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Consequences of the Black Death
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Citizens of Tournai bury plague victims. Detail of a miniature from "The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis" (1272–1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076-77, f. 24v.
The consequences of the Black Death are the short-term and long-term effects of the Black Death on human populations across the world. They include a series of various biological, social, economic, political and religious upheavals which had profound effects on the course of world history, especially European history. Often referred to as simply "The Plague", the Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Eurasia between 1331 and 1350 with an estimated one-third of the continent's population ultimately succumbing to the disease. Historians estimate that it reduced the total world population from 450 million to between 350 and 375 million. In most parts of Europe, it took nearly 80 years for population sizes to recover, and in some areas more than 150 years.
From the perspective of many of the survivors, however, the effect of the plague may have been ultimately favorable, as the massive reduction of the workforce meant their labor was suddenly in higher demand. R.H. Hilton has argued that those English peasants who survived found their situation to be much improved. For many Europeans, the 15th century was a golden age of prosperity and new opportunities. The land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. A century later, as population growth resumed, the lower classes again faced deprivation and famine.[1][2][3]
The spread of the "Black Death" through Europe from 1347 to 1351
Contents
1 Death toll
1.1 Europe
1.2 Asia
2 Social, environmental, and economic effects
2.1 Effect on the peasantry
2.2 Effect on urban workers
2.3 Labour-saving innovation
2.4 Persecutions
2.5 Religion
3 Cultural effect
3.1 Medicine
3.2 Architecture
4 References
5 Further reading
Death toll[edit]
See also: Medieval demography
Figures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source, and estimates are frequently revised as historical research brings new discoveries to light. Most scholars estimate that the Black Death killed between 75 and 200 million people in the 14th century, at a time when the entire world population was still less than 500 million.[4][5][6] Even where the historical record is considered reliable, only rough estimates of the total number of deaths from the plague are possible.
Europe[edit]
Europe suffered an especially significant death toll from the plague. Modern estimates range between roughly one-third and one-half of the total European population in the five-year period of 1347 to 1351, during which the most severely affected areas may have lost up to 80 percent of the population.[7] Contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart, incidentally, estimated the toll to be one-third, which modern scholars consider less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague.[8] Deaths were not evenly distributed across Europe, with some areas affected very little while others were all but entirely depopulated.[9]
The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where most of the population lived at the time) were also significantly affected. Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas, and rats, and subject to diseases caused by malnutrition and poor hygiene.[10] Florence's population was reduced from 110,000–120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. Between 60 and 70 percent of Hamburg's and Bremen's populations died. In Provence, Dauphiné, and Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60 percent of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two-thirds of the population was annihilated. In the town of Givry, in the Bourgogne region of France, the local friar, who used to note 28 to 29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half of Perpignan's population died over the course of several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). Over 60 percent of Norway's population died between 1348 and 1350.[11] London may have lost two-thirds of its population during the 1348–49 outbreak;[12] England as a whole may have lost 70 percent of its population, which declined from 7 million before the plague to 2 million in 1400.[13]
A few rural areas, especially in Eastern Poland and Lithuania, had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress there. Other places, including parts of Hungary, the Brabant region, Hainaut, and Limbourg (in modern Belgium), as well as Santiago de Compostela, were unaffected for unknown reasons. Some historians[14] have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist infection, although these regions were touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360–63 (the "little mortality") and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague (in 1366–69, 1374–75, 1400, 1407, etc.). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated in mountainous regions (e.g. the Pyrenees).
All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable. Alfonso XI of Castile was the only European monarch to die of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter, and a niece in six months. Joan of England, daughter of Edward III, died in Bordeaux on her way to Castile to marry Alfonso's son, Pedro. The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the Kingdom of France, Joan of Navarre, daughter of Louis X le Hutin and Margaret of Burgundy, was killed by the plague, as well as Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future John II of France.
Asia[edit]
Estimates of the demographic effect of the plague in Asia are based on population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The most severe outbreak of plague in the Chinese province of Hubei in 1334 claimed up to 80 percent of the population.[citation needed] China had several epidemics and famines from 1200 to the 1350s and its population decreased from an estimated 125 million to 65 million in the late 14th century.[15][16][17]
The precise demographic effect of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Gaza and Syria. Many rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 per day during the same year. In Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.
