text:
Ryan Griffin (tight end)
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Ryan Griffin
Griffin in the 2016 NFL season.
No. 84 – Houston Texans
Position:
Tight end
Personal information
Date of birth:
(1990-01-11) January 11, 1990 (age 27)
Place of birth:
Londonderry, New Hampshire
Height:
6 ft 6 in (1.98 m)
Weight:
256 lb (116 kg)
Career information
High school:
Londonderry (NH)
College:
Connecticut
NFL Draft:
2013 / Round: 6 / Pick: 201
Career history
Houston Texans (2013–present)
Roster status:
Active
Career highlights and awards
2× Second-team All-Big East (2011, 2012)
Career NFL statistics as of Week 5, 2017
Receptions:
108
Receiving yards:
1,124
Receiving touchdowns:
7
Player stats at NFL.com
Ryan Griffin (born January 11, 1990) is an American football tight end for the Houston Texans of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Connecticut.
Contents
[hide]
1 College career
2 Professional career
3 Career statistics
3.1 Regular season
3.2 Post season
4 References
5 External links
College career[edit]
As a junior, Griffin was one of 25 tight ends to be named to the John Mackey Award Midseason Watch List. He finished his college career with 10 touchdowns and 116 receptions, second all-time by a tight end. His six touchdowns in 2012 tied for second-most by a Husky in a single season. In 2012, he was named UConn's Offensive Player of the Year.[1]
Professional career[edit]
Griffin was drafted in the sixth round (201st overall) of the 2013 NFL Draft by the Houston Texans.[2]
On March 11, 2017, Griffin signed a three-year, $9 million contract extension with the Texans.[3]
Career statistics[edit]
Regular season[edit]
Stats current as of week 17 of the 2016 season[4]
Receiving
Fumbles
Season
Team
GP
GS
Rec
Yds
Avg
Long
TD
FUM
Lost
2013 HOU 15 8 19 244 12.8 40 1 0 0
2014 HOU 16 2 10 91 9.1 25 1 0 0
2015 HOU 9 4 20 251 12.6 37 2 0 0
2016 HOU 16 5 50 442 8.8 45 2 1 1
Total
56
56
99
1,028
10.4
45
6
1
1
Post season[edit]
Receiving
Season
Team
GP
GS
Rec
Yds
Avg
Long
TD
2015 HOU 1 1 3 29 9.7 15 0
2016 HOU 1 1 3 29 9.7 13 0
Total
2
2
6
58
9.7
15
0
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.cbssports.com/nfl/draft/players/1689456/ryan-griffin
Jump up ^ Fuller, Jim (April 27, 2013). "NFL DRAFT: Texans select UConn's Trevardo Williams and Ryan Griffin". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ Alper, Josh (March 11, 2017). "Ryan Griffin signs three-year deal with Texans". ProFootballTalk.NBCSports.com.
Jump up ^ "Ryan Griffin Stats - Houston Texans". ESPN. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
External links[edit]
Houston Texans bio
Connecticut Huskies bio
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History of operating systems
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
History of computing
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Hardware before 1960
Hardware 1960s to present
Software
Software
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Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Compiler construction
Computer science
Operating systems
Programming languages
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Computer operating systems (OSes) provide a set of functions needed and used by most application programs on a computer, and the links needed to control and synchronize computer hardware. On the first computers, with no operating system, every program needed the full hardware specification to run correctly and perform standard tasks, and its own drivers for peripheral devices like printers and punched paper card readers. The growing complexity of hardware and application programs eventually made operating systems a necessity for everyday use.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Mainframes
2.1 Systems on IBM hardware
2.2 Other mainframe operating systems
3 Minicomputers
4 Microcomputers
4.1 Home computers
4.2 Operating systems in video games and consoles
4.3 Personal computer era
4.4 Mobile operating systems
5 Rise of virtualization
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
Background[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The earliest computers were mainframes that lacked any form of operating system. Each user had sole use of the machine for a scheduled period of time and would arrive at the computer with program and data, often on punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a control panel using dials, toggle switches and panel lights.
