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Johnnie Taylor
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For a similarly named blues and soul singer, see Little Johnny Taylor. For other people called John Taylor, see John Taylor (disambiguation).
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Johnnie Taylor
Johnnie Taylor in Chicago, 1973
Background information
Birth name
Johnnie Harrison Taylor
Born
(1934-05-05)May 5, 1934
Crawfordsville, Arkansas, United States
Died
May 31, 2000(2000-05-31) (aged 66)
Dallas, Texas, United States
Genres
R&B, soul, gospel, blues, pop, doo-wop, disco
Occupation(s)
Singer, songwriter, record producer
Years active
1953–2000
Labels
Chance Records, SAR Records, Stax Records, Columbia Records, Beverly Glen Records, Malaco Records
Notable instruments
drums, piano
Johnnie Harrison Taylor (May 5, 1934 – May 31, 2000)[1] was a three-time Grammy-nominated American recording artist and songwriter who performed a wide variety of genres, from blues, rhythm and blues, soul, and gospel to pop, doo-wop and disco.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early years
1.2 Columbia Records
1.3 Malaco Records
2 Radio
3 Death
4 Awards
5 Musical influence
6 Discography
6.1 Albums
6.2 Singles
7 References
8 External links
Biography[edit]
Early years[edit]
Taylor in 1967
Johnnie Taylor was born in Crawfordsville, Arkansas. He grew up in West Memphis, Arkansas, performing in gospel groups as a youngster. As an adult, he had one release, "Somewhere to Lay My Head", on Chicago's Chance Records label in the 1950s, as part of the gospel group Highway QCs, which had been founded by a young Sam Cooke. His singing then was strikingly close to that of Sam Cooke, and he was hired to take Cooke's place in the latter's gospel group, the Soul Stirrers, in 1957.
A few years later, after Cooke had established his independent SAR Records, Taylor signed on as one of the label's first acts and recorded "Rome Wasn't Built In A Day" in 1962. However, SAR Records quickly became defunct after Cooke's death in 1964.
In 1966, Taylor moved to Stax Records in Memphis, Tennessee, where he was dubbed "The Philosopher of Soul". He recorded with the label's house band, which included Booker T. & the MGs. His hits included "I Had a Dream", "I've Got to Love Somebody's Baby" (both written by the team of Isaac Hayes and David Porter) and most notably "Who's Making Love", which reached No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and No. 1 on the R&B chart in 1968. "Who's Making Love" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In 1970, Taylor married Gerlean Rocket and they remained married until his death in 2000.[2]
During his tenure at Stax, he became an R&B star, with over a dozen chart successes, such as "Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone", which reached No. 23 on the Hot 100 chart, "Cheaper to Keep Her" (Mack Rice) and record producer Don Davis's penned "I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)", which reached No. 11 on the Hot 100 chart. "I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)" also sold in excess of one million copies, and was awarded gold disc status by the R.I.A.A. in October 1973.[2] Taylor, along with Isaac Hayes and The Staple Singers, was one of the label's flagship artists, who were credited for keeping the company afloat in the late 1960s and early 1970s after the death of its biggest star, Otis Redding, in an aviation accident. He appeared in the documentary film, Wattstax, which was released in 1973.[3]
Columbia Records[edit]
After Stax folded in 1975, Taylor switched to Columbia Records, where he recorded his biggest success with Don Davis still in charge of production, "Disco Lady", in 1976. It spent four weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and six weeks at the top of the R&B chart. It peaked at #25 in the UK Singles Chart in May 1976.[4] "Disco Lady" was the first certified platinum single (two million copies sold) by the RIAA. Taylor recorded several more successful albums and R&B single hits with Davis on Columbia, before Brad Shapiro took over production duties, but sales generally fell away.
Malaco Records[edit]
After a short stay at a small independent label in Los Angeles, Beverly Glen Records, Taylor signed with Malaco Records after the company's founder Tommy Couch and producing partner Wolf Stephenson heard him sing at blues singer Z. Z. Hill's funeral in spring 1984.
Backed by members of The Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, as well as in-house veterans such as former Stax keyboardist Carson Whitsett and guitarist/bandleader Bernard Jenkins, Malaco gave Taylor the type of recording freedom that Stax had given him in the late 1960s and early 1970s, enabling him to record ten albums for the label in his 16-year stint.
In 1996, Taylor's eighth album for Malaco, Good Love!, reached number one on the Billboard Top Blues Albums chart (#15 R&B), and was the biggest record in Malaco's history. With this success, Malaco recorded a live video of Taylor at the Longhorn Ballroom in Dallas, Texas, in the summer of 1997. The club portion of the Good Love video was recorded at 1001 Nightclub in Jackson, Mississippi.
Taylor's final song was "Soul Heaven", in which he dreamed of being at a concert featuring deceased African-American music icons from Louis Armstrong to Otis Redding to Z.Z. Hill to The Notorious B.I.G., among others.
Radio[edit]
In the 1980s, Johnnie Taylor was a DJ on KKDA-AM, a radio station in the Dallas area, where he had made his home. The station's format was mostly R&B and Soul oldies and their on-the-air personalities were often local R&B, Soul, blues, and jazz musicians. Taylor was billed as "The Wailer, Johnnie Taylor".
Death[edit]
Taylor died of a heart attack at Charlton Methodist Hospital in Dallas, Texas, on May 31, 2000, aged 66.[5] Stax billed Johnnie Taylor as "The Philosopher of Soul". He was also known as "the Blues Wailer". He was buried beside his mother, Ida Mae Taylor, at Forrest Hill Cemetery in Kansas City, Missouri.
His highly complex personal life was revealed after his death, with 6 accepted children and 3 others with confirmed paternity born to three different mothers,[1] and the difficulties associated with executing his will were presented in the TV programme "The Will: Family Secrets Revealed: The Estate of Johnnie Taylor". [2] (Season 2, Episode 5. November 16, 2011).