Social, environmental, and economic effects[edit]
Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause of the Black Death, many Europeans ascribed supernatural forces, earthquakes and malicious conspiracies, among other things, as possible reasons for the plague's emergence.[18] No one in the 14th century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God's anger could produce such horrific displays of suffering and death. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer and poet of the era, questioned whether it was sent by God for their correction, or that it came through the influence of the heavenly bodies.[19] Christians accused Jews of poisoning public water supplies in an effort to ruin European civilization. The spreading of this rumor led to complete destruction of entire Jewish towns, and was simply caused by suspicion on part of the Christians, who noticed that the Jews had lost fewer lives to the plague due to their hygienic practices.[20] In February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. In August of the same year, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated.[21]
Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable. At worst, they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad from France because of the prohibition and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their treasury and exacerbating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-14th century ripe for tragedy.
Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30 to 50 percent of the population could have resulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition for resources.[22] Historian Walter Scheidel contends that waves of plague following the initial outbreak of the Black Death had a leveling effect that changed the ratio of land to labor, reducing the value of the former while boosting that of the latter, which lowered economic inequality by making landowners and employers less well off while improving the lot of the workers. He states that "the observed improvement in living standards of the laboring population was rooted in the suffering and premature death of tens of millions over the course of several generations." This leveling effect was reversed by a "demographic recovery that resulted in renewed population pressure."[23] In 1357, a third of property in London was unused due to a severe outbreak in 1348–49.[12] However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See Medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.
Effect on the peasantry[edit]
The great population loss brought favourable results to the surviving peasants in England and Western Europe. There was increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. Seigneurialism never recovered. Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and women especially benefited.[24] As population growth resumed, however, the peasants again faced deprivation and famine.[2][25]
In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in the east until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries.
Furthermore, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century.[26] Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. In England, the Statute of Labourers 1351 was enforced, meaning no peasant could ask for more wages than in 1346.[27] This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England.
The rapid development of the use was probably one of the consequences of the Black Death, during which many landowning nobility died, leaving their realty to their widows and minor orphans.[citation needed]
Effect on urban workers[edit]
In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, wages shot up and labourers could move to new localities in response to wage offers. Local and royal authorities in Western Europe instituted wage controls.[28] These governmental controls sought to freeze wages at the old levels before the Black Death.[28] Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, enacted in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers, enacted in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers.[28] If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned. The Statute was poorly enforced in most areas, and farm wages in England on average doubled between 1350 and 1450,[29] although they were static thereafter until the end of the 19th century.[26]
Cohn, comparing numerous countries, argues that these laws were not primarily designed to freeze wages. Instead, he says the energetic local and royal measures to control labor and artisans' prices was a response to elite fears of the greed and possible new powers of lesser classes that had gained new freedom. Cohn says the laws reflect the anxiety that followed the Black Death's new horrors of mass mortality and destruction, and from elite anxiety about manifestations such as the flagellant movement and the persecution of Jews, Catalans, and beggars.[30]
Labour-saving innovation[edit]
By 1200, virtually all of the Mediterranean basin and most of northern Germany had been deforested and cultivated. Indigenous flora and fauna were replaced by domestic grasses and animals and domestic woodlands were lost. With depopulation, this process was reversed. Much of the primeval vegetation returned, and abandoned fields and pastures were reforested.[31]
The Black Death encouraged innovation of labour-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity.[32] There was a shift from grain farming to animal husbandry. Grain farming was very labor-intensive, but animal husbandry needed only a shepherd and a few dogs and pastureland.[31]
Plague brought an eventual end of Serfdom in Western Europe. The manorial system was already in trouble, but the Black Death assured its demise throughout much of western and central Europe by 1500. Severe depopulation and migration of the village to cities caused an acute shortage of agricultural labourers. Many villages were abandoned. In England, more than 1300 villages were deserted between 1350 and 1500.[31] Wages of labourers were high, but the rise in nominal wages following the Black Death was swamped by post-Plague inflation, so that real wages fell.[26]
Labor was in such a short supply that Lords were forced to give better terms of tenure. This resulted in much lower rents in western Europe. By 1500, a new form of tenure called copyhold became prevalent in Europe. In copyhold, both a Lord and peasant made their best business deal, whereby the peasant got use of the land and the Lord got a fixed annual payment and both possessed a copy of the tenure agreement. Serfdom did not end everywhere. It lingered in parts of Western Europe and was introduced to Eastern Europe after the Black Death.[31]
There was change in the inheritance law. Before the plague, only sons and especially the elder son inherited the ancestral property. Post plague all sons as well as daughters started inheriting property.[31]
Persecutions[edit]
See also: Black Death Jewish persecutions
Renewed religious fervor and fanaticism came in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims",[33] lepers[33][34] and Romani, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis.
Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices also led to persecution. As the plague swept across Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats, in part because better hygiene among Jewish communities and isolation in the ghettos meant that Jews were less affected.[35][36] Accusations spread that Jews had caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells.[37][38] European mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred.
According to Joseph P. Byrne, women also faced persecution during the Black Death. Muslim women in Cairo became scapegoats when the plague struck.[39] Byrne writes that in 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed by his religious lawyers that the arrival of the plague was Allah's punishment for the sin of fornication and that in accordance with this theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make public appearances as they may tempt men into sin. Byrne describes that this law was only lifted when "the wealthy complained that their female servants could not shop for food."[39]
Religion[edit]
The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their proximity with the sick who sought refuge there. This left a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. Eventually the losses were replaced by hastily trained and inexperienced clergy members, many of whom knew little of the rigors of their predecessors. New colleges were opened at established universities, and the training process sped up.[40] The shortage of priests opened new opportunities for laywomen to assume more extensive and more important service roles in the local parish.[41]
Woodcut of flagellants (Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493)
Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. The movement became popular after the Black Death. It may be that the flagellants' later involvement in hedonism was an effort to accelerate or absorb God's wrath, to shorten the time with which others suffered. More likely, the focus of attention and popularity of their cause contributed to a sense that the world itself was ending and that their individual actions were of no consequence.
Reformers rarely pointed to failures on the part of the Church in dealing with the catastrophe.[42]
Cultural effect[edit]
Main article: Black Death in medieval culture
The Triumph of Death (1446)
The Black Death had a profound effect on art and literature. After 1350, European culture in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark with representations of death. The widespread image of the "dance of death" showed death (a skeleton) choosing victims at random. Many of the most graphic depictions come from writers such as Boccaccio and Petrarch.[43] Peire Lunel de Montech, writing about 1348 in the lyric style long out of fashion, composed the following sorrowful sirventes "Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague in Toulouse:
They died by the hundreds, both day and night, and all were thrown in ... ditches and covered with earth. And as soon as those ditches were filled, more were dug. And I, Agnolo di Tura ... buried my five children with my own hands ... And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world.[44]
Boccaccio wrote:
How many valiant men, how many fair ladies, breakfast with their kinfolk and the same night supped with their ancestors in the next world! The condition of the people was pitiable to behold. They sickened by the thousands daily, and died unattended and without help. Many died in the open street, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies. Consecrated churchyards did not suffice for the burial of the vast multitude of bodies, which were heaped by the hundreds in vast trenches, like goods in a ships hold and covered with a little earth.[45]
Danse Macabre from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493).
Medicine[edit]
Although the Black Death highlighted the shortcomings of medical science in the medieval era, it also led to positive changes in the field of medicine. As described by David Herlihy in The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, more emphasis was placed on “anatomical investigations” following the Black Death.[46] How individuals studied the human body notably changed, becoming a process that dealt more directly with the human body in varied states of sickness and health. Further, at this time, the importance of surgeons became more evident.[46]
A theory put forth by Stephen O'Brien says the Black Death is likely responsible, through natural selection, for the high frequency of the CCR5-Δ32 genetic defect in people of European descent. The gene affects T cell function and provides protection against HIV, smallpox, and possibly plague,[47] though for the last, no explanation as to how it would do that exists. This, however, is now challenged, given that the CCR5-Δ32 gene has been found to be just as common in Bronze Age tissue samples.[48]
Architecture[edit]
The Black Death also inspired European architecture to move in two different directions: (1) a revival of Greco-Roman styles that, in stone and paint, expressed Petrarch's love of antiquity, and (2) a further elaboration of the Gothic style.[49] Late medieval churches had impressive structures centred on verticality, where one's eye is drawn up towards the high ceiling. The basic Gothic style was revamped with elaborate decoration in the late medieval period. Sculptors in Italian city-states emulated the work of their Roman forefathers while sculptors in northern Europe, no doubt inspired by the devastation they had witnessed, gave way to a heightened expression of emotion and an emphasis on individual differences.[50] A tough realism came forth in architecture as in literature. Images of intense sorrow, decaying corpses, and individuals with faults as well as virtues emerged. North of the Alps, painting reached a pinnacle of precise realism with Early Dutch painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (c. 1390– by 1441). The natural world was reproduced in these works with meticulous detail whose realism was not unlike photography.[51]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75% to 80% of the population. In Germany and England, it was probably closer to 20%." Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, in L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp.45–46, say "between one-third and two-thirds"; Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 2, pp.257–67, says "between 25 and 45 percent". Daileader, as above; Barry and Gualde, as above, Gottfried, as above. Norwegian historian Ole J. Benedictow ('The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever', History Today, Volume 55 Issue 3 March 2005 (http://www.historytoday.com/ole-j-benedictow/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever); cf. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History, Boydell Press (7 Dec. 2012), pp. 380ff.) suggests a death rate as high as 60%, or 50 million out of 80 million inhabitants.
