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Yellowstone Caldera
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Yellowstone Caldera
The northeastern part of Yellowstone Caldera, with the Yellowstone River flowing through Hayden Valley and the caldera rim in the distance
Highest point
Elevation
9,203[1] ft (2,805 m)
Coordinates
44°24′N 110°42′W / 44.400°N 110.700°W / 44.400; -110.700 (Yellowstone Caldera)Coordinates: 44°24′N 110°42′W / 44.400°N 110.700°W / 44.400; -110.700 (Yellowstone Caldera)
Geography
Location
Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States
Parent range
Rocky Mountains
Topo map
USGS Yellowstone National Park
Geology
Age of rock
2,100,000–70,000 years[3]
Mountain type
Caldera[2] and supervolcano
Climbing
Easiest route
Hike/auto/bus
The Yellowstone Caldera is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of Wyoming. The major features of the caldera measure about 34 by 45 miles (55 by 72 km).[4]
The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff); the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff); and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Yellowstone hotspot origin
2 Volcanism
3 Hazards
3.1 Earthquakes
3.2 Volcanoes
3.3 Hydrothermal explosions
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Yellowstone hotspot origin
Main article: Yellowstone hotspot
The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection.[6][7] Others suggest a deep mantle origin (mantle plume).[8] Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time, causing speculation about their origin.[9]
Volcanism
Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas. (US NPS)
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, molten rock from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it did help to create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west-southwest over it.[10]
Over the past 18 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of violent eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain from a once-mountainous region. At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that they cause the overlying land to collapse into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.
The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada-Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest-central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.[11][12] Progressively younger caldera remnants, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada-Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such caldera, the Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceros, camel, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey ("USGS") estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and 100 or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century.[13]
The loosely defined term "supervolcano" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake[14] 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively.[15] The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.[16]
Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption.[17][18] The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera).[19][3] Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.
The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure that the magma is under. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.
According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km3 (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined it to be; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is much too low to allow another supereruption.[20][21]
Hazards
Earthquakes
Number of earthquakes in Yellowstone National Park region (1973–2014) [22]
Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.[23][24]
In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9.[25][26] The most recent swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 which occurred on January 21, 2010.[24][27] This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.[28]
Volcanoes
Diagram of the Yellowstone Caldera
The last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago,[29] ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1,000 km3) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.[3]
Geologists are closely monitoring the rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as fast as 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) per year, as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure.[30][31]
The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008 — almost 3 inches (7.6 cm) each year — was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923.[32] From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station.[33][34] By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped.[35] In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly"[36] and that uplift continues but at a slower pace.[37] The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."[3] This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought." The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.[38]
Other media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.[39]
A study published in GSA Today identified three fault zones that future eruptions are most likely to be centered on.[40] Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years, and the third area is a focus of present-day seismicity.[40]
Hydrothermal explosions
Path of the Yellowstone hot spot over the past 16 million years
For more details on this topic, see Hydrothermal explosion.
Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity. Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.
In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m3) (576,000,000 US gallons) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.[41][42]
Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California’s Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.[43]
In 2016, the United States Geological Survey announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible feeding the area's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another "super-eruption" occurs.[44]
See also
Iceland hotspot and Iceland plume describes aspects of volcanic processes
Long Valley Caldera, Valles Caldera, La Garita Caldera: examples of other calderas close to but not related to Yellowstone.
References
Jump up ^ USGS. "Yellowstone Volcano Observatory". United States Geological Survey.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lowenstern, Jacob B.; Christiansen, Robert L.; Smith, Robert B.; Morgan, Lisa A.; Heasler, Henry (May 10, 2005). "Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005–3024". United States Geological Survey.
Jump up ^ as determined by geological field work conducted by Bob Christiansen of the United States Geological Survey in the 1960s and 1970s.
