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Pullman Strike
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Pullman Strike
Striking American Railway Union members confront Illinois National Guard troops in Chicago during the Pullman Strike
Date
May 11, 1894
Location
Began in Pullman, Chicago; spread throughout the United States
Goals
Recognition
Methods
Strikes, Protest, Demonstrations
Resulted in
Unsuccessful
Parties to the civil conflict
American Railway Union;
Railroad workers
Pullman Company;
General Managers' Association;
United States National Guard
Lead figures
Eugene V. Debs
George Pullman;
Grover Cleveland
Casualties
Deaths: 30
Injuries: 57
Arrests:
Deaths:
Injuries:
The Pullman Strike was a nationwide railroad strike in the United States on May 11, 1894, and a turning point for US labor law. It pitted the American Railway Union (ARU) against the Pullman Company, the main railroads, and the federal government of the United States under President Grover Cleveland. The strike and boycott shut down much of the nation's freight and passenger traffic west of Detroit, Michigan. The conflict began in Pullman, Chicago, on May 11 when nearly 4,000 factory employees of the Pullman Company began a wildcat strike in response to recent reductions in wages.
Most factory workers who built Pullman cars lived in the "company town" of Pullman on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois.[1] The industrialist George Pullman had designed it ostensibly as a model community.[1] Pullman had a diverse work force. He wanted to hire African-Americans for certain jobs at the company. Pullman used ads and other campaigns to help bring workers into his company.[2]
When his company laid off workers and lowered wages, it did not reduce rents, and the workers called for a strike. Among the reasons for the strike were the absence of democracy within the town of Pullman and its politics, the rigid paternalistic control of the workers by the company, excessive water and gas rates, and a refusal by the company to allow workers to buy and own houses. They had not yet formed a union.[1] Founded in 1893 by Eugene V. Debs, the ARU was an organization of unskilled railroad workers. Debs brought in ARU organizers to Pullman and signed up many of the disgruntled factory workers.[1] When the Pullman Company refused recognition of the ARU or any negotiations, ARU called a strike against the factory, but it showed no sign of success. To win the strike, Debs decided to stop the movement of Pullman cars on railroads. The over-the-rail Pullman employees (such as conductors and porters) did not go on strike.[1]
Debs and the ARU called a massive boycott against all trains that carried a Pullman car. It affected most rail lines west of Detroit and at its peak involved some 250,000 workers in 27 states.[3] The Railroad brotherhoods and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) opposed the boycott, and the General Managers Association of the railroads coordinated the opposition. Thirty people were killed in response to riots and sabotage that caused $80 million in damages.[4][5] The federal government obtained an injunction against the union, Debs, and other boycott leaders, ordering them to stop interfering with trains that carried mail cars. After the strikers refused, President Grover Cleveland ordered in the Army to stop the strikers from obstructing the trains. Violence broke out in many cities, and the strike collapsed. Defended by a team including Clarence Darrow, Debs was convicted of violating a court order and sentenced to prison; the ARU then dissolved.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Boycott
3 Federal intervention
4 Local responses
5 Public opinion
6 Aftermath
6.1 Politics
6.2 Labor Day
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
9.1 Primary sources
10 External links
Background[edit]
The American Railway Union escalated the Pullman strike beginning with the blockade of the Grand Crossing in Chicago during the night of June 26, 1894.
During a severe depression (the Panic of 1893), the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages as demand for new passenger cars plummeted and the company's revenue dropped. A delegation of workers complained that wages had been cut but not rents at their company housing or other costs in the company town. The company owner, George Pullman, refused to lower rents or go to arbitration.[6]
Boycott[edit]
Many of the Pullman factory workers joined the American Railway Union (ARU), led by Eugene V. Debs, which supported their strike by launching a boycott in which ARU members refused to run trains containing Pullman cars. At the time of the strike approximately 35% of Pullman workers were members of the ARU.[3] The plan was to force the railroads to bring Pullman to compromise. Debs began the boycott on June 26, 1894. Within four days, 125,000 workers on twenty-nine railroads had "walked off" the job rather than handle Pullman cars.[7] The railroads coordinated their response through the General Managers' Association, which had been formed in 1886 and included 24 lines linked to Chicago.[8][9] The railroads began hiring replacement workers (strikebreakers), which increased hostilities. Many blacks were recruited as strikebreakers and crossed picket lines, as they feared that the racism expressed by the American Railway Union would lock them out of another labor market. This added racial tension to the union's predicament.[10]
On June 29, 1894, Debs hosted a peaceful meeting to rally support for the strike from railroad workers at Blue Island, Illinois. Afterward, groups within the crowd became enraged and set fire to nearby buildings and derailed a locomotive.[11] Elsewhere in the western states, sympathy strikers prevented transportation of goods by walking off the job, obstructing railroad tracks, or threatening and attacking strikebreakers. This increased national attention and the demand for federal action.
