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Arctic Ocean
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"Arctic Sea" redirects here. For the cargo ship, see MV Arctic Sea.
Map of the Arctic Ocean, with borders as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), including Hudson Bay (some of which is south of 57°N latitude, off the map).
Earth's oceans
Arctic
Atlantic
Indian
Pacific
Southern
World Ocean
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The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans.[1] The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean.[2][3] It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.
Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America. It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter. The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes;[4] its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.[1] The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Extent and major ports
2.1.1 United States
2.1.2 Canada
2.1.3 Greenland
2.1.4 Norway
2.1.5 Russia
2.2 Arctic shelves
2.3 Underwater features
3 Oceanography
3.1 Water flow
3.2 Sea ice
4 Climate
5 Animal and plant life
6 Natural resources
7 Environmental concerns
7.1 Arctic ice melting
7.2 Clathrate breakdown
7.3 Other concerns
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" or "bergy bits"; his "Thule" was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested.[5]
Emanuel Bowen's 1780s map of the Arctic features a "Northern Ocean".
Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts.
The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in.
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this.
In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick, and persists year-round.
Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support.[6] The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika.
Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometers by ice floes.[7]
In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces.
Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route).
Geography[edit]
A bathymetric/topographic map of the Arctic Ocean and the surrounding lands.
The Arctic region; of note, the region's southerly border on this map is depicted by a red isotherm, with all territory to the north having an average temperature of less than 10 °C (50 °F) in July.
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2 (5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Antarctica.[8][9] The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long.[8][10] It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands.
It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea.[1]
Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and the United States.
Extent and major ports[edit]
Main article: Borders of the oceans § Arctic Ocean
There are several ports and harbors around the Arctic Ocean[11]
United States[edit]
In Alaska, the main ports are Barrow (71°17′44″N 156°45′59″W / 71.29556°N 156.76639°W / 71.29556; -156.76639 (Barrow)) and Prudhoe Bay (70°19′32″N 148°42′41″W / 70.32556°N 148.71139°W / 70.32556; -148.71139 (Prudhoe)).
Canada[edit]
In Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill (Port of Churchill) (58°46′28″N 094°11′37″W / 58.77444°N 94.19361°W / 58.77444; -94.19361 (Port of Churchill)) in Manitoba, Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility) (73°04′08″N 084°32′57″W / 73.06889°N 84.54917°W / 73.06889; -84.54917 (Nanisivik Naval Facility)) in Nunavut,[12] Tuktoyaktuk (69°26′34″N 133°01′52″W / 69.44278°N 133.03111°W / 69.44278; -133.03111 (Tuktoyaktuk)) or Inuvik (68°21′42″N 133°43′50″W / 68.36167°N 133.73056°W / 68.36167; -133.73056 (Inuvik)) in the Northwest Territories.
Greenland[edit]
In Greenland, the main port is at Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour) (64°10′15″N 051°43′15″W / 64.17083°N 51.72083°W / 64.17083; -51.72083 (Nuuk Port and Harbour)).
Norway[edit]
In Norway, Kirkenes (69°43′37″N 030°02′44″E / 69.72694°N 30.04556°E / 69.72694; 30.04556 (Kirkenes)) and Vardø (70°22′14″N 031°06′27″E / 70.37056°N 31.10750°E / 70.37056; 31.10750 (Vardø)) are ports on the mainland. Also, there is Longyearbyen (78°13′12″N 15°39′00″E / 78.22000°N 15.65000°E / 78.22000; 15.65000 (Longyearbyen)) on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago, next to Fram Strait.
Russia[edit]
In Russia, major ports sorted by the different sea areas are:
Murmansk (68°58′N 033°05′E / 68.967°N 33.083°E / 68.967; 33.083 (Murmansk)) in the Barents Sea
Arkhangelsk (64°32′N 040°32′E / 64.533°N 40.533°E / 64.533; 40.533 (Arkhangelsk)) in the White Sea
Labytnangi (66°39′26″N 066°25′06″E / 66.65722°N 66.41833°E / 66.65722; 66.41833 (Labytnangi)) Salekhard (66°32′N 066°36′E / 66.533°N 66.600°E / 66.533; 66.600 (Salekhard)), Dudinka (69°24′N 086°11′E / 69.400°N 86.183°E / 69.400; 86.183 (Dudinka)), Igarka (67°28′N 86°35′E / 67.467°N 86.583°E / 67.467; 86.583 (Igarka)) and Dikson (73°30′N 080°31′E / 73.500°N 80.517°E / 73.500; 80.517 (Dikson)) in the Kara Sea
Tiksi (71°38′N 128°52′E / 71.633°N 128.867°E / 71.633; 128.867 (Tiksi)) in the Laptev Sea
Pevek (69°42′N 170°17′E / 69.700°N 170.283°E / 69.700; 170.283 (Pevek)) in the East Siberian Sea
Arctic shelves[edit]
The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf, which is sometimes simply called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is greater in extent. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves, the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world. The Siberian Shelf holds large oil and gas reserves, and the Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial claims.
Underwater features[edit]
An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,100 and 14,800 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft).[13] The deepest point is Litke Deep in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450 m (17,880 ft).
The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).
Oceanography[edit]
Water flow[edit]
