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Greenhouse effect
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For other uses, see Greenhouse (disambiguation).
A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source (the Sun), Earth's surface, the Earth's atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer space. The ability of the atmosphere to capture and recycle energy emitted by Earth's surface is the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect.
Energy flow between the sun, the atmosphere and earth's surface.
Earth's energy budget
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.[1][2]
If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it.[3] The intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.
Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have strengthened the greenhouse effect and caused global warming.[4]
The term "greenhouse effect" arose from a faulty analogy with the effect of sunlight passing through glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different, as a greenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow so that warm air is kept inside.[2][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mechanism
3 Greenhouse gases
4 Role in climate change
5 Real greenhouses
6 Related effects
6.1 Anti-greenhouse effect
6.2 Runaway greenhouse effect
7 Bodies other than Earth
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History
Main article: History of climate change science
The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by John Tyndall in 1859, who measured the radiative properties of specific greenhouse gases.[7] The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.[8] However, the term "greenhouse" was not used to refer to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[9][10]
Mechanism
Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. About 26% of the incoming solar energy is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds, and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.
The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of Earth's atmosphere and at sea level
An ideal thermally conductive blackbody at the same distance from the Sun as Earth would have a temperature of about 5.3 °C. However, because Earth reflects about 30%[11][12] of the incoming sunlight, this idealized planet's effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) would be about −18 °C.[13][14] The surface temperature of this hypothetical planet is 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C.[15]
The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.
Within the region where radiative effects are important, the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic. Earth's surface, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–100 μm.[16] At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent.[16] Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. It reradiates in all directions, both upwards and downwards; in equilibrium (by definition) the same amount as it has absorbed. This results in more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and reradiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.[14]
Greenhouse gases—including most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO) and all gases with three or more atoms—are able to absorb and emit infrared radiation. Though more than 99% of the dry atmosphere is IR transparent (because the main constituents—N2, O2, and Ar—are not able to directly absorb or emit infrared radiation), intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by the greenhouse gases to be shared with the other, non-IR-active, gases.
Greenhouse gases
Main article: Greenhouse gas
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:[17][18]
Atmospheric gases only absorb some wavelengths of energy but are transparent to others. The absorption patterns of water vapor (blue peaks) and carbon dioxide (pink peaks) overlap in some wavelengths. Carbon dioxide is not as strong a greenhouse gas as water vapor, but it absorbs energy in longer wavelengths (12–15 micrometers) that water vapor does not, partially closing the "window" through which heat radiated by the surface would normally escape to space. (Illustration NASA, Robert Rohde)[19]
water vapor, 36–70%
carbon dioxide, 9–26%
methane, 4–9%
ozone, 3–7%
It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above). Clouds also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus affect the radiative properties of the atmosphere.[18]
Role in climate change
Main article: Global warming
The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at Mauna Loa Observatory.
Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect.[20] This increase in radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[21] According to the latest Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".[22]
CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.[23] Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm)[24] in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010. It reached the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013.[25] The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data.[26] The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.
Over the past 800,000 years,[27] ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.[28] Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.[29][30]
Real greenhouses
A modern Greenhouse in RHS Wisley
The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight. However, a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the "greenhouse effect".[31] "Greenhouse effect" is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection,[32] while the "greenhouse effect" works by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through radiative transfer.
A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight usually glass, or plastic. The sun warms the ground and contents inside just like the outside, which then warms the air. Outside, the warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft, keeping the temperature lower than inside, where the air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a (not heated) "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover.[6] Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.[5]
Heated greenhouses are yet another matter, having an internal source of heating they leak heat out, which must be prevented. So it again makes sense to try to prevent radiative cooling through the use of adequate glazing.[33]
Related effects
Anti-greenhouse effect
See also: Anti-greenhouse effect
The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar and symmetrical to the greenhouse effect: greenhouse effect is about atmosphere letting radiation in, while not letting thermal radiation out, which warms the body surface; anti-greenhouse effect is about atmosphere NOT letting radiation in, while letting thermal radiation out, which lowers the equilibrium surface temperature. Such an effect has been cited about Titan[34]
Runaway greenhouse effect
See also: runaway greenhouse effect
A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.[35] A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has long ago been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus,[36] this idea is still largely accepted[citation needed].
Bodies other than Earth
The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide.[37] "Venus experienced a runaway greenhouse in the past, and we expect that Earth will in about 2 billion years as solar luminosity increases".[38]
Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to outgoing infrared radiation.
Pluto is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.[39]
See also
Global warming portal
Environment portal
Earth's energy budget
References
Jump up ^ "Annex II Glossary". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b A concise description of the greenhouse effect is given in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, "What is the Greenhouse Effect?" FAQ 1.3 – AR4 WGI Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science, IIPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Chapter 1, page 115: "To balance the absorbed incoming [solar] energy, the Earth must, on average, radiate the same amount of energy back to space. Because the Earth is much colder than the Sun, it radiates at much longer wavelengths, primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum (see Figure 1). Much of this thermal radiation emitted by the land and ocean is absorbed by the atmosphere, including clouds, and reradiated back to Earth. This is called the greenhouse effect."
Stephen H. Schneider, in Geosphere-biosphere Interactions and Climate, Lennart O. Bengtsson and Claus U. Hammer, eds., Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-78238-4, pp. 90–91.
