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Rings of Power
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For other uses, see Power ring (disambiguation).
This Middle-earth-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Rings of Power in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium are magic rings created by Sauron or by the Elves of Eregion under Sauron's tutelage. Sauron intended three of the rings to be worn by Elves, Seven by Dwarves, Nine by Men, and one, the One Ring, by the Dark Lord Sauron himself in Mount Doom.
Sauron intended the rings to subvert these races of Middle-earth to his power, since the One Ring controlled the others. Sauron's plan was not completely successful, for the Elves hid their rings and did not use them while Sauron held the One, and the Dwarves did not respond to the One's control as Sauron expected. But the Men who wore the Nine were enslaved by Sauron, and became the Nazgûl ("ring wraiths").
Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings is largely concerned with the attempt of Sauron to recover the One and the efforts of the West to forestall him by destroying it. The One is destroyed near the end of the War of the Ring when it falls into the Cracks of Doom in Mount Doom along with Gollum who had bitten Frodo’s finger off. Tolkien is not entirely clear about what happened to the other rings, though he implied that the power of any that survived came to an end. After the War of the Ring, the three Elven Rings were taken by their bearers over the sea to the Undying Lands.
Contents
[hide]
1 Literature
1.1 The making of the rings
1.1.1 The Verse of the Rings
1.2 The Nine
1.3 The Seven
1.4 The Three
1.5 The One
2 Adaptations
3 See also
4 References
4.1 General references
Literature[edit]
The making of the rings[edit]
Tolkien's essay "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age" in The Silmarillion gives the background of the making of the rings.[1] At the end of the First Age, Sauron evaded the call of the Valar to surrender, and fled to Middle-earth. Midway through the Second Age he came in disguise as Annatar ("Lord of Gifts") to the Elven smiths of Eregion, who were led by Celebrimbor, and taught them the craft of forging magic rings. Tolkien writes that the Elves made many lesser rings as essays in the craft,[2] but eventually with Sauron's assistance they forged the Seven and the Nine. The Three were made by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron's assistance; they remained unsullied by his touch.
Sauron returned to Mordor, and in his forge in Mount Doom he made the One Ring, imbuing it with a large portion of his power. Its purpose was to dominate and command the wearers of the other Rings. However, when Sauron put on the One Ring and recited the incantation inscribed on it, the Elves became aware of him, and understood who he was and his purpose. The words he spoke are in the language that Westron speakers call Black Speech:
The inscription on the One Ring is a Tengwar rendering of the language known as Black Speech.
Ash nazg durbatulûk,
Ash nazg gimbatul,
Ash nazg thrakatulûk
Agh burzum-ishi krimpatul.
One Ring to rule them all,
One Ring to find them,
One Ring to bring them all,
And in the darkness bind them.
When the Elves wearing the rings discerned Sauron's intention, they immediately removed them and hid them. Sauron invaded the West to recover the rings that the Elves had made; much of the West, including Eregion, was destroyed before he was driven back to Mordor. Sauron recovered the Nine and three of the Seven, but not the Three elven rings, which remained hidden.
The Verse of the Rings[edit]
The words inscribed on the One Ring come from the following verse, which describes 20 of the Rings of Power:
Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky,
Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone,
Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die,
One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne,
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie,
One ring to rule them all, one ring to find them,
One ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
— The Lord of the Rings, Epigraph
The Nine[edit]
Main article: Nazgûl
Later in the Second Age, Sauron gave the Nine to powerful men, "kings, sorcerers, and warriors of old".[3] All of them fell under the rings' dominance, and they became the Nazgûl (Ringwraiths), spirits of terror whom Sauron could command even without the One. Their lives were extended indefinitely by the rings, and they became Sauron's chief servants.
To mortal observers who were not themselves wearing a Ring, a Ring of Power seemed to render the wearer invisible.[2] Although the Nazgûl could not be seen, they emanated an evil presence;[4] their steeds were also visible. When they wished to adopt a noticeable form, they wore dark cloaks over their invisible bodies.
