 'no overall control'". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to the era of no overall control". Newstatesman.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ "General election 2010 results of a hung parliament", PoliticsRAW. May 08, 2010
Jump up ^ "Election results 2017: UK wakes up to hung Parliament". BBC News. 2017-06-09. Retrieved 2017-06-09.
Jump up ^ Blick, Andrew; Stuart Wilks-Heeg (April 2010). "Governing without majorities: Coming to terms with balanced Parliaments in UK politics" (PDF). Liverpool: Democratic Audit. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "GG agrees to suspend Parliament: Harper". CBC. 2008-12-04. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
Jump up ^ Ward, Alan J. (2014). Parliamentary Government in Australia. Anthem Press. p. 172. ISBN 178308121X. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Bassett, Michael (1982). Three Party Politics in New Zealand 1911–1931. Auckland: Historical Publications. pp. 64–5. ISBN 0-86870-006-1.
Jump up ^ Fenna, Alan; Jane Robbins; John Summers (2013). Government Politics in Australia. Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 49. ISBN 1486001386. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
Jump up ^ McLean, Gavin (2006). The Governors: New Zealand's Governors and Governors-General. Otago University Press. ISBN 1-877372-25-0.
Jump up ^ Labour lose assembly majority as Law quits, ePolitix.com. April 17, 2005
External links[edit]
Look up hung parliament in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
United Kingdom[edit]
Charter 2010 – planning for a hung parliament
Hang Em – a pressure group
Hung parliament news, New Statesman
Hung parliaments: What you need to know, Institute for Government (2010)
Q&A: What is a hung parliament?, BBC News (8 March 2010)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hung_parliament&oldid=798535439"
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Tiffany Doggett
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Pennsatucky" redirects here. For the slang term, see Pennsyltucky.
Tiffany Doggett
Orange Is the New Black character
Taryn Manning as Tiffany Doggett
First appearance
"The Chickening"
Season 1, episode 5
July 11, 2013
Portrayed by
Taryn Manning
Oona Laurence (at age 10)
Information
Aliases
Pennsatucky
Occupation
Laundry (former), van driver (former), builder (present)
Significant other(s)
Nathan
Arlan
Charlie Coates (Correctional Officer)
Parents
Debbie Doggett (mother)
Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett is a fictional character in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, portrayed by Taryn Manning. Manning was offered the role without needing to audition. The character of Doggett is based on a real life prisoner; a "young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck". She is originally from Waynesboro, Virginia. Prior to her imprisonment, she is shown to be exchanging sexual favors for soda or money. Doggett is also known to have had five abortions. She is charged with shooting an abortion doctor and decides to hire a Christian lawyer; this leads to Doggett becoming a born-again Christian.
Doggett makes her first appearance in the fifth episode of the first season and is initially an antagonist. Doggett served as the main antagonist of season one but later becomes a protagonist in the later seasons. In her debut episode, she unsuccessfully attempts to hang up a cross in the prison chapel and expresses homophobic views. She has conflict with Alex Vause and Piper Chapman throughout the first season. In the second season, Doggett's storyline revolves around her friendships with Sam Healy and Carrie "Big Boo" Black. This friendship with Big Boo continues into the third season. Big Boo comforts Doggett when she is feeling remorse for her abortions and when she is raped by a correctional officer. The character of Doggett has received mixed reviews from critics, though Manning's performance has received positive feedback.
Contents
[hide]
1 Creation and casting
2 Fictional background
3 Storylines
3.1 Season 1
3.2 Season 2
3.3 Season 3
3.4 Season 4
4 Critical commentary
5 See also
6 References
Creation and casting[edit]
Tiffany Doggett's nickname "Pennsatucky" is derived from Pennsyltucky; a slang term for the rural portions of Pennsylvania. The author, Piper Kerman, of the book, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison, which inspired Orange is the New Black describes the real life version of Pennsatucky as "a young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck". Kerman further describes her as someone addicted to crack cocaine and dealing with the loss of custody of her child.[1]
Taryn Manning, already an established actress, did not have to audition for the role of Doggett and was offered it.[2] Manning, when speaking about this to Joshua Rotter of Download.com, said that she immediately accepted the offer "I loved it and didn't need to look any further. I was sold."[3] To prepare for the role, Manning did some research on faith healing and evangelistic ceremonies.[4] She also states that her inspiration for Doggett at least partly comes from the White family in the 2009 documentary film The Wild and Wonderful Whites of West Virginia.[5] The only make-up that Manning wears for her role as Doggett, in the first season, is on her teeth to create the effect of receding gums and missing teeth.[4][6][7] From the second season onwards, however, Doggett has false teeth in place and so the teeth seen are Manning's own.[1][5]
Fictional background[edit]
Doggett is from Waynesboro, Virginia.[1][8] After Doggett has her first period, her mother gives her advice about sex: "go on and let them [referring to men] do their business." This leads to her, later in life, to have sex with men in exchange for soda or money.[9][10][11] Her perspective of sex changes when she meets Nathan. Jonathon Dornbush, of Entertainment Weekly writes "[Nathan] wants them both to enjoy the experience [of sex], and it opens Tiffany's perception of relationships."[9] Nathan and his family move away, causing their relationship to end, and, almost immediately afterwards, Doggett is raped by an ex-boyfriend.[9][11]