E. Claussen, V. A. Cochran, and D. P. Davis, Climate Change: Science, Strategies, & Solutions, University of Michigan, 2001. p. 373.
A. Allaby and M. Allaby, A Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-280079-5, p. 244.
Jump up ^ Vaclav Smil (2003). The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change. MIT Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-262-69298-4.
Jump up ^ IPCC AR4 WG1 (2007), Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; Miller, H.L., eds., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1 (pb: 978-0-521-70596-7)
^ Jump up to: a b Schroeder, Daniel V. (2000). An introduction to thermal physics. San Francisco, California: Addison-Wesley. pp. 305–7. ISBN 0-321-27779-1. ... this mechanism is called the greenhouse effect, even though most greenhouses depend primarily on a different mechanism (namely, limiting convective cooling).
^ Jump up to: a b Wood, R.W. (1909). "Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse". Philosophical Magazine. 17: 319–320. doi:10.1080/14786440208636602. When exposed to sunlight the temperature rose gradually to 65 °C., the enclosure covered with the salt plate keeping a little ahead of the other because it transmitted the longer waves from the Sun, which were stopped by the glass. In order to eliminate this action the sunlight was first passed through a glass plate." "it is clear that the rock-salt plate is capable of transmitting practically all of it, while the glass plate stops it entirely. This shows us that the loss of temperature of the ground by radiation is very small in comparison to the loss by convection, in other words that we gain very little from the circumstance that the radiation is trapped.
Jump up ^ John Tyndall, Heat considered as a Mode of Motion (500 pages; year 1863, 1873)
Jump up ^ Isaac M. Held; Brian J. Soden (Nov 2000). "Water Vapor Feedback and Global Warming". Annual Review of Energy and the Environment. Annual Reviews. 25: 441–475. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.441.
Jump up ^ Easterbrook, Steve. "Who first coined the term "Greenhouse Effect"?". Serendipity. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Ekholm N (1901). "On The Variations Of The Climate Of The Geological And Historical Past And Their Causes". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 27 (117): 1–62. Bibcode:1901QJRMS..27....1E. doi:10.1002/qj.49702711702.
Jump up ^ "NASA Earth Fact Sheet". Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ "Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry, by Daniel J. Jacob, Princeton University Press, 1999. Chapter 7, "The Greenhouse Effect"". Acmg.seas.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ "Solar Radiation and the Earth's Energy Balance". Eesc.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Chapter 1: Historical overview of climate change science page 97
Jump up ^ The elusive "absolute surface air temperature," see GISS discussion
^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell, John F. B. (1989). "THE "GREENHOUSE" EFFECT AND CLIMATE CHANGE" (PDF). Reviews of Geophysics. American Geophysical Union. 27 (1): 115–139. Bibcode:1989RvGeo..27..115M. doi:10.1029/RG027i001p00115. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Water vapour: feedback or forcing?". RealClimate. 6 April 2005. Retrieved 2006-05-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Kiehl, J. T.; Kevin E. Trenberth (February 1997). "Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 78 (2): 197–208. Bibcode:1997BAMS...78..197K. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0477. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-30. Retrieved 2006-05-01.
Jump up ^ "NASA: Climate Forcings and Global Warming". January 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced greenhouse effect — Glossary". Nova. Australian Academy of Scihuman impact on the environment. 2006.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced Greenhouse Effect". Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Synthesis Report: Summary for Policymakers (p. 4)
Jump up ^ IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis" Chapter 7
Jump up ^ "Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide – Mauna Loa". NOAA.
Jump up ^ "Climate Milestone: Earth's CO2 Level Passes 400 ppm". 2013-05-12. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
Jump up ^ Hansen J. (February 2005). "A slippery slope: How much global warming constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference"?". Climatic Change. 68 (333): 269–279. doi:10.1007/s10584-005-4135-0.
Jump up ^ "Deep ice tells long climate story". BBC News. 2006-09-04. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Hileman B (2005-11-28). "Ice Core Record Extended". Chemical & Engineering News. 83 (48): 7.
Jump up ^ Bowen, Mark; Thin Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of Climate in the World's Highest Mountains; Owl Books, 2005.
Jump up ^ Temperature change and carbon dioxide change, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Jump up ^ Brian Shmaefsky (2004). Favorite demonstrations for college science: an NSTA Press journals collection. NSTA Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-87355-242-4.
Jump up ^ Oort, Abraham H.; Peixoto, José Pinto (1992). Physics of climate. New York: American Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-88318-711-6. ...the name water vapor-greenhouse effect is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection
Jump up ^ > ENERGY EFFECTS DURING USING THE GLASS WITH DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN A HEATED GREENHOUSE, Sławomir Kurpaska, Technical Sciences 17(4), 2014, 351–360
Jump up ^ "Titan: Greenhouse and Anti-greenhouse :: Astrobiology Magazine – earth science – evolution distribution Origin of life universe – life beyond :: Astrobiology is study of earth". Astrobio.net. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ Kasting, James F. (1991). "Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of Earth and Venus.". Planetary Sciences: American and Soviet Research/Proceedings from the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Workshop on Planetary Sciences. Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems (CETS). pp. 234–245. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Rasool, I.; De Bergh, C. (Jun 1970). "The Runaway Greenhouse and the Accumulation of CO2 in the Venus Atmosphere" (PDF). Nature. 226 (5250): 1037–1039. Bibcode:1970Natur.226.1037R. doi:10.1038/2261037a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 16057644. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-21.
