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Food waste
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Food waste or food loss is food that is discarded or lost uneaten. The causes of food waste or loss are numerous and occur at the stages of producing, processing, retailing and consuming.
Global food loss and waste amount to between one-third[1] and one-half[2] of all food produced. Loss and wastage occur at all stages of the food supply chain or value chain. In low-income countries, most loss occurs during production, while in developed countries much food – about 100 kilograms (220 lb) per person per year – is wasted at the consumption stage.[3]
Contents
1 Definition
1.1 United Nations
1.2 European Union
1.3 United States
1.4 Other definitions
2 Causes
2.1 Production
2.2 Food processing
2.3 Retail
2.4 Consumption
3 Extent
3.1 Global extent
3.2 Individual countries
3.2.1 New Zealand
3.2.2 Singapore
3.2.3 United Kingdom
3.2.4 United States
3.2.5 Denmark
4 Reduction and disposal
4.1 Consumer marketing and education
4.2 Landfills and greenhouse gases
4.3 Municipal collection
4.4 Animal feed
4.5 Composting
4.6 Anaerobic digestion
4.7 Commercial liquid food waste
4.8 Agricultural food waste
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Definition[edit]
Generally, food loss or food waste is food that is lost during any of the four stages of the food supply chain: (1) growers, (2) processors, (3) retailers, and (4) consumers.[4] Precise definitions are contentious, often defined on a situational basis (as is the case more generally with definitions of waste).[4][5]:x-xi Professional bodies, including international organizations, state governments and secretariats may use their own definitions.[6]:1
Definitions of food waste vary, among other things, in what food waste consists of,[7] how it is produced,[8] and where or what it is discarded from or generated by.[7] Definitions also vary because certain groups do not consider (or have traditionally not considered) food waste to be a waste material, due to its applications.[9][6]:2 Some definitions of what food waste consists of are based on other waste definitions (e.g. agricultural waste) and which materials do not meet their definitions.[10]
Lost food may go to landfills, be put back into the food supply chain, or be put to other nonfood productive uses.[4]
United Nations[edit]
Under the UN's Save Food initiative, the FAO, UNEP, and stakeholders have agreed on the following definition of food loss and waste:[11]
Food loss is the decrease in quantity or quality of food. Food loss in the production and distribution segments of the food supply chain is mainly a function of the food production and supply system or its institutional and legal framework.
Food waste (which is a component of food loss) is any removal of food from the food supply chain which is or was at some point fit for human consumption, or which has spoiled or expired, mainly caused by economic behaviour, poor stock management or neglect.
Important components of this definition include:[12]
Food waste is a part of food loss, but the distinction between the two is not clearly defined
Food redirected to non-food chains (including animal feed, compost or recovery to bioenergy) is counted as food loss or waste.
Plants and animals produced for food contain 'non-food parts' which are not included in 'food loss and waste' (these inedible parts are sometimes referred to as 'unavoidable food waste'[13]
European Union[edit]
In the European Union, food waste was defined as "any food substance, raw or cooked, which is discarded, or intended or required to be discarded" since 1975 until 2000 when the old directive was repealed by Directive 2008/98/EC, which has no specific definition of food waste.[14][15][15] The directive, 75/442/EEC, containing this definition was amended in 1991 (91/156) with the addition of "categories of waste" (Annex I) and the omission of any reference to national law.[16]
United States[edit]
Food waste alternative.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines food waste for the United States as "uneaten food and food preparation wastes from residences and commercial establishments such as grocery stores, restaurants, and produce stands, institutional cafeterias and kitchens, and industrial sources like employee lunchrooms".[8] The states remain free to define food waste differently for their purposes,[9][17] though many choose not to.[10] According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, Americans throw away up to 40% of food that is safe to eat.[18]
Other definitions[edit]
The definitions by the UN and EU have come under criticism for including food that goes to nonfood productive use in their definitions of food waste.[4] According to the authors of one study, this is flawed for two reasons: "First, if recovered food is used as an input, such as animal feed, fertilizer, or biomass to produce output, then by definition it is not wasted. However, there might be economic losses if the cost of recovered food is higher than the average cost of inputs in the alternative, nonfood use. Second, the definition creates practical problems for measuring food waste because the measurement requires tracking food loss in every stage of the supply chain and its proportion that flows to nonfood uses."[4] The authors of the study argue that only food that ends up in landfills should be counted as food waste.[4]
Causes[edit]
Production[edit]
In the US, food waste can occur at most stages of the food industry and in significant amounts.[19] In subsistence agriculture, the amounts of food waste are unknown, but are likely to be insignificant by comparison, due to the limited stages at which waste can occur, and given that food is grown for projected need as opposed to a global marketplace demand.[20][21] Nevertheless, on-farm losses in storage in developing countries, particularly in African countries, can be high although the exact nature of such losses is much debated.[22]
In the food industry of the United States, the food supply of which is the most diverse and abundant of any country in the world, waste occurs from the beginning of food production chain.[19] From planting, crops can be subjected to pest infestations and severe weather,[23][24] which cause losses before harvest.[19] Since natural forces (e.g. temperature and precipitation) remain the primary drivers of crop growth, losses from these can be experienced by all forms of outdoor agriculture.[25] On average, farms in the United States lose up to six billion pounds of crops every year because of these unpredictable conditions.[26] The use of machinery in harvesting can cause waste, as harvesters may be unable to discern between ripe and immature crops, or collect only part of a crop.[19] Economic factors, such as regulations and standards for quality and appearance,[27] also cause food waste; farmers often harvest selectively, preferring to leave crops not to standard in the field (where they can be used as fertilizer or animal feed), since they would otherwise be discarded later.[19] This method of removing undesirable produce from harvest collection, distribution sites and grocery stores is called Culling.[28] The USDA defines culling as “the individual removal of genetically undesirable, inferior, weak, diseased, or infested plants from a planting in order to ensure the level of genetic purity or vigor of the crop”.[29] However, usually when culling occurs at the production, food processing, retail and consumption stages, it is to remove or dispose of produce with a strange or imperfect appearance rather than produce that is spoiled or unsafe to eat.[3] In urban areas, fruit and nut trees often go unharvested because people either don't realize that the fruit is edible or they fear that it is contaminated, despite research which shows that urban fruit is safe to consume.[30]
