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List of musical instruments
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Contents
1 Percussion instruments
1.1 Membranophones
2 Wind instruments (aerophones)
3 Stringed instruments (chordophones)
4 Electronic instruments (electrophones)
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Percussion instruments[edit]
See also: List of percussion instruments
Main article: List of idiophones by Hornbostel–Sachs number
Instrument
Photo
Classification
H-S Number
Origin
Common classification
Relation
Agung a Tamlang
idiophones 111.24 Philippines unpitched percussion slit drum
Bamboo slit drum
idiophones Africa,[1] Asia[2] unpitched percussion slit drum
Balafon
idiophones 111.212 Africa pitched percussion keyboard
Cajón
idiophones 111.2 Peru unpitched percussion box drum
Castanets
idiophones 111.141 Spain unpitched percussion
Clapsticks/Clave sticks
idiophones 111.11 Australia unpitched percussion clave sticks
Cymbal idiophones Romania
Glockenspiel
idiophones 111.212 France/Germany percussion keyboard
Handpan
idiophones 111.24 pitched percussion steelpan
Marimba
idiophones 111.212 Guatemala, Africa, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, & Costa Rica pitched percussion keyboard
Mbira
idiophones 111.212 Africa pitched percussion keyboard
Steelpan
idiophones 111.24 Trinidad & Tobago pitched percussion steelpan
Triangle
idiophones 111.2 unpitched percussion triangle
Vibraphone
idiophones 111.222 pitched percussion keyboard
Wood block
idiophones 111.2 unpitched percussion drum
Xylophone
idiophones 111.212 Cameroon pitched percussion keyboard
Membranophones[edit]
Main article: List of membranophones by Hornbostel–Sachs number
Instrument
Classification
H-S Number
Origin
Common classification
Relation
Agida membranophones 201.212 Suriname percussion bass drum
Alcahuete membranophones 211.211.2 Dominican Republic percussion drum
Apinti membranophones 211.212 Suriname percussion tenor drum
Arobapá membranophones 211.21 Cuba percussion drum
Ashiko membranophones 211.251.1 Nigeria percussion djembe
Assotor membranophones 211.211.2 Haiti percussion drum
Baboula membranophones 211.221.1 Grenada percussion barrel drum
Balaban membranophones 211.311 Montserrat percussion frame drum
Balsié membranophones 2 Dominican Republic percussion drum
Bamboula membranophones 211.211.2 Virgin Islands percussion drum
Bari membranophones 211.22 Bonaire and Curaçao percussion barrel drum
Barrel drum membranophones 211.222 Cuba percussion barrel drum
Barriles
buleador
primo
repicador
subidor
membranophones 211.221.2 Puerto Rico percussion barrel drum
Bass drum membranophones 211.212 Turkey percussion bass drum
Bodhrán membranophones 211.321 Ireland percussion frame drum
Bongo drums membranophones 211.251.1 Afro-Cuban percussion drum
Boobam membranophones 211.211.1 US percussion tom-tom
Candombe
chico
repique
piano
membranophones 211.221.1 Uruguay percussion conga
Chenda (Chande)
Uruttu chenda
Veekku chenda
Acchan chenda
membranophones 211.212 India percussion drum
Conga (Tumbadura)
ricardo (smallest)
requinto
quinto
conga
tumba
supertumba (largest)
membranophones 211.221.1 Caribbean percussion drum
Cuíca membranophones 231.11 Brazil percussion friction drum
Dabakan membranophones 211.261.2 Philippines percussion goblet drum
Daf (Dap, Def) membranophones 211.311 Iran percussion frame drum
Davul (Dahol, Daul, Daouli, Dhaulli)
Dohol
Tapan, Topan, Tupan
Tabl
Toba, Towla
Tof
membranophones 211.212 Turkey percussion bass drum
Dhaa membranophones 211.212 Nepal percussion drum
Dhimay (Dhimaya) membranophones 211.212 Nepal percussion drum
Dhol membranophones 211.212 India percussion bass drum
Dholak (Dholaki) membranophones 211.222 India percussion barrel drum
Dimdi membranophones 211.311 India percussion frame drum
Djembe membranophones 211.261.1 West Africa percussion goblet drum
Dollu membranophones 211.311 India percussion frame drum
Dunun (Dundun) membranophones 211.212.1 West Africa percussion drum
Drum kit idiophones and membranophones 1/2 United States of America percussion drum
Gran Cassa membranophones 211.212 Italy percussion bass drum
Goblet drum membranophones 211.26 Ancient percussion drum
Hira-daiko membranophones 1 Japan percussion drum
Idakka membranophones 211.242.1 Southern India percussion Talking drum
Ilimba drum membranophones 211.11 Zimbabwe percussion gourd drum
Ingoma
Ishakwe
Inyahura
Igihumurizo
membranophones 211.212 Rwanda percussion drum
Janggu (Janggo, changgo) membranophones 211.242 Korea percussion drum
Kakko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Kanjira membranophones 211.311 India percussion frame drum
Kendang membranophones 211.222 Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines percussion drum
Khol (Mrdanga) membranophones 211.232 India percussion drum
Lambeg drum membranophones 211.212 Ireland percussion bass drum
Madhalam membranophones 211.212 India percussion mridangam
Madal membranophones 211.212 Nepal percussion drum
Maddale membranophones 211.212 India percussion mridangam
Maktoum (maktoom, katem) membranophones 2 Afro-Arab percussion drum
Mridangam membranophones 211.212 India percussion drum
Naqara membranophones 2 Middle East percussion drum
Naqareh membranophones 2 Middle East percussion drum
O-daiko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Okedo-daiko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Octaban membranophones 211.211.1 US percussion boobam
Pakhavaj membranophones 211.212 India percussion mridangam
Pandero membranophones 211.3 Domenican percussion frame drum
Piccolo snare membranophones 2 percussion Snare drum
Sabar membranophones 2 Senegal percussion drum
Samphor membranophones 2 Cambodia percussion barrel drum
Shime-jishi daiko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Snare membranophones 211.212.11 Turkey percussion drum
Surdo membranophones 2 Brazil percussion bass drum
Tabla membranophones 211.12 India percussion drum
Taiko membranophones 211.12 Japan percussion drum
Talking drum membranophones 211.241.2 West Africa, India percussion drum
Tsukeshime-daiko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Tsuzumi membranophones 1/2 Japan percussion drum
Tambor huacana idiophones or membranophones 1/2 Mexico percussion drum
Tamboril membranophones 1/2 Uruguay percussion drum
Tamborita (Mexico) membranophones 1/2 Mexico percussion drum
Tambou bas a dé fas membranophones 211.212.2 Guadeloupe percussion bass drum