Symbolic languages, assemblers, and compilers were developed for programmers to translate symbolic program-code into machine code that previously would have been hand-encoded. Later machines came with libraries of support code on punched cards or magnetic tape, which would be linked to the user's program to assist in operations such as input and output. This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system; however, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.[1]
As machines became more powerful the time to run programs diminished, and the time to hand off the equipment to the next user became large by comparison. Accounting for and paying for machine usage moved on from checking the wall clock to automatic logging by the computer. Run queues evolved from a literal queue of people at the door, to a heap of media on a jobs-waiting table, or batches of punch-cards stacked one on top of the other in the reader, until the machine itself was able to select and sequence which magnetic tape drives processed which tapes. Where program developers had originally had access to run their own jobs on the machine, they were supplanted by dedicated machine operators who looked after the machine and were less and less concerned with implementing tasks manually. When commercially available computer centers were faced with the implications of data lost through tampering or operational errors, equipment vendors were put under pressure to enhance the runtime libraries to prevent misuse of system resources. Automated monitoring was needed not just for CPU usage but for counting pages printed, cards punched, cards read, disk storage used and for signaling when operator intervention was required by jobs such as changing magnetic tapes and paper forms. Security features were added to operating systems to record audit trails of which programs were accessing which files and to prevent access to a production payroll file by an engineering program, for example.
All these features were building up towards the repertoire of a fully capable operating system. Eventually the runtime libraries became an amalgamated program that was started before the first customer job and could read in the customer job, control its execution, record its usage, reassign hardware resources after the job ended, and immediately go on to process the next job. These resident background programs, capable of managing multistep processes, were often called monitors or monitor-programs before the term "operating system" established itself.
An underlying program offering basic hardware-management, software-scheduling and resource-monitoring may seem a remote ancestor to the user-oriented OSes of the personal computing era. But there has been a shift in the meaning of OS. Just as early automobiles lacked speedometers, radios, and air-conditioners which later became standard, more and more optional software features became standard features in every OS package, although some applications such as database management systems and spreadsheets remain optional and separately priced. This has led to the perception of an OS as a complete user-system with an integrated graphical user interface, utilities, some applications such as text editors and file managers, and configuration tools.
The true descendant of the early operating systems is what is now called the "kernel". In technical and development circles the old restricted sense of an OS persists because of the continued active development of embedded operating systems for all kinds of devices with a data-processing component, from hand-held gadgets up to industrial robots and real-time control-systems, which do not run user applications at the front-end. An embedded OS in a device today is not so far removed as one might think from its ancestor of the 1950s.
The broader categories of systems and application software are discussed in the computer software article.
Mainframes[edit]
The first operating system used for real work was GM-NAA I/O, produced in 1956 by General Motors' Research division[2] for its IBM 704.[3] Most other early operating systems for IBM mainframes were also produced by customers.[4]
Early operating systems were very diverse, with each vendor or customer producing one or more operating systems specific to their particular mainframe computer. Every operating system, even from the same vendor, could have radically different models of commands, operating procedures, and such facilities as debugging aids. Typically, each time the manufacturer brought out a new machine, there would be a new operating system, and most applications would have to be manually adjusted, recompiled, and retested.
Systems on IBM hardware[edit]
Main article: History of IBM mainframe operating systems
The state of affairs continued until the 1960s when IBM, already a leading hardware vendor, stopped work on existing systems and put all its effort into developing the System/360 series of machines, all of which used the same instruction and input/output architecture. IBM intended to develop a single operating system for the new hardware, the OS/360. The problems encountered in the development of the OS/360 are legendary, and are described by Fred Brooks in The Mythical Man-Month—a book that has become a classic of software engineering. Because of performance differences across the hardware range and delays with software development, a whole family of operating systems was introduced instead of a single OS/360.[5][6]
IBM wound up releasing a series of stop-gaps followed by two longer-lived operating systems:
OS/360 for mid-range and large systems. This was available in three system generation options:
PCP for early users and for those without the resources for multiprogramming.
MFT for mid-range systems, replaced by MFT-II in OS/360 Release 15/16. This had one successor, OS/VS1, which was discontinued in the 1980s.
MVT for large systems. This was similar in most ways to PCP and MFT (most programs could be ported among the three without being re-compiled), but has more sophisticated memory management and a time-sharing facility, TSO. MVT had several successors including the current z/OS.
DOS/360 for small System/360 models had several successors including the current z/VSE. It was significantly different from OS/360.
IBM maintained full compatibility with the past, so that programs developed in the sixties can still run under z/VSE (if developed for DOS/360) or z/OS (if developed for MFT or MVT) with no change.
