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Winged Victory of Samothrace
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"Winged Victory" redirects here. For other uses, see Winged Victory (disambiguation).
The Winged Victory of Samothrace or The Winged Nike
Year
c. 200–190 BC[1]
Type
Parian marble
Dimensions
244 cm (96 in)
Location
Louvre, Paris
The Winged Victory of Samothrace, also called the Nike of Samothrace,[2] is a marble Hellenistic sculpture of Nike (the Greek goddess of victory), that was created about the 2nd century BC. Since 1884, it has been prominently displayed at the Louvre and is one of the most celebrated sculptures in the world. H.W. Janson described it as "the greatest masterpiece of Hellenistic sculpture",[1] and it is one of a small number of major Hellenistic statues surviving in the original, rather than Roman copies.
Contents
1 Description
2 History
3 2013–14 restoration
4 Assessment, reception and influence
5 Campaign for repatriation
6 Gallery
7 Modern copies and derivative works
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Sources
11 External links
Description[edit]
The context of the Winged Victory of Samothrace, discovered in 1863, is controversial, with proposals ranging from the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC to the Battle of Actium in 31 BC as the event being celebrated. Datings based on stylistic evaluation have been equally variable, ranging across the same three centuries, but perhaps tending to an earlier date.[3] For much of the 20th century, the prevailing theory, based on the works of Hermann Thiersch and Karl Lehmann, considered it a Rhodian monument dedicated following the victories at Side and Myonessos in 190 BC, and suggested that it might have been carved by the Rhodian sculptor Pythocritus.[4] However, in recent years, the reconstructions of the monument proposed by Lehmann have been shown to be false (the remains of the surrounding space that housed the Victory belong to the Roman period), and the question of why the statue was dedicated on Samothrace, which at the time was dominated by the Greek Kingdom of Macedonia, remains unanswered.[5]
The statue is 244 centimetres (8.01 ft) high.[6] It was created not only to honor the goddess, Nike, but also to honor a sea battle. It conveys a sense of action and triumph as well as portraying artful flowing drapery, as though the goddess were descending to alight upon the prow of a ship.
Modern excavations suggest that the Victory occupied a niche above a theater and also suggest it accompanied an altar that was within view of the ship monument of Demetrius I Poliorcetes (337–283 BC). Rendered in grey and white Thasian and Parian marble, the figure originally formed part of the Samothrace temple complex dedicated to the Great gods, Megaloi Theoi. It stood on a rostral pedestal of gray marble from Lartos representing the prow of a ship (most likely a trihemiolia), and represents the goddess as she descends from the skies to the triumphant fleet. Before she lost her arms, which have never been recovered, Nike's right arm is believed to have been raised,[7] cupped round her mouth to deliver the shout of Victory.[8] The work is notable for its convincing rendering of a pose where violent motion and sudden stillness meet, for its graceful balance and for the rendering of the figure's draped garments, compellingly depicted as if rippling in a strong sea breeze. Similar traits can be seen in the Laocoön group which is a reworked copy of a lost original that was likely close both in time and place of origin to Nike, but while Laocoon, vastly admired by Renaissance and classicist artists, has come to be seen[by whom?] as a more self-conscious and contrived work, Nike of Samothrace is seen as an iconic depiction of triumphant spirit and of the divine momentarily coming face to face with man.
External video
Nike of Samothrace, Smarthistory.
The statue’s outstretched right wing is a symmetric plaster version of the original left one. The stylistic portrayal of the wings is a source of scholarly discussion, as the feather pattern resembles neither the wings of birds in nature nor wings in Greek art.[9] As with the arms, the figure's head has never been found, but various other fragments have since been found: in 1950, a team led by Karl Lehmann unearthed the missing right hand of the Louvre's Winged Victory. The fingerless hand had slid out of sight under a large rock, near where the statue had originally stood; on the return trip home, Dr Phyllis Williams Lehmann identified the tip of the Goddess's ring finger and her thumb in a storage drawer at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, where the second Winged Victory is displayed; the fragments have been reunited with the hand,[10] which is now in a glass case in the Louvre next to the podium on which the statue stands.
