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Tobacco
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For the plant genus, see Nicotiana. For the American electronic musician, see Tobacco (musician).
Not to be confused with Tabacco or Tabasco.
Tobacco
Tobacco flakes, sliced from pressed plugs
Product name
Tobacco
Source plant(s)
Nicotiana
Part(s) of plant
Leaf
Geographic origin
South America
Active ingredients
Nicotine, harmine
Uses
Recreational
Legal status
AU: Unscheduled
CA: Unscheduled
UK: 18+
US: 18+ only in most states[1]
UN: Unscheduled
EU: Unscheduled
See tobacco control
A historic kiln in Myrtleford, Victoria, Australia
Basma tobacco leaves drying in the sun at Pomak village in Xanthi, Greece
Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. While more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world.
Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, and flavored shisha tobacco. They can also be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco and snus.
Tobacco use is a risk factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, as well as many cancers. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Traditional use
2.2 Popularization
2.3 Contemporary
3 Biology
3.1 Nicotiana
3.2 Types
4 Production
4.1 Cultivation
4.2 Curing
4.3 Global production
4.3.1 Trends
4.3.2 Major producers
4.3.2.1 China
4.3.2.2 India
4.3.2.3 Brazil
4.4 Problems in production
4.4.1 Child labor
4.4.2 Economy
4.4.3 Environment
4.5 Research
4.6 Genetic modification
4.6.1 Field trials
4.6.2 Production
5 Consumption
6 Impact
6.1 Social
6.2 Demographic
6.3 Harmful effects of tobacco and smoking
6.4 Economic
6.5 Advertising
6.6 Cinema
7 References
7.1 Further reading
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The English word "tobacco" originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word "tabaco". The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas, 1552) or to tabago, a kind of Y-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba).[3][4]
However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs believed to have originated from the Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq), a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as a name for various herbs.[5][6]
History[edit]
Main article: History of tobacco
See also: History of commercial tobacco in the United States
William Michael Harnett (American, 1848-1892), Still Life with Three Castles Tobacco, 1880, Brooklyn Museum
Traditional use[edit]
The earliest depiction of a European man smoking, from Tabacco by Anthony Chute, 1595
A man smoking Tabacco on Hukka in Darchula Nepal
Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC.[7] Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco. Eastern North American tribes historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it, both socially and ceremonially, such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement.[8][9] In some populations, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator.[10]
Popularization[edit]
An illustration from Frederick William Fairholt's Tobacco, its History and Association, 1859
Tobacco plant and tobacco leaf from the Deli plantations in Sumatra, 1905
Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of cicadas (cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice).
The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot, who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island, explains that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body" so that the natives’ "bodies are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithall we in England are often times afflicted." [11]
Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700.[12][13]
Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous.[14]
In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the health revelations of the late-20th century.[15][16]
Contemporary[edit]
See also: Tobacco control and Tobacco in the United States
Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco became condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became encompassed as a cause for cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which settled the lawsuit in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products.
In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1. This strain of tobacco contained an unusually high amount of nicotine, nearly doubling its content from 3.2-3.5% to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to use this strain as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.[citation needed]
In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization[17] successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. This led to the development of tobacco cessation products.
Biology[edit]
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Nicotiana[edit]
Main article: Nicotiana
See also: List of tobacco diseases
Nicotine is the compound responsible for the addictive nature of tobacco use.
Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica) flower, leaves, and buds
Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific.
Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin to insects. However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores,[18] a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species, and accordingly some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.
Types[edit]
Main article: Types of tobacco
The types of tobacco include:
Aromatic fire-cured is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky, and Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee is used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia, which is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
Brightleaf tobacco is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of the state where it is planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. Sometime after the War of 1812, demand for a milder, lighter, more aromatic tobacco arose. Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland all innovated with milder varieties of the tobacco plant. Farmers discovered that Bright leaf tobacco needs thin, starved soil, and those who could not grow other crops found that they could grow tobacco. Confederate soldiers traded it with each other and Union soldiers, and developed quite a taste for it. At the end of the war, the soldiers went home and a national market had developed for the local crop.
Burley tobacco is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from pelletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type, but is usually one of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and burley, and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars.
Criollo tobacco is primarily used in the making of cigars. It was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus.
Dokha is a tobacco originally grown in Iran, mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
Turkish tobacco is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana tabacum) grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Originally grown in regions historically part of the Ottoman Empire, it is also known as "oriental". Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Turkish tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley, and Turkish).
Perique was developed in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation of local tobacco by a farmer, Pierre Chenet. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend.