IBM also developed TSS/360, a time-sharing system for the System/360 Model 67. Overcompensating for their perceived importance of developing a timeshare system, they set hundreds of developers to work on the project. They ended up with a bloated, buggy project that took as long to boot as it did to crash, and ended the project without releasing it.[7]
Several operating systems for the IBM S/360 and S/370 architectures were developed by third parties, including the Michigan Terminal System (MTS) and MUSIC/SP.
Other mainframe operating systems[edit]
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating systems[NB 1] in the 1960s, for batch processing and later developed the MACE operating system for time sharing, which was the basis for the later Kronos. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the DTSS time sharing system, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages.
In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. PLATO was remarkably innovative for its time; the shared memory model of PLATO's TUTOR programming language allowed applications such as real-time chat and multi-user graphical games.
For the UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced the EXEC I operating system, and Computer Sciences Corporation developed the EXEC II operating system and delivered it to UNIVAC. EXEC II was ported to the UNIVAC 1108. Later, UNIVAC developed the EXEC 8 operating system for the 1108; it was the basis for operating systems for later members of the family. Like all early mainframe systems, EXEC I and EXEC II were a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers; EXEC 8 supported both batch processing and on-line transaction processing. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BASIC system.
Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages, with no software, not even at the lowest level of the operating system, being written directly in machine language or assembly language; the MCP was the first[citation needed] OS to be written entirely in a high-level language - ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL 60 - although ESPOL had specialized statements for each "syllable"[NB 2] in the B5000 instruction set. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being one of[NB 3] the first commercial implementations of virtual memory. The rewrite of MCP for the B6500 is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.
GE introduced the GE-600 series with the General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS) operating system in 1962. After Honeywell acquired GE's computer business, it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Honeywell expanded the use of the GCOS name to cover all its operating systems in the 1970s, though many of its computers had nothing in common with the earlier GE 600 series and their operating systems were not derived from the original GECOS.
Project MAC at MIT, working with GE and Bell Labs, developed Multics, which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels.
Digital Equipment Corporation developed TOPS-10 for its PDP-10 line of 36-bit computers in 1967. Before the widespread use of Unix, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. Bolt, Beranek, and Newman developed TENEX for a modified PDP-10 that supported demand paging; this was another popular system in the research and ARPANET communities, and was later developed by DEC into TOPS-20.
Scientific Data Systems/Xerox Data Systems developed several operating systems for the Sigma series of computers, such as the Basic Control Monitor (BCM), Batch Processing Monitor (BPM), and Basic Time-Sharing Monitor (BTM). Later, BPM and BTM were succeeded by the Universal Time-Sharing System (UTS); it was designed to provide multi-programming services for online (interactive) user programs in addition to batch-mode production jobs, It was succeeded by the CP-V operating system, which combined UTS with the heavily batch-oriented Xerox Operating System (XOS).
Minicomputers[edit]
Digital Equipment Corporation created several operating systems for its 16-bit PDP-11 machines, including the simple RT-11 system, the time-sharing RSTS operating systems, and the RSX-11 family of real-time operating systems, as well as the VMS system for the 32-bit VAX machines.
Several competitors of Digital Equipment Corporation such as Data General, Hewlett-Packard, and Computer Automation created their own operating systems. One such, "MAX III", was developed for Modular Computer Systems Modcomp II and Modcomp III computers. It was characterised by its target market being the industrial control market. The Fortran libraries included one that enabled access to measurement and control devices.
IBM's key innovation in operating systems in this class (which they call "mid-range"), was their "CPF" for the System/38. This had capability-based addressing, used a machine interface architecture to isolate the application software and most of the operating system from hardware dependencies (including even such details as address size and register size) and included an integrated RDBMS. The succeeding OS/400 for the AS/400 has no files, only objects of different types and these objects persist in very large, flat virtual memory, called a single-level store. i5/OS and later IBM i for the iSeries continue this line of operating system.