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Further reading[edit]
Aberth, John, ed. The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348–1350: A Brief History with Documents (2005) excerpt and text search, with primary sources
Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History (2012) excerpt and text search
Borsch, Stuart J. The Black Death in Egypt and England: A Comparative Study (U of Texas Press, 2005) online
Britnell, R. H. "Feudal Reaction after the Black Death in the Palatinate of Durham," Past & Present No. 128 (Aug., 1990), pp. 28–47 in JSTOR, in England
Byrne, Joseph P. Encyclopedia of the Black Death (2012) excerpt and text search
Cantor, Norman. In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World it Made (2001).
Carmichael, Ann. The Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence (1986).
Cohn, Samuel. "After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe," Economic History Review (2007) 60#3 pp. 457–485 in JSTOR
Deaux, George. The Black Death, 1347 (1969)
Gottfried, Robert S. The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (Simon & Schuster, 2010)
Hatcher, John. Plague, Population, and the English Economy, 1348–1530 (1977).
Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (1997).
Hilton, R. H. The English Peasantry in the Late Middle Ages (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974)
Horrox, Rosemay, ed. The black death (Manchester University Press, 1994.)
MacGregor, Kirk R. A Comparative Study of Adjustments to Social Catastrophes in Christianity and Buddhism. The Black Death in Europe and the Kamakura Takeover in Japan As Causes of Religious Reform (2011)
Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death: the arts, religion, and society in the Mid-fourteenth century (Princeton University Press, 1978)
Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Death and Its Aftermath in Late Medieval England (1996).
Poos, Larry R. A Rural Society after the Black Death: Essex, 1350–1525 (1991).
Putnam, Bertha Haven. The enforcement of the statutes of labourers during the first decade after the black death, 1349–1359 (1908).
Williman, Daniel, ed. The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague (1982)
Ziegler, Philip. The black death (1969), comprehensive older survey excerpt and text search
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List of Olympic medalists in luge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: Luge at the Winter Olympics
Olympic medalists from East Germany at the 1988 Winter Olympics: Jörg Hoffmann (far left) and Jochen Pietzsch (second from left), doubles champions; Cerstin Schmidt (second from right), women's singles bronze medalist; and Jens Müller (far right), gold medalist in the men's singles.
Luge is one of the seven Olympic sports currently contested at the Winter Olympic Games.[1] It has been a constant presence in the Olympic program since its introduction at the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria,[2] in the form of three events: men's singles, women's singles, and doubles.[a] A mixed team relay event was contested for the first time at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Medalists
2.1 Men's singles
2.2 Women's singles
2.3 Men's doubles
2.4 Team relay
3 Statistics
3.1 Medal leaders
3.1.1 Men
3.1.2 Women
3.2 Medals per year
3.3 Medal sweep events
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
German luger Georg Hackl is the overall medal leader in the sport, having collected a total of five medals (three golds and two silvers) in the men's singles, during the six Winter Games in which he competed (1988–2006).[5] Following his victory at the 1992 Winter Olympics, Hackl was the first male luger to successfully defend an Olympic title, in 1994.[5] By repeating this feat in Nagano 1998, he joined two other men (Swedish figure skater Gillis Grafström and German skier Ulrich Wehling) and two women (Norwegian figure skater Sonja Henie and American speed skater Bonnie Blair) who had won the same individual event in three consecutive Olympic Games. Hackl was also the first-ever Olympian to win at least one medal in five consecutive Olympics.[5] This effort was matched by Armin Zöggeler of Italy, who won his fifth straight Olympic medal (bronze) in the men's singles at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In 2002, Zöggeler outperformed Hackl and prevented him from reaching a unique fourth successive gold medal. Four years later, in Turin, Zöggeler became the second male luger to win back-to-back titles. Ten-time World Cup champion Markus Prock of Austria never fulfilled his success at Olympic level: in 1992 and 1994, Prock beat Georg Hackl to the World Cup title,[6] but ended up losing the Olympic gold medal to the German.