Shade tobacco is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The Connecticut shade industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the increase in the value of land.
White burley air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco. In 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted red burley seeds he had purchased, and found a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look, which became white burley.
Wild tobacco is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.
Y1 is a strain of tobacco cross-bred by Brown & Williamson in the 1970s to obtain an unusually high nicotine content. In the 1990s, the United States Food and Drug Administration used it as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.[19]
Production[edit]
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Cultivation[edit]
Main article: Cultivation of tobacco
Tobacco plants growing in a field in Intercourse, Pennsylvania.
Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light.[citation needed]
In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen, to produce a more desired flavor.
After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in — all in one motion.[citation needed]
Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method still used today, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife. It is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner involves the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before this, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed, and eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand. Most tobacco in the U.S. is grown in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia.[20]
Curing[edit]
Main article: Curing of tobacco
Tobacco barn in Simsbury, Connecticut used for air curing of shade tobacco
Sun-cured tobacco, Bastam, Iran
Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer.[21] Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used.
Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:
Air-cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, mild flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are 'dark' air-cured.[22]
Fire-cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder, and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire-cured.
Flue-cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called 'oasts'). These barns have flues run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process generally takes about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. Most cigarettes incorporate flue-cured tobacco, which produces a milder, more inhalable smoke.
Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece, and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.
Some tobaccos go through a second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating.[23] Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and/or flavoring.[24]
Global production[edit]
Trends[edit]
Tobacco production in Portuguese Timor in the 1930s
Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced.[25] According to the Food and Agriculture organization of the UN, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced.[26] The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%.[27] During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased.[26] China's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997.[25] This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64% in 1999 to 10% in 2004,[28] it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.
Major producers[edit]
Top tobacco producers, 2014[29]
Country
Production (tonnes)
Note
China 2,995,400
Brazil 862,396
India 720,725
United States 397,535
Indonesia 196,300
Pakistan 129,878
Malawi 126,348
Argentina 119,434
Zambia 112,049
Mozambique 97,075
World 5,755,140 A
No note = official figure, F = FAO Estimate, A = Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial or estimates).
Every year, about 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6%), India (8.3%), Brazil (7.0%) and the United States (4.6%).[30]
China[edit]
Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land.[31] While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income.[32] As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.[33]
India[edit]
India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh.[34] India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers[35] and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India.[36] Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land is used for tobacco production.[37]
Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Mysore, West Bengal, and Rajamundry.[35] Rajahmundry houses the core research institute.
Brazil[edit]
In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity.[31] Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of the country's total cultivated area.[38] In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes.[38] Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco, but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar.[39]
Tobacco plantation, Pinar del Río, Cuba
Problems in production[edit]
Child labor[edit]
The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work.[40][not in citation given (See discussion.)] The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children is widespread on farms in Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe.[41] While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco[25]) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007-8 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors.[42] They also reported suffering from Green tobacco sickness, a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50-cigarettes-worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.[40][not in citation given (See discussion.)]
Economy[edit]
Tobacco harvesting, Viñales Valley, Cuba
Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries.[43] This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%.[44] Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product.[45]
Environment[edit]
Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field.[46] Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain.[47] Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems.[48]
Tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium) from soil, decreasing its fertility.[49]
Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process.[49] Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes.[46]
In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco.[50]
Research[edit]
Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics. Tobacco BY-2 cells, derived from N. tabacum cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology.[51] Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant.[52] This research laid the groundwork for all genetically modified crops.[53]
Genetic modification[edit]
Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first GM crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.[54]
Field trials[edit]
Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation, have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.[55]
Production[edit]
Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco.[54][55] The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997.[56]:3 In the US, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content are available under the market name Quest.[55]
Consumption[edit]
Further information: Tobacco products
Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are:
Beedi are thin, often flavoured cigarettes from India made of tobacco wrapped in a tendu leaf, and secured with coloured thread at one end.
