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Plagues of Egypt
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Sarajevo Haggadah, from Barcelona, c. 1350
The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: מכות מצרים, Makot Mitzrayim), also called the ten biblical plagues, were ten calamities that, according to the biblical Book of Exodus, God inflicted upon Egypt as a demonstration of power, after which the Pharaoh conceded to Moses' demands to let the enslaved Israelites go into the wilderness to make sacrifices. God repeatedly hardened the Pharaoh's heart to prevent him from consenting until after the tenth plague. The Israelites' eventual departure began the Exodus of the Hebrew people.
The plagues served to contrast the power of the God of Israel with the Egyptian gods, invalidating them.[1] Some commentators have associated several of the plagues with judgment on specific gods associated with the Nile, fertility and natural phenomena.[2] According to Exodus 12:12, all the gods of Egypt would be judged through the tenth and final plague: "On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn of both people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD."
Contents
[hide]
1 Context
2 Biblical narrative
3 Plagues
3.1 1. Water into blood (דָם): Ex. 7:14–24
3.2 2. Frogs (צְּפַרְדֵּעַ): Ex. 7:25–8:15
3.3 3. Lice (כִּנִּים): Ex. 8:16-19
3.4 4. Mixture of wild animals (עָרוֹב): Ex. 8:20-32
3.5 5. Diseased livestock (דֶּבֶר): Ex. 9:1–7
3.6 6. Boils (שְׁחִין): Ex. 9:8–12
3.7 7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire (בָּרָד): Ex. 9:13–35
3.8 8. Locusts (אַרְבֶּה): Ex. 10:1–20
3.9 9. Darkness for three days (חוֹשֶך): Ex. 10:21–29
3.10 10. Death of firstborn (מַכַּת בְּכוֹרוֹת): Ex. 11:1–12:36
4 In the Quran
5 Scholarly interpretation
6 Historicity
6.1 Archaeology
6.2 Natural explanations
7 Artistic representation
7.1 Visual art
7.2 Music
7.3 Literature
7.4 Films
7.5 TV
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Context[edit]
The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold:[3] to answer Pharaoh's taunt, "Who [is] the LORD, that I should obey his voice to let Israel go?",[4] and to indelibly impress the Israelites with God's power as an object lesson for all time, which was also meant to become known "throughout the world".[5][6]
According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened Pharaoh's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could manifest his great power and cause his power to be declared among the nations,[7] so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward.[8] In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were false and powerless.[9] If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they were a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9:15–16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately: "I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you [Pharaoh] and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world."
Biblical narrative[edit]
The plagues seemed to affect "all the land of Egypt",[10] but the children of Israel were unaffected.[11] For the last plague, the Torah indicates that they were only spared from the final plague by sacrificing the Paschal lamb, marking their place directly above their doors with the lamb's blood, and hastily eating the roasted sacrifice together with unleavened bread (now known as Matzoh) which they took from their ovens in haste, as they made ready for the Exodus. The Torah describes God as actually passing through Egypt to kill all firstborn children and cattle, but passing over (hence "Passover") houses which have the sign of lambs' blood on the doorpost.[12][13] It is debated whether it was actually God who came through the streets or one of his angels. Some also think it may be the Holy Spirit. It is most commonly known as the "Angel of Death". The night of this plague, Pharaoh finally relents and sends the Israelites away under their terms.
After the Israelites leave en masse, a departure known as The Exodus, God introduces himself by name and makes an exclusive covenant with the Israelites on the basis of this miraculous deliverance.[14] The Ten Commandments encapsulate the terms of this covenant.[15] Joshua, the successor to Moses, reminds the people of their deliverance through the plagues.[16] According to 1 Samuel, the Philistines also knew of the plagues and feared their author.[17][18] Later, the psalmist sang of these events.[19]
The Torah also relates God's instructions to Moses that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be celebrated yearly on the holiday of Passover (Pesaḥ פסח); the rituals observed on Passover recall the events surrounding the exodus from Egypt.[20] The month of Nisan has become important to the Jews.[21] The Torah additionally cites God's sparing of the Israelite firstborn as a rationale for the commandment of the redemption of the firstborn.[22] This event is also commemorated by the Fast of the Firstborn on the day preceding Passover but which is traditionally not observed because a siyum celebration is held which obviates the need for a fast.
It seems that the celebration of Passover waned from time to time, since other biblical books provide references to revival of the holiday.[13] For example, it was reinstated by Joshua at Gilgal,[23] by Josiah,[24] by Hezekiah[25] and, after the return from the captivity, by Ezra.[26] By the time of the Second Temple it was firmly established in Israel.