Doggett has had five abortions. After having her fifth abortion, which takes place at an abortion clinic in Fishersville, Virginia,[1] the nurse remarks "we should give you a punch card, get the sixth one free."[12] Doggett is so offended by this joke that she shoots the nurse with a shotgun.[13][14] She agrees to have a Christian lawyer as it was likely to lead to a lighter sentence and her legal bills being paid for. Since she shot an abortion nurse, she became a 'hero' of the pro-life movement.[13][14] Doggett regularly receives cards praising her for her claims of defending the unborn as well as generous cash donations to her commissary account by fans & supporters. Although her Christian faith was initially fake, at some point Doggett did become a Christian; this was confirmed by Manning in an interview.[12][15] Manning describes Doggett's faith as "a hybrid of Christianity, Baptism, Presbyterian".[7]
Storylines[edit]
Season 1[edit]
Doggett first appears in the fifth episode. She wishes to hang up a cross in Litchfield Penitentiary's chapel but is refused permission. She ignores this and hangs her cross up on a light fixture; this causes the entire fixture to fall down and hence damages the chapel's ceiling.[16][17] She also displays transphobia; calling the transgender woman Sophia Burset (played by Laverne Cox) an 'abomination' and 'it' and blaming her for the damage to the chapel.[18] Doggett has numerous clashes with Alex Vause (played by Laura Prepon); firstly Vause threatens to rape Doggett after growing tired of her complaining about Piper Chapman (played by Taylor Schilling);[19][20] Doggett locks Vause in a dryer while she is helping Chapman to fix it and,[21] lastly, Doggett snitches on Chapman and Vause for dancing provocatively with each other; resulting in Chapman being placed in solitary confinement.[22]
Chapman and Vause get revenge on Doggett and trick her into believing that she has faith healing powers, eventually culminating in her being sent to the psychiatric ward.[23] Although Chapman aids in Doggett's release from the psychiatric ward,[13] Doggett still bears a grudge against her.[24] Doggett's lawyer encourages her to evangelize to Chapman instead and this leads to Chapman 'converting' but then refusing to be baptized. Doggett sees this as disrespectful and expresses a wish to kill Chapman.[14] The two have a confrontation at the end of the season's final episode. Doggett attacks Chapman with a shiv made from a wooden cross; Chapman throws Doggett to the ground and hits her repeatedly.[25]
Season 2[edit]
It is revealed in the third episode that Suzanne Warren (played by Uzo Aduba) is also involved in the fight at the end of season one. She punches Chapman in the face twice and knocks her unconscious (Doggett is already unconscious at this stage).[26][27] This gives the impression that Doggett and Chapman were evenly matched and therefore equally responsible.[27][28] Following Doggett's return to full health, she finds that her previous best friends, Leanne Taylor (played by Emma Myles) and Angie Rice (played by Julie Lake), no longer want to be associated with her. This leaves Doggett seeking prison counsellor Sam Healy (played by Michael J. Harney) for comfort.[29][30]
DeLaria's character "Big Boo" starts a friendship with Doggett in Season 2 which develops further in Season 3.
Following her friendships with Taylor and Rice continuing to deteriorate, Doggett forms friendships with Healy and Carrie "Big Boo" Black (played by Lea DeLaria). Healy and Doggett unite to form "Safe Place", a therapy group where prisoners can share their feelings in a confidential and supportive environment.[31][32] "Safe Place" is short-lived, however, and Healy decides to cancel the group indefinitely after Doggett fails to attend one of the sessions; when he investigates her reason for non-attendance, he finds her getting a hair cut from Burset.[33] Doggett initially talks to Big Boo, an openly lesbian inmate, during a blackout in the prison as she believes that there is a secret 'gay agenda' and she believes that Big Boo will give her the answers that she is seeking.[34] Doggett's physical appearance also changes in this season; she has white false teeth, neater hair and her skin looks smoother.[1]
Season 3[edit]
In the first episode, Big Boo and Doggett's friendship continues to develop. Seeing that Doggett bears strong feelings of guilt relating to the six abortions that she has had, Big Boo makes reference to the book Freakonomics, which suggests that crime rates in the 1990s fell because of Roe v. Wade.[35][36] Following Lorna Morello (played by Yael Stone) being relieved of her duty of driving the prison van, the role is given to Doggett.[37] She comes into contact with one of the new correctional officers called Charlie Coates (played by James McMenamin). Coates is initially friendly towards Doggett.[38] Despite relationships between prison staff and prisoners being forbidden, Coates kisses Doggett, against her will, after feeding some ducks.[39] Following another outing, Coates gets in trouble with his boss Joe Caputo (played by Nick Sandow) for being late for count and is placed on probation.[9] Doggett apologises for having caused him trouble, and he rapes her in the back of the prison van.[40]
When Big Boo learns of the rape, she encourages Doggett to take revenge on Coates by making him unconscious and then raping him with a broomstick. Whilst they successfully drug Coates, neither of them are willing to violate him with the broomstick.[38][39] In order to end contact with Coates, Doggett fakes a seizure on her next outing with him and is declared unfit for driving a van.[41] She is replaced as prison van driver by another inmate, Maritza Ramos (played by Diane Guerrero).[42]
Season 4[edit]
Coates approaches Doggett in the fourth episode of season 4; Doggett responds in a manner that shows clearly that she is still affected by the rape. This is also the first time that Doggett openly refers to the incident as a 'rape'. Coates is seen to be visibly distressed by this.[43][44] Towards the middle of the season, it is shown that Coates finally apologizes to Doggett and she, clearly surprised and relieved, forgives him and goes on to tell Big Boo about what happened.[45] Big Boo, still furious about the rape, refuses to accept Doggett's decision, straining their friendship.[46] In the twelfth episode of the season, Doggett explains to Big Boo the reasons why she decided to forgive Coates; "Pain is always there... but suffering is a choice".[47] The two resume their friendship following this.[48]
In "Toast Can Never Be Bread Again", as Doggett and Big Boo are assigned to cover the cafeteria following the death of Poussey Washington (played by Samira Wiley), Coates is also there to watch over the body. Coates then tells Doggett that he needs to quit because he hates how awful the prison is becoming. She tells him she does not want him to go, since they are on good terms, and she likes talking to him, despite what happened.[49] She kisses him and Coates makes it clear that he wants to go further than this but chooses not to, reasoning "I don’t want to ruin where we are now".[50]