Federal intervention[edit]
Violence erupted on July 7, 1894, with hundreds of boxcars and coal cars looted and burned. State and federal troops used force to quell the mob, as this study by Frederic Remington illustrates.
Under direction from President Grover Cleveland, the US Attorney General Richard Olney dealt with the strike. Olney had been a railroad attorney, and still received a $10,000 retainer from the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, in comparison to his $8,000 salary as Attorney General.[12] Olney obtained an injunction in federal court barring union leaders from supporting the strike and demanding that the strikers cease their activities or face being fired. Debs and other leaders of the ARU ignored the injunction, and federal troops were called up to enforce it.[13] While Debs had been reluctant to start the strike, he threw his energies into organizing it. He called a general strike of all union members in Chicago, but this was opposed by Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL, and other established unions, and it failed.[14]
City by city the federal forces broke the ARU efforts to shut down the national transportation system. Thousands of United States Marshals and some 12,000 United States Army troops, commanded by Brigadier General Nelson Miles, took action. President Cleveland wanted the trains moving again, based on his legal, constitutional responsibility for the mails. His lawyers argued that the boycott violated the Sherman Antitrust Act, and represented a threat to public safety. The arrival of the military and the subsequent deaths of workers in violence led to further outbreaks of violence. During the course of the strike, 30 strikers were killed and 57 were wounded. Property damage exceeded $80 million.[4][5][15]
Local responses[edit]
Lurid depiction of Illinois National Guardsmen firing into the mob on July 7, 1894, the day of greatest looting and violence.
The strike affected hundreds of towns and cities across the country. Railroad workers were divided, for the old established Brotherhoods, which included the skilled workers such as engineers, firemen and conductors, did not support the labor action.[citation needed] ARU members did support the action, and often comprised unskilled ground crews.[16][citation needed] In many areas townspeople and businessmen generally supported the railroads while farmers—many affiliated with the Populists—supported the ARU.[citation needed]
In Billings, Montana, an important rail center, a local Methodist minister, J. W. Jennings, supported the ARU. In a sermon he compared the Pullman boycott to the Boston Tea Party, and attacked Montana state officials and President Cleveland for abandoning "the faith of the Jacksonian fathers."[17] Rather than defending "the rights of the people against aggression and oppressive corporations," he said party leaders were "the pliant tools of the codfish monied aristocracy who seek to dominate this country."[17] Billings remained quiet but on July 10, soldiers reached Lockwood, Montana, a small rail center, where the troop train was surrounded by hundreds of angry strikers. Narrowly averting violence, the army opened the lines through Montana. When the strike ended, the railroads fired and blacklisted all the employees who had supported it.[18]
In California the boycott was effective in Sacramento, a labor stronghold, but weak in the Bay Area and minimal in Los Angeles. The strike lingered as strikers expressed longstanding grievances over wage reductions, and indicate how unpopular the Southern Pacific Railroad was. Strikers engaged in violence and sabotage; the companies saw it as civil war while the ARU proclaimed it was a crusade for the rights of unskilled workers.[19]
Public opinion[edit]
American Railway Union President Eugene V. Debs was pilloried in the press for the disruption of food distribution and passenger traffic associated with the 1894 Pullman Strike.