The different degree of finishing of the sides has led scholars to think that it was intended to be seen from three-quarters on the left.
A partial inscription on the base of the statue includes the word "Rhodios" (Rhodian), indicating that the statue was commissioned to celebrate a naval victory by Rhodes, at that time the most powerful maritime state in the Aegean which in itself would date the statue to 288 BC at the earliest.[citation needed]
History[edit]
The great statue was carefully lowered down a ramp in 1939 when it was removed from the Louvre and Paris for safekeeping.
The sculptor is unknown,[11] although Paul MacKendrick suggests that Pythokritos of Lindos is responsible.[12] When first discovered on the island of Samothrace (then part of the Ottoman Empire) and published in 1863, it was suggested that the Victory was erected by the Macedonian general Demetrius Poliorcetes after his naval victory at Cyprus, between 295 and 289 BC. The Archaeological Museum of Samothrace continues to follow these originally established provenance and dates.[13] Ceramic evidence discovered in recent excavations has revealed that the pedestal was set up about 200 BC, though some scholars still date it as early as 250 BC or as late as 180.[14] Certainly, the parallels with figures and drapery from the Pergamon Altar (dated about 170 BC) seem strong. The evidence for a Rhodian commission of the statue has been questioned, however, and the closest artistic parallel to the Nike of Samothrace are figures depicted on Macedonian coins.[15] Samothrace was an important sanctuary for the Hellenistic Macedonian kings. The most likely battle commemorated by this monument is, perhaps, the Battle of Cos in 255 BC, in which Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia won over the fleet of Ptolemy II of Egypt.[16]
In April 1863, the Victory was discovered by the then French consul in Adrianopolis and amateur archaeologist Charles Champoiseau (1830-1909), who sent it to Paris in the same year. The statue has been reassembled in stages since its discovery. The prow was reconstructed from marble debris at the site by Champoiseau in 1879 and assembled in situ before being shipped to Paris.
After 1884, the statue was positioned where it would visually dominate the Daru staircase.[17] Since 1883, the marble figure has been displayed in the Louvre, while a plaster replica stands in the museum at the original location of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on Samothrace.
In the autumn of 1939, the Winged Victory was removed from her perch in anticipation of the outbreak of World War II. All the museums of Paris were closed on August 25. Artwork and objects were packed for removal to locations deemed more safe outside Paris for safekeeping[18]. On the night of September 3, the statue descended the staircase on a wooden ramp which was constructed across the steps.[19] During the years of World War II, the statue sheltered in safety in the Château de Valençay along with the Venus de Milo and Michelangelo's Slaves.[20]
The discovery in 1948 of the hand raised in salute, which matched a fragment in Vienna, established the modern reconstruction—without trumpet—of the hand raised in epiphanic greeting.[citation needed]
2013–14 restoration[edit]
The Winged Victory of Samothrace, side view.
In 2013 a restoration effort was launched to improve the appearance of the sculpture. This was the first detailed examination of the individual pieces of the sculpture to date. The restoration aimed to restore the marble to its original hue which had been tarnished by time. The sculpture was removed from its base and carried into an adjoining room which was transformed for the occasion into a restoration workshop. The base was dismantled block by block and placed in the workshop. Scientific reviews were performed on the base (UV, Infrared, X-ray spectroscopy) prior to cleaning the surface of the marble. This effort aimed to respect the goals of the original restoration performed in 1883. The surface of the base was cleaned and then reassembled, and some gaps in the marble were repaired. Upon completion of the restoration, the statue was reunited with its base and returned to its prior position at the head of the Daru staircase in the Louvre.
Assessment, reception and influence[edit]
The Winged Victory of Samothrace, before restoration.
Despite its significant damage and incompleteness, the Victory is held to be one of the great surviving masterpieces of sculpture from the Hellenistic Period, and from the entire Greco-Roman era. The statue shows a mastery of form and movement which has impressed critics and artists since its discovery. It is considered one of the Louvre's greatest treasures, and since the late 19th century it has been displayed in the most dramatic fashion, at the head of the sweeping Daru staircase.