Awards[edit]
Taylor was given a Pioneer Award by the Rhythm and Blues Foundation in 1999.
Musical influence[edit]
In 2004, the UK's Shapeshifters sampled Taylor's 1982 "What About My Love?", for their #1 hit single, "Lola's Theme".
Discography[edit]
Albums[edit]
Wanted: One Soul Singer - Stax 715 (1967)
Who's Making Love... - Stax 2005 (1968)
Raw Blues - Stax 2008 (1968)
Rare Stamps - Stax 2012 (1968)
The Johnnie Taylor Philosophy Continues - Stax 2023 (1969)
Everybody Knows (1970)
One Step Beyond - Stax 2030 (1971)
Open House At My House(1973)
Taylored in Silk - Stax 3014 (1973)
Super Taylor - Stax 5509 (1974)
Eargasm - Columbia 2012 (1976)
Rated Extraordinaire (1977)
Reflections (1977)
Disco 9000 (1977)
Ever Ready (1978)
She's Killing Me (1979)
A New Day (1980)
I'm So Proud (1982)
The Complete Beverly Glen Music Sessions (1984)
This Is Your Night (1984)
Wall To Wall (1985)
Lover Boy (1987)
In Control (1988)
Crazy 'Bout You (1989)
Just Can't Do Right (1991)
Good Love (1996)
Cheaper to Keep Her (1997)
Taylored To Please (1998)
Gotta Get The Groove Back (1999)
There's No Good In Goodbye (2003)
Live at the Summit Club (2007)
[6]
Singles[edit]
Year
Single
Chart Positions
US Pop[7]
US
R&B[8]
UK[9]
1963 "Baby, We've Got Love" 98 *[10] -
1966 "I Had A Dream" - 19 -
"I Got To Love Somebody's Baby" - 15 -
1967 "Somebody's Sleeping In My Bed" 95 33 -
1968 "Next Time" - 34 -
"I Ain't Particular" - 45 -
"Who's Making Love" 5 1 -
1969 "Take Care of Your Homework" 20 2 -
"Testify (I Wonna)" 36 4 -
"I Could Never Be President" 48 10 -
"Love Bones" 43 4 -
1970 "Steal Away" 37 3 -
"I Am Somebody Part II" 39 4 -
1971 "Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone" 28 1 -
"I Don't Wanna Lose You" 86 13 -
"Hijackin' Love" 64 10 -
1972 "Standing In For Jody" 74 12 -
"Doing My Own Thing (Part I)" - 16 -
"Stop Doggin' Me" - 13 -
1973 "I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)" 11 1 -
"Cheaper To Keep Her" 15 2 -
1974 "We're Getting Careless With Our Love" 34 5 -
"I've Been Born Again" 78 13 -
"It's September" - 26 -
1975 "Try Me Tonight" - 51 -
1976 "Disco Lady" 1 1 25
"Somebody's Gettin' It" 33 5 -
1977 "Love Is Better In The A.M. (Part 1)" 77 3 -
"Your Love Is Rated X" - 17 -
"Disco 9000" 86 24 -
1978 "Keep On Dancing" - 32 -
"Ever Ready" - 84 -
1979 "(Ooh-Wee) She's Killing Me" /
"Play Something Pretty" - 37
79 -
1980 "I Got This Thing For Your Love" - 77 -
1982 "What About My Love" - 24 -
1983 "I'm So Proud" - 55 -
1984 "Lady, My Whole World Is You" - 74 -
1987 "Don't Make Me Late" - 74 -
1990 "Still Crazy For You" - 60 -
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Patrick Montier. "Johnnie Taylor". Staxrecords.free.fr. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Murrells, Joseph (1978). The Book of Golden Discs (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 249 & 338. ISBN 0-214-20512-6.
Jump up ^ Tobler, John (1992). NME Rock 'N' Roll Years (1st ed.). London: Reed International Books Ltd. p. 241. CN 5585.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 550. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Johnnie Harrison Taylor (1934-2000)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
Jump up ^ "Johnnie Taylor | Discography". AllMusic. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2003). Top Pop Singles 1955-2002 (1st ed.). Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 700. ISBN 0-89820-155-1.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (1996). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-1995. Record Research. p. 435.
Jump up ^ Betts, Graham (2004). Complete UK Hit Singles 1952-2004 (1st ed.). London: Collins. p. 772. ISBN 0-00-717931-6.
Jump up ^ No Billboard R&B chart published in this period
External links[edit]
Complete Discography
Allmusic.com bio
Johnnie Taylor at Find a Grave
[show]
v
t
e
Johnnie Taylor
Songs
"Who's Making Love"
"Take Care of Your Homework"
"Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone"
"I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)"
"Disco Lady"
[show]
v
t
e
Stax/Volt Records
Major figures
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Major artists
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 60336848
LCCN: n78039172
ISNI: 0000 0001 3877 2768
GND: 134942167
SUDOC: 079490328
BNF: cb13921790h (data)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johnnie_Taylor&oldid=785450098"
Categories:
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All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth
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"All I Want for Christmas is My Two Front Teeth"
Single by Spike Jones & His City Slickers
Released
1948
Genre
Novelty, Christmas
Label
RCA Victor
Songwriter(s)
Donald Yetter Gardner
"All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth" is a novelty Christmas song written in 1944 by Donald Yetter Gardner[1] while teaching music at public schools in Smithtown, New York. He asked his second grade class what they wanted for Christmas, and noticed that almost all of the students had at least one front tooth missing as they answered in a lisp. Gardner wrote the song in 30 minutes. In a 1995 interview, Gardner said, "I was amazed at the way that silly little song was picked up by the whole country."[2][3] The song was published in 1948 after an employee of Witmark music company heard Gardner sing it at a music teachers conference.[2][3]
The song was introduced in 1948 by singing group The Satisfiers on Perry Como's radio show,[4] and originally recorded by Spike Jones & His City Slickers on December 6, 1947, with lead vocal by George Rock. That version reached the top of the pop charts in 1948, and again in 1949.[3] The song has also been recorded by numerous other singers and performers, including Ray Stevens,[5] George Strait, Danny Kaye with The Andrews Sisters, Urbie Green, The Platters, Dread Zeppelin, The Kelly Family,[6] Nat King Cole (reportedly Gardner's favorite version),[2] The Chipmunks, the Hampton String Quartet, The Three Stooges and Count von Count of Sesame Street.