Jump up ^ Naomi E Matthews et al., 2015, "Age of the Lava Creek supereruption and magma chamber assembly at Yellowstone based on 40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb dating of sanidine and zircon crystals" DOI: 10.1002/2015GC005881
Jump up ^ Foulger, Gillian (February 8, 2006). "Yellowstone". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Christiansen, Robert L.; Foulger, G.R.; Evans, John R. (2002). "Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 114 (10): 1245–1256. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114.1245C. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ See list of off-line references in mantleplumes.org/CRB.html
Jump up ^ Ivanov, Alexei V. (February 7, 2007). "The Columbia River Flood Basalts: Consequence of subduction-related processes". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming—USGS". Cascade Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. January 22, 2003. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Stephen T.; Wynne, P. Jane; Francis, Don; Hart, Craig J. R.; Enkin, Randolph J.; Engebretson, David C. (1996). "Yellowstone in Yukon: The Late Cretaceous Carmacks Group". Geology. 24 (11): 997, 998. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..997J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0997:YIYTLC>2.3.CO;2.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone hotspot track". Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. Retrieved June 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ Yellowstone Volcanic Hazards, USGS. Volcanoes.usgs.gov (March 1, 2012). Retrieved on December 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ West Thumb Lake is not to be confused with West Thumb Geyser Basin. The caldera created West Thumb Lake, and the underlying Yellowstone hotspot keeps West Thumb Geyser Basin active. See Fig. 22. See also File:Yellowstone Caldera map2.JPG.
Jump up ^ Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988) Historical Unrest at Large Calderas of the World: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1855
Jump up ^ This qualitative statement is easily verified by reviewing the Yellowstone area in Google Earth
Jump up ^ "Origin and evolution of silicic magmatism at Yellowstone" (PDF). University of Oregon.
Jump up ^ "Secrets of supervolcanoes" (PDF). University of Oregon.
Jump up ^ "Introduction to hydrothermal (steam) explosions in Yellowstone". Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Net. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Witze, Alexandra (2013). "Large magma reservoir gets bigger". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.14036.
Jump up ^ "USGS: Volcano Hazards Program – Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Featured Articles Archive". Retrieved April 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone National Park Earthquake listings". Retrieved April 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone Earthquake Swarms". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "January 2010 Yellowstone Seismicity Summary". Retrieved February 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Archive of Yellowstone Updates for 2009".
Jump up ^ "UUSS Webicorder (Seismogram) at Lake for December 31, 2008". Retrieved January 1, 2009.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Kirk (January 31, 2010). "Hundreds of Quakes Are Rattling Yellowstone". The New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Zuckerman, Laura. "Yellowstone National Park rattled by largest earthquake in 34 years". Reuters. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Undine Falls, Lava Creek, Yellowstone National Park". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved January 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ John Timmer (November 8, 2007). "Yellowstone recharges". arstechnica.com. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ Smith, Robert B.; Chang, Wu-Lung; Siegel, Lee (November 8, 2007). "Yellowstone rising: Volcano inflating with molten rock at record rate". University of Utah Public Relations (Press release). EurekAlert! (American Association for the Advancement of Science).
Jump up ^ Molten Rock Fills Yellowstone Volcano at Record Rate Newswise, Retrieved on September 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Recent ups and downs of the Yellowstone Caldera". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. September 28, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Smith, Robert B.; Jordan, Michael; Steinberger, Bernhard; Puskas, Christine M.; Farrell, Jamie; Waite, Gregory P.; Husen, Stephan; Chang, Wu-Lung; O'Connell, Richard (November 20, 2009). "Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hotspot and mantle plume: Seismic and GPS imaging, kinematics and mantle flow" (PDF). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 188 (1–3): 26–56. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.020.
Jump up ^ Alert Archive Search. volcanoes.usgs.gov
Jump up ^ Current Alerts for U.S. Volcanoes. volcano.wr.usgs.gov
Jump up ^ GPS Station: WLWY – Data Products – Time Series Plots. unavco.org
Jump up ^ "Monitoring Upgrades Result in New Insight Into Yellowstone's Magma System" (Press release). Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (USGS). December 19, 2013. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Burnett, Jim (January 1, 2014). "Reactions To Yellowstone Supervolcano Study Ranged From Hysteria To Ho-Hum". National Parks Traveller. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard A. Lovett (September 20, 2012). "Yellowstone Supervolcano Discovery—Where Will It Erupt?". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ "Frequently asked questions about recent findings at Yellowstone Lake". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. September 11, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Tsunami linked to Yellowstone crater". USA Today. January 14, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Quake in Alaska Changed Yellowstone Geysers". University of Utah. May 27, 2004. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ "We're About to Find Out What's Rumbling Below The Yellowstone Supervolcano". Science Alert. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Further reading
Breining, Greg (2007). Super Volcano: The Ticking Time Bomb beneath Yellowstone National Park. St. Paul, MN: Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-2925-2. A popularized scientific look at the Yellowstone area's geological past and potential future
Vazquez, J.A.; Reid, M.R. (2002). "Time scales of magma storage and differentiation of voluminous rhyolites at Yellowstone caldera". Contributions to Mineralogy & Petrology. Wyoming. 144 (3): 274–285. Bibcode:2002CoMP..144..274V. doi:10.1007/s00410-002-0400-7.