The art historian H. W. Janson has pointed out[1] that unlike earlier Greek or Near Eastern sculptures, Nike creates a deliberate relationship to the imaginary space around the goddess. The wind that has carried her and which she is fighting off, straining to keep steady – as mentioned the original mounting had her standing on a ship's prow, just having landed – is the invisible complement of the figure and the viewer is made to imagine it. At the same time, this expanded space heightens the symbolic force of the work; the wind and the sea are suggested as metaphors of struggle, destiny and divine help or grace. This kind of interplay between a statue and the space conjured up would become a common device in baroque and romantic art, about two thousand years later. It is present in Michelangelo's sculpture of David: David's gaze and pose shows where he is seeing his adversary Goliath and his awareness of the moment – but it is rare in ancient art.
The Victory soon became a cultural icon to which artists responded in many different ways. For example, Abbott Handerson Thayer's A Virgin (1892–93) is a well-known painted allusion. When Filippo Tommaso Marinetti issued his Futurist Manifesto in 1909, he chose to contrast his movement with the supposedly defunct artistic sentiments of the Winged Victory: "a race-automobile which seems to rush over exploding powder is more beautiful than the 'Victory of Samothrace'".
The 1913 sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space by the Futuristic sculptor Umberto Boccioni, currently located at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York, was highly influenced by the statue. It bears an underlying resemblance to Nike of Samothrace.[21]
Campaign for repatriation[edit]
On February 3, 1999, according to the Macedonian Press Agency: News in English, "residents of the Aegean island of Samothrace, the birthplace of the renowned Greek sculpture Nike of Samothrace, aka the Winged Victory, embarked on a letter-writing campaign to have this finest extant of Hellenistic sculpture returned to their homeland. In a letter signed by the island's mayor, the locals urged Greek politicians to intervene and request that the Louvre museum, where the statue is kept, acknowledge that the sculpture belongs in its natural environment."[22]
The Greek Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs asked again for its return in 2013.[23]
Gallery[edit]
The Daru staircase leading to the statue.
The statue after last restoration
The statue on its pedestal.
The statue before restoration, standing on a marble block.
The Winged Victory of Samothrace, back view.
Modern copies and derivative works[edit]
The Winged Victory of Samothrace copy, Caesars Palace Casino, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.
A copy at the Idaho State Capitol.
A plaster copy of the Winged Victory in the National Museum of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Numerous copies exist in museums and galleries around the world; one of the best-known copies stands outside the Caesars Palace casino in Las Vegas. The first FIFA World Cup trophy, commissioned in 1930 and designed by Abel Lafleur, was based on the model.
This statue was a favorite of Frank Lloyd Wright and he used reproductions of it in a number of his buildings, including Ward Willits House, Darwin D. Martin House and Storer House.
The largest public sculpture based on Nike appears in a prominent position atop the massive Pennsylvania State Memorial at Gettysburg National Military Park in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia sculptor Samuel Murray, a student and intimate of painter Thomas Eakins, produced the 28-foot figure in 1911 with possible influence from Augustus Saint-Gaudens' Nike interpretation on the Sherman Memorial in New York City (1903). Saint-Gaudens depicts Nike with her right arm raised while it is thought the original Nike was not making such gesture. Saint-Gaudens' Nike also wears a laurel wreath on her head and bears a large olive branch in her left hand. Murray adapted the laurel wreath and olive branch innovations but also placed a sword in Nike's raised right hand.[24]
Starting in 1962, Yves Klein produced a series of plaster replicas of the Nike coated in dry pigment of his signature International Klein Blue affixed by resin entitled Victoire de Samatrace.[25]
Swedish author Gunnar Ekelöf made Nike a central image in his poem Samothrace, written in 1941,[26] where the faceless deity, arms outstretched like sails, is made into a symbol of the fight and the coming victory against Nazism and the struggle for freedom throughout history. It also features in the Matthew Reilly novel Seven Ancient Wonders, where it is fictionally made part of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.
A full-size replica of the statue sits in The Ohio State University's Thompson Library in Columbus, Ohio.[27] Another full size replica stands in the lobby of Crouse College, home to the Setnor School of Music, at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York. A 7-foot (2.1 m) replica of the sculpture stands at Connecticut College in New London, Connecticut. The second-largest replica of this statue in the United States stands at Calvary Catholic Cemetery in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and is 10 ft (3.0 m) high.