Tambou bas a yon fas membranophones 211.221-7 Guadeloupe percussion bass drum
Tan-tan membranophones 2 Brazil percussion drum
Taphon membranophones 2 Thailand percussion drum
Thavil membranophones 2 India percussion drum
Timpani (kettledrum) membranophones 211.11-922 percussion drum
Tom-tom membranophones 211.212.1 percussion drum
Tombak membranophones 2 Iran percussion drum
Repique membranophones 2 Brazil percussion drum
Uchiwa-daiko membranophones 2 Japan percussion drum
Other:
Celesta
Crystallophone
Glasschord
Glass harmonica
Hydraulophone
Plasmaphone
Pyrophone
Quintephone
Asadullah (Meerut, India)
Sea organ
Shishi odoshi (Japan)
Suikinkutsu (Japanese water zither)
Wobble board (Australia)
Wind instruments (aerophones)[edit]
Main article: List of aerophones by Hornbostel–Sachs number
See also: List of woodwind instruments and Brass instrument
Instrument
Classification
H-S Number
Origin
Common classification
Relation
Accordina (instrument) aerophones 412.132 Italy free reed instruments clarinet
Accordion
Button accordion
Cajun accordion
Chromatic button accordion
Diatonic button accordion
Free bass accordion
Piano accordion
Schrammel accordion
Steirische Harmonika
aerophones 412.132 Europe free reed instruments accordion
Accordola aerophones 412.132 United States of America free reed instruments mouth organ
Air horn aerophones 423 Plosive? Trumpet
Alboka aerophones 422.2 Basque Country reed instruments clarinet
Alphorn aerophones 423.121.21 Europe woodwinds natural trumpet
Alto horn aerophones 423.232 Belgium brass instruments trumpet
Arghul aerophones 422.2 Egypt reed instruments clarinet
Atenteben aerophones 422.2 Ghana woodwinds flute
Bagpipe aerophones 422 Europe reed instruments bagpipe
Balaban aerophones 422.111.2 Azerbaijan, Iran reed instruments oboe, duduk
Bandoneón aerophones 412.132 Latin America free reed instruments accordion
Bansuri aerophones 421.121.12 India woodwinds flute
Baritone horn aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Baritone voice aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Bassoon
Contrabassoon/double bassoon
Tenoroon
aerophones 422.112.2–71 Western Europe reed instruments oboe
Bawu aerophones 412.131 China free reed instruments pitch pipe
Bayan aerophones 412.132 Russia free reed instruments accordion
Bazooka aerophones 423.121.11 brass instruments trumpet
Beatboxing aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Bifora aerophones 422.11 Italy (Sicily) reed instruments oboe
Birbynė aerophones 422.112.2 Lithuania reed instruments oboe
Blul aerophones 421.111.12 Greece woodwinds end-blown flute, kaval
Bombarde
Chromatic bombarde
aerophones 422.112.2 France reed instruments oboe
Buccina aerophones 423.121.21 Italy (Ancient Rome) brass instruments trumpet
Bugle aerophones 423.121.22 Europe brass instruments trumpet
Bullroarer aerophones 41 Ancient civilizations noise makers sirens
Calliope aerophones 421.222.3 Western Europe/North America fipple flutes organ
Castrato aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Chalumeau aerophones 422.2 France reed instruments clarinet
Cimbasso aerophones 423.232 Italy brass instruments trombone
Clarinets
Alto clarinet
Bass clarinet
Basset clarinet
Basset horn
Clarinette d'amour
Contra-alto clarinet
Contrabass clarinet
Piccolo clarinet
A♭ clarinet
Sopranino clarinet
E♭ clarinet
D clarinet
Soprano clarinet
C clarinet
B♭ clarinet
A clarinet
G clarinet
Octocontra-alto clarinet
Octocontrabass clarinet
aerophones 422.2 Germany reed instruments clarinet
Clarytone aerophones 421.221 South Africa fipple flutes tin whistle
Concertina
Chemnitzer concertina
aerophones 412.132 Europe free reed instruments accordion
Conch aerophones 423.111 trumpets conch
Cornamuse aerophones 422.111.2 Europe reed instruments oboe
Cornet
Soprano cornet
aerophones 423.232 France brass instruments trumpet
Cornett aerophones 423.2 Northern Europe natural trumpets trumpet
Cornu aerophones 423.121.21 Italy (Ancient Rome) brass instruments trumpet
Corrugaphone aerophones 411 noise makers whip
Countertenor aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Cromorne aerophones 422.11 France reed instruments oboe
Crumhorn aerophones 422.111.2 Western Europe reed instruments oboe
Danso aerophones 421.111.12 Korea woodwinds end-blown flute
Death growl aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Didgeridoo aerophones 423.1 Australia natural trumpets trumpet
Diple (or dvojnice) aerophones 422.21/22 Croatia reed instruments bagpipe
Dizi aerophones 421.121.12 China woodwinds flute
Double bell euphonium aerophones 423.232 United States of America brass instruments trumpet
Doulophone/cuprophone aerophones 423.121.22 US brass instruments trumpet
Duduk aerophones 422.111.2 Armenia reed instruments oboe
Dulcian aerophones 422.112.2 Western Europe reed instruments bassoon
Dulzaina aerophones 422.112.2 Spain reed instruments oboe
Dung-Dkar aerophones 423.111 Tibet trumpets conch
Dzhamara aerophones 421.111.12 Greece woodwinds end-blown flute, kaval
English horn aerophones 422.112.-71 Western Europe reed instruments oboe
Euphonium aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Falsetto aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Fife aerophones 421.121.12 Western Europe woodwinds flute
Firebird (trumpet) aerophones 423.21/22 Canada brass instruments trumpet, slide trumpet
Fiscorn aerophones 423.231 Spain brass instruments trumpet
Flabiol aerophones 421.221.12 Spain fipple flutes recorder
Flageolet aerophones 421.221.12 France fipple flutes recorder
Flatt trumpet aerophones 423.21/22 England brass instruments trumpet, slide trumpet
Flugelhorn aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Flumpet aerophones 423.233 US brass instruments trumpet
Flutina aerophones 412.132 Europe free reed instruments accordion
Flute aerophones France woodwinds flute
Folgerphone aerophones 422.2 United States of America reed instruments clarinet
French horn aerophones 423.232 Europe brass instruments trumpet
Fujara aerophones 421.221.12 Slovakia fipple flutes recorder
Gaida aerophones 422 Balkans, Southeast Europe reed instruments bagpipe
Garmon aerophones 412.132 Russia free reed instruments accordion
Gemshorn aerophones 421.221.42 Germany fipple flutes ocarina
Gralla aerophones 422.112 Spain reed instruments oboe, shawm,
Guan
Guanzi
Houguan
aerophones 422.111.2 China reed instruments oboe
Hano aerophones 421.111.12 Hawaii woodwinds nose flute