The Unix operating system was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s, originally for the PDP-7, and later for the PDP-11. Because it was essentially free in early editions, easily obtainable, and easily modified, it achieved wide acceptance. It also became a requirement within the Bell systems operating companies. Since it was written in the C language, when that language was ported to a new machine architecture, Unix was also able to be ported. This portability permitted it to become the choice for a second generation of minicomputers and the first generation of workstations. By widespread use it exemplified the idea of an operating system that was conceptually the same across various hardware platforms, and later became one of the roots of the free software and open source including GNU, Linux, and the Berkeley Software Distribution. Apple's macOS is also based on Unix via NeXTSTEP[8] and FreeBSD.[9]
The Pick operating system was another operating system available on a wide variety of hardware brands. Commercially released in 1973 its core was a BASIC-like language called Data/BASIC and a SQL-style database manipulation language called ENGLISH. Licensed to a large variety of manufacturers and vendors, by the early 1980s observers saw the Pick operating system as a strong competitor to Unix.[10]
Microcomputers[edit]
Beginning in the mid-1970s, a new class of small computers came onto the marketplace. Featuring 8-bit processors, typically the MOS Technology 6502, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800 or the Zilog Z80, along with rudimentary input and output interfaces and as much RAM as practical, these systems started out as kit-based hobbyist computers but soon evolved into an essential business tool.
Home computers[edit]
While many eight-bit home computers of the 1980s, such as the BBC Micro, Commodore 64, Apple II series, the Atari 8-bit, the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum series and others could load a third-party disk-loading operating system, such as CP/M or GEOS, they were generally used without one. Their built-in operating systems were designed in an era when floppy disk drives were very expensive and not expected to be used by most users, so the standard storage device on most was a tape drive using standard compact cassettes. Most, if not all, of these computers shipped with a built-in BASIC interpreter on ROM, which also served as a crude command line interface, allowing the user to load a separate disk operating system to perform file management commands and load and save to disk. The most popular[citation needed] home computer, the Commodore 64, was a notable exception, as its DOS was on ROM in the disk drive hardware, and the drive was addressed identically to printers, modems, and other external devices.
More elaborate operating systems were not needed in part because most such machines were used for entertainment and education, and seldom used for more serious business or science purposes.
Another reason is that the hardware they used was (largely) fixed and a need for an operating system to abstract away differences was thus not needed. They shipped with minimal amounts of computer memory—4-8 kilobytes was standard on early home computers—as well as 8-bit processors without specialized support circuitry like a MMU or even a dedicated real-time clock. On this hardware, a complex operating system's overhead supporting multiple tasks and users would likely compromise the performance of the machine without really being needed.
Video games and even the available spreadsheet, database and word processors for home computers were mostly self-contained programs that took over the machine completely. Although integrated software existed for these computers, they usually lacked features compared to their standalone equivalents, largely due to memory limitations. Data exchange was mostly performed through standard formats like ASCII text or CSV, or through specialized file conversion programs.
Operating systems in video games and consoles[edit]
Since virtually all video game consoles and arcade cabinets designed and built after 1980 were true digital machines based on microprocessors (unlike the earlier Pong clones and derivatives), some of them carried a minimal form of BIOS or built-in game, such as the ColecoVision, the Sega Master System and the SNK Neo Geo.
Modern-day game consoles and videogames, starting with the PC-Engine, all have a minimal BIOS that also provides some interactive utilities such as memory card management, audio or video CD playback, copy protection and sometimes carry libraries for developers to use etc. Few of these cases, however, would qualify as a true operating system.
The most notable exceptions are probably the Dreamcast game console which includes a minimal BIOS, like the PlayStation, but can load the Windows CE operating system from the game disk allowing easily porting of games from the PC world, and the Xbox game console, which is little more than a disguised Intel-based PC running a secret, modified version of Microsoft Windows in the background. Furthermore, there are Linux versions that will run on a Dreamcast and later game consoles as well.
Long before that, Sony had released a kind of development kit called the Net Yaroze for its first PlayStation platform, which provided a series of programming and developing tools to be used with a normal PC and a specially modified "Black PlayStation" that could be interfaced with a PC and download programs from it. These operations require in general a functional OS on both platforms involved.
In general, it can be said that videogame consoles and arcade coin-operated machines used at most a built-in BIOS during the 1970s, 1980s and most of the 1990s, while from the PlayStation era and beyond they started getting more and more sophisticated, to the point of requiring a generic or custom-built OS for aiding in development and expandability.
Personal computer era[edit]
The development of microprocessors made inexpensive computing available for the small business and hobbyist, which in turn led to the widespread use of interchangeable hardware components using a common interconnection (such as the S-100, SS-50, Apple II, ISA, and PCI buses), and an increasing need for "standard" operating systems to control them. The most important of the early OSes on these machines was Digital Research's CP/M-80 for the 8080 / 8085 / Z-80 CPUs. It was based on several Digital Equipment Corporation operating systems, mostly for the PDP-11 architecture. Microsoft's first operating system, MDOS/MIDAS, was designed along many of the PDP-11 features, but for microprocessor based systems. MS-DOS, or PC DOS when supplied by IBM, was based originally on CP/M-80. Each of these machines had a small boot program in ROM which loaded the OS itself from disk. The BIOS on the IBM-PC class machines was an extension of this idea and has accreted more features and functions in the 20 years since the first IBM-PC was introduced in 1981.
