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List of Latin phrases (V)
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This page lists English translations of notable Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature reached its peak centuries before the rise of ancient Rome.
This list covers the letter V. See List of Latin phrases for the main list.
List of Latin phrases
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References

V[edit]
Latin
Translation
Notes
vacate et scire Be still and know. Motto of the University of Sussex.
vade ad formicam go to the ant From the Vulgate, Proverbs 6:6. The full quotation translates as "Go to the ant, you sluggard; consider its ways and be wise!"[Pro 6:6]
vade mecum go with me A vade-mecum or vademecum is an item one carries around, especially a handbook.
vade retro Satana go back, Satan An exhortation to Satan to be gone, often a Roman Catholic response to temptation. From a popular Medieval Roman Catholic exorcism formula, derived from the rebuke of Jesus Christ to St. Peter, as quoted in the Vulgate, Mark 8:33: vade retro me Satana ("get behind Me, Satan").[Mark 8:33] The phrase "vade retro" ("go back") is also in Terence's Formio, I, 4, 203.
valenter volenter strongly and willingly Motto of HMS Valorous (L00)
vae victis woe to the conquered Attributed by Livy to Brennus, the chief of the Gauls, stated with his demand for more gold from the citizens of the sacked city of Rome in 390 BC.
vanitas vanitatum omnia vanitas vanity of vanities; everything [is] vanity Or more simply: "vanity, vanity, everything vanity". From the Vulgate, Ecclesiastes 1:2;12:8.
vaticinium ex eventu prophecy from the event A purported prediction stated as if it was made before the event it describes, while in fact being made thereafter.
vel non or not Summary of alternatives, e. g., "this action turns upon whether the claimant was the deceased's grandson vel non."
velle est posse to be willing is to be able Non-literally, "where there is a will, there is a way". It is the motto of Hillfield, one of the founding schools of Hillfield Strathallan College.
velocius quam asparagi coquantur faster than asparagus can be cooked Or simply "faster than cooking asparagus". Ascribed to Augustus by Suetonius in The Twelve Caesars, Book 2 (Augustus), para. 87. It refers to anything done very quickly. A very common variant is celerius quam asparagi cocuntur ("faster than asparagus [is] cooked").
velut arbor aevo as a tree with the passage of time Motto of the University of Toronto, Canada.
veni, vidi, vici I came, I saw, I conquered The message supposedly sent by Julius Caesar to the Roman Senate to describe his battle against King Pharnaces II of Pontus near Zela in 47 BC.
venturis ventis to the coming winds Motto of Brasília, the capital of Brazil.
vera causa true cause
verba docent exempla trahunt words instruct, illustrations lead This refers to the relevance of illustrations, for example in preaching.
verba ex ore words from mouth Taking the words out of someone’s mouth, speaking exactly what the other colloquist wanted to say.
verba ita sunt intelligenda ut res magis valeat quam pereat words are to be understood such that the subject matter may be more effective than wasted I. e., when explaining a subject, it is important to clarify rather than confuse.
verba vana aut risui non loqui not to speak words in vain or to start laughter A Roman Catholic religious precept, being Rule 56 of the Rule of Saint Benedict.
verba volant, scripta manent words fly away, writings remain Quotation from a famous speech of Caius Titus in the ancient Roman Senate.
verbatim word for word The phrase refers to perfect transcription or quotation.
verbatim et literatim word for word and letter by letter
Verbi Divini minister servant of the Divine Word A phrase denoting a priest. Cf. "Verbum Dei" infra.
verbi gratia
(v. gr. or v. g.) for example Literally, "for the sake of a word".
Verbum Dei Word of God See religious text.
verbum Domini lucerna pedibus nostris The word of the Lord [is] a light for our feet Motto of the University of Groningen.
verbum Domini manet in aeternum (VDMA) the word of the Lord endures forever Motto of the Lutheran Reformation.
verb. sap.
verbum sap. a word to the wise [is sufficient] A phrase denoting that the listener can fill in the omitted remainder, or enough is said. It is the truncation of "verbum sapienti sat[is] est".
verbum volitans flying word A word that floats in the air, on which everyone is thinking and is just about to be imposed.[citation needed]
veritas truth A motto of the Roman Catholic Order of Preachers, and the motto of many educational institutions, including Harvard University (albeit truncated), Cabra Dominican College, and Bishop Lynch High School.
veritas aequitas truth [and] justice
veritas, bonitas, pulchritudo, sanctitas truth, goodness, beauty, [and] sanctity Motto of Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan.
veritas Christo et ecclesiae truth for Christ and church The de iure motto of Harvard University, United States, which dates to its foundation; it is often shortened to veritas to remove its original religious meaning.