Plagues[edit]
The First Plague: Water Is Changed into Blood, James Tissot
The plagues as they appear in the 1984 New International Version of the Book of Exodus are:[27]
1. Water into blood (דָם): Ex. 7:14–24[edit]
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.
—  Exodus 7:17–18
2. Frogs (צְּפַרְדֵּעַ): Ex. 7:25–8:15[edit]
The Second Plague: And Aaron stretched out his hand over the Waters of Egypt and the Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt etching
See also: Va'eira
This is what the great LORD says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.
—  Exodus 8:1–4
3. Lice (כִּנִּים): Ex. 8:16-19[edit]
The Third Plague: Moses, horned (a sign of his encounter with divinity), carries the rod, while Aaron, wearing the miter of a priest, stands behind him. The gnats arise en masse out of the dust from which they were made and attack Pharaoh, seated and crowned, and his retinue (by William de Brailes, collection Walters Art Museum)
"And the LORD said [...] Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." […] When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.
—  Exodus 8:16–17
The Hebrew noun כִּנִּים (kinim) could be translated as lice, gnats, or fleas.[28]
4. Mixture of wild animals (עָרוֹב): Ex. 8:20-32[edit]
The Fourth Plague: The Plague of Flies by James Jacques Joseph Tissot at the Jewish Museum, New York
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ‘arob (עָרוֹב, meaning "mixture" or "swarm") only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the LORD "hardened Pharaoh's heart", and he refused to keep his promise.[29]
The word ‘arob has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters.[29] The root meaning is (ע.ר.ב), meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish interpreters understand the plague as "wild animals" (most likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous arthropods and reptiles),[30] Gesenius along with many Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.[31]
5. Diseased livestock (דֶּבֶר): Ex. 9:1–7[edit]
The Fifth Plague: Livestock Disease (Ex. 9:2-3), by Gustave Doré
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field—on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.
—  Exodus 9:1–3
6. Boils (שְׁחִין): Ex. 9:8–12[edit]
The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland) of 1411
Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land."
—  Exodus 9:8–9
7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire (בָּרָד): Ex. 9:13–35[edit]
The Seventh Plague: John Martin's painting of the plague of hail (1823).
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. […] The LORD sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
—  Exodus 9:13–24
8. Locusts (אַרְבֶּה): Ex. 10:1–20[edit]
The Eighth Plague: The Plague of Locusts, illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible
This is what the LORD, the God of the Jews, says: 'How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it cannot be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians—something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.
—  Exodus 10:3–6
9. Darkness for three days (חוֹשֶך): Ex. 10:21–29[edit]
The Ninth Plague: Darkness by Gustave Doré
Then the LORD said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt—darkness that can be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.
—  Exodus 10:21–23
10. Death of firstborn (מַכַּת בְּכוֹרוֹת): Ex. 11:1–12:36[edit]
Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt by Charles Sprague Pearce (1877), Smithsonian American Art Museum.
This is what the LORD says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt—worse than there has ever been or ever will be again."
—  Exodus 11:4–6
Before this final plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark lamb's blood above their doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass over them and not "suffer the destroyer to come into your houses and smite you" (chapter 12, v. 23).
After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate, believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised". However, as the Israelites left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and sent his army after Moses' people. The Israelites were trapped by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and they were able to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them, the sea closed before they could reach the Israelites.[32]
In the Quran[edit]
In the view of Islam, the plagues were almost identical. It is mentioned in the Quran, specifically in Surah Al-A'raf verse 133 "So We sent on them: the Tuwfan (a calamity causing wholesale death, a flood or a typhoon - Ali, Note 1090 to S. VII.133),[33] the locusts, the Qummal, the frogs, and the blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant, and they were of those people who were criminals".[34][35] The Quran further relates that the plagues included a mighty blast, showers of stones and earthquakes (Ali, Notes 3462-3464 to S. XXIX.40).[33]
Scholarly interpretation[edit]
The Book of Deuteronomy, in reviewing previous events, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60), but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; Deuteronomy 7:19 mentions the plagues of the book of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments, a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28:15–68, verses which mention many of the same afflictions; they are even closer to the curses in the Holiness code (Leviticus 26), since like the Holiness Code they leave room for repentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead to repentance is echoed:
in the prophets (Amos 4:6–12, Ezekiel 20)
in the form of prophetic speech: "Thus says Yahweh"[citation needed]
in the figure of the prophet as divine messenger echoed in the late prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel and in the Deuteronomistic history.