In the women's event, Germany's Silke Kraushaar leads the medal count with three, one of each color. Steffi Martin and Sylke Otto—at 36, the oldest female individual gold medalist at the Winter Games[7]—are the only lugers with two gold medals in their career. Ortrun Enderlein, representing the United Team of Germany, was the first woman to win the singles event in 1964. She was on the verge of defending her title at the 1968 Grenoble Games, having the best overall time after all the runs, but was disqualified together with fellow countrywomen Anna-Maria Müller (2nd) and Angela Knösel (4th) when it was discovered that the runners in their sleds had been illegally heated before the runs.[8] Müller made up for this by taking the gold medal at the following Games, in Sapporo, Japan.
The most successful pair in the history of the Olympic doubles event was Stefan Krausse and Jan Behrendt, who represented East Germany in 1988 and the reunified German Olympic team from 1992 to 1998, winning four medals: two golds, one silver, and one bronze. East Germany's Hans Rinn and Norbert Hahn, and Austrian brothers Andreas and Wolfgang Linger, are the other pairs to have won two times, both of them in consecutive Olympics. In 1972, two gold medals were awarded to an East German (Horst Hörnlein and Reinhard Bredow) and an Italian pair (Paul Hildgartner and Walter Plaikner), who finished with exactly the same time. To prevent similar situations in future Olympics, the Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course introduced timing equipment that measured accurately to one thousandth of a second, to replace the old equipment that measured in hundredths of a second.[9]
As of the 2010 Winter Olympics, 117 medals (40 gold, 38 silver, and 39 bronze) have been awarded to 105 lugers (53 in the singles and 52 in the doubles) representing nine National Olympic Committees (NOC).[10] German lugers—representing the United Team of Germany (1964), West Germany (1968–1988), East Germany (1968–1988), and Germany (1992–2010)—have dominated this sport, collecting a total of 70 medals (27 gold, 22 silver, and 21 bronze).[10] There were seven occasions when a single NOC filled the podium with its athletes and in all of them they were German. After the Vancouver Games, Germany is the current medal-leading NOC in the sport with 31 medals (13 gold, 10 silver, and 8 bronze), surpassing East Germany's 29 medals.[10]
As the Italian luge team is completely recruited from South Tyrol, nearly all medal winners, except those from Soviet Union, Russia, United States and Latvia, are ethnically Germanic.
Medalists[edit]
Men's singles[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1964 Innsbruck
details Thomas Köhler
United Team of Germany Klaus Bonsack
United Team of Germany Hans Plenk
United Team of Germany
1968 Grenoble
details Manfred Schmid
Austria Thomas Köhler
East Germany Klaus Bonsack
East Germany
1972 Sapporo
details Wolfgang Scheidel
East Germany Harald Ehrig
East Germany Wolfram Fiedler
East Germany
1976 Innsbruck
details Dettlef Günther
East Germany Josef Fendt
West Germany Hans Rinn
East Germany
1980 Lake Placid
details Bernhard Glass
East Germany Paul Hildgartner
Italy Anton Winkler
West Germany
1984 Sarajevo
details Paul Hildgartner
Italy Sergey Danilin
Soviet Union Valery Dudin
Soviet Union
1988 Calgary
details Jens Müller
East Germany Georg Hackl
West Germany Yuri Kharchenko
Soviet Union
1992 Albertville
details Georg Hackl
Germany Markus Prock
Austria Markus Schmidt
Austria
1994 Lillehammer
details Georg Hackl
Germany Markus Prock
Austria Armin Zöggeler
Italy
1998 Nagano
details Georg Hackl
Germany Armin Zöggeler
Italy Jens Müller
Germany
2002 Salt Lake City
details Armin Zöggeler
Italy Georg Hackl
Germany Markus Prock
Austria
2006 Turin
details Armin Zöggeler
Italy Albert Demchenko
Russia Mārtiņš Rubenis
Latvia
2010 Vancouver
details Felix Loch
Germany David Möller
Germany Armin Zöggeler
Italy
2014 Sochi
details Felix Loch
Germany Albert Demchenko
Russia Armin Zöggeler
Italy
2018 Pyeongchang
details David Gleirscher
Austria Chris Mazdzer
United States Johannes Ludwig
Germany
Medals:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1 Germany West Germany 5 4 2
2 East Germany 4 2 3
3 Italy 3 2 2
4 Austria 2 2 2
5 Germany United Team of Germany 1 1 1
6 Russia 2
7 Soviet Union 1 2
8 United States 1
9 Latvia 1
Women's singles[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1964 Innsbruck
details Ortrun Enderlein
United Team of Germany Ilse Geisler
United Team of Germany Helene Thurner
Austria
1968 Grenoble
details Erica Lechner
Italy Christina Schmuck