Chewing tobacco is the oldest way of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands, or in a shredded form. When consuming the long, sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can often be called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salivary glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.
Cigars are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco, which are ignited so their smoke may be drawn into the smokers' mouths.
Cigarettes are a product consumed through inhalation of smoke and manufactured from cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled into a paper cylinder.
Creamy snuffs are tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, and Ganesh. It is locally known as mishri in some parts of Maharashtra.
Dipping tobaccos are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. Some brands, as with snus, are portioned in small, porous pouches for less mess.
Gutka is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-sized packets.
Heat-not-burn tobacco products heat rather than burn tobacco to generate an aerosol that contains nicotine.
Hookah is a single- or multistemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Hookahs were first used in India and Persia;[57] the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits or moassel, a mixture of tobacco, flavouring, and honey or glycerin.
Kreteks are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves, and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs.
Roll-your-own, often called 'rollies' or 'roll-ups', are relatively popular in some European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers, and filters all bought separately. They are usually cheaper to make.
A tobacco pipe typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
Snuff is a ground smokeless tobacco product, inhaled or "snuffed" through the nose. If referring specifically to the orally consumed moist snuff, see dipping tobacco.
Snus is a steam-pasteurized moist powdered tobacco product that is not fermented, and induces minimal salivation. It is consumed by placing it (loose or in little pouches) against the upper gums for an extended period of time. It is somewhat similar to dipping tobacco but does not require spitting and is significantly lower in TSNAs.
Tobacco edibles, often in the form of an infusion or a spice, have gained popularity in recent years.
Topical tobacco paste is sometimes used as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings.[58] An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a half a teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area.
Tobacco water is a traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled, the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it kills insects. Tobacco is, however, banned from use as pesticide in certified organic production by the USDA's National Organic Program.[59]
Impact[edit]
Social[edit]
Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and when done by women was sometimes associated with promiscuity; in Japan, during the Edo period, prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe.[60]
Following the American Civil War, the use of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with masculinity and power. Today, tobacco use is often stigmatized; this has spawned quitting associations and antismoking campaigns.[61][62] Bhutan is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal.[63]
Demographic[edit]
Main article: Prevalence of tobacco consumption
Research on tobacco use is limited mainly to smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to one-third of the adult population, use tobacco in some form.[64] Smoking is more prevalent among men[65] (however, the gender gap declines with age),[66][67] the poor, and in transitional or developing countries[68]
Rates of smoking continue to rise in developing countries, but have leveled off or declined in developed countries.[69] Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.[70] In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[71]
Harmful effects of tobacco and smoking[edit]
Main article: Health effects of tobacco
See also: List of additives in cigarettes
Tobacco smoking poses a risk to health due to the inhalation of poisonous chemicals in tobacco smoke such as Carbon Monoxide, Cyanide, and Carcinogens which have been proven to cause heart and lung diseases and Cancer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally.[72] The WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004[73] and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.[74] Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describe tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide."[75]
The harms caused by inhalation of poisonous chemicals such as Carbon Monoxide in tobacco smoke include diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (emphysema), and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancers). Cancer is caused by inhaling carcinogenic substances present in tobacco smoke.
Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, about 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills around 46,000 nonsmokers every year.[76]
The addictive alkaloid nicotine is a stimulant, and popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco. Nicotine is known to produce conditioned place preference, a sign of enforcement value.[77] Nicotine scores almost as highly as opioids on drug effect questionnaire liking scales, which are a rough indicator of addictive potential.[78] Users may develop tolerance and dependence.[79][80] Thousands of different substances in cigarette smoke, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzopyrene), formaldehyde, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, and phenols contribute to the harmful effects of smoking.[81] Tobacco's overall harm to user and self score as determined by a multi-criteria decision analysis was determined at 3 percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking 6th most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed.[82]
Polonium 210 is a natural contaminant of tobacco, providing additional evidence for the link between smoking and bronchial cancer.[83] It is also extremely toxic, with one microgram being enough to kill the average adult (250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide by weight).[84]
Economic[edit]
This section needs expansion with: discussion of the impact on the poor, taxation, and so forth. You can help by adding to it. (January 2009)
"Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor", and of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies.[68]
Smoking of tobacco is practised worldwide by over one thousand million people. However, while smoking prevalence has declined in many developed countries, it remains high in others and is increasing among women and in developing countries. Between one-fifth and two-thirds of men in most populations smoke. Women's smoking rates vary more widely but rarely equal male rates.[85]
In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15% of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10% of households' expenditure in low-income homes is on tobacco. The poorest 20% of households in Mexico spend 11% of their income on tobacco.[86]
Advertising[edit]
Main article: Tobacco advertising
Tobacco advertising of tobacco products by the tobacco industry is through a variety of media, including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. It is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries.