veritas cum libertate truth with liberty Motto of Winthrop University.
veritas curat truth cures Motto of Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research.
veritas Dei vincit the truth of God conquers Motto of the Hussites.
veritas Domini manet in aeternum the truth of the Lord remains for eternity
veritas et fortitudo truth and fortitude One of the mottos of the Lyceum of the Philippines University.
veritas et virtus truth and virtue Motto of the University of Pittsburgh, Methodist University, and Mississippi College.
veritas, fides, sapientia truth, faith, [and] wisdom Motto of Dowling Catholic High School.
veritas in caritate truth in charity Motto of Bishop Wordsworth's School and St Munchin's College.
veritas, iustitia, libertas truth, justice, [and] liberty Motto of the Free University of Berlin.
veritas liberabit vos truth shall liberate you Motto of Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan.
veritas lux mea truth [is] my light A common, non-literal translation is "truth enlightens me". The motto of Seoul National University, South Korea.
veritas numquam perit truth never expires Authored by Seneca the Younger.
veritas odit moras truth hates delay Authored by Seneca the Younger.
veritas omnia vincit truth conquers all A quotation from a letter of Jan Hus. The motto of Carncot Independent School for Girls and Boys; Wilfrid Laurier University, Ontario, Canada; Satyameva Jayate; and the Triangle Fraternity.
veritas, unitas, caritas truth, unity, [and] love Motto of Villanova University, United States.
veritas vincit truth conquers Cf. "veritas omnia vincit" supra. It is the motto on the standard of the Presidents of Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic, and of the Scottish Clan Keith.
Veritas. Virtus. Libertas. Truth. Virtue. Liberty. Motto of the University of Szeged, Hungary.
veritas vitæ magistra truth is the teacher of life Another plausible translation is "truth is the mistress of life". It is the unofficial motto of the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras and is inscribed in its tower.
veritas vos liberabit truth will liberate you [all] Motto of Johns Hopkins University, United States.
veritate duce progredi advancing with truth leading Motto of the University of Arkansas, Arkansas, United States.
[in] veritate et caritate in truth and charity Motto of Catholic Junior College, Singapore; St. Xavier's School, and Hazaribagh, India.
veritate et virtute with truth and virtue The motto of Sydney Boys High School. It is alternatively rendered "virtute et veritate" ("with virtue and truth"), which is the motto of Walford Anglican School for Girls and Pocklington School.
veritatem dilexi I esteemed truth Alternatively, "I loved truth". It is the motto of Bryn Mawr College.
veritatem fratribus testari to bear witness to truth in fraternity Motto of Xaverian Brothers High School.
veritatem cognoscere to know truth Motto of the Clandestine Service of the United States Central Intelligence Agency.
vero nihil verius nothing [is] truer than truth Motto of Mentone Girls' Grammar School.
vero possumus yes, we can A variation of the campaign slogan of then-Senator Barack Obama, which was superimposed on a variation of the Great Seal of the United States during the US presidential campaign of 2008.[1]
versus (vs) or (v.) towards Literally, "in the direction [of]". It is erroneously used in English for "against", probably as the truncation of "adversus", especially in reference to two opponents, e. g., the parties to litigation or a sports match.
vestigia nulla retrorsum Never a backward step Motto of Wanganui Collegiate School.
veto I forbid The word denotes the right to unilaterally forbid or void a specific proposal, especially legislation. It is derived from ancient Roman voting procedures.
vexata quaestio vexed question Latin legal phrase denoting a question that is often debated or considered, but is not generally settled, such that contrary answers may be held by different persons.
vexilla regis prodeunt inferni forth go the banners of the king of Hell Authored by Dante Alighieri in Canto XXXIV of the Inferno, the phrase is an allusion to and play upon the Latin Easter hymn Vexilla Regis. The phrase is repeatedly referenced in the works of Walter M. Miller, Jr..
vi coactus under constraint A legal phrase regarding contracts that indicates agreement made under duress.
vi et animo with heart and soul Alternatively, "strength and courage". It is the motto of the Ascham School and on the coat of arms of the McCulloch Clan.
vi veri universum vivus vici by the power of truth, I, while living, have conquered the universe Magickal motto of Aleister Crowley.
via by the road/way The word denotes "by way of" or "by means of", e. g., "I will contact you via email".
via media middle road/way This phrase describes a compromise between two extremes or the radical center political position.
via, veritas, vita the Way, the Truth, [and] the Life The words of Jesus Christ in John 14:6. It is the motto of many institutions, including Glasgow University, Scotland, United Kingdom.
viam sapientiae monstrabo tibi I will show you the way of wisdom The motto of DePaul University.
vice in place of The word refers to one who acts in the place of another. It is used as a separate word or as a hyphenated prefix, e. g., "Vice President" and "Vice-Chancellor".
vice versa
versa vice with position turned
For other uses, see Vice Versa (disambiguation).
