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The Birth of Venus
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For other uses, see The Birth of Venus (disambiguation).
Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus (c. 1484-86). Tempera on canvas. 172.5 cm × 278.9 cm (67.9 in × 109.6 in). Uffizi, Florence
Detail: the face of Venus
The Birth of Venus (Italian: Nascita di Venere [ˈnaʃʃita di ˈvɛːnere]) is a painting by the Italian artist Sandro Botticelli probably made in the mid 1480s. It depicts the goddess Venus arriving at the shore after her birth, when she had emerged from the sea fully-grown (called Venus Anadyomene and often depicted in art). The painting is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.
Although the two are not a pair, the painting is inevitably discussed with Botticelli's other very large mythological painting, the Primavera, also in the Uffizi. They are among the most famous paintings in the world, and icons of the Italian Renaissance; of the two, the Birth is even better known than the Primavera.[1] As depictions of subjects from classical mythology on a very large scale they were virtually unprecedented in Western art since classical antiquity, as was the size and prominence of a nude female figure in the Birth. It used to be thought that they were both commissioned by the same member of the Medici family, but this is now uncertain.
They have been endlessly analysed by art historians, with the main themes being: the emulation of ancient painters and the context of wedding celebrations (generally agreed), the influence of Renaissance Neo-Platonism (somewhat controversial), and the identity of the commissioners (not agreed). Most art historians agree, however, that the Birth does not require complex analysis to decode its meaning, in the way that the Primavera probably does. While there are subtleties in the painting, its main meaning is a straightforward, if individual, treatment of a traditional scene from Greek mythology, and its appeal is sensory and very accessible, hence its enormous popularity.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description and subject
2 Technical
3 Style
4 Dating and history
5 Interpretations
5.1 Literary sources
5.2 Ancient art
5.3 Mack
6 Derivative versions
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Description and subject[edit]
The Hora of Spring
In the centre the newly-born goddess Venus stands nude in a giant scallop shell. Its size is purely imaginary, and is also found in classical depictions of the subject.[3] At the left the wind god Zephyr blows at her, with the wind shown by lines radiating from his mouth. He is in the air, and carries a young female, who is also blowing, but less forcefully. Both have wings. Vasari was probably correct in identifying her as "Aura", personification of a lighter breeze.[4] Their joint efforts are blowing Venus towards the shore, and blowing the hair and clothes of the other figures to the right.[5]
At the right a female figure who may be floating slightly above the ground holds out a rich cloak or dress to cover Venus when she reaches the shore, as she is about to do. She is one of the three Horae or Hours, Greek minor goddesses of the seasons and of other divisions of time, and attendants of Venus. The floral decoration of her dress suggests she is the Hora of Spring.[6]
Alternative identifications for the two secondary female figures involve those also found in the Primavera; the nymph held by Zephyr may be Chloris, a flower nymph he married in some versions of her story, and the figure on land may be Flora.[7] Flora is generally the Roman equivalent of the Greek Chloris; in the Primavera Chloris is transformed into the figure of Flora next to her, following Ovid's Fasti,[8] but it is hard to see that such a transformation is envisaged here. However, the roses blown along with the two flying figures would be appropriate for Chloris.
The subject is not strictly the "Birth of Venus", a title only given the painting in the nineteenth century (though given as the subject by Vasari), but the next scene in her story, where she arrives on land, blown by the wind. The land probably represents either Cythera or Cyprus, both Mediterranean islands regarded by the Greeks as territories of Venus.[9]
Technical[edit]
The painting is large, but slightly smaller than the Primavera, and where that is a panel painting, this is on the cheaper support of canvas. Canvas was increasing in popularity, perhaps especially for secular paintings for country villas, which were decorated more simply, cheaply and cheerfully than those for city palazzi, being designed for pleasure more than ostentatious entertainment.[10]
The painting is on two pieces of canvas, sewn together before starting, with a gesso ground tinted blue. There are differences to Botticelli's usual technique, working on panel supports, such as the lack of a green first layer under the flesh areas. There are a number of pentimenti revealed by modern scientific testing. The Hora originally had "low classical sandals", and the collar on the mantle she holds out is an afterthought. The hair of Venus and the flying couple was changed. There is heavy use of gold as a pigment for highlights, on hair, wings, textiles, the shell and the landscape. This was all apparently applied after the painting was framed. It was finished with a "cool gray varnish", probably using egg yolk.[11]
As in the Primavera, the green pigment used for the wings of Zephyr and his companion and the leaves of the orange trees on the land has darkened considerably with exposure to light over time, somewhat distorting the intended balance of colours. Parts of some leaves at the top right corner, normally covered by the frame, have been less affected.[12] The blues of the sea and sky have also lost their brightness.[13]
Style[edit]
Venus
Although the pose of Venus is classical in some respects, and borrows the position of the hands from the Venus Pudica type in Greco-Roman sculptures (see section below), the overall treatment of the figure, standing off-centre with a curved body of long flowing lines, is in many respects from Gothic art. Kenneth Clark wrote: "Her differences from antique form are not physiological, but rhythmic and structural. Her whole body follows the curve of a Gothic ivory. It is entirely without that quality so much prized in classical art, known as aplomb; that is to say, the weight of the body is not distributed evenly either side of a central plumb line. .... She is not standing but floating. ... Her shoulders, for example, instead of forming a sort of architrave to her torso, as in the antique nude, run down into her arms in the same unbroken stream of movement as her floating hair."[14]
Venus' body is anatomically improbable, with elongated neck and torso. Her pose is impossible: although she stands in a classical contrapposto stance, her weight is shifted too far over the left leg for the pose to be held. The proportions and poses of the winds to the left do not quite make sense, and none of the figures cast shadows.[15] The painting depicts the world of the imagination rather than being very concerned with realistic depiction.[16]
Ignoring the size and positioning of the wings and limbs of the flying pair on the left, which bother some other critics, Kenneth Clark calls them:
...perhaps the most beautiful example of ecstatic movement in the whole of painting. ... the suspension of our reason is achieved by the intricate rhythms of the drapery which sweep and flow irresistibly around the nude figures. Their bodies, by an endless intricacy of embrace, sustain the current of movement, which finally flickers down their legs and is dispersed like an electric charge.[17]
Botticelli's art was never fully committed to naturalism; in comparison to his contemporary Domenico Ghirlandaio, Botticelli seldom gave weight and volume to his figures and rarely used a deep perspectival space.[15] Botticelli never painted landscape backgrounds with great detail or realism, but this is especially the case here. The laurel trees and the grass below them are green with gold highlights, most of the waves regular patterns, and the landscape seems out of scale with the figures.[18] The clumps of bulrushes in the left foreground are out of place here, as they come from a freshwater species.[19]
Dating and history[edit]
It has long been suggested that Botticelli was commissioned to paint the work by the Medici family of Florence, perhaps by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici (1463–1503) a major patron of Botticelli, under the influence of his cousin Lorenzo de' Medici, "il Magnifico". This was first suggested by Herbert Horne in his monograph of 1908, the first major modern work on Botticelli, and long followed by most writers, but more recently has been widely doubted, though it is still accepted by some. Various interpretations of the painting rely on this origin for its meaning. Although relations were perhaps always rather tense between the Magnifico and his young cousins and wards, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco and his brother Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, it may have been politic to commission a work that glorified the older Lorenzo, as some interpretations have it. There may be a deliberate ambiguity as to which Lorenzo was intended to be evoked. In later years hostility between the two branches of the family became overt.