It is not clear whether the Nazgûl continued to wear their rings.[original research?] Tolkien says both "the Nine the Nazgûl keep"[5] and that Sauron had gathered the Nine to himself,[2] though in the latter case his meaning may be metaphorical. When the Nazgûl are destroyed, no mention is made of their rings.
Only two of the Nazgûl are identified in the texts: the Witch-king of Angmar was the leader of the nine, and his second in command was Khamûl, an Easterling.[6] Khamûl is the only Nazgûl identified by name. Three of the Nine were Númenórean.[7]
The Seven[edit]
Also in the Second Age Sauron gave the Seven to various Dwarf-lords (though the Dwarves of Moria maintained a tradition that the ring given to Durin III came directly from the Elven smiths).[8][9] Gandalf mentions a rumour that the seven hoards of the dwarves began each with a single golden ring, and although the Dwarves used their rings to increase their treasure, Tolkien does not explain how the rings accomplished this (save for a reference that the rings "need gold to breed gold"). The main power of the Seven on their wearers was to excite their sense of avarice. The wearers did not become invisible, did not get extended life-spans, nor succumb directly to Sauron's control – though he could still influence them to anger and greed.[1]
Over the years, Sauron recovered three rings from the Dwarves, the last from Thráin II during his final captivity in Dol Guldur some years before the beginning of The Hobbit. The remaining four, according to Gandalf, were destroyed by dragons.[2]
Until the Council of Elrond, the Dwarves did not know that Thráin had held the ring of Durin's line and had lost it to Sauron. They thought instead that it might have been lost when Thrór was killed by Azog in Moria.[5] One of the motivations for Balin's doomed expedition to Moria was the possibility of recovering the ring. Sauron's messenger attempted to bribe the Dwarves of Erebor for news of Bilbo (the last known bearer of the One) with the promise of the return of the remaining three of the Seven and control over the Mines of Moria.
The Three[edit]
Main article: Three Rings
The Three Rings of the Elves were called Narya, the Ring of Fire (set with a ruby); Nenya, the Ring of Water or Ring of Adamant (made of mithril and set with a "white stone"), and Vilya, the Ring of Air, the "mightiest of the Three" (made of gold and set with a sapphire).[10]
Before the sack of Eregion, Celebrimbor gave Vilya and Narya to Gil-galad and Nenya to Galadriel. Gil-galad later gave Narya to Círdan, and gave Vilya to Elrond.
The Three remained hidden from Sauron and untouched by him. During the Third Age, after he lost the One, they were used for the preservation and enhancement of three remaining realms of the Eldar. Vilya was used by Elrond in Rivendell, Nenya by Galadriel in Lothlórien, and Narya by Círdan in Lindon. When the Istari, or wizards, arrived about T.A. 1100, Círdan gave Narya to Gandalf, who bore it until the end of the Third Age.
During the period of The Lord of the Rings, the Three were borne by Elrond, Galadriel, and Gandalf; but until the end of the book their rings are not seen. Only Frodo, the bearer of the One, sees Galadriel's ring, and only when she draws his attention to it. At the end of the book, these three take their rings, now visible and powerless, over the sea to the Undying Lands.
Although the Verse of the Rings describes Three Rings for the Elven-kings, the only Elven king who actually held a ring was Gil-galad. He held both Vilya and Narya, but entrusted them to Elrond and Círdan before perishing in Mordor.
The One[edit]
Main article: One Ring
Unlike the other Rings of Power, the One was unadorned. It bore only the inscription of the incantation Sauron spoke when he made it, and even that was invisible unless the ring was heated.[2] Though the other rings could be destroyed in dragon-fire, the One could be unmade only in the unyielding fires of Mount Doom where it was forged.[2]
When Sauron made the ring, he was obliged to transfer much of his power into it so that it could control the other rings, themselves objects of great potency. With the ring, Sauron remained very powerful, and he could use it to dominate the will of others; he very quickly corrupted Númenor into the worship of Melkor and open rebellion against the Valar.