Distribution of the major water mass in the Arctic Ocean. The section sketches the different water masses along a vertical section from Bering Strait over the geographic North Pole to Fram Strait. As the stratification is stable, deeper water masses are more dense than the layers above.
Density structure of the upper 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in the Arctic Ocean. Profiles of temperature and salinity for the Amundsen Basin, the Canadian Basin and the Greenland Sea are sketched in this cartoon.
In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m (160 ft)) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable, because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian streams (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature are rising with increasing depth.
A Copepod
Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It is classified as a mediterranean sea, which as “a part of the world ocean which has only limited communication with the major ocean basins (these being the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans) and where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing”.[14] The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07×106 km3, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominately cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin.[15]
Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 metres (3,000 feet) depth.[14] It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea.[16] During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s.[15] This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.[17]
The Kennedy Channel.
This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below.[14] Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.
In the depth range of 150–900 metres (490–2,950 feet) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current.[16] It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s.[14] Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density.[14] When water reaches the basin it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.[17]
The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from 150–200 metres (490–660 feet). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf.[14] As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer. This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice. Additionally, this water forms the swiftest currents of the Arctic, with speed of around 0.3-0.6 m/s.[14] Complementing the water from the canyons, some Pacific water that does not sink to the shelf region after passing through the Bering Strait also contributes to this water mass.
Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700 metres (8,900 feet) deep and 350 kilometres (220 miles) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv.[16] The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side.[14] Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1-2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago.[16]
As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre.[15] During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to center over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.[15]
Sea ice[edit]
Sea cover in the Arctic Ocean, showing the median, 2005 and 2007 coverage [18]
Main article: Arctic ice pack
Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the ice has been decreasing since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2 (6,023,200 sq mi) at a rate of 3% per decade. The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km2 (2,702,700 sq mi) with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.[19][20][21]
Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. These icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. Permafrost is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May.[11] Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).
Climate[edit]
See also: Climate change in the Arctic
Play media
Changes in ice between 1990–1999
Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciation, the Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions.[22] Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side.[23] Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and temperatures can rise above the melting point (0 °C (32 °F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow.[23] It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.[24]
The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) before freezing occurs.
The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form.[25] In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen ocean.
The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly in the past. As recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).[26] The surface waters of the northernmost[27] Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms[28] requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F).[29]
Animal and plant life[edit]
Three polar bears approach USS Honolulu near the North Pole.
Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage.[11] Lion's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean.
The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton.[30] Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic, where they feed on nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.[31] During summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter when they struggle to get enough light to survive.[31]
Natural resources[edit]
See also: Natural resources of the Arctic, Territorial claims in the Arctic, and Marine mammal
Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.[11][21]
The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.[32] It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources.[33]
Environmental concerns[edit]
Main articles: Climate change in the Arctic, Ozone depletion, and Pollution in the Arctic Ocean
Arctic ice melting[edit]