Jump up ^ McKay, C.; Pollack, J.; Courtin, R. (1991). "The greenhouse and antigreenhouse effects on Titan". Science. 253 (5024): 1118–1121. doi:10.1126/science.11538492. PMID 11538492.
Jump up ^ Goldblatt, Colin, and Andrew J. Watson. “The Runaway Greenhouse: Implications for Future Climate Change, Geoengineering and Planetary Atmospheres.” Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 370, no. 1974, 2012, pp. 4197–4216. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41582871.
Jump up ^ "Pluto Colder Than Expected". SPACE.com. 2006-01-03. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Further reading
Businger, Joost Alois; Fleagle, Robert Guthrie (1980). An introduction to atmospheric physics. International geophysics series (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic. ISBN 0-12-260355-9.
Henderson-Sellers, Ann; McGuffie, Kendal (2005). A climate modelling primer (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-85750-1.
Schelling, Thomas C. (2002). "Greenhouse Effect". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (1st ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) OCLC 317650570, 50016270, 163149563
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text:
Carnoustie Golf Links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Carnoustie Golf Links
Club information
Location
Carnoustie, Scotland
Established
1850
Type
Public
Total holes
54
Championship
Designed by
Allan Robertson, Old Tom Morris, James Braid
Par
72 (71 for The Open)
Length
6,941 yards (6,347 m)
(7,421 yards (6,786 m) for the
2007 Open Championship)
Course record
63 by Tommy Fleetwood
The Burnside
Designed by
James Braid
Par
68
Length
5,972 yards (5,461 m)
Buddon Links
Par
68
Length
5,921 yards (5,414 m)
Carnoustie
Location in Scotland
Carnoustie
Location in Angus, Scotland
The Carnoustie Golf Links are in Carnoustie, Angus, Scotland. Its historic championship golf course is one of the venues in the Open Championship rotation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The Open Championship
3 The Women's British Open
4 The Senior British Open
5 Course
5.1 Course record
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Golf is recorded as having been played at Carnoustie in the early 16th century. In 1890, the 14th Earl of Dalhousie, who owned the land, sold the links to the local authority. It had no funds to acquire the property, and public fundraising was undertaken and donated to the council. The original course was of ten holes, crossing and recrossing the Barry Burn; it was designed by Allan Robertson, assisted by Old Tom Morris, and opened in 1842.[1] The opening of the coastal railway from Dundee to Arbroath in 1838 brought an influx of golfers from as far afield as Edinburgh, anxious to tackle the ancient links. This led to a complete restructuring of the course, extended in 1867 by Old Tom Morris to the 18 holes which had meanwhile become standardized. Young Tom Morris won a major open event there that same year. Two additional courses have since been added: the Burnside Course and the shorter though equally testing Buddon Links.
Carnoustie first played host to The Open Championship in 1931, after modifications to the course by James Braid in 1926. The winner then was Tommy Armour, from Edinburgh.
Later Open winners at Carnoustie include Henry Cotton of England in 1937, Ben Hogan of the USA in 1953, Gary Player of South Africa in 1968, Tom Watson of the USA in 1975, Paul Lawrie of Scotland in 1999 and Pádraig Harrington of Ireland in 2007. The last three championships were all won in playoffs.
The Championship course was modified significantly (but kept its routing used since 1926) prior to the 1999 Open, with all bunkers being rebuilt, many bunkers both added and eliminated, many green complexes expanded and enhanced, and several new tees being built. A large hotel was also built behind the 18th green of the Championship course.[2]
Tee off down Hogan's Alley, Hole #6, at Carnoustie. Avoid going out of bounds down the left!
The Amateur Championship was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1947; the winner was Willie Turnesa. The world's oldest amateur event has returned three times since: 1966 (won by Bobby Cole), 1971 (won by Steve Melnyk), and 1992 (won by Stephen Dundas).
The British Ladies Amateur was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1973, and also in 2012.
The Senior Open Championship was held at Carnoustie for the first time in 2010, with Germany's Bernhard Langer winning. The Women's British Open was held here for the first time in 2011; the winner was Yani Tseng.
Carnoustie is one of the three courses hosting the Alfred Dunhill Links Championship, an autumn event on the European Tour; the others are the Old Course at St Andrews and Kingsbarns.
The Golf Channel's reality series The Big Break, in which aspiring golfers compete for exemptions on professional tours and other prizes, filmed its fourth season at Carnoustie in 2005. As that year also saw the Ryder Cup at The K Club in Ireland, that year's show was based around a US vs Europe theme, with the two teams competing for European Tour exemptions.
In North America, the course is infamously nicknamed "Car-nasty," due to its famous difficulty, especially under adverse weather conditions. Carnoustie is considered by many to be the most difficult course in the Open rota, and one of the toughest courses in the world.
