text:
Mural
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Mural (disambiguation).
"Muralist" and "muralists" redirect here. For the Mexican art movement, see Mexican muralism.
Ceiling painting, by Jean-André Rixens. Salle des Illustres, Le Capitole, Toulouse, France.
A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent surface. A distinguishing characteristic of mural painting is that the architectural elements of the given space are harmoniously incorporated into the picture.
Some wall paintings are painted on large canvases, which are then attached to the wall (e.g., with marouflage). Whether these works can be accurately called "murals" is a subject of some controversy in the art world,[who?] but the technique has been in common use since the late 19th century.[1]
Contents
1 History
2 Technique
3 Material
4 Significance
5 Politics
6 Contemporary interior design
6.1 Traditional
6.2 Graffiti-style
6.3 Ethnic
7 Tile
8 Notable muralists
9 Gallery
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History[edit]
Jataka tales from the Ajanta caves, 7th century
Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the paintings in the Chauvet Cave in Ardèche department of southern France (around 30,000 BC). Many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs (around 3150 BC),[2] the Minoan palaces (Middle period III of the Neopalatial period, 1700–1600 BC) and in Pompeii (around 100 BC – AD 79).
During the Middle Ages murals were usually executed on dry plaster (secco). The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco.[3][4] In Italy, circa 1300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting.[5]
In modern times, the term became more well-known with the Mexican muralism art movement (Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros and José Orozco). There are many different styles and techniques. The best-known is probably fresco, which uses water-soluble paints with a damp lime wash, a rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts (but with a sense of the whole). The colors lighten as they dry. The marouflage method has also been used for millennia.
Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media. The styles can vary from abstract to trompe-l'œil (a French term for "fool" or "trick the eye"). Initiated by the works of mural artists like Graham Rust or Rainer Maria Latzke in the 1980s, trompe-l'oeil painting has experienced a renaissance in private and public buildings in Europe. Today, the beauty of a wall mural has become much more widely available with a technique whereby a painting or photographic image is transferred to poster paper or canvas which is then pasted to a wall surface (see wallpaper, Frescography) to give the effect of either a hand-painted mural or realistic scene.
Technique[edit]
The 18th-century BC fresco of the Investiture of Zimrilim discovered at the Royal Palace of ancient Mari in Syria
In the history of mural several methods have been used:
A fresco painting, from the Italian word affresco which derives from the adjective fresco ("fresh"), describes a method in which the paint is applied on plaster on walls or ceilings. The buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a thin layer of wet, fresh, lime mortar or plaster. The pigment is then absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries and reacts with the air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the plaster. After this the painting stays for a long time up to centuries in fresh and brilliant colors.
Fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster (secco is "dry" in Italian). The pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg (tempera), glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall.
Mezzo-fresco is painted on nearly-dry plaster, and was defined by the sixteenth-century author Ignazio Pozzo as "firm enough not to take a thumb-print" so that the pigment only penetrates slightly into the plaster. By the end of the sixteenth century this had largely displaced the buon fresco method, and was used by painters such as Gianbattista Tiepolo or Michelangelo. This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of a secco work.
Material[edit]
In Greco-Roman times, mostly encaustic colors applied in a cold state were used.[6][7]
Tempera painting is one of the oldest known methods in mural painting. In tempera, the pigments are bound in an albuminous medium such as egg yolk or egg white diluted in water.
In 16th-century Europe, oil painting on canvas arose as an easier method for mural painting. The advantage was that the artwork could be completed in the artist's studio and later transported to its destination and there attached to the wall or ceiling. Oil paint may be a less satisfactory medium for murals because of its lack of brilliance in colour. Also the pigments are yellowed by the binder or are more easily affected by atmospheric conditions. The canvas itself is more subject to rapid deterioration than a plaster ground.[citation needed] Different muralists tend to become experts in their preferred medium and application, whether that be oil paints, emulsion or acrylic paints[8] applied by brush, roller or airbrush/aerosols. Clients will often ask for a particular style and the artist may adjust to the appropriate technique.[9]
A consultation usually leads to a detailed design and layout of the proposed mural with a price quote that the client approves before the muralist starts on the work. The area to be painted can be gridded to match the design allowing the image to be scaled accurately step by step. In some cases the design is projected straight onto the wall and traced with pencil before painting begins. Some muralists will paint directly without any prior sketching, preferring the spontaneous technique.
Once completed the mural can be given coats of varnish or protective acrylic glaze to protect the work from UV rays and surface damage.
In modern, quick form of muralling, young enthusiasts also use POP clay mixed with glue or bond to give desired models on a canvas board. The canvas is later set aside to let the clay dry. Once dried, the canvas and the shape can be painted with your choice of colors and later coated with varnish.
CAM designed Frescography by Rainer Maria Latzke, digitally printed on canvas
As an alternative to a hand-painted or airbrushed mural, digitally printed murals can also be applied to surfaces. Already existing murals can be photographed and then be reproduced in near-to-original quality.
The disadvantages of pre-fabricated murals and decals are that they are often mass-produced and lack the allure and exclusivity of an original artwork. They are often not fitted to the individual wall sizes of the client and their personal ideas or wishes can not be added to the mural as it progresses. The Frescography technique, a digital manufacturing method (CAM) invented by Rainer Maria Latzke addresses some of the personalisation and size restrictions.
Digital techniques are commonly used in advertisements. A "wallscape" is a large advertisement on or attached to the outside wall of a building. Wallscapes can be painted directly on the wall as a mural, or printed on vinyl and securely attached to the wall in the manner of a billboard. Although not strictly classed as murals, large scale printed media are often referred to as such. Advertising murals were traditionally painted onto buildings and shops by sign-writers, later as large scale poster billboards.
Significance[edit]
Further information: Conservation and restoration of frescos
The San Bartolo mural
Murals are important in that they bring art into the public sphere. Due to the size, cost, and work involved in creating a mural, muralists must often be commissioned by a sponsor. Often it is the local government or a business, but many murals have been paid for with grants of patronage. For artists, their work gets a wide audience who otherwise might not set foot in an art gallery. A city benefits by the beauty of a work of art.
Murals can be a relatively effective tool of social emancipation or achieving a political goal.[10] Murals have sometimes been created against the law, or have been commissioned by local bars and coffeeshops. Often, the visual effects are an enticement to attract public attention to social issues. State-sponsored public art expressions, particularly murals, are often used by totalitarian regimes as a tool of propaganda. However, despite the propagandist character of that works, some of them still have an artistic value.
Murals can have a dramatic impact whether consciously or subconsciously on the attitudes of passers by, when they are added to areas where people live and work. It can also be argued that the presence of large, public murals can add aesthetic improvement to the daily lives of residents or that of employees at a corporate venue.
Other world-famous murals can be found in Mexico, New York City, Philadelphia, Belfast, Derry, Los Angeles, Nicaragua, Cuba and in India. [1] They have functioned as an important means of communication for members of socially, ethnically and racially divided communities in times of conflict. They also proved to be an effective tool in establishing a dialogue and hence solving the cleavage in the long run. The Indian state Kerala has exclusive murals. These Kerala mural painting are on walls of Hindu temples. They can be dated from 9th century AD.
The San Bartolo murals of the Maya civilization in Guatemala, are the oldest example of this art in Mesoamerica and are dated at 300 BC.
Many rural towns have begun using murals to create tourist attractions in order to boost economic income. Colquitt, Georgia, is one such town. Colquitt was chosen to host the 2010 Global Mural Conference. The town has more than twelve murals completed, and will host the Conference along with Dothan, Alabama, and Blakely, Georgia. In the summer of 2010, Colquitt will begin work on their Icon Mural.
Politics[edit]
Diego Rivera's mural The History of Mexico at the National Palace in Mexico City
The Bardia Mural, photographed in the 1960s, prior to its damage by defacement and the ravages of time
Murals displaying the Marxist view of the press on this East Berlin cafe in 1977 were covered over by commercial advertising after Germany was reunited.