In the versions by Spike, The Chipmunks (Theodore on lead vocals), and Ray Stevens, the song ends with the performer shouting the words "Happy New Year!!!"
Homer and Jethro parodied the song as "All I Want for Christmas Is My Upper Plate", on their 1968 album Cool Crazy Christmas.
Drag performer and singer RuPaul parodied the song on his Christmas album Ho, Ho, Ho. In his version, the singer lists "a litany of plastic surgery requests" that he would like to receive for the holiday.[7]
In 1986, the song title was parodied in "All I Want for Christmas Is a Dukla Prague Away Kit" by the band Half Man Half Biscuit on The Trumpton Riots EP.
Country music parodist Cledus T. Judd parodied the song on his 2002 Christmas album Cledus Navidad. Titled "All I Want for Christmas Is Two Gold Front Teef", Judd's parody is performed in rap.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
List of number-one singles of 1949 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ancestry.com. Social Security Death Index [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Donald Yetter Gardner, 91, Songwriter". The New York Times. September 22, 2004. p. B-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Oliver, Myrna (September 26, 2004). "Donald Gardner, 91; Wrote the Popular 'Two Front Teeth' Christmas Tune". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "Angels We Have Heard: The Christmas Song Stories". James Richliano. 2002.
Jump up ^ "Encyclopedia of Recorded Comedy Music". AllMusic. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Christmas for All". Discogs. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Newman, Melinda (December 6, 1997). "Fresh from Santa's Music Workshop: Some Sets For The Naughty, Most Nice". Billboard. Eldridge Industries. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_I_Want_for_Christmas_Is_My_Two_Front_Teeth&oldid=817036209"
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text:
All She Wants to Do Is Dance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"All She Wants to Do Is Dance"
Single by Don Henley
from the album Building the Perfect Beast
B-side
"Building the Perfect Beast"
Released
February 1985
Format
7", 12"
Recorded
1984
Length
4:28 (album)
4:23 (remix edit)
Label
Geffen
Songwriter(s)
Danny Kortchmar
Producer(s)
Don Henley, Danny Kortchmar, Greg Ladanyi
Don Henley singles chronology
"The Boys of Summer"
(1984) "All She Wants to Do Is Dance"
(1985) "Not Enough Love in the World"
(1985)
Audio sample
file
help
"All She Wants to Do Is Dance" is a song written by Danny Kortchmar and performed by Don Henley, co-lead vocalist and drummer for Eagles. It was released as the second single from Henley's second studio solo album, Building the Perfect Beast, being Henley's sixth single. It was one of Henley's most commercially successful singles.
Contents
1 Background
2 Composition
3 Release
4 Personnel
5 Critical reception
6 Chart performance
7 Other versions
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Background[edit]
The single became a Billboard Top 10 hit in March 1985, peaking at number 9, and also became his third song to top the Top Rock Tracks chart.[1] Background singing for the song was provided by Patty Smyth of the group Scandal, and Martha Davis, lead singer of The Motels.[2]
Composition[edit]
When Kortchmar was asked about the song he said "I had the groove and the music going. That record was made back when the technology had just started to really take over in music. I had one of the first Yamaha DX7s, which was a keyboard that was used a ton in the '80s, but we ended up luckily getting one of the first ones in the United States. It's a synthesizer keyboard, and I used it to get that sound that you hear the record starting with."[3]
Release[edit]
The commercial U.S. 7" vinyl version has a slightly different intro than the LP version from Building The Perfect Beast.
Personnel[edit]
Don Henley – lead vocals, drums, harmony vocals
Danny "Kootch" Kortchmar – guitar
Additional musicians
Lindsey Buckingham – guitar, backing vocals
Mike Campbell – synthesizer, additional guitars
David Paich – synthesizer
Martha Davis – backing vocals, harmony vocals
Marie-Pascale Elfman – backing vocals
Carla Olson – backing vocals
Dominique Mancinelli – backing vocals
Critical reception[edit]
John Leland from Spin magazine wrote about the 12-inch single version of the song saying "...this mother whomps from the git with punchy electronic drums and a mix that keeps one foot off the ground for a full seven-and-a-half minutes. Henley's post-hedonist vision of apocalypse is twisted".[4]
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1985)
Peak
position
Canadian RPM Top Singles[5] 13
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[6] 9
U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Club Play[7] 10
U.S. Billboard Top Rock Tracks[8] 1
U.S. Billboard Hot R&B Singles[9] 65
Other versions[edit]
The single All She Wanna Do is Dance by David Guetta and Niles Mason use samplings of this song.
See also[edit]
List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)
Ronald Reagan in music
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, 8th Edition (Billboard Publications), page 282.