The term Carnoustie effect dates from the 1999 Open, when the world's best players, many of whom were reared on manicured and relatively windless courses, were frustrated by the unexpected difficulties of the Carnoustie links, which was compounded by the weather. One much-fancied young favourite, a 19-year-old Sergio García of Spain, went straight from the course to his mother's arms crying after shooting 89 and 83 in the first two rounds.[3] The Carnoustie effect is defined as "that degree of mental and psychic shock experienced on collision with reality by those whose expectations are founded on false assumptions." This being a psychological term, it can of course apply to disillusionment in any area of activity, not just in golf.
The 1999 Open Championship is best remembered for the collapse of French golfer Jean van de Velde, who needed only a double-bogey six on the 72nd hole to win the Open—and proceeded to score a triple-bogey seven, tying Paul Lawrie and 1997 champion Justin Leonard at 290 (+6). Lawrie won the four-hole aggregate playoff and the championship.
The Open Championship was once again contested at Carnoustie in July 2007. The eight-year absence was far shorter than the lengthy 24 years it took to return to Carnoustie, between 1975 and 1999. Harrington triumphed over García in a four-hole playoff. The 18th hole once again proved itself among the most dramatic and exciting in championship golf. Harrington had a one-shot lead over García as he approached the final hole in the fourth round, but proceeded to put not one but two shots into the Barry Burn, on his way to a double-bogey 6. García, playing in the final pairing of the day, reached the 18th with a one-shot lead over Harrington, but bogeyed the hole after missing a putt from just under ten feet away, setting up the playoff. In the four-hole playoff, which ended on the 18th, Harrington took no chances with a two-shot lead on the 18th; his bogey was enough to defeat García by one shot.
The Open Championship will return to Carnoustie in 2018.[4]
The 18th hole at Carnoustie and the Barry Burn
On January 17, 2014, it was announced that Carnoustie Golf Links - which operates the six publicly owned courses, including the Championship Course - had appointed its first-ever female chairman, Pat Sawers.[5]
The Open Championship[edit]
This is a list of The Open Championship champions at Carnoustie Golf Links:
Year
Winner
Score
Winner's
share (£)
R1
R2
R3
R4
Total
1931 Tommy Armour 73 75 77 71 296 (+8) 100
1937 Henry Cotton 2nd 74 72 73 71 290 (+6) 100
1953 Ben Hogan 73 71 70 68 282 (−6) 500
1968 Gary Player 2nd 74 71 71 73 289 (+1) 3,000
1975 Tom Watson 1st 71 67 69 72 279 (−9) PO 7,500
1999 Paul Lawrie 73 74 76 67 290 (+6) PO 350,000
2007 Pádraig Harrington 1st 69 73 68 67 277 (−7) PO 750,000
2018 19–22 July
Note: For multiple winners of The Open Championship, superscript ordinal identifies which in their respective careers.
The Women's British Open[edit]
Winner of the Women's British Open at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Year
Winner
Score
R1
R2
R3
R4
Total
2011 Yani Tseng 2nd 71 66 66 69 272 (−16)
The Senior British Open[edit]
Winner of The Senior Open Championship at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Year
Winner
Score
R1
R2
R3
R4
Total
2010 Bernhard Langer 67 71 69 72 279 (−5)
2016 Paul Broadhurst 75 66 68 68 277 (−11)
Course[edit]
Carnoustie Golf Links - Championship Course
2007 Open Championship
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
1 Cup 406 4 10 South America 466 4
2 Gulley 463 4 11 John Philp 383 4
3 Jockie's Burn 358 4 12 Southward Ho 499 4
4 Hillocks 412 4 13 Whins 176 3
5 Brae 415 4 14 Spectacles 514 5
6 Hogan's Alley 578 5 15 Lucky Slap 472 4
7 Plantation 410 4 16 Barry Burn 248 3
8 Short 183 3 17 Island 461 4
9 Railway 478 4 18 Home 499 4
Out 3,703 36 In 3,718 35
Total 7,421 71
Lengths of the course for previous Opens (since 1950):[6]
1999: 7,361 yards (6,731 m), par 71
1975: 7,065 yards (6,460 m), par 72
1968: 7,252 yards (6,631 m), par 72
1953: 6,701 yards (6,127 m), par 72
The 12th hole was played as a par-5 through 1975.
Length of the course for Women's British Open
2011: 6,490 yards (5,934 m), par 72
Length of the course for Senior Open Championship
2016: 7,345 yards (6,716 m), par 72
2010: 7,197 yards (6,581 m), par 71
Course record[edit]
Carnoustie is known as 'The Beast'. It is one of the venues for The Open Championship.
The course record is 63, achieved by:
Player
Country
Tournament
Date
Tommy Fleetwood England Alfred Dunhill Links Championship 6 Oct 2017
See also[edit]
Golf in Scotland
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The World Atlas of Golf, second edition, 1988; Scotland: Where Golf is Great, by James W. Finegan, 2010
Jump up ^ Scotland: Where Golf is Great, by James W. Finegan, 2010
Jump up ^ The Real Carnoustie Awaits British Open Field, The Golf Channel, 18 July 2007
Jump up ^ "Royal Birkdale and Carnoustie to host The Open in 2017 and 2018". R&A Championships Limited. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Carnoustie appoints first female chairman". bunkered. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Media guide". The Open Championship. 2011. pp. 22, 203. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
External links[edit]
Carnoustie Golf Links.co.uk - official site
Carnoustie even tougher than Oakmont, says Open chairman, stv interview, 19 June 2007.
webcam Carnoustie golf links
OurCarnoustie - Carnoustie Facebook Page
[hide]
v
t
e
The Open Championship rota courses
Current rota courses
St Andrews
Carnoustie
Muirfield
Turnberry
Royal Troon
Royal St George's (Sandwich)
Royal Birkdale
Royal Lytham & St Annes
Royal Liverpool (Hoylake)
Royal Portrush
Former rota courses
Prestwick
Musselburgh
Royal Cinque Ports
Prince's
Coordinates: 56°29′49″N 2°43′01″W / 56.497°N 2.717°W / 56.497; -2.717
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carnoustie_Golf_Links&oldid=841355054"
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text:
Benjamin Constant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the European writer and politician. For other people and places, see Benjamin Constant (disambiguation).