Food processing[edit]
Food waste continues in the post-harvest stage, but the amounts of post-harvest loss involved are relatively unknown and difficult to estimate.[31]:1 Regardless, the variety of factors that contribute to food waste, both biological/environmental and socio-economical, would limit the usefulness and reliability of general figures.[31]:1,7-8 In storage, considerable quantitative losses can be attributed to pests and micro-organisms.[citation needed] This is a particular problem for countries that experience a combination of heat (around 30 °C) and ambient humidity (between 70 and 90 per cent), as such conditions encourage the reproduction of insect pests and micro-organisms.[32] Losses in the nutritional value, caloric value and edibility of crops, by extremes of temperature, humidity or the action of micro-organisms,[33] also account for food waste.[34] Further losses are generated in the handling of food and by shrinkage in weight or volume.[19]
Some of the food waste produced by processing can be difficult to reduce without affecting the quality of the finished product.[6]:3 Food safety regulations are able to claim foods which contradict standards before they reach markets.[19] Although this can conflict with efforts to reuse food waste (such as in animal feed),[35] safety regulations are in place to ensure the health of the consumer; they are vitally important, especially in the processing of foodstuffs of animal origin (e.g. meat and dairy products), as contaminated products from these sources can lead to and are associated with microbiological and chemical hazards.[36][37]
Retail[edit]
Discarded bagels
Packaging protects food from damage during its transportation from farms and factories via warehouses to retailing, as well as preserving its freshness upon arrival.[38] Although it avoids considerable food waste,[38][39] packaging can compromise efforts to reduce food waste in other ways, such as by contaminating waste that could be used for animal feedstocks.[40]
In 2013 the non-profit Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) performed research that they state suggests that the leading cause of food waste in America is due to uncertainty over food expiration dates, such as confusion in deciphering best before, sell-by or use-by dates.[41] Joined by Harvard Law, the NRDC produced a study called The Dating Game: How Confusing Food Date Labels Leads to Food Waste in America.[42] This United States-based study looked at the intertwining laws which lead labeling to end up unclear and erratic.[43] This uncertainty leads to consumers to toss food, most often because they think the food may be unsafe or misunderstand the labeling on the food completely. Lack of regulation on labeling can result in large quantities of food being removed from the market overall.[41]
Retail stores throw away large quantities of food. Usually, this consists of items that have reached their either their best before, sell-by or use-by dates. Food that has passed the best before, and sell-by date, and even some food that passed the use-by date is still edible at the time of disposal, but stores have widely varying policies to handle the excess food. Some stores put effort into preventing access to poor or homeless people, while others work with charitable organizations to distribute food. Retailers also contribute to waste as a result of their contractual arrangements with suppliers. Failure to supply agreed quantities renders farmers or processors liable to have their contracts cancelled. As a consequence, they plan to produce more than actually required to meet the contract, to have a margin of error. Surplus production is often simply disposed of.[44]
Retailers usually have strict cosmetic standards for produce, and if fruits or vegetables are misshapen or superficially bruised, they are often not put on the shelf. In the United States, an estimated six billion pounds of produce is wasted each year because of its appearance.[45] The USDA publishes guidelines used as a baseline assessment by produce distributors, grocery stores, restaurants and other consumers in order to rate the quality of food.[46] These guidelines and how they rate are readily available on their website. For example, apples get graded by their size, color, wax residue, firmness, and skin appearance. If an apples rank highly in these categories and show close to no superficial defects, they are rated as “U.S. Extra Fancy” or “U.S. Fancy”, these are the typical ratings sought out by grocery stores when purchasing their produce.[47] Any apples with suboptimal levels of appearance are ranked as either “U.S. Number 1” or “Utility” and are not normally purchased for retail, as recommended by produce marketing sources, despite being safe and edible.[47][48]
The fish industry also contributes to the annual amount of food waste because of cosmetic standards that the fish are held up to. Nearly "2.3 million tonnes of fish (are) discarded in the North Atlantic and the North Sea each year." Approximately 40 to 60 percent of "all fish caught in Europe is discarded – either because they are the wrong size or species."[44] Addressing this, there are many campaigns focused on raising retailer and consumer awareness about food that fails to meet certain standards for appearance.
Consumption[edit]
Consumers are directly and indirectly responsible for wasting a lot of food, which could for a large part be avoided if they were willing to accept suboptimal food (SOF) that deviates in sensory characteristics (odd shapes, discolourations) or has a best-before date that is approaching or has passed, but is still perfectly fine to eat.[49] COSUS (COnsumers in a SUStainable food supply chain) is a SUSFOOD ERA-net research project under the topic 'Understanding consumer behaviour to encourage a (more) sustainable food choice'.[50]
Extent[edit]
Global extent[edit]
The 2011 SIK study estimated the total of global food loss and waste to around one third of the edible parts of food produced for human consumption, amounting to about 1.3 billion tonnes (1.28×109 long tons; 1.43×109 short tons) per year.[3]:4 As the following table shows, industrialized and developing countries differ substantially. In developing countries, it is estimated that 400–500 calories per day per person are going to waste, while in developed countries 1,500 calories per day per person are wasted.[51] In the former, more than 40% of losses occur at the postharvest and processing stages, while in the latter, more than 40% of losses occur at the retail and consumer levels. The total food waste by consumers in industrialized countries (222 million tonnes or 218,000,000 long tons or 245,000,000 short tons) is almost equal to the entire food production in sub-Saharan Africa (230 million tonnes or 226,000,000 long tons or 254,000,000 short tons).[3]:4
Food loss and waste per person per year[3]:5
Total
At the production
and retail stages
By consumers
Europe 280 kg (617 lb) 190 kg (419 lb) 90 kg (198 lb)
North America and Oceania 295 kg (650 lb) 185 kg (408 lb) 110 kg (243 lb)
Industrialized Asia 240 kg (529 lb) 160 kg (353 lb) 80 kg (176 lb)
sub-Saharan Africa 160 kg (353 lb) 155 kg (342 lb) 5 kg (11 lb)
North Africa, West and Central Asia 215 kg (474 lb) 180 kg (397 lb) 35 kg (77 lb)
South and Southeast Asia 125 kg (276 lb) 110 kg (243 lb) 15 kg (33 lb)
Latin America 225 kg (496 lb) 200 kg (441 lb) 25 kg (55 lb)
A 2013 report from the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IME) likewise estimated that 30–50% (or 1.2–2 billion tonnes or 1.18×109–1.97×109 long tons or 1.32×109–2.20×109 short tons ) of all food produced remains uneaten.[52]
Individual countries[edit]
New Zealand[edit]
Main article: Food waste in New Zealand