Texas Woman's University in Denton, Texas has a replica which was purchased from the Louvre and shipped from Paris in 1982. This replica is actually a replacement of the original 1929 replica given to commemorate Armistice Day and the defeat of autocracy.[28] A replica of the statue sits overlooking the Veterans area of the Skylawn Memorial Park in San Mateo, California.[29]
The Estrugamou Building in Buenos Aires, Argentina was built in four sections, arranged around a patio adorned with a bronze copy of the iconic Winged Victory of Samothrace. The Cape Town Cenotaph is topped by a replica of the Winged Victory of Samothrace by British sculptor Vernon March. Another plaster replica adorns the atrium of Technische Universität Berlin. The replica was a gift by French universities to the TU Berlin in 1956.[30]
Augustus Saint-Gaudens' 1903 equestrian statue of General William Tecumseh Sherman in Grand Army Plaza, New York City, depicts a robed, winged Nike leading Sherman while holding a palm branch, as a symbol of his victory in the Civil War and the peace to follow.[31]
Graffiti artist Banksy created "CCTV Angel" in 2006 depicting a robed, winged figure with a CCTV camera for a head, as a statement on the overreach with security surveillance in society.[32]
See also[edit]
Nike of Paionios
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Janson, H.W. (1995) History of Art. 5th edn. Revised and expanded by Anthony F. Janson. London: Thames & Hudson, pp. 157–158. ISBN 0500237018
Jump up ^ In Greek the statue is called the Niki tis Samothrakis (Νίκη της Σαμοθράκης) and in French La Victoire de Samothrace. There are two further statues of Winged Victory found in the Samothrace temple complex: a Roman copy found by a team of Austrian archaeologists, now at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, and a third Winged Victory found by Dr. Phyllis Williams Lehmann in 1949, now in a museum at the Samothrace site.
Jump up ^ Smith, 78
Jump up ^ Stewart 2016, p. 399.
Jump up ^ Stewart 2016, p. 400.
Jump up ^ Honour, H. and J. Fleming, (2009) A World History of Art. 7th edn. London: Laurence King Publishing, p. 174. ISBN 9781856695848
Jump up ^ The flex of her torso reveals the movement of her missing arm.
Jump up ^ Louvre Website: the discovery of her right hand, identified by Phyllis Williams Lehmann, now also at the Louvre, settled questions of her gesture, whether to bring a trumpet to her lips as she is depicted on earlier coins or bearing a wreath to crown the naval victor.
Jump up ^ Bonna, Wescoat (2015-01-22). ""From the Vantage of the Victory: New Research on the Nike of Samothrace" - National Humanities Center". National Humanities Center. 20:08-23:40. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
Jump up ^ New York Times, Obituary of Phyllis Williams Lehmann, 16 October 2004.
Jump up ^ Waxman, Sharon, Lost: The Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World. Time Books, 2008, p. 82.
Jump up ^ MacKendrick, Paul, The Greek Stones Speak, Norton & Company 1962
Jump up ^ Hatzfeld pointed out in 1910 that Samothrace was in the possession of Demetrios' bitter personal enemy Lysimachus, who would not have permitted the erection of such a monument.
Jump up ^ Haskell, Francis and Nicholas Penny. (1981) Taste and the Antique: the Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500–1900. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 333. ISBN 0-300-02641-2
Jump up ^ Smith, 1991. Hellenistic Sculpture (World of Art).
Jump up ^ Burn, 2005. Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus.
Jump up ^ The monumental Escalier Daru designed by Hector Lefuel to replace the former staircase of the Musée Napoléon was constructed from 1855 to 1857 in the Pavillon Daru, named for a minister of Napoleon III. At the fall of the Second Empire it remained incomplete; it was finished in 1883 as a setting for the Victory of Samothrace (Louvre website).
Jump up ^ See also Evacuation of the Louvre museum art collection during World War II
Jump up ^ Nicholas, Lynn H. (1994) The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-0-679-40069-1; OCLC 246524635
Jump up ^ Nicholas, p. 87.