Thus, "the other way around", "conversely", et cetera. Historically and in British English, "vice" is pronounced as two syllables, but in American English the singular syllable pronunciation is almost universal. Classical Latin pronunciation dictates that the letter "c" is only a hard sound, like "k", thus vee-keh vehr-sah. Moreover, it also dictates that the letter "v", when consonantal, represents /w/; i. e. in classical times, the "v" was pronounced like the modern "w"; hence wee-keh wehr-sah.[2]
victoria aut mors victory or death Similar to "aut vincere aut mori".
victoria concordia crescit victory comes from harmony The official motto of the Arsenal F.C..
victrix causa diis placuit sed victa Catoni the victorious cause pleased the gods, but the conquered cause pleased Cato Authored by Lucan in Pharsalia, 1, 128. The dedicatory inscription on the south face of the Confederate Memorial in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, United States.
vide "see" or "refer to" The word is used in scholarly citations.
vide infra (v. i.) see below The word is used in scholarly works.
vide supra (v. s.) see above The word is used in scholarly works to refer to previous text in the same document. It is sometimes truncated to "supra".
videlicet (viz.) "namely", "that is to say", or "as follows" A contraction of "videre licet" ("it is permitted to see"), vide infra.
video et taceo I see and keep silent The motto of Queen Elizabeth I of England.
video meliora proboque deteriora sequor I see and approve of the better, but I follow the worse From the Metamorphoses Book 7, 20-1 of Ovid, being a summary of the experience of akrasia.
video sed non credo I see it, but I do not believe it The statement of Caspar Hofmann (de) after being shown proof of the circulatory system by William Harvey.
videre licet "it is permitted to see" or "one may see" The phrase is used in scholarship.
vim promovet insitam promotes one's innate power Motto of the University of Bristol, derived from Horace, Ode 4, 4.
vince malum bono overcome evil with good A partial quotation of Romans 12:21. A motto of Old Swinford Hospital and Bishop Cotton School in Shimla.
vincere est vivere to conquer is to live Motto of Captain John Smith.
vincere scis Hannibal victoria uti nescis you know [how] to win, Hannibal; you do not know [how] to use victory According to Livy, a colonel in the cavalry stated this to Hannibal after victory in the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, meaning that Hannibal should have marched on Rome immediately.
vincit omnia veritas truth conquers all University of Mindanao
vincit qui patitur he conquers who endures First attributed to the Roman scholar and satirst Persius. It is frequently used as a motto.
vincit qui se vincit he (she) conquers who conquers himself (herself) Motto of many educational institutions, including the Philadelphia High School for Girls and North Sydney Boys High School. It is alternatively rendered as "bis vincit qui se vincit" ("he (she) who prevails over himself (herself) is twice victorious"). It is also the motto of the Beast in Disney's film Beauty and the Beast, as seen inscribed in the castle's stained glass window near the beginning of the film.
vinculum juris the chain of the law The phrase denotes that a thing is legally binding. "A civil obligation is one which has a binding operation in law, vinculum juris." (Bouvier's Law Dictionary (1856), "Obligation")
vinum et musica laetificant cor wine and music gladden the heart Asterix and Caesar's Gift; it is a variation of "vinum bonum laetificat cor hominis".
vinum regum, rex vinorum the wine of kings, the king of wines The phrase describes Hungarian Tokaji wine, and is attributed to King Louis XIV of France.
viperam sub ala nutricare a viper nursed at the bosom A caveat regarding trusting someone against his inherent nature; the moral of Aesop's fable The Farmer and the Viper.
vir prudens non contra ventum mingit [a] wise man does not urinate [up] against the wind
vir quisque vir every man a man Motto of the US collegiate fraternity Lambda Chi Alpha.
Vires acquirit eundo she gathers strength as she goes A quotation from Vergil's Aeneid, Book 4, 175, which in the original context refers to Pheme. The motto on the Coat of arms of Melbourne.
Viribus Unitis with united forces Motto of the house of Habsburg-Lorraine.
virile agitur the manly thing is being done The motto of Knox Grammar School.
viriliter age "act manfully" or "act courageously" The motto of Marist College Ashgrove and other institutions.
viriliter agite act in a manly way The motto of St Muredach's College and the PAREF Southridge School for Boys.
viriliter agite estote fortes act manfully, be strong The motto of Culford School.
virtus et labor virtue and [hard] work Motto of Don Bosco Liluah, India and St. Georges College, Mussoorie, India.
virtus et scientia virtue and knowledge A common motto, preeminently that of La Salle University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
virtus in media stat virtue stands in the middle A principle derived from the ethical theory of Aristotle. Idiomatically, "good practice lies in the middle path" between two extremes. It is disputed whether "media" or "medio" is correct.
virtus junxit mors non separabit that which virtue unites, let not death separate Motto of the Masonic (Scottish Rite).
virtus laudata crescit greatness increases with praise Motto of the Berkhamsted School.