Singapore[edit]
In Singapore, 788,600 tonnes (776,100 long tons; 869,300 short tons) of food was wasted in 2014.[53] Of that, 101,400 tonnes (99,800 long tons; 111,800 short tons) were recycled.[54] Since Singapore has limited agriculture ability, the country spent about S$14.8 billion (US$10.6 billion) on importing food in 2014. US$1.4 billion of it ends up being wasted, or 13 percent.[55]
United Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Food waste in the United Kingdom
In the UK, 6,700,000 tonnes (6,590,000 long tons; 7,390,000 short tons) per year of wasted food (purchased and edible food which is discarded) amounts to a cost of £10.2 billion each year. This represents costs of £250 to £400 a year per household.[56]
United States[edit]
Estimates of food waste in the United States range from 35 million tons to 103 million tons.[4] In a study done by National Geographic in 2014, Elizabeth Royte indicated more than 30 percent of food in the United States, valued at $162 billion annually, isn't eaten.[57] The University of Arizona conducted a study in 2004, which indicated that 14 to 15% of United States edible food is untouched or unopened, amounting to $43 billion worth of discarded, but edible, food.[58] In 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture has come forth with estimations from the Economic Research Service that approximates food waste in the United States to be equivalent to 141 trillion calories.[59]
Denmark[edit]
According to Ministry of Environment (Denmark), over 700,000 tonnes per year of food is wasted every year in Denmark in the entire food value chain from farm to fork.[60] Due to the work of activist Selina Juul's Stop Wasting Food movement, Denmark has achieved a national reduction in food waste by 25% in 5 years (2010–2015).[61][62][63][64][65][66]
Reduction and disposal[edit]
Limiting food wastage has seen the adoption of former World War I and World War II slogans by antiwaste groups such as WRAP.[56]
Response to the problem of food waste at all social levels has varied hugely, including campaigns from advisory and environmental groups,[67] and concentrated media attention on the subject.[56][68]
As alternatives to landfill, food waste can be composted to produce soil and fertilizer, fed to animals, or used to produce energy or fuel.
Consumer marketing and education[edit]
One way of dealing with food waste is to reduce its creation. Consumers can reduce spoilage by planning their food shopping, avoiding potentially wasteful spontaneous purchases, and storing foods properly.[67] Widespread educational campaigns have been shown to be an effective way to reduce food waste.[69] A British campaign called “Love Food Hate Waste” has raised awareness about preventative measures to address food waste for consumers. Through advertisements, information on food storage and preparation and in-store education, the UK observed a 21% decrease in avoidable household food waste over the course of 5 years.[70] Another potential solution is for "smart packaging" which would indicate when food is spoiled more precisely than expiration dates currently do, for example with temperature-sensitive ink,[71] plastic that changes color when exposed to oxygen,[72] or gels that change color with time.[73]
An initiative in Curitiba, Brazil called Cambio Verde allows farmers to provide surplus produce (produce they would otherwise discard due to too low prices) to people that bring glass and metal to recycling facilities (to encourage further waste reduction).[74] In Europe, the Food Surplus Entrepreneurs Network (FSE Network), coordinates a network of social businesses and nonprofit initiatives with the goal to spread best practices to increase the use of surplus food and reduction of food waste.[75]
Landfills and greenhouse gases[edit]
Dumping food waste in a landfill causes odour as it decomposes, attracts flies and vermin, and has the potential to add biological oxygen demand (BOD) to the leachate. The European Union Landfill Directive and Waste Regulations, like regulations in other countries,[which?] enjoin diverting organic wastes away from landfill disposal for these reasons. Starting in 2015, organic waste from New York City restaurants will be banned from landfills.[76]
In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, food scraps constitute around 19% of the waste dumped in landfills, where it ends up rotting and producing methane, a greenhouse gas.[77]
Methane, or CH4, is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas that is released into the air, also produced by landfills in the U.S. Although methane spends less time in the atmosphere (12 years) than CO2, it's more efficient at trapping radiation. It is 25 times greater to impact climate change than CO2 in a 100-year period. Humans accounts over 60% of methane emissions globally.[78]
Municipal collection[edit]
In areas where the waste collection is a public function, food waste is usually managed by the same governmental organization as other waste collection. Most food waste is combined with general waste at the source. Separate collections, also known as source-separated organics, have the advantage that food wastes can be disposed of in ways not applicable to other wastes. In the United States, companies find higher and better uses for large commercial generators of food and beverage waste.
From the end of the 19th century through the middle of the 20th century, many municipalities collected food waste (called "garbage" as opposed to "trash") separately. This was typically disinfected by steaming and fed to pigs, either on private farms or in municipal piggeries.[79]
Separate curbside collection of food waste is now being revived in some areas. To keep collection costs down and raise the rate of food waste segregation, some local authorities, especially in Europe, have introduced "alternate weekly collections" of biodegradable waste (including, e.g., garden waste), which enable a wider range of recyclable materials to be collected at reasonable cost, and improve their collection rates. However, they result in a two-week wait before the waste will be collected. The criticism is that particularly during hot weather, food waste rots and stinks, and attracts vermin. Waste container design is therefore essential to making such operations feasible. Curbside collection of food waste is also done in the U.S., some ways by combining food scraps and yard waste together. Several states in the U.S. have introduced a yard waste ban, not accepting leaves, brush, trimmings, etc. in landfills. Collection of food scraps and yard waste combined is then recycled and composted for reuse.
Animal feed[edit]
Large quantities of fish, meat, dairy and grain are discarded at a global scale annually, when they can be used for things other than human consumption. The feeding of food scraps to domesticated animals is, historically, the most common way of dealing with household food waste. The animals turn roughly two thirds of their ingested food into gas or fecal waste, while the last third is digested and repurposed as meat or dairy products. There are also different ways of growing produce and feeding livestock that could ultimately reduce waste.
Bread and other cereal products discarded from the human food chain could be used to feed chickens. Chickens have traditionally been given mixtures of waste grains and milling by-products in a mixture called chicken scratch. As well, giving table scraps to backyard chickens is a large part of that movement's claim to sustainability, though not all backyard chicken growers recommend it.[80] Ruminants and pigs have also been fed bakery waste for a long time.[81]
Certain food waste (such as flesh) can also be used as feed in maggot farming.[82] The maggots can then be fed to other animals.