The 6th century prophets refer to the theme of Pharaoh's obstinacy – Isaiah 6:9–13, Jeremiah 5:3, and Ezekiel 3:7–9.[36][not in citation given]
Historicity[edit]
While proponents of biblical archaeology argue that the plague stories are true, a large consensus of historians believe them to be allegorical or inspired by passed-down accounts of disconnected disasters. Some scientists[who?] claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c.1991-1803 BCE)[37] has often put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away, but these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as the fact that its Asiatics are arriving in Egypt rather than leaving, and the likelihood that the "river is blood" phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or may simply be a poetic image of turmoil.[38]
Archaeology[edit]
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Some archaeologists believe the plagues occurred at the ancient city of Pi-Rameses in the Nile Delta, which was the capital of Egypt during the reign of Ramesses II. There is some archaeological material which such archaeologists, for example William F. Albright,[39] have considered to be historical evidence of the ten plagues; for example, an ancient water trough found in El Arish bears hieroglyphic markings detailing a period of darkness. Albright and other Christian archaeologists have claimed that such evidence, as well as careful study of the areas ostensibly travelled by the Israelites after the Exodus, make discounting the biblical account untenable.
Natural explanations[edit]
Some historians have suggested that the plagues are passed-down accounts of several natural disasters, some disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:
Plague 1 — water turned into blood; fish died
Dr. Stephen Pflugmacher, a biologist at the Leibniz Institute for Water Ecology and Inland Fisheries in Berlin believes that rising temperatures could have turned the Nile into a slow-moving, muddy watercourse—conditions favorable for the spread of toxic fresh water algae. As the alga Planktothrix rubescens dies, it turns the water red in a phenomenon known as "Burgundy Blood".
Alternatively, a bloody appearance could be due to an environmental change, such as a drought, which could have contributed to the spread of the Chromatiaceae bacteria which thrive in stagnant, oxygen-deprived water.[40]
Plague 2 — frogs
Any blight on the water that killed fish also would have caused frogs to leave the river and probably die.
Plagues 3 and 4 — biting insects and wild animals
The lack of frogs in the river would have let insect populations, normally kept in check by the frogs, to increase massively. The rotting corpses of fish and frogs would have attracted significantly more insects to the areas near the Nile.
Plagues 5 and 6 — livestock disease and boils
There are biting flies in the region which transmit livestock diseases; a sudden increase in their number could spark epizootics.
Plague 7 — fiery hail
Volcanic eruption, resulting in showers of rock and fire.
Plague 8 — locusts
According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, when they get hungry, a one-ton horde of locusts can eat the same amount of food in one day as 2,500 humans can.[41]
Plague 9 — darkness
The immediate cause of this plague is theorized to be the "hamsin", a south or southwest wind charged with sand and dust, which blows about the spring equinox and at times produces darkness rivaling that of the worst London fogs.[42]
Plague 10 — death of the firstborn
If the last plague indeed selectively tended to affect the firstborn, it could be due to food polluted during the time of darkness, either by locusts or by the black mold Cladosporium. When people emerged after the darkness, the firstborn would be given priority, as was usual, and would consequently be more likely to be affected by any toxin or disease carried by the food. Meanwhile, the Israelites ate food prepared and eaten very quickly which would have made it less likely to be contaminated.[citation needed] However, this does not explain how the firstborn cattle alone also would have perished.
A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time. The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Controversially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which resulted in 1816's Year Without a Summer. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.[citation needed]
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern Jews[who?] believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God's hand was behind them". Indeed, several biblical commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.
In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two-stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.[43]
In an article published in 1996, physician-epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.[44]
Artistic representation[edit]
Visual art[edit]
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.[citation needed]
Music[edit]
Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica's song "Creeping Death" makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.[45]
Literature[edit]
Children's books
Let My People Go! by Tilda Balsley
The 10 Plagues of Egypt by Shoshana Lepon[citation needed]
Films[edit]
The Ten Commandments (1956)
The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971)[46]
Moses (1995)
The Prince of Egypt (1998)[47]
Magnolia (1999)[48]
The Mummy (1999)[49]
The Reaping (2007)[50]
Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014)[51]
Os Dez Mandamentos (2015)[52]
TV[edit]
The Bible (2013 miniseries) - Episode 2 has a scene of these plagues.