Public opinion was mostly opposed to the strike and supported Cleveland's actions.[20] Republicans and eastern Democrats supported Cleveland (the leader of the northeastern pro-business wing of the party), but southern and western Democrats as well as Populists generally denounced him. Chicago Mayor John Hopkins supported the strikers and stopped the Chicago Police from interfering before the strike turned violent.[21] Governor John Peter Altgeld of Illinois, a Democrat, denounced Cleveland and said he could handle all disturbances in his state without federal intervention.[22]
Media coverage was extensive and generally negative. A common trope in news reports and editorials depicted the boycotters as foreigners who contested the patriotism expressed by the militias and troops involved, as numerous recent immigrants worked in the factories and on the railroads. The editors warned of mobs, aliens, anarchy, and defiance of the law.[23] The New York Times called it "a struggle between the greatest and most important labor organization and the entire railroad capital."[24] In Chicago the established church leaders denounced the boycott, but some younger Protestant ministers defended it.[25]
Aftermath[edit]
Debs was arrested on federal charges, including conspiracy to obstruct the mail as well as disobeying an order directed to him by the Supreme Court to stop the obstruction of railways and to dissolve the boycott. He was defended by Clarence Darrow, a prominent attorney, as well as Lyman Trumbull. At the conspiracy trial Darrow argued that it was the railways, not Debs and his union, that met in secret and conspired against their opponents. Sensing that Debs would be acquitted, the prosecution dropped the charge when a juror took ill. Although Darrow also represented Debs at the United States Supreme Court for violating the federal injunction, Debs was sentenced to six months in prison.[26]
Early in 1895 General William M. Graham erected a memorial obelisk in the San Francisco National Cemetery at the Presidio, in honor of four soldiers of the 5th Artillery killed in a Sacramento train crash of July 11, 1894, during the strike. The train wrecked crossing a trestle bridge purportedly dynamited by union members.[27] Graham's monument included the inscription, "Murdered by Strikers", a description he hotly defended.[28] The obelisk remains in place.
In the aftermath of the Pullman strike, the state ordered the company to sell off its residential holdings. In the decades after Pullman died (1897), Pullman became just another South Side neighborhood. It remained the area’s largest employer before closing in the 1950s. The area is both a National Historic Landmark as well as a Chicago Landmark District. Because of the significance of the strike, many state agencies and non-profit groups are hoping for many revivals of the Pullman neighborhoods starting with Pullman Park, one of the largest projects. It was to be a $350 million mixed used development on the site of an old steel plant. The plan was for 670,000 square feet of new retail space, 125,000 square foot neighborhood recreation center and 1,100 housing units. (source: Historical NY Times)
Politics[edit]
Following his release from jail in 1895, ARU President Debs became a committed advocate of socialism, helping in 1897 to launch the Social Democracy of America, a forerunner of the Socialist Party of America. He ran for president in 1900 for the first of five times as head of the Socialist Party ticket.[29]
Civil as well as criminal charges were brought against the organizers of the strike and Debs in particular, and the Supreme Court issued a unanimous decision, In re Debs, that rejected Debs' actions. The Illinois Governor John P. Altgeld was incensed at Cleveland for putting the federal government at the service of the employers, and for rejecting Altgeld's plan to use his state militia rather than federal troops to keep order.[30]
Cleveland's administration appointed a national commission to study the causes of the 1894 strike; it found George Pullman's paternalism partly to blame and described the operations of his company town to be "un-American". In 1898, the Illinois Supreme Court forced the Pullman Company to divest ownership in the town, as its company charter did not authorize such operations, and the land was annexed to Chicago.[31] Much of it is now designated as an historic district, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Labor Day[edit]
In 1894, in an effort to conciliate organized labor after the strike, President Grover Cleveland and Congress designated Labor Day as a federal holiday. Legislation for the holiday was pushed through Congress six days after the strike ended. Samuel Gompers, who had sided with the federal government in its effort to end the strike by the American Railway Union, spoke out in favor of the holiday.[32][33]
See also[edit]
Organized labour portal
United States labor law
History of rail transport in the United States
Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The Pullman Strike and Boycott," Annals of American History. <http://www.america.eb.com/america/article?articleId=386364&query=pullman+strike> [Accessed January 24, 2014].
Jump up ^ Ayres, Tim, and Susan Eleanor Hirsch. "After the Strike: A Century of Labor Struggle at Pullman." Labour History, 2003, 280.
^ Jump up to: a b "Pullman Strike | United States history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Ray Ginger, Eugene V. Debs (1962) p 170
^ Jump up to: a b Papke, David Ray (1999). The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America. Landmark law cases & American society. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0-7006-0954-7.
Jump up ^ Joseph C. Bigott (2001). From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Class in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869–1929. U. of Chicago Press. p. 93. Archived from the original on May 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Richard Schneirov; Shelton Stromquist; Nick Salvatore (1999). The Pullman Strike and Crisis of 1890s: Essays on Labor and Politics. U. of Illinois Press. p. 137. Archived from the original on April 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wish, "The Pullman Strike"
Jump up ^ Donald L. McMurry, "Labor Policies of the General Managers' Association of Chicago, 1886–1894," Journal of Economic History (1953) 13#2 pp. 160–78 in JSTOR Archived June 21, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ David E. Bernstein, Only One Place of Redress (2001) p. 54
Jump up ^ Harvey Wish, "The Pullman Strike: A Study in Industrial Warfare," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1939) 32#3, pp. 288–312 in JSTOR Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
Jump up ^ Eric Arnesen (2004). The Human Tradition in American Labor History. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 96. Archived from the original on April 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Salvatore, Debs pp 134–37
Jump up ^ John R. Commons; et al. (1918). History of Labour in the United States vol 2. Macmillan. p. 502. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Brendel, Martina (December 1994). "The Pullman Strike". Illinois History: 8 – via Illinois Periodicals Online.