The decreasing cost of display equipment and processors made it practical to provide graphical user interfaces for many operating systems, such as the generic X Window System that is provided with many Unix systems, or other graphical systems such as Microsoft Windows, the Radio Shack Color Computer's OS-9 Level II/MultiVue, Commodore's AmigaOS, Atari TOS, Apple's classic Mac OS, and macOS, or even IBM's OS/2. The original GUI was developed on the Xerox Alto computer system at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the early 1970s and commercialized by many vendors throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
Since the late 1990s, there have been three operating systems in widespread use on personal computers: Microsoft Windows, Apple Inc.'s Mac OS X, and the open source Linux. Since 2005 and Apple's transition to Intel processors, all have been developed mainly on the x86 platform, although Mac OS X retained PowerPC support until 2009 and Linux remains ported to a multitude of architectures including ones such as 68k, PA-RISC, and DEC Alpha, which have been long superseded and out of production, and SPARC and MIPS, which are used in servers or embedded systems but no longer for desktop computers. Other operating systems such as AmigaOS and OS/2 remain in use, if at all, mainly by retrocomputing enthusiasts or for specialized embedded applications.
Mobile operating systems[edit]
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In the early 1990s, Psion released the Psion Series 3 PDA, a small mobile computing device. It supported user-written applications running on an operating system called EPOC. Later versions of EPOC became Symbian, an operating system used for mobile phones from Ericsson, Motorola, and Nokia. In 1996, Palm Computing released the Pilot 1000 and Pilot 5000, running Palm OS. Microsoft Windows CE was the base for PocketPC 2000, renamed Windows Mobile in 2003, which at its peak in 2007 was the most common operating system for smartphones in the U.S.
In 2007 Apple introduced the iPhone and its operating system, iOS, which, like Mac OS X, is based on the Unix-like Darwin. In addition to these underpinnings, it also introduces a powerful and innovative graphic user interface – later also used for the tablet computer iPad. A year later, Android was introduced, based on a modified Linux kernel, and its own graphical user interface, and Microsoft re-entered this market with Windows Phone in 2010, due to be replaced by Windows 10 Mobile in 2015.
In addition to these, a wide range of other mobile operating systems are contending in this area.
Rise of virtualization[edit]
Operating systems originally ran directly on the hardware itself and provided services to applications, but with virtualization, the operating system itself runs under the control of a hypervisor, instead of being in direct control of the hardware.
On mainframes IBM introduced the notion of a virtual machine in 1968 with CP/CMS on the IBM System/360 Model 67, and extended this later in 1972 with Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370) on System/370.
On x86-based personal computers, VMware popularized this technology with their 1999 product, VMware Workstation,[11] and their 2001 VMware GSX Server and VMware ESX Server products.[12] Later, a wide range of products from others, including Xen, KVM and Hyper-V meant that by 2010 it was reported that more than 80 percent of enterprises had a virtualization program or project in place, and that 25 percent of all server workloads would be in a virtual machine.[13]
Over time, the line between virtual machines, monitors, and operating systems was blurred:
Hypervisors grew more complex, gaining their own application programming interface,[14] memory management or file system.[15]
Virtualization becomes a key feature of operating systems, as exemplified by KVM and LXC in Linux, Hyper-V in Windows Server 2008 or HP Integrity Virtual Machines in HP-UX.
In some systems, such as POWER5 and POWER6-based servers from IBM, the hypervisor is no longer optional.[16]
Radically simplified operating systems, such as CoreOS have been designed to run only on virtual systems.[17]
Applications have been re-designed to run directly on a virtual machine monitor.[18]
In many ways, virtual machine software today plays the role formerly held by the operating system, including managing the hardware resources (processor, memory, I/O devices), applying scheduling policies, or allowing system administrators to manage system.