Cinema[edit]
Thank You for Smoking
The Insider
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Youth Tobacco Prevention: Underage Prevention Laws". Transform Tobacco. Retrieved 4 December 2016. As of August 2014, all but eight states had laws prohibiting minors from purchasing tobacco: Alaska, Colorado, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and West Virginia. All but eleven states had youth tobacco possession laws in place. These are Delaware, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee and Pennsylvania. More troubling, there are still six states which prohibit youth from possessing tobacco, but allow for an exemption where parents or guardians give permission for that possession: Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, and Texas.
Jump up ^ "WHO Report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008 (foreword and summary)" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008: 8. Tobacco is the single most preventable cause of death in the world today.
Jump up ^ "World Association of International Studies, Stanford University".
Jump up ^ Ernst, A. (1889). "On the etymology of the word tobacco". The American Anthropologist. A2 (2): 133–142. doi:10.1525/aa.1889.2.2.02a00020.
Jump up ^ Lane's Lexicon. page 1879.
Jump up ^ The word ṭubāq no longer refers to various herbs, but has come to refer, in some dialects, specifically to tobacco. See Hans Wehr's Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. page 647.
Jump up ^ Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005).
Jump up ^ e.g. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania, p. 149 ff.
Jump up ^ "They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way." - Dièreville describing the Mi'kmaq, circa 1699 in Port Royal.
Jump up ^ Jack Jacob Gottsegen, Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States, 1940, p. 107.
Jump up ^ Harriot, Thomas, A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, 1590, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4247/4247-h/4247-h.htm
Jump up ^ Eric Burns, The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco (2006), A popular history focused on the US.
Jump up ^ Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence (1993), A scholarly history worldwide.
Jump up ^ Charlotte Cosner, The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World (Vanderbilt University Press; 2015)
Jump up ^ Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War (1996)
Jump up ^ Allan Brandt, The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America (2007)
Jump up ^ "WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)". Who.int. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
Jump up ^ Panter, KE; Keeler, RF; Bunch, TD; Callan, RJ (1990). Congenital skeletal malformations and cleft palate induced in goats by ingestion of Lupinus, Conium and Nicotiana species. 28. pp. 1377–1385. PMID 2089736.
Jump up ^ "Inside the Tobacco Deal - interview with David Kessler". PBS. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
Jump up ^ "Tobacco-growing states in the USA" (PDF). Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids.
Jump up ^ Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A, Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A (1997). "Tobacco smoke is a source of toxic reactive glycation products". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (25): 13915–20. PMC 28407  . PMID 9391127. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915.
Jump up ^ "tobacco curing." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide. Abington: Helicon, 2010. Credo Reference. Web. 26 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Tobacco Leaf Harvesting, Curing, and Fermenting". Leaf Only. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pipe Tobacco". Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved April 20, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010." Rome, 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Higher World Tobacco use expected by 2010-growth rates slowing down." (Rome, 2004).
Jump up ^ Rowena Jacobs; et al. (2000). "The Supply-Side Effects Of Tobacco Control Policies". In Prabhat Jha; Frank J. Chaloupka. Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 311ff. ISBN 978-0-19-263250-0. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Hu, T-W; Mao, Z; et al. (2006). "China at the Crossroads: The Economics of Tobacco and Health". Tobacco Control. 15: i37–i41. doi:10.1136/tc.2005.014621. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ "FAOSTAT". Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ US Census Bureau-Foreign Trade Statistics, (Washington DC; 2005)
^ Jump up to: a b Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy."
Jump up ^ "People's Republic of China. "''State Tobacco Monopoly Administration''". Gov.cn. 2005-09-15. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ USC U.S.-China Institute, "Talking Points, February 3–17, 2010: http://china.usc.edu/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=1992
Jump up ^ "Tobacco Board, Guntur". Tobaccoboard.com. Retrieved 2014-04-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Shoba, John and Shailesh Vaite. Tobacco and Poverty: Observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada, 2002.
Jump up ^ "Tobacco Manufacturing in India".
Jump up ^ 3.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy."
^ Jump up to: a b International Tobacco Growers' Association (n.d.). Tobacco farming: sustainable alternatives? Volume 2 (PDF). East Sussex: ITGA. ISBN 1872854028.
Jump up ^ High Level Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor. "Report from South America." 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b ILO. International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations: Field Crop Worker
Jump up ^ UNICEF, The State of the World's Children 1997 (Oxford, 1997); US Department of Agriculture By the Sweat and Toil of Children Volume II: The Use of Child Labor in US Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor (Washington, 1995); ILO Bitter Harvest: Child Labour in Agriculture (Geneva, 1997); ILO Child Labour on Commercial Agriculture in Africa (Geneva 1997)
Jump up ^ Plan International. Malawi Child Tobacco Pickers' '50-a-day habit http://plan-international.org/about-plan/resources/media-centre/press-releases/malawi-child-tobacco-pickers-50-a-day-habit/?searchterm=tobacco
Jump up ^ "International Cigarette Manufacturers," Tobacco Reporter, March 2001
Jump up ^ The Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (November 2001). "Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest: The Costs of Tobacco Farming" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Tobacco Underground". The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor, Peter (September 1994). Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco. London: Panos Briefing Paper.
Jump up ^ FAO Yearbook, Production, Volume 48. 1995.
Jump up ^ National Research Council (1995). Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. National Academy Press.
^ Jump up to: a b World Health Organization. "Tobacco Free Initiative: Environmental issues".
Jump up ^ Tobacco and its environmental impact: an overview World Health Organization, 2017
Jump up ^ Ganapathi TR; et al. (2004). "Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) – A model system for tissue culture interventions and genetic engineering" (PDF). Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 3: 171–184.