Horne believed that the painting was commissioned soon after the purchase in 1477 of the Villa di Castello, a country house outside Florence, by Lorenzo and Giovanni, to decorate their new house, which they were rebuilding. This was the year after their father died at the age of 46, leaving the young boys wards of their cousin Lorenzo il Magnifico, of the senior branch of the Medici family and de facto ruler of Florence.[20] There is no record of the original commission, and the painting is first mentioned by Vasari, who saw it, together with the Primavera, at Castello, some time before the first edition of his Lives in 1550, probably by 1530–40. In 1550 Vasari was himself painting in the villa, but he very possibly visited it before that. But in 1975 it emerged that, unlike the Primavera, the Birth is not in the inventory, apparently complete, made in 1499 of the works of art belonging to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's branch of the family. Ronald Lightbown concludes that it only came to be owned by the Medici after that. The inventory was only published in 1975, and made many previous assumptions invalid.[21]
Horne dated the work at some point after the purchase of the villa in 1477 and before Botticelli's departure for Rome to join the painting of the Sistine Chapel in 1481. Recent scholars prefer a date of around 1484–86 on grounds of the work's place in the development of Botticelli's style. The Primavera is now usually dated earlier, after Botticelli's return from Rome in 1482 and perhaps around the time of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's wedding in July 1482,[22] but by some still before Botticelli's departure.[23]
Whenever the two paintings were united at Castello, they have remained together ever since. They stayed in Castello until 1815, when they were transferred to the Uffizi. For some years until 1919 they were kept in the Galleria dell'Accademia, another government museum in Florence.[24]
Interpretations[edit]
External video
Smarthistory – Botticelli's Birth of Venus[15]
Although there are ancient and modern texts that are relevant, no single text provides the precise imagery of the painting, which has led scholars to propose many sources and interpretations.[25] Many art historians who specialize in the Italian Renaissance have found Neoplatonic interpretations, of which two different versions have been articulated by Edgar Wind and Ernst Gombrich,[26] to be the key to understanding the painting. Botticelli represented the Neoplatonic idea of divine love in the form of a nude Venus.[27]
For Plato – and so for the members of the Florentine Platonic Academy – Venus had two aspects: she was an earthly goddess who aroused humans to physical love or she was a heavenly goddess who inspired intellectual love in them. Plato further argued that contemplation of physical beauty allowed the mind to better understand spiritual beauty. So, looking at Venus, the most beautiful of goddesses, might at first raise a physical response in viewers which then lifted their minds towards the godly.[28] A Neoplatonic reading of Botticelli's Birth of Venus suggests that 15th-century viewers would have looked at the painting and felt their minds lifted to the realm of divine love.
The composition, with a central nude figure, and one to the side with an arm raised above the head of the first, and winged beings in attendance, would have reminded its Renaissance viewers of the traditional iconography of the Baptism of Christ, marking the start of his ministry on earth. In a similar way, the scene shows here marks the start of Venus's ministry of love, whether in a simple sense, or the expanded meaning of Renaissance Neoplatonism.[29]
More recently, questions have arisen about Neoplatonism as the dominant intellectual system of late 15th-century Florence,[30] and scholars have indicated that there might be other ways to interpret Botticelli's mythological paintings. In particular, both Primavera and Birth of Venus have been seen as wedding paintings that suggest appropriate behaviors for brides and grooms.[31]
The laurel trees at right and laurel wreath worn by the Hora are punning references to the name "Lorenzo", though it is uncertain whether Lorenzo il Magnifico, the effective ruler of Florence, or his young cousin Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco is meant. In the same way the flowers in the air around Zephyr and on the textiles worn and carried by the Hora evoke the name of Florence.[32]
Literary sources[edit]
Roman fresco from the "House of Venus" in Pompeii, 1st century BC
The closest precedent for the scene is generally agreed to be in one of the early ancient Greek Homeric Hymns, published in Florence in 1488 by the Greek refugee Demetrios Chalkokondyles:
Of august gold-wreathed and beautiful
Aphrodite I shall sing to whose domain
belong the battlements of all sea-loved
Cyprus where, blown by the moist breath
of Zephyros, she was carried over the
waves of the resounding sea on soft foam.