Harmoneon aerophones 421.132 Hawaii free reed instruments accordion
Harmonica
Chromatic harmonica
Diatonic harmonica
Tremolo harmonica
Orchestral harmonica
ChenGong harmonica
aerophones 412.132 Germany free reed instruments harmonica
Harmonium aerophones 412.132 Denmark free reed instruments reed organ
Heckelphone
Piccolo heckelphone
Terz heckelphone
aerophones 422.112.2 Germany reed instruments oboe, English horn
Helicon aerophones 423.232 Europe brass instruments trumpet
Horagai aerophones 423.111.2 Japan trumpets conch
Hosaphone aerophones 423.1 natural trumpets tube trumpet
Hotchiku aerophones 421.111.12 Japan woodwinds end-blown flute
Hulusi aerophones 412.132 China free reed instruments harmonica
Hun aerophones 421.221.42 Korea fipple flutes ocarina
Inci aerophones 421.221.12 Philippines fipple flutes tumpong
Irish flute aerophones 421.121.12 Ireland woodwinds flute
Jug aerophones 423.111.1 North America trumpets conch
Kagurabue aerophones 421.121.12 Japan woodwinds flute
Kalaleng aerophones 421.111.12 Philippines woodwinds nose flute
Kaval aerophones 421.111.12 Turkey woodwinds end-blown flute
Kazoo aerophones – US Woodwind Whistle
Kèn bầu aerophones 422.112.2 Vietnam reed instruments oboe, suona
Key bugle aerophones 423.21 brass instruments trumpet
Khene aerophones 412.132 Laos free reed instruments harmonica
Khloy aerophones 421.221.12 Cambodia fipple flutes recorder
Khlui aerophones 421.221.12 Thailand fipple flutes recorder
Komabue aerophones 421.121.12 Japan woodwinds flute
Koncovka aerophones 421.221.12 Slovakia fipple flutes recorder
Kortholt aerophones 421. Europe capped reed crumhorn
Koudi aerophones 421.121.12 China woodwinds flute
Kuhlohorn aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Launeddas aerophones 422.2 Sardinia reed instruments clarinet
Livenka aerophones 412.132 Russia free reed instruments accordion
Lusheng aerophones 412.132 China free reed instruments harmonica
Mangtong aerophones 412.131 China free reed instruments pitch pipe
Lituus aerophones 423.1 Europe natural trumpets trumpet
Mellophone aerophones 423.232 Europe brass instruments trumpet
Melodica aerophones 412.132 Italy free reed instruments reed organ
Melodeon aerophones 412.132 US free reed instruments reed organ
Mezzo-soprano aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Mijwiz aerophones 422.2 Levant reed instruments clarinet
Mizmar aerophones 422.112.2 Arabia reed instruments oboe
Musette de cour aerophones 422 France reed instruments bagpipe
Nadaswaram aerophones 422.112.2 South India reed instruments oboe, shehnai
Nagak aerophones 423.111 Korea trumpets conch
Ncas aerophones 423.111 Hmong people (China) lip lute conch
Ney aerophones 421.111.12 Iran woodwinds end-blown flute
Nguru aerophones 421.111.12 New Zealand woodwinds nose flute
Nohkan aerophones 421.121.12 Iran woodwinds flute
Nose flute aerophones 421.111.12 Polynesia, Africa, East Asia woodwinds nose flute
Nplooj aerophones 421.111.12 Hmong people (China) woodwinds leaf
Nulophone aerophones 421.111.12 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan) woodwinds flute
Oboes:
Bass/Baritone oboe
Contrabass oboe
Cor anglais/English horn
Oboe d'amore
Oboe da caccia
Piccolo oboe/Oboe musette
aerophones 422.112-71 Western Europe reed instruments oboe
Ocarina
Transverse ocarina
Pendant ocarina
Inline ocarina
Multi chambered ocarina
Keyed ocarina
Slide ocarina
aerophones 421.221.42 Italy fipple flutes ocarina
Octavin aerophones 422.2 Germany reed instruments clarinet
Ophicleide aerophones 423.21 France brass instruments trumpet
Paixiao aerophones 421.112 China woodwinds pan flute
Palendag aerophones 421.111.12 Philippines woodwinds end-blown flute
Pan flute aerophones 421.112 South America woodwinds pan flute
Pasiyak or water whistle aerophones 4 Philippines fipple flutes recorder
Pavari aerophones 421.121.12 India woodwinds flute
Pibgorn aerophones 422.2 Wales reed instruments clarinet
Picco pipe aerophones 421.221.12 Western Europe fipple flutes recorder
Piccolo aerophones 421.121.12 Western Europe woodwinds flute
Piccolo trumpet aerophones 423.232 Western Europe brass instruments trumpet
Pipe organ (diaphone pipes) aerophones 412.132 free reed instruments reed organ/recorder
Pipe organ (flue pipes) aerophones 421.221.11 fipple flutes recorder
Pipe organ (free reed pipes) aerophones 412.132 free reed instruments reed organ
Pipe organ (reed pipes) aerophones 422.112 reed instruments organ
Pitch pipe aerophones 412.131 free reed instruments pitch pipe
Pocket cornet aerophones 423.232 brass instruments trumpet
Pocket trumpet aerophones 423.232 United States of America brass instruments trumpet
Post horn aerophones 423.121.22 Western Europe brass instruments trumpet
Pu aerophones 423.111 Polynesia trumpets conch
Pulalu aerophones 421.111.12 Philippines woodwinds end-blown flute, palendag
Qeej aerophones 421.111.12 Hmong people (China) woodwinds end-blown flute
Quena aerophones 421.111.12 South America woodwinds end-blown flute
Quinticlave aerophones 423.21 brass instruments trumpet, ophicleide
Raj aerophones 412.132 Hmong people (China) free reed instruments harmonica
Rackett aerophones 422.111.2 Western Europe reed instruments oboe
Ralé-poussé aerophones Réunion free reed instruments accordion
Rapping aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Rauschpfeife aerophones 422.112.2 Europe reed instruments oboe
Recorder
Garklein
Sopranino
Descant
Treble or alto
Tenor
Bass
Great bass
Contra bass
Subcontra bass
Sub-subcontrabass
aerophones 421.221.12 Germany fipple flutes recorder
Reed contrabass aerophones 422.112.2 Belgium reed instruments oboe
Reed organ aerophones 412.132 free reed instruments reed organ
Rhaita aerophones 422.112.2 Northern Africa reed instruments oboe
Robero aerophones 422.2 Spain reed instruments clarinet
Roman tuba aerophones 423.121.11 Etruscan brass instruments trumpet
Ryuteki aerophones 421.121.12 Japan woodwinds flute
Saenghwang aerophones 412.132 Korea free reed instruments harmonica
Sackbut
Alto sackbut
Tenor sackbut
Bass sackbut
Double bass sackbut
aerophones 423.22 France brass instruments trombone
Samponia aerophones 421.112 Peru woodwinds pan flute
Saratovskaya garmonika aerophones 412.132 Russia free reed instruments accordion
Sarrusophones
Alto sarrusophone
Baritone sarrusophone
Bass sarrusophone
Contrabass sarrusophone
Sopranino sarrusophone
Soprano sarrusophone
Tenor sarrusophone
aerophones 422.112.2 France reed instruments oboe
Saxophones
Alto saxophone