Jump up ^ Museum of Modern Art, New York: Unique Forms of Continuity in Space.
Jump up ^ "CAMPAIGN UNDERWAY TO RETURN NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE TO GREECE". hri.org. 1999-02-03. Retrieved 2018-01-19.
Jump up ^ "Greece Wants Victory of Samothrace Back". Greek Reporter. 2013-08-30. Retrieved 2018-01-19. As officials of the Louvre in Paris seek to raise another one million euros to renovate the famed sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace that was stolen off that Greek island by a Frenchman in the 19th Century, Greece has asked for its return.
Jump up ^ "Winged Victory: A Closer Look at the Pennsylvania Memorial". The Blog of Gettysburg National Military Park. April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Samothrace Victory – Galerie Omagh". www.galerieomagh.com. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
Jump up ^ In Ekelöf, Non Serviam, Bonniers, Stockholm 1945, and in later collected editions of his poems.
Jump up ^ "Winged Victory replica statue placed in Thompson Library, 100 year history with Ohio State".
Jump up ^ "Campus Art – TWU TWU Libraries – Texas Woman's University". www.twu.edu. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
Jump up ^ "About Us - Skylawn Memorial Park - Funeral - Cremation - Cremation".
Jump up ^ "Stabsstelle Presse, Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Alumni: Kunstwerke". www.pressestelle.tu-berlin.de.
Jump up ^ "Grand Army Plaza, New York, NY - CT Monuments.net". ctmonuments.net.
Jump up ^ http://www.artnet.com/artists/banksy/cctv-angel-ibzvf7akWuiZWtBmBNeoUA2. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Sources[edit]
Smith, R.R.R., Hellenistic Sculpture, a handbook, Thames & Hudson, 1991, ISBN 0500202494
Stewart, Andrew (2016). "The Nike of Samothrace: Another View". American Journal of Archaeology. 120 (3): 399–410. JSTOR 10.3764/aja.120.3.0399.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nike of Samothrace.
3D model of Winged Victory via photogrammetric survey of an 1892 Louvre atelier plaster cast
Detailed description of the Victory of Samothrace on the Louvre website
Interactive multimedia feature on the Louvre website
The Louvre website on the Escalier Daru (English)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb12120693h (data)
GND: 4202608-8
LCCN: n2013003823
SUDOC: 029619505
VIAF: 190487421
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winged_Victory_of_Samothrace&oldid=856320834"
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Deuterostome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the cell biology protein structure, see Deuterosome.
Deuterostomes
Temporal range: Cambrian–Present 540–0 Ma
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A sea cucumber
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Clade: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Grobben, 1908
Clades
"Ambulacraria"
Hemichordata
Cambroernida †
Echinodermata
Chordata
Saccorhytida †
Deuterostomes (taxonomic term: Deuterostomia; meaning "second mouth" in Greek)[1][2] comprise a superphylum of animals. It is a sister clade of Protostomia, with which it forms the Nephrozoa clade.
Deuterostomia is a subtaxon of the Bilateria branch of the subkingdom Eumetazoa, within Animalia, and are distinguished from protostomes by their deuterostomic embryonic development; in deuterostomes, the first opening (the blastopore) becomes the anus, while in protostomes, it becomes the mouth. (There are some occurrences of deuterostomy among protostomes.)[3]
Deuterostomes are also known as enterocoelomates because their coelom develops through enterocoely.
There are three major clades of deuterostomes:
Chordata (vertebrates and their kin)
Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.)
Hemichordata (acorn worms and graptolites)
Contents
1 Classification history
2 Notable characteristics
3 Formation of mouth and anus
4 Origins and evolution
4.1 Phylogeny
5 Classification
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Classification history[edit]
Previously, Deuterostomia also included the phyla Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida based on embryological characteristics. However, Superphylum Deuterostomia was redefined in 1995 based on DNA molecular sequence analyses when the lophophorates were removed from it and combined with other protostome animals to form superphylum Lophotrochozoa.[4] The phylum Chaetognatha (arrow worms) may belong here, but molecular studies have placed them in the protostomes more often.