Sutherland, Wayne; Sutherland, Judy (2003). Yellowstone Farewell. Spur Ridge. A novel looking at an eruption in the Yellowstone Caldera written by a practicing Wyoming geologist. Contains a wealth of technical details on the geology of western Wyoming
External links
The Snake River Plain and the Yellowstone Hot Spot
Yellowstone Volcano Observatory
FAQ relating to the supervolcano
Supervolcano documentary from BBC
Interactive: When Yellowstone Explodes from National Geographic
The Yellowstone magmatic system from the mantle plume to the upper crust (46,000 km3 magma reservoir below chamber)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yellowstone_Caldera&oldid=810345898"
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Right-to-work law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the U.S. laws prohibiting mandated union membership and dues. For the human right concept, see right to work. For the Indian law, see National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
"Right-to-work laws" are statutes in 28 U.S. states that prohibit union security agreements between companies and workers' unions. Under these laws, employees in unionized workplaces are banned from negotiating contracts which require all members who benefit from the union contract to contribute to the costs of union representation.[1]
According to the Legal Defense Foundation, right-to-work laws prohibit union security agreements, or agreements between employers and labor unions, that govern the extent to which an established union can require employees' membership, payment of union dues, or fees as a condition of employment, either before or after hiring. Right-to-work laws do not aim to provide general guarantee of employment to people seeking work, but rather are a government ban on contractual agreements between employers and union employees requiring workers to pay for the costs of union representation. [2]
Unions are already governed by regulations and laws, including public policy on labor-management relations. Typically, unions are organized by industry (e.g., healthcare, restaurant, steel workers, teachers, state government- professional, non-professional), and they are required to be voted in by employees. Union employees can vote to keep or get rid of their union through a decertification vote, and regularly negotiate and vote on their working conditions protected by a legally enforceable contract. Union workers in states without right-to-work restrictions can choose whether to require all employees benefiting from the contract to contribute.
Right-to-work provisions (either by law or by constitutional provision) exist in 28 U.S. states, mostly in the southern and western United States, but also including the Midwestern states of Michigan,[3] Indiana,[4] and Wisconsin.[5] Business interests represented by the United States Chamber of Commerce have lobbied extensively to pass right-to-work legislation.[6][7] Such laws are allowed under the 1947 federal Taft–Hartley Act. A further distinction is often made within the law between people employed by state and municipal governments and those employed by the private sector, with states that are otherwise union shop (i.e., workers must pay for union representation in order to obtain or retain a job) having right to work laws in effect for government employees; provided, however, that the law also permits an "agency shop" where employees pay their share for representation (less than union dues), while not joining the union as members.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origins
1.2 Wagner Act (1935)
1.3 Taft–Hartley Act (1947)
1.4 Current status
2 Arguments
2.1 Minority rights and due process
2.2 Freedom of association
2.3 Unfairness
2.4 Political contributions
2.5 Cost of Living
2.6 Free riders
2.7 Freedom of contract and association
2.8 Corporate interests
3 Studies of economic effect
4 Polling
5 U.S. states with right-to-work laws
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
8.1 Opposed to right-to-work laws
8.2 Supported right-to-work laws
History
Origins
According to Slate, "right-to-work" laws are derived from legislation forbidding unions from forcing strikes on workers, as well as from legal principles such as "liberty of contract," which as applied here sought to prevent passage of laws regulating workplace conditions.[8]
According to PandoDaily and NSFWCORP, the term itself was coined by Vance Muse, a Republican operative who headed an early "right-to-work" group, the "Christian American Association", to replace the term "American Plan" after it became associated with the anti-union violence of the First Red Scare.[9][10] Muse used racist rhetoric in his defense of "right-to-work" laws.[9][10]
According to the Conservative think tank, the American Enterprise Institute, the term "right to work" was coined by Dallas Morning News editorial writer William Ruggles.[11]
(An unrelated use of term "right to work" had been coined by French socialist leader Louis Blanc before 1848.[12])
Wagner Act (1935)
The National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Second New Deal." Among other things, the Act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:
A closed shop, in which employees must be members of the union as a condition of employment. Under a closed shop, an employee who ceased being a member of the union for whatever reason, from failure to pay dues to expulsion from the union as an internal disciplinary punishment, was required to be fired even if the employee did not violate any of the employer's rules.
A union shop, which allows for hiring non-union employees, provided that the employees then join the union within a certain period.
An agency shop, in which employees must pay the equivalent of the cost of union representation, but need not formally join the union.