West Germany Angelika Dünhaupt
West Germany
1972 Sapporo
details Anna-Maria Müller
East Germany Ute Rührold
East Germany Margit Schumann
East Germany
1976 Innsbruck
details Margit Schumann
East Germany Ute Rührold
East Germany Elisabeth Demleitner
West Germany
1980 Lake Placid
details Vera Zozulya
Soviet Union Melitta Sollmann
East Germany Ingrīda Amantova
Soviet Union
1984 Sarajevo
details Steffi Martin
East Germany Bettina Schmidt
East Germany Ute Weiss
East Germany
1988 Calgary
details Steffi Walter
East Germany Ute Oberhoffner
East Germany Cerstin Schmidt
East Germany
1992 Albertville
details Doris Neuner
Austria Angelika Neuner
Austria Susi Erdmann
Germany
1994 Lillehammer
details Gerda Weissensteiner
Italy Susi Erdmann
Germany Andrea Tagwerker
Austria
1998 Nagano
details Silke Kraushaar
Germany Barbara Niedernhuber
Germany Angelika Neuner
Austria
2002 Salt Lake City
details Sylke Otto
Germany Barbara Niedernhuber
Germany Silke Kraushaar
Germany
2006 Turin
details Sylke Otto
Germany Silke Kraushaar
Germany Tatjana Hüfner
Germany
2010 Vancouver
details Tatjana Hüfner
Germany Nina Reithmayer
Austria Natalie Geisenberger
Germany
2014 Sochi
details Natalie Geisenberger
Germany Tatjana Hüfner
Germany Erin Hamlin
United States
2018 Pyeongchang
details Natalie Geisenberger
Germany Dajana Eitberger
Germany Alex Gough
Canada
Medals:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1 Germany 5 6 4
2 East Germany 4 5 3
3 Italy 2
4 Austria 1 2 3
5 Germany United Team of Germany 1 1
6 Soviet Union 1 1
7 West Germany 1 2
9 Canada. United States 1
Men's doubles[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1964 Innsbruck
details Josef Feistmantl
and Manfred Stengl (AUT) Reinhold Senn
and Helmut Thaler (AUT) Walter Aussendorfer
and Sigisfredo Mair (ITA)
1968 Grenoble
details Klaus Bonsack
and Thomas Köhler (GDR) Manfred Schmid
and Ewald Walch (AUT) Wolfgang Winkler
and Fritz Nachmann (FRG)
1972 Sapporo
details Horst Hörnlein
and Reinhard Bredow (GDR)
Paul Hildgartner
and Walter Plaikner (ITA) None awarded Klaus Bonsack
and Wolfram Fiedler (GDR)
1976 Innsbruck
details Hans Rinn
and Norbert Hahn (GDR) Hans Brandner
and Balthasar Schwarm (FRG) Rudolf Schmid
and Franz Schachner (AUT)
1980 Lake Placid
details Hans Rinn
and Norbert Hahn (GDR) Peter Gschnitzer
and Karl Brunner (ITA) Georg Fluckinger
and Karl Schrott (AUT)
1984 Sarajevo
details Hans Stangassinger
and Franz Wembacher (FRG) Yevgeny Belousov
and Aleksandr Belyakov (URS) Jörg Hoffmann
and Jochen Pietzsch (GDR)
1988 Calgary
details Jörg Hoffmann
and Jochen Pietzsch (GDR) Stefan Krausse
and Jan Behrendt (GDR) Thomas Schwab
and Wolfgang Staudinger (FRG)
1992 Albertville
details Stefan Krausse
and Jan Behrendt (GER) Yves Mankel
and Thomas Rudolph (GER) Hansjörg Raffl
and Norbert Huber (ITA)
1994 Lillehammer
details Kurt Brugger
and Wilfried Huber (ITA) Hansjörg Raffl
and Norbert Huber (ITA) Stefan Krausse
and Jan Behrendt (GER)
1998 Nagano
details Stefan Krausse
and Jan Behrendt (GER) Chris Thorpe
and Gordon Sheer (USA) Mark Grimmette
and Brian Martin (USA)
2002 Salt Lake City
details Patric Leitner
and Alexander Resch (GER) Mark Grimmette
and Brian Martin (USA) Chris Thorpe
and Clay Ives (USA)
2006 Turin
details Andreas Linger
and Wolfgang Linger (AUT) André Florschütz
and Torsten Wustlich (GER) Gerhard Plankensteiner
and Oswald Haselrieder (ITA)
2010 Vancouver
details Andreas Linger
and Wolfgang Linger (AUT) Andris Šics
and Juris Šics (LAT) Patric Leitner
and Alexander Resch (GER)
2014 Sochi
details Tobias Wendl
and Tobias Arlt (GER) Andreas Linger
and Wolfgang Linger (AUT) Andris Šics
and Juris Šics (LAT)
2018 Pyeongchang
details Tobias Wendl
and Tobias Arlt (GER) Peter Penz
and Georg Fischler (AUT) Toni Eggert
and Sascha Benecken (GER)
Team relay[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
2014 Sochi
details Germany (GER)
Natalie Geisenberger
Felix Loch
Tobias Wendl
Tobias Arlt Russia (RUS)
Tatiana Ivanova
Albert Demchenko
Alexander Denisyev
Vladislav Antonov Latvia (LAT)
Elīza Tīruma
Mārtiņš Rubenis
Andris Šics
Juris Šics
2018 Pyeongchang
details Germany (GER)
Natalie Geisenberger
Johannes Ludwig
Tobias Wendl
Tobias Arlt Canada (CAN)
Alex Gough
Samuel Edney
Tristan Walker
Justin Snith Austria (AUT)
Madeleine Egle
David Gleirscher
Peter Penz
Georg Fischler
Statistics[edit]
Medal leaders[edit]
Athletes that have won at least two medals are listed below. Medalists are sorted first by the total number of medals, then successively by the number of gold, silver and bronze medals. If a tie is still verified, medalists are ordered chronologically by their first medal.