Haven - In "A Tale of Two Audreys," the town of Haven is afflicted by almost all of the plagues of Egypt.
A Rugrats Passover
Simpsons Bible Stories
"Family Guy" - In the second season episode "If I'm Dyin', I'm Lyin'", the Griffin family is affected by most of the plagues due to Peter being worshiped like God.
See also[edit]
Aaron's rod
Jochebed
Miriam
Seti I
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Plagues of Egypt, in New Bible Dictionary, second edition. 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8
Jump up ^ Commentary on Exodus 7, The Jewish Study Bible, 2004. Berlin A and Brettler M, eds., Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-529751-2
Jump up ^ The Ten Plagues, Dictionary & Concordance
Jump up ^ Exodus 5:2
Jump up ^ Exodus 9:15–16
Jump up ^ The commentary on Exodus 10:1–2, The Jewish Study Bible, 2004. Berlin A and Brettler M, eds., Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-529751-2
Jump up ^ Ex. 9:14, 16
Jump up ^ Joshua 2:9–11; 9:9; Isaiah 4:8; 6:6
Jump up ^ Ex. 12:12; Nu. 33:4
Jump up ^ Exodus 7:21, 8:2, 8:16
Jump up ^ Ex. 8:22, 9:4,11,26, 10:23
Jump up ^ Passover, New Bible Dictionary, second edition. 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8
^ Jump up to: a b Wigoder G, Paul S (1986). Viviano B, Stern E, ed. Passover, Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible. G.G. Jerusalem Publishing House Ltd. and Reader's Digest Association, Inc. ISBN 0-89577-407-0.
Jump up ^ Moses, The World Book Encyclopedia, 1998. World Book Incorporated ISBN 0-7166-0098-6
Jump up ^ Exodus 20
Jump up ^ Joshua 24
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 4:7–9
Jump up ^ Plagues of Egypt, New Bible Dictionary, second edition. 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8
Jump up ^ Psalm 78:43–51
Jump up ^ Exodus 12, Leviticus 23, Numbers 9, Deuteronomy 16
Jump up ^ http://www.newscast-pratyaksha.com/english/the-passover-israel-part-13/
Jump up ^ Exodus 13:11–16
Jump up ^ Joshua 5:0–12
Jump up ^ II Kings 23:21–23
Jump up ^ II Chronicles 30:5
Jump up ^ Ezra 6:9
Jump up ^ The Ten Plagues, in Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible, 1986. Wigoder G, Paul S, Viviano B, Stern E, eds., G.G. Jerusalem Publishing House Ltd. And Reader's Digest Association, Inc. ISBN 0-89577-407-0
Jump up ^ Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for ken (Strong's 3654)". Blue Letter Bible. 1996–2012. February 4, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Aryeh Kaplan, The Living Torah, note on 8:17, as regards the various Midrashic and Rabbinic traditions here.
Jump up ^ Exodus Rabbah 11:2, among others.
Jump up ^ Gesenius's Lexicon, עָרוֹב
Jump up ^ Exodus 14:8
^ Jump up to: a b The Holy Qur-an – Text, Translation and Commentary, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, SH. Muhammad Ashraf, Kashmiri Bazar – Lahore (Pakistan), 1969.
Jump up ^ "Quran - Surah Al-A'raf - Maududi's Translation, Commentary and Summary".
Jump up ^ Al-A'raf about " Fir`awn and His People suffer Years of Drought " Qur'an Tafsir Ibn Qathir
Jump up ^ John Van Seters, "The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary", Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, p. 114 ISBN 0567080889.
Jump up ^ Willems 2010, p. 83.
Jump up ^ Enmarch 2011, p. 173-175.
Jump up ^ William Dever, "What Remains of the House that Albright Built?" The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1993)
Jump up ^ "Pappas, Stephanie. "End Times? It is for a blood-red Texas lake", NBC News, 1 August 2011". MSNBC. January 8, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chandler, Adam (March 3, 2013). "Estes, Adam Clark. "With Passover Approaching, a Plague of Locusts Descends Upon Egypt", ''The Atlantic Wire'', 3 March 2013". Theatlanticwire.com. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bechtel, Florentine. "Plagues of Egypt." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 13 Jul. 2013". Newadvent.org. June 1, 1911. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, by Siro Igino Trevisanato : Georgia Press LLC, 2005
Jump up ^ Marr JS, Malloy CD (1996). "An epidemiologic analysis of the ten plagues of Egypt". Caduceus (Springfield, Ill.). 12 (1): 7–24. PMID 8673614.