Benjamin Constant
Member of the Chamber of Deputies
In office
14 April 1819 – 8 December 1830
Constituency
Sarthe (1819–24)
Seine 4th (1824–27)
Bas-Rhin 1st (1827–30)
Member of the Council of State
In office
20 April 1815 – 8 July 1815
Appointed by
Napoleon I
Member of the Tribunat
In office
25 December 1799 – 27 March 1802
Constituency
Léman
Personal details
Born
Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque
(1767-10-25)25 October 1767
Lausanne, Swiss Confederacy
Died
8 December 1830(1830-12-08) (aged 63)
Paris, France
Nationality
Swiss French
Political party
Republican (1799–1802)
Liberal Left (1819–24)
Liberal-Doctrinaire (1824–30)
Spouse(s)
Wilhelmine von Cramm (m. 1789; div. 1795)
Charlotte von Hardenberg (m. 1808; wid. 1830)
Alma mater
University of Edinburgh
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
Profession
Novelist
Political scientist
Philosopher
Writing career
Period
18th-19th century
Genre
Poetry, novel
Subject
Liberty, psychology, love
Literary movement
Romanticism
Notable works
Adolphe
Years active
1796–1830
Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque (French: [kɔ̃stɑ̃]; 25 October 1767 – 8 December 1830), or simply Benjamin Constant, was a Swiss-French political activist and writer on politics and religion. He was the author of a partly biographical psychological novel, Adolphe. He was a fervent liberal[1] of the early 19th century, who influenced the Trienio Liberal movement in Spain, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, the Greek War of Independence, the November Uprising in Poland, the Belgian Revolution, and Liberalism in Brazil and Mexico.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Paris
2 Political philosophy
3 Novels
4 Bibliography
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Biography[edit]
Henri-Benjamin Constant was born in Lausanne to descendants of Huguenot Protestants who had fled from Artois to Switzerland during the Huguenot Wars in the 16th century. His father, Jules Constant de Rebecque, served as a high-ranking officer in the Dutch States Army, like his grandfather, his uncle and his cousin Jean Victor de Constant Rebecque. When Constant's mother died soon after his birth, both his grandmothers took care of him. Private tutors educated him in Brussels (1779) and in the Netherlands (1780). At the Protestant University of Erlangen (1783), he gained appointment to the court of Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He had to leave after an affair with a girl, and moved to the University of Edinburgh. There he lived at the home of Andrew Duncan, the elder and became friends with James Mackintosh[2] and Malcolm Laing.[3] When he left the city, he promised to pay back his gambling debts.
In 1787, he returned, traveling on horseback through England and Scotland. In those years the European nobility, with their prerogatives, had come under heavy attack by those who were influenced by Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality; Constant's family criticized him when he left out part of his last name.[4] In Paris, at the home of Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard he became acquainted with Isabelle de Charriere, a 46-year older Dutch woman and writer, who later helped publish Rousseau's Confessions, and who knew his uncle David-Louis Constant de Rebecque extremely well by correspondence for 15 years. When he stayed at her home in Colombier Switzerland, they wrote an epistolary novel together. She acted as a mother to him until Constant's appointment to the court of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel that required him to move north. He left the court when the War of the First Coalition began in 1792.
In Brunswick, he had married Wilhelmina von Cramm, but he divorced her in 1793. In September 1794, he met and became interested in the famous and rich (but married) Anne Louise Germaine de Staël, brought up on the principles of Rousseau. They both admired Jean Lambert Tallien and Talleyrand. Their intellectual collaboration between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of their time.[5]
Paris[edit]
After the Reign of Terror in France (1793–1794), Constant became a defender of bicameralism and of the Parliament of Great Britain. In revolutionary France this strand of political thought resulted in the Constitution of the Year III, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. In 1799, after 18 Brumaire, Constant was appointed by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Tribunat, but in 1802, the first consul forced him to withdraw because of his speeches and his connections with Mme de Staël.
Constant became acquainted with Julie Talma, the wife of François-Joseph Talma, who wrote him many letters of compelling human interest.[6]
In 1800, the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an act of terror, failed. In 1803, at a time when Britain and France were at peace, Jean Gabriel Peltier, while living in England, argued that Napoleon should be killed.[7] The lawyer James Mackintosh defended the French refugee against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France. Mackintosh's speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël. She was forced to leave Paris.