Virtus non stemma valor, not garland Motto of the Duke of Westminster, inscribed at his residence in Eaton, and the motto of Grosvenor Rowing Club and Harrow County School for Boys.
virtus sola nobilitas virtue alone [is] noble Motto of Christian Brothers College, St Kilda.
virtus tentamine gaudet strength rejoices in the challenge Motto of Hillsdale College, Michigan, United States.
virtus unita fortior virtue united [is] stronger State motto of Andorra.
Virtute duce led by virtue Motto of the Acciari family (it).
Virtute duce comite fortuna led by virtue, accompanied by [good] fortune Motto of the Institut d'études politiques de Lyon and the Accorretti family (it).
virtute et armis by virtue and arms Alternatively, "by manliness and weapons". The State motto of Mississippi, United States. The phrase was possibly derived from the motto of Lord Gray de Wilton, "virtute non armis fido" ("I trust in virtue, not in arms"). Alternatively it is rendered as "virtute et labore" ("by manliness and work"), which is the motto of Pretoria Boys High School.
virtute et industria by virtue and industry Motto of Bristol, United Kingdom.
virtute et veritate by virtue and truth Motto of Pocklington School.
vis legis the power of the law
vis major force majeure, superior force
visio dei vision of a god
vita ante acta a life done before The phrase denotes a previous life, generally believed to be the result of reincarnation.
vita, dulcedo, spes Mary, our] life, sweetness, [and] hope The motto of the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, United States, which is derived from the Roman Catholic hymn to the Blessed Virgin Mary titled Salve Regina.
vita incerta, mors certissima life is uncertain, death is most certain More simply, "the most certain thing in life is death".
vita mutatur, non tollitur life is changed, not taken away The phrase is a quotation from the preface of the first Roman Catholic rite of the Mass for the Dead.
vita patris during the life of the father Hence the term "decessit vita patris" (d. v. p) or "died v. p.", which is seen in genealogical works such as Burke's Peerage.
vita summa brevis spem nos vetat incohare longam the shortness of life prevents us from entertaining far-off hopes This is a wistful refrain that is sometimes used ironically. It is derived from the first line of Horace's Ode 1. It was later used as the title of a short poem of Ernest Dowson.
vitai lampada tradunt they hand on the torch of life A quotation from the poem of Lucretius, De rerum natura, Book 2, 77-9. The ordinary spelling "vitae" in two syllables had to be changed to "vitaï" in three syllables to satisfy the requirements of the poem's dactylic hexameters. It is the motto of the Sydney Church of England Grammar School and others.
vitam amplificare hominibus hominesque societati mankind [who] extends the life of the community Motto of East Los Angeles College, California, United States.
viva voce living voice The phrase denotes an oral, as opposed to written, examination of a candidate.
vivat crescat floreat may it live, grow, [and] flourish
vivat rex may the king live The acclamation is ordinary translated as "long live the king!". In the case of a female queen, "vivat regina" ("long live the queen").
vivat rex, curat lex long live the king, guardian of the law A curious translation of the pun on "vivat rex", found in Westerham parish church in Kent, England.
vive memor leti live remembering death Authored by Persius. Cf. "memento mori".
vive ut vivas live so that you may live The phrase suggests that one should live life to the fullest and without fear of the possible consequences.
vivere est cogitare to live is to think Authored by Cicero. Cf. "cogito ergo sum".
vivere militare est to live is to fight Authored by Seneca the Younger in Epistle 96, 5. Cf. the allegory of Miles Christianus based on "militia est vita hominis" from the Vulgate, Book of Job 7:1.
vocatus atque non vocatus Deus aderit called and not called, God will be present Alternatively, "called and even not called, God approaches". Attributed to the Oracle at Delphi. The motto of Carl Jung, and inscribed in his home and grave.
volenti non fit injuria to one willing, no harm is done Alternatively, "to him who consents, no harm is done". The principle is used in the law of torts and denotes that one can not be held liable for injuries inflicted on another who consented to the act that injured him.
volo non fugia I fly but do not flee The motto of HMS Venetia[3]
vos estis sal terrae you are the salt of the earth A famous biblical sentence proclaimed by Jesus Christ.
