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Three-strikes law
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This article is about the criminal justice law. For Internet disconnection policy, see Graduated response. For other uses of the term "Three Strikes", see Three Strikes (disambiguation).
In the United States, habitual offender laws[1] (commonly referred to as three-strikes laws) were first implemented on March 7, 1994[2] and are part of the United States Justice Department's Anti-Violence Strategy.[3][4] These laws require a person guilty of committing both a severe violent felony and two other previous convictions to serve a mandatory life sentence in prison.[5][6] The purpose of the laws is to drastically increase the punishment of those convicted of more than two serious crimes.[2]
Twenty-eight states have some form of a "three-strikes" law. A person accused under such laws is referred to in a few states (notably Connecticut and Kansas) as a "persistent offender", while Missouri uses the unique term "prior and persistent offender". In most jurisdictions, only crimes at the felony level qualify as serious offenses; however, misdemeanor offenses can qualify for application of the three-strikes law in California, whose harsh application has been the subject of controversy.
The three-strikes law significantly increases the prison sentences of persons convicted of a felony who have been previously convicted of two or more violent crimes or serious felonies, and limits the ability of these offenders to receive a punishment other than a life sentence.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Enactment by states
3 Application
4 Effects
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders (versus first-time offenders who commit the same crime) is nothing new, as judges often take into consideration prior offenses when sentencing. However, there is a more recent history of mandatory prison sentences for repeat offenders.[7] For example, New York State had a long-standing Persistent Felony Offender law dating back to the early 20th century[8] (partially ruled unconstitutional in 2010,[9][10] but reaffirmed en banc shortly after[11][12]). But such sentences were not compulsory in each case, and judges had much more discretion as to what term of incarceration should be imposed.
The first true "three-strikes" law was passed in 1993, when Washington voters approved Initiative 593. California passed its own in 1994, when their voters passed Proposition 184[13] by an overwhelming majority, with 72% in favor and 28% against. The initiative proposed to the voters had the title of Three Strikes and You're Out, referring to de facto life imprisonment after being convicted of three violent or serious felonies which are listed under California Penal Code section 1192.7.[14]
The concept swiftly spread to other states, but none of them chose to adopt a law as sweeping as California's. By 2004, twenty-six states and the federal government had laws that satisfy the general criteria for designation as "three-strikes" statutes—namely, that a third felony conviction brings a sentence of 20 to life where 20 years must be served before becoming parole eligible. After the hype leading to the institution of these laws across the country, it soon became apparent that they were not bringing the results the public expected. Data shows that the laws didn't necessarily reduce violent crime, but instead, in states such as California where a "strike" did not have to be a violent felony, put away more "criminals" for non-violent and petty crimes, dramatically raising the prison population.[15] This led to the drastic reduction of the power of the Three-Strikes Law in California in 2012 by approval of Proposition 36.
Enactment by states[edit]
The following states have enacted three-strikes laws:
New York has employed a habitual felon statute since 1797.[16]
Texas has had a three-strikes with mandatory life sentence since at least 1952.[17]
In Rummel v. Estelle (1980), the US Supreme Court upheld Texas' statute, which arose from a case involving a refusal to repay $120.75 paid for air conditioning repair that was, depending on the source cited, either considered unsatisfactory[18] or not performed at all,[19] where the defendant had been convicted of two prior felony convictions, and where the total amount involved from all three felonies was around $230.[20][21]
In 1993: Washington
In 1994: California,[22] Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, New Mexico, North Carolina, Virginia, Louisiana, Wisconsin, Tennessee, and Georgia[23]
In 1995: Arkansas, Florida, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Utah, and Vermont[24]
In 2006: Arizona
In 2012: Massachusetts[25]
Application[edit]
The exact application of the three-strikes laws varies considerably from state to state, but the laws call for life sentences for at least 25 years on their third strike.
Most states require one or more of the three felony convictions to be for violent crimes in order for the mandatory sentence to be pronounced. Crimes that fall under the category of "violent" include: murder, kidnapping, sexual abuse, rape, aggravated robbery, and aggravated assault.[26]
Some states include additional, lesser offenses that one would not normally see as violent.[27] For example, the list of crimes that count as serious or violent in the state of California is much longer than that of other states, and consists of many lesser offenses that include: firearm violations, burglary, simple robbery, arson, and providing hard drugs to a minor, and drug possession.[28] As another example, Texas does not require any of the three felony convictions to be violent, but specifically excludes certain "state jail felonies" from being counted for enhancement purposes.[29]
One application of the Three- strikes Law was the Leonardo Andrade Case in California that took place in 2009. In this case, Leandro Andrade attempted to rob $153 in videotapes from two San Bernardino K-Mart stores. He was charged under California's Three- strikes Law because of his criminal history concerning drugs and other burglaries. Because of his past criminal records, he was sentenced 50 years in prison with no parole after this last burglary of K- Mart. Although this sentencing was disputed by Erwin Chemerinsky, who represented Andrade, as cruel and unusual punishment under the 8th Amendment, the Supreme Court ruled in support for the life sentencing.[30]
In 1995, Sioux City, Iowa native Tommy Lee Farmer, a professional criminal who had served 43 years in prison for murder and armed robbery was the first person in the United States to be convicted under the Three-Strikes Law when he was sentenced to life in prison for an attempted robbery at an eastern Iowa convenience store. The sentencing was considered so significant that President Bill Clinton interrupted a vacation to make a press statement about it.[31]
Another example of the three-strikes law involves Timothy L. Tyler who, in 1992 at age 24, was sentenced to life in prison without parole when his third conviction (a federal offense) triggered the federal three-strikes law, even though his two prior convictions were not considered violent, and neither conviction resulted in any prison time served.