Men[edit]
Athlete
NOC
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Zöggeler, ArminArmin Zöggeler Italy (ITA) 1994–2014 2 1 3 6
Hackl, GeorgGeorg Hackl West Germany (FRG)
Germany (GER) 1988–2002 3 2 0 5
Arlt, TobiasTobias Arlt Germany (GER) 2014-2018 4 0 0 4
Wendl, TobiasTobias Wendl Germany (GER) 2014-2018 4 0 0 4
Krausse, StefanStefan Krausse East Germany (GDR)
Germany (GER) 1988–1998 2 1 1 4
Behrendt, JanJan Behrendt East Germany (GDR)
Germany (GER) 1988–1998 2 1 1 4
Bonsack, KlausKlaus Bonsack United Team of Germany (EUA) 1964–1972 1 1 2 4
Loch, FelixFelix Loch Germany (GER) 2010–2014 3 0 0 3
Köhler, ThomasThomas Köhler United Team of Germany (EUA) 1964–1968 2 1 0 3
Hildgartner, PaulPaul Hildgartner Italy (ITA) 1972–1984 2 1 0 3
Linger, AndreasAndreas Linger Austria (AUT) 2006–2014 2 1 0 3
Linger, WolfgangWolfgang Linger Austria (AUT) 2006–2014 2 1 0 3
Demchenko, AlbertAlbert Demchenko Russia (RUS) 2006–2014 0 3 0 3
Prock, MarkusMarkus Prock Austria (AUT) 1992–2002 0 2 1 3
Šics, AndrisAndris Šics Latvia (LAT) 2010–2014 0 1 2 3
Šics, JurisJuris Šics Latvia (LAT) 2010–2014 0 1 2 3
Rinn, HansHans Rinn East Germany (GDR) 1976–1980 2 0 0 2
Hahn, NorbertNorbert Hahn East Germany (GDR) 1976–1980 2 0 0 2
Hoffmann, JörgJörg Hoffmann East Germany (GDR) 1984–1988 1 0 1 2
Pietzsch, JochenJochen Pietzsch East Germany (GDR) 1984–1988 1 0 1 2
Müller, JensJens Müller East Germany (GDR)
Germany (GER) 1988–1998 1 0 1 2
Leitner, PatricPatric Leitner Germany (GER) 2002–2010 1 0 1 2
Resch, AlexanderAlexander Resch Germany (GER) 2002–2010 1 0 1 2
Gleirscher, DavidDavid Gleirscher Austria (AUT) 2018 1 0 1 2
Ludwig, JohannesJohannes Ludwig Germany (GER) 2018 1 0 1 2
Raffl, HansjörgHansjörg Raffl Italy (ITA) 1992–1994 0 1 1 2
Huber, NorbertNorbert Huber Italy (ITA) 1992–1994 0 1 1 2
Thorpe, ChrisChris Thorpe United States (USA) 1998–2002 0 1 1 2
Grimmette, MarkMark Grimmette United States (USA) 1998–2002 0 1 1 2
Martin, BrianBrian Martin United States (USA) 1998–2002 0 1 1 2
Penz, PeterPeter Penz Austria (AUT) 2018 0 1 1 2
Fischler, GeorgGeorg Fischler Austria (AUT) 2018 0 1 1 2
Rubenis, MārtiņšMārtiņš Rubenis Latvia (LAT) 2006-2014 0 0 2 2
Women[edit]
Athlete
NOC
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Geisenberger, NatalieNatalie Geisenberger Germany (GER) 2010–2018 4 0 1 5
Kraushaar, SilkeSilke Kraushaar Germany (GER) 1998–2006 1 1 1 3
Hüfner, TatjanaTatjana Hüfner Germany (GER) 2006–2014 1 1 1 3
Martin, SteffiSteffi Martin East Germany (GDR) 1984–1988 2 0 0 2
Otto, SylkeSylke Otto Germany (GER) 2002–2006 2 0 0 2
Schumann, MargitMargit Schumann East Germany (GDR) 1972–1976 1 0 1 2
Rührold, UteUte Rührold East Germany (GDR) 1972–1976 0 2 0 2
Niedernhuber, BarbaraBarbara Niedernhuber Germany (GER) 1998–2002 0 2 0 2
Erdmann, SusiSusi Erdmann Germany (GER) 1992–1994 0 1 1 2
Neuner, AngelikaAngelika Neuner Austria (AUT) 1992–1998 0 1 1 2
Gough, AlexAlex Gough Canada (CAN) 2018 0 1 1 2
Medals per year[edit]
× NOC did not exist # Number of medals won by the NOC – NOC did not win any medals
NOC
1924–60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
94
98
02
06
10
14
18
Total
Austria (AUT) 3 2 0 !– 1 1 0 !– 0 !– 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 22
Canada (CAN) 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 2 2
United Team of Germany (EUA) 5 × × × × × × × × × × × × × × 5
East Germany (GDR) × 3 8 5 3 4 6 × × × × × × × × 29
West Germany (FRG) × 3 0 !– 3 1 1 2 × × × × × × × × 10