The gold-filleted Horae happily welcomed
her and clothed her with heavenly raiment.[33]
This poem was probably already known to Botticelli's Florentine contemporary, and Lorenzo di Medici's court poet, Angelo Poliziano. The iconography of The Birth of Venus is similar to a description of a relief of the event in Poliziano's poem the Stanze per la giostra, commemorating a Medici joust in 1475, which may also have influenced Botticelli, although there are many differences. For example Poliziano talks of multiple Horae and zephyrs.[34] Older writers, following Horne, posited that "his patron Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco asked him to paint a subject illustrating the lines",[35] and that remains a possibility, though one difficult to maintain so confidently today. Another poem by Politian speaks of Zephyr causing flowers to bloom, and spreading their scent over the land, which probably explains the roses he blows along with him in the painting.[36]
Ancient art[edit]
Capitoline Venus, derived from Aphrodite of Cnidus
Venus de' Medici
Having a large standing female nude as the central focus was unprecedented in post-classical Western painting, and certainly drew on the classical sculptures which were coming to light in this period, especially in Rome, where Botticelli had spent 1481–82 working on the walls of the Sistine Chapel.[37] The pose of Botticelli's Venus follows the Venus Pudica ("Venus of Modesty") type from classical antiquity, where the hands are held to cover the breasts and groin; in classical art this is not associated with the new-born Venus Anadyomene. What became a famous example of this type is the Venus de' Medici, a marble sculpture that was in a Medici collection in Rome by 1559, which Botticelli may have had opportunity to study (the date it was found is unclear).[38]
The painter and the humanist scholars who probably advised him would have recalled that Pliny the Elder had mentioned a lost masterpiece of the celebrated ancient Greek painter, Apelles, representing Venus Anadyomene (Venus Rising from the Sea). According to Pliny, Alexander the Great offered his mistress, Pankaspe, as the model for the nude Venus and later, realizing that Apelles had fallen in love with the girl, gave her to the artist in a gesture of extreme magnanimity. Pliny went on to note that Apelles' painting of Pankaspe as Venus was later "dedicated by Augustus in the shrine of his father Caesar." Pliny also stated that "the lower part of the painting was damaged, and it was impossible to find anyone who could restore it. . . . This picture decayed from age and rottenness, and Nero... substituted for it another painting by the hand of Dorotheus".
Pliny also noted a second painting by Apelles of Venus "superior even to his earlier one," that had been begun by artist but left unfinished. The Roman images in various media showing the new-born Venus in a giant shell may well be crude derivative versions of these paintings. Botticelli could not have seen the frescos unearthed later in Pompeii, but may well have seen small versions of the motif in terracotta or engraved gems. The "House of Venus" in Pompeii has a life-size fresco of Venus lying in the shell, also seen in other works; in most other images she stands with her hands on her hair, wringing the water from it, with or without a shell.
The two-dimensionality of this painting may be a deliberate attempt to evoke the style of ancient Greek vase painting or frescos on the walls of Etruscan tombs,[39] the only types of ancient painting known to Botticelli.
Greco-Roman Venus Anadyomene
Greco-Roman bronze statuette
Roman glass cameo Venus Anadyomene
Greek terracotta, from Pontus
Mack[edit]
Zephyr and his companion
Another interpretation of the Birth of Venus is provided here by its author, Charles R. Mack. This interpretation takes much that is generally agreed, but Mack goes on to explain the painting as an allegory extolling the virtues of Lorenzo de' Medici.[40] This has not been adopted by Renaissance art historians in general,[41] and it remains problematic, since it depends on the painting being commissioned by the Medici, yet the work is not documented in Medici hands until well into the following century.
Mack sees the scene as inspired by both the Homeric Hymn and the ancient paintings. But something more than a rediscovered Homeric hymn was likely in the mind of the Medici family member who commissioned this painting from Botticelli. Once again, Botticelli, in his version of the Birth of Venus, might be seen as completing the task begun by his ancient predecessor Apelles, even surpassing him. Giving added support to this interpretation of Botticelli as a born-again Apelles is the fact that that very claim was voiced in 1488 by Ugolino Verino in a poem entitled "On Giving Praise to the History of Florence."[42]
While Botticelli might well have been celebrated as a revivified Apelles, his Birth of Venus also testified to the special nature of Florence's chief citizen, Lorenzo de' Medici. Although it now seems that the painting was executed for another member of the Medici family, it likely was intended to celebrate and flatter its head, Lorenzo de' Medici. Tradition associates the image of Venus in Botticelli's painting with the famous beauty Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, of whom popular legend claims both Lorenzo and his younger brother, Giuliano, were great admirers. Simonetta was possibly born in the Ligurian seaside town of Portovenere ('the port of Venus'). Thus, in Botticelli's interpretation, Pankaspe (the ancient living prototype of Simonetta), the mistress of Alexander the Great (the Laurentian predecessor), becomes the lovely model for the lost Venus executed by the famous Greek painter Apelles (reborn through the recreative talents of Botticelli), which ended up in Rome, installed by Emperor Augustus in the temple dedicated to Florence's supposed founder Julius Caesar.
In the case of Botticelli's Birth of Venus, the suggested references to Lorenzo, supported by other internal indicators such as the stand of laurel bushes at the right, would have been just the sort of thing erudite Florentine humanists would have appreciated. Accordingly, by overt implication, Lorenzo becomes the new Alexander the Great with an implied link to both Augustus, the first Roman emperor, and even to Florence's legendary founder, Caesar himself. Lorenzo, furthermore, is not only magnificent but, as was Alexander in Pliny's story, also magnanimous, as well. Ultimately, these readings of the Birth of Venus flatter not only the Medici and Botticelli but all of Florence, home to the worthy successors to some of the greatest figures of antiquity, both in governance and in the arts.[43]
These essentially pagan readings of Botticelli's Birth of Venus should not exclude a more purely Christian one, which may be derived from the Neoplatonic reading of the painting indicated above. Viewed from a religious standpoint, the nudity of Venus suggests that of Eve before the Fall as well as the pure love of Paradise. Once landed, the goddess of love will don the earthly garb of mortal sin, an act that will lead to the New Eve – the Madonna whose purity is represented by the nude Venus. Once draped in earthly garments she becomes a personification of the Christian Church which offers a spiritual transport back to the pure love of eternal salvation. In this case the scallop shell upon which this image of Venus/Eve/Madonna/Church stands may be seen in its traditionally symbolic pilgrimage context. Furthermore, the broad expanse of sea serves as a reminder of the Virgin Mary's title stella maris, alluding both to the Madonna's name (Maria/maris) and to the heavenly body (Venus/stella). The sea brings forth Venus just as the Virgin gives birth to the ultimate symbol of love, Christ.[44]
Calumny of Apelles, 1494–95, with "Truth" at left. Uffizi, Florence.
Rather than choosing one of the many interpretations offered for Botticelli's depiction of the Birth (Arrival?) of Venus it might be better to view it from a variety of perspectives. This layered approach—mythological, political, religious—was intended.[45]
Derivative versions[edit]
Berlin Venus, workshop of Botticelli. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin.