Jump up ^ Donna Leon (2011), Handel's Bestiary: In Search of Animals in Handel's Operas, illustrated by Michael Sowa (illustrated ed.), Grove Press, ISBN 978-0802195616
Jump up ^ "The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) – Did You Know?". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012. Dr. Phibes murders were inspired by the 10 plagues of Egypt found in the Old Testament
Jump up ^ "The Prince of Egypt". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "FAQ for Magnolia (1999)". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Sommers, Stephen (1999-05-07), The Mummy, Brendan Fraser, Rachel Weisz, John Hannah, retrieved 2018-04-04
Jump up ^ "The Reaping". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Exodus: Gods and Kings". imdb.com. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gomes, Marta (March 17, 2015). "Tudo pronto para a estreia de "Os Dez Mandamentos"". Notícias do dia (Grupo RIC). Retrieved March 21, 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Enmarch, Roland (2011). "The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All". In Collier, M.; Snape, S. Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (PDF). Rutherford. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2011.
Levinson, Hermann and Anna, Zur Biologie der zehn biblischen Plagen, DGaaE Nachrichten 22 (2008), 83–102 (in German)
Willems, Harco (2010). "The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. A Companion to Ancient Egypt. 1. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444320060.
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Latrodectus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Latrodectus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Theridiidae
Genus: Latrodectus
Walckenaer, 1805[1]
Species
31 described species,[2] estimated 65 species living[citation needed]
Latrodectus is a genus of spiders in the family Theridiidae, most of which are commonly known as widow spiders. The genus contains 31 recognized species[2] distributed worldwide, including the North American black widows (L. mactans, L. hesperus, and L. variolus), the button spiders of Africa, and the Australian redback spider. Species vary widely in size. In most cases, the females are dark-coloured and readily identifiable by reddish markings on the abdomen, which are often (but not always) hourglass-shaped.
The venomous bite of these spiders is considered particularly dangerous because of the neurotoxin latrotoxin, which causes the condition latrodectism, both named after the genus. The female black widow has unusually large venom glands and its bite can be particularly harmful to humans. However, despite the genus' notoriety, Latrodectus bites are rarely fatal. Only female bites are dangerous to humans.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Behavior
3 Taxonomy
3.1 Species
4 Distribution
5 Bite
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Description[edit]
Female widow spiders are typically dark brown or a shiny black in colour when they are full grown, usually exhibiting a red or orange hourglass on the ventral surface (underside) of the abdomen; some may have a pair of red spots or have no marking at all. The male widow spiders often exhibit various red or red and white markings on the dorsal surface (upper side) of the abdomen, ranging from a single stripe to bars or spots. Females of a few species are paler brown and some have no bright markings. The bodies of black widow spiders range from 3–10 millimetres (0.12–0.39 in) in size; some females can measure 13 millimetres (0.51 in) in their body length.[3]
Behavior[edit]
An atypical black widow spider, with multiple red spots on her back, and vaguely yellow stripes on her legs.
The prevalence of sexual cannibalism, a behavior in which the female eats the male after mating, has inspired the common name "widow spiders".[4] This behaviour may promote the survival odds of the offspring;[5] however, females of some species only rarely show this behaviour, and much of the documented evidence for sexual cannibalism has been observed in laboratory cages where the males could not escape. Male black widow spiders tend to select their mates by determining if the female has eaten already to avoid being eaten themselves. They are able to tell if the female has fed by sensing chemicals in the web.[6][7]
Like other members of the family Theridiidae, widow spiders construct a web of irregular, tangled, sticky silken fibres. Black widow spiders prefer to nest near the ground in dark and undisturbed areas, usually in small holes produced by animals, or around construction openings or wood piles. Indoor nests are in dark, undisturbed places as well such as under desks or furniture or in a basement.[8] The spider very frequently hangs upside down near the centre of its web and waits for insects to blunder in and get stuck. Then, before the insect can extricate itself, the spider rushes over to bite it and wrap it in silk. To feed, it uses its fangs to inject digestive enzymes, liquefying the prey's internal organs.[9] Their prey consists of small insects such as flies, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars.[9] If the spider perceives a threat, it quickly lets itself down to the ground on a safety line of silk. As with other web-weavers, these spiders have very poor eyesight and depend on vibrations reaching them through their webs to find trapped prey or warn them of larger threats. When a widow spider is trapped, it is unlikely to bite, preferring to play dead or flick silk at the potential threat; bites are the result of continual harassment.[10] While some species are more aggressive, most are not; many injuries to humans are due to defensive bites delivered when a spider gets unintentionally squeezed or pinched.