Composting[edit]
Inevitable waste: peels of potato, onion, lemon, tangerine, banana, kiwi, egg
Food waste can be biodegraded by composting, and reused to fertilize soil. Composting is the aerobic process completed by microorganisms in which the bacteria break down the food waste into simpler organic materials that can then be used in soil.[83] By redistributing nutrients and high microbial populations, compost reduces water runoff and soil erosion by enhancing rainfall penetration, which has been shown to reduce the loss of sediment, nutrients, and pesticide losses to streams by 75–95%.[84]
Traditional composting uses microbes to perform the decomposition, a process that is most efficient using low, mid, and high temperature microbes (psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic – respectively).[83] The high temperatures required by the thermophilic microorganisms are hot enough to kill pathogens, making the product of this traditional composting satisfactory for use in soil according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) standards. The traditional decomposition process requires a long length of time and additional energy expended to turn the material frequently and maintain the aerobic process. Composting by thermophilic microbes can lead to nutrient loss and the compost product is heterogeneous, with the potential for higher levels of contaminants which can be harmful if used in agriculture.[85] An alternate method of composting is vermicomposting.
Vermicomposting is the practise of feeding scraps to worms who produce fertilized soil as a byproduct.[86][87][88] The process of composting using earth worms is completed in a short duration of time and requires no additional energy to turn and maintain aerobic processes, as these actions are already performed by the worms. In order to keep the worms alive, the environment has to be kept below 35° Celsius, therein making this compost ineligible for use in agriculture according to the EPA standards. The product of vermicomposting is homogenous and generally contains lower levels of contaminants than traditional composting. Some look to integrate vermicomposting and traditional composting in an effort to maximize efficiency while producing a high quality organic product that can be used in agriculture.[85]
Composting food waste leads to a decrease in the quantity of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. In landfills, organic food waste decomposes anaerobically, producing methane gas that is emitted into the atmosphere. When this biodegradable waste is composted, it decomposes aerobically and does not produce methane, but instead produces organic compost that can then be utilized in agriculture.[89] Recently, the city of New York has begun to require that restaurants and food-producing companies begin to compost their leftover food.[90] Another instance of composting progress is a Wisconsin-based company called WasteCap, who is dedicated towards aiding local communities create composting plans.[91]
Municipal Food Waste (MFW) can be composted to create this product of organic fertilizer, and many municipalities choose to do this citing environmental protection and economic efficiency as reasoning. Transporting and dumping waste in landfills requires both money and room in the landfills that have very limited available space.[92] One municipality who chose to regulate MFW is San Francisco, who requires citizens to separate compost from trash on their own, instituting fines for non-compliance at $100 for individual homes and $500 for businesses. The city's economic reasoning for this controversial mandate is supported by their estimate that one business can save up to $30000 annually on garbage disposal costs with the implementation of the required composting.[89] Composting is an economical and environmentally conscious step many homeowners could take to reduce their impact on landfill waste. Instead of food scraps and spoiled food taking up space in trashcans or stinking up the kitchen before the bag is full, it could be put outside and broken down by worms and added to garden beds.
Anaerobic digestion[edit]
Anaerobic digestion produces both useful gaseous products and a solid fibrous "compostable" material. Anaerobic digestion plants can provide energy from waste by burning the methane created from food and other organic wastes to generate electricity, defraying the plants' costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that the use of anaerobic composting allows for large amounts of food waste to avoid the landfills. Instead of producing these greenhouse gasses into the environment from being in a landfill, the gasses can alternatively be harnessed in these facilities for reuse.[93]
Since this process of composting produces high volumes of biogas, there are potential safety issues such as explosion and poisoning. These interactions require proper maintenance and personal protective equipment is utilized.[94] Certain U.S. states, such as Oregon, have implemented the requirement for permits on such facilities, based on the potential danger to the population and surrounding environment.[95]
Food waste coming through the sanitary sewers from garbage disposal units is treated along with other sewage and contributes to sludge.
Commercial liquid food waste[edit]
Commercially, food waste in the form of wastewater coming from commercial kitchens’ sinks, dishwashers and floor drains is collected in holding tanks called grease interceptors to minimize flow to the sewer system. This often foul-smelling waste contains both organic and inorganic waste (chemical cleaners, etc.) and may also contain hazardous hydrogen sulfide gases. It is referred to as fats, oils, and grease (FOG) waste or more commonly "brown grease" (versus "yellow grease", which is fryer oil that is easily collected and processed into biodiesel) and is an overwhelming problem, especially in the USA, for the aging sewer systems. Per the US EPA, sanitary sewer overflows also occur due to the improper discharge of FOGs to the collection system.[96] Overflows discharge 3 billion US gallons (11,000,000 m3) – 10 billion US gallons (38,000,000 m3) of untreated wastewater annually into local waterways, and up to 3,700 illnesses annually are due to exposure to contamination from sanitary sewer overflows into recreational waters.[97]
Agricultural food waste[edit]
Nearly all global produce, eaten or disposed of is grown using irrigated water. Irrigated water represents the largest sector of water withdraws worldwide, with as much as 90% of total water withdraws being allocated towards agricultural usage.[98] Food which goes uneaten can account for vast quantities of water waste, with food waste being the largest area the average US citizen contributes to water waste.[99]

See also[edit]
Food portal
Gleaning
Anaerobic digestion
Food rescue
Waste & Resources Action Programme
List of waste types
Post-harvest losses (grains)
Post-harvest losses (vegetables)
Source Separated Organics
Waste management
Olio (app)
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Jump up ^ Rosenzweig, Cynthia; Iglesias, Ana; Yang, X.B; Epstein, Paul R; Chivian, Eric (2001). "Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events; Implications for Food Production, Plant Diseases, and Pests". Global Change and Human Health. 2 (2): 90–104. doi:10.1023/A:1015086831467.
Jump up ^ Haile, Menghestab (2005). "Weather patterns, food security and humanitarian response in sub-Saharan Africa". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 360 (1463): 2169–82. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1746. PMC 1569582.
Jump up ^ Foundation, GRACE Communications. "Food Waste". GRACE Communications Foundation. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
Jump up ^ "Wonky fruit & vegetables make a comeback!". European Parliament. 2009. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2009-08-21.