^ Jump up to: a b Carroll Van West, Capitalism on the Frontier: Billings and the Yellowstone Valley in the Nineteenth Century (1993) p 200
Jump up ^ Van West, Capitalism on the Frontier: Billings and the Yellowstone Valley in the Nineteenth Century, p 200
Jump up ^ William W. Ray, "Crusade or Civil War? The Pullman Strike in California," California History (1979) 58#1 pp 20–37.
Jump up ^ Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (1933) pp. 624–27
Jump up ^ Schneirov, Richard. "The Pullman Strike and Boycott". Northern Illinois University Libraries. Retrieved October 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ H.W. Brands (2002). The Reckless Decade: America in the 1890s. U. of Chicago Press. p. 153. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Troy Rondinone, "Guarding the Switch: Cultivating Nationalism during the Pullman Strike," Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2009) 8#1 pp 83–109.
Jump up ^ Donald L. Miller (1997). City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America. Simon and Schuster. p. 543. Archived from the original on April 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Heath W. Carter, "Scab Ministers, Striking Saints: Christianity and Class Conflict in 1894 Chicago," American Nineteenth Century History (2010) 11#3 pp 321–349
Jump up ^ John A. Farrell (2011). Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 69–72. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Leach, Frank A. "The Great Railroad Strike of 1894". U.S. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on November 2, 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "General Graham Writes of Treason" (PDF). San Francisco Call via Library of Congress. 22 August 1895. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 14, 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eugene V. Debs | American social and labour leader". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
Jump up ^ Peter Zavodnyik (2011). The Rise of the Federal Colossus: The Growth of Federal Power from Lincoln to F.D.R. ABC-CLIO. pp. 233–34. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dennis R. Judd; Paul Kantor (1992). Enduring tensions in urban politics. Macmillan. Archived from the original on April 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Online NewsHour: Origins of Labor Day – September 2, 1996". PBS. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved July 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bill Haywood, The Autobiography of Big Bill Haywood, 1929, p. 78 ppbk.
Sources[edit]
Cleveland, Grover. The Government and the Chicago Strike of 1894 [1904]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1913.
DeForest, Walter S. The Periodical Press and the Pullman Strike: An Analysis of the Coverage and Interpretation of the Railroad Strike of 1894 by Eight Journals of Opinion and Reportage MA thesis. University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973.
Ginger, Ray. The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene V. Debs. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1949.
Hirsch, Susan Eleanor. After the Strike: A Century of Labor Struggle at Pullman. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
Lindsey, Almont. The Pullman Strike: The Story of a Unique Experiment and of a Great Labor Upheaval. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943.
Lindsey, Almont. "Paternalism and the Pullman Strike," American Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Jan., 1939), pp. 272–89 in JSTOR
Nevins, Allan Nevins. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage. (1933) pp. 611–28
Papke, David Ray. The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1999.
Rondinone, Troy. "Guarding the Switch: Cultivating Nationalism During the Pullman Strike," Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era 2009 8(1): 83–109 27p.
Salvatore, Nick. Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1984.
Schneirov, Richard, et al. (eds.) The Pullman Strike and the Crisis of the 1890s: Essays on Labor and Politics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1999.
Smith, Carl. Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Fire, the Haymarket Bomb, and the Model Town of Pullman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Winston, A.P. "The Significance of the Pullman Strike," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 9, no. 4 (Sept. 1901), pp. 540–61. In JSTOR
Wish, Harvey. "The Pullman Strike: A Study in Industrial Warfare," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1939) 32#3 pp. 288–312 in JSTOR
Primary sources[edit]
United States Strike Commission, Report on the Chicago Strike of June–July, 1894. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pullman Strike.
Pullman Strike Timeline
Chicago Strike
The Pullman Strike, Illinois During the Gilded Age 1866–1894, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries
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Hot link (sausage)
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"Hot links" redirects here. For the Internet term, see hot link.
Not to be confused with Andouille.