Jump up ^ allmusic.com (2016). "Song Review by Stewart Mason" allmusic.com
Jump up ^ http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=21864
Jump up ^ John Leland (July 1985). Don Henley "All She Wants To Do Is Dance" (Geffen). Spin. p. 34. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
Jump up ^ "Results – RPM – Library and Archives Canada – Top Singles". RPM. Retrieved April 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Don Henley Album & Song Chart History – Hot 100". Billboard. Retrieved April 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Don Henley Album & Song Chart History – Dance/Club Play Songs". Billboard. Retrieved April 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "allmusic ((( Don Henley > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles )))". AllMusic. Retrieved April 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ https://www.billboard.com/music/don-henley/chart-history/r-b-hip-hop-songs/song/333674
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Music Video
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Don Henley
Studio albums
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"Leather and Lace"
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"Inside Out"
See also
Discography
Eagles
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Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Randall L. Tobias, former U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator, being publicly tested for HIV in Ethiopia in an effort to reduce the stigma of being tested.[1]
HIV tests are used to detect the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), in serum, saliva, or urine. Such tests may detect antibodies, antigens, or RNA.
Contents
[hide]
1 AIDS diagnosis
2 Terminology
3 Principles
3.1 Screening donor blood and cellular products
3.2 Diagnosis of HIV infection
3.3 Human rights
3.4 Confidentiality
3.5 Anonymous testing
3.6 Routine testing recommendation
4 Antibody tests
4.1 Window period
4.2 ELISA
4.3 ELISA dongle
4.4 Western blot
4.5 Rapid or point-of-care tests
4.6 Interpreting antibody tests
4.7 Accuracy of HIV testing
5 Antigen tests
6 Antigen/Antibody Combination tests
7 Nucleic acid-based tests (NAT)
8 Screening
9 Other tests used in HIV treatment
10 Criticisms
10.1 Oral tests
10.2 AIDS denialism
11 Fraudulent testing
12 References
13 External links
AIDS diagnosis
Main article: AIDS-defining clinical condition
AIDS is diagnosed separately from HIV.
Terminology
The window period is the time from infection until a test can detect any change. The average window period with HIV-1 antibody tests is 25 days for subtype B. Antigen testing cuts the window period to approximately 16 days and nucleic acid testing (NAT) further reduces this period to 12 days.[2]
Performance of medical tests is often described in terms of:
sensitivity: The percentage of the results that will be positive when HIV is present
specificity: The percentage of the results that will be negative when HIV is not present.
All diagnostic tests have limitations, and sometimes their use may produce erroneous or questionable results.
False positive: The test incorrectly indicates that HIV is present in a non-infected person.
False negative: The test incorrectly indicates that HIV is absent in an infected person.
Nonspecific reactions, hypergammaglobulinemia, or the presence of antibodies directed to other infectious agents that may be antigenically similar to HIV can produce false positive results. Autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, have also rarely caused false positive results. Most false negative results are due to the window period.
Principles
Screening donor blood and cellular products
Tests selected to screen donor blood and tissue must provide a high degree of confidence that HIV will be detected if present (that is, a high sensitivity is required). A combination of antibody, antigen and nucleic acid tests are used by blood banks in Western countries. The World Health Organization estimated that, as of 2000[update], inadequate blood screening had resulted in 1 million new HIV infections worldwide.[citation needed]
In the US, the Food and Drug Administration requires that all donated blood be screened for several infectious diseases, including HIV-1 and HIV-2, using a combination of antibody testing (EIA) and more expeditious nucleic acid testing (NAT).[3][4] These diagnostic tests are combined with careful donor selection. As of 2001[update], the risk of transfusion-acquired HIV in the US was approximately one in 2.5 million for each transfusion.[5]
Diagnosis of HIV infection
Tests used for the diagnosis of HIV infection in a particular person require a high degree of both sensitivity and specificity. In the United States, this is achieved using an algorithm combining two tests for HIV antibodies. If antibodies are detected by an initial test based on the ELISA method, then a second test using the Western blot procedure determines the size of the antigens in the test kit binding to the antibodies. The combination of these two methods is highly accurate (see below).
Human rights
The UNAIDS/WHO policy statement on HIV Testing states that conditions under which people undergo HIV testing must be anchored in a human rights approach that pays due respect to ethical principles.[6] According to these principles, the conduct of HIV testing of individuals must be
Confidential;
Accompanied by counseling (for those who test positive);
Conducted with the informed consent of the person being tested.
Confidentiality
Considerable controversy exists over the ethical obligations of health care providers to inform the sexual partners of individuals infected with HIV that they are at risk of contracting the virus.[7] Some legal jurisdictions permit such disclosure, while others do not. More state funded testing sites are now using confidential forms of testing. This allows for monitoring of infected individuals easily, compared to anonymous testing that has a number attached to the positive test results. Controversy exists over privacy issues.
In developing countries, home-based HIV testing and counseling (HBHTC) is an emerging approach for addressing confidentiality issues. HBHTC allows individuals, couples, and families to learn their HIV status in the convenience and privacy of their home environment. Rapid HIV tests are most often used, so results are available for the client between 15 and 30 minutes. Furthermore, when an HIV positive result is communicated, the HTC provider can offer appropriate linkages for prevention, care, and treatment.[8]
Anonymous testing
Testing that has only a number attached to the specimen that will be delivered for testing. Items that are confirmed positive will not have the HIV infected individual's name attached to the specimen. Sites that offer this service advertise this testing option.[clarification needed]
Routine testing recommendation
In the United States, one emerging standard of care is to screen all patients for HIV in all health care settings.[9] In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control announced an initiative for voluntary, routine testing of all Americans aged 13–64 during health care encounters. An estimated 25% of infected individuals were unaware of their status; If successful the effort was expected to reduce new infections by 30% per year.[10] The CDC recommends elimination of requirements for written consent or extensive pre-test counseling as barriers to widespread routine testing.[10] In 2006, the National Association of Community Health Centers implemented a model for offering free, rapid HIV testing to all patients between the ages of 13 and 64 during routine primary medical and dental care visits. The program increased testing rates, with 66% of the 17,237 patients involved in the study agreeing to testing (56% were tested for the first time).[11] In September 2010, New York became the first state to require that hospitals and primary care providers offer an HIV test to all patients between the ages of 13 and 64 years. A mandatory evaluation of the law's impact found that it increased testing significantly throughout the state.[12]
Antibody tests
HIV antibody tests are specifically designed for routine diagnostic testing of adults; these tests are inexpensive and extremely accurate.