The ultimate tensile strength and other physical properties of Latrodectus hesperus (western black widow) silk were found to be similar to the properties of silk from orb-weaving spiders that had been tested in other studies. The tensile strength for the three kinds of silk measured in the Blackledge study was about 1,000 MPa. The ultimate strength reported in a previous study for Nephila edulis was 1,290 ± 160 MPa.[11] The tensile strength of spider silk is comparable to that of steel wire of the same thickness.[12][not in citation given] However, as the density of steel is about six times that of silk,[13] silk is correspondingly stronger than steel wire of the same weight.
Spiders of the genus Steatoda (also of the Theridiidae family) are often mistaken for widow spiders, and are known as "false widow spiders"; they are significantly less harmful to humans.
Taxonomy[edit]
Male L. elegans from Japan
L. hesperus hair and markings
L. hesperus profile
Ventral side of a L. geometricus displaying the hourglass marking
Dorsal side of a L. geometricus in Colorado, US
L. hesperus with egg sac
L. tredecimguttatus (female swollen with eggs)
The genus Latrodectus was erected by Walckenaer in 1805, for the species Latrodectus tredecimguttatus and Latrodectus mactans.[1][14] Arachnologist Herbert Walter Levi revised the genus in 1959, studying the female sexual organs and noting their similarity across described species. He concluded the colour variations were variable across the world and were not sufficient to warrant species status, and reclassified the redback and several other species as subspecies of the black widow spider.[15]
Levi also noted that study of the genus had been contentious; in 1902, both F.P Cambridge and Friedrich Dahl had revised the genus, with each criticising the other. Cambridge questioned Dahl's separating species on what he considered minor anatomical details, and the latter dismissed the former as an "ignoramus".[15]
Species[edit]
As of July 2017[update], the World Spider Catalog accepted the following species:[1]
Latrodectus antheratus (Badcock, 1932) – Paraguay, Argentina
Latrodectus apicalis Butler, 1877 – Galapagos Is.
Latrodectus bishopi Kaston, 1938 – US
Latrodectus cinctus Blackwall, 1865 – Cape Verde Is., Africa, Kuwait, Iran
Latrodectus corallinus Abalos, 1980 – Argentina
Latrodectus curacaviensis (Müller, 1776) – Lesser Antilles, South America
Latrodectus dahli Levi, 1959 – Morocco to Central Asia
Latrodectus diaguita Carcavallo, 1960 – Argentina
Latrodectus elegans Thorell, 1898 – India, Myanmar, China, Japan
Latrodectus erythromelas Schmidt & Klaas, 1991 – India, Sri Lanka
Latrodectus geometricus C. L. Koch, 1841 – Cosmopolitan
Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 – Southeast Asia to Australia, New Zealand
Latrodectus hesperus Chamberlin & Ivie, 1935 – North America, Israel
Latrodectus hystrix Simon, 1890 – Yemen, Socotra
Latrodectus indistinctus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 – Namibia, South Africa
Latrodectus karrooensis Smithers, 1944 – South Africa
Latrodectus katipo Powell, 1871 – New Zealand
Latrodectus lilianae Melic, 2000 – Spain, Algeria
Latrodectus mactans (Fabricius, 1775) – probably native to North America only (introduced elsewhere)
Latrodectus menavodi Vinson, 1863 – Madagascar, Comoro Is., Aldabra
Latrodectus mirabilis (Holmberg, 1876) – Argentina
Latrodectus obscurior Dahl, 1902 – Cape Verde Is., Madagascar
Latrodectus pallidus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1872 – Cape Verde Is., Libya to Central Asia
Latrodectus quartus Abalos, 1980 – Argentina
Latrodectus renivulvatus Dahl, 1902 – Africa, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq
Latrodectus revivensis Shulov, 1948 – Israel
Latrodectus rhodesiensis Mackay, 1972 – Southern Africa
Latrodectus thoracicus Nicolet, 1849 – Chile
Latrodectus tredecimguttatus (Rossi, 1790) (type species) – Mediterranean to China
Latrodectus variegatus Nicolet, 1849 – Chile, Argentina
Latrodectus variolus Walckenaer, 1837 – US, Canada
Distribution[edit]
Widow spiders can be found on every continent of the world except Antarctica. In North America, the black widows commonly known as southern (Latrodectus mactans), western (Latrodectus hesperus), and northern (Latrodectus variolus) can be found in the United States, as well as parts of southern Canada – particularly in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, as can the "gray" or "brown widow spiders" (Latrodectus geometricus) and the "red widow spiders" (Latrodectus bishopi).[16] The blue mud dauber (Chalybion californicum) is a wasp that is the primary predator of black widow spiders.[17]
The most prevalent species occurring in Australia is commonly called the redback (Latrodectus hasselti).