Extinct deuterostome groups may include the phylum Vetulicolia.
Echinodermata and Hemichordata form the clade Ambulacraria.
Notable characteristics[edit]
In both deuterostomes and protostomes, a zygote first develops into a hollow ball of cells, called a blastula. In deuterostomes, the early divisions occur parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis. This is called radial cleavage, and also occurs in certain protostomes, such as the lophophorates.
Most deuterostomes display indeterminate cleavage, in which the developmental fate of the cells in the developing embryo are not determined by the identity of the parent cell. Thus, if the first four cells are separated, each cell is capable of forming a complete small larva; and if a cell is removed from the blastula, the other cells will compensate.
In deuterostomes the mesoderm forms as evaginations of the developed gut that pinch off, forming the coelom. This is called enterocoely.
Another feature present in both the Hemichordata and Chordata is pharyngotremy; the presence of spiracles or gill slits into the pharynx, which is also found in some primitive fossil echinoderms (mitrates).[5][6] A hollow nerve cord is found in all chordates, including tunicates (in the larval stage). Some hemichordates also have a tubular nerve cord. In the early embryonic stage, it looks like the hollow nerve cord of chordates.
Because of the highly modified nervous system of echinoderms, it is not possible to discern much about their ancestors in this matter, but based on different facts it is quite possible that all the present deuterostomes evolved from a common ancestor that had pharyngeal gill slits, a hollow nerve cord, circular and longitudinal muscles and a segmented body.[7] It could have resembled the small group of Cambrian urochordate deuterostomes named Vetulicolia.
Formation of mouth and anus[edit]
All chordates (which includes all vertebrates), such as birds and mammals, are deuterostomes. Shown here is a barred owl.
Main article: Embryological origins of the mouth and anus
The defining characteristic of the deuterostome is the fact that the blastopore (the opening at the bottom of the forming gastrula) becomes the anus, whereas in protostomes the blastopore becomes the mouth. The deuterostome mouth develops at the opposite end of the embryo from the blastopore and a digestive tract develops in the middle, connecting the two.
In many animals these early development stages later evolved in ways that no longer reflect these original patterns. For instance, humans have already formed a gut tube at the time of formation of the mouth and anus. Then the mouth is formed first, during the fourth week of development, and the anus is created four weeks later, temporarily forming a cloaca.
Origins and evolution[edit]
The majority of animals more complex than jellyfish and other Cnidarians are split into two groups, the protostomes and deuterostomes. Chordates (which include all the vertebrates) are deuterostomes.[8] It seems likely that the 555 million year old Kimberella was a member of the protostomes.[9][10] That implies that the protostome and deuterostome lineages split some time before Kimberella appeared — at least 558 million years ago, and hence well before the start of the Cambrian 541 million years ago,[8] i.e. during the later part of the Ediacaran Era (circa 635-542 Mya, around the end of global Marinoan glaciation in the late Neoproterozoic). The oldest discovered proposed deuterostome is Saccorhytus coronarius, which lived approximately 540 million years ago.[2][11] The researchers that made the discovery believe that the Saccorhytus is a common ancestor to all previously-known deuterostomes.[11]
Fossils of one major deuterostome group, the echinoderms (whose modern members include sea stars, sea urchins and crinoids), are quite common from the start of Series 2 of the Cambrian, 521 million years ago.[12] The Mid Cambrian fossil Rhabdotubus johanssoni has been interpreted as a pterobranch hemichordate.[13] Opinions differ about whether the Chengjiang fauna fossil Yunnanozoon, from the earlier Cambrian, was a hemichordate or chordate.[14][15] Another Chengjiang fossil, Haikouella lanceolata, also from the Chengjiang fauna, is interpreted as a chordate and possibly a craniate, as it shows signs of a heart, arteries, gill filaments, a tail, a neural chord with a brain at the front end, and possibly eyes — although it also had short tentacles round its mouth.[15] Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia, also from the Chengjiang fauna, are regarded as fish.[16][17] Pikaia, discovered much earlier but from the Mid Cambrian Burgess Shale, is also regarded as a primitive chordate.[18]
On the other hand, fossils of early chordates are very rare, as non-vertebrate chordates have no bone tissue or teeth, and fossils of no Post-Cambrian non-vertebrate chordates are known aside from the Permian-aged Paleobranchiostoma, trace fossils of the Ordovician colonial tunicate Catellocaula, and various Jurassic-aged and Tertiary-aged spicules tentatively attributed to ascidians.