Botticelli, or more likely his workshop, repeated the figure of Venus in another painting of about 1490. This life-sized work depicts a similar figure and pose, partially clad in a light blouse, and contrasted against a plain dark background. It is in the Galleria Sabauda in Turin.[46][47] There is another such workshop Venus in Berlin, and very likely others were destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities". Examples seem to have been exported to France and Germany, probably influencing Lucas Cranach the Elder among others.[48]
More than a decade later, Botticelli adapted the figure of Venus for a nude personification of "Truth" in his Calumny of Apelles. Here one hand is raised, pointing to heaven for justification, and the figure's gaze also looks upwards; the whole effect is very different.[49]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ettlingers, 134; Legouix, 118
Jump up ^ Ettlingers, 135–136; Lightbown, 160–162
Jump up ^ For classical examples, see below. Scallops were familiar Italian seafood, but their shells are never more than a few inches wide. The main European species eaten are Pecten maximus and Pecten jacobaeus in the Mediterranean Sea. No Mediterranean shell is anything like this large, although various tropical giant clam species may reach half this width or more, with a rather different shape.
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 153–156; 159; Wind, 131
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 156
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 156–159; Wind, 131
Jump up ^ Dempsey uses these identifications. Legouix, 21 argues for the traditional one for the female held by Zephyr.
Jump up ^ Wind, 115–117
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 159–160
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 153
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 153, 162–163, 163 quoted
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 162
Jump up ^ Hemsoll, 2:50
Jump up ^ Clark, 97–98, 98 quoted; Ettlingers, 134
^ Jump up to: a b c "Botticelli's Birth of Venus". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved December 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hemsoll, 18:15
Jump up ^ Clerk, 281–282
Jump up ^ Ettlingers, 134
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 323, note 11
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 120–122
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 122 (Primavera in the 1499 inventory), 152. In addition, the writer on art known as the "Anonimo Gaddiano", from around 1540, speaks of "several" very fine Botticellis at Castello, which may confirm the Birth was there.
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 122, 153; Hartt, 333
Jump up ^ Dempsey, Legouix, 115, 118
Jump up ^ Legouix, 115–118
Jump up ^ Among many interpretations start with: Aby Warburg, The Renewal of Pagan Antiquity, trans. David Britt, Los Angeles, 1999, 405–431; Ernst H. Gombrich, "Botticelli's Mythologies: A Study in the Neoplatonic Symbolism of his circle," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 8 (1945) 7–60; Wind, Chapter VIII; Lightbown, 152–163; Frank Zollner, Botticelli: Images of Love and Spring, Munich, 1998, 82–91.
Jump up ^ Dempsey, saying Wind is "the most important and complete Neo-Platonic interpretation of Botticelli’s mythological paintings".
Jump up ^ Wind, Chapter VIII (Chapter VII on the Primavera); Stokstad, Marilyn Art History, Pearson
Jump up ^ Plato, Symposium, 180–181, 210.
Jump up ^ Hemsoll, 12:00; Hartt, 333
Jump up ^ James Hankins, "The Myth of the Platonic Academy of Florence," Renaissance Quarterly, 44 (1991) 429–475.
Jump up ^ Lilian Zirpolo, "Botticelli's Primavera: a Lesson for the Bride," Woman's Art Journal, 12/2 1991; Jane C. Long, "Botticelli's Birth of Venus as Wedding Painting," Aurora, 9 (2008) 1–26.
Jump up ^ More clearly in the Latin Florentia ("flowering") than in the Italian Firenze. This was a Roman imperial rename, the city having originally been Fluentia, for its two rivers. Hemsoll, 13:40; Hartt, 333
Jump up ^ Mack, 2005, 85–86; Lightbown, 160
Jump up ^ Lightbown, 159–160; Stanze de Messer Angelo Poliziano cominciate per la giostra del magnifico Giuliano di Pietro de Medici, I 99, 101, trans. David L. Quint, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1979.
Jump up ^ Clark, 97 quoted; see also Ettlingers, 134
Jump up ^ Hemsoll, 7:40
Jump up ^ Clark, 92, 96–97; Lightbown, 160, "the first surviving celebration of the beauty of the female nude represented for its own perfection rather than with erotic or moral or religious overtones."
Jump up ^ Clark, 76–81; Dempsey
Jump up ^ Mack, 2005, 86–87
Jump up ^ Mack (2005), 85–87 and also Mack (2002)
Jump up ^ See, for example, Frank Zöllner, Sandro Botticelli, Munich, 2005; David Wilkins, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, Upper Saddle River, 2011, neither of whom follow Mack's interpretation.
Jump up ^ Mack, 2005, 86
Jump up ^ Mack, 2005, 87
Jump up ^ Mack (2002), 225–26
Jump up ^ Mack (2002), 207, 226
Jump up ^ Shea, Andrea (April 14, 2017). "What 'Venus', Now At The MFA, Can Teach Us About Renaissance Painter Sandro Botticelli". The ARTery. WBUR-FM. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
Jump up ^ "Botticelli and the Search for the Divine". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 19 January 2017. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
Jump up ^ Clark, 101–102; Lightbown, 313–315
Jump up ^ Clark, 99-100; Ettlingers, 145-146
References[edit]
Clark, Kenneth, The Nude, A Study in Ideal Form, orig. 1949, various edns, page refs from Pelican edn of 1960
Dempsey, Charles, "Botticelli, Sandro", Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 15 May. 2017. subscription required.
"Ettlingers": Leopold Ettlinger with Helen S. Ettlinger, Botticelli, 1976, Thames and Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 0500201536
Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian Renaissance Art, (2nd edn.)1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N Abrams), ISBN 0500235104
Hemsoll, David, The Birth of Venus, University of Birmingham, 18 min introductory lecture, refs to mm:ss
Legouix, Susan, Botticelli, 115–118, 2004 (revd edn), Chaucer Press, ISBN 1904449212
Lightbown, Ronald, Sandro Botticelli: Life and Work, 1989, Thames and Hudson
Mack, Charles R. (2002),"Botticelli's Venus: Antique Allusions and Medicean Propaganda," Explorations in Renaissance Culture, 28, 1 (Winter), 2002, 1–31.
Mack, Charles R. (2005), Looking at the Renaissance: Essays toward a Contextual Appreciation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005
Wind, Edgar, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, 1967 edn., Peregrine Books
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Birth of Venus (Botticelli).