Critical commentary[edit]
Doggett was widely perceived to have been the series' main antagonist in its first season.[12][35][51] She was seen to be homophobic and racist; one Cosmopolitan critic described her as 'vile'.[52][53] A critic for TV Insider described the first season Doggett as "terrifying, manipulative and so entirely unlikable" but also "hypnotic to watch".[35] Horatia Harrod's review in the Daily Telegraph described Manning's portrayal of Doggett as "brilliantly unhinged".[54] Other critics have praised the character, especially in the final episode of season one; calling her "fantastic", a "solid character" and "one of the best characters on the show".[55][56] Some also felt that Manning's performance was worthy of an Emmy nomination.[57][58]
Manning was described by critic Horatia Harrod as "brilliantly unhinged" in her portrayal of Doggett.[54]
Following the release of the first season of Orange is the New Black, Doggett received some criticism from different media. Writing for The American Conservative, B. D. McClay claimed that Doggett was a poor and inaccurate representation of American Christians; "Pennsatucky is such an aggressively terrible character" and "her faith is neither well-understood nor well-drawn".[12] Laura Leonard of Christianity Today, supports Clay's view and goes further to say "it was frustrating to see this one painful narrative represent Christian faith on OITNB, a show that masters other aspects of the melting pot so well", speaking about Doggett's background story and conflict with Chapman.[59] Two critics for The A.V. Club also gave negative reviews of Doggett; Todd VanDerWerff says that "Pennsatucky never really comes together as a character in the same way as some of the others on the show" and Myles McNutt opted to criticize the storyline of the final episode of the first season specifically, saying that it "[treats] her like a cartoon villain instead of a real character".[60][61] Betsy Leondar-Wright accused the series' creators of classism and said that Doggett was an "outrageous Redneck stereotype".[62]
Doggett's rape storyline in the third season garnered much reaction, both positive and negative. Jada Yuan of Vulture described the rape scenes (both the one in the flashback and the one involving correctional officer Coates) as "heartbreaking" and praised episode director Jesse Peretz's decision to keep the camera focused on Manning during the scenes.[38] Megan Vick praised the 'transformation' of the character of Doggett, calling it "the season’s breakout storyline and performance".[63] McNutt, who had been critical of Doggett in the first season, spoke positively about the rape storyline.[10]
Marissa Higgins, writing for xoJane, contended that the show "didn't accomplish anything with their portrayal of sexual assault" and said that she disliked the way that the story ended with Doggett effectively quitting her job as van driver in order to avoid further contact with Coates.[64] Emma Eisenberg, of Salon, criticized the scenes depicting Doggett growing up in Waynesboro as being "riddled with excessive Appalachian clichés". She went further by calling Doggett's mother unrealistic in her attitude towards sex: "the mothers I met [near Waynesboro] wanted their daughters to understand sex and to make informed choices". Eisenberg claimed that, therefore, Doggett's mother's speech about sex − "it’s like a bee sting, in and out, over before you knew it was happening" − was not representative of people in Waynesboro at that time.[1] Chloe Stillwell completely disagreed with Eisenberg and insisted that the character of Doggett was realistic: "Eisenberg's argument completely misses the point that perhaps the show is trying to be as real as possible, and acknowledging that there are real life Pennsatuckies in this world isn't to disenfranchise Appalachia."[65]
See also[edit]
List of Orange Is the New Black characters
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Rotter, Joshua (June 6, 2014). "Star Apps: Taryn Manning from 'Orange Is the New Black'". Download.com. Archived from the original on October 27, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
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Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (November 27, 2012). "Taryn Manning To Recur On ‘Orange Is The New Black’, Rich Kohnke On ‘Carrie Diaries’". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dornbush, Jonathon (June 17, 2015). "A Tittin' and a Hairin'". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b McNutt, Myles (June 20, 2015). "Orange Is The New Black: "A Tittin’ And A Hairin’"". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2016.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d McClay, B. D. (August 16, 2013). "How "Orange Is the New Black" Fails on Religion". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c McNutt, Myles (August 15, 2013). "Orange Is The New Black: "Tall Men With Feelings"/"Fool Me Once"". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 2, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Pavlica, Carissa (November 30, 2013). "Orange is the New Black Review: Chasing the Chicken". TV Fanatic. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 1, 2016.
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Jump up ^ "Laverne Cox: Transgender Actress On The Challenges Of Her 'New Black' Role". Valley Public Radio. August 7, 2013. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Henderson, Danielle (August 9, 2013). "Orange Is the New Black Episode Seven Recap: My Kingdom for a Doughnut". Vulture. Archived from the original on January 3, 2016. Retrieved August 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Davis, Ali (July 17, 2013). ""Orange is the New Black" recap (1.7): Blood donut". After Ellen. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved August 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Davis, Ali (July 18, 2013). ""Orange is the New Black" recap (1.8): Moscow Mule". After Ellen. Archived from the original on April 11, 2015. Retrieved August 2, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Henderson, Danielle (August 20, 2013). "Orange Is the New Black Episode 10 Recap: Playing the Long Game". Vulture. Archived from the original on August 5, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Davis, Ali (July 24, 2013). ""Orange is the New Black" recap (1.12): Fool Me Once". After Ellen. Archived from the original on August 31, 2015. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Megan (June 3, 2014). "Orange Is The New Black Season 1 Recap: Everything To Know Before The Season 2 Premiere". International Business Times. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Houston, Shannon M. (June 11, 2014). "Orange is the New Black Review: "Hugs Can Be Deceiving"". Paste. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Zernike, Kate (June 12, 2014). "‘Orange Is the New Black’ Recap: The Prison of Stereotypes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 27, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (June 13, 2014). "Suzanne and Morello get the flashback treatment in stories that surprisingly parallel each other". HitFix. Archived from the original on October 17, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ McNutt, Myles (June 17, 2014). "Orange Is The New Black: "Low Self Esteem City"/"You Also Have A Pizza"". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Piccoli, Dana (June 23, 2014). ""Orange Is the New Black" recap (2.6): You Also Have a Pizza". After Ellen. Archived from the original on July 2, 2015. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Orange is the New Black 2.11: Take a Break From Your Values". Fandom is in the Details. October 30, 2014. Archived from the original on December 6, 2014. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hinkson, Jake (July 12, 2014). "Orange Is the New Black 2.11: "Take a Break from Your Values"". Criminalelement.com. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ Robinson, Phoebe (July 11, 2014). "Orange Is the New Black, Season 2 Finale Recap: [SPOILER] Dies!". Glamour. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Piccoli, Dana (June 20, 2014). "The most Pennsatucky smile-worthy Season 2 moments from "Orange is the New Black"". After Ellen. Archived from the original on April 17, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Semigran, Aly (July 15, 2015). "How Pennsatuckey Went From Villain to Fan Favorite on Orange Is The New Black". TV Insider. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Moylan, Brian (June 12, 2015). "Orange Is the New Black Season Three Premiere Recap: Mother, May I?". Vulture. Archived from the original on January 13, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Sprankles, Julie (June 13, 2015). "OITNB: Why 'Mother's Day' was the most important episode of Season 3". SheKnows Media. Archived from the original on July 16, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yuan, Jada (July 6, 2015). "‘Orange Is the New Black’ Is the Only TV Show That Understands Rape". Vulture. Archived from the original on July 7, 2016. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Etkin, Jaimie (June 24, 2015). "Behind The Most Heartbreaking Backstory In "Orange Is The New Black" Season 3". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on August 11, 2016. Retrieved August 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Le Vine, Lauren (June 12, 2015). "R29 Orange Is The New Black Binge Club: Season 3 Recaps". Refinery29. Archived from the original on June 10, 2016. Retrieved August 11, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Cavanagh, Casey (June 27, 2015). "OITNB Season 3: 50 Lingering Questions We Still Have". College Candy. Archived from the original on June 28, 2015. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lange, Ariane (June 22, 2016). "The Groundbreaking Rapist Character On “Orange Is The New Black”". BuzzFeed. Retrieved April 4, 2017. [dead link]
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History of the Arabic alphabet
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Arabic alphabet
Arabic script
History
Transliteration
Diacritics
Hamza
Numerals
Numeration
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This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.
The history of the Arabic alphabet concerns the origins and the evolution of the Arabic script. It is thought that the Arabic alphabet is a derivative of the Nabataean variation of the Aramaic alphabet, which descended from the Phoenician alphabet, which, among others, gave rise to the Hebrew alphabet and the Greek alphabet (and therefore the Cyrillic and Roman alphabets).
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions
3 Early Islamic changes
4 Reorganization of the alphabet
5 Adapting the Arabic alphabet for other languages
6 Decline in use by non-Arabic states
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Origins[edit]
The Arabic alphabet evolved either from the Nabataean,[1][2] or (less widely believed) directly from the Syriac.[3] This table shows changes undergone by the shapes of the letters from the Aramaic original to the Nabataean and Syriac forms. Arabic is placed in the middle for clarity and not to mark a time order of evolution. It should be noted that the Arabic script represented in the table below is that of post-Classical and Modern Arabic, not 6th century Arabic script, which is of a notably different form.
It seems that the Nabataean alphabet became the Arabic alphabet thus:
In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, northern Arab tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centred around Petra, Jordan. These people (now named Nabataeans from the name of one of the tribes, Nabatu) spoke the Nabataean language, a Northwest Semitic language.
In the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE,[4][5] the first known records of the Nabataean alphabet were written in the Aramaic language (which was the language of communication and trade), but including some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of the Aramaic alphabet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended for inscriptions (known as "monumental Nabataean") and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing on papyrus.[6] This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic alphabet.
Laïla Nehmé has demonstrated the transition of scripts from the Nabataean Aramaic to the recognisably Arabic form that appears to have occurred between the third and fifth centuries CE, replacing the indigenous Arabic alphabet.[7]
Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions[edit]
Petroglyphs in Wadi Rum (Jordan)
The first recorded text in the Arabic alphabet was written in 512. It is a trilingual dedication in Greek, Syriac and Arabic found at Zabad in Syria. The version of the Arabic alphabet used includes only 22 letters, of which only 15 are different, being used to note 28 phonemes:

Many myriads of pre-Classical Arabic inscriptions are attested, in alphabets borrowed from Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets (however, Safaitic and Hismaic are not strictly Arabic, but Ancient North Arabian dialects, and written Nabataean is an Aramaic dialect):
Safaitic (over 13,000; almost all graffiti)[8]
Hismaic in the southern parts of central Arabia
Preclassical Arabic inscriptions dating to the 1st century BC from Qaryat Al-Faw
Nabataean inscriptions in Aramaic, written in the Nabataean alphabet
Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet are very few, with only 5 known for certain. They mostly use no dots, making them sometimes difficult to interpret, as many letters are the same shape as other letters (they are written with rasm only)
Here are the inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet, and the inscriptions in the Nabataean alphabet that show the beginnings of Arabic-like features.
Name
Whereabouts
Date
Language
Alphabet
Text & notes
Al-Hasa Nejd, Historical Bahrain region 4th century BC 3 lines in Hasean Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets A large funerary stone is inscribed in the Hasaean dialect using a variety of South Arabian monumental script, with three inscribed lines for the man Matmat, that records both patrilineal and matriarchal descent:[9]
1. "Tombstone and grave of Matmat,"
2. "son of Zurubbat, those of 'Ah-"
3. "nas, her of the father of Sa'ad-"
4. "ab.." (Dr. A. Jamme)
Qaryat al-Fāw Wadi ad-Dawasir, Nejd 1st century BC 10 lines in Arabic Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets A tomb dedicatory and a prayer to Lāh, Kāhil and ʻAṯṯār to protect the tomb:
"ʿIgl son of Hafʿam constructed for his brother Rabibil son of Hafʿam the tomb: both for him and for his child and his wife, and his children and their children's children and womenfolk, free members of the folk Ghalwan. And he has placed it under the protection of (the gods) Kahl and Lah and ʿAthtar al-Shariq from anyone strong or weak, and anyone who would attempt to sell or pledge it, for all time without any derogation, so long as the sky produces rain or the earth herbage." (Beeston)
Ein Avdat Negev in Israel between AD 88 and 150 3 lines Aramaic, then 3 lines Arabic Nabataean with a little letter-joining A prayer of thanks to the god Obodas for saving someone's life:
"For (Obodas -the god-) works without reward or favour, and he, when death tried to claim us, did not let it claim (us), for when a wound (of ours) festered, he did not let us perish." (Bellamy)
"فيفعﻞُﻻفِ ًداوﻻاثرافكاﻦ هُنايَبْ ِغنا الموﺖُﻻأبْ ُغاﻪ فكاﻦ هُنا أدادَ ُجرﺢٌﻻيرْ ِد"
Umm el-Jimal northeast of Jordan roughly end of 3rd century - 5th century Aramaic-Nabataean, Greek, Latin Nabataean, much letter-joining More than 50 fragments discovered: [1]
1. "Zabūd son of Māsik "
2. "[.]aynū daughter of MuΉārib"
3. "Kawza' peace!"
(Said and al-Hadad)
"([Th]is is the tomb which SHYMW … built … (2) … [for P]N, hisson, through (the help of) the god of their father … (3) … king Rabel, king of the Nabataeans …" (Butts and Hardy)
"This is the memorial of Julianos, weighed down by long sleep, for whom his father Agathos built it while shedding a tear beside the boundary of the communal cemetery of the people of Christ, in order that a better people might always sing of him openly, being formerly the beloved faithful [son?] of Agathos the presbyter, aged twelve. In the year 239 [of the era of the Provincia Arabia = 344 AD]." (Trombley)
In the 5th century barracks were built. In their southeast tower, which stands to a height of six stories, the names of the archangels—"Michael, Uriel, Gabriel and Raphael"—are inscribed. (Micah Key)
Raqush (this is not a place-name) Mada'in Saleh in Saudi Arabia 267 Mixture of Arabic and Aramaic, 1 vertical line in Thamudic Nabataean, some letter-joining. Has a few diacritic dots. Last inscription in Nabataean language. Epitaph to one Raqush, including curse against grave-violaters:
"This is a grave K b. H has taken care of for his mother, Raqush bint ʿA. She died in al-Hijr in the year 162 in the month of Tammuz. May the Lord of the world curse anyone who desecrates this grave and opens it up, except his offspring! May he [also] curse anyone who buries [someone in the grave] and [then] removes [him] from it! May who buries.... be cursed!" (Healey and Smith)
an-Namāra 100 km SE of Damascus 328-329 Arabic Nabataean, more letter-joining than previous A long epitaph for the famous Arab poet and war-leader Imru'ul-Qays, describing his war deeds:
"This is the funerary monument of Imru' al-Qays, son of 'Amr, king of the Arabs, and (?) his title of honour was Master of Asad and Madhhij. And he subdued the Asadis and they were overwhelmed together with their kings, and he put to flight Madhhij thereafter, and came driving them to the gates of Najran, the city of Shammar, and he subdued Ma'add, and he dealt gently with the nobles of the tribes, and appointed them viceroys, and they became phylarchs for the Romans. And no king has equalled his achievements. Thereafter he died in the year 223 on the 7th day of Kaslul. Oh the good fortune of those who were his friends!" (Bellamy)
Jabal Ramm 50 km east of Aqaba, Jordan 3rd or likelier late 4th century 3 lines in Arabic, 1 bent line in Thamudic Arabic. Has some diacritic dots. In a temple of Allat. Boast or thanks of an energetic man who made his fortune:
"I rose and made all sorts of money, which no world-weary man has [ever] collected. I have collected gold and silver; I announce it to those who are fed up and unwilling." (Bellamy)
Sakakah in Saudi Arabia undated Arabic Arabic, some Nabataean features, & dots Includes diacritical points associated with Arabic letters ب, ت, and ن [T, B and N]. (Winnett and Reed)
Sakakah in Saudi Arabia 3rd or 4th century Arabic Arabic "Hama son of Garm"
Sakakah in Saudi Arabia 4th century Arabic Arabic "B-`-s-w son of `Abd-Imru'-al-Qais son of Mal(i)k"
Umm al-Jimāl northeast of Jordan 4th or 5th century Arabic similar to Arabic "This [inscription] was set up by colleagues of ʿUlayh son of ʿUbaydah, secretary of the cohort Augusta Secunda Philadelphiana; may he go mad who effaces it." (Bellamy)
Zabad in Syria, south of Aleppo 512 Arabic, Greek and Syriac Arabic Christian dedicatory. The Arabic says "God's help" & 6 names. "God" is written as الاله, see Allah#Typography:
"With the help of God! Sergius, son of Amat Manaf, and Tobi, son of Imru'l-qais and Sergius, son of Sa‘d, and Sitr, and Shouraih." (C. Rabin)
Jabal Usays in Syria 528 Arabic Arabic Record of a military expedition by Ibrahim ibn Mughirah on behalf of the king al-Harith, presumably Al-Harith ibn Jabalah (Arethas in Greek), king of the Ghassanid vassals of the Byzantines:
"This is Ruqaym, son of Mughayr the Awsite. Al-Ḥārith the king, sent me to 'Usays, upon his military posts in the year 423 [528 CE]"
Harrān in Leija district, south of Damascus 568 Arabic, Greek Arabic Christian dedicatory, in a martyrium. It records Sharahil ibn Zalim building the martyrium a year after the destruction of Khaybar:
"[I] Sharaḥīl, son of Talimu built this martyrium in the year 463 after the destruction of Khaybar by a year."
Cursive Nabataean writing changed into Arabic writing, likeliest between the dates of the an-Namāra inscription and the Jabal Ramm inscription. Most writing would have been on perishable materials, such as papyrus. As it was cursive, it was liable to change. The epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic.
The Nabataean alphabet was designed to write 22 phonemes, but Arabic has 28 phonemes; thus, when used to write the Arabic language, 6 of its letters must each represent two phonemes:
d also represented ð,
ħ also represented kh %,
ṭ also represented ẓ,
ayin also represented gh %,
ṣ also represented ḍ,%,
t also represented þ.
: In the cases marked %, the choice was influenced by etymology, as Common Semitic kh and gh became Hebrew ħ and ayin respectively.
As cursive Nabataean writing evolved into Arabic writing, the writing became largely joined-up. Some of the letters became the same shape as other letters, producing more ambiguities, as in the table:
See also: rasm
There the Arabic letters are listed in the traditional Levantine order but are written in their current forms, for simplicity. The letters which are the same shape have coloured backgrounds. The second value of the letters that represent more than one phoneme is after a comma. In these tables, ğ is j as in English "June".
In the Arabic language, the g sound seems to have changed into j in fairly late pre-Islamic times, and seems not to have happened in those tribes who invaded Egypt and settled there.
When a letter was at the end of a word, it often developed an end loop, and as a result most Arabic letters have two or more shapes.
b and n and t became the same.
y became the same as b and n and t except at the ends of words.
j and ħ became the same.
z and r became the same.
s and sh became the same.
After all this, there were only 17 letters which are different in shape. One letter-shape represented 5 phonemes (b t th n and sometimes y), one represented 3 phonemes (j ħ kh), and 5 each represented 2 phonemes. Compare the Hebrew alphabet, as in the table at Image:Hebreu hist arabe.png.
(An analogy can be the Roman alphabet uppercase letters I and J: in the German Fraktur font they look the same but are officially different letters.)
Early Islamic changes[edit]
Table comparing Nabataean and Syriac forms of /d/ and /r/
The Arabic alphabet is first attested in its classical form in the 7th century. See PERF 558 for the first surviving Islamic Arabic writing.
In the 7th century, probably in the early years of Islam while writing down the Qur'an, scribes realized that working out which of the ambiguous letters a particular letter was from context was laborious and not always possible, so a proper remedy was required. Writings in the Nabataean and Syriac alphabets already had sporadic examples of dots being used to distinguish letters which had become identical, for example as in the table on the right. By analogy with this, a system of dots was added to the Arabic alphabet to make enough different letters for Classical Arabic's 28 phonemes. Sometimes the resulting new letters were put in alphabetical order after their un-dotted originals, and sometimes at the end.
The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April, 643. The dots did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the Qur'an were frequently memorized; this practice, which survives even today, probably arose partly to avoid the great ambiguity of the script, and partly due to the scarcity of books in times when printing was unheard-of in the area and every copy of every book had to be written by hand.