When Isildur cut the ring from his hand, Sauron became much weaker. He required the ring to effect his conquest of Middle-earth, and spent most of the Third Age attempting to get it back.
The ring had a great effect on the human bearers who held it in the interim. It granted them indefinite life; though the effort of living became more difficult as time went on, for it did not grant new life.[2] If they wore it, it made them invisible, enhanced their hearing, and made the shadowy world of the wraiths visible to them. It exerted a malicious influence; Gandalf mentions that though a bearer might begin with good intentions, the good intentions would not last.[2] The Ring would give its bearer a fraction of Sauron's power, proportionate with the bearer's strength and force of will. Gollum, Bilbo, Sam, and Frodo only became invisible, although when Frodo bound Gollum to his service in The Two Towers he indicated that he could use the Ring to control Gollum (because the Ring had mastered Gollum long ago). Gandalf and Galadriel, however, recognized that they could use the full power of the Ring, becoming even more powerful than Sauron himself, but they resisted, knowing that in the end the Ring would corrupt them. Gandalf explained to Frodo that, with great concentration and training, even he could tap into the Ring's power, but probably at the cost of his sanity.
The One Ring possessed something of a will of its own. Its only accepted master was Sauron himself, and it would seek to leave any other bearer when it would cause the greatest harm, or when it might return to Sauron. Bilbo warned Frodo of this, and Frodo kept it on a chain so that it would not slip off unnoticed. In the end, Gollum succumbs to the malevolent influence of the ring, defies Frodo, and takes the ring for himself. While dancing with joy over the recovery of the ring, Gollum falls into the Cracks of Doom in Orodruin, where the ring is destroyed. With the destruction of the Ring, Gandalf explains that Sauron is weakened to the point that he will never be able to materialize again.[11]
Adaptations[edit]
Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated film begins with the forging of the Rings of Power and the events of the Last Alliance's war against Sauron, all portrayed in silhouette against a red background.
Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring begins with a similar prologue, though longer and more detailed. The three Elven rings are shown being cast using a cuttlebone mold, an ancient primitive casting technique. Additionally, Tolkien illustrators John Howe and Alan Lee, employed as conceptual designers for the films, have cameos as two of the nine human Ring-bearers who become Nazgûl.
See also[edit]
Middle-earth portal
"Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age"
Magic ring
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Silmarillion, Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Fellowship, The Shadow of the Past
Jump up ^ The Silmarillion, "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age", p. 289.
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The Hunt for the Ring", p. 338.
^ Jump up to: a b Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel, "The Council of Elrond", The Fellowship of the Ring .
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The Hunt for the Ring", p. 338.
Jump up ^ The Silmarillion, "Akallabêth, p. 267.
Jump up ^ The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, "III. Durin's Folk".
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", p. 238.
Jump up ^ The Return of the King, "The Grey Havens", passim.
Jump up ^ Return of the King, The Last Debate
General references[edit]
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954), The Fellowship of the Ring, The Lord of the Rings, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 1987), ISBN 0-395-08254-4
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955), The Return of the King, The Lord of the Rings, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 1987), ISBN 0-395-08256-0
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977), Christopher Tolkien, ed., The Silmarillion, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-25730-1
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The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
First edition (published by Charles Henry Webb)
"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" is an 1865 short story by Mark Twain. It was his first great success as a writer and brought him national attention. The story has also been published as "Jim Smiley and His Jumping Frog" (its original title) and "The Notorious Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". In it, the narrator retells a story he heard from a bartender, Simon Wheeler, at the Angels Hotel in Angels Camp, California, about the gambler Jim Smiley. The narrator describes him: "If he even seen a straddle bug start to go anywheres, he would bet you how long it would take him to get to wherever he going to, and if you took him up, he would foller that straddle bug to Mexico but what he would find out where he was bound for and how long he was on the road."