Jump up ^ Fraley RT; et al. (1983). "Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80: 4803–4807. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4803F. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.15.4803.
Jump up ^ "Science of Transgenic Cotton". Cottoncrc.org.au. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
^ Jump up to: a b James, Clive (1996). "Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995" (PDF). The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Tobacco". GMO Compass. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ Conner AJ, Glare TR, Nap JP (Jan 2003). "The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part II. Overview of ecological risk assessment". Plant J. 33 (1): 19–46. PMID 12943539. doi:10.1046/j.0960-7412.2002.001607.x.
Jump up ^ American Lung Association. February 2007 An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use
Jump up ^ Beverly Sparks, "Stinging and Biting Pests of People" Extension Entomologist of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service.
Jump up ^ "Generic Materials Search | Organic Materials Review Institute". Omri.org. Retrieved 2014-10-03. Archive
Jump up ^ Timon Screech, "Tobacco in Edo Period Japan" in Smoke, pp. 92-99
Jump up ^ Durkin Sarah; Brennan Emily; Wakefield Melanie (2012). "Mass media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among adults: an integrative review". Tobacco Control. 21 (2): 127–138. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050345.
Jump up ^ Mullin Sandra (2011). "Global anti-smoking campaigns urgently needed". The Lancet. 378 (9795): 970–971. PMID 21741699. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61058-1.
Jump up ^ The First Nonsmoking Nation, Slate.com
Jump up ^ Saner L. Gilman and Zhou Xun, "Introduction" in Smoke; p. 26
Jump up ^ "Guindon & Boisclair" 2004, pp. 13-16.
Jump up ^ Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century 2001, pp.5-6.
Jump up ^ Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking 2001, p.47.
^ Jump up to: a b "WHO/WPRO-Tobacco". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 2005. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
Jump up ^ "Who Fact Sheet: Tobacco". Who.int. 2013-07-26. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ "Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006". Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ "WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics". Wpro.who.int. 2002-05-27. Retrieved 2014-04-21.
Jump up ^ World Health Organization (2008). WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008: The MPOWER Package (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-159628-7. page 14
Jump up ^ "WHO global burden of disease report 2008" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ "WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ "Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archive
Jump up ^ Secondhand Smoke by BeTobaccoFree.gov
Jump up ^ Le Foll, Bernard; Goldberg, Steven R. (1 April 2005). "Nicotine induces conditioned place preferences over a large range of doses in rats". Psychopharmacology. 178 (4): 481–492. ISSN 0033-3158. PMID 15765262. doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2021-5.
Jump up ^ Fischman, N; Mello, N. Testing for Abuse Liability of Drugs in Humans (PDF). 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20857: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration National Institute on Drug Abuse. p. 79.
Jump up ^ "Tobacco Facts - Why is Tobacco So Addictive?". Tobaccofacts.org. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
Jump up ^ "Philip Morris Information Sheet". Stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-04-05. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
Jump up ^ Proctor Robert N (2012). "The history of the discovery of the cigarette-lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll" (PDF). Tobacco Control. 21: 87–91. PMID 22345227. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338.
Jump up ^ Nutt, David J.; King, Leslie A.; Phillips, Lawrence D. (6 November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis". Lancet. 376 (9752): 1558–1565. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 21036393. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6.
Jump up ^ Hunt, Vilma (January 17, 1964). "Polonium-210: A Volatile Radioelement in Cigarettes". Science. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Sublette, Carey. "Polonium Poisoning".
Jump up ^ "Tobacco: Active and Passive Smoking". Greenfacts.org. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
Jump up ^ World Health Organization (2008). WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008: The MPOWER Package (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-159628-7. page 20
Further reading[edit]
"WHO REPORT on the global TOBACCO epidemic" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-01.
"The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-01.
G. Emmanuel Guindon; David Boisclair (2003). "Past, current and future trends in tobacco use" (PDF). Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
The World Health Organization, and the Institute for Global Tobacco Control, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health (2001). "Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2009-01-02. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
"Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
Richard Peto; Alan D Lopez; Jillian Boreham; Michael Thun (2006). "Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950-2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics" (PDF). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
Gilman, Sander L.; Zhou, Xun (2004). Smoke: A Global History of Smoking. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-200-3. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
"Cancer Facts & Figures 2015". American Cancer Society. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
Paul Lichtenstein; Niels V. Holm; Pia K. Verkasalo; Anastasia Iliadou; Jaakko Kaprio; Markku Koskenvuo; Eero Pukkala; Axel Skytthe; Kari Hemminki (2000). Environmental and Heritable Factors in the Causation of Cancer — Analyses of Cohorts of Twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. 343. New England Journal of Medicine. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Montesano, R.; Hall, J. (2001). "Environmental causes of human cancers". European Journal of Cancer. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Janet E. Ash; Maryadele J. O'Neil; Ann Smith; Joanne F. Kinneary (June 1997) [1996]. The Merck Index (12 ed.). Merk and Co. ISBN 0-412-75940-3.
Benedict, Carol. Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550-2010 (2011)
Brandt, Allan. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America (2007)
Breen, T. H. (1985). Tobacco Culture. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00596-6. Source on tobacco culture in 18th-century Virginia pp. 46–55
Burns, Eric. The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007.
Collins, W.K. and S.N. Hawks. "Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production" 1st Edition, 1993
Cosner, Charlotte. The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World (Vanderbilt University Press; 2015)
Fuller, R. Reese (Spring 2003). Perique, the Native Crop. Louisiana Life.
Gately, Iain. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8021-3960-4.
Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History:The Cultures of Dependence (1993), A scholarly history worldwide.