Bite[edit]
Due to the presence of latrotoxin in their venom, black widow bites are potentially dangerous and may result in systemic effects (latrodectism) including severe muscle pain, abdominal cramps, hyperhidrosis, tachycardia, and muscle spasms.[18] Symptoms usually last for 3–7 days, but may persist for several weeks.[19]
Each year, about 2,200 people report being bitten by a black widow, but most recover within 24 hours with medical treatment (male spiders produce the toxins to help with their own hunting, but they make such a diluted version that they are not harmful to most people). Also, many people who are bitten develop few symptoms since the spider may not inject its venom. Black widows are not especially aggressive spiders, and they rarely bite humans unless startled or otherwise threatened.[20]
Contrary to popular belief, most people who are bitten suffer no serious damage, let alone death. Fatal bites were reported in the early-20th century mostly with Latrodectus tredecimguttatus, the Mediterranean black widow.[21]
Since the venom is not likely to be life-threatening, antivenom has been used as pain relief and not to save lives.[22] However, a study demonstrated that standardized pain medication, when combined with either antivenom or a placebo, had similar improvements in pain and resolution of symptoms.[22]
See also[edit]
List of spiders associated with cutaneous reactions
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Gen. Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805", World Spider Catalog, Natural History Museum Bern, retrieved 2016-01-28
^ Jump up to: a b "Species list for Latrodectus". World Spider Catalog. Natural History Museum Bern. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
Jump up ^ "Black Widow Spiders". Orkin Pest Control. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Breene, R. G.; Sweet, M. H. (1985). "Evidence of insemination of multiple females by the male Black Widow Spider, Latrodectus mactans (Araneae, Theridiidae)" (PDF). The Journal of Arachnology. 13 (3): 331–335.
Jump up ^ "Male spiders let females eat them for kids' sake: Study". livescience. 23 December 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Johnson, J. Chadwick; Trubl, Patricia; Blackmore, Valerie; Miles, Lindsay (August 2011). "Male black widows court well-fed females more than starved females: silken cues indicate sexual cannibalism risk". Animal Behaviour. 82 (2): 383–390. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.05.018.
Jump up ^ Baruffaldi, Luciana; Andrade, Maydianne C.B. (April 2015). "Contact pheromones mediate male preference in black widow spiders: avoidance of hungry sexual cannibals?". Animal Behaviour. 102: 25–32. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.01.007.
Jump up ^ "Black Widow Spider - Facts, Bite & Habitat Information". Animal Corner. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Black Widow Spiders". National Geographic. 10 September 2010. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Nelsen, David; Kelln, Wayne; Hayes, William. "Poke but don't pinch: risk assessment and venom metering in the western black widow spider, Latrodectus hesperus". Animal Behaviour. 89: 107–114. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.019. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Blackledge, T. A.; Swindeman, John E.; Hayashi, Cheryl Y. (15 May 2005). "Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 208 (10): 1937–1949. doi:10.1242/jeb.01597.
Jump up ^ "Astm a36". OnlineMetals.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Elices, Manuel; Guinea, Gustavo V.; Pérez-Rigueiro, José; Plaza, Gustavo R.; et al. (2005). "Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk Fibers". JOM. 57 (2): 60–66. Bibcode:2005JOM....57b..60E. doi:10.1007/s11837-005-0218-7. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Walckenaer, C.A. (1805), Tableau des aranéides ou caractères essentiels des tribus, genres, familles et races que renferme le genre Aranea de Linné, avec la désignation des espèces comprises dans chacune de ces divisions, Paris: Dentu , pp. 81–82
^ Jump up to: a b Levi, Herbert W. (1959). "The Spider Genus Latrodectus (Araneae, Theridiidae)". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 78 (1): 7–43. JSTOR 3223799. doi:10.2307/3223799.
Jump up ^ (Preston-Malfham, 1998).
Jump up ^ Drees, Bastiaan M.; Jackman, John A. (1999). "Mud Daubers". Field Guide to Texas Insects. Gulf Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87719-263-3. Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Ushkaryov, YA; Rohou, A; Sugita, S (2008). "alpha-Latrotoxin and its receptors". Handbook of experimental pharmacology. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 184 (184): 171–206. ISBN 978-3-540-74804-5. PMC 2519134  . PMID 18064415. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74805-2_7.