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, and Other Sketches is also the title story of an 1867 collection of short stories by Mark Twain. It was Twain's first book and collected 27 stories that were previously published in magazines and newspapers.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Publication history
2 Plot Summary
3 Translations
4 Adaptations
5 Short story collection
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Publication history[edit]
The Angels Hotel
Twain first wrote the title short story at the request of his friend Artemus Ward, for inclusion in an upcoming book. Twain worked on two versions, but neither was satisfactory to him—neither got around to describing the jumping frog contest. Ward pressed him again, but by the time Twain devised a version he was willing to submit, that book was already nearing publication, so Ward sent it instead to The New York Saturday Press, where it appeared in the November 18, 1865 edition as "Jim Smiley and His Jumping Frog".[2] Twain's colorful story was immensely popular, and was soon printed in many different magazines and newspapers. Twain developed the idea further, and Bret Harte published this version in The Californian on December 16, 1865; this time titled "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County", and Smiley's name was changed to Greeley.[3]
Further popularity of the tale led Twain to use the story to anchor his own first book, which appeared in 1867 with a first issue run of only 1,000 copies. The first edition was issued in seven colors (with no priority): blue, brown, green, lavender, plum, red, and terra-cotta, and is sought after by book collectors, as it fetches thousands of dollars at auctions.[4] In the book version, Twain changed Greeley back to Smiley.[3][dead link]
Plot Summary[edit]
The narrator is sent by a friend to interview an old man, Simon Wheeler, who might know the location of an old acquaintance named Leonidas W. Smiley. Finding Simon at an old mining camp, the narrator asks him if he knows anything about Leonidas; Simon appears not to, and instead tells a story about Jim Smiley, a man who had visited the camp years earlier.
Jim loves to gamble and will offer to bet on anything and everything, from horse races to dogfights, to the health of the local parson's wife. He catches a frog, whom he names Dan'l Webster, and spends three months training it to jump. When a stranger visits the camp, Jim shows off Dan'l and offers to bet $40 that it can out-jump any other frog in Calaveras County. The stranger, unimpressed, says that he would take the bet if he had a frog, so Jim goes out to catch one, leaving him alone with Dan'l. While Jim is away, the stranger pours lead shot down Dan'l's throat. Once Jim returns, he and the stranger set the frogs down and let them loose. The stranger's frog jumps away while Dan'l does not budge, and the surprised and disgusted Jim pays the $40 wager. After the stranger has departed, Jim notices Dan'l's sluggishness and picks the frog up, finding it to be much heavier than he remembers. When Dan'l belches out a double handful of lead shot, Jim realizes that he has been cheated and chases after the stranger, but never catches him.
At this point in the story, Simon excuses himself to go outside for a moment. The narrator realizes that Jim has no connection to Leonidas and gets up to leave, only to have Simon stop him at the door, offering to tell him about a one-eyed, stubby-tailed cow that Jim had owned. Rather than stay to hear another pointless story, the narrator excuses himself and leaves.