See also[edit]
Computer programming portal
Information technology portal
Charles Babbage Institute
IT History Society
List of operating systems
Timeline of operating systems
History of computer icons
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ CDC used the SCOPE name for disparate operating systems on the upper 3000 series, the lower 3000 series, the 6000 series and the 7600
Jump up ^ A syllable in the B5000 could contain a 10-bit literal, an operand call, a descriptor call or a 10-bit opcode.
Jump up ^ The B5000 was contemporaneous with the Ferranti Atlas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sameer, Shaikh. Complete Computer Hardware Only. PediaPress. pp. 256–257.
Jump up ^ Robert Patrick (January 1987). "General Motors/North American Monitor for the IBM 704 Computer" (PDF). RAND Corporation.
Jump up ^ "Timeline of Computer History: 1956: Software". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
Jump up ^ "A Brief History of Linux".
Jump up ^ Johnston (April 1, 2005). "VSE: A Look at the Past 40 Years". z/Journal. Thomas Communications, Inc. (April/May 2005). Archived from the original on March 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ Chuck Boyer, The 360 Revolution
Jump up ^ "IBM 360/370/3090/390". Lars Poulsen, 26 Oct. 2001, Computer History. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Chris Foresman (19 December 2012). "The legacy of NeXT lives on in OS X".
Jump up ^ "Apple’s Operating System Guru Goes Back to His Roots", Klint Finley, 8 August 2013, wired.com
Jump up ^ Fiedler, Ryan (October 1983). "The Unix Tutorial / Part 3: Unix in the Microcomputer Marketplace". BYTE. p. 132. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "VMware company history". Archived from the original on 2011-04-16.
Jump up ^ "VMware ready to capitalize on hot server market". June 30, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Gartner: 1 in 4 server workloads will be virtual by year-end", Sep 27 2010, Jon Brodkin, Network World
Jump up ^ "VMware API". VMware. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "VMware file system". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "PowerVM Virtualization on IBM System p: Introduction and Configuration". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Snappy Ubuntu challenges CoreOS and Project Atomic on lightweight cloud servers", Dec 10, 2014, Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols, ZDNet.com
Jump up ^ "JRockit's Liquid VM could be the first real Java OS". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
Further reading[edit]
Neal Stephenson (1999). In the Beginning... Was the Command Line. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-380-81593-1.
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Raw data
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Look up raw data in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The two columns to the right of the left-most column in this computerized table are raw data.
Raw data, also known as primary data, is data (e.g., numbers, instrument readings, figures, etc.) collected from a source. If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute, the list of temperature readings for every minute, as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is "raw data". Raw data has not been subjected to processing, "cleaning" by researchers to remove outliers, obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors, or any analysis (e.g., determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result). As well, raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher, analyst or technician. It is also referred to as primary data. Raw data is a relative term (see data), because even once raw data has been "cleaned" and processed by one team of researchers, another team may consider this processed data to be "raw data" for another stage of research. Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey. The term "raw data" can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices, such as hard disk drives (also referred to as "low-level data").
Contents
[hide]
1 Generating data
2 Examples
3 Further reading
4 References
Generating data[edit]
Data has two ways of being created or generated. The first is what is called 'captured data',[1] and is found through purposeful investigation or analysis. The second is called 'exhaust data',[1] and is gathered usually by machines or terminals as a secondary function. For example, cash registers, smartphones, and speedometers serve a main function but may collect data as a secondary task. Exhaustive data is usually too large or of little use to process and becomes 'transient'[1] or thrown away. However, 'derived'[1] data is useful enough in nature to be further processed for use. Examples include smartphone data, traffic data, and hospital data.
Examples[edit]
In computing, raw data may have the following attributes: it may possibly contain human, machine, or instrument errors, it may not be validated; it might be in different (colloquial) formats; uncoded or unformatted; or some entries might be "suspect" (e.g., outliers), requiring confirmation or citation. For example, a data input sheet might contain dates as raw data in many forms: "31st January 1999", "31/01/1999", "31/1/99", "31 Jan", or "today". Once captured, this raw data may be processed stored as a normalized format, perhaps a Julian date, to make it easier for computers and humans to interpret during later processing. Raw data (sometimes colloquially called "sourcey" data or "eggy" data, the latter a reference to the data being "uncooked", that is, "unprocessed", like a raw egg) are the data input to processing. A distinction is made between data and information, to the effect that information is the end product of data processing. Raw data that has undergone processing are sometimes referred to as "cooked" data in a colloquial sense.[dubious – discuss] Although raw data has the potential to be transformed into "information," extraction, organization, analysis and formatting for presentation are required before raw data can be transformed into usable information.