Graves, John. "Tobacco that is not Smoked" in From a Limestone Ledge (the sections on snuff and chewing tobacco) ISBN 0-394-51238-3
Grehan, James. Smoking and "Early Modern" Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries). The American Historical Review, Vol. III, Issue 5. 2006. 22 March 2008 online
Hahn, Barbara. Making Tobacco Bright: Creating an American Commodity, 1617-1937 (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2011) 248 pages; examines how marketing, technology, and demand figured in the rise of Bright Flue-Cured Tobacco, a variety first grown in the inland Piedmont region of the Virginia-North Carolina border.
Killebrew, J. B. and Myrick, Herbert (1909). Tobacco Leaf: Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. Orange Judd Company. Source for flea beetle typology (p. 243)
Kluger, Richard. Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War (1996), Pulitzer Prize
Murphey, Rhoads. Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture: 16th-18th Centuries. Burlington, VT: Ashgate: Variorum, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7546-5931-0 ISBN 0-7546-5931-3
Neuburger, Mary, 2012. Balkan Smoke: tobacco and the making of modern Bulgaria. Cornell University Press. 0801450845, 9780801450846
Poche, L. Aristee (2002). Perique tobacco: Mystery and history.
Price, Jacob M. "The rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake tobacco trade, 1707-1775." William and Mary Quarterly (1954) pp: 179-199. in JSTOR
Tilley, Nannie May The Bright Tobacco Industry 1860–1929 ISBN 0-405-04728-2.
Schoolcraft, Henry R. Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1851–57)
Shechter, Relli. Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East: The Egyptian Tobacco Market 1850–2000. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2006 ISBN 1-84511-137-0
External links[edit]
Find more aboutTobaccoat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
International Tobacco Growers' Association
Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Sheet - Wild tobacco
Ottoman Back Archives and Research Centre
Questions on European Union partial ban on some smokeless tobacco products (i.e. snus)
Timeline of tobacco history
The European tobacco growers website
The Legacy Tobacco Documents Library
UCSF Tobacco Industry Videos Collection
CDC - Smoking and Tobacco Use Fact Sheet
TobReg - WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation
- Statistics and general information about the effects of secondhand-smoke
Scientists Search for Healthy Uses for Tobacco
Charlton A (2004). "Medicinal uses of tobacco in history". J R Soc Med. 97: 292–6. PMC 1079499  . PMID 15173337. doi:10.1258/jrsm.97.6.292.
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Sweden
Switzerland
United States
Just Say No
Office of National Drug Control Policy
School district drug policies
California
Colorado
Maryland
Virginia
Other
Arguments for and against drug prohibition
Capital punishment for drug trafficking
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Alcohol legality
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Annual use
Lifetime use
Cigarette consumption
Cocaine legality
Cocaine use
Methamphetamine legality
Opiates use
Psilocybin mushrooms legality
Salvia legality
[show]
v
t
e
Cigarettes
Types
Fashion
Fire safe
Kretek
Lights
Menthol
Beedi
Components
Tobacco
Rolling paper
Filter
Additives
Peripherals
Ashtray
Case
Holder
Lighter
Pack
Receptacles
Vending machine
Culture
Cigarette card
Cigarette smoking among college students
Loosie
Smoking fetishism
Tobacco smoking
Health issues
Chain smoking
Cigarette smoking for weight loss
Nicotine poisoning
Passive smoking
Third-hand smoke
Schizophrenia and smoking
Sidestream smoke
Smoking cessation
Tobacco harm reduction
Related products
Electronic cigarette
Candy cigarette
Herbal cigarette
Heat-not-burn tobacco product
Nicotine patch
Nicotine gum
Nicotine inhaler
Nicotine lozenge
Tobacco industry
Cultivation of tobacco
Egyptian cigarette industry
History of commercial tobacco in the United States
Tobacco advertising
Government
and the law
Cigarette smuggling
Illicit cigarette trade
Plain cigarette packaging
Smoking age
Smoking bans in private vehicles
Tobacco control movement
Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement
Tobacco packaging warning messages
Tobacco politics
WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products
Lists
Cigarette brands
Cigarette smoke carcinogens
Countries by cigarette consumption per capita
Rolling papers
Smoking bans
Category
Commons
[show]
Pharmacodynamics
[show]
v
t
e
Monoamine metabolism modulators
Non-specific
AAAD
Substrates→Products: L-DOPA (levodopa)→Dopamine
5-HTP→Serotonin
L-Histidine→Histamine
Phenylalanine→Phenethylamine
L-Tyrosine→Tyramine
Tryptophan→Tryptamine
Inhibitors: Benserazide
Carbidopa
DFMD
Genistein
Methyldopa
MAO
Substrates→Products (with ALDH/ALR): Epinephrine (adrenaline)→DHMA
Metanephrine→MHPG/VMA
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)→DHMA
Normetanephrine→MHPG/VMA
Dopamine→DOPAC
3-Methoxytyramine→HVA
Serotonin→5-HIAA
Inhibitors: Non-selective: Benmoxin
Caroxazone
Echinopsidine
Furazolidone
Guineesine
Hydralazine
Indantadol
Iproclozide
Iproniazid
Isocarboxazid
Isoniazid
Linezolid
Mebanazine
Metfendrazine
Nialamide
Octamoxin
Paraxazone
Phenelzine
Pheniprazine
Phenoxypropazine
Pivhydrazine
Procarbazine
Safrazine
Tranylcypromine
Inhibitors: MAO-A-selective: Amiflamine
Bazinaprine
Befloxatone
Brofaromine
Cimoxatone
Clorgiline
CX157 (Tyrima)
Eprobemide
Esuprone
Harmala alkaloids (e.g., harmine, harmaline, harman, norharman, tetrahydroharmine)
Methylene blue
Metralindole
Minaprine
Moclobemide
Pirlindole
Sercloremine
Tetrindole
Toloxatone
Inhibitors: MAO-B selective: Adarigiline
Almoxatone
D-Deprenyl
Ethanol
Ladostigil
Lazabemide
Milacemide
Mofegiline
Nicotine
Pargyline‡
Rasagiline
Safinamide
Selegiline (L-Deprenyl)
Sembragiline
Phenethylamines
(dopamine, epinephrine,
norepinephrine)
PAH
Substrates→Products: Phenylalanine→Tyrosine
Inhibitors: 3,4-Dihydroxystyrene
TH
Substrates→Products: Tyrosine→L-DOPA (levodopa)
Inhibitors: 2-Hydroxyestradiol
2-Hydroxyestrone
3-Iodotyrosine
Aquayamycin
Bulbocapnine
Metirosine
Oudenone
DBH
Substrates→Products: Dopamine→Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Inhibitors: Bupicomide
Disulfiram
Dopastin
Fusaric acid
Nepicastat
Phenopicolinic acid
Tropolone
PNMT
Substrates→Products: Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)→Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Inhibitors: CGS-19281A
SKF-64139
SKF-7698
COMT
Substrates→Products: Dopamine→3-Methoxytyramine
DOPAC→Homovanillic acid
Norepinephrine→Normetanephrine
Epinephrine→Metanephrine
DOPEG→MOPEG
DOMA→VMA
2-Hydroxyestradiol→2-Methoxyestradiol
2-Hydroxyestrone→2-Methoxyestrone
4-Hydroxyestradiol→4-Methoxyestradiol
4-Hydroxyestrone→4-Methoxyestrone
Inhibitors: 2-Hydroxyestradiol
2-Hydroxyestrone
Entacapone
Nitecapone
Opicapone
Tolcapone
Tryptamines
(serotonin, melatonin)
TPH
Substrates→Products: Tryptophan→5-HTP
Inhibitors: AGN-2979
Fenclonine (PCPA)
Telotristat ethyl
AANAT
Substrates→Products: Serotonin→N-Acetylserotonin
ASMT
Substrates→Products: N-Acetylserotonin→Melatonin
Histamine
HDC
Substrates→Products: L-Histidine→Histamine
Inhibitors: Catechin
Meciadanol
Naringenin
Tritoqualine
HNMT
Substrates→Products: Histamine→N-Methylhistamine
Inhibitors: Amodiaquine
Diphenhydramine
Harmaline
Metoprine
Quinacrine
SKF-91,488
Tacrine
DAO
Substrates→Products: Histamine→Imidazole acetic acid
Inhibitors: Pimagedine (aminoguanidine)