The Mexican mural movement in the 1930s brought a new prominence to murals as a social and political tool. Diego Rivera, José Orozco and David Siqueiros were the most famous artists of the movement. Between 1932 and 1940, Rivera also painted murals in San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City. In 1933, he completed a famous series of twenty-seven fresco panels entitled Detroit Industry on the walls of an inner court at the Detroit Institute of Arts.[11] During the McCarthyism of the 1950s, a large sign was placed in the courtyard defending the artistic merit of the murals while attacking his politics as "detestable."
In 1948, the Colombian government hosted the IX Pan-American Conference to establish the Marshall plan for the Americas. The director of the OEA and the Colombian government commissioned master Santiago Martinez Delgado, to paint a mural in the Colombian congress building to commemorate the event. Martinez decided to make it about the Cúcuta Congress, and painted Bolívar in front of Santander, making liberals upset; so, due to the murder of Jorge Elieser Gaitan the mobs of el bogotazo tried to burn the capitol, but the Colombian Army stopped them. Years later, in the 1980s, with liberals in charge of the Congress, they passed a resolution to turn the whole chamber in the Elliptic Room 90 degrees to put the main mural on the side and commissioned Alejandro Obregon to paint a non-partisan mural in the surrealist style.
Northern Ireland contains some of the most famous political murals in the world.[12] Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s.[13] In recent times, many murals are non-sectarian, concerning political and social issues such as racism and environmentalism, and many are completely apolitical, depicting children at play and scenes from everyday life. (See Northern Irish murals.)
A not political, but social related mural covers a wall in an old building, once a prison, at the top of a cliff in Bardiyah, in Libya. It was painted and signed by the artist in April 1942, weeks before his death on the first day of the First Battle of El Alamein. Known as the Bardia Mural, it was created by English artist, private John Frederick Brill.[14]
A mural with Kim Jong Un and Donald Trump in Vienna
In 1961 East Germany began to erect a wall between East and West Berlin, which became famous as the Berlin Wall. While on the East Berlin side painting was not allowed, artists painted on the Western side of the Wall from the 80s until the fall of the Wall in 1989.
Many unknown and known artists such as Thierry Noir and Keith Haring painted on the Wall, the "World's longest canvas". The sometimes detailed artwork were often painted over within hours or days. On the Western side the Wall was not protected, so everybody could paint on the Wall. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the Eastern side of the Wall became also a popular "canvas" for many mural and graffiti artists. Orgosolo, in Sardinia, is a most important center of murals politics.
It is also common for mural graffiti be used as a memoir. In the book "Somebody Told Me," Rick Bragg writes about a series of communities, mainly located in New York, that have walls dedicated to the people who died.[15] These memorials, both written word and mural style, provide the deceased to be present in the communities in which they lived. Bragg states that the "murals have woven themselves in the fabric of the neighborhoods, and the city." These memorials remind people of the deaths caused by inner city violence.
Contemporary interior design[edit]
Traditional[edit]
Forest mural by One Red Shoe in private home, England 2007
Many people like to express their individuality by commissioning an artist to paint a mural in their home. This is not an activity exclusively for owners of large houses. A mural artist is only limited by the fee and therefore the time spent on the painting; dictating the level of detail; a simple mural can be added to the smallest of walls.
Private commissions can be for dining rooms, bathrooms, living rooms or, as is often the case- children's bedrooms. A child's room can be transformed into the 'fantasy world' of a forest or racing track, encouraging imaginative play and an awareness of art.
The current trend for feature walls has increased commissions for muralists in the UK. A large hand-painted mural can be designed on a specific theme, incorporate personal images and elements and may be altered during the course of painting it. The personal interaction between client and muralist is often a unique experience for an individual not usually involved in the arts.
In the 1980s, illusionary wall painting experienced a renaissance in private homes. The reason for this revival in interior design could, in some cases be attributed to the reduction in living space for the individual. Faux architectural features as well as natural scenery and views can have the effect of 'opening out' the walls. Densely built up areas of housing may also contribute to people's feelings of being cut off from nature in its free form. A mural commission of this sort may be an attempt by some people to re-establish a balance with nature.
Commissions of murals in schools, hospitals and retirement homes can achieve a pleasing and welcoming atmosphere in these caring institutions. Murals in other public buildings, such as public houses are also common.
Graffiti-style[edit]
Mint&Serf at Ace Hotel, New York City
27 Club Graffiti in Tel Aviv celebrating personal expression
Recently, graffiti and street art have played a key role in contemporary wall painting. Such graffiti/street artists as Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, Above, Mint&Serf, Futura 2000, Os Gemeos, and Faile among others have successfully transcended their street art aesthetic beyond the walls of urban landscape and onto walls of private and corporate clients. As graffiti/street art became more mainstream in the late 1990s, youth oriented brands such as Nike and Red Bull, with Wieden Kennedy, have turned to graffiti/street artists to decorate walls of their respective offices. This trend continued through 2000's with graffiti/street art gaining more recognition from art institutions worldwide.
Ethnic[edit]
Rajasthani motif mural by Kakshyaachitra, Mumbai 2014
Many home owners choose to display the traditional art and culture of their society or events from their history in their homes. Ethnic murals have become an important form of interior decoration. Warli painting murals are becoming a preferred mode of wall decor in India. Warli painting is an ancient Indian art form in which the tribal people used to depict different phases of their life on the walls of their mud houses.
Tile[edit]
Panel of glazed tiles by Jorge Colaço (1922) depicting an episode from the battle of Aljubarrota (1385) between the Portuguese and Castilian armies. A piece of public art in Lisbon, Portugal.
Tile murals are murals made out of stone, ceramic, porcelain, glass and or metal tiles that are installed within, or added onto the surface of an existing wall. They are also inlaid into floors. Mural tiles are painted, glazed, sublimation printed (as described below) or more traditionally cut or broken into pieces. Unlike the traditional painted murals described above, tile murals are always made with the use of tiles.
Mosaic murals are made by combining small 1/4" to 2" size pieces of colorful stone, ceramic, or glass tiles which are then laid out to create a picture. Modern day technology has allowed commercial mosaic mural makers to use computer programs to separate photographs into colors that are automatically cut and glued onto sheets of mesh creating precise murals fast and in large quantities.
The azulejo (Portuguese pronunciation: [ɐzuˈleʒu], Spanish pronunciation: [aθuˈlexo]) refers to a typical form of Portuguese or Spanish painted, tin-glazed, ceramic tilework. They have become a typical aspect of Portuguese culture, manifesting without interruption during five centuries, the consecutive trends in art.
Azulejos can be found inside and outside churches, palaces, ordinary houses and even railway stations or subway stations.
They were not only used as an ornamental art form, but also had a specific functional capacity like temperature control in homes. Many azulejos chronicle major historical and cultural aspects of Portuguese history.
Custom-printed tile murals can be produced using digital images for kitchen splashbacks, wall displays, and flooring. Digital photos and artwork can be resized and printed to accommodate the desired size for the area to be decorated. Custom tile printing uses a variety of techniques including dye sublimation and ceramic-type laser toners. The latter technique can yield fade-resistant custom tiles which are suitable for long term exterior exposure.
Notable muralists[edit]
Edwin Abbey
Carlos Almaraz
Dorothy Annan
Judy Baca
Above (artist)
Arnold Belkin
Thomas Hart Benton
John T. Biggers
Torsten Billman
Henry Bird
Edwin Howland Blashfield
Blek le Rat
Giotto di Bondone
Guillaume Bottazzi
Gabriel Bracho
Paul Cadmus
Eleanor Coen
Dean Cornwell
Kenyon Cox
John Steuart Curry
Robert Dafford
Dora De Larios
Michelle Loughery
Santiago Martinez Delgado
Faile
Shepard Fairey
Piero della Francesca
Os Gemeos
Louis Grell
Satish Gujral
Manav Gupta
Richard Haas
Keith Haring
Albert Henry Krehbiel
Susan Krieg
Rainer Maria Latzke
Tom Lea
Michelle Loughery
Will Hicok Low
Sofia Maldonado
John Anton Mallin
Andrea Mantegna
Reginald Marsh
Knox Martin
Peter Max
Anjolie Ela Menon
Michelangelo
Mario Miranda
Claude Monet
Roberto Montenegro
Frank Nuderscher
Violet Oakley
Edward O'Brien
Juan O'Gorman
Pablo O'Higgins
José Clemente Orozco
Rufus Porter
Aarón Piña Mora
John Pugh
Archie Rand
Raphael
Freydoon Rassouli
Diego Rivera
Graham Rust
P K Sadanandan
Sadequain
John Singer Sargent
Eugene Savage
Conrad Schmitt
Clément Serveau
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Frank Stella
Rufino Tamayo
Titian
Alton Tobey
Allen Tupper True
Kent Twitchell
Leonardo da Vinci
John Augustus Walker
Henry Oliver Walker
Lucia Wiley
Ezra Winter
Lumen Martin Winter
Richard Wyatt, Jr.
Robert Wyland
Isaiah Zagar