De Staël, disappointed in French Rationalism, became interested in German Romanticism. Constant moved with her and their two children to Weimar. Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel welcomed them the day after their arrival. In Weimar they met Friedrich von Schiller; Johann Wolfgang Goethe at first hesitated.[8] In Berlin, they met with August Wilhelm Schlegel, and his brother, Friedrich Schlegel. Constant parted from de Stael and in 1806 lived in Rouen and Meulan, where he started to work on his novel Adolphe. In 1809, he secretly married Caroline von Hardenberg, a woman who had been divorced twice, (she was related to Novalis and to Karl August von Hardenberg). He moved back to Paris in 1814, where Louis XVIII of France had become king. As a member of the Council of State; Constant defended the constitutional monarchy. He became friends with Madame Récamier and argued with Germaine de Staël, who had asked him to pay his debts when their daughter Albertine married Victor de Broglie. During the Hundred Days of Napoleon, who had become more liberal, Constant fled to the Vendée, but returned when he was invited several times at the Tuileries in order to set up changes for the Charter of 1815.
After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), Constant moved to London – not in the company of Madame Récamier, who went south, but with his wife. In 1817, back in Paris, he sat in the Chamber of Deputies, the lower legislative house of the Restoration-era government. One of its most eloquent orators, he became a leader of the parliamentary bloc first known as the Independants and later[by whom?] as "liberals". He became an opponent of Charles X of France during the Restoration[9] between 1815 and 1830.
In 1830, King Louis Philippe I gave Constant a large sum of money to pay off his debts, and appointed him to the Conseil d'Etat.
Political philosophy[edit]
Isabelle de Charrière, a Dutch-Swiss intellectual with whom Constant conducted an extensive correspondence
One of the first thinkers to go by the name of Liberal, Constant looked to Britain rather than to ancient Rome for a practical model of freedom in a large, commercial society. He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns".[10] The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory, republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly.[10] In order to support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.[10]
Painting by Marguerite Gérard, Mme de Staël et sa fille (around 1805); de Staël was Constant's partner and intellectual collaborator
Charlotte von Hardenberg, Constant's second, "secret" wife
Madame Récamier (1777–1849) by Alexandre-Evariste Fragonard Juliette Récamier was a friend and intellectual compatriot of Constant
The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a commercial society in which there are no slaves but almost everybody must earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement.[10]
He chastised several aspects of the French Revolution, and the failures within the social and political upheaval. He stated how the French attempted to apply ancient republic liberties to the modern state. Constant realized that freedom meant drawing a line between the area of a person's private life and that of public authority.[11] He admired the noble spirit of regeneration of the state; however, he stated that it was naïve that writers believed that two thousand years had not wrought some changes in the disposition and needs of the people. The dynamics of the state had changed: the ancient states' population paled in comparison to that of modern countries. He even argued that with a large population, man had no role in government regardless of its form or type. Constant emphasized how the citizens of the ancient state found more satisfaction in their public existence and less in their private. However, the satisfaction of modern peoples occurs in their private existence.
Constant's repeated denunciation of despotism pervaded his critique of French political philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Abbé de Mably. These writers, influential to the French Revolution, according to Constant mistook authority for liberty and approved any means of extending the action of authority. Reformers used the model of ancient states of public force, and organized the most absolute despotism under the name of the Republic. He continued to condemn despotism, citing the paradox of liberty derived from recourse to despotism, and the lack of substance in this ideology.
Furthermore, he pointed out the detrimental nature of the Reign of Terror; the inexplicable delirium. In François Furet's words, Constant's "entire political thought"[12] revolved around this question, namely the problem of explaining the Terror. Constant understood the revolutionaries' disastrous over-investment in the political.[11] The French revolutionaries such as the Sans-culottes were the primary forces in the streets. They promoted constant vigilance and a public emphasis. Constant pointed out how the most obscure life, the quietest existence, the most unknown name, offered no protection during the Reign of Terror. He also stated that each individual added to the number, and took fright in the number that he had helped increase. This mob mentality deterred many and helped to usher in new despots such as Napoleon.
Moreover, Constant believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked Napoleon's martial appetite, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to be warlike, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would be at peace with all peaceful nations.
Constant believed that if liberty were to be salvaged from the aftermath of the Revolution, then chimerical Ancient Liberty had to be reconciled with the practical and achievable Modern Liberty. England, since the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and then the United Kingdom after 1707, had demonstrated the practicality of Modern Liberty and Britain was a constitutional monarchy. Constant concluded that constitutional monarchy was better suited than republicanism to maintaining Modern Liberty. He was instrumental in drafting the "Acte Additional" of 1815, which transformed Napoleon's restored rule into a modern constitutional monarchy.[13] This was only to last for "One Hundred Days" before Napoleon was defeated, but Constant's work nevertheless provided a means of reconciling monarchy with liberty. Indeed, the French Constitution (or Charter) of 1830 could be seen as a practical implementation of many of Constant's ideas: a hereditary monarchy existing alongside an elected Chamber of Deputies and a senatorial Chamber of Peers, with the executive power vested in responsible ministers. Thus, although often ignored in France because of his Anglo-Saxon sympathies, Constant made a profound (albeit indirect) contribution to French constitutional traditions.