votum separatum separate vow The phrase denotes an independent, minority voice.
vox clamantis in deserto the voice of one clamoring in the desert Or traditionally, "the voice of one crying in the wilderness". A quotation of the Vulgate, Isaiah 40:3, and quoted by St. John the Baptist in Mark 1:3 and John 1:23). It is the motto of Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States.
vox nihili voice of nothing The phrase denotes a useless or ambiguous statement.
vox populi voice of the people The phrase denotes a brief interview of a common person that is not previously arranged, e. g., an interview on a street. It is sometimes truncated to "vox pop."
vox populi, vox Dei the voice of the people [is] the voice of God
vulpes pilum mutat, non mores the fox changes his fur, not his habits
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Image at York University, Department of Languages, Literatures & Linguistics. Archived February 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Covington, Michael A. (December 31, 2005). "Latin Pronunciation Demystified" (PDF). Program in Linguistics. University of Georgia.
Jump up ^ Naval History: HMS VENETIA (D 53) - V & W-class Destroyer
Additional references
Adeleye, Gabriel G. (1999). Thomas J. Sienkewicz; James T. McDonough, Jr., eds. World Dictionary of Foreign Expressions. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0865164223.
Stone, Jon R. (1996). Latin for the Illiterati. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415917751.
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Frost
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Frost (disambiguation).
Hoar frost melting on grass in France
Frost is the coating or deposit of ice that may form in humid air in cold conditions, usually overnight.[1] In temperate climates it most commonly appears as fragile white crystals or frozen dew drops near the ground, but in cold climates it occurs in a greater variety of forms.[2] Frost is composed of delicate branched patterns of ice crystals formed as the result of fractal process development.
The formation of frost is an indication that the air temperature has fallen below the freezing point of water, and plants that have evolved in warmer climates are known to suffer damage when the temperature falls low enough to freeze the water in the cells that make up the plant tissue. The tissue damage resulting from this process is known as "frost damage" and farmers in those regions where frost damage is known to affect their crops often invest in substantial means to protect their crops from such damage.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Formation
3 Types
3.1 Hoar frost
3.2 Advection frost
3.3 Window frost
3.4 White frost
3.5 Rime
3.6 Black frost
4 Effect on plants
4.1 Overview
4.2 Protection methods
5 Frost-free areas
6 Personifications
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Introduction[edit]
Frost forms when the temperature of a solid surface in the open cools to below the freezing point of water and for the most clearly crystalline forms of frost in particular, below the frost point in still air.[3] In most temperate countries such temperatures usually are the result of heat loss by radiation at night, so those types of frost sometimes are called radiation frost.
Types of frost include crystalline hoar frost from deposition of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions, window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold surfaces, black frost without visible ice at low temperatures and very low humidity, and rime under supercooled wet conditions.[2]
The size of frost crystals varies depending on the time they have been building up and the amount of water vapor available. Frost crystals may be clear or translucent, but, like snow, a mass of frost crystals will scatter light in all directions, so that a coating of frost appears white.
Formation[edit]
Frost in the highest town in Venezuela, Apartaderos. Because of its location in an alpine tundra ecosystem called páramo, there exists a daily freeze-and-thaw cycle, sometimes described as "summer every day and winter every night."
If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding humid air and the surface itself is colder than freezing, ice will form on it. If the water deposits as a liquid that then freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline, depending on its type. Depending on context, that process also may be called atmospheric icing. The ice it produces differs in some ways from crystalline frost, which consists of spicules of ice that typically project from the solid surface on which they grow.
The main difference between the ice coatings and frost spicules arises from the fact that the crystalline spicules grow directly from desublimation of water vapour from air, and desublimation is not a factor in icing of freezing surfaces. For desublimation to proceed the surface must be below the frost point of the air, meaning that it is sufficiently cold for ice to form without passing through the liquid phase. The air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation. The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, and how long they have been growing undisturbed.
As a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air. For instance frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the warmer ground beneath. Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals; hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails.
The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, the absorptivity and specific heat of the ground strongly influence the temperature that the trapped air attains.
Types[edit]
Hoar frost[edit]
A spider web covered in air hoar frost
Depth hoar, imaged with light and with scanning electron microscopy.
Hoar frost (also hoarfrost, radiation frost, or pruina) refers to white ice crystals, deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects such as wires or leaves.[4] They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates out to the open sky faster than it can be replaced from nearby sources such as wind or warm objects. Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point[5] of the surrounding air, well below the freezing point of water. Such freezing may be promoted by effects such as flood frost or frost pocket.[6] These occur when ground-level radiation loses cool air until it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of very cold air in valleys and hollows. Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing.