Jump up ^ Peterson, ME (November 2006). "Black widow spider envenomation". Clinical techniques in small animal practice. 21 (4): 187–90. PMID 17265903. doi:10.1053/j.ctsap.2006.10.003.
Jump up ^ Why Black Widow Spider Venom Is So Potent. By Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News January 6, 2015
Jump up ^ Bettini, S (1964). "Epidemiology of latrodectism". Toxicon. 2 (2): 93–102. PMID 14301291. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(64)90009-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Isbister, Geoffrey K.; Page, Colin B.; Buckley, Nicholas A.; Fatovich, Daniel M.; Pascu, Ovidiu; MacDonald, Stephen P.J.; Calver, Leonie A.; Brown, Simon G.A. (2014). "Randomized Controlled Trial of Intravenous Antivenom Versus Placebo for Latrodectism: The Second Redback Antivenom Evaluation (RAVE-II) Study". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 64: 620–8.e2. PMID 24999282. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2014.06.006. (Subscription required (help)).
Further reading[edit]
Insects and Spiders. New York: St. Remy Media Inc. / Discovery Books. 2000. p. 35.
Freeman, Scott (2003). Biological Science. Prentice-Hall.
Hillyard, Paul (1994). The Book of Spiders. New York: Random House, Inc. pp. 47–50.
Hillyard, Paul (1994). The Book of the Spiders. New York: Avon Books. pp. 22–35.
Martin, Louise (1988). Black Widow Spiders. Rourke Enterprises, Inc. pp. 18–20.
Preston-Malfham, Ken (1998). Spiders. Edison, New Jersey: Chartwell Books. p. 40.
"Arthropod". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. 2004.
Abalos, J. W. (1962). "The egg-sac in the Identification of Species of Latrodectus (Black-Widow Spiders)" (PDF). Retrieved September 26, 2013.
Levi, H. W.; McCrone, J. D. (1964). "North American Widow Spiders of the Latrodectus curacaviensis Group".
External links[edit]
Media related to Latrodectus at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Latrodectus at Wikispecies
Tree of Life: Latrodectus
Black Widow Spider: Large format photographs and information
Description of crossing experiments between various Latrodectus species
widow spider parasitoids on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q385932
ADW: Latrodectus
BugGuide: 1999
GBIF: 2157920
iNaturalist: 47370
ITIS: 848644
NCBI: 6923
WSC: urn:lsid:nmbe.ch:spidersp:007816
World Spider Catalog: 00702
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latrodectus&oldid=802064457"
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Patrick Murray (actor)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately.
Find sources: "Patrick Murray" actor – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Patrick Murray
Born
(1956-12-17) 17 December 1956 (age 61)
Greenwich, London, England
Occupation
Actor
Years active
1973–2003, 2013–present
Patrick Murray (born 17 December 1956) is a retired English screen actor notable for his role as Mickey Pearce in the sitcom Only Fools and Horses.
Born in London to an Irish father and Spanish mother, he was educated at St. Frances Cabrini primary school and St. Thomas the Apostle College. Murray has appeared in starring and supporting roles in numerous films and television programmes. He also became well known for his appearances in Television commercials for the Italian home appliance company Zanussi. Murray is a staunch supporter of his local league football club Millwall F.C., often being recognised whilst sitting in the stands. In his later years, he was a controller at a mini-cab office in Catford.[citation needed]
Contents
1 Selected filmography
2 Television
3 References
4 External links
Selected filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1977 Scum Dougan Television play
1978 The Class of Miss MacMichael Boysie
1979 Scum Dougan
Quadrophenia Des
1980 Breaking Glass Injured boy
Keep it in the Family Blackie Television series - Episode: Games People Play
1983 Curse of the Pink Panther Bellboy
1989 The Firm Nunk
Television[edit]
Only Fools and Horses (1983–2003)
Endeavour (2015)
References[edit]
"Only Fools and Horses: Where are they now?". The Telegraph. 2014. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2017-11-11.
Hill, Patrick (2017-09-17). "Only Fools and Horses star's heartbreak as Thai wife banned from the UK". mirror. Retrieved 2017-11-11.
"Patrick Murray". LockerDome. Retrieved 2017-11-11.
External links[edit]
Patrick Murray on IMDb

This article about an English television actor or actress is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patrick_Murray_(actor)&oldid=854703172"
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