Window period
Antibody tests may give false negative (no antibodies were detected despite the presence of HIV) results during the window period, an interval of three weeks to six months between the time of HIV infection and the production of measurable antibodies to HIV seroconversion. Most people develop detectable antibodies approximately 30 days after infection, although some seroconvert later. The vast majority of people (97%) have detectable antibodies by three months after HIV infection; a six-month window is extremely rare with modern antibody testing.[13] During the window period, an infected person can transmit HIV to others although their HIV infection may not be detectable with an antibody test. Antiretroviral therapy during the window period can delay the formation of antibodies and extend the window period beyond 12 months.[14] This was not the case with patients that underwent treatment with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Those patients must take ELISA tests at various intervals after the usual 28-day course of treatment, sometimes extending outside of the conservative window period of 6 months. Antibody tests may also yield false negative results in patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia; other diagnostic tests should be used in such patients.
Three instances of delayed HIV seroconversion occurring in health-care workers have been reported;[15] in these instances, the health-care workers[16] tested negative for HIV antibodies greater than 6 months postexposure but were seropositive within 12 months after the exposure.[17] DNA sequencing confirmed the source of infection in one instance. Two of the delayed seroconversions were associated with simultaneous exposure to hepatitis C virus (HCV). In one case, co-infection was associated with a rapidly fatal HCV disease course; however, it is not known whether HCV directly influences the risk for or course of HIV infection or is a marker for other exposure-related factors.
ELISA
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or enzyme immunoassay (EIA), was the first screening test commonly employed for HIV. It has a high sensitivity.
In an ELISA test, a person's serum is diluted 400-fold and applied to a plate to which HIV antigens have been attached. If antibodies to HIV are present in the serum, they may bind to these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. A specially prepared "secondary antibody" — an antibody that binds to human antibodies — is then applied to the plate, followed by another wash. This secondary antibody is chemically linked in advance to an enzyme. Thus the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. ELISA results are reported as a number; the most controversial aspect of this test is determining the "cut-off" point between a positive and negative result.
ELISA dongle
Researchers from Columbia University have produced an ELISA test dongle capable of testing for HIV and syphilis. It is compatible to any smartphone or computer without additional support or battery power, and takes some fifteen minutes to analyse a drop of blood. The units cost approximately $34 each to manufacture.[18]
Western blot
Western blot test results. The first two strips are a negative and a positive control, respectively. The others are actual tests.
Like the ELISA procedure, the western blot is an antibody detection test. However, unlike the ELISA method, the viral proteins are separated first and immobilized. In subsequent steps, the binding of serum antibodies to specific HIV proteins is visualized.
Specifically, cells that may be HIV-infected are opened and the proteins within are placed into a slab of gel, to which an electric current is applied. Different proteins will move with different speeds in this field, depending on their size, while their electrical charge is leveled by a surfactant called sodium lauryl sulfate. Some commercially prepared Western blot test kits contain the HIV proteins already on a cellulose acetate strip. Once the proteins are well-separated, they are transferred to a membrane and the procedure continues similar to an ELISA: the person's diluted serum is applied to the membrane and antibodies in the serum may attach to some of the HIV proteins. Antibodies that do not attach are washed away, and enzyme-linked antibodies with the capability to attach to the person's antibodies determine to which HIV proteins the person has antibodies.
There are no universal criteria for interpreting the western blot test: The number of viral bands that must be present may vary. If no viral bands are detected, the result is negative. If at least one viral band for each of the GAG, POL, and ENV gene-product groups are present, the result is positive. The three-gene-product approach to western blot interpretation has not been adopted for public health or clinical practice. Tests in which less than the required number of viral bands are detected are reported as indeterminate: a person who has an indeterminate result should be retested, as later tests may be more conclusive. Almost all HIV-infected persons with indeterminate western blot results will develop a positive result when tested in one month; persistently indeterminate results over a period of six months suggests the results are not due to HIV infection. In a generally healthy low-risk population, indeterminate results on western blot occur on the order of 1 in 5,000 patients.[19] However, for those individuals that have had high-risk exposures to individuals where HIV-2 is most prevalent, Western Africa, an inconclusive western blot test may prove infection with HIV-2.[20]
The HIV proteins used in western blotting can be produced by recombinant DNA in a technique called recombinant immunoblot assay (RIBA).[21]
Rapid or point-of-care tests
A woman demonstrates the use of the OraQuick rapid HIV test
Blood being taken for HIV rapid test
Rapid antibody tests are qualitative immunoassays intended for use in point-of-care testing to aid in the diagnosis of HIV infection. These tests should be used in conjunction with the clinical status, history, and risk factors of the person being tested. The positive predictive value of Rapid Antibody Tests in low-risk populations has not been evaluated. These tests should be used in appropriate multi-test algorithms designed for statistical validation of rapid HIV test results.
If no antibodies to HIV are detected, this does not mean the person has not been infected with HIV. It may take several months after HIV infection for the antibody response to reach detectable levels, during which time rapid testing for antibodies to HIV will not be indicative of true infection status. For most people, HIV antibodies reach a detectable level after two to six weeks.
Although these tests have high specificity, false positives do occur. Any positive test result should be confirmed by a lab using the western blot.
Interpreting antibody tests
ELISA testing alone cannot be used to diagnose HIV, even if the test suggests a high probability that antibody to HIV-1 is present. In the United States, such ELISA results are not reported as "positive" unless confirmed by a western blot.