University of Birmingham: Dr David Hemsoll, The Birth of Venus – mini-lecture
ArtSleuth: The Birth of Venus – That Obscure Object of Desire
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Live to Rise
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"Live to Rise"
Single by Soundgarden
from the album Avengers Assemble: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture
Released
April 17, 2012 (2012-04-17)
Format
Digital download
Recorded
2012
Genre
Alternative rock
Length
4:40
Label
Hollywood
Songwriter(s)
Chris Cornell
Soundgarden singles chronology
"The Telephantasm"
(2010) "Live to Rise"
(2012) "Been Away Too Long"
(2012)
"The Telephantasm"
(2010) "Live to Rise"
(2012) "Been Away Too Long"
(2012)
Music video
Live to Rise on YouTube
"Live to Rise" is a song recorded by American rock band Soundgarden for the 2012 film The Avengers. The song was released by Hollywood Records on April 17, 2012, as a free digital download during its first week of availability at the iTunes Store,[1] and was later included on the film's soundtrack album, Avengers Assemble: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture, released on May 1, 2012.
"Live to Rise" was the first Soundgarden song to be both fully recorded and released since the band reformed in 2010, as "Black Rain" was partly recorded in the early 1990s.[2] The single has been described as a "riff-heavy rocker" that, according to singer Chris Cornell, would "work just fine" on the band's then-upcoming album King Animal, even though it did not necessarily represent the entire album's sound.[3] Despite earlier speculation, "Live to Rise" did not appear on King Animal.[4]
Charts[edit]
Chart (2012)
Peak
position
Canada (Billboard Canadian Hot 100)[5] 69
US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles (Billboard)[6] 10
US Mainstream Rock (Billboard)[7] 1
US Rock Songs (Billboard)[8] 4
US Alternative Songs (Billboard)[9] 12
UK Rock (Official Charts Company)[10] 11
Reception[edit]
USA Today's review of the Avengers Assemble soundtrack declares "Live to Rise" "is The Incredible Hulk on this all-star soundtrack for the all-star superhero movie The Avengers."[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Soundgarden's First All-New Song in 15 Years "Live to Rise" Available as a Free Download on iTunes Beginning April 17" (Press release). PR Newswire. April 17, 2012. Retrieved July 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Soundgarden's first new song in 15 years: 'The Avengers' - USA Today Retrieved April 2012
Jump up ^ Soundgarden Rolling Stone News
Jump up ^ "SOUNDGARDEN: 'King Animal' Track Listing, Final Cover Artwork Unveiled".
Jump up ^ "Soundgarden Album & Song Chart History: Canadian Hot 100". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bubbling Under Hot 100 – Issue Date: 2012-05-26". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks – Issue Date: 2012-05-99". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Soundgarden Album & Song Chart History: Rock Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 99, 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Soundgarden Album & Song Chart History: Alternative Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ Retrieved May 16, 2012 Uk Rock Chart
Jump up ^ USA Today
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This page was last edited on 4 September 2017, at 00:42.
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text:
United States foreign policy in the Middle East
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A U.S. soldier stands guard duty near a burning oil well in the Rumaila oil field, Iraq, April 2003
United States foreign policy in the Middle East has its roots as early as the Barbary Wars in the first years of the U.S.'s existence, but became much more expansive after World War II. American policy during the Cold War tried to prevent Soviet Union influence by supporting anti-communist regimes and backing Israel against Soviet-sponsored Arab countries. The U.S. also came to replace the United Kingdom as the main security patron of the Persian Gulf states in the 1960s and 1970s, working to ensure a stable flow of Gulf oil.[1] Since the 9/11 attacks of 2001, U.S. policy has included an emphasis on counter-terrorism. The U.S. has diplomatic relations with all countries in the Middle East except for Iran, whose 1979 revolution brought to power a staunchly anti-American regime.
Recent priorities of the U.S. government in the Middle East have included resolving the Arab–Israeli conflict and limiting the spread of weapons of mass destruction[2] among regional states.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Formation of Israel
3 Syria: 1949
4 Mosaddeq and the Shah
5 The Suez Crisis
6 The Six Day War and Black September
7 Iran–Iraq War
7.1 Support for Iraq
7.2 Support for Iran
8 Saudi Arabia
9 Afghanistan and Pakistan
10 Iraq (2003–present)
11 Libya (2011–present)
12 Syria (2011–present)
13 Turkey
13.1 Coup attempt (2016)
14 American allies
15 Criticism
16 See also
17 References
18 Further reading
19 External links
History[edit]
U.S. naval officer Stephen Decatur boarding a Tripolitan gunboat during the First Barbary War, 1804
The United States' relationship with the Middle East prior to World War I was limited, although commercial ties existed even in the early 19th century. President Andrew Jackson established formal ties with the Sultan of Muscat and Oman in 1833. (The Sultan saw the U.S. as a potential balance to Britain's overwhelming regional influence.) Commercial relations opened between the U.S. and Persia in 1857, after Britain persuaded the Persian government not to ratify a similar agreement in 1851.[3]
In comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonize almost all of the Middle East region after defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the United States was "popular and respected throughout the Middle East".[4] Indeed, "Americans were seen as good people, untainted by the selfishness and duplicity associated with the Europeans."[5] American missionaries had brought modern medicine and set up educational institutions all over the Middle East. Moreover, the United States had provided the Middle East with highly skilled petroleum engineers.[6] Thus, there were some connections made between the United States and the Middle East before the Second World War. Other examples of cooperations between the U.S. and the Middle East are the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Middle Eastern energy resources, namely oil, and moreover reflected an American "security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival".[7] The Red Line Agreement had been "part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies … could control oil prices on world markets".[8] The Red Line agreement governed the development of Middle East oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Middle Eastern oil. Below is shown what the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in mind for to a British Ambassador in 1944:
Persian oil … is yours. We share the oil of Iraq and Kuwait. As for Saudi Arabian oil, it's ours.[9]
King Ibn Saud converses with President Franklin D. Roosevelt on board the USS Quincy, after the Yalta Conference in 1945
On August 8, 1944, the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement was signed, dividing Middle Eastern oil between the United States and Britain. Consequently, political scholar Fred H. Lawson remarks, that by the mid-1944, U.S. officials had buttressed their country's position on the peninsula by concluding an Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement that protected "all valid concession contracts and lawfully acquired rights" belonging to the signatories and established a principle of "equal opportunity" in those areas where no concession had yet been assigned.[10] Furthermore, political scholar Irvine Anderson summarises American interests in the Middle East in the late 19th century and the early 20th century noting that, "the most significant event of the period was the transition of the United States from the position of net exporter to one of net importer of petroleum."[11]
By the end of the Second World War, the United States had come to consider the Middle East region as "the most strategically important area of the world."[12] and "one of the greatest material prizes in world history," argues Noam Chomsky.[12] For that reason, it was not until around the period of World War II that America became directly involved in the Middle East region. At this time the region was going through great social, economic and political changes and as a result, internally the Middle East was in turmoil. Politically, the Middle East was experiencing an upsurge in the popularity of nationalistic politics and an increase in the number of nationalistic political groups across the region, which was causing great trouble for the English and French colonial powers.