Secondly, Constant developed a new theory of constitutional monarchy, in which royal power was intended to be a neutral power, protecting, balancing and restraining the excesses of the other, active powers (the executive, legislature, and judiciary). This was an advance on the prevailing theory in the English-speaking world, which, following the conventional wisdom of William Blackstone, the 18th-century English jurist, had reckoned the King to be head of the executive branch. In Constant's scheme, the executive power was entrusted to a Council of Ministers (or Cabinet) who, although appointed by the King, were ultimately responsible to Parliament. In making this clear theoretical distinction between the powers of the King (as head of state) and the ministers (as Executive) Constant was responding to the political reality which had been apparent in Britain for more than a century: that the ministers, and not the King, are responsible, and therefore that the King "reigns but does not rule". This was important for the development of parliamentary government in France and elsewhere. It should be noted, however, that the King was not to be a powerless cipher in Constant's scheme: he would have many powers, including the power to make judicial appointments, to dissolve the Chamber and call new elections, to appoint the peers, and to dismiss ministers – but he would not be able to govern, make policy, or direct the administration, since that would be the task of the responsible ministers. This theory was literally applied in Portugal (1822) and Brazil (1824), where the King/Emperor was explicitly given "Moderating Powers" rather than executive power. Elsewhere (for example, the 1848 "Statuto albertino" of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which later became the basis of the Italian constitution from 1861) the executive power was notionally vested in the King, but was exercisable only by the responsible ministers.
He defended the separation of powers as basis of a liberal State, but unlike Montesquieu and most of the liberal thinkers, he defended five powers instead of three. They were the Regal or Moderator, the Executive, the Representative Power of Opinion, the Representative Power of Tradition and the Judicial, the Moderator Power was a monarch, a type judge that was not part of the government, but served as a neutral power to the government, the Executive Power was the ministers that the monarch appointed and they were, collectively, the head of government, the Representative Powers were a separation of the Monstesquieu´s Legislative Power, with the Representative Power of Opinion being an elected body to represent the opinion of the citizens and the Representative Power of Tradition was an hereditary House of Peers and the judicial was similar to the Montesquieu's Judicial Power.[14]
Constant's other concerns included a "new type of federalism": a serious attempt to decentralize French government through the devolution of powers to elected municipal councils. This proposal reached fruition in 1831, when elected municipal councils (albeit on a narrow franchise) were created.
The importance of Constant's writings on the liberty of the ancients has dominated understanding of his work. His wider literary and cultural writings (most importantly the novella Adolphe and his extensive histories of religion) emphasized the importance of self-sacrifice and warmth of the human emotions as a basis for social living. Thus, while he pleaded for individual liberty as vital for individual moral development and appropriate for modernity, he felt that egoism and self-interest were insufficient as part of a true definition of individual liberty. Emotional authenticity and fellow-feeling were critical. In this, his moral and religious thought was strongly influenced by the moral writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and German thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, whom he read in preparing his religious history.
Novels[edit]
Constant published only one novel during his lifetime, Adolphe (1816), the story of a young, indecisive man's disastrous love affair with an older mistress. A first-person novel in the sentimentalist tradition, Adolphe examines the thoughts of the young man as he falls in and out of love with Ellenore, a woman of uncertain virtue. Constant began the novel as an autobiographical tale of two loves, but decided that the reading public would object to serial passions. The love affair depicted in the finished version of the novel is thought to be based on Constant's affair with Anna Lindsay, who describes the affair in her correspondence (published in the Revue des Deux Mondes, December 1930 – January 1931). The book has been compared to Chateaubriand's René or Mme de Stael's Corinne.[9]
Bibliography[edit]
De la Force du Gouvernement actuel et De la Necessite de s'y rallier (1796)
Des reactions politiques (1797)
Des effets de la terreur (1797)
Fragments d'un ouvrage abandonné sur la possibilité d'une constitution républicaine dans un grand pays (1803–1810)
Principes de Politique Applicables a Tous les Gouvernements (1806–1810)
Cécile (1811, 1st publ. 1951)
De l'esprit de conquête et d'usurpation dans leurs rapports avec la civilisation actuelle (1815) (against Napoleon Bonaparte)
Adolphe (novel)
De la religion considérée dans sa source, ses formes et son développement (5 vols. 1824–1831) (on ancient religion)
See also[edit]
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberalism
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Craiutu, A. (2012) A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748–1830, pp. 199, 202–03
Jump up ^ Benjamin Constant: philosophe, historien, romancier, homme d'état, p. 38
Jump up ^ "The Cambridge Companion to Constant". Assets.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Cahier Rouge, p. 122". Commons.wikimedia.org. 2013-08-11. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
Jump up ^ Their affair resulted in one daughter Albertine.
Jump up ^ Benjamin Constant, p. 222. Books.google.nl. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Un journaliste contre-révolutionnaire, Jean-Gabriel Peltier (1760–1825) – Etudes Révolutionnaires". Etudes-revolutionnaires.org. 7 October 2011. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Madame De Stael and the Grand-Duchess Louise Door Madame de Stael, p. 24
^ Jump up to: a b G. Lanson, P. Tuffrau, Manuel d’histoire de la Littérature Française, Hachette, Paris 1953
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Constant, Benjamin, 1988, 'The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns' (1819), in The Political Writings of Benjamin Constant, ed. Biancamaria Fontana, Cambridge, pp. 309–28". Uark.edu. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Rosenblatt 2004
Jump up ^ Furet 1981, p. 27
Jump up ^ English Text of the Charter
Jump up ^ Culver, John W.; de Oliveira Torres, Joao Camillo (May 1968). "A democracia coroada. Teoria politica de Imperio do Brasil". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 48 (2): 338. doi:10.2307/2510809. ISSN 0018-2168.