Phylogeny[edit]
Below is a phylogenetic tree showing consensus relationships among deuterostome taxa. Phylogenomic evidence suggests the enteropneust family, Torquaratoridae, fall within the Ptychoderidae. The tree is based on 16S +18S rRNA sequence data and phylogenomic studies from multiple sources.[19] The approximate dates for each radiation into a new clade are given in millions of years ago (Mya). Not all dates are consistent, as of date ranges only the center is given.[20]
Nephrozoa
Deuterostomia
Chordata
Cephalochordata
Olfactores
Urochordata (tunicates)
Vertebrata/Craniata
Ambulacraria
Echinodermata
Crinoidea
Asteroidea
Ophiuroidea
Echinoidea
Holothuroidea
Hemichordata
Pterobranchia
Cephalodiscidae
Rhabdopleuridae
Enteropneusta
Harrimaniidae
Spengelidae
Ptychoderidae
Torquaratoridae
526 mya
Protostomia
Ecdysozoa
Spiralia
Kimberella († 555 mya)
550 mya
575 mya
Classification[edit]
See also: List of bilateral animal orders
Here are the following phyla/subgroups of the deuterostomes.
Superphylum Deuterostomia
Phylum Chordata (vertebrates, tunicates, and lancelets)
Subphylum Cephalochordata – 1 class (lancelets)
Subphylum Tunicata (Urochordata) – 4 classes (tunicates)
Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) – 9 classes (vertebrates – mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and fish)
Infraphylum Agnatha (Cyclostomata or incertae sedis) – 2 classes (jawless fish – hagfish and lampreys)
Infraphylum Gnathostomata – 7 classes (jawed vertebrates – mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, bony fish, and cartilaginous fish)
Superclass incertae sedis – 1 class (cartilaginous fish – sharks, skates, rays, and chimaeras)
Superclass Osteichthyes – 2 classes (bony fish, 98.8 percent of all fish – ray-finned fish and lobe-finned fish)
Superclass Tetrapoda – 4 classes (four-limbed vertebrates – mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds)
Phylum Hemichordata – 3 classes (hemichordates, known as acorn worms)
Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms – sea stars, brittle stars, sea lilies, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers)
Subphylum Asterozoa – 2 classes (sea stars and brittle stars)
Subphylum Crinozoa – 1 class (sea lilies)
Subphylum Echinozoa – 2 classes (sea urchins and sea cucumbers)
See also[edit]
Evolutionary biology portal
Life timeline
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wade, Nicholas (30 January 2017). "This Prehistoric Human Ancestor Was All Mouth". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Han, Jian; Morris, Simon Conway; Ou, Qiang; Shu, Degan; Huang, Hai (2017). "Meiofaunal deuterostomes from the basal Cambrian of Shaanxi (China)". Nature. Bibcode:2017Natur.542..228H. doi:10.1038/nature21072. ISSN 0028-0836.
Jump up ^ Martín-Durán, José M.; Passamaneck, Yale J.; Martindale, Mark Q.; Hejnol, Andreas (2016). "The developmental basis for the recurrent evolution of deuterostomy and protostomy". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1: 0005. doi:10.1038/s41559-016-0005.
Jump up ^ Halanych, K.M.; Bacheller, J.; Liva, S.; Aguinaldo, A. A.; Hillis, D.M. & Lake, J.A. (17 March 1995). "18S rDNA evidence that the Lophophorates are Protostome Animals". Science. 267 (5204): 1641–1643. Bibcode:1995Sci...267.1641H. doi:10.1126/science.7886451. PMID 7886451.
Jump up ^ Graham, A; Richardson, J (2012). "Developmental and evolutionary origins of the pharyngeal apparatus". Evodevo. 3: 24. doi:10.1186/2041-9139-3-24. PMC 3564725. PMID 23020903.