The name hoar comes from an Old English adjective that means "showing signs of old age"; in this context it refers to the frost that makes trees and bushes look like white hair.
Hoar frost may have different names depending on where it forms:
air hoar is a deposit of hoar frost on objects above the surface, such as tree branches, plant stems, and wires;
surface hoar refers to fern-like ice crystals directly deposited on snow, ice or already frozen surfaces;
crevasse hoar consists of crystals that form in glacial crevasses where water vapour can accumulate under calm weather conditions;
depth hoar refers to faceted crystals that have slowly grown large within cavities beneath the surface of banks of dry snow. Depth hoar crystals grow continuously at the expense of neighbouring smaller crystals, so typically are visibly stepped and have faceted hollows.
When surface hoar covers sloping snowbanks, the layer of frost crystals may create an avalanche risk; when heavy layers of new snow cover the frosty surface, furry crystals standing out from the old snow hold off the falling flakes, forming a layer of voids that prevent the new snow layers from bonding strongly to the old snow beneath. Ideal conditions for hoarfrost to form on snow are cold clear nights, with very light, cold air currents conveying humidity at the right rate for growth of frost crystals. Wind that is too strong or warm destroys the furry crystals, and thereby may permit a stronger bond between the old and new snow layers. However, if the winds are strong enough and cold enough to lay the crystals flat and dry, carpeting the snow with cold, loose crystals without removing or destroying them or letting them warm up and become sticky, then the frost interface between the snow layers may still present an avalanche danger, because the texture of the frost crystals differs from the snow texture and the dry crystals will not stick to fresh snow. Such conditions still prevent a strong bond between the snow layers.[7]
In very low temperatures where fluffy surface hoar crystals form without subsequently being covered with snow, strong winds may break them off, forming a dust of ice particles and blowing them over the surface. The ice dust then may form yukimarimo, as has been observed in parts of Antarctica, in a process similar to the formation of dust bunnies and similar structures.
Hoar frost and white frost also occurs in man-made environments such as in freezers or industrial cold storage facilities. If such cold spaces or the pipes serving them are not well insulated and are exposed to ambient humidity, the moisture will freeze instantly depending on the freezer temperature. The frost may coat pipes thickly, partly insulating them, but such inefficient insulation still is a source of heat loss.
Advection frost[edit]
A flower with advection frost on the tips of its petals.
Advection frost (also called wind frost) refers to tiny ice spikes that form when there is a very cold wind blowing over branches of trees, poles and other surfaces. It looks like rimming on the edge of flowers and leaves and usually it forms against the direction of the wind. It can occur at any hour, day or night.
Window frost[edit]
Window frost (also called fern frost or ice flowers) forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and warmer, moderately moist air on the inside. If the pane is not a good insulator (for example, if it is a single pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass forming frost patterns. With very low temperatures outside, frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double pane energy efficient windows because the air convection between two panes of glass ensures that the bottom part of the glazing unit is colder than the top part. On unheated motor vehicles the frost will usually form on the outside surface of the glass first. The glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches, or dust can modify the way ice nucleates. The patterns in window frost form a fractal with a fractal dimension greater than one but less than two. This is a consequence of the nucleation process being constrained to unfold in two dimensions, unlike a snowflake which is shaped by a similar process but forms in three dimensions and has a fractal dimension greater than two.[8]
If the indoor air is very humid, rather than moderately so, water will first condense in small droplets and then freeze into clear ice.
Similar patterns of freezing may occur on other smooth vertical surfaces, but they seldom are as obvious or spectacular as on clear glass.
White frost[edit]
White frost is a solid deposition of ice which forms directly from water vapour contained in air.
White frost forms when there is a relative humidity above 90% and a temperature below −8 °C (18 °F) and it grows against the wind direction, since air arriving from windward has a higher humidity than leeward air, but the wind must not be strong or it damages the delicate icy structures as they begin to form. White frost resembles a heavy coating of hoar frost with big, interlocking crystals, usually needle-shaped.
Rime[edit]
Rime is a type of ice deposition that occurs quickly, often under conditions of heavily saturated air and windy conditions.[9] Technically speaking, it is not a type of frost, since usually supercooled water drops are involved, in contrast to the formation of hoar frost, in which water vapour desublimates slowly and directly. Ships travelling through Arctic seas may accumulate large quantities of rime on the rigging. Unlike hoar frost, which has a feathery appearance, rime generally has an icy solid appearance.
Black frost[edit]
Black frost (or "killing frost") is not strictly speaking frost at all, because it is the condition seen in crops when the humidity is too low for frost to form, but the temperature falls so low that plant tissues freeze and die, becoming blackened, hence the term "black frost". Black frost often is called "killing frost" because white frost tends to be less cold, partly because the latent heat of freezing of the water reduces the temperature drop.