Jump up ^ Goldenberg, Suzanna (July 13, 2016). "Half of all US food produce is thrown away, new research suggests". The Guardian. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "NAL Agricultural Glossary". USDA.
Jump up ^ "Is it safe to eat apples picked off city trees? – The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 2015-12-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Morris, Robert F.; United States National Research Council (1978). Postharvest food losses in developing countries. National Academy of Sciences.
Jump up ^ "Loss and waste: Do we really know what is involved?". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ Lacey, J (1989). "Pre- and post-harvest ecology of fungi causing spoilage of foods and other stored products". Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 67 (s18): 11s–25s. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1989.tb03766.x.
Jump up ^ "Post-harvest system and food losses". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ Dalzell, Janet M. (2000). Food industry and the environment in the European Union: practical issues and cost implications. Springer. p. 300. ISBN 0-8342-1719-8. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Meat Processing" (PDF). 2007: 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin". Europa. 2009. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
"Foodstuffs of animal origin … may present microbiological and chemical hazards"
^ Jump up to: a b "Making the most of packaging, A strategy for a low-carbon economy" (PDF). Defra. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-08. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Gordon L. (2006). Food packaging: principles and practice. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3775-8. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
Jump up ^ "Review of Food Waste Depackaging Equipment" (PDF). Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP). 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-27. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "New Report: Food Expiration Date Confusion Causing up to 90% of Americans to Waste Food". NRDC. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ Greenaway, Twilight (2016-06-26). "Can Walmart's food labels make a dent in America's $29bn food waste problem?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
Jump up ^ Sacks, Stefanie (2014). What the Fork Are You Eating?: An Action Plan for Your Pantry and Plate. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 155. ISBN 9780399167966.
^ Jump up to: a b * Stuart, Tristram (2009). Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal: The True Cost of What the Global Food Industry Throws Away. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-103634-6.
Jump up ^ "6 Billion Pounds Of Perfectly Edible Produce Is Wasted Every Year Because It's Ugly". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-12-17.
Jump up ^ "USDA Grades and Standards". USDA.
^ Jump up to: a b "Apple Grades and Standards".
Jump up ^ "Fruit Product Sheet" (PDF). Produce Marketing Association.
Jump up ^ Aschemann-Witzel, Jessica; De Hooge, Ilona; Amani, Pegah; Bech-Larsen, Tino; Oostindjer, Marije (2015). "Consumer-Related Food Waste: Causes and Potential for Action". Sustainability. 7 (6): 6457–77. doi:10.3390/su7066457.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to COSUS – an ERA-Net SUSFOOD project". cosus.nmbu.no. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
Jump up ^ Kim, Jim Yong (2014-03-21). "Food Waste – a Bigger Problem Than You Thought". Voices. Retrieved 2016-04-28.
Jump up ^ Institution of Mechanical Engineers. "Global Food: Waste not, want not" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Most people here concerned about food waste: Poll". The Straits Times. 11 August 2015. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
Jump up ^ "2 hawker centres to pilot food waste recycling systems". Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved 2016-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Food waste: Where food matters, looks matter more". Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved 2016-04-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c Juliette Jowit. "Call to use leftovers and cut food waste". the Guardian. Retrieved 2015-09-22.
Jump up ^ "One-Third of Food Is Lost or Wasted: What Can Be Done". news.nationalgeographic.com. 2014-10-13. Retrieved 2016-04-25.
Jump up ^ "US wastes half its food". Retrieved 2009-03-27.
Jump up ^ "USDA ERS - The Estimated Amount, Value, and Calories of Postharvest Food Losses at the Retail and Consumer Levels in the United States". www.ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ Selina Juul. "Will Denmark Win The Global Race Against Food Waste?". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-04-19.
Jump up ^ Helen Russell. "How did Denmark become a leader in the food waste revolution?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-07-13.
Jump up ^ Irene Hell. "Denmark leads Europe in tackling food waste". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Bloom. "Denmark Capitalizes on Culture to Stop Food Waste". National Geographic. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
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Jump up ^ Harriet Noble. "Denmark's Food Waste Vigilante". BBC World Hacks. Retrieved 2017-02-18.
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^ Jump up to: a b Wrap – Household Food Waste Archived 2010-03-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Britain's colossal food waste is stoking climate change". The Independent. Retrieved 2015-09-22.
Jump up ^ Calvo-Porral, Cristina; Medín, Andrés Faiña; Losada-López, Chema (2016). "Can Marketing Help in Tackling Food Waste?: Proposals in Developed Countries". Journal of Food Products Marketing. 23 (1): 42–60. doi:10.1080/10454446.2017.1244792.
Jump up ^ Quested, Tom (November 2009). "Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK" (PDF). WRAP.
Jump up ^ "Food spoilage indicator – Packaging World".
Jump up ^ "The smart way to reduce food waste – Global Food Security". foodsecurity.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-01-03.
Jump up ^ Ryan Jaslow (March 17, 2014). Smart tags change color when food goes bad. CBC News.
Jump up ^ Cambio verde project in Curitiba, Brazil Archived 2014-03-08 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Depouillon, Joris. "Food Surplus Entrepreneur". EU FUSIONS. Retrieved 2015-08-09.
Jump up ^ Joel Rose (2014-03-11). "Turning Food Waste Into Fuel Takes Gumption And Trillions Of Bacteria". NPR.
Jump up ^ From Farm to Fridge to Garbage Can. // The New York Times, 1.11.2010
Jump up ^ "USDA | OCE | U.S. Food Waste Challenge | FAQ's". www.usda.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Most of the smaller cities in this country dispose of a part or all their garbage by feeding to swine, but ... only four maintain municipal piggeries." Capes and Carpenter, 1918, p. 169
Jump up ^ Chicken Feed: How to Feed Chickens. "Feeding Chickens: What to feed chickens to keep them healthy | Keeping Chickens: A Beginners Guide". Keeping Chickens. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
Jump up ^ Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Boudon A., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2018. Bakery waste. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/70 Last updated on February 1, 2018, 15:46
Jump up ^ AgriProtein using food and abattoir waste to farm maggots
^ Jump up to: a b Roy, Ken (October 2011). "Trash talk: How to compost safely". Science Scope. 35 (2): 82–3. JSTOR 43183137.