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Adrenergics • Dopaminergics • Melatonergics • Serotonergics • Monoamine reuptake inhibitors • Monoamine releasing agents • Monoamine neurotoxins
[show]
v
t
e
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
nAChRs
Agonists: 5-HIAA
A-84,543
A-366,833
A-582,941
A-867,744
ABT-202
ABT-418
ABT-560
ABT-894
Acetylcholine
Altinicline
Anabasine
Anatoxin-a
AR-R17779
Bephenium hydroxynaphthoate
Butinoline
Butyrylcholine
Carbachol
Choline
Cotinine
Cytisine
Decamethonium
Desformylflustrabromine
Dianicline
Dimethylphenylpiperazinium
Epibatidine
Epiboxidine
Ethanol (alcohol)
Ethoxysebacylcholine
EVP-4473
EVP-6124
Galantamine
GTS-21
Ispronicline
Ivermectin
Levamisole
Lobeline
MEM-63,908 (RG-3487)
Morantel
Nicotine (tobacco)
NS-1738
PHA-543,613
PHA-709,829
PNU-120,596
PNU-282,987
Pozanicline
Pyrantel
Rivanicline
RJR-2429
Sazetidine A
SB-206553
Sebacylcholine
SIB-1508Y
SIB-1553A
SSR-180,711
Suberyldicholine
Suxamethonium (succinylcholine)
Suxethonium (succinyldicholine)
TC-1698
TC-1734
TC-1827
TC-2216
TC-5214
TC-5619
TC-6683
Tebanicline
Tribendimidine
Tropisetron
UB-165
Varenicline
WAY-317,538
XY-4083
Antagonists: 18-MAC
18-MC
α-Neurotoxins (e.g., α-bungarotoxin, α-cobratoxin, α-conotoxin, many others)
ABT-126
Alcuronium
Allopregnanolone
Amantadine
Anatruxonium
AQW051
Atracurium
Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental)
BNC-210
Bungarotoxins (e.g., α-bungarotoxin, κ-bungarotoxin)
Bupropion
BW-A444
Candocuronium iodide (chandonium iodide)
Chlorisondamine
Cisatracurium
Coclaurine
Coronaridine
Curare
Cyclopropane
Dacuronium bromide
Decamethonium
Dehydronorketamine
Desflurane
Dextromethorphan
Dextropropoxyphene
Dextrorphan
Diadonium
DHβE
Dihydrochandonium
Dimethyltubocurarine (metocurine)
Dioscorine
Dipyrandium
Dizocilpine (MK-801)
Doxacurium
Encenicline
Enflurane
Erythravine
Esketamine
Fazadinium
Gallamine
Gantacurium chloride
Halothane
Hexafluronium
Hexamethonium (benzohexonium)
Hydroxybupropion
Hydroxynorketamine
Ibogaine
Isoflurane
Ketamine
Kynurenic acid
Laudanosine
Laudexium (laudolissin)
Levacetylmethadol
Levomethadone
Malouetine
ME-18-MC
Mecamylamine
Memantine
Methadone
Methorphan (racemethorphan)
Methyllycaconitine
Metocurine
Mivacurium
Morphanol (racemorphan)
Neramexane
Nitrous oxide
Norketamine
Pancuronium bromide
Pempidine
Pentamine
Pentolinium
Phencyclidine
Pipecuronium bromide
Progesterone
Promegestone
Radafaxine
Rapacuronium bromide
Reboxetine
Rocuronium bromide
Sevoflurane
Stercuronium iodide
Surugatoxin
Thiocolchicoside
Toxiferine
Tramadol
Trimetaphan camsilate (trimethaphan camsylate)
Tropeinium
Tubocurarine
Vanoxerine
Vecuronium bromide
Xenon
Precursors
(and prodrugs)
Acetyl-coA
Adafenoxate
Choline (lecithin)
Citicoline
Cyprodenate
Dimethylethanolamine
Glycerophosphocholine
Meclofenoxate (centrophenoxine)
Phosphatidylcholine
Phosphatidylethanolamine
Phosphorylcholine
Pirisudanol
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators • Acetylcholine metabolism/transport modulators
[show]
v
t
e
TRP channel modulators
TRPA
Activators
4-Hydroxynonenal
4-Oxo-2-nonenal
4,5-EET
12S-HpETE
15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2
α-Sanshool (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Acrolein
Allicin (garlic)
Allyl isothiocyanate (mustard, radish, horseradish, wasabi)
AM404
Bradykinin
Cannabichromene (cannabis)
Cannabidiol (cannabis)
Cannabigerol (cannabis)
Cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon)
CR gas (dibenzoxazepine; DBO)
CS gas (2-chlorobenzal malononitrile)
Curcumin (turmeric)
Dehydroligustilide (celery)
Diallyl disulfide
Dicentrine (Lindera spp.)
Farnesyl thiosalicylic acid
Formalin
Gingerols (ginger)
Hepoxilin A3
Hepoxilin B3
Hydrogen peroxide
Icilin
Isothiocyanate
Ligustilide (celery, Angelica acutiloba)
Linalool (Sichuan pepper, thyme)
Methylglyoxal
Methyl salicylate (wintergreen)
N-Methylmaleimide
Nicotine (tobacco)
Oleocanthal (olive oil)
Paclitaxel (Pacific yew)
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
PF-4840154
Phenacyl chloride
Polygodial (Dorrigo pepper)
Shogaols (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Tear gases
Tetrahydrocannabinol (cannabis)
Thiopropanal S-oxide (onion)
Umbellulone (Umbellularia californica)
WIN 55,212-2
Blockers
Dehydroligustilide (celery)
Nicotine (tobacco)
Ruthenium red
TRPC
Activators
Adhyperforin (St John's wort)
Diacyl glycerol
GSK1702934A
Hyperforin (St John's wort)
Substance P
Blockers
DCDPC
DHEA-S
Flufenamic acid
GSK417651A
GSK2293017A
Meclofenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
Niflumic acid
Pregnenolone sulfate
Progesterone
Pyr3
Tolfenamic acid
TRPM
Activators
ADP-ribose
BCTC
Calcium (intracellular)
Cold
Coolact P
Cooling Agent 10
CPS-369
Eucalyptol (eucalyptus)
Frescolat MGA
Frescolat ML
Geraniol
Hydroxycitronellal
Icilin
Linalool
Menthol (mint)
PMD 38
Pregnenolone sulfate
Rutamarin (Ruta graveolens)
Steviol glycosides (e.g., stevioside) (Stevia rebaudiana)
Sweet tastants (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose; indirectly)
Thio-BCTC
WS-3
WS-12
WS-23
Blockers
Capsazepine
Clotrimazole
DCDPC
Flufenamic acid
Meclofenamic acid
Mefenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
Nicotine (tobacco)
Niflumic acid
Ruthenium red
Rutamarin (Ruta graveolens)
Tolfenamic acid
TPPO
TRPML
Activators
MK6-83
PI(3,5)P2
SF-22
TRPP
Activators
Triptolide (Tripterygium wilfordii)
Blockers
Ruthenium red
TRPV
Activators
2-APB
5',6'-EET
9-HODE
9-oxoODE
12S-HETE
12S-HpETE
13-HODE
13-oxoODE
20-HETE
α-Sanshool (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Allicin (garlic)
AM404
Anandamide
Bisandrographolide (Andrographis paniculata)
Camphor (camphor laurel, rosemary, camphorweed, African blue basil, camphor basil)
Cannabidiol (cannabis)
Cannabidivarin (cannabis)
Capsaicin (chili pepper)
Carvacrol (oregano, thyme, pepperwort, wild bergamot, others)
DHEA
Diacyl glycerol
Dihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Estradiol
Eugenol (basil, clove)
Evodiamine (Euodia ruticarpa)
Gingerols (ginger)
GSK1016790A
Heat
Hepoxilin A3
Hepoxilin B3
Homocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Homodihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Incensole (incense)
Lysophosphatidic acid
Low pH (acidic conditions)
Menthol (mint)
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine
N-Oleoyldopamine
N-Oleoylethanolamide
Nonivamide (PAVA) (PAVA spray)
Nordihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Paclitaxel (Pacific yew)
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Phorbol esters (e.g., 4α-PDD)
Piperine (black pepper, long pepper)
Polygodial (Dorrigo pepper)
Probenecid
Protons
Rutamarin (Ruta graveolens)
Resiniferatoxin (RTX) (Euphorbia resinifera/pooissonii)
Shogaols (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Tetrahydrocannabivarin (cannabis)
Thymol (thyme, oregano)
Tinyatoxin (Euphorbia resinifera/pooissonii)
Tramadol
Vanillin (vanilla)
Zucapsaicin
Blockers
α-Spinasterol (Vernonia tweediana)
AMG-517
Asivatrep
BCTC
Cannabigerol (cannabis)
Cannabigerolic acid (cannabis)
Cannabigerovarin (cannabis)
Cannabinol (cannabis)
Capsazepine
DCDPC
DHEA
DHEA-S
Flufenamic acid
GRC-6211
HC-067047
Lanthanum
Meclofenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
NGD-8243
Niflumic acid
Pregnenolone sulfate
RN-1734
RN-9893
Ruthenium red
SB-705498
Tolfenamic acid
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Ion channel modulators
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values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabak
Tabak – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabak
Tabak – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