Gallery[edit]
Stylised mural of the miners' leader Warren James, at a public house in Parkend, Gloucestershire
Painting of Erykah Badu in Sutton, Greater London, United Kingdom
Mural in Satriano, Italy.
15th century Christ in Majesty in Jaleyrac
Building, Boston, Massachusetts, about 1992
Wall paint, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Graffiti mural in Gutovka, Prague 10, Czech Republic, 2012
Orr C. Fischer, The Corn Parade, 1941, oil on canvas, Agriculture-themed mural on wall of post office, Mount Ayr, Iowa[16]
Largest mural stamp by artist FranCisco Vargas
Mural on Israeli separation barrier
Mural against indifference to evil in Warsaw, Poland
See also[edit]
Anamorphosis
Bogside Artists
Brixton murals
Detachment of wall paintings
List of United States post office murals
Mexican muralism
Murals of Kerala, India
MURAL Festival
Newtown area graffiti and street art
Post Office Murals
Propaganda
Public art
Social realism
Socialist realism
The Manchester Murals
Tiled printing
Trompe-l'œil
Wall poems in Leiden
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clare A. P. Willsdon (2000). Mural Painting in Britain 1840-1940: Image and Meaning. Oxford University Press. p. 394. ISBN 978-0-19-817515-5. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Only after 664 BC are dates secure. See Egyptian chronology for details. "Chronology". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Jump up ^ Menachery, George (ed.): The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Vol. II, 1973; Menachery, George (ed.): Indian Church History Classics, Vol. I, The Nazranies, Saras, 1998
Jump up ^ "'Pallikalile Chitrabhasangal'" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-20.
Jump up ^ Péter Bokody, Mural Painting as a Medium: Technique, Representation and Liturgy, in Image and Christianity: Visual Media in the Middle Ages, Pannonhalma Abbey, 2014, 136-151
Jump up ^ Selim Augusti. La tecnica dell'antica pittura parietale pompeiana. Pompeiana, Studi per il 2° Centenario degli Scavi di Pompei. Napoli 1950, 313-354
Jump up ^ Jorge Cuní; Pedro Cuní; Brielle Eisen; Rubén Savizki; John Bové. "Characterization of the binding medium used in Roman encaustic paintings on wall and wood". Analytical Methods. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "As used by Eric Cumini Murals". Eric Cumini. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Toronto Mural Painting". Technical aspects of mural painting. Toronto Muralists. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Sebastián Vargas. "Seizing public space". D+C, development and cooperation. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Diego Rivera". Olga's Gallery. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
Jump up ^ Maximilian Rapp and Markus Rhomberg: Seeking a Neutral Identity in Northern Ireland´s Political Wall Paintings. In: Peace review 24(4).
Jump up ^ Maximilian Rapp and Markus Rhomberg: The importance of Murals during the Troubles: Analyzing the republican use of wall paintings in Northern Ireland. In: Machin, D. (Ed.) Visual Communication Reader. De Gruyter.
Jump up ^ Commonwealth War Graves Commission. "Last Resting Place". Retrieved 29 May 2006.
Jump up ^ Bragg, Rick. Somebody Told Me: The Newspaper Stories of Rick Bragg. New York: Vintage Books, 2001.
Jump up ^ "The Corn Parade". History Matters. George Mason University. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Campbell, Bruce (2003). Mexican Murals in times of Crisis. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2239-1.
Folgarait, Leonard (1998). Mural Painting and Social Revolution in Mexico, 1920-1940: Art of the New Order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58147-8.
Rouse, E. Clive (1996). Mediaeval Wall Paintings. Guildhall: Shire Publications.
Woods, Oona (1995). Seeing is Believing? Murals in Derry. Guildhall: Printing Press. ISBN 0-946451-31-1.
Latzke, Rainer Maria (1999). Dreamworlds- The making of a room with illusionary painting. Monte Carlo Art Edition. ISBN 978-3-00-027990-4.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Murals.
How to prepare a mural wall and protect the mural
Political Wall Murals in Northern Ireland
Calpams
Murals.trompe-l-oeil.info French and European gate of murals: 10 000 pictures and 1100 murals
The National Society of Mural Painters (USA; founded 1895)
Ancient Maya Art
Ancient Prehispanic Murals
Global Murals Conference 2006 at Prestoungrange
The Melville Shoe Mosaic, an early 20th century ceramic tile mural at 44 Hammond Street in Worcester, MA
Take an online tour of the murals in Belfast, Northern Ireland
Albert Krehbiel's murals at the Illinois Supreme Court Building: The Third Branch - A Chronicle of the Illinois Supreme Court; The History of the Illinois Supreme Court
Murals of Northern Ireland in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library
Roman wall paintings
Pixel Mural - A digital mural of collaborative pixel art
mural.ch / muralism.info Universal database on modern moralism, with many details to the works: authors, locations, literature etc.
show
v
t
e
Artists related to Mexican muralism
Diego Rivera
David Alfaro Siqueiros
José Clemente Orozco
Alfredo Ramos Martínez
Roberto Montenegro
Federico Cantú
Fernando Leal
Rufino Tamayo
Jorge González Camarena
Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin
Pedro Nel Gómez
Juan O'Gorman
Pablo O'Higgins
José Chávez Morado
Jean Charlot
Ramón Alva de la Canal
Raúl Anguiano
Amado de la Cueva
Fermín Revueltas
Ramon Cano Manilla
Benito Messeguer
Vlady Kibalchich Russakov
Alfredo Zalce
Manuel Rodriguez Lozano
Jorge Figueroa Acosta
Arnold Belkin
Carlos Mérida
Leopoldo Flores
Authority control
BNE: XX525537
GND: 4064542-3
NDL: 00563081
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mural&oldid=864161890"
Categories:
Arts
Painting
Murals
Tiling
Hidden categories:
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013
Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Alemannisch
العربية
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Magyar
മലയാളം
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
40 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 October 2018, at 14:04 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/Mural_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Mural (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: class style