Jump up ^ "USDA | OCE | U.S. Food Waste Challenge | Recycling". www.usda.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Ndegwa, P.M; Thompson, S.A (2001). "Integrating composting and vermicomposting in the treatment and bioconversion of biosolids". Bioresource Technology. 76 (2): 107–12. doi:10.1016/s0960-8524(00)00104-8. PMID 11131792.
Jump up ^ "Sustainability and Social Justice" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-04. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
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Jump up ^ "Red Worm CompostingRestaurant Food Waste Vermicomposting". Retrieved 2015-09-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Meadows, Robin (August 2009). "Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment". Compulsory Composting. 7 (6): 292. JSTOR 25595163.
Jump up ^ "NY Will Require More Restaurants to Put Waste to Good Use". NBC New York. 15 February 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Jonathan (2010). American Wasteland: How America Throws Away Nearly Half of Its Food (and What We Can Do about It). Cambridge, MA: 1st Da Capo Press. p. 140.
Jump up ^ Hargreaves, J; Adl, M; Warman, P (2008). "A review of the use of composted municipal solid waste in agriculture". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 123 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2007.07.004.
Jump up ^ 03, US EPA,REG. "The Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste At Wastewater Treatment Facilities | US EPA". US EPA. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ "Anaerobic Digesters and Biogas Safety - eXtension". Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ "State of Oregon: Solid Waste Disposal Site Permits - Regulating Composting Facilities and Anaerobic Digesters". www.oregon.gov. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ EPA press release, June 19, 2008
Jump up ^ [1] Archived November 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "UN-Water: Statistics detail". www.unwater.org. Archived from the original on 2017-04-05. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Where Does All The Water Go? Analyzing World Water Use For Clever Ways To Save – Hydration Anywhere". hydrationanywhere.com. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Further reading[edit]
Porpino, Gustavo (2016). "Household Food Waste Behavior: Avenues for Future Research". Journal of the Association for Consumer Research. 1 (1): 41–51. doi:10.1086/684528.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Food waste.
NRDC page on food waste (advocacy site with suggestions)
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Quidditch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the real world adaptation of the sport, see Quidditch (sport).
Quidditch /ˈkwɪdɪtʃ/ is a fictional sport devised by author J. K. Rowling for her fantasy fiction series Harry Potter. The story of Harry Potter centres around wizards and witches studying their magical craft at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Born out of the lore of witches using flying broomsticks for transportation, Quidditch was developed by the author as the most popular sport in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter; a complex game played completely in the air by wizards and witches on flying broomsticks.
The objective of Quidditch, as with most sports, is to be the team that has gained the most points by the end of the match. Matches are played between two opposing teams of seven players riding flying broomsticks; using four balls: a Quaffle, two Bludgers, and a Golden Snitch. Centred around the use of each ball, there are four positions: the Chasers and Keeper (who play with the Quaffle), the Beaters (who play with the Bludgers), and the Seekers (who play with the Golden Snitch). Each team has three Chasers, one Keeper, two Beaters, and one Seeker. Matches are played on a large oval pitch with three ring-shaped goals of different heights on each side. It is an extremely rough but very popular semi-contact sport, and has a fervent fan following in the Wizarding World.
Harry Potter plays a very vital position for his house team at Hogwarts: he is the Seeker. Regional and international Quidditch competitions are mentioned throughout the series. Throughout the fantasy fiction, Harry uses his Quidditch skills for gaining respect from his peers, connecting to his ancestry, and even uses them in his hero's quest to defeat the main antagonist of the series, Lord Voldemort. Aspects of the sport's history are revealed in Quidditch Through the Ages, a book published by J.K. Rowling in 2001 to benefit Comic Relief.
A modified version of the game (without magic) has been adapted and is played in the real world in a number of countries. In this game the players still play with brooms, but run instead of flying. Nevertheless, the basic rules are the same.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Quidditch in the Harry Potter series
2.1 Game progression
2.2 Broomsticks
2.3 Quidditch in the films and video games
3 Reception
4 Non-fictional Quidditch
4.1 Quidditch as a real-life sport
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Bibliography
7 External links
Development[edit]
Rowling came up with the sport in a Manchester hotel room after a row with her then-boyfriend. She explained: "I had been pondering the things that hold a society together, cause it to congregate and signify its particular character and knew I needed a sport."[1] Rowling claims that the word "Quidditch" is not derived from any particular etymological root, but was the result of filling five pages of a notebook with different words beginning with "Q".[2]
Despite the sport's popularity with fans, Rowling grew to dislike describing the matches. She commented in an interview:
To be honest with you, Quidditch matches have been the bane of my life in the Harry Potter books. They are necessary in that people expect Harry to play Quidditch, but there is a limit to how many ways you can have them play Quidditch together and for something new to happen.[3]
The final Quidditch scene in the books appears in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Rowling experienced "fiendish glee" writing this scene, which features memorable commentary by Luna Lovegood.[3]
In 2014 Rowling started publishing a series of match reports from the Quidditch World Cup on Pottermore, culminating in a short story about the final featuring the return of Harry, Ron, Hermione and their friends as adults. This generated interest from several media outlets, as it was the first new writing about the Harry Potter characters since the end of the series in 2007.[4][5][6]
Quidditch in the Harry Potter series[edit]
Quidditch is introduced in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, and is a regularly recurring feature throughout the first six books. It is depicted as being played by both professionals (as in tournaments like the Quidditch World Cup) and amateurs. A major motif of five of the Harry Potter books is the competition among the four Hogwarts houses for the Quidditch Cup each school year; in particular, the rivalry between Gryffindor and Slytherin.
Game progression[edit]
Quidditch matches are played over an oval-shaped pitch, with a scoring area at each end consisting of three hooped goal posts, each at a different height. Each team is made up of seven players, consisting of three Chasers, two Beaters, one Keeper and one Seeker. The job of the Chasers is to keep possession of the scarlet Quaffle, a leather ball passed between players. They must attempt to score goals (worth 10 points) by throwing it through one of the opponents' three hoops. These hoops are defended by the opposing team's Keeper, who ideally tries to block their goals. Meanwhile, players of both teams are attacked indiscriminately by the two Bludgers. These are round, jet-black balls made of iron that fly around violently trying to knock players off their brooms. It is the Beaters' job to defend their teammates from the Bludgers; they carry short wooden clubs, which they use to knock the Bludgers away from their teammates and/or toward the opposing team. Finally, the role of the Seeker is to catch the Golden Snitch. This is a small golden ball the approximate size of a walnut. The winged Snitch is enchanted to hover, dart, and fly around the pitch, avoiding capture while remaining within the boundaries of the playing area. Catching the Snitch ends the game and scores the successful Seeker's team 150 points. As the team with the most points wins, this often guarantees victory for the successful Seeker's team. A notable exception is when Bulgaria Seeker Viktor Krum catches the Snitch for Bulgaria during the World Cup Final in Goblet of Fire, while his team are still 160 points behind Ireland (their opponents), thus making his own team lose by only 10 points.