History scholar Jack Watson explains that "Europeans could not hold these lands indefinitely in the face of Arab nationalism".[13] Watson then continues, stating that "by the end of 1946 Palestine was the last remaining mandate, but it posed a major problem".[14] In truth, this nationalistic political trend clashed with American interests in the Middle East, which were, as Middle East scholar Louise Fawcett argues, "about the Soviet Union, access to oil and the project for a Jewish state in Palestine".[15] Hence, Arabist Ambassador Raymond Hare described the Second World War, as "the great divide" in United States' relation with the Middle East, because these three interests would later serve as a backdrop and reasoning for a great deal of American interventions in the Middle East and thus also come to be the cause of several future conflicts between the United States and the Middle East.[5]
Formation of Israel[edit]
Main article: United States–Israel relations
In 1947, the U.S. and the Truman administration, under domestic political pressure, pushed for a solution and resolution on the Arab–Israeli conflict, and in May 1948 the new state of Israel came into existence. This process was not without its fights and loss of lives. Nevertheless, "the first state to extend diplomatic recognition to Israel was the United States; the Soviet Union and several Western nations quickly followed suit. No Arab state, however, recognized Israel."[16]
Syria: 1949[edit]
Syria became an independent republic in 1946, but the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état, led by Army Chief of Staff Husni al-Za'im, ended the initial period of civilian rule. Za'im met at least six times with CIA operatives in the months prior to the coup to discuss his plan to seize power. Za'im requested American funding or personnel, but it is not known whether this assistance was provided. Once in power, Za'im made several key decisions that benefitted the United States. He approved the Trans-Arabian Pipeline (TAPLINE), an American project designed to transport Saudi Arabian oil to Mediterranean ports. Construction of TAPLINE had been delayed due to Syrian intransigence. Za'im also improved relations with two American allies in the region: Israel and Turkey. He signed an armistice with Israel, formally ending the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and he renounced Syrian claims to Hatay Province, a major source of dispute between Syria and Turkey. Za'im also cracked down on local communists. However, Za'im's regime was short-lived. He was overthrown in August, just four and a half months after seizing power.[17][18][19][20]
Mosaddeq and the Shah[edit]
See also: 1953 Iranian coup d'état
Supporters of Mohammed Mosaddeq in 1952
Opposed to foreign intervention in Iran and a keen nationalist, Mohammed Mosaddeq became the prime minister of Iran in 1951. Thus, when Mosaddeq was elected he chose to nationalize the Iranian oil industry, where previously British holdings had generated great profits for Britain through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Furthermore, prior to the nationalisation of Iranian oil Mosaddeq had also cut all diplomatic ties with Britain.[21] The Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was opposed to the nationalisation of Iranian oil as he feared this would result in an oil embargo, which would destroy Iran's economy and thus, the Shah was very concerned with the effect of Mosaddeq's policies on Iran. Equally worried were workers in the Iranian oil industry, when they experienced the economic effect of the sanctions on Iranian oil exports which Mosaddeq's policies had resulted in, and riots were happening across Iran.[22]
Thus, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi asked Mosaddeq to resign, as was the Shah's constitutional right, but Mosaddeq refused, which resulted in national uprisings. The Shah, fearing for his personal security, fled the country but nominated General Fazlollah Zahedi as new Prime Minister. Although General Fazlollah Zahedi was a nationalist, he did not agree with the Mosaddeq's lenient attitude towards the communist Tudeh party, which the United States had also become increasingly concerned with, fearing Soviet influence spreading in the Middle East. Therefore, in late 1952, the British government asked the U.S. administration for help with the removal of Mohammed Mosaddeq. President Harry S. Truman thought Mossadeq was a valuable bulwark against Soviet influence.[23] However, Truman left office in January 1953, and the new administration of Dwight Eisenhower shared British concern over Mossadeq. Allen Dulles, the director of the CIA, approved one million dollars on April 4, 1953 to be used "in any way that would bring about the fall of Mossadegh"[24] Consequently, after a failed attempt on August 15, "on August 19, 1953, General Fazlollah Zahedi succeeded [with the help of the United States and Britain] and Mossadegh was overthrown. The CIA covertly funneled five million dollars to General Zahedi's regime on August 21, 1953."[24]
This CIA operation, often referred to as Operation Ajax and led by CIA officer Kermit Roosevelt, Jr., ensured the return of the Shah on August 22, 1953.[22]
The Suez Crisis[edit]
Main article: Suez Crisis
Play media
President Eisenhower press conference about the crisis, 9 August 1956
Today more than a quarter of the world's oil is shipped through the Suez Canal.[25]
Although accepting large sums of military aid from the United States in 1954, by 1956 Egyptian leader Nasser had grown tired of the American influence in the country. The involvement that the U.S. would take in Egyptian business and politics in return for aid, Nasser thought "smacked of colonialism."[26] Indeed, as political scholar B.M. Bleckman argued in 1978, "Nasser had ambivalent feelings toward the United States. From 1952 to 1954 he was on close terms with U.S. officials and was viewed in Washington as a promising moderate Arab leader. The conclusion of an arms deal with the USSR in 1955, however, had cooled the relationship between Cairo and Washington considerably, and the Dulles-Eisenhower decision to withdraw the offer to finance the Aswan High Dam in mid-1956 was a further blow to the chances of maintaining friendly ties. Eisenhower's stand against the British, French, and Israeli attack on Egypt in October 1956 created a momentary sense of gratitude on the part of Nasser, but the subsequent development of the Eisenhower Doctrine, so clearly aimed at 'containing' Nasserism, undermined what little goodwill existed toward the United States in Cairo."[27] "The Suez Crisis of 1956 marked the demise of British power and its gradual replacement by USA as the dominant power in the Middle East."[28] The Eisenhower Doctrine became a manifestation of this process. "The general objective of the Eisenhower Doctrine, like that of the Truman Doctrine formulated ten years earlier, was the containment of Soviet expansion."[29] Furthermore, when the Doctrine was finalised on March 9, 1957, it "essentially gave the president the latitude to intervene militarily in the Middle East … without having to resort to Congress."[30] indeed as, Middle East scholar Irene L. Gerdzier explains "that with the Eisenhower Doctrine the United States emerged "as the uncontested Western power … in the Middle East."[31]
Meanwhile, in Jordan nationalistic anti-government rioting broke out and the United States decided to send a battalion of marines to Lebanon in case of possibly having to intervene in Jordan later that year. Moreover, attempting to keep the pro-American King Hussein of Jordan in power, the CIA started to make secret payments of millions of dollars a year to King Hussein. In the same year, the U.S. supported allies in Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey and Saudi Arabia and sent fleets to be near Syria as Syria's government had executed nationalistic and pro-Soviet policies the same year.[32] However, 1958 was to become a difficult year in U.S. foreign policy; in 1958 Syria and Egypt were merged into the "United Arab Republic", anti-American and anti-government revolts started occurring in Lebanon, causing the Lebanese president Chamoun to ask America for help, and the very pro-American King Feisal the 2nd of Iraq was overthrown by a group of nationalistic military officers.[33] It was quite "commonly believed that [Nasser] … stirred up the unrest in Lebanon and, perhaps, had helped to plan the Iraqi revolution."[34]
The Six Day War and Black September[edit]
Further information on Black September: Black September in Jordan
In June 1967 Israel fought with Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in the Six-Day War. As a result of the war, Israel captured the West Bank, Golan Heights, and the Sinai Peninsula. The U.S. supported Israel with weapons and continued to support Israel financially throughout the 1970s. On September 17, 1970, with U.S. and Israeli help, Jordanian troops attacked PLO guerrilla camps, while Jordan's U.S.-supplied air force dropped napalm from above. The U.S. deployed the aircraft carrier Independence and six destroyers off the coast of Lebanon and readied troops in Turkey to support the assault.