value: b

value: p

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2014)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Ajanta_caves
mw-redirect
Ajanta caves

values:
/wiki/Fresco_secco
mw-redirect
Fresco secco

values:
/wiki/Painting_style
mw-redirect
Painting style

values:
/wiki/Investiture_of_Zimrilim
mw-redirect
Investiture of Zimrilim

values:
/wiki/Gianbattista_Tiepolo
mw-redirect
Gianbattista Tiepolo

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Computer_aided_mural
mw-redirect
Computer aided mural

values:
/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania
mw-redirect
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

values:
/wiki/Mexican_Muralism
mw-redirect
Mexican Muralism

values:
/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Orozco
mw-redirect
José Orozco

values:
/wiki/David_Siqueiros
mw-redirect
David Siqueiros

values:
/wiki/Detroit_Industry
mw-redirect
Detroit Industry

values:
/wiki/Marshall_plan
mw-redirect
Marshall plan

values:
/wiki/Santiago_Martinez_Delgado
mw-redirect
Santiago Martinez Delgado

values:
/wiki/Alejandro_Obregon
mw-redirect
Alejandro Obregon

values:
/wiki/Northern_Irish_murals
mw-redirect
Northern Irish murals

values:
/wiki/Kim_Jong_Un
mw-redirect
Kim Jong Un

values: Edit section: Contemporary interior design

values:
/wiki/Racing_track
mw-redirect
Racing track

values:
/wiki/Public_houses
mw-redirect
Public houses

values:
/wiki/27_Club_Graffiti_in_Tel_Aviv
mw-redirect
27 Club Graffiti in Tel Aviv