The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and in many years there is also a seasonal hole in the ozone layer.[34] Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.[21][35] Research shows that the Arctic may become ice free for the first time in human history within a few years or by 2040.[36][37] Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as few as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period.[38]
Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.[35]
As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie's river delta as stronger storm surges become more likely.[39]
Clathrate breakdown[edit]
Main article: Clathrate gun hypothesis
Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic
%
Millions of years ago
(H)
K–Pg
Tr–J
P–Tr
Cap
Late D
O–S
The Permian–Triassic extinction event (the Great Dying) may have been caused by release of methane from clathrates. An estimated 52% of marine genus became extinct, representing 96% of all marine species.
Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline,[40] preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and; marine genus and species to become extinct.[40][41]
Other concerns[edit]
Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea[42] and Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya.[43] In addition, Shell planned to drill exploratory wells in the Chukchi and Beaufort seas during the summer of 2012, which environmental groups filed a lawsuit about in an attempt to protect native communities, endangered wildlife, and the Arctic Ocean in the event of a major oil spill.[44]
On July 16, 2015, five nations (United States of America, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.[45][46]
See also[edit]
Arctic portal
Geography portal
Arctic Bridge
Arctic cooperation and politics
Arctic sea ice ecology and history
Chukchi Cap
Explorers of the Arctic
Extreme points of the Arctic
Fauna of the Arctic
International Arctic Science Committee
Nordicity
North Atlantic Current
Seven Seas
Subarctic
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Jump up ^ Sluijs, A.; Schouten, S.; Pagani, M.; Woltering, M.; Brinkhuis, H.; Damsté, J.S.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Reichart, G.J.; Stein, R.; et al. (2006). "Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum". Nature. 441 (7093): 610–613. Bibcode:2006Natur.441..610S. doi:10.1038/nature04668. PMID 16752441.
Jump up ^ Microbes flourish under Arctic sea ice; Scientists shocked to find phytoplankton thriving under frozen surface July 28th, 2012; Vol.182 #2 (p. 17) Science News
^ Jump up to: a b Physical Nutrients and Primary Productivity Professor Terry Whiteledge. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
Jump up ^ The Arctic's New Gold Rush – BBC
Jump up ^ The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, by Shamil Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007
Jump up ^ Clean Air Online – Linking Today into Tomorrow[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Earth – melting in the heat? Richard Black, 7 October 2005. BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Russia the next climate recalcitrant Peter Wilson, 17 November 2008, The Australian. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "When will the Arctic lose its sea ice?". National Snow & Ice Data Center. May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Has the Arctic Ocean always had ice in summer?". National Snow & Ice Data Center. February 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Lauren Morello (March 5, 2013). "Warmer Arctic with Less Ice Increases Storm Surge". Climate Central. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Steve Connor (23 September 2008). "Exclusive: The methane time bomb". The Independent. Archived from the original on 3 April 2009. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Volker Mrasek (17 April 2008). "A Storehouse of Greenhouse Gases Is Opening in Siberia". Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
Jump up ^ 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area Archived October 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, 24 August 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Tim Phillips, "Alaska Natives Sue Federal Government for Approving Shell's Insufficient Clean-Up Plan for a Potential Oil Spill in the Arctic Ocean", Activist Defense, July 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Arctic deal bans North Pole fishing". BBC News. 16 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosen, Yereth (16 July 2015). "5 nations sign declaration to protect Arctic 'donut hole' from unregulated fishing". Alaska Dispatch News. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
Ray, L., and bacon, B., eds., The Arctic Ocean 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9
Thorén, Ragnar V. A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arctic Ocean.
Look up arctic ocean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Arctic Ocean
Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap · Google Maps
Download coordinates as: KML · GPX
The Hidden Ocean Arctic 2005 Daily logs, photos and video from exploration mission.
Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Arctic Council
The Northern Forum
Arctic Environmental Atlas Interactive map
NOAA Arctic Theme Page
Arctic Great Rivers Observatory (ArcticGRO)
"Arctic Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954–1990) at NSIDC
NOAA North Pole Web Cam Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
Search for Arctic Life Heats Up by Stephen Leahy
International Polar Foundation
"Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data". nsidc.org. National Snow and Ice Data Center.
Marine Biodiversity Wiki
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Coordinates: 90°N 0°E / 90°N 0°E / 90; 0
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NDL: 00563373
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arctic_Ocean&oldid=846537544"
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values: Северен ледовит океан – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Хойто мүльһэн далай – Russia Buriat