The alphabet then had 28 letters, and so could be used to write the numbers 1 to 10, then 20 to 100, then 200 to 900, then 1000 (see Abjad numerals). In this numerical order, the new letters were put at the end of the alphabet. This produced this order: alif (1), b (2), j (3), d (4), h (5), w (6), z (7), H (8), T (9), y (10), k (20), l (30), m (40), n (50), s (60), ayn (70), f (80), S (90), q (100), r (200), sh (300), t (400), th (500), dh (600), kh (700), D (800), Z (900), gh (1000).
The lack of vowel signs in Arabic writing created more ambiguities: for example, in Classical Arabic ktb could be kataba = "he wrote", kutiba = "it was written" or kutub="books". Later, vowel signs and hamzas were added, beginning some time in the last half of the 6th century, at about the same time as the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew vocalization. Initially, this was done using a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf[citation needed]: a dot above = a, a dot below = i, a dot on the line = u, and doubled dots giving tanwin. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Farahidi.
Before the historical decree by Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, all administrative texts were recorded by Persian scribes in Middle Persian language using Pahlavi script, but many of the initial orthographic alterations to the Arabic alphabet might have been proposed and implemented by the same scribes.
When new signs were added to the Arabic alphabet, they took the alphabetical order value of the letter which they were an alternative for: tā' marbūta (see also below) took the value of ordinary t, and not of h. In the same way, the many diacritics do not have any value: for example, a doubled consonant indicated by shadda does not count as a letter separate from the single one.
Some features of the Arabic alphabet arose because of differences between Qur'anic spelling (which followed the Meccan dialect pronunciation used by Muhammad and his first followers) and the standard Classical Arabic. These include:
tā' marbūta: This arose because the -at ending of feminine nouns (tā' marbūta) was often pronounced as -ah and written as h. To avoid altering Quranic spelling, the dots of t were written over the h.[citation needed]
y (alif maksura ى) used to spell ā at the ends of some words: This arose because ā arising from contraction where single y dropped out between vowels was in some dialects pronounced at the ends of words with the tongue further forward than for other ā vowels, and as a result in the Qu'ran it was written as y.[clarification needed][citation needed]
ā not written as alif in some words: The Arabic spelling of Allāh was decided before the Arabs started using alif to spell ā. In other cases (for example the first ā in hāðā = "this"), it may be that the Meccan dialect pronounced those vowels short.
hamza: Originally alif was used to spell the glottal stop. But Meccans did not pronounce the glottal stop[verification needed], replacing it with w, y or nothing, lengthening an adjacent vowel, or, between vowels, dropping the glottal stop and contracting the vowels, and the Qur'an was written following Meccan pronunciation. The Arabic grammarians invented the hamza diacritic sign and used it to mark the glottal stop. Hamza is Arabic for "hook".
Reorganization of the alphabet[edit]
Less than a century later, Arab grammarians reorganized the alphabet, for reasons of teaching, putting letters next to other letters which were nearly the same shape. This produced a new order which was not the same as the numeric order, which became less important over time because it was being competed with by the Indian numerals and sometimes by the Greek numerals.
The Arabic grammarians of North Africa changed the new letters, which explains the differences between the alphabets of the East and the Maghreb.
(Greek waw = the original name of the digamma)
The old alphabetical order, as in the other alphabets shown here, is known as the Levantine or Abjadi order. If the letters are arranged by their numeric order, the Levantine order is restored:-
(Greek waw = the original name of the digamma)
(Note: here "numeric order" means the traditional values when these letters were used as numbers. See Arabic numerals, Greek numerals and Hebrew numerals for more details)
This order is much the oldest. The first written records of the Arabic alphabet show why the order was changed.
Adapting the Arabic alphabet for other languages[edit]
Most Common Non-Classical Arabic Consonant Phonemes/Graphemes
Language Family
Austron.
Dravid
Turkic
Indic (Indo-European)
Iranian (Indo-European)
Arabic (Semitic)
Language/Script
Jawi
Arwi
Uyghur
Sindhi
Punjabi
Urdu
Persian
Balochi
Kurdish
Pashto
Iraqi
Hejazi
Egyptian
Algerian
Tunisian
Moroccan
/p/ ڤ ڣ پ پ
/g/ ݢ ࢴ گ ګ گ ق ج ڨ ڭ
/t͡ʃ/ چ Ø چ چ تش ڜ
/ʒ/ Ø ژ Ø ژ Ø چ Ø ج
/v/ ۏ و ۋ و Ø ڤ Ø ڤ ڥ
/ŋ/ ڠ ࢳ ڭ ڱ ں ن Ø Ø
/ɳ/ Ø ڹ Ø ڻ Ø ڼ Ø
/ɲ/ ڽ ݧ Ø Ø Ø
When the Arabic alphabet spread to countries which used other languages, extra letters had to be invented to spell non-Arabic sounds. Usually the alteration was three dots above or below:-
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /p/: پ
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /t͡ʃ/: چ
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /ɡ/: گ