values:
/wiki/Above_(artist)
mw-redirect
Above (artist)

values:
/wiki/Futura_2000
mw-redirect
Futura 2000

values:
/wiki/Faile_(artist_collective)
mw-redirect
Faile (artist collective)

values: Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

values:
/wiki/Railway_station
mw-redirect
Railway station

values:
/wiki/Subway_station
mw-redirect
Subway station

values:
/wiki/Ornament_(architecture)
mw-redirect
Ornament (architecture)

values:
/wiki/Portuguese_history
mw-redirect
Portuguese history

values:
/wiki/Edwin_Abbey
mw-redirect
Edwin Abbey

values:
/wiki/Edwin_Howland_Blashfield
mw-redirect
Edwin Howland Blashfield

values:
/wiki/Giotto_di_Bondone
mw-redirect
Giotto di Bondone

values:
/wiki/Thomas_C._Lea,_III
mw-redirect
Thomas C. Lea, III

values:
/wiki/John_Anton_Mallin
mw-redirect
John Anton Mallin

values:
/wiki/P_K_Sadanandan
mw-redirect
P K Sadanandan

values:
/wiki/Richard_Wyatt,_Jr.
mw-redirect
Richard Wyatt, Jr.

values: -moz-column-width: 17em; -webkit-column-width: 17em; column-width: 17em;

values:
/wiki/Public_house
mw-redirect
Public house

values: List of United States post office murals

values:
/wiki/Murals_of_Kerala
mw-redirect
Murals of Kerala

values:
/wiki/Post_Office_Murals
mw-redirect
Post Office Murals

values: -moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cuminitrompeloeil.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6702

values:
nofollow
http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/murals/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.calpams.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://murals.trompe-l-oeil.info/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.virtualbelfastmuraltour.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://pixelmural.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.muralism.info

values: Template:Artists related to Mexican muralism

values: Template talk:Artists related to Mexican muralism

values: Ramon Cano Manilla (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Vlady_Kibalchich_Russakov
mw-redirect
Vlady Kibalchich Russakov

values:
/wiki/Manuel_Rodriguez_Lozano
mw-redirect
Manuel Rodriguez Lozano

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4064542-3

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2014

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Mural
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values:
/w/index.php?title=Mural&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: لوحة جدارية – Arabic

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murlun
Murlun – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinamaal
Seinamaal – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Τοιχογραφία – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: نقاشی دیواری – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Որմնանկարչություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: भित्तिचित्र कला – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murale
Murale – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: ציור קיר – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: კედლის მხატვრობა – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: ചുമർചിത്രകല – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muralismo
Muralismo – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Монументальная живопись – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural
Mural – Simple English
en-simple
en-simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: சுவர் ஓவியம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: จิตรกรรมฝาผนัง – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Стінопис – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mural rootpage-Mural skin-vector action-view