For example, a point-of-sale terminal (POS terminal, a computerized cash register) in a busy supermarket collects huge volumes of raw data each day about customers' purchases. However, this list of grocery items and their prices and the time and date of purchase does not yield much information until it is processed. Once processed and analyzed by a software program or even by a researcher using a pen and paper and a calculator, this raw data may indicate the particular items that each customer buys, when they buy them, and at what price; as well, an analyst or manager could calculate the average total sales per customer or the average expenditure per day of the week by hour. This processed and analyzed data provides information for the manager, that the manager could then use to help her determine, for example, how many cashiers to hire and at what times. Such information could then become data for further processing, for example as part of a predictive marketing campaign. As a result of processing, raw data sometimes ends up being put in a database, which enables the raw data to become accessible for further processing and analysis in any number of different ways.
Tim Berners-Lee (inventor of the World Wide Web) argues that sharing raw data is important for society. Inspired by a post by Rufus Pollock of the Open Knowledge Foundation his call to action is "Raw Data Now", meaning that everyone should demand that governments and businesses share the data they collect as raw data. He points out that "data drives a huge amount of what happens in our lives… because somebody takes the data and does something with it." To Berners-Lee, it is essentially from this sharing of raw data, that advances in science will emerge. Advocates of open data argue that once citizens and civil society organizations have access to data from businesses and governments, it will enable citizens and NGOs to do their own analysis of the data, which can empower people and civil society. For example, a government may claim that its policies are reducing the unemployment rate, but a poverty advocacy group may be able to have its staff econometricians do their own analysis of the raw data, which may lead this group to draw different conclusions about the data set.
Further reading[edit]
Give Us the Data Raw, and Give it to Us Now - the blog post from Rufus Pollock that inspired Tim Berners-Lee
Tim Berners-Lee Gives the Web a New Definition
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kitchin, Rob (2014). The Data Revolution. United States: Sage. p. 6.
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Electron transport chain
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The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. The NADH and succinate generated in the citric acid cycle are oxidized, providing energy to power ATP synthase.
Photosynthetic electron transport chain of the thylakoid membrane.
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP+ to NADPH with transfer of H+ ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD+ and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
Contents
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1 Background
2 In mitochondria
2.1 Mitochondrial redox carriers
2.1.1 Complex I
2.1.2 Complex II
2.1.3 Complex III
2.1.4 Complex IV
2.2 Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation
2.3 Summary
3 In bacteria
3.1 Electron donors
3.2 Dehydrogenases
3.3 Quinone carriers
3.4 Proton pumps
3.5 Cytochrome electron carriers
3.6 Terminal oxidases and reductases
3.7 Electron acceptors
3.8 Summary
4 Photosynthetic
5 Summary
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions.[1] If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP,[2] which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate-level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.[citation needed]
In mitochondria[edit]
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Mitochondrial redox carriers[edit]
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
NADH+H+ → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → H2O ↑ Complex II ↑ Succinate

Complex I[edit]
In Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6.5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH2), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H+) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.[3]
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD+, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH2 in one two-electron step. FMNH2 is then oxidized in two one-electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH2 to an Fe-S cluster, from the Fe-S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free-radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH2. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. [4] As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.[5]
Complex II[edit]
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate-CoQ reductase; EC 1.3.5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
Complex III[edit]
In Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex or CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10.2.2), the Q-cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption/release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH2 at the QO site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water-soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Qi site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H+2e-) oxidations at the Qo site to form one quinone (2H+2e-) at the Qi site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
 QH2 + 2 cytochrome c (FeIII) + 2 H+in → Q + 2 cytochrome c (FeII) + 4 H+out

When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
Complex IV[edit]
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9.3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O2), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation[edit]
Depiction of ATP synthase, the site of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FOF1 ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain.[6] The FO component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.[7] The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the FO turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required.[8] After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.[7] This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD+ and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 component of the complex.[9]
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production.[10] Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2,4-dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.[citation needed]
Summary[edit]
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH2) to a terminal electron acceptor (O2) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.[11]
In bacteria[edit]
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O2 where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
                     Donor Donor Donor ↓ ↓ ↓ dehydrogenase → quinone → bc1 → cytochrome ↓ ↓ oxidase(reductase) oxidase(reductase) ↓ ↓ Acceptor Acceptor

Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
Electron donors[edit]
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock-eater"). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Dehydrogenases[edit]
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, H2 dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.[citation needed]
Quinone carriers[edit]
Quinones are mobile, lipid-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
Proton pumps[edit]
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc1 is similar to mitochondrial bc1 (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochrome electron carriers[edit]
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid-state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.