Effect on plants[edit]
Overview[edit]
Frost on the grass of a public park in January.
Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost. This varies with the type of plant, the tissue exposed, and how low temperatures get: a "light frost" of −2 to 0 °C (28 to 32 °F) will damage fewer types of plants than a "hard frost" below −2 °C (28 °F).[10]
Plants likely to be damaged even by a light frost include vines—such as beans, grapes, squashes, melons—along with nightshades such as tomatoes, eggplants and peppers. Plants that may tolerate (or even benefit) from frosts include:[11]
root vegetables (e.g. beets, carrots, parsnips, onions)
leafy greens (e.g. lettuces, spinach, chard, cucumber[12])
cruciferous vegetables (e.g. cabbages, cauliflower, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, radishes, kale, collard, mustard, turnips, rutabagas)
Even those plants that tolerate frost may be damaged once temperatures drop even lower (below −4 °C or 25 °F).[10] Hardy perennials, such as Hosta, become dormant after the first frosts and regrow when spring arrives. The entire visible plant may turn completely brown until the spring warmth, or may drop all of its leaves and flowers, leaving the stem and stalk only. Evergreen plants, such as pine trees, withstand frost although all or most growth stops. Frost crack is a bark defect caused by a combination of low temperatures and heat from the winter sun.
Vegetation is not necessarily damaged when leaf temperatures drop below the freezing point of their cell contents. In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a supercooled liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of −4 to −12 °C (25 to 10 °F). However, once frost forms, the leaf cells may be damaged by sharp ice crystals. Hardening is the process by which a plant becomes tolerant to low temperatures. See also cryobiology.
Certain bacteria, notably Pseudomonas syringae, are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about −2 °C (28 °F).[13] Bacteria lacking ice nucleation-active proteins (ice-minus bacteria) result in greatly reduced frost damage.[14]
Protection methods[edit]
Curitiba (Southern Brazil) is the coldest of Brazil's state capitals; the greenhouse of the Botanical Garden of Curitiba protects sensitive plants.
Typical measures to prevent frost or reduce its severity include one or more of:
deploying powerful blowers to simulate wind, thereby preventing the formation of accumulations of cold air. There are variations on this theme. One of them is the selective inverted sink[15] prevents frost by drawing cold air from the ground and blowing it up through a chimney. It was originally developed to prevent frost damage to citrus fruits in Uruguay. In New Zealand, helicopters are used in a similar function, especially in the vineyard regions like Marlborough. By dragging down warmer air from the inversion layers, and preventing the ponding of colder air on the ground, the low-flying helicopters prevent damage to the fruit buds. As the operations are conducted at night, and have in the past involved up to 130 aircraft per night in one region, safety rules are strict.[16] Although not a dedicated method, wind turbines have similar (small) effect of vertically mixing air layers of different temperature.[17][18][19]
for high-value crops, farmers may wrap trees and cover crops.
heating to slow the drop in temperature. This is not practical except for high value crops grown over small areas.
production of smoke to reduce cooling by radiation
spraying crops with a layer of water that releases latent heat, preventing harmful freezing of the tissues of the plants that it coats.
Such measures need to be applied with discretion, because they may do more harm than good; for example, spraying crops with water can cause damage if the plants become overburdened with ice. An effective low cost method for small crop farms and plant nurseries, exploits the latent heat of freezing. A pulsed irrigation timer[20] delivers water through existing overhead sprinklers at a low volumes to combat frosts down to −5 °C (23 °F).[20][21] If the water freezes it giving off its latent heat, preventing the temperature of the foliage from falling much below zero.[21]
Frost-free areas[edit]
Frost-free areas are found mainly in the tropics, where they cover almost all land except at altitudes above about 3,000 metres or 9,800 feet near the equator and around 2,000 metres or 6,600 feet in the semi-arid middle tropics, but also in areas with subtropical climates that have winters tempered by strong oceanic influences. The most poleward frost-free areas are the lower altitudes of the Azores, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and Tristan da Cunha.
The only reliably frost-free areas in the contiguous United States are the Florida Keys and the coastal areas of the Channel Islands of California. The hardiness zones there are 11a and 11b.
Personifications[edit]
Further information: Ded Moroz and Father Frost (fairy tale)
Frost is personified in Russian culture as Ded Moroz. Indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Mordvins have their own traditions of frost deities.
English folklore tradition holds that Jack Frost, an elfish creature, is responsible for feathery patterns of frost found on windows on cold mornings.