Baritone saxophone
Bass saxophone
C melody saxophone
C Soprano saxophone
Contrabass saxophone
Mezzo-soprano saxophone (Alto in F)
Sopranino saxophone
Soprano saxophone
Soprillo
Subcontrabass saxophone
Tenor saxophone
Tubax
Xaphoon
aerophones 422.2 Belgium reed instruments clarinet
Saxhorn aerophones 423.231 Belgium brass instruments trumpet
Saxotromba aerophones 423.231 Belgium brass instruments trumpet
Saxtuba aerophones 423.231 Belgium brass instruments trumpet
Scat singing aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Schwyzerörgeli aerophones 412.132 Switzerland free reed instruments accordion
Serpent aerophones 423.21 France brass instruments trumpet, cornett
Shakuhachi aerophones 421.111.12 Japan woodwinds end-blown flute
Shankha aerophones 423.111 India trumpets conch
Shawm aerophones 422.112.2 Europe reed instruments oboe
Shehnai aerophones 422.112.2 North India reed instruments oboe
Sheng aerophones 412.132 China free reed instruments harmonica
Shinobue aerophones 421.121.12 Japan woodwinds flute
Shofar aerophones 423.121.21 Levant natural trumpets trumpet
Shō aerophones 412.132 Japan free reed instruments harmonica
Shvi aerophones 421.221.12 Armenia fipple flutes recorder
Siku aerophones 421.112 Bolivia woodwinds pan flute
Siren aerophones 41 Scotland noise makers siren
Slide trumpet
Medieval slide trumpet
Renaissance slide trumpet
Baroque slide trumpet
aerophones 423.21/22 Europe brass instruments trumpet
Slide whistle
Jazz flute
Swanee whistle
aerophones 421.121.312 England fipple flutes whistle
Sodina aerophones 421.111.12 Madagascar woodwinds end-blown flute
Sopila aerophones 422.112.2 Croatia reed instruments oboe
Soprano aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Sorna aerophones 422.112.2 Iran reed instruments oboe
Sousaphone aerophones 423.232 US brass instruments trumpet, tuba
Sralai aerophones 422.112.2 Cambodia reed instruments oboe
Sudrophone aerophones 423.21 France brass instruments trumpet, ophicleide
Suling aerophones 421.111.12 Indonesia/Philippines woodwinds end-blown flute
Suona
Laba
Haidi
aerophones 422.112.2 China reed instruments oboe
Superbone aerophones 423.22 Canada brass instruments trombone
Swordblade aerophones 411 noise makers whip
Tabor pipe aerophones 421.221.12 Western Europe fipple flutes recorder
Taepyeongso aerophones 422.112.2 Korea reed instruments oboe, suona,
Tarogato aerophones 422.112-71 Central Europe reed instruments oboe, suona,
Tenor aerophones 43 vocal registers human voice
Tenora aerophones 422.112 Spain reed instruments oboe, shawm,
Throat singing aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Tible aerophones 422.112 Spain reed instruments oboe, shawm,
Tin whistle aerophones 421.221.12 Celtic fipple flutes recorder
Toasting aerophones 43 vocal technique human voice
Tonette aerophones 421.111.12 North America woodwinds end-blown flute
Trikiti aerophones 412.132 Spain free reed instruments accordion
Trombones
Sopranino trombone
Soprano trombone
Alto trombone
Tenor trombone
Bass trombone
Contrabass trombone
Valve trombone
aerophones 423.22 Western Europe brass instruments trombone
Tromboon aerophones 422.112.2 US reed instruments bassoon, trombone
Trompeta china aerophones 422.112.2 Cuba reed instruments oboe, suona,
Trumpets
Soprano trumpet
Bass trumpet
Baroque trumpet
Bass trumpet
Rotary valve trumpet
aerophones 423.232 brass instruments trumpet
Tuba
Bass tuba
Contrabass tuba
Subcontrabass tuba
aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Tube trumpet aerophones 423.1 natural trumpets trumpet
Tumpong aerophones 421.111.12 Philippines woodwinds end-blown flute
Tungso aerophones 421.111.12 Korea woodwinds end-blown flute
Tutek aerophones 4 Azerbaijan woodwinds flute
Txistu aerophones 421.221.12 Spain fipple flutes recorder
Uilleann pipes aerophones 422 Ireland reed instruments bagpipe
Venu aerophones 421.121.12 South India woodwinds flute
Vibrandoneon (instrument) aerophones 412.132 Italy free reed instruments clarinets
Vienna horn aerophones 423.232 Austria brass instruments trumpet, French horn
Vocal percussion aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Vuvuzela aerophones 423.1 South-Africa natural trumpets trumpet
Wagner tuba aerophones 423.232 Germany brass instruments trumpet
Washint aerophones 421.111.12 Ethiopia woodwinds end-blown flute
Western concert flutes
Flute
Alto flute
Bass flute
Contra-alto flute
Contrabass flute
Subcontrabass flute
Double contrabass flute
Hyperbass flute
aerophones 421.121.12 Western Europe woodwinds flute
Whip aerophones 411 noise makers whip
Whistle
Pea whistle
Steam whistle
Train whistle
aerophones 421.221.11 fipple flutes whistle
Willow flute aerophones 421.221.11 Scandinavia fipple flutes recorder
Xiao aerophones 421.111.12 China woodwinds end-blown flute
Xun aerophones 421.221.42 China fipple flutes ocarina
Yodel aerophones 43 vocal techniques human voice
Yotar aerophones 4 woodwinds flute
Yu aerophones 412.132 China free reed instruments harmonica
Zhaleika aerophones 422.2 Russia reed instruments clarinet
Zufolo aerophones 421.111.12 Italy fipple flutes recorder
Zugtrompette aerophones 423.21/22 Germany brass instruments trumpet, slide trumpet
Zurna (Turkey)
Surnay
aerophones 422.112.2 Turkey reed instruments oboe
Stringed instruments (chordophones)[edit]
Main article: List of chordophones by Hornbostel-Sachs number
Instrument
Classification
H-S Number
Origin
Common classification
Relation
Adungu chordophones 3 Uganda stringed instruments
Aeolian harp chordophones 3 Germany stringed instruments
Ajaeng chordophones 3 Korea stringed instruments
Appalachian dulcimer chordophones 3 United States stringed instruments
Archlute chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Arpeggione chordophones 3 Austria stringed instruments
Autoharp chordophones 3 US stringed instruments
Baglama chordophones 3 Turkey stringed instruments
Balalaika chordophones 3 Russia stringed instruments
Bandolón chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Bandura chordophones 3 Ukraine stringed instruments
Bandurria chordophones 3 Mexico, Spain stringed instruments
Banjo
Banjo Cello
Bass Banjo
Five-Stringed Banjo
Bluegrass banjo
Four-Stringed Banjo
Plectrum banjo
Six-Stringed Banjo
Tenor Banjo
Zither Banjo
chordophones 3 North America stringed instruments
Banjo mandolin chordophones 3 US stringed instruments
Banjo ukulele chordophones 3 US stringed instruments
Barbat chordophones 3 Iran stringed instruments