The ELISA antibody tests were developed to provide a high level of confidence that donated blood was NOT infected with HIV. It is therefore not possible to conclude that blood rejected for transfusion because of a positive ELISA antibody test is in fact infected with HIV. Sometimes, retesting the donor in several months will produce a negative ELISA antibody test. This is why a confirmatory western blot is always used before reporting a "positive" HIV test result.
Rare false positive results due to factors unrelated to HIV exposure are found more often with the ELISA test than with the western blot. False positives may be associated with medical conditions such as recent acute illnesses and allergies. A rash of false positive tests in the fall of 1991 was initially blamed on the influenza vaccines used during that flu season, but further investigation traced the cross-reactivity to several relatively non-specific test kits.[22] A false positive result does not indicate a condition of significant risk to health. When the ELISA test is combined with Western Blot, the rate of false positives is extremely low, and diagnostic accuracy is very high (see below).
HIV antibody tests are highly sensitive, meaning they react preferentially with HIV antibodies, but not all positive or inconclusive HIV ELISA tests mean the person is infected by HIV. Risk history, and clinical judgement should be included in the assessment, and a confirmation test (western blot) should be administered. An individual with an inconclusive test should be re-tested at a later date.
Accuracy of HIV testing
Modern HIV testing is highly accurate. The evidence regarding the risks and benefits of HIV screening was reviewed in July 2005 by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.[23] The authors concluded that:
...the use of repeatedly reactive enzyme immunoassay followed by confirmatory western blot or immunofluorescent assay remains the standard method for diagnosing HIV-1 infection. A large study of HIV testing in 752 U.S. laboratories reported a sensitivity of 99.7% and specificity of 98.5% for enzyme immunoassay, and studies in U.S. blood donors reported specificities of 99.8% and greater than 99.99%. With confirmatory Western blot, the chance of a false-positive identification in a low-prevalence setting is about 1 in 250 000 (95% CI, 1 in 173 000 to 1 in 379 000).
The specificity rate given here for the inexpensive enzyme immunoassay screening tests indicates that, in 1,000 HIV test results of healthy individuals, about 15 of these results will be a false positive. Confirming the test result (i.e., by repeating the test, if this option is available) could reduce the ultimate likelihood of a false positive to about 1 result in 250,000 tests given. The sensitivity rating, likewise, indicates that, in 1,000 test results of HIV infected people, 3 will actually be a false negative result. However, based upon the HIV prevalence rates at most testing centers within the United States, the negative predictive value of these tests is extremely high, meaning that a negative test result will be correct more than 9,997 times in 10,000 (99.97% of the time). The very high negative predictive value of these tests is why the CDC recommends that a negative test result be considered conclusive evidence that an individual does not have HIV.
Of course, the actual numbers vary depending on the testing population. This is because interpreting of the results of any medical test (assuming no test is 100% accurate) depends upon the initial degree of belief, or the prior probability that an individual has, or does not have a disease. Generally the prior probability is estimated using the prevalence of a disease within a population or at a given testing location. The positive predictive value and negative predictive value of all tests, including HIV tests, take into account the prior probability of having a disease along with the accuracy of the testing method to determine a new degree of belief that an individual has or does not have a disease (also known as the posterior probability). The chance that a positive test accurately indicates an HIV infection increases as the prevalence or rate of HIV infection increases in the population. Conversely, the negative predictive value will decrease as the HIV prevalence rises. Thus a positive test in a high-risk population, such as people who frequently engage in unprotected anal intercourse with unknown partners, is more likely to correctly represent HIV infection than a positive test in a very low-risk population, such as unpaid blood donors.
Many studies have confirmed the accuracy of current methods of HIV testing in the United States, reporting false-positive rates of 0.0004 to 0.0007 and false-negative rates of 0.003 in the general population.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]
Antigen tests
The p24 antigen test detects the presence of the p24 protein of HIV (also known as CA), the capsid protein of the virus. Monoclonal antibodies specific to the p24 protein are mixed with the person's blood. Any p24 protein in the person's blood will stick to the monoclonal antibody and an enzyme-linked antibody to the monoclonal antibodies to p24 causes a color change if p24 was present in the sample.
In blood donation screening, this test is no longer used routinely in the US[32] or the EU[33] since the objective was to reduce the risk of false negatives in the window period. Nucleic acid testing (NAT) is more effective for this purpose, and p24 antigen testing is no longer indicated if a NAT test is performed.
In general diagnostics, p24 antigen tests are used for early detection of HIV, as p24 antigen rises soon after infection relative to antibodies, and the test is often used in combination with an antibody test to effectively cover a longer portion of the window period. It is less useful as a standalone test, as it has low sensitivity and only works during the early time period after infection. The presence of p24 antigen diminishes as the body increases production of antibodies to the p24 protein, making p24 more difficult to detect later.
Antigen/Antibody Combination tests
A combination, or 4th generation assay, is designed to detect both the p24 antigen and HIV antibodies in a single test. Combination tests can detect HIV as early as 2–6 weeks after infection,[34] and are recommended in laboratory testing.[35]
Nucleic acid-based tests (NAT)
Nucleic-acid-based tests amplify and detect one or more of several target sequences located in specific HIV genes, such as HIV-I GAG, HIV-II GAG, HIV-env, or the HIV-pol.[36][37] Since these tests are relatively expensive, the blood is screened by first pooling some 8-24 samples and testing these together; if the pool tests positive, each sample is retested individually. Although this results in a dramatic decrease in cost, the dilution of the virus in the pooled samples decreases the effective sensitivity of the test, lengthening the window period by 4 days (assuming a 20-fold dilution, ~20hr virus doubling time, detection limit 50 copies/ml, making limit of detection 1,000 copies/ml). Since 2001, donated blood in the United States has been screened with nucleic-acid-based tests, shortening the window period between infection and detectability of disease to a median of 17 days (95% CI, 13-28 Days, assumes pooling of samples).[38] A different version of this test is intended for use in conjunction with clinical presentation and other laboratory markers of disease progress for the management of HIV-1-infected patients.