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Tabaco – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

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Tabacu – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

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https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbaku
Timbaku – Banjar
bjn
bjn
interlanguage-link-target

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https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butun
Butun – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabac
Tabac – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fodya
Fodya – Shona
sn
sn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tybaco
Tybaco – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duwack
Duwack – Pennsylvania German
pdc
pdc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabak
Tabak – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: Καπνός (φυτό) – Greek

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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaco
Tabaco – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabako
Tabako – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

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https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubbak
Tubbak – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabac
Tabac – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabak
Tabak – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobac
Tobac – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

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https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabako
Tabako – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembakau
Tembakau – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabacco
Tabacco – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bako
Bako – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbaku
Tumbaku – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabacum
Tabacum – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaka
Tabaka – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabakas
Tabakas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toebak
Toebak – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

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https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaco
Tabaco – Mirandese
mwl
mwl
interlanguage-link-target

values: ဆေးလိပ် – Burmese

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https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabak
Tabak – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

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https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobakk
Tobakk – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobakk
Tobakk – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%27tun
P'tun – Norman
nrm
nrm
interlanguage-link-target

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https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabat
Tabat – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamaki
Tamaki – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaco
Tabaco – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutun
Tutun – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaccae
Tabaccae – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobak
Tobak – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buuri
Buuri – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupakka
Tupakka – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobak
Tobak – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabako
Tabako – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

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values: ยาสูบ – Thai

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https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%27ien
Go'ien – Zhuang
za
za
interlanguage-link-target

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https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toebak
Toebak – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

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