Baryton chordophones 3 England stringed instruments
Berimbau chordophones 3 Brazil stringed instruments
Biwa chordophones 3 Japan stringed instruments
Bordonua chordophones 3 Puerto Rico stringed instruments
Bouzouki chordophones 3 Greece stringed instruments
Carimba chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Cavaquinho chordophones 3 Portugal stringed instruments
Clavinet chordophones 3 USA stringed instruments
Chapman stick chordophones 3 US stringed instruments
Charangos
Charango
Charangón
Hualaycho (Walaycho)
Ronroco
Hatun charango
Chillador
Ayacucho
Bajo charango
Chango
Charango mediano
KhonKhota
Moquegua
Pampeno
Shreiker
Sonko
Vallegrandino
chordophones 3 Peru, Bolivia, Argentina stringed instruments
Cimbalom
Electric cymbalum
chordophones 3 Hungary stringed instruments
Cuatro chordophones 3 stringed instruments
Citole chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Cittern chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Clavichord chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Crwth (Crowd) chordophones 3 Wales stringed instruments
Cuatro chordophones 3 Latin America stringed instruments
Cümbüş chordophones 3 Turkey stringed instruments
Dahu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Đàn bầu chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn dầy chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn gáo chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn nguyệt chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn tam thập lục chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn tranh chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Đàn tỳ bà chordophones 3 Vietnam stringed instruments
Diddley bow chordophones 3 US stringed instruments
Dihu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Dombra chordophones 3 Kazakhstan stringed instruments
Domra chordophones 3 Russia stringed instruments
Dotara chordophones 321.321-6 South Asia stringed instruments
Double-neck guitjo chordophones 3 stringed instruments
Double bass
five string double bass
chordophones 321.322-71 Western Europe stringed instruments
Dutar chordophones 3 Central Asia stringed instruments
Duxianqin chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Ektara chordophones 33-5 India, Pakistan stringed instruments
Erhu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Erxian chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Esraj chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Faglong/Fuglung chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Fegereng chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Fiddle chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Gaohu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Gayageum chordophones 3 Korea stringed instruments
Gehu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Geomungo chordophones 3 Korea stringed instruments
Gittern chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Gopuz chordophones 3 Azerbaijan stringed instruments
Gottuvadhyam chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Guitars:
Acoustic guitar
Baritone guitar
Bass guitar
Chitarra battente
Cigar box guitar
Classical guitar
Electric guitar
Electric Bass Guitar
Extended Range Guitars
Alto Guitar
Seven-string Guitar
Eight-string Guitar
Ten-string Guitar
Harp Guitar
Flamenco guitar
Fusetar
Guitarra quinta huapanguera
Guitar synthesizer
Guitarrón (argentino)
Guitarrón (chileno)
Guitarrón (mexicano)
Guitarrón (uruguayo)
Gut-stringed Guitars
Lap Steel Guitars
Dobro
National Steel
Multi-necked Guitars
Double-neck Guitar
Triple-neck Guitar
Quadruple-neck Guitar
Five-neck Guitar
Six-neck Guitar
Seven-neck guitar
Eight-neck Guitar
Rock Ock
Twelve-neck Guitar
Nine-string Guitar
Nylon-stringed Guitars
Octave Guitar
Resophonic Guitar
Steel-Stringed Guitar
Tenor Guitar
Terz Guitar
Twelve-string Guitars
Yotar
chordophones 3 Spain, et al stringed instruments
Gusli chordophones 3 Russia stringed instruments
Guqin chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Guzheng chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Haegeum chordophones 3 Korea stringed instruments
Hammered Dulcimer chordophones 3 Worldwide stringed instruments
Hardanger fiddle chordophones 3 Norway stringed instruments
Harmonico chordophones 3 stringed instruments
Harp chordophones 3 Worldwide stringed instruments
Harpsichord chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Hegelong chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Huluhu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Huqin chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Hurdy-gurdy chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Igil chordophones 3 Russia stringed instruments
Irish bouzouki chordophones 3 Ireland, Greece stringed instruments
Janzi chordophones 3 Uganda stringed instruments
Jarana de son jarocho chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Jarana huasteca chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Jarana mosquito chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Jarana segunda chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Jarana tercera chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Jiaohu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Kabosy chordophones 3 Madagascar stringed instruments
Kadlong chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Kamancha chordophones 3 Persia stringed instruments
Kantele chordophones 3 Finland stringed instruments
Kemenche chordophones 3 Turkey stringed instruments
Khim chordophones 3 Thailand/Cambodia stringed instruments
Kobza chordophones 3 Ukraine stringed instruments
Kokles chordophones 3 Latvia stringed instruments
Kokyū chordophones 3 Japan stringed instruments
Komungo chordophones 3 Korea stringed instruments
Kora chordophones 3 West Africa stringed instruments
Koto chordophones 3 Japan stringed instruments
Kubing chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Kudyapi chordophones 3 Philippines stringed instruments
Langeleik chordophones 3 Norway stringed instruments
Laruan chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Leiqin chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Lirone chordophones 3 Italy stringed instruments
Lokanga chordophones 3 Madagascar stringed instruments
Lute chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Lyra (Cretan) chordophones 3 Greece stringed instruments
Lyra (Byzantine) chordophones 3 Byzantine Empire stringed instruments