Effects[edit]
Some states, such as California, have seen dramatic drops in their crime rates since the enactment of the Three- Strikes Law. In 2011, Los Angeles, California reported crime had decreased by half of the current amount since 1994, which is the same year the Three- Strikes Law was put into place. Although this decrease in crime might be attributed to the enactment of stricter sentences, Los Angeles officials speculate the drop in crime might also be related to better relationships within the community and better crime- predicting tools.[32]
In 2004, The Effect of Three- Strikes Legislation on Serious Crime in California study analyzed the effect of the Three- Strikes legislation as a means of deterrence and incapacitation. The study found that the Three- Strikes Law did not have a very significant effect on deterrence of crime, but also that this[33] ineffectiveness may be due to the diminishing marginal returns associated with having pre-existing repeat offender laws in place.[34]
A study, Does Three Strikes Deter? A Non-Parametric Estimation, published by researches at George Mason University found that arrest rates in California were up to 20% lower for the group of offenders convicted of two-strike eligible offenses, compared to those convicted of one-strike eligible offenses. The study concluded that the three-strikes policy was deterring recidivists from committing crimes.[35]
A study written by Robert Parker, director of the Presley Center for Crime and Justice Studies at UC Riverside, states that, violent crime began falling almost two years before California's three-strikes law was enacted in 1994. The study argues that the decrease in crime is linked to lower alcohol consumption and unemployment.[36]
A 2007 study from the Vera Institute of Justice in New York examined the effectiveness of incapacitation under all forms of sentencing. The study estimated that if US incarceration rates were increased by 10 per cent, the crime rate would decrease by at least 2%. However, this action would be extremely costly to implement.[37]
Another study, I'd rather be Hanged for a Sheep than a Lamb: The Unintended Consequences of 'Three-Strikes' Laws, released by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that Three-strikes Laws discourages criminals from committing misdemeanors in fear of getting sentenced to life in prison. Although this deters crime and contributes to lower crime rates, the laws also have the possibility to push previously convicted criminals to commit more serious offenses. The study's author argues that this is so because under such laws, felons realize that they could face a long jail sentence for their next crime, and therefore they have little to lose by committing serious crimes rather than minor offenses. Through these findings, the study weighs both the pros and cons for the law.[38]
A 2015 study found that three-strikes laws were associated with a 33% increase in the risk of fatal assaults on law enforcement officers.[39]
See also[edit]
10-20-Life
Armed Career Criminal Act
Baumes law, 1926 four strike law
Deterrence
Habitual offender laws, a comparison of similar laws in several countries
HADOPI law
Incapacitation (penology)
Indefinite prison sentence
Mandatory sentencing
One strike, you're out
Prison-industrial complex
Recidivism
Stanford Law School Criminal Defense Clinic
United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines
References[edit]
Jump up ^ White, Ahmed A. (Spring 2006). "The Juridical Structure Of Habitual Offender Laws And The Jurisprudence Of Authoritarian Social Control". The University of Toledo Law Review. 37 (3): 705.
^ Jump up to: a b "Three Strikes Law - A General Summary". www.sandiegocounty.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Anti-Violence Strategy | USAO | Department of Justice". www.justice.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ https://www.justice.gov/usam/criminal-resource-manual-1032-sentencing-enhancement-three-strikes-law
Jump up ^ "1032. Sentencing Enhancement—"Three Strikes" Law | USAM | Department of Justice". www.justice.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ Meese, Edwin (1994-01-01). "Three-Strikes Laws Punish and Protect". Federal Sentencing Reporter. 7 (2): 58–60. doi:10.2307/20639746.
Jump up ^ Zimring, Franklin E.; Hawkins, Gordon; Kamin, Sam (2001). Punishment and Democracy: Three Strikes and You're Out in California. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-513686-1.