Further reading[edit]
Gauchet, Marcel. “Constant,” in A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (1989), p. 924.
Rosenblatt, H. "Why Constant? A Critical Overview of the Constant Revival", Cambridge Journals (2004)
Furet, F. (1981). “La Révolution sans la Terreur? Le débat des historiens du XIXe siècle", in Le Débat pp. 13, 41.
Vincent, K. Steven. 'Benjamin Constant, the French Revolution, and the Origins of French Romantic Liberalism', in French Historical Studies; 23:4 (2000 Fall), pp. 607–37 in Project MUSE
Wood, Dennis. Benjamin Constant: A Biography (1993).
Gossman, Lionel (May 2004). "Between Passion and Irony: Benjamin Constant's Liberal Balancing Act"" (PDF).
A. Pitt, 'The Religion of the Moderns: Freedom and Authenticity in Constant's De la Religion', in History of Political Thought; xxi, 1 (2000), 67–87.
"Principles of Politics Applicable to all Representative Governments", Constant: Political Writings (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought) – Biancamaria Fontana (Trans & Ed.) Cambridge, 1988.
Mauro Barberis, Benjamin Constant. Rivoluzione, costituzione, progresso (1988. Il Mulino, Bologna)
Paul Bastid, Benjamin Constant et sa doctrine, I–II (1966. Colin, Paris)
Catrine Carpenter, 'Benjamin Constant's religious politics', in History of European Ideas; 35,4 (2009), 503–09.
Pierre Deguise, Benjamin Constant méconnu. Le livre De la religion, avec des documents inédits (1966. Droz, Genève)
Stefano De Luca, Il pensiero politico di Benjamin Constant (1993. Laterza, Roma-Bari)
Béatrice Fink (dir.), Benjamin Constant : philosophe, historien, romancier et homme d'État (actes du colloque de l'université du Maryland, octobre 1989), Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant ; Paris, J. Touzot, 1991, 186 p.
Biancamaria Fontana, Benjamin Constant and the Post-Revolutionary Mind (1991. Yale U.P., New Haven – London)
Luca Fezzi, Il rimpianto di Roma. 'Res publica', libertà 'neoromane' e Benjamin Constant, agli inizi del terzo millennio (2012, Firenze, Le Monnier)
Gauchet, Marcel. “Constant,” in A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (1989), 924
Henri Guillemin, Benjamin Constant, muscadin, Paris, Gallimard, 1958
Kurt Kloocke, Benjamin Constant. Une biographie intellectuelle (1984. Droz, Genève)
Giovanni Paoletti, Benjamin Constant et les Anciens. Politique, réligion, histoire (2006. Champion, Paris)
Helena Rosenblatt, 'Eclipses and Revivals: Constant’s Reception in France and America (1830–2007)', in The Cambridge Companion to Constant, ed. H. Rosenblatt (2009. University Press, Cambridge), pp. 351–77.
Gustave Rudler, La jeunesse de Benjamin Constant, 1767–1794. Le disciple du XVIIIe siècle. Utilitarisme et pessimisme. Madame de Charrière. Paris, A. Colin, 1909. 542 p.
Tzvetan Todorov, Benjamin Constant: la passion democratique (1997. Hachette, Paris)
Vincent, K. Steven, "Benjamin Constant and the Birth of French Liberalism" (2011).
Dennis Wood, Benjamin Constant: A Biography (1993).
David Cecil, 'Adolphe', in David Cecil, Poets And Story-Tellers A Book of Critical Essays (1949), pp. 139–52
Hart, David (2008). "Constant, Benjamin (1767–1830)". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 97–98. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n63. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Benjamin Constant.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Benjamin Constant
Publications by and about Benjamin Constant in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library
Works by Benjamin Constant at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Benjamin Constant at Internet Archive
Institut Benjamin Constant homepage
Rebecq liberal
Intellectual portrait of B. C. by Emile Faguet (in French)
The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns (1816)
Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments
Lecture on ancient and modern liberty contains a readable version for contemporary students
Benjamin Constant Original name: Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque at Find a Grave
Benjamin Constant at Goodreads
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values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: Бенжамен Констан – Bulgarian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque – Catalan

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebeque – Esperanto

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interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: بنژامن کنستان – Persian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 뱅자맹 콩스탕 – Korean

values: Բենժամեն Անրի Կոնստան դը Ռեբեկ – Armenian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: בנז'מן קונסטן – Hebrew

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interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Констан Бенжамен – Kazakh

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interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Бенжамен Констан – Macedonian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: بنژامن کنستان دو ربک – Mazanderani

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: バンジャマン・コンスタン – Japanese

values: Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque – Norwegian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Benjamin Constant (escritor) – Portuguese

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Констан, Бенжамен – Russian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: بێنژامین کۆنستانت دو رووبێک – Central Kurdish

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Бенжамен Констан – Serbian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: Бенжамен Констан – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: 班傑明·康斯坦 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Benjamin_Constant rootpage-Benjamin_Constant skin-vector action-view