Oliver Wood showing Harry the Quaffle, Bludgers, and Snitch for the first time in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. The Golden Snitch is held behind the Hogwarts coat of arms in the centre of the lid.
The Golden Snitch.
Broomsticks[edit]
Magical flying broomsticks are one of the forms of transportation for wizards and witches, as well as being used for playing Quidditch. The two most prominent broomsticks in the books are the Nimbus 2000 and the Firebolt, both of which have been produced as merchandise by Warner Bros.[7]
The Nimbus is introduced as one of the best broomsticks in the wizarding world. Harry receives a Nimbus 2000 in Philosopher's Stone so that he can play for Gryffindor house. Lucius Malfoy buys a full set of the more advanced Nimbus 2001s for the Slytherin team as a bribe, so they would choose his son Draco as Seeker the following year.
The Firebolt later supersedes the Nimbus as the fastest and one of the most expensive racing brooms in existence. Harry receives a Firebolt model from his godfather, Sirius Black, after his Nimbus 2000 is destroyed during a Quidditch match in Prisoner of Azkaban. In Goblet of Fire, Harry uses his Firebolt to escape the Hungarian Horntail (which is a dragon) during the Triwizard Tournament.
Quidditch in the films and video games[edit]
Quidditch appears in five of the eight Harry Potter films. Some Quidditch subplots, such as Ron's Keeper storyline in Order of the Phoenix, were cut to save time in the films.[8] Video games that feature Quidditch include:
Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
Lego Harry Potter: Years 1–4
Lego Harry Potter: Years 5–7
In the Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey attraction in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter at the Islands of Adventure theme park, Quidditch is featured near the end where riders are flown through the Quidditch pitch. A storefront near Ollivanders Wand Shop is themed as a Quidditch supply with a Golden Snitch on the sign and a case containing animated Quaffle and Bludgers surrounded by Beaters' bats.[9]
Reception[edit]
According to David K. Steege, the books "follow very closely the school story tradition of making games and sports central to the boarding school experience; some of the most vivid and popular scenes in the series take place on the playing field."[10] However, some critics have claimed that Rowling's presentation of Quidditch reinforces gender inequality. For example, Heilman and Donaldson argue that the female players ultimately have little impact on the outcome of the game,[11] and it has also been noted that the female players on the Gryffindor Quidditch team have very few lines.[12] This view has been disputed by Mimi R. Gladstein, who points to the presence of female players on the victorious Irish team at the Quidditch World Cup. She argues: "The inclusion of female Quidditch players at the highest level of the sport is done without a trace of self-consciousness and their inclusion isn't an issue within the minds of the characters."[13]
In some ways, Quidditch has been criticised for the emphasis it places on the catching of the Snitch.[14] Rowling claims that Quidditch is a sport that "infuriates" men in particular, who are bothered by the unrealistic scoring system.[1]
Non-fictional Quidditch[edit]
Quidditch Lane in Lower Cambourne
Recently, there have been small-scale attempts to adapt Quidditch to readily available technology, using bicycles, and unicycles.[15]
Dedication plaque outside the Bristol Royal Hospital for Children
In the real world, the word "Quidditch" occurs in some English placenames (long before the Harry Potter stories were written), and seems to come from Anglo-Saxon cwǣð-dīc = "mud-ditch".
A street in Lower Cambourne, Cambridgeshire, England is named Quidditch Lane, supposedly after a type of nearby dry ditch called a Quidditch. Fans have been known to visit the area.[16]
In November 2014, a plaque appeared outside the entrance of Bristol Children's Hospital attesting that the famous hooped sculptures which stand in front of the paediatric institution are, in fact, not a 50 ft-tall interactive installation inaugurated in 2001, but instead the goalposts used in the 1998 Quidditch World Cup.[17]
In 2017, Quidditch was defined by Oxford Dictionaries, following the inclusion of Muggle in the Third (2003) Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford Dictionaries associate editor Charlotte Buxton explained that Quidditch had gained recognition beyond the books, pointing to its existence as a real-life sport.[18]
Quidditch as a real-life sport[edit]
Main article: Quidditch (sport)
In 2007 the United States Quidditch Association, back then named the Intercollegiate Quidditch Association or (I.Q.A), was founded to regulate quidditch in the United States and abroad, a very popular sport amongst college students. According to the International Quidditch Association, the current international governing body of the sport, the original rules and regulation of the popular collegiate sport known as quidditch were formed "....on a sunny Sunday afternoon in 2005 by Xander Manshel and Alex Benepe, students at Middlebury College in Vermont, US". In contrast to the fictional sport, the game is played on foot while using one hand to hold a broom between the legs, and can get quite competitive.
Since 2005, many American schools, such as UC Berkeley, have added Quidditch to their list of team sports.[19] The sport has since then spread across more than 25 countries and includes multiple international tournaments, including a World Cup.[20][21] In 2012, the International Quidditch Association held the IQA World Cup, then named the IQA Summer Games, as the torch was passing through Oxford, UK for the Summer Olympics.[22]
Gameplay is based on the description in the books, films, and game adaptations, though the sport has obviously been adapted to suit real-world constraints. Quidditch is still evolving to suit safe play for the members of the teams, male and female. Apart from joining teams registered with their national governing body, individuals are also able to become an official certified referee to officiate tournaments and games throughout the year as teams compete to take part in various national and international tournaments. As the oldest national governing body, USQ has hosted a grand total of ten US Quidditch Cups as of 2017.
In the United Kingdom, the Quidditch Premier League is played between 10 teams, split between the North and South divisions. In 2017, West Midlands Revolution won the QPL.