The American interventions in the years before the Iranian revolution have all proven to be based in part on economic considerations, but more so have been influenced and led by the international Cold War context.[35]
Iran–Iraq War[edit]
Support for Iraq[edit]
Main article: United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war
Support for Iran[edit]
See also: Iran–Contra affair and Israel's role in the Iran–Iraq war
Saudi Arabia[edit]
President Obama with King Salman of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, 27 January 2015
See also: Saudi Arabia–United States relations and Saudi Arabia lobby in the United States
Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies,[36][37][38] but relations with the U.S. became strained following September 11 attacks.[39]
In March 2015, President Barack Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a "Joint Planning Cell" with Saudi Arabia.[40] The report by Human Rights Watch stated that US-made bombs were being used in attacks indiscriminately targeting civilians and violating the laws of war.[41]
Afghanistan and Pakistan[edit]
See also: CIA activities in Afghanistan and War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)
Afghanistan and Pakistan, though situated in South Asia, are considered part of the Greater Middle East. U.S. intervention in both Afghanistan and Pakistan started with the Carter Administration after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The relations of the U.S. with Afghanistan and Pakistan have been closely tied to the War on terrorism that has happened there. American policy has been instrumental in coordinating the ongoing conflicts in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. In recent times, political situations of both countries have been bracketed under a single theater of operations, denoted by the newly coined American term "AfPak."[42]
Iraq (2003–present)[edit]
Main articles: 2003 invasion of Iraq, Iraq War, and American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)
Libya (2011–present)[edit]
Main articles: Libyan Civil War (2011), 2011 military intervention in Libya, and Libyan Civil War (2014–present)
Syria (2011–present)[edit]
Main article: American-led intervention in Syria
Turkey[edit]
President Donald Trump and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey in October 2017
Coup attempt (2016)[edit]
On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted in Turkey by a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces against state institutions, including, but not limited to the government and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
The Turkish government accused the coup leaders of being linked to the Gülen movement, which is designated as a terrorist organization by the Republic of Turkey and led by Fethullah Gülen, a Turkish businessman and cleric who lives in Pennsylvania, United States. Erdoğan accuses Gülen of being behind the coup—a claim that Gülen denies—and accused the United States of harboring him. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan accused the head of United States Central Command, chief General Joseph Votel[43] of "siding with coup plotters," (after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon's contacts in Turkey).[44]
American allies[edit]
States
Israel (see Israel–United States relations)
Dedication ceremony of the Embassy of the United States in Jerusalem, Israel, 14 May 2018
Saudi Arabia (see Saudi Arabia–United States relations)
Turkey (see Turkey–United States relations)
Qatar (see Qatar–United States relations)
Bahrain (see Bahrain–United States relations)
United Arab Emirates (see United Arab Emirates–United States relations)
Jordan (see Jordan–United States relations)
Egypt (see Egypt–United States relations)
Autonomous provinces
Iraqi Kurdistan (see Iraqi Kurdistan–United States relations)
Factions
Syrian Democratic Forces
Free Syrian Army
Criticism[edit]
Protest against U.S. involvement in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, March 2018
Main article: Criticism of United States foreign policy
See also[edit]
Arab lobby in the United States
Foreign policy of the United States
Daesh
Gulf War
Iran–Contra affair
Saddam Hussein
Iraq–United States relations
Mission Accomplished
Dual containment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81402&page=1
Jump up ^ https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/04/america-trump-kennedy-syria-atomic-war/523092/
Jump up ^ Fain, W. Taylor (2008-06-15). American Ascendance and British Retreat in the Persian Gulf Region. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-230-60151-2. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Fawcett, L., (2005) The International Relations of the Middle East, UK: Oxford University Press, p. 284
^ Jump up to: a b Fawcett, L. (2005) The International Relations of the Middle East UK: Oxford University Press p 285
Jump up ^ Rugh, W. A. (2005) American Encounters with Arabs: The Soft Power of U.S. Public Diplomacy in the Middle East U.S.: Praeger Publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0-275-98817-3 pp 25–26
Jump up ^ Le Billon, P., El Khatib, F. (March 2004) "From free oil to 'freedom oil': terrorism, war and U.S. Geopolitics in the Persian Gulf", Geopolitics, Volume 9, Issue 1 p. 109
Jump up ^ Review (Winter 1982): "State Power and Industry Influence: American Foreign Oil Policy in the 1940s", International Organization 36, no. 1 p. 168
Jump up ^ Yergin, D (1991) The Prize: The Epic quest for Oil, Money and Power New York: Simon and Schuster p 401
Jump up ^ Lawson, F. H. (Aug., 1989) "The Iranian Crisis of 1945–1946 and the Spiral Model of International Conflict" International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 21, No. 3 p. 310
Jump up ^ Anderson, Irvine.(1981) Aramco, The United States, and Saudi Arabia. Princeton University Press. p. 36
^ Jump up to: a b Chomsky, Noam (January/February 2005) "Imperial Presidency", Canadian Dimension, Vol. 39, No. 1 p. 8
Jump up ^ Watson, J, B(1981) Success in Twentieth century World Affairs since 1919 Norwich: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd p. 295
Jump up ^ Watson, J. B. (1981), Success in Twentieth Century World Affairs since 1919, Norwich: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd p. 295
Jump up ^ Fawcett, L. (2005), International Relations of the Middle East UK: Oxford University Press, p. 284
Jump up ^ McWilliams, W, C, Piotrowski, H, (6th ed.)(2005) The World since 1945: A History of International Relations U.S. Lynne Rienner Publishers p 154
Jump up ^ Douglas Little (1990). "Cold War and Covert Action: The United States and Syria, 1945–1958". Middle East Journal. 44 (1).