Lyre chordophones 3 Greece stringed instruments
Maguhu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Mandole chordophones 321.322 Algeria stringed instruments
Mandolin
Mando-bass
Mandocello
Mandola
Octave mandolin (Octave mandola)
chordophones 321.321-6 or 321.322-6 Italy stringed instruments
Mandora chordophones 321.321 Central Europe stringed instruments
Mandore chordophones 321.321 Western Europe stringed instruments
Marovany chordophones 3 Madagascar stringed instruments
Mohan veena chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Morin khuur chordophones 3 Mongolia stringed instruments
Musical bow chordophones 3 South Africa stringed instruments
Nyckelharpa chordophones 3 Sweden stringed instruments
Octobass chordophones 3 France stringed instruments
Oud chordophones 3 Middle East stringed instruments
Piano (pianoforte)
Fortepiano
Pedal piano
chordophones 3 Italy stringed instruments
Pipa chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Piwancha chordophones 3 Nepal stringed instruments
Portuguese guitar chordophones 3 Portugal stringed instruments
Psaltery chordophones 3 Greece stringed instruments
Ravanahatha chordophones 4 Sri Lanka, India stringed instruments
Rebab chordophones 3 Afghanistan stringed instruments
Rebec chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Requinto jarocho chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Ruan
Gaoyinruan
Xiaoruan
Zhongruan
Daruan
Diyinruan
chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Rudra vina chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Sallameh chordophones 3 Iran stringed instruments
Sanshin chordophones 3 Okinawa stringed instruments
Santoor chordophones 3 Iran stringed instruments
Sanxian chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Sarangi chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Sarod chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Saung chordophones 3 Burma stringed instruments
Saw sam sai chordophones 3 Thailand stringed instruments
Saz chordophones 3 Turkey stringed instruments
Se chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Shamisen chordophones 3 Japan stringed instruments
Setar (lute) chordophones 3 Persia stringed instruments
Sitar chordophones 3 Persia, India, Pakistan and other countries stringed instruments
Sitarla chordophones 3 Japan stringed instruments
Stroh violin chordophones 3 England stringed-wind instruments
Sopranino mandolin chordophones 3 Italy stringed instruments
Tamburitza chordophones 3 Croatia/Serbia stringed instruments
Tanpura chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Tar (lute) chordophones 3 Iran stringed instruments
Tea chest bass chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Tembûr chordophones 3 curdo-persiano stringed instruments
Theorbo chordophones 3 Europe stringed instruments
Timple chordophones 3 Canary Islands stringed instruments
Tres
Tres Cubano
Tres Puerto Rico
chordophones 3 Cuba stringed instruments
Tro chordophones 3 Cambodia stringed instruments
Trumpet marine/tromba marina chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Tsymbaly chordophones 3 Ukraine, Belarus stringed instruments
Tuhu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Ukulele
Pocket ukulele
Soprano ukulele
Concert ukulele
Tenor ukulele
Eight string tenor
Five string tenor
Lili'u
Six string tenor
Baritone ukulele
Bass ukulele
Contrabass ukulele
U-bass
Cigar box ukulele
chordophones 3 Portugal/Hawaii stringed instruments
Valiha chordophones 3 Madagascar stringed instruments
Veena chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Vertical viola (and other members of the violin octet family) chordophones 3 stringed instruments
Vichitra vina chordophones 3 India stringed instruments
Vielle chordophones 3 Western Europe stringed instruments
Vihuela chordophones 3 Spain stringed instruments
Vihuela chordophones 3 Mexico stringed instruments
Viol
Pardessus de viole
Treble viol (dessus)
Alto viol
Tenor viol (taille)
Bass viol
Great bass violone
Contrabass violone
chordophones 321.322-71 Spain stringed instruments
Viola da gamba
(see Viol)
Viola de Arame chordophones 3 Portugal stringed instruments
Viola organista chordophones 3 Italy (Da Vinci) stringed instruments
Viola da Terra chordophones 3 Portugal stringed instruments
Viola da Terceira chordophones 3 Portugal stringed instruments
Violin
Piccolo violino
Viola
Viola d'amore
Tenor viola
Tenor violin
Baritone violin
Cello (violoncello)
Piccolo cello
chordophones 321.322-71 Italy and Western Europe stringed instruments
Violotta chordophones 3 Germany stringed instruments
Washtub bass chordophones 3 USA stringed instruments
Whamola chordophones 3 USA stringed instruments
Wheelharp chordophones 3 USA stringed instruments
Xalam/Khalam chordophones 3 West Africa stringed instruments
Xenorphica chordophones 3 Austria stringed instruments
Yaylı tanbur chordophones 3 Turkey stringed instruments
Yazheng chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Yangqin chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Zhonghu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Zhuihu chordophones 3 China stringed instruments
Zither
Alpine Zither (Harp Zither)
Concert Zither
Guitar Zither
Overtone zither
chordophones 314.122-4 Western Europe stringed instruments
Electronic instruments (electrophones)[edit]
AlphaSphere
Audiocubes
Continuum Fingerboard
Croix Sonore
Denis d'or
Dubreq stylophone
Drum machine
Eigenharp
Electronic organ
EWI
Fingerboard synthesizer
Hammond organ
Jammer keyboard
Keyboard
Keytar
Kraakdoos (or cracklebox)
Laser harp
Mellotron
MIDI keyboard
Omnichord
Ondes Martenot
Otamatone
Sampler
Seaboard music instrument
Skoog
Synclavier
Synthesizer
Teleharmonium
Tembûr
Tenori-on
Theremin
Turntable
See also[edit]
List of archaic musical instruments
List of fictional musical instruments
List of folk music traditions
List of musical instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Meki Nzewi (2007). A Contemporary Study of Musical Arts: Informed by African Indigenous Knowledge Systems, Volume 1. African Minds. pp. 107–108. ISBN 1920051627.
Jump up ^ Terry Miller; Sean Williams (2011). The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music. Routledge.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Musical instruments.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_musical_instruments&oldid=856159805"
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Agung a Tamlang