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Çурçĕр Пăрлă океанĕ – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-co
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishavet
Ishavet – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: Pódpołnocny polarny ocean – Lower Sorbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Αρκτικός Ωκεανός – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Пелевеёнкс Эйень Иневедь – Erzya

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-myv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: اقیانوس منجمد شمالی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hak
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-haw
display: none;

values: Հյուսիսային սառուցյալ օվկիանոս – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: उत्तरध्रुवीय महासागर – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ig
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: אוקיינוס הקרח הצפוני – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ಆರ್ಕ್ಟಿಕ್ ಮಹಾಸಾಗರ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pam
display: none;

values: Шимал Бузлауукъ океан – Karachay-Balkar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-krc
display: none;

values: ჩრდილოეთის ყინულოვანი ოკეანე – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Солтүстік Мұзды мұхит – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktik
Aktik – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Түндүк Муз океан – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values: Кеферпатан МуркIарин океан – Lezghian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lez
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-olo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: उत्तरध्रुवीय महासागर – Maithili

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mai
display: none;

values: Северен Леден Океан – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values: ആർട്ടിക് സമുദ്രം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: आर्क्टिक महासागर – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: ოორუე ჸინუამი ოკიანე – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-min
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values: Умард мөсөн далай – Mongolian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: အာတိတ် သမုဒ္ဒရာ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: आर्कटिक महासागर – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values: आर्टिक महासागर – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Къилбаседа Шен океан – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: Йӱдвел тептеҥыз – Eastern Mari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-om
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਆਰਕਟਿਕ ਮਹਾਂਸਾਗਰ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: وڈا سمندر آرکٹک – Western Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values: شمالي قطبي سمندر – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values: Ойвыв Йыа океан – Komi-Permyak

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-koi
display: none;

values: មហាសមុទ្រអាកទិក – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-crh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rm
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Северный ледовый океан – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Северный Ледовитый океан – Russian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Хоту океан – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: उत्तरध्रुवीयमहासागरः – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nso
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-szl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values: ئۆقیانووسی ئارکتیک – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Северни ледени океан – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kab
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara
display: none;

values: Төньяк Боз океаны – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: ఆర్క్‌టిక్ మహాసముద్రం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Уқёнуси яхбастаи шимолӣ – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values: ᏧᏴᏢ ᎠᎺᏉᎯ – Cherokee

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-chr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

values: Соңгу Доштуг океан – Tuvinian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv
display: none;

values: Уйпал Йӧ океан – Udmurt

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-udm
display: none;

values: Північний Льодовитий океан – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: بحر منجمد شمالی – Urdu

values: شىمالىي مۇز ئوكيان – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-za
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values: ארקטישער אקעאן – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: आर्कटिक महासागर – Doteli

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dty
display: none;

values: ГIинбухера океан – Ingush

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-inh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Arctic_Ocean rootpage-Arctic_Ocean skin-vector action-view