Jump up ^ "1949–1958, Syria: Early Experiments in Cover Action, Douglas Little, Professor, Department of History, Clark University" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-09.
Jump up ^ Gendzier, Irene L. (1997). Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958. Columbia University Press. p. 98. Retrieved February 13, 2012. Recent investigation … indicates that CIA agents Miles Copeland and Stephen Meade … were directly involved in the coup in which Syrian colonel Husni Za'im seizedpower. According to then former CIA agent Wilbur Eveland, the coup was carried out in order to obtain Syrian ratification of TAPLINE.
Jump up ^ Gerolymatos, André (2010). Castles Made of Sand: A Century of Anglo-American Espionage and Intervention in the Middle East. Thomas Dunne books (MacMillan). Retrieved February 13, 2012. Miles Copeland, formerly a CIA agent, has outlined how he and Stephen Meade backed Zaim, and American archival sources confirm that it was during this period that Meade established links with extremist right-wing elements of the Syrian army, who ultimately carried out the coup.
Jump up ^ Dionisi, D, J(2005) American Hiroshima: The reasons why and a call to strengthen America's Democracy, Canada: Trafford Publishing, ISBN 1-4120-4421-9, pp 30–38
^ Jump up to: a b Immerman, R, H, Theoharis, A, G (2006) The Central Intelligence Agency: Security under Scrutiny U.S.: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-33282-7, p. 314
Jump up ^ "Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran". National Security Archive. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Dionisi, D, J(2005) American Hiroshima: The reasons why and a call to strengthen America's Democracy, Canada: Trafford Publishing, ISBN 1-4120-4421-9, p. 40
Jump up ^ Fiscus, J, W (2004) War and Conflict in the Middle East: The Suez Crisis, U.S.: The Rosen Publishers Group, ISBN 0-8239-4550-2, p. 5
Jump up ^ Lesch, D, W(ed.) (2003) The Middle East and the United States: A Historical and Political Reassesment U.S.: Westview Press, p. 94
Jump up ^ Bleckman B, M, Kaplan, S, S (1978) Force Without War: U.S. armed Forces As a Political Instrument U.S.: The Brookings Institution p 249
Jump up ^ Attie, C, C, (2004) Struggle in the Levant, Kings Lynn: The Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford p 1
Jump up ^ Attie, Struggle in the Levant, p. 109
Jump up ^ Attie, Struggle in the Levant, p. 110
Jump up ^ Gettleman, M, E, Schaar, S (2003) The Middle East and Islamic World Reader, U.S.: Grove Press p. 248
Jump up ^ Ambrose, S, E (1980) The Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy, 1938–1980 New York: Penguin Books p. 463
Jump up ^ Eisenhower, (1965) White House Years, vol. 2: Waaina Peace 1956–1961 New York: Doubleday, p. 268
Jump up ^ Owen, R, Louis, R(2002) A Revolutionary year: The Middle East in 1958, U.K.: I.B. Tauris & Co,. Ltd, ISBN 1-86064-402-3, p. 2
Jump up ^ Watson, J, B (1981) Success in Twentieth century World Affairs since 1919 Norwich: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd p. 301
Jump up ^ "How strained are US-Saudi relations?". BBC News. 20 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Old friends US and Saudi Arabia feel the rift growing, seek new partners". Asia Times. 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest". Al-Ahram Weekly. 28 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Madawi Al-Rasheed (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
Jump up ^ "Saudi Arabia launces air attacks in Yemen". The Washington Post. 25 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Saudi airstrikes in Yemen violate laws of war, rights group says". mcclatchydc. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Terry H. Anderson, Bush's Wars (Oxford University Press; 2011) on Iraq and Afghanistan, 2001–2011
Jump up ^ "Department of Defense Press Briefing by Pentagon Press Secretary Peter". Retrieved 2016-09-14.
Jump up ^ "U.S. general denies involvement in Turkish coup attempt". Reuters. 2016-07-29. Retrieved 2016-09-14.
Further reading[edit]
Baxter, Kylie, and Shahram Akbarzadeh. US foreign policy in the Middle East: The roots of anti-Americanism (Routledge, 2012)
Cramer, Jane K., and A. Trevor Thrall, eds. Why Did the United States Invade Iraq? (Routledge, 2013)
Fawcett, Louise. International relations of the Middle East (Oxford University Press, 2013)
Hemmer, Christopher. Which lessons matter?: American foreign policy decision making in the Middle East, 1979-1987 (SUNY Press, 2012)
Jacobs, Matthew F. Imagining the Middle East: The Building of an American Foreign Policy, 1918-1967 (2011)
O'Sullivan, Christopher D. FDR and the End of Empire: The Origins of American Power in the Middle East (2012)
Petersen, Tore. Anglo-American Policy toward the Persian Gulf, 1978–1985: Power, Influence and Restraint (Sussex Academic Press, 2015)
Pillar, Paul R. Intelligence and US Foreign Policy: Iraq, 9/11, and Misguided Reform (Columbia University Press, 2014) 432p
Pollack, Kenneth. Unthinkable: Iran, the bomb, and American strategy (2014)
External links[edit]
Middle East – U.S. Relations from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Establishment of U.S. Consuls and Colonies in the Levant – Shapell Manuscript Foundation
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