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Shishi odoshi

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Free bass accordion

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Bugle (instrument)

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Bullroarer (music)

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Contra-alto clarinet

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Piccolo clarinet

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A♭ clarinet

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Sopranino clarinet

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E♭ clarinet

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B♭ clarinet

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Subcontrabass clarinet

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Dizi (musical instrument)

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English horn

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Fife (musical instrument)

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Helicon (musical instrument)

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Jug (musical instrument)

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Melodeon (organ)

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C Soprano saxophone

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Siku (panpipe)

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Siren (noisemaker)

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Bass trombone

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Whip (percussion)

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Banjo mandolin

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Chapman stick

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Electric Bass Guitar

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Harp Guitar

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Guitarra quinta huapanguera

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Lap Steel Guitar

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Twelve-string Guitar

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Janzi (Musical Instrument)

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Jarana de son jarocho

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Koto (musical instrument)

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Lyra (Cretan)

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Santoor (Persian instrument)

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Setar (lute)

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Tea chest bass

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Tres (musical instrument)

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Trumpet marine

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Vichitra vina

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Viola da gamba

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Piccolo violino

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Tenor viola

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Yaylı tanbur

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Electronic organ

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Fingerboard synthesizer

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Music of Micronesia

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Music of Comoros

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Music of Maldives

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Atwater system
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The Atwater system,[1] named after Wilbur Olin Atwater, or derivatives of this system are used for the calculation of the available energy of foods. The system was developed largely from the experimental studies of Atwater and his colleagues in the later part of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. Its use has frequently been the cause of dispute, but no real alternatives have been proposed. As with the calculation of protein from total nitrogen, the Atwater system is a convention and its limitations can be seen in its derivation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Derivation
1.1 Gross energy values
1.2 Apparent digestibility coefficients
1.3 Urinary correction
2 Modified system
3 Assumptions based on the use of carbohydrates by difference and the effects of dietary fibre
4 Theoretical and practical considerations relating to the calculation of energy values
4.1 Variations in heats of combustion of food constituents
4.1.1 Proteins
4.1.2 Fats
4.1.3 Carbohydrates
4.2 Apparent digestibility coefficients
4.3 Practical considerations in calculations of energy value of foods and diets
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Derivation[edit]
Available energy (as used by Atwater) is equivalent to the modern usage of the term metabolisable energy (ME).
Metabolisable Energy = ( Gross Energy in Food ) − ( Energy lost in Faeces, Urine, Secretions and Gases ) . {\displaystyle {\text{Metabolisable Energy}}=\left({\text{Gross Energy in Food}}\right)-\left({\text{Energy lost in Faeces, Urine, Secretions and Gases}}\right).}
In most studies on humans, losses in secretions and gases are ignored. The gross energy (GE) of a food, as measured by bomb calorimetry is equal to the sum of the heats of combustion of the components – protein (GEp), fat (GEf) and carbohydrate (GEcho) (by difference) in the proximate system.
G E = G E p + G E f + G E c h o {\displaystyle {GE}={{GE}_{p}+{GE}_{f}+{GE}_{cho}}\,}
Atwater considered the energy value of feces in the same way.
G E F = G E p F + G E f F + G E c h o F {\displaystyle {GE}^{F}={{GE}_{p}^{F}+{GE}_{f}^{F}+{GE}_{cho}^{F}}\,}
By measuring coefficients of availability or in modern terminology apparent digestibility, Atwater derived a system for calculating faecal energy losses.
Digestible energy = G E p ( D p ) + G E f ( D f ) + G E c h o ( D c h o ) {\displaystyle {\text{Digestible energy}}={{GE}_{p}(D_{p})}+{{GE}_{f}(D_{f})}+{{GE}_{cho}(D_{cho})}\,}
where Dp, Df, and Dcho are respectively the digestibility coefficients of protein, fat and carbohydrate calculated as
intake − faecal excretion intake {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{intake}}-{\text{faecal excretion}}}{\text{intake}}}}
for the constituent in question.
Urinary losses were calculated from the energy to nitrogen ratio in urine. Experimentally this was 7.9 kcal/g (33 kJ/g) urinary nitrogen and thus his equation for metabolisable energy became
M E = ( G E p − 7.9 6.25 ) D p + G E f D f + G E c h o D c h o {\displaystyle {ME}=\left({GE}_{p}-{\frac {7.9}{6.25}}\right)D_{p}+{GE}_{f}D_{f}+{GE}_{cho}D_{cho}\,}
Gross energy values[edit]
Atwater collected values from the literature and also measured the heat of combustion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. These vary slightly depending on sources and Atwater derived weighted values for the gross heat of combustion of the protein, fat and carbohydrate in the typical mixed diet of his time. It has been argued that these weighted values are invalid for individual foods and for diets whose composition in terms of foodstuffs is different from those eaten in the USA in the early 20th century.
Apparent digestibility coefficients[edit]
Atwater measured a large number of digestibility coefficients for simple mixtures, and in substitution experiments derived values for individual foods. These he combined in a weighted fashion to derive values for mixed diets. When these were tested experimentally with mixed diets they did not give a good prediction, and Atwater adjusted the coefficients for mixed diets.
Urinary correction[edit]
The energy/nitrogen ratio in urine shows considerable variation and the energy/organic matter is less variable, but the energy/nitrogen value provided Atwater with a workable approach although this has caused some confusion and only applies for subjects in nitrogen balance.
Modified system[edit]
Based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids.[2] The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA, who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed.[3] This takes cognizance of the fact that first the gross energy values of the protein, fats and carbohydrates from different food sources are different, and second, that the apparent digestibility of the components of different foods is different.
This system relies on having measured heats of combustion of a wide range of isolated proteins, fats and carbohydrates. It also depends on data from digestibility studies, where individual foods have been substituted for basal diets in order to measure the apparent digestibility coefficients for those foods. This approach is based on the assumption that there are no interactions between foods in a mixture in the intestine, and from a practical view point, such studies with humans are difficult to control with the required accuracy.
Assumptions based on the use of carbohydrates by difference and the effects of dietary fibre[edit]
The carbohydrate by difference approach presents several problems. First, it does not distinguish between sugars, starch and the unavailable carbohydrates (roughage, or "dietary fibre").
This affects first the gross energy that is assigned to carbohydrate—sucrose has a heat of combustion of 3.95 kcal/g (16.53 kJ/g) and starch 4.15 kcal/g (17.36 kJ/g).
Secondly it does not provide for the fact that sugars and starch are virtually completely digested and absorbed, and thus provide metabolisable energy equivalent to their heat of combustion.
The unavailable carbohydrates (dietary fibre) are degraded to a variable extent in the large bowel. The products of this microbial digestion are fatty acids, CO2 (carbon dioxide), methane and hydrogen. The fatty acids (acetate, butyrate and propionate) are absorbed in the large intestine and provide some metabolisable energy. The extent of degradation depends on the source of the dietary fibre (its composition and state of division), and the individual consuming the dietary fibre. There is insufficient data to give firm guidance on the energy available from this source.
Finally dietary fibre affects faecal losses of nitrogen and fat. Whether the increased fat loss is due to an effect on small intestinal absorption is not clear. The increased faecal nitrogen losses on high fibre diets are probably due to an increased bacterial nitrogen content of the faeces. Both these effects however lead to reductions in apparent digestibility, and therefore the Atwater system warrants small changes in the proper energy conversion factors for those diets.
Theoretical and practical considerations relating to the calculation of energy values[edit]
Variations in heats of combustion of food constituents[edit]
Proteins[edit]