In the RT-PCR test, viral RNA is extracted from the patient's plasma and is treated with reverse transcriptase (RT) to convert the viral RNA into cDNA. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process is then applied, using two primers unique to the virus's genome. After PCR amplification is complete, the resulting DNA products are hybridized to specific oligonucleotides bound to the vessel wall, and are then made visible with a probe bound to an enzyme. The amount of virus in the sample can be quantified with sufficient accuracy to detect threefold changes.
In the Quantiplex bDNA or branched DNA test, plasma is centrifugated to concentrate the virus, which is then opened to release its RNA. Special oligonucleotides that bind to viral RNA and to certain oligonucleotides bound to the wall of the vessel are added. In this way, viral RNA is fastened to the wall. Then new oligonucleotides that bind at several locations to this RNA are added, and other oligonucelotides that bind at several locations to those oligonucleotides. This is done to amplify the signal. Finally, oligonucleotides that bind to the last set of oligonucleotides and that are bound to an enzyme are added; the enzyme action causes a color reaction, which allows quantification of the viral RNA in the original sample. Monitoring the effects of antiretroviral therapy by serial measurements of plasma HIV-1 RNA with this test has been validated for patients with viral loads greater than 25,000 copies per milliliter.[39]
Further information: Viral load testing
Screening
The South African government announced a plan to start screening for HIV in secondary schools by March 2011.[40] This plan was cancelled due to concerns it would invade pupil's privacy, schools typically don't have the facilities to securely store such information, and schools generally do not have the capacity to provide counseling for HIV positive pupils. In South Africa, anyone over the age of 12 may request an HIV test without parental knowledge or consent. Some 80,000 pupils in three provinces were tested under this programme before it ended.[41]
Other tests used in HIV treatment
The CD4 T-cell count is not an HIV test, but rather a procedure where the number of CD4 T-cells in the blood is determined.
A CD4 count does not check for the presence of HIV. It is used to monitor immune system function in HIV-positive people. Declining CD4 T-cell counts are considered to be a marker of progression of HIV infection. A normal CD4 count can range from 500 cells/mm3 to 1000 cells/mm3. In HIV-positive people, AIDS is officially diagnosed when the count drops below 200 cells/μL or when certain opportunistic infections occur. This use of a CD4 count as an AIDS criterion was introduced in 1992; the value of 200 was chosen because it corresponded with a greatly increased likelihood of opportunistic infection. Lower CD4 counts in people with AIDS are indicators that prophylaxis against certain types of opportunistic infections should be instituted.
Low CD4 T-cell counts are associated with a variety of conditions, including many viral infections, bacterial infections, parasitic infections, sepsis, tuberculosis, coccidioidomycosis, burns, trauma, intravenous injections of foreign proteins, malnutrition, over-exercising, pregnancy, normal daily variation, psychological stress, and social isolation.[citation needed]
This test is also used occasionally to estimate immune system function for people whose CD4 T cells are impaired for reasons other than HIV infection, which include several blood diseases, several genetic disorders, and the side effects of many chemotherapy drugs.
In general, the lower the number of T cells the lower the immune system's function will be. Normal CD4 counts are between 500 and 1500 CD4+ T cells/microliter, and the counts may fluctuate in healthy people, depending on recent infection status, nutrition, exercise, and other factors. Women tend to have somewhat lower counts than men.
Criticisms
Oral tests
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2016)
As a result of an increase in false positive rates with rapid oral HIV testing in 2005, New York City's Department of Health and Mental Hygiene added the option of testing finger-stick whole blood after any reactive result, before using a western blot test to confirm the positive result. Following a further increase of false positives in NYC DOHMH STD Clinics during the end of 2007 and beginning of 2008, their clinics opted to forgo further oral screenings, and instead reinsituted testing using finger-stick whole blood.[42] Despite the increase in false positives in NYC DOHMH, the CDC still continues to support the use of noninvasive oral fluid specimens due to their popularity in health clinics and convenience of use. The director of the HIV control program for public health at Seattle King county, reported OraQuick failed to spot at least 8 percent of 133 people found to be infected with a comparable diagnostic test.[43] Strategies implemented to determine quality control and false positive rates were implemented. It is to be understood that any reactive OraQuick test result is a preliminary positive result and will always require a confirmatory test, regardless of the mean of testing (venipuncture whole blood, fingerstick whole blood or oral mucosal transudate fluid).[44] Several other testing sites who did not experience a spike in false positive rates continue to use OraSure's OraQuick HIV Anti-body Testing.[45][46]
AIDS denialism
HIV tests have been criticized by AIDS denialists (a fringe group whose members believe that HIV either does not exist or is harmless). The accuracy of serologic testing has been verified by isolation and culture of HIV and by detection of HIV RNA by PCR, which are widely accepted "gold standards" in microbiology.[26][27] While AIDS denialists focus on individual components of HIV testing, the combination of ELISA and western blot used for the diagnosis of HIV is remarkably accurate, with very low false-positive and -negative rates as described above. The views of AIDS denialists are based on highly selective analysis of mostly outdated scientific papers; there is broad scientific consensus that HIV is the cause of AIDS.[47][48][49]
Fraudulent testing
There have been a number of cases of fraudulent tests being sold via mail order or the Internet to the general public. In 1997, a California man was indicted on mail fraud and wire charges for selling supposed home test kits. In 2004, the US Federal Trade Commission asked Federal Express and US Customs to confiscate shipments of the Discreet home HIV test kits, produced by Gregory Stephen Wong of Vancouver, BC.[50] In February 2005, the US FDA issued a warning against using the rapid HIV test kits and other home use kits marketed by Globus Media of Montreal, Canada.