Translations[edit]
Upon discovering a French translation of this story, Twain back-translated the story into English, word for word, retaining the French grammatical structure and syntax. He then published all three versions under the title "The Jumping Frog: in English, then in French, and then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil".[5]
In "Private History of the ‘Jumping Frog’ Story", Twain recounts some background to the tale—in particular, his surprise to find that the story bore a striking resemblance to an ancient Greek tale. He wrote:
Now, then, the interesting question is, did the frog episode happen in Angel’s Camp in the spring of ‘49, as told in my hearing that day in the fall of 1865? I am perfectly sure that it did. I am also sure that its duplicate happened in Boeotia a couple of thousand years ago. I think it must be a case of history actually repeating itself, and not a case of a good story floating down the ages and surviving because too good to be allowed to perish.[6]
Later, however, in November 1903, Twain noted:
When I became convinced that the "Jumping Frog" was a Greek story two or three thousand years old, I was sincerely happy, for apparently here was a most striking and satisfactory justification of a favorite theory of mine—to wit, that no occurrence is sole and solitary, but is merely a repetition of a thing which has happened before, and perhaps often.... By-and-by, in England, after a few years, I learned that there hadn't been any Greek frog in the business, and no Greek story about his adventures. Professor Sidgwick [in his textbook for students learning to translate English texts into Greek, Greek Prose Composition, p. 116] had not claimed that it was a Greek tale; he had merely synopsized the Calaveras tale and transferred the incident to classic Greece; but as he did not state that it was the same old frog, the English papers reproved him for the omission. He told me this in England in 1899 or 1900, and was much troubled about that censure, for his act had been innocent, he believing that the story's origin was so well known as to render formal mention of it unnecessary.[7]
But in A. Sidgwick's "Note To The Thirteenth Edition" (1907), among "hearty... thanks for... help received", Prof. Sidgwick still failed to acknowledge his use of the Twain tale.[8]
Adaptations[edit]
Lukas Foss composed The Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, an opera in two scenes with libretto by Jean Karsavina, based on Twain's story. The opera premiered on May 18, 1950, at Indiana University.[9]
The story was also adapted as a scene in the film The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985), in which Mark Twain retells the story in short to Tom Sawyer, Huck Finn, and Becky Thatcher.
Short story collection[edit]
The short story collection The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, and Other Sketches, Twain's first book, contains 27 short stories and sketches.[1] It was released by the American News Company in 1867 under the editorship of Twain's friend Charles Henry Webb.[10] Privately, to his colleague Bret Harte, Twain wrote it was "full of damnable errors of grammar and deadly inconsistencies of spelling in the Frog sketch because I did not read the proofs".[11] After its May release, the book suffered from lackluster sales.[12] The collection included:
"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County"
"Aurelia's Unfortunate Young Man"
"A Complaint about Correspondents, Dated in San Francisco"
"Answers to Correspondents"
"Among the Fenians"
"The Story of the Bad Little Boy Who Didn't Come to Grief"
"Curing a Cold"
"An Inquiry about Insurances"
"Literature in the Dry Diggings"
"'After' Jenkins"
"Lucretia Smith's Soldier"
"The Killing of Julius Caesar 'Localized'"
"An Item which the Editor Himself could not Understand"
"Among the Spirits"
"Brief Biographical Sketch of George Washington"
"A Touching Story of George Washington's Boyhood"
"A Page from a Californian Almanac"
"Information for the Million"
"The Launch of the Steamer Capital"
"Origin of Illustrious Men"
"Advice for Good Little Girls"
"Concerning Chambermaids"
"Remarkable Instances of Presence of Mind"
"Honored as a Curiosity in Honolulu"
"The Steed 'Oahu'"
"A Strange Dream"
"Short and Singular Rations"
See also[edit]
Frog jumping
Translation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Twain, Mark (1867). The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, and Other Sketches. New York: C. H. Webb. Republished by Oxford University Press (1997), ISBN 978-0-19-511400-3.
Jump up ^ Mark Twain (November 18, 1865). "Jim Smiley and His Jumping Frog". The Saturday Press. pp. 248–249.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mark Twain in The Californian, 1864–1867". Twainquotes.com. Retrieved July 28, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrated Jumping Frog". Royal Books.
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark (1903). The Jumping Frog: in English, then in French, and then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark. "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark & Strothman, F. (Illustrator). The Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil (MCMIII ed.). New York and London: Harper & Brothers, Publishers. pp. 64–66. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Sidgwick, A. (1907). "Note to the Thirteenth Edition". Introduction to Greek Prose Composition with Exercises (13th ed.). London: Longmans, Green & Co.
Jump up ^ "The Jumping Frog Of Calaveras County". USOpera.com.