Jump up ^ On the Origin of Phyla
Jump up ^ Smith, Andrew B. (2012). "Cambrian problematica and the diversification of deuterostomes". BMC Biology. 10 (79): 1–3. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-10-79. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Erwin, Douglas H.; Eric H. Davidson (1 July 2002). "The last common bilaterian ancestor". Development. 129 (13): 3021–3032. PMID 12070079.
Jump up ^ New data on Kimberella, the Vendian mollusc-like organism (White sea region, Russia): palaeoecological and evolutionary implications (2007), "Fedonkin, M.A.; Simonetta, A; Ivantsov, A.Y.", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota, Special publications, 286, London: Geological Society, pp. 157–179, doi:10.1144/SP286.12, ISBN 9781862392335, OCLC 156823511 CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Butterfield, N.J. (December 2006). "Hooking some stem-group "worms": fossil lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale". BioEssays. 28 (12): 1161–1166. doi:10.1002/bies.20507. PMID 17120226.
^ Jump up to: a b Ghosh, Pallab (30 January 2017). "Scientists find 'oldest human ancestor'". BBC. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Bengtson, S. (2004). Lipps, J.H.; Waggoner, B.M., eds. "Early Skeletal Fossils in Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Biological Revolutions" (PDF). Paleontological Society Papers. 10: 67–78.
Jump up ^ Bengtson, S.; Urbanek, A. (October 2007). "Rhabdotubus, a Middle Cambrian rhabdopleurid hemichordate". Lethaia. 19 (4): 293–308. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1986.tb00743.x.
Jump up ^ Shu, D.; Zhang, X. & Chen, L. (April 1996). "Reinterpretation of Yunnanozoon as the earliest known hemichordate". Nature. 380 (6573): 428–430. Bibcode:1996Natur.380..428S. doi:10.1038/380428a0.
^ Jump up to: a b Chen, J-Y.; Hang, D-Y. & Li, C.W. (December 1999). "An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate". Nature. 402 (6761): 518–522. Bibcode:1999Natur.402..518C. doi:10.1038/990080.
Jump up ^ Shu, D-G.; Conway Morris, S.; Han, J.; et al. (January 2003). "Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate Haikouichthys". Nature. 421 (6922): 526–529. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..526S. doi:10.1038/nature01264. PMID 12556891.
Jump up ^ Shu, D-G.; Conway Morris, S. & Zhang, X-L. (November 1999). "Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China" (PDF). Nature. 402 (6757): 42–46. Bibcode:1999Natur.402...42S. doi:10.1038/46965. Retrieved 2008-09-23.
Jump up ^ Shu, D-G.; Conway Morris, S. & Zhang, X-L. (November 1996). "A Pikaia-like chordate from the Lower Cambrian of China". Nature. 384 (6605): 157–158. Bibcode:1996Natur.384..157S. doi:10.1038/384157a0. Retrieved 2008-09-23.
Jump up ^ Tassia, Michael G.; Cannon, Johanna T.; Konikoff, Charlotte E.; Shenkar, Noa; Halanych, Kenneth M.; Swalla, Billie J. (2016-10-04). "The Global Diversity of Hemichordata". PLoS ONE. 11 (10): e0162564. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1162564T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162564. PMC 5049775. PMID 27701429.
Jump up ^ Han, Jian; Morris, Simon Conway; Ou, Qian; Shu, Degan; Huang, Hai (2017). "Meiofaunal deuterostomes from the basal Cambrian of Shaanxi (China)". Nature. 542 (7640): 228–231. Bibcode:2017Natur.542..228H. doi:10.1038/nature21072.
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to Deuterostomia
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Deuterostomia.
UCMP-Deuterostomes
Deciphering deuterostome phylogeny: molecular, morphological and palaeontological perspectives
Deuterostomia at Encyclopædia Britannica]]
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Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q150866
Wikispecies: Deuterostomia
ADW: Deuterostomia
BioLib: 14961
EoL: 8814528
Fossilworks: 67145
ITIS: 914156
NCBI: 33511
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deuterostome&oldid=862753332"
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