Gallery[edit]
Frost
Frost on a nettle
Large feathery crystals
Fern frost on a window
Window frost
Frost on plant leaves in the Himalayas
Surface hoar in Alaska
See also[edit]
Black ice
Clyde's Vegetable Garden Planner
Frost heaving
Frost line
Frost (temperature)
Frostbite
Ground frost
Icing (nautical)
Jack Frost
Needle ice
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Frost – Definition of frost by Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 2015-05-11.
^ Jump up to: a b John E. Oliver (1 January 2005). The Encyclopedia of World Climatology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 382–. ISBN 978-1-4020-3264-6. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "What causes frost?". Archived from the original on 2007-12-10. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Hoarfrost – Definition of hoarfrost by Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 2015-02-19.
Jump up ^ Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Robert V Rohli; Robert V. Rohli; Anthony J. Vega (13 December 2013). Climatology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 381–. ISBN 978-1-284-05427-9. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Weather Facts: Frost hollow – Weather UK – weatheronline.co.uk". weatheronline.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12.
Jump up ^ David McClung; Peter A. Schaerer (2006). The Avalanche Handbook. The Mountaineers Books. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-89886-809-8. Archived from the original on 2016-05-06.
Jump up ^ West, Bruce; Mauro Bologna (2003). Physics of Fractal Operators. Paolo Grigolini. Springer. p. 46. ISBN 0-387-95554-2. Archived from the original on 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Rime – Definition of rime by Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 2015-05-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Frost Tolerance of Vegetables". Botanical Interests. Archived from the original on 2013-11-13. Retrieved Nov 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Fall vegetables vs. Summer vegetables". Archived from the original on 2013-11-13.
Jump up ^ Klosinska, Urszula; et al. (27 February 2014), "Low temperature seed germination of cucumber: genetic basis of the tolerance trait", Journal of Horticultural Research, de Gruyter, 21 (2), doi:10.2478/johr-2013-0031, archived from the original on 11 June 2014, retrieved 2014-02-28
Jump up ^ Maki LR, Galyan EL, Chang-Chien MM, Caldwell DR (1974). "Ice Nucleation Induced by Pseudomonas syringae". Applied Microbiology. 28 (3): 456–459. PMC 186742  . PMID 4371331.
Jump up ^ Lindow, Stephen E.; Deane C. Arny; Christen D. Upper (October 1982). "Bacterial Ice Nucleation: A Factor in Frost Injury to Plants". Plant Physiology. 70 (4): 1084–1089. doi:10.1104/pp.70.4.1084. PMC 1065830  . PMID 16662618.
Jump up ^ Selective Inverted Sink Archived 2006-03-18 at the Wayback Machine. Rolex Awards site (won award in Technology and Innovation category) 1998.
Jump up ^ Helicopters Fight Frost – Vector, Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, September / October 2008, Page 8-9
Jump up ^ Turbines and turbulence Archived 2011-12-01 at the Wayback Machine., Nature (journal), 468, 1001, 23 December 2010, DOI:10.1038/4681001a, published online 22 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Somnath Baidya Roy and Justin J. Traiteur. Impacts of wind farms on surface air temperatures, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 107, No. 42, October 19, 2010, p. 17,899.
Jump up ^ Wind farms impacting weather Archived 2010-09-06 at the Wayback Machine., Science Daily.
^ Jump up to: a b "A practical method of frost protection". Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Selders, Arthur W. "Frost protection with sprinkler irrigation" (PDF). West Virginia university. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frost.
Look up frost in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Guide to Frost
BBC Understanding Weather – Frost
American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology – Hoarfrost
The Weather Doctor – Weather Whys – Frost
"Frost". New International Encyclopedia. 1906.
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Language settings
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryp
Ryp – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelata
Chelata – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values: Шэрань – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mraz
Mraz – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelada
Gelada – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinovatka
Jinovatka – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrug
Barrug – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values: Πάχνη – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escarcha
Escarcha – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prujno
Prujno – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzigar
Antzigar – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: یخبندان – Persian

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioc
Sioc – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inje
Inje – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brina
Brina – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: თრთვილი – Georgian

values: Қырау – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakitu
Sakitu – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruina
Pruina – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salna
Salna – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A4if
Räif – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brina
Brina – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijp
Rijp – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: तुषारो – Nepali

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%9C
霜 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim
Rim – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blancada
Blancada – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulduruq
Bulduruq – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szron
Szron – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geada
Geada – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhulla
Chhulla – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryma
Bryma – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slana
Slana – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mraz
Mraz – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuura
Kuura – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost
Frost – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andap
Andap – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: பனிப்பூச்சு – Tamil

values: น้ำค้างแข็ง – Thai

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hala
Hala – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%9C
霜 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values: तुषारो – Doteli

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