Germany (GER) × × × × × × × 4 3 5 5 4 5 5 6 37
Italy (ITA) 1 1 1 0 !– 2 1 0 !– 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 0 !– 17
Latvia (LAT) × × × × × × × 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 1 1 2 0 !– 4
Russia (RUS) × × × × × × × × 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 1 0 !– 2 × 3
Soviet Union (URS) 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 2 3 1 × × × × × × × × 6
United States (USA) 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 0 !– 2 2 0 !– 0 !– 1 1 5
Medal sweep events[edit]
These are events in which athletes from one NOC won all three medals.
Games
Event
NOC
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1964 Innsbruck Men's Singles United Team of Germany (EUA) Thomas Köhler Klaus-Michael Bonsack Hans Plenk
1972 Sapporo Men's Singles * East Germany (GDR) Wolfgang Scheidel Harald Ehrig Wolfram Fiedler
Women's Singles Anna-Maria Müller Ute Rührold Margit Schumann
1984 Sarajevo Women's Singles Steffi Walter-Martin Bettina Schmidt Ute Oberhoffner-Weiß
1988 Calgary Women's Singles Steffi Walter-Martin Ute Oberhoffner-Weiß Cerstin Schmidt
2002 Salt Lake City Women's Singles Germany (GER) Sylke Otto Barbara Niedernhuber Silke Kraushaar
2006 Turin Women's Singles Sylke Otto Silke Kraushaar Tatjana Hüfner
* In addition to sweeping the podium, the country also had the fourth-place finisher.
See also[edit]
FIL World Luge Championships
FIL World Luge Natural Track Championships
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Technically, the doubles event is considered a mixed event, open for male, female and mixed duos, but since its debut it has been traditionally entered only by male pairs.[3]
References[edit]
Medalists
"Results and Medalists". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee.
Citations
Jump up ^ "Luge Equipment and History". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 8 January 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Kubatko, Justin. "Luge at the 1964 Innsbruck Winter Games". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "International Luge Federation". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 8 April 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Luge: About discipline". sochi2014.com. Organizing Committee of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games of 2014 in Sochi. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kubatko, Justin. "Georg Hackl Biography and Olympic Results". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Rodel Weltcup: 1977/78 bis 2008/09 Herren" (PDF). Official Website of the Fédération Internationale de Luge de course (in German). FIL. Retrieved 11 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Records and medals at the Olympic Winter Games" (PDF). Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. October 2009. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Kubatko, Justin. "Luge at the 1968 Grenoble Winter Games". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Preview: Doubles luge". Canadian Luge Association. 16 February 2010. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kubatko, Justin. "Luge". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
External links[edit]
International Luge Federation
[show]
v
t
e
Luge at the Winter Olympics
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1994
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