The experimental evidence for the magnitude of this variation is very limited, but as the heats of combustion of the individual amino-acids are different it is reasonable to expect variations between different proteins. An observed range of from 5.48 for conglutin (from blue lupin) to 5.92 for Hordein (barley) was reported, which compares with Atwaters’ range of 5.27 for gelatin to 5.95 for wheat gluten. It is difficult to calculate expected values for a protein from amino-acid data, as some of the heats of combustion are not known accurately. Preliminary calculations on cow's milk suggest a value of around 5.5 kcal/g (23.0 kJ/g).
Fats[edit]
Analogously the experimental evidence is limited, but since the fatty acids differ in their heats of combustion one should expect fats to vary in heats of combustion. These differences are, however, relatively small – for example, breast milk fat has a calculated heat of combustion of 9.37 kcal/g (39.2 kJ/g) compared with that of cow milk fat of 9.19 kcal/g (38.5 kJ/g).
Carbohydrates[edit]
Monosaccharides have heats of combustion of around 3.75 kcal/g (15.7 kJ/g), disaccharides 3.95 kcal/g (16.5 kJ/g) and polysaccharides 4.15 to 4.20 kcal/g (17.4 to 17.6 kJ/g). The heat of hydrolysis is very small and these values are essentially equivalent when calculated on a monosaccharide basis. Thus 100 g sucrose gives on hydrolysis 105.6 g monosaccharide and 100 g starch gives on hydrolysis 110 g glucose.
Apparent digestibility coefficients[edit]
The human digestive tract is a very efficient organ, and the faecal excretion of nitrogenous material and fats is a small proportion (usually less than 10%) of the intake. Atwater recognised that the faecal excretion was a complex mixture of unabsorbed intestinal secretions, bacterial material and metabolites, sloughed mucosal cells, mucus, and only to a small extent, unabsorbed dietary components. This might be one reason why he chose to use availability rather than digestibility. His view was that these faecal constituents were truly unavailable and that his apparent disregard of the nature of faecal excretion was justifiable in a practical context.
The ratio intake − faecal excretion intake , {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{intake}}-{\text{faecal excretion}}}{\text{intake}}},} wherever faecal excretion is small, will approximate to unity and thus these coefficients have a low variance and have the appearance of constants. This is spurious since faecal excretion is variable even on a constant diet, and there is no evidence to suggest that faecal excretion is in fact related to intake in the way implied by these coefficients.
Practical considerations in calculations of energy value of foods and diets[edit]
The calculation of energy values must be regarded as an alternative to direct measurement, and therefore is likely to be associated with some inaccuracy when compared with direct assessment. These inaccuracies arise for a number of reasons
Variations in food composition: Foods are biological mixtures and as such show considerable variation in composition, particularly in respect of water and fat content. This means that compositional values quoted for representative samples of foods in food composition tables do not necessarily apply to individual samples of foods. In studies where great accuracy is required, samples of the food consumed must be analysed.
Measurements of food intake: In estimating energy intakes, measurements of food intake are made, and these are known to be subject to considerable uncertainty. Even in studies under very close supervision the errors in weighing individual food items are rarely less than ±5%. A certain degree of pragmatism must therefore be used when assessing procedures for calculating energy intakes, and many authors impute greater accuracy to quoted calculated energy intakes than is justifiable.
Individual variation: Variations in individuals are seen in all human studies, and these variations are not allowed for in most calculations.
The theoretical and physiological objections to the assumptions inherent in the Atwater system are likely to result in errors much smaller than these practical matters. Conversion factors were derived from experimental studies with young infants, but these produced values for metabolisable energy intake that were insignificantly different from those obtained by direct application of the modified Atwater factors.
See also[edit]
Food energy
Calorimetry/Calorimeter
References[edit]
Jump up ^ D.A.T. Southgate, A.R.C. Food Research Institute, Norwich, UK (October 1981). "The Relationship Between Food composition and Available Energy". Provisional Agenda Item 4.1.3, Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on Energy and Protein Requirements, Rome, 5 to 17 October 1981. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, The United Nations University. ESN: FAO/WHO/UNU EPR/81/41 August 1981. Retrieved 2006-03-09. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Bijal Trivedi (Jul 15, 2009). "The calorie delusion: Why food labels are wrong". New Scientist.
Jump up ^ Annabel Merrill; Bernice Watt (1973). Energy Values of Food ... basis and derivation (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived (PDF) from the original on Nov 22, 2016.
Further reading[edit]
U.S. Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service: Founding American Nutrition Science – Wilbur Olin Atwater
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text:
Indian states ranking by literacy rate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
States and union
territories of India
ordered by
Area
Population
Abbreviations
Capitals
Child Nutrition
Crime rate
Economic Freedom
Electricity penetration
Fertility rate
Forest cover
GDP (per capita)
Highest point
HIV awareness
HDI
Home ownership
Household size
Human Trafficking
Institutional delivery
Life expectancy at birth
Literacy rate
Media exposure
Number of Vehicles
Number of voters
Obesity
Open defecation
Origin of name
Places of worship
Poverty
Power capacity
Riots rate
Safe Drinking Water
Safety of Women
School Enrollment Rate
Sex ratio
Suicides
Tax revenues
Ease of Doing Business
TV ownership
Toilet availability
Transport network
Underweight people
Unemployment
Vaccination coverage
v
t
e
Literacy rate map of India, 2011.[1]
The graph shows the literacy rate of the 28 states of India and India (as whole) in 2011 (green) as compared to in 2001 (blue). Union territories have not been included
Literacy rate in India is uneven and as such, different States and Union Territories of India have differences in their literacy rates. The following table shows the 2011 and 2001 census data on total literacy rate, male literacy rate, female literacy rate and decadal difference in percentage.[2][3] According to Census 2011, Kerala has the highest total literacy rate and female literacy rate whereas Lakshadweep had the highest male literacy rate. Bihar has the lowest total literacy rate and male literacy rates while Rajasthan has the lowest female literacy rate.[2]
Rank
India/State/Union Territory
Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census
Male Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census[2]
Female Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census[2]
Literacy Rate (%) - 2001 Census
Decadal Difference (pp)
1 Kerala 93.91 96.02 91.98 90.86 3.05
2 Lakshadweep 92.28 96.11 88.25 86.66 5.62
3 Mizoram 91.58 93.72 89.40 88.80 2.78
4 Tripura 87.75[a] 92.18 83.15 73.19 14.56
5 Goa 87.40 92.81 81.84 82.01 5.39
6 Daman & Diu 87.07 91.48 79.59 78.18 8.89
7 Puducherry 86.55 92.12 81.22 81.24 5.31
8 Chandigarh 86.43 90.54 81.38 81.94 4.49
9 Delhi 86.34 91.03 80.93 81.67 4.67
10 Andaman & Nicobar 86.27 90.11 81.84 81.30 4.97
11 Himachal Pradesh 83.78 90.83 76.60 76.48 7.30
12 Maharashtra 82.91 89.82 75.48 76.88 6.03
13 Sikkim 82.20 87.29 76.43 68.81 13.39
14 Tamil Nadu 80.33 86.81 73.86 73.45 6.88
15 Nagaland 80.11 83.29 76.89 66.59 13.52
16 Manipur 79.85 86.49 73.17 69.93 9.92
17 Uttarakhand 79.63 88.33 70.70 71.62 8.01
18 Gujarat 79.31 87.23 70.73 69.14 10.17
19 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 77.65 86.46 65.93 57.63 20.02
20 West Bengal 77.08 82.67 71.16 68.64 8.44
21 Punjab 76.68 81.48 71.34 69.65 7.03
22 Haryana 76.64 85.38 66.77 67.91 8.73
23 Karnataka 75.60 82.85 68.13 66.64 8.96
24 Meghalaya 75.48 77.17 73.78 62.56 12.92
India 74.04 82.14 65.46 64.83 9.21
25 Odisha 73.45 82.40 64.36 63.08 10.37
26 Assam 73.18 78.81 67.27 63.25 9.93
27 Chhattisgarh 71.04 81.45 60.59 64.66 6.38
28 Madhya Pradesh 70.63 80.53 60.02 63.74 6.89
29 Uttar Pradesh 69.72 79.24 59.26 56.27 13.45
30 Jammu & Kashmir 68.74 78.26 58.01 55.52 13.22
31 Jharkhand 67.63 78.45 56.21 53.56 14.07
32 Andhra Pradesh 67.4[b] 75.56 59.74 -- --
33 Rajasthan 67.06 80.51 52.66 60.41 6.65
34 Arunachal Pradesh 66.95 73.69 59.57 54.34 12.61
35 Telangana 66.5[c] -- -- -- --
36 Bihar 63.82 73.39 53.33 47.00 16.82
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In September 2013, the State Government of Tripura claimed that the state has surpassed Kerala as the most literate state in India, with a literacy rate of 94.65%.[4][5]
Jump up ^ As per a government report dated May 2014 (based on the 2011 census data), literacy rate of Andhra Pradesh is 67.4%.[6]
Jump up ^ Census 2011 data was calculated for unified Andhra Pradesh. As per Times of India report which quoted the literacy rates of Telangana as 66.5%.[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Ranking of states and union territories by literacy rate: 2011" (PDF). Government of India.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Census 2011, Chapter 6 (State of Literacy), p.14" (PDF). Government of India.
Jump up ^ "India at a glance". Government of India.
Jump up ^ "Tripura has achieved first position in literacy". decccan herald. 2013-09-08.
Jump up ^ "Tripura beats Kerala in literacy". Times of India. 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Demography, Andhra Pradesh Government, p. 41, January 2016
Jump up ^ Nag, Kingshuk (2 June 2014). "T-party today: India's 29th state Telangana is born". Times of India.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_states_ranking_by_literacy_rate&oldid=800406951"
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Andaman & Nicobar Islands

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Dadra & Nagar Haveli

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Jammu & Kashmir

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Times of India

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values: সাক্ষরতার হার অনুযায়ী ভারতের রাজ্য ও কেন্দ্রশাসিত অঞ্চলগুলির তালিকা – Bangla

values: Classement des États et territoires indiens par taux d'alphabétisation – French

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values: فہرست بھارتی ریاستیں بلحاظ شرح خواندگی – Urdu

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