Jump up ^ Messent, Peter. The Short Works of Mark Twain: A Critical Study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001: 10. ISBN 0-8122-3622-X
Jump up ^ Nissen, Axel. Bret Harte: Prince and Pauper. University Press of Mississippi, 2000: 83. ISBN 1-57806-253-5
Jump up ^ Muller, John. Mark Twain in Washington, D.C.: The Adventures of a Capital Correspondent. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2013: 73. ISBN 978-1-60949-964-8
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
LibriVox recording read by Rodney Nelson, 00:14:06
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Online text at the Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia Library
Books That Grow leveled book version
Twain's "Private History of the ‘Jumping Frog’ Story"
Stephen Railton's Mark Twain in His Times project
Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum
Images of First Edition (1867)
Official Web site for JUMP - a documentary on the history of Calaveras County's Jumping Frog Jubilee
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County study guide, themes, quotes, character analysis, teaching guide
The Jumping Frog public domain audiobook at LibriVox
88 Days in the Mother Lode: Mark Twain Finds His Voice - Documentary film about Twain hearing the story during a stay in Angels Camp
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Gold plating
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Gold plating (disambiguation).
Gold-plated aluminium cover on Voyager space craft that protects a gold-plated Sounds of Earth record
A gold plated desktop Stirling engine
Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver (to make silver-gilt), by chemical or electrochemical plating. This article covers plating methods used in the modern electronics industry; for more traditional methods, often used for much larger objects, see gilding. [clarification needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Gold plating types
2 In ancient America
3 Gold plating chemistry
4 Jewelry
5 Infrared reflectivity
6 Electronics
7 Soldering issues
8 See also
9 References
Gold plating types[edit]
There are several types of gold plating used in the electronics industry:[1]
Soft, pure gold plating is used in the semiconductor industry. The gold layer is easily soldered and wire bonded. Its Knoop hardness ranges between 60-85. The plating baths have to be kept free of contamination.
Bright hard gold on contacts, with Knoop hardness between 120-300 and purity of 99.7-99.9% gold. Often contains a small amount of nickel and/or cobalt; these elements interfere with die bonding, therefore the plating baths cannot be used for semiconductors.
Bright hard gold on printed circuit board tabs is deposited using lower concentration of gold in the baths. Usually contains nickel and/or cobalt as well. Edge connectors are often made by controlled-depth immersion of only the edge of the boards.
Soft, pure gold is deposited from special electrolytes. Entire printed circuit boards can be plated. This technology can be used for depositing layers suitable for wire bonding.
In ancient America[edit]
Pre-Columbian smiths working in northern Peru gilded and silvered copper objects by electrochemical replacement techniques.[2]
During the excavations in 1987–1990 at Sipan, a spectacular treasure of gold and silver ornamental and ceremonial artifacts was recovered, dating to AD 50–300. These objects demonstrate the outstanding craftsmanship of the Moche metalsmiths. Alloys of copper with gold and some silver were employed, known as tumbaga.[3]
Gold plating chemistry[edit]
There are five recognized classes of gold plating chemistry:
Alkaline gold cyanide, for gold and gold alloy plating
Neutral gold cyanide, for high-purity plating
Acid gold plating for bright hard gold and gold alloy plating
Non-cyanide, generally sulphite or chloride-based for gold and gold alloy plating
Miscellaneous
Jewelry[edit]
Gold plating of silver is used in the manufacture of jewelry. Silver atoms diffuse into the gold layer, causing slow gradual fading of its color and eventually causing tarnishing of the surface. This process may take months and even years, depending on the thickness of the gold layer. A barrier metal layer is used to counter this effect. Copper, which also migrates into gold, does so more slowly than silver. The copper is usually further plated with nickel. A gold-plated silver article is usually a silver substrate with layers of copper, nickel, and gold deposited on top of it.
Infrared reflectivity[edit]
Gold, applied by evaporated methods or electroplating, has been specified by NASA to thermally control spacecraft instruments, due to its 99% reflectivity in infrared wavelengths.[citation needed]
Electronics[edit]
Gold-plated electrical connectors
Gold plating is often used in electronics, to provide a corrosion-resistant electrically conductive layer on copper, typically in electrical connectors and printed circuit boards.