See also[edit]
Harry Potter portal
Quidditch portal
List of fictional sports
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Furness, Hannah. "JK Rowling invented Quidditch after a row with her boyfriend". The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "J.K. Rowling on The Diane Rehm Show". WAMU. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Leaky Cauldron and MN Interview J.K. Rowling". The Leaky Cauldron. 16 July 2005. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Tobar, Hector. "J.K. Rowling covers the '2014 Quidditch World Cup'". LA Times. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Flood, Alison. "Harry Potter makes first appearance for seven years as he turns 34". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Gibson, Megan. "J.K. Rowling Just Published a New Harry Potter Story". Time. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Brady (24 March 2016). "Let's go on a virtual shopping spree at Universal's new Wizarding World". LA Times. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Vineyard, Jennifer (10 July 2007). "Harry Potter's First Date Flops, Quidditch Ditched: What 'Phoenix' Flick Leaves Out". MTV. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Potter's magic conjures success for theme park". CNN International. 6 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Steege, David K. (2004). "Harry Potter, Tom Brown, and the British School Story". In Whited, Lana A. The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon. University of Missouri Press. p. 148.
Jump up ^ Heilman, Elizabeth E.; Donaldson, Trevor (2009). "From Sexist to (sort-of) Feminist: Representations of Gender in the Harry Potter Series". In Heilman, Elizabeth E. Critical Perspectives on Harry Potter (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 142.
Jump up ^ Doughty, Terri (2004). "Locating Harry Potter in the "Boys' Book" Market". In Whited, Lana A. The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon. University of Missouri Press. p. 243.
Jump up ^ Gladstein, Mimi R. (2004). "Feminism and Equal Opportunity: Hermione and the Women of Hogwarts". In Baggett, David; Klein, Shawn. Harry Potter and Philosophy: If Aristotle Ran Hogwarts. Open Court Publishing.
Jump up ^ Manfred, Tony. "Sorry Harry Potter Fans, Quidditch Is The Dumbest Sport Ever". Business Insider. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Unicycle Quidditch Rules". Retrieved 10 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Village sign attracts Potter fans, BBC News
Jump up ^ Sad truth behind Harry Potter fan's adorable prank at Bristol Children's Hospital is revealed[permanent dead link], Bristol Post
Jump up ^ Thelwell, Emma. "The next Harry Potter words to join the dictionary?". BBC News. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "The basics of Quidditch at Cal". The Daily Californian. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Carey, Alexis (15 April 2014). "From Harry Potter to Sydney schools, Quidditch has become a real competitive sport". Daily Telegraph (Sydney). Retrieved 25 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Flood, Alison (22 June 2016). "Quidditch leaves Harry Potter behind as (real) World Cup fever grows". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Black, Alan (6 July 2012). "London 2012: Olympic Quidditch Explo Tournament Preview". Bleacher Report. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
Bibliography[edit]
Rowling, J. K. (1997). Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. London: Bloomsbury/New York City: Scholastic, et al. UK ISBN 0-7475-3269-9/U.S. ISBN 0-590-35340-3.
Rowling, J. K. (1998). Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. London: Bloomsbury/New York City: Scholastic, et al. UK ISBN 0-7475-3849-2/U.S. ISBN 0-439-06486-4.
Rowling, J. K. (Kennilworthy Whisp; 2001). Quidditch Through the Ages (in English). London: Bloomsbury/New York City: Scholastic, et al. ISBN 0613329740.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quidditch.
Quidditch on Harry Potter Wiki, an external wiki
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text:
Snowball (Animal Farm)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Snowball
First appearance
Animal Farm
Last appearance
Animal Farm (only appearance)
Created by
George Orwell
Voiced by
Maurice Denham (1954 film)
Kelsey Grammer (1999 film)
Information
Species
Pig
Gender
Male
Occupation
Past leader of Animal Farm
Snowball is a character in George Orwell's Animal Farm. He is largely based on Leon Trotsky and describes how he led the opposition against Joseph Stalin (Napoleon), though he also includes elements of Vladimir Lenin. He is shown as a pink pig on the movie poster for the 1999 film Animal Farm, and is voiced by Kelsey Grammer.
Snowball's ideas[edit]
Snowball believes in a continued revolution: he argues that in order to defend Animal Farm, he must strengthen the reality of Old Major's dream of a life without humans and that they must stir up rebellions in other farms throughout England. However, Napoleon always disagrees with any ideas that Snowball has because he does not want Snowball to lead Animal Farm and gain more popularity than himself.
Snowball also writes the first version of the Seven Commandments. They are later altered by Squealer under the orders of Napoleon, to accommodate the actions of the pigs. For example, the commandment stating "No animal shall drink alcohol" is changed to "No animal shall drink alcohol to excess", and that which states "No animal shall sleep in a bed" is changed to "No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets". Later all the commandments are replaced with one phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others".
Snowball is eventually forced out of the farm when Napoleon uses his guard dogs to attack Snowball. After that, he is blamed for problems on the farm, and it is believed he was in support of Jones from the start as well as sowing seeds with weeds. Though he fought bravely at the Battle of the Cowshed, the facts are altered to say he openly fought for Jones and that the shot wounds are changed to wounds Napoleon inflicted on him. Those accused of supporting him are executed after being forced to confess, and a reward is offered for his capture.
Snowball is an inventive pig who influences others to his side with intelligence and compassion. It is never revealed what happens to him after his escape. In the 1954 animated adaptation it is implied that the dogs kill him. However, in the 1999 live action film adaption, he is shown escaping the dogs and surviving, though Napoleon declares him banished under pain of death.
CIA-made character changes[edit]
When the novel Animal Farm was adapted for screen in the 1950s, the CIA investors were initially greatly concerned that Snowball was presented too sympathetically in early script treatments and that Batchelor's script implied Snowball was "intelligent, dynamic, courageous". A memo declared that Snowball must be presented as a "fanatic intellectual whose plans if carried through would have led to disaster no less complete than under Napoleon." De Rochemont subsequently implemented these changes.[1]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Orwell Subverted: The CIA and the Filming of Animal Farm, pp. 75–79
hide
v
t
e
George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945)
Characters
Old Major
Napoleon
Snowball
Squealer
Boxer
Benjamin
Pilkington
Mr. Jones
Concepts
Anthems
Other media
1954 film
1999 film
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowball_(Animal_Farm)&oldid=853755888"
Categories:
Fictional politicians
Animal Farm characters
Cultural depictions of Leon Trotsky
Fictional characters introduced in 1945
Fictional revolutionaries
Fictional pigs
Fictional characters based on real people
Pigs in literature
Male characters in literature
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This page was last edited on 6 August 2018, at 20:23 (UTC).
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