Hot chorizo links
A hot link also referred to as a "red link" is a type of sausage often associated with the cuisine of the Southern United States, featured commonly as a part of American barbecue, soul food, and Cajun[1][2] and Louisiana Creole cuisines. It is sometimes referred to as a "Louisiana hot link".[3][4] It is also a part of Texan cuisine[5][6] and the cuisine of Chicago, Illinois. The hot link is usually prepared using pork, beef, or a combination of both. It is sometimes used as an ingredient in other dishes, such as jambalaya and gumbo.[7][8] Hot link sausages are mass-produced by some companies in the United States.[6][9]
Contents
1 Preparation
2 By location
2.1 Louisiana
2.2 Texas
2.3 Illinois
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Preparation[edit]
Pork or beef, or a blend of both,[10][11] is typically used as the primary meat ingredient.[5][12] The hot link can be spiced using red pepper flakes and cayenne pepper.[4][12] Additional spices may be used, such as thyme, paprika, crushed bay leaves and onion flakes.[4] Hot link sausages are sometimes smoked.[10][13]
By location[edit]
Louisiana[edit]
In Southern Louisiana, where Cajun cuisine is abundant, a hot link sausage on a bun is consumed more frequently than hot dogs.[2]
Texas[edit]
In Texas, the hot link is typically prepared with beef,[6][14] and is usually cooked over indirect heat.[14] Common sides to accompany the Texas hot link includes sliced white bread, crackers, orange cheese, onion slices and pickles.[6][14] In Pittsburg, Texas, the hot link is a popular food and has been produced there since 1897.[6] In Pittsburg, hot links are typically broiled or baked to the point of having a "half-burned look".[6] In 1983, Pittsburg Hot Link Packers, Inc. in Pittsburg, Texas was producing 12,000 pounds of hot links per week.[6] Almost all of the hot links produced by Pittsburg Hot Link Packers were consumed within 100 miles of Pittsburg during this time.[6]
Illinois[edit]
In Chicago, Illinois, hot links are typically prepared using pork, may be spiced with pepper, fennel and sage, and are typically covered with a barbecue sauce.[14] They are commonly available at soul food barbecue restaurants in the city's south side,[14] often served with french fries and white bread.[14] They may be slow cooked in a barbecue pit.[14]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Boudin
List of sausages
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Billock, Jennifer (September 16, 2016). "Find Out Why Boudin Is Louisiana's Most Famous Sausage". Smithsonian. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Mary Tutwiler (July 2010). "Confused by chaudin vs. chaurice? Read on". NOLA.com. NOLA Media Group. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Kidd, Sue (May 11, 2016). "Warm weather brings Mikey's hot dog cart to downtown Tacoma". The News Tribune. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cutlip, E.R. (2014). Sausage and Jerky Makers' Bible: The Home Processor's Complete Guide to Charcuterie. Elk Mountain Products. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-9644922-2-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Stern, J.; Stern, M. (2011). Lexicon of Real American Food. Lyons Press. p. pt32. ISBN 978-0-7627-6830-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Blow, Steve (July 27, 1983). "Making Pittsburg Famous". The Victoria Advocate. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Claiborne, C.; Edge, J.T.; Milam, G. (2007). Craig Claiborne's Southern Cooking. University of Georgia Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-8203-2992-5.
Jump up ^ Rodgers, R.; Williams, C.; Caruso, M. (2001). The Williams-Sonoma Collection: Chicken. Williams Sonoma Collection. Free Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7432-2441-3.
Jump up ^ Ray, B.; Bhunia, A. (2013). Fundamental Food Microbiology, Fifth Edition. CRC Press. p. 279. ISBN 978-1-4665-6444-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell, Scott (October 28, 2014). "The Best Sausages in Dallas". Dallas Observer. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Cicero, Providence (December 3, 2015). "From John Howie, a Bothell beer house goes big". The Seattle Times. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Devine, C.; Dikeman, M. (2014). Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences. Elsevier Science. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-12-384734-8.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Carla (September 2, 2016). "Killer condiments make Arlington Brothers' hot dogs best in show". The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Stern, J.; Stern, M. (2011). Lexicon of Real American Food. Lyons Press. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-0-7627-6830-1. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Cannon, B. (1999). Treasury of Texas Trivia II. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4617-0955-8.
External links[edit]
"Sausage City: Smoque's Barbecue Hot Links". Serious Eats.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hot_link_(sausage)&oldid=823655107"
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American cuisine
Cajun cuisine
Charcuterie
Cuisine of the Southern United States
Louisiana Creole cuisine
Louisiana cuisine
Meat
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Sausages
Smoked meat
Soul food
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