Persian and Urdu: /ʒ/: ژ
in Egypt: /ɡ/: ج. That is because ج represents /ɡ/ in Egyptian Arabic (and some other dialects) while in the majortiy of Arabic dialects it represents /ʒ/~/d͡ʒ/
in Egypt: /p/, /ʒ/; /v/ : ڤ; چ ,پ.
in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and many other Arabic countries : /tʃ/: is written as ت+ش and realized as [t]+[ʃ]
Urdu: retroflex sounds: as the corresponding dentals but with a small letter ط above. (This problem in adapting a Semitic alphabet to write Indian languages also arose long before this: see Brahmi)
In South-East Asia: /ŋ/ as in "sing": ڠ or څ
^ Some letters are often used in transcriptions of names and loanwords, in Egypt and other Arabic speaking countries
This book[10] shows an example of ch (Polish cz) being written as ڛ in an Arabic-Polish bilingual Quran for Muslim Tatars living in Poland
Decline in use by non-Arabic states[edit]
Since the early 20th century, as the Ottoman Empire collapsed and European influence increased, many non-Arab Islamic areas began using the Cyrillic or Latin alphabet, and local adaptations of the Arabic alphabet were abandoned. In many cases, the writing of a language in Arabic script has become restricted to classical texts and traditional purposes (as in the Turkic States of Central Asia, or Hausa and others in West Africa ), while in others, the Arabic alphabet is used alongside the Latin one (as with Jawi in Brunei).
Area used
Arabic spelling system
New spelling system
Date
Ordered by
Some constituent republics in the Soviet Union, especially Muslim States Persian-based spelling system, later Ottoman Turkish alphabet with alterations Cyrillic 1920s (to Janalif)
1930s (to Cyrillic) USSR government
Bosnia and Herzegovina Ottoman Turkish alphabet Serbian alphabet (Latin system) 1990s Yugoslavia government
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines Jawi script (which is still widely used in Brunei and Patani) Latin alphabet 19th century British, Dutch and Spanish colonial administrations
Turkey Ottoman Turkish alphabet Turkish alphabet (Latin system with alterations) 1928 Republic of Turkey government after the fall of the Ottoman Empire
See also[edit]
Abjad
Levantine order
Writing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gruendler, Beatrice (1993). The Development of the Arabic Scripts: From the Nabatean Era to the First Islamic Century According to Dated Texts. Scholars Press. p. 1. ISBN 9781555407100.
Jump up ^ Healey, John F.; Smith, G. Rex (2012-02-13). "II - The Origin of the Arabic Alphabet". A Brief Introduction to The Arabic Alphabet. Saqi. ISBN 9780863568817.
Jump up ^ Senner, Wayne M. (1991). The Origins of Writing. U of Nebraska Press. p. 100. ISBN 0803291671.
Jump up ^ "Nabataean abjad". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 2017-03-08.
Jump up ^ Naveh, Joseph. "Nabatean Language, Script and Inscriptions" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Taylor, Jane (2001). Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans. I.B.Tauris. p. 152. ISBN 9781860645082.
Jump up ^ Rose, Christopher; al-Jallad, Ahmad (27 April 2016). "Episode 82: What Writing Can Tell Us About the Arabs before Islam". University of Texas, Austin. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2015). An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions. Leiden: Brill. , 11-14
Jump up ^ http://curatorseye.com/Name=Published-Hasaean-Inscribed-Tombstone-for-Matmat&Item=4965#Cat=082&SubC=072
Jump up ^ p.93, "The Koran, A Very Short Introduction" by Michael Cook, publ Oxford University Press, 2000 AD, ISBN 0-19-285344-9
External links[edit]
A brief history of the Arabic script with emphasis on diacritical points, vowel markers and alphabet arrangements
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values: Edit section: Reorganization of the alphabet

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Abjadi order

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Hindu-Arabic numerals

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Sindhi alphabet

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Balochi alphabet

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Ng (Arabic)

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Voiced palato-alveolar affricate

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Brāhmī script

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Jawi script

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Serbian alphabet

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Pattani (region)

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Republic of Turkey

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Levantine order

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/wiki/Perso-Arabic_alphabet
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Perso-Arabic alphabet

values: American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration

values: DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration

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Pre-Hilalian dialects

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Moroccan Darija

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Modern South Arabian

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Help:IPA for Arabic

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