Jump up ^ Katkin, Daniel (1971–1972). "Habitual Offender Laws: A Reconsideration". Buffalo Law Review. 21 (3): 99–120. Retrieved May 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ Portalatin v. Graham , 478 F.Supp.2d 69 (E.D.N.Y. 2007).
Jump up ^ Bessler v. Walsh , 601 F.3d 163 (2nd Cir 2010).
Jump up ^ Clarke, Matt (2015-03-15). "Second Circuit: New York's Persistent Felony Offender Statute Held Constitutional in En Banc Ruling". Prison Legal News.
Jump up ^ Portalatin v. Graham , 624 F.3d 69 (2d Cir 2010).
Jump up ^ proposition 184 at Ballotpedia
Jump up ^ The substantive provisions of Proposition 184 are codified in California Penal Code Sections 667(e)(2)(A)(ii) and 1170.12(c)(2)(A)(ii).
Jump up ^ Stolzenberg, Lisa; Stewart J. D'Alessio (1997). ""Three Strikes and You're Out": The Impact of California's New Mandatory Sentencing Law on Serious Crime Rates" (PDF). Crime and Delinquency. 43 (4): 457–69. doi:10.1177/0011128797043004004. Retrieved March 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Arrigo, Bruce A. (2014). Encyclopedia of Criminal Justice Ethics.
Jump up ^ Spencer v. Texas , 385 U.S. 554 (1967) (“Article 63 provides: "Whoever shall have been three times convicted of a felony less than capital shall on such third conviction be imprisoned for life in the penitentiary."”).
Jump up ^ Brauchli, Christopher (7 August 2009). "Legal Absurdities". CounterPunch.
Jump up ^ FindLaw | Cases and Codes
Jump up ^ Rummel was released a few months later, after successfully challenging his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel and pleading guilty in a subsequent plea bargain.Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277 Footnote 8, 28 June 1983
Jump up ^ Texas would later amend its Penal Code to remove the mandatory life requirement for a habitual offender, changing the sentence to 25-99 years or life Texas Penal Code Section 12.42(d).
Jump up ^ Brown, Brian; Jolivette, Greg (October 2005). "A Primer: Three Strikes – The Impact After More Than a Decade". California Legislative Analyst's Office. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Mike. "States That Have Some Form of Three-Strikes Law". Retrieved May 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ Austin, James (2000). "Three Strikes and You're Out: The Implementation and Impart of Strike Laws" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Glen Johnson; Brian R. Ballou (August 2, 2012). "Deval Patrick signs repeat offender crime bill in private State House ceremony". The Boston Globe. Retrieved October 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ California, State of. "Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation". www.cdcr.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ Marvell, Thomas B.; Carlisle E. Moody (2001). "The Lethal Effects of the Three Strikes Laws". The Journal of Legal Studies. 3. (1): 89. Retrieved May 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Males, Mike; Dan Macallair (1999). "Striking Out: The Failure of California's "Three-Strikes You're Out" Law". Stanford Law and Policy Review. 11 (1): 65. Retrieved May 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Texas Penal Code Section 12.42(d)
Jump up ^ "Cases Show Disparity Of California's 3 Strikes Law". NPR.org. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ Butterfield, Fox (11 September 1995). "In for Life: The Three-Strikes Law – A special report.; First Federal 3-Strikes Conviction Ends a Criminal's 25-Year Career". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "L.A.'s Homicide Rate Lowest In Four Decades". NPR.org. Retrieved 2017-05-11.
Jump up ^ Worrall, John L. (2004). "The Effect of Three-Strikes Legislation on Serious Crime in California". Journal of Criminal Justice. 32 (4): 283–96. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.04.001.
Jump up ^ Stolzenberg, Lisa; Stewart J. D' Alessio (1997). ""Three Strikes and You're Out": The Impact of California's New Mandatory Sentencing Law on Serious Crime Rates". Crime & Delinquency. 43 (4): 457–69. doi:10.1177/0011128797043004004.
Jump up ^ Helland, Eric; Tabarrok, Alexander (2007). "Does Three Strikes Deter?". Journal of Human Resources. XLII (2): 309–30. doi:10.3368/jhr.XLII.2.309.
Jump up ^ Miller, Bettye (28 February 2012). "Three-strikes Law Fails to Reduce Crime". UCR Today. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Stemen, Don (January 2007). "Reconsidering Incarceration: New Directions for Reducing Crime" (PDF). Vera Institute of Justice. p. 2. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
Jump up ^ I'd rather be Hanged for a Sheep than a Lamb: The Unintended Consequences of 'Three-Strikes' Laws
Jump up ^ Crifasi, Cassandra K.; Pollack, Keshia M.; Webster, Daniel W. (2015-12-30). "Effects of state-level policy changes on homicide and nonfatal shootings of law enforcement officers". Injury Prevention. 22: injuryprev–2015–041825. ISSN 1475-5785. PMID 26718550. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041825.
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