References
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Jump up ^ Kleinman S, Busch M, Hall L, Thomson R, Glynn S, Gallahan D, Ownby H, Williams A (1998). "False-positive HIV-1 test results in a low-risk screening setting of voluntary blood donation. Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study". JAMA. 280 (12): 1080–5. PMID 9757856. doi:10.1001/jama.280.12.1080.
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^ Jump up to: a b MacDonald K, Jackson J, Bowman R, Polesky H, Rhame F, Balfour H, Osterholm M (1989). "Performance characteristics of serologic tests for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) antibody among Minnesota blood donors. Public health and clinical implications". Ann Intern Med. 110 (8): 617–21. PMID 2648922. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-110-8-617.
^ Jump up to: a b Busch M, Eble B, Khayam-Bashi H, Heilbron D, Murphy E, Kwok S, Sninsky J, Perkins H, Vyas G (1991). "Evaluation of screened blood donations for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection by culture and DNA amplification of pooled cells". N Engl J Med. 325 (1): 1–5. PMID 2046708. doi:10.1056/NEJM199107043250101.
Jump up ^ Van de Perre P, Simonon A, Msellati P, Hitimana D, Vaira D, Bazubagira A, Van Goethem C, Stevens A, Karita E, Sondag-Thull D (1991). "Postnatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. A prospective cohort study in Kigali, Rwanda". N Engl J Med. 325 (9): 593–8. PMID 1812850. doi:10.1056/NEJM199108293250901.
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Jump up ^ Defoort, J. P.; Martin, M.; Casano, B.; Prato, S.; Camilla, C.; Fert, V. (2000). "Simultaneous detection of multiplex-amplified human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA, hepatitis C virus RNA, and hepatitis B virus DNA using a flow cytometer microsphere-based hybridization assay". Journal of clinical microbiology. 38 (3): 1066–1071. PMC 86341  . PMID 10698998.
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Jump up ^ "Testing for HIV - Why and How | Free Testing Site HAF". Freehivtesting.hafnyc.org. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
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Jump up ^ "Defective HIV Test Kit Marketer Settles FTC Charges". Federal Trade Commission. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
External links
HIV Antibody Assays - UCSF Medical Center
Complete List of Donor Screening Assays for Infectious Agents and HIV Diagnostic Assays - FDA
Fact sheets from the National Aids Trust ("NAT") in the UK:
General information on HIV testing - Types of HIV test - Home testing
Bulk procurement of HIV test kits instructions from the World Health Organization
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Letter (paper size)
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A Letter-size page
Comparison of Letter (shaded light blue) and Government letter sizes with some similar paper and photographic paper sizes
Letter or ANSI Letter is a paper size commonly used as home or office stationery in the United States, Canada, Chile, Mexico, the Dominican Republic and the Philippines. It measures 8.5 by 11 inches (220 by 280 mm). US Letter-size paper is a standard defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI, paper size A), in contrast to A4 paper used by most other countries, and adopted at varying dates, which is defined by the International Organization for Standardization, specifically in ISO 216.
Details[edit]
The Reagan administration made Letter-size paper the norm for U.S. federal forms in the early 1980s; previously, the smaller "official" Government Letter size, 8 by 10.5 inches (200 by 270 mm), was used in government, while 8.5-by-11-inch (220 by 280 mm) paper was standard in most other offices.[1]
In the U.S., paper density is usually measured in "pounds per ream" (of 500 sheets). Typical Letter paper has a basis weight of paper of 20 or 24 pounds (9.1 or 10.9 kg) – the weight of 500 sheets (a ream) of 17-by-22-inch (432 by 559 mm) paper at 70 °F (21 °C) and at 50% humidity.[2] One ream of 20-pound Letter-sized paper weighs 5 pounds (2.3 kg), and a single Letter-sized sheet of 20-pound paper weighs 0.16 ounces (4.536 g), which is equivalent to 75.19 g/m2. Some metric information is typically included on American ream packaging. For example, 20-pound paper is also labeled as 75 g/m2. The most common density of A4 paper is 80 g/m2.
The precise origins of the dimensions of US letter-size paper (8.5 × 11 in) are not known. The American Forest & Paper Association says that the standard US dimensions have their origin in the days of manual paper making, the 11" length of the standard paper being about a quarter of "the average maximum stretch of an experienced vatman's arms".[1] The letter size falls within the range of the historical quarto size, which since pre-modern times refers to page sizes of 8 to 9 inches (200 to 230 mm) wide and 10 to 11 inches (250 to 280 mm) high, and it is indeed almost exactly one quarter of the old Imperial (British) paper size known as Demy 4to - 17 1⁄2 by 22 1⁄2 inches (440 by 570 mm) - allowing a 1⁄2 inch (13 mm) for trimming.[3]
The related paper size known as half letter, statement, or organizer L is exactly one half of the US Letter size: 8.5 by 5.5 inches (220 by 140 mm) (8.5 × 5.5 in).
See also[edit]
ANSI/ASME Y14.1
ISO 216 (definition of metric paper sizes, e.g., A4)
Paper size: loose sizes
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b American Forest and Paper Association. "Why is the standard paper size in the U.S. 8 ½" x 11"?". Archived from the original on February 20, 2012. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
Jump up ^ Blocksma, Mary. Reading the Numbers. New York: Penguin Books, 1989.
Jump up ^ Fyffe, Charles (1969). Basic Copyfitting. London: Studio Vista. p. 74. ISBN 0-289-79705-5.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Letter_(paper_size)&oldid=839561128"
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