text:
Microscope
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about microscopes in general. For light microscopes, see Optical microscope.
This scientific article needs additional citations to secondary or tertiary sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please add such references to provide context and establish the relevance of any primary research articles cited. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017)
Microscope
Microscope
Uses
Small sample observation
Notable experiments
Discovery of cells
Related items
Optical microscope Electron microscope
A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using such an instrument. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the way the instruments interact with a sample to create images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons to a sample in its optical path, or by scanning across, and a short distance from, the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses light to pass through a sample to produce an image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, the electron microscope (both, the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and the various types of scanning probe microscopes.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Rise of modern light microscopes
1.2 Electron microscopes
1.3 Scanning probe microscopes
1.4 Fluorescence microscopes
1.5 Super resolution microscopes
1.6 X-ray microscopes
2 Types
2.1 Optical
2.2 Electron
2.3 Scanning probe
2.4 Other types
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
18th-century microscopes from the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
Further information: Timeline of microscope technology and Optical microscope § History
Although objects resembling lenses date back 4000 years and there are Greek accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, the earliest known use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) dates back to the widespread use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century.[2][3][4] The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens near the specimen with an eyepiece to view a real image, appeared in Europe around 1620.[5] The inventor is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. Several revolve around the spectacle-making centers in the Netherlands including claims it was invented in 1590 by Zacharias Janssen (claim made by his son) and/or Zacharias' father, Hans Martens,[6][7] claims it was invented by their neighbor and rival spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey (who applied for the first telescope patent in 1608),[8] and claims it was invented by expatriate Cornelis Drebbel who was noted to have a version in London in 1619.[9][10] Galileo Galilei (also sometimes cited as compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version.[11][12][13] Giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625[14] (Galileo had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye").
Rise of modern light microscopes[edit]
The first detailed account of the microscopic anatomy of organic tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odierna's L'occhio della mosca, or The Fly's Eye.[15]
The microscope was still largely a novelty until the 1660s and 1670s when naturalists in Italy, the Netherlands and England began using them to study biology, both organisms and their ultrastructure. Italian scientist Marcello Malpighi, called the father of histology by some historians of biology, began his analysis of biological structures with the lungs. Robert Hooke's Micrographia had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a simple single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with an adjustable-by-screws needle attached to mount the specimen.[16] Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells (after Jan Swammerdam) and spermatozoa, and helped popularise the use of microscopes to view biological ultrastructure. On 9 October 1676, van Leeuwenhoek reported the discovery of micro-organisms.[15]
The performance of a light microscope depends on the quality and correct use of the condensor lens system to focus light on the specimen and the objective lens to capture the light from the specimen and form an image.[5] Early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed from the late 19th to very early 20th century, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination, which is central to achieving the theoretical limits of resolution for the light microscope. This method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. Further developments in sample illumination came from the discovery of phase contrast by Frits Zernike in 1953, and differential interference contrast illumination by Georges Nomarski in 1955; both of which allow imaging of unstained, transparent samples.
Electron microscopes[edit]
See also: electron microscope
Electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1933
In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image. The German physicist, Ernst Ruska, working with electrical engineer Max Knoll, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution.
Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll.[17] Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965.
Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the Second World War. Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the "Stereoscan".
One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope, is the ability to identify a virus.[18] Since this microscope reflects a visible, clear image of small organelles, then in an electron microscope there will no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting with more efficient way for pathogen detection.
Scanning probe microscopes[edit]
See also: scanning probe microscope
From 1981 to 1983 Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer worked at IBM in Zurich, Switzerland to study the quantum tunnelling phenomenon and eventually create a practical instrument, a scanning probe microscope from quantum tunnelling theory that read very small forces exchanged between a probe and the surface of a sample. The probe almost meets the surface so closely that the electrons for an experiment are able to have a continuous flow of electrons, making a current from surface to the probe. The microscope was not initially well received due to the complex nature of the underlying theoretical explanations. In 1984 Jerry Tersoff and D.R. Hamann while at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey began publishing articles that tied the theoretical with the experimental results obtained by the instrument. This was closely followed in 1985 with functioning commercial instruments, and in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the atomic force microscope, then Binnig's and Rohrer's Nobel Prize in Physics for the SPM.[19]
Scanning probe microscope types have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra fine probes and tips has advanced.
Fluorescence microscopes[edit]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Microscope. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: fluorescence microscope, immunofluorescence, and confocal microscope
The most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of fluorescence microscopy in biology.[citation needed] During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-genomic era, many techniques for fluorescent staining of cellular structures were developed.[citation needed] The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound DAPI to label DNA, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see immunofluorescence, and fluorescent proteins, such as green fluorescent protein. These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis of cell structure at a molecular level in both live and fixed samples.
The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the confocal microscope. The principle was patented in 1957 by Marvin Minsky, although laser technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when Thomas and Christoph Cremer developed the first practical confocal laser scanning microscope and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.
Super resolution microscopes[edit]
Main articles: Super-resolution microscopy and Microscopy § Sub-diffraction techniques
Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of superresolution analysis of fluorescently labelled samples. Structured illumination can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes. This occurs because the diffraction limit is occurred from light or excitation, which makes the resolution must be doubled to become super saturated.
X-ray microscopes[edit]
Main article: X-ray microscope
X-ray microscopes are instruments that use electromagnetic radiation usually in the soft X-ray band to image objects. Technological advances in x-ray lens optics in the early 1970s made the instrument a viable imaging choice.[20] They are often used in tomography (see micro-computed tomography) to produce three dimensional images of objects, including biological materials that have not been chemically fixed. Currently research is being done to improve optics for hard x-rays which have greater penetrating power.[20]
Types[edit]
Types of microscopes illustrated by the principles of their beam paths
Evolution of spatial resolution achieved with optical, transmission (TEM) and aberration-corrected electron microscopes (ACTEM).[21]
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classed on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscope and transmission electron microscopes).
Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.
Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the sample. The point is then scanned over the sample to analyze a rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.
Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above.
Optical[edit]
Main article: Optical microscope
The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass and occasionally of plastic or quartz, to focus light into the eye or another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres. This limits the practical magnification limit to ~1500x. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.
Sarfus, a recent optical technique increases the sensitivity of standard optical microscope to a point it becomes possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter). The technique is based on the use of non-reflecting substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.
Ultraviolet light enables the resolution of microscopic features, as well as to image samples that are transparent to the eye. Near infrared light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths.
In fluorescence microscopy, many wavelengths of light, ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce to allow viewing by eye or with the use of specifically sensitive cameras.
Phase contrast microscopy is an optical microscopy illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require staining to view the slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle in live cells.
The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope. In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces, a type of sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device (CCD) technology, depending on the application.
Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive photon-counting digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of entangled photons may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of ghost imaging to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.[22]
Electron[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Electron microscope
The two major types of electron microscopes are transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) and scanning electron microscopes (SEMs). They both have series of electromagnetic and electrostatic lenses to focus a high energy beam of electrons on a sample. In a TEM the electrons pass through the sample, analogous to basic optical microscopy. This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered strongly by most materials. The SEM has raster coils to scan the surface of bulk objects with a fine electron beam.
Scanning probe[edit]
Main article: Scanning probe microscopy
The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe of some type is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (MSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM).[23] An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom; the tip is attached to a tube through which a current flows.[24] The tip is scanned over the surface of a conductive sample until a tunneling current flows; the current is kept constant by computer movement of the tip and an image is formed by the recorded movements of the tip.[23]
Other types[edit]
Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance. Similar to Sonar in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits. On February 4, 2013, Australian engineers built a "quantum microscope" which provides unparalleled precision.[25]
Gallery[edit]
First atomic force microscope.
Fluorescence microscope with the filter cube turret above the objective lenses, coupled with a camera.
Modern transmission electron microscope.
See also[edit]
Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy
Laser capture microdissection
Microscope image processing
Microscope slide
Multifocal plane microscopy
Royal Microscopical Society
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Characterization and Analysis of Polymers. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Interscience. 2008. ISBN 978-0-470-23300-9.
Jump up ^ Bardell, David (May 2004). "The Invention of the Microscope". Bios. 75 (2): 78–84. JSTOR 4608700.
Jump up ^ The history of the telescope by Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003 Pgs 25-27 ISBN 0-486-43265-3, ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6
Jump up ^ Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554
^ Jump up to: a b Murphy, Douglas B.; Davidson, Michael W. (2011). Fundamentals of light microscopy and electronic imaging (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0471692140.
Jump up ^ Sir Norman Lockyer. Nature Volume 14.
Jump up ^ Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010). The Origins of the Telescope. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32–36, 43. ISBN 978-90-6984-615-6.
Jump up ^ "Who Invented the Microscope?". Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Eric Jorink. Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715.
Jump up ^ William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391 - 392
Jump up ^ Raymond J. Seeger, Men of Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier - 2016, page 24
Jump up ^ J. William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391
Jump up ^ uoregon.edu, Galileo Galilei (Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica)
Jump up ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature". The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History. New York, N.Y: Harmony. ISBN 0-224-05044-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wootton, David (2006). Bad medicine: doctors doing harm since Hippocrates. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-19-280355-7. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Liz Logan (27 April 2016). "Early Microscopes Revealed a New World of Tiny Living Things". Smithsonian.com. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Knoll, Max (1935). "Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter Körper". Zeitschrift für technische Physik. 16: 467–475.
Jump up ^ Goldsmith, Cynthia S.; Miller, Sara E. (2009-10-01). "Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 22 (4): 552–563. doi:10.1128/cmr.00027-09. ISSN 0893-8512. PMID 19822888.
Jump up ^ Morita, Seizo (2007). Roadmap of Scanning Probe Microscopy. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3540343158.
^ Jump up to: a b Erko, A. (2008). Modern developments in X-ray and neutron optics. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-74561-7.
Jump up ^ Pennycook, S.J.; Varela, M.; Hetherington, C.J.D.; Kirkland, A.I. (2011). "Materials Advances through Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy" (PDF). MRS Bulletin. 31: 36. doi:10.1557/mrs2006.4.
Jump up ^ Aspden, Reuben S.; Gemmell, Nathan R.; Morris, Peter A.; Tasca, Daniel S.; Mertens, Lena; Tanner, Michael G.; Kirkwood, Robert A.; Ruggeri, Alessandro; Tosi, Alberto; Boyd, Robert W.; Buller, Gerald S.; Hadfield, Robert H.; Padgett, Miles J. (2015). "Photon-sparse microscopy: visible light imaging using infrared illumination". Optica. 2 (12): 1049. doi:10.1364/OPTICA.2.001049. ISSN 2334-2536.
^ Jump up to: a b Bhushan, Bharat, ed. (2010). Springer handbook of nanotechnology (3rd rev. & extended ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 620. ISBN 978-3-642-02525-9.
Jump up ^ Sakurai, T.; Watanabe, Y., eds. (2000). Advances in scanning probe microscopy. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-56949-4.
Jump up ^ "Quantum Microscope for Living Biology". Science Daily. 4 February 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Microscopes.
Microscopy laboratory in: A Study Guide to the Science of Botany at Wikibooks
Milestones in Light Microscopy, Nature Publishing
FAQ on Optical Microscopes
Nikon MicroscopyU, tutorials from Nikon
Molecular Expressions : Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy, Florida State University.
Microscopes made from bamboo at Nature.com
Audio microscope glossary
Billings Microscope Collection Catalogue, National Museum of Health and Medicine.
Study and Read at the Royal Microscopical Society
[show]
v
t
e
Optical microscopy
Microscope
Optical microscopy
Illumination and
contrast methods
Bright-field microscopy
Köhler illumination
Dark field microscopy
Phase contrast
Quantitative phase-contrast microscopy
Differential interference contrast (DIC)
Dispersion staining
Second harmonic imaging (SHIM)
4Pi microscope
Structured illumination
Sarfus
Fluorescence methods
Fluorescence microscopy
Confocal microscopy
Two-photon excitation microscopy
Multiphoton microscopy
Image deconvolution
Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF)
Lightsheet microscopy (LSFM/SPIM)
Sub-diffraction
limit techniques
Diffraction limit
Stimulated emission depletion (STED)
Photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM/STORM)
Near-field (NSOM/SNOM)
[show]
v
t
e
Laboratory equipment
[show]
General
Heaters
Dryers
Alcohol burner
Bunsen burner
Desiccator
Heating mantle
Hot plate
Lab oven
Kiln
Meker-Fisher burner
Striker
Teclu burner
Water bath
Vacuum dry box
Mixers
Shakers
Chemostat
Homogenizer
Liquid whistle
Magnetic stirrer
Mortar and pestle
Shaker
Sonicator
Static mixer
Stirring rod
Vortex mixer
Wash bottle
Stands
Clamps
Holders
Beaker clamp
Clamp holder
Tripod
Burette clamp
Extension clamp
Flask clamp
Funnel support
Iron ring
Pinch clamp
Retort stand
Screw clamp
Test tube holder
Test tube rack
Wire gauze
Lab drying rack
Containers
Storage
Agar plate
Cryogenic storage dewar
Incubator
Laminar flow cabinet
Microtiter plate
Petri dish
Picotiter plate
Refrigerator
Weighing boat
Weighing dish
Other items
Aspirator
Autoclave
Balance brush
Cork borer
Crucible
Filter paper
File
Forceps
Centrifuge
Microscope
Pipeclay triangle
Spectrophotometer
Splint
Stopper
Scoopula
Spatula
Test tube brush
Wire brush
Inoculation needle
Inoculation loop
[show]
Glassware
Apparatus
Dean-Stark
Soxhlet extractor
Kipp's
Bottles
Boston round
Pycnometer
Condensers
Cold finger
Liebig
Dishes
Evaporating
Petri
Watch glass
Flasks
Büchner
Vacuum (Dewar)
Erlenmeyer
Fernbach
Fleaker
Florence
Retort
Round-bottom
Schlenk
Volumetric
Funnels
Büchner
Hirsch
Dropping
Separatory
Measuring devices
Burette
Conical measure
Cuvette
Eudiometer
Graduated cylinder
Ostwald viscometer
Pipette
Pipette (dropper)
Tubes
Boiling
Cragie
Ignition
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Test
Thiele
Thistle
Other items
Beaker
Gas syringe
Vial
[show]
Analytical chemistry
Compositional
AutoAnalyzer
CHN analyzer
Colorimeter
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
Gas chromatograph (GC)
Liquid Chromatograph (LC)
Mass spectrometer (MS)
pH indicator
pH meter
Microscopy
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Thermochemistry
Calorimeter
differential scanning
Melting point apparatus
Thermometer
Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
Other items
Analytical balance
Colony counter
Spiral plater
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
Plate reader
[show]
Electronics
Ammeter
Current source
Function generator
Galvanostat
Multimeter
Network analyzer
Oscilloscope
Pulse generator
Potentiostat
Spectrum analyzer
Time-domain reflectometer
Voltage source
Voltmeter
[show]
Safety
Personal protective
equipment (PPE)
Lab coat
Face shield
Respirator
Rubber apron
Safety shower
Eye and hand
Acid-resistant gloves
Eyewash station
Glove box
Medical gloves
Nitrile gloves
Safety glasses
Safety goggles
Other items
Acid (solvent) cabinet
Biosafety cabinet
Fire blanket
Fire extinguisher
Fume hood
Instruments used in medical laboratories
Authority control
GND: 4039237-5
NDL: 00565496
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microscope&oldid=812272643"
Categories:
Dutch inventions
Microbiology equipment
Microscopes
Microscopy
Scientific instruments
17th-century introductions
Science and technology in the Dutch Republic
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2013
Articles lacking reliable references from April 2017
All articles lacking reliable references
Use Canadian English from September 2016
All Wikipedia articles written in Canadian English
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Accuracy disputes from April 2017
All accuracy disputes
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017
Articles needing additional references from April 2017
All articles needing additional references
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Аҧсшәа
العربية
Armãneashti
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Bosanski
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
ChiShona
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaelg
Galego
贛語
Gĩkũyũ
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Napulitano
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
پنجابی
Patois
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Seeltersk
Sesotho sa Leboa
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
ᏣᎳᎩ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Tiếng Việt
Võro
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Zazaki
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 November 2017, at 00:42.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: href class title