Terminal oxidases and reductases[edit]
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O2) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc1 complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Electron acceptors[edit]
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.[citation needed]
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen-evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10−4 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard" conditions.[citation needed]
Summary[edit]
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
Photosynthetic[edit]
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O2) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction.
Summary[edit]
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
See also[edit]
CoRR hypothesis
Electron equivalent
Hydrogen hypothesis
Respirasome
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Murray, Robert K.; Daryl K. Granner; Peter A. Mayes; Victor W. Rodwell (2003). Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry. New York, NY: Lange Medical Books/ MgGraw Hill. p. 96. ISBN 0-07-121766-5.
Jump up ^ Karp, Gerald (2008). Cell and Molecular Biology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-470-04217-5.
Jump up ^ Lauren, Biochemistry, Johnson/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611
Jump up ^ Garrett & Grisham, Biochemistry, Brooks/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611
Jump up ^ Garret and Grisham (2016). biochemistry. University of Virginia. p. 687. ISBN 978-1-305-57720-6.
Jump up ^ Jonckheere, An I.; Smeitink, Jan A. M.; Rodenburg, Richard J. T. (2017-03-10). "Mitochondrial ATP synthase: architecture, function and pathology". Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 35 (2): 211–225. doi:10.1007/s10545-011-9382-9. ISSN 0141-8955. PMC 3278611  . PMID 21874297.
^ Jump up to: a b Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. (2012). Biochemistry (5th ed.). Cengage learning. p. 664. ISBN 1-133-10629-3.
Jump up ^ Fillingame, Robert H; Angevine, Christine M; Dmitriev, Oleg Y (2003-11-27). "Mechanics of coupling proton movements to c-ring rotation in ATP synthase". FEBS Letters. 555 (1): 29–34. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(03)01101-3. ISSN 1873-3468.
Jump up ^ Berg, Jeremy M.; Tymoczko, John L.; Stryer, Lubert (2002-01-01). "A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP".
Jump up ^ Cannon, Barbara; Nedergaard, Jan (2004-01-01). "Brown Adipose Tissue: Function and Physiological Significance". Physiological Reviews. 84 (1): 277–359. doi:10.1152/physrev.00015.2003. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 14715917.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002-01-01). "Electron-Transport Chains and Their Proton Pumps".
Fenchel T; King GM; Blackburn TH (September 2006). Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling (2nd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-103455-9.
Lengeler JW (January 1999). Drews G; Schlegel HG, eds. Biology of the Prokaryotes. Blackwell Science. ISBN 978-0-632-05357-5.
Nelson DL; Cox MM (April 2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2.
Nicholls DG; Ferguson SJ (July 2002). Bioenergetics 3. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-518121-1.
Stumm W; Morgan JJ (1996). Aquatic Chemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-51185-4.
Thauer RK; Jungermann K; Decker K (March 1977). "Energy conservation in chemotrophic anaerobic bacteria". Bacteriol Rev. 41 (1): 100–80. PMC 413997  . PMID 860983.
White D. (September 1999). The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512579-5.
Voet D; Voet JG (March 2004). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-58651-7.
Kim HS.; Patel, K; Muldoon-Jacobs, K; Bisht, KS; Aykin-Burns, N; Pennington, JD; Van Der Meer, R; Nguyen, P; et al. (January 2010). "SIRT3 is a mitochondria-localized tumor suppressor required for maintenance of mitochondrial integrity and metabolism during stress". Cancer Cell. 17 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.11.023. PMC 3711519  . PMID 20129246.
External links[edit]
Electron Transport Chain Complex Proteins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Khan Academy, video lecture
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-3 - Complexes with cytochrome b-like domains
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-4 - Bacterial and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidases
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-2 - Photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-78 - Cytochrome PORN renodoxin reductase
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-130 - Electron transfer flavoproteins
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values: سلسلة نقل الإلكترون – Arabic

values: Електрон-транспортна верига – Bulgarian

values: Cadena de transport d'electrons – Catalan

values: Cadena de transporte de electrones – Spanish

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values: Electron transport chain – Simple English

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