With direct gold-on-copper plating, the copper atoms tend to diffuse through the gold layer, causing tarnishing of its surface and formation of an oxide and/or sulphide layer.
A layer of a suitable barrier metal, usually nickel, is often deposited on the copper substrate before the gold plating. The layer of nickel provides mechanical backing for the gold layer, improving its wear resistance. It also reduces the impact of pores present in the gold layer.
Both the nickel and gold layers can be plated by electrolytic or electroless processes. There are many factors to consider in selection of either electrolytic or electroless plating methods. These include what the deposit will be used for, configuration of the part, materials compatibility and cost of processing. In different applications, electrolytic or electroless plating can have cost advantages.
At higher frequencies, the skin effect may cause higher losses due to higher electrical resistance of nickel; a nickel-plated trace can have its useful length shortened three times in the 1 GHz band in comparison with the non-plated one. Selective plating is used, depositing the nickel and gold layers only on areas where it is required and does not cause the detrimental side effects.[4]
Gold plating may lead to formation of gold whiskers.
Wire bonding between gold plated contacts and aluminium wires or between aluminium contacts and gold wires under certain conditions develops a brittle layer of gold-aluminium intermetallics, known as purple plague.
Soldering issues[edit]
Gold-plated printed circuit board
Soldering gold-plated parts can be problematic as gold is soluble in solder. Solder which contains more than 4-5% gold can become brittle. The joint surface is dull-looking.
Gold reacts with both tin and lead in their liquid state, forming brittle intermetallics. When eutectic 63% tin – 37% lead solder is used, no lead-gold compounds are formed, because gold preferentially reacts with tin, forming the AuSn
4 compound. Particles of AuSn
4 disperse in the solder matrix, forming preferential cleavage planes, significantly lowering the mechanical strength and therefore reliability of the resulting solder joints.
If the gold layer does not completely dissolve into the solder, then slow intermetallic reactions can proceed in the solid state as the tin and gold atoms cross-migrate. Intermetallics have poor electrical conductivity and low strength. The ongoing intermetallic reactions also cause Kirkendall effect, leading to mechanical failure of the joint, similar to the degradation of gold-aluminium bonds known as purple plague.
A 2-3 µm layer of gold dissolves completely within one second during typical wave soldering conditions. [5] Layers of gold thinner than 0.5 µm (0.02 thou) also dissolve completely into the solder, exposing the underlying metal (usually nickel) to the solder. Impurities in the nickel layer can prevent the solder from bonding to it. Electroless nickel plating contains phosphorus. Nickel with more than 8% phosphorus is not solderable[citation needed]. Electrodeposited nickel may contain nickel hydroxide. An acid bath is required to remove the passivation layer before applying the gold layer; improper cleaning leads to a nickel surface difficult to solder. A stronger flux can help, as it aids dissolving the oxide deposits. Carbon is another nickel contaminant that hinders solderability.
See also[edit]
Gold filled jewelry
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Weisberg, Alfred M. (1997). "Gold Plating". Products Finishing Magazine. Retrieved 2013-04-03.
Jump up ^ Lechtman, H. (2014). "A Pre-Columbian Technique for Electrochemical Replacement Plating of Gold and Silver on Copper Objects". JOM. 31 (12): 154. Bibcode:1979JOM....31l.154L. doi:10.1007/BF03354479.
Jump up ^ G. Horz, M.K. (2000). "The treasure of gold and silver artifacts from the Royal Tombs of Sipan, Peru - a study on the Moche metalworking techniques". Materials Characterization. 45 (4–5): 391–420. doi:10.1016/s1044-5803(00)00093-0.
Jump up ^ "Nickel-gold plating copper PCB traces". Polar Instruments. 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
Jump up ^ http://www.tkb-4u.com/articles/soldering/sgons/sgons.php
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gold_plating&oldid=844742733"
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