value: span

value: i

value: small

value: tr

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources

values:
/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language
mw-redirect
Ancient Greek language

values:
/wiki/Laboratory_equipment
mw-redirect
Laboratory equipment

values:
/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope
mw-redirect
Transmission electron microscope

values:
/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscope
mw-redirect
Scanning probe microscope

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Edit section: Rise of modern light microscopes

values:
/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopy
mw-redirect
Phase contrast microscopy

values: Differential interference contrast microscopy

values:
/wiki/Second_World_War
mw-redirect
Second World War

values: Edit section: Scanning probe microscopes

values:
/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope
mw-redirect
Atomic force microscope

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed

values:
/wiki/Confocal_microscope
mw-redirect
Confocal microscope

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Super resolution microscopes

values: Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy

values:
/wiki/Electromagnetic_waves
mw-redirect
Electromagnetic waves

values:
/wiki/Electron_microscopes
mw-redirect
Electron microscopes

values:
/wiki/Vertico_SMI
mw-redirect
Vertico SMI

values:
/wiki/Near_infrared
mw-redirect
Near infrared

values:
/wiki/Fluorescence_microscopy
mw-redirect
Fluorescence microscopy

values:
/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscope
mw-redirect
Phase contrast microscope

values:
/wiki/Optical_microscopy
mw-redirect
Optical microscopy

values:
/wiki/Phase_shifts
mw-redirect
Phase shifts

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/Bright_field_microscopy
mw-redirect
Bright field microscopy

values:
/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscopy
mw-redirect
Scanning tunneling microscopy

values: Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4608700

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2013)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://cmr.asm.org/content/22/4/552

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1128%2Fcmr.00027-09

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0893-8512

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19822888

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1557%2Fmrs2006.4

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364%2FOPTICA.2.001049

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/2334-2536

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.microscopyu.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.rms.org.uk/study-read.html

values:
/wiki/Dark_field_microscopy
mw-redirect
Dark field microscopy

values:
navbox-image
3
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Total internal reflection fluorescence microscope

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Meker-Fisher_burner
mw-redirect
Meker-Fisher burner

values:
/wiki/Stirring_rod
mw-redirect
Stirring rod

values:
/wiki/Lab_drying_rack
mw-redirect
Lab drying rack

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

values:
/wiki/Liebig_condenser
mw-redirect
Liebig condenser

values:
/wiki/Hirsch_funnel
mw-redirect
Hirsch funnel

values:
/wiki/Ostwald_viscometer
mw-redirect
Ostwald viscometer

values:
/wiki/Colony_counter
mw-redirect
Colony counter

values: Emergency eyewash and safety shower station

values: Instruments used in medical laboratories

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039237-5

values: Category:Science and technology in the Dutch Republic

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2013

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from April 2017

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Use Canadian English from September 2016

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in Canadian English

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Accuracy disputes from April 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2017

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Microscope
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Амикроскоп – Abkhazian

values: অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্ৰ – Assamese

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: যৌগিক অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্র – Bangla

values: Микроскоп – Bashkir

values: Мікраскоп – Belarusian

values: Мікраскоп – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: खुर्दबीन – Bhojpuri

values: Микроскоп – Bulgarian

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values: Микроскоп – Chuvash

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsgop
Microsgop – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: Chʼosh doo yitʼíinii bee nílʼíní – Navajo

values: Μικροσκόπιο – Greek

values: میکروسکوپ – Persian

values: Մանրադիտակ – Armenian

values: सूक्ष्मदर्शी – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: מיקרוסקופ – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಸೂಕ್ಷ್ಮ ದರ್ಶಕ – Kannada

values: მიკროსკოპი – Georgian

values: Микроскоп – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadubini
Hadubini – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values: Микроскоп – Kyrgyz

values: Светлински микроскоп – Macedonian

values: സൂക്ഷ്മദർശിനി – Malayalam

values: सूक्ष्मदर्शक – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: မိုက္ကရိုစကုပ် – Burmese

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscop
Microscop – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Микроскоп – Russian

values: අන්වීක්ෂය – Sinhala

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheybaar
Sheybaar – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values: Микроскоп – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: நுண்நோக்கி – Tamil

values: సూక్ష్మదర్శిని – Telugu

values: กล้องจุลทรรศน์ – Thai

values: Микроскоп – Tajik

values: ᎾᎥᏂᎨ ᎠᎪᎵᎡᏙᏗ – Cherokee

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop
Mikroskop – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Мікроскоп – Ukrainian

values: خرد بین – Urdu

values: مىكروسكوپ – Uyghur

values: מיקראסקאפ – Yiddish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Microscope rootpage-Microscope skin-vector action-view