An open shop, in which an employee cannot be compelled to join or pay the equivalent of dues to a union or be fired for joining the union.[13]
The Act tasked the National Labor Relations Board, which had existed since 1933, with overseeing the rules.
Taft–Hartley Act (1947)
In 1947 Congress passed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, generally known as the Taft–Hartley Act, over President Harry S. Truman's veto. The Act repealed some parts of the Wagner Act, including outlawing the closed shop. Section 14(b) of the Taft–Hartley Act also authorizes individual states (but not local governments, such as cities or counties) to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for employees working in their jurisdictions. Any state law that outlaws such arrangements is known as a "right-to-work state."
In the early development of the right-to-work policy, segregationist sentiment was used as an argument, as many people in the South felt that it was wrong for blacks and whites to belong to the same unions. Vance Muse, one of the early developers of the policy in Texas, used that argument in the development of anti-union laws in Texas in the 1940s.[14]
Current status
The federal government operates under open shop rules nationwide, but many of its employees are represented by unions. Unions that represent professional athletes have written contracts that include particular representation provisions (such as in the National Football League),[15] but their application is limited to "wherever and whenever legal," as the Supreme Court has clearly held that the application of a right-to-work law is determined by the employee's "predominant job situs."[16] Players on professional sports teams in states with right-to-work laws are thus subject to those laws and cannot be required to pay any portion of union dues as a condition of continued employment.[17]
Twenty-two states, as well as the District of Columbia, do not have right-to-work laws. Missouri's is on hold after a petition called for a statewide vote on the issue.
On November 18, 2016, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right-to-work laws in Kentucky, Ohio, and the other states of its jurisdiction.[18]
Arguments
Minority rights and due process
The first arguments concerning the right to work centered around the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, among which were challenges regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). In 1936, as a part of its ruling in Carter v. Carter Coal Co. the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating:
The effect, in respect to wages and hours, is to subject the dissentient minority ... to the will of the stated majority .... To ‘accept’ in these circumstances, is not to exercise a choice, but to surrender to force. The power conferred upon the majority is, in effect, the power to regulate the affairs of an unwilling minority. This is legislative delegation in its most obnoxious form; for it is not even delegation to an official or an official body ... but to private persons .... [A] statute which attempts to confer such power undertakes an intolerable and unconstitutional interference with personal liberty and private property. The delegation is so clearly arbitrary, and so clearly a denial of rights safeguarded by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, that it is unnecessary to do more than refer to decisions of this Court which foreclose the question.[19]
Freedom of association
Besides the U.S. Supreme Court, other proponents of right-to-work laws also point to the Constitution and the right to freedom of association. They argue that workers should both be free to join unions or to refrain, and thus, sometimes refer to non-right-to-work states as "forced unionism" states. These proponents argue that by being forced into a collective bargain, what the majoritarian unions call a fair share of collective bargaining costs is actually "financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice." An opponent to the union bargain is forced to "financially support an organization they did not vote for, in order to receive monopoly representation they have no choice over."[20]
Some religions, such as the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, prohibit or discourage the joining of unions,[21] citing Ellen White and the Loss of Free Will if you join a union.[clarification needed]
Unfairness
Proponents such as the Mackinac Center for Public Policy contend that it is unfair that unions can require new and existing employees to either join the union or pay fees for collective bargaining expenses as a condition of employment under union security agreement contracts.[22] Other proponents contend that unions may still be needed in new and growing sectors of the economy, for example, the voluntary and third party sectors, to assure adequate benefits for new immigrant, "part-time" aides in America (e.g., US Direct Support Workforce).
Political contributions
Right-to-work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers.[23] The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, resulting in "Beck rights" preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection.[24]
Cost of Living
States enforcing union security provisions in union collective bargaining agreements generally have a higher cost of living,[25] [26] however, no systematic analysis identifies union security agreements as a significant cause of this variance.
Free riders
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Opponents such as Richard Kahlenberg have argued that while it is an effective political slogan, the phrase "right-to-work" is a misnomer because the lack of such a law does not deprive anyone of the right to work. The Taft–Hartley Act (1947) outlawed the union-only "closed shops" which did deprive people of the right to work, and the "right to work" doesn't eliminate a worker's option of joining a work or labor union. A right-to-work law simply "gives employees the right to be free riders—to benefit from collective bargaining without paying for it".[27][28][6][29] Under labor laws in the United States, the union as the exclusive collective bargaining agent has a duty of fair representation for all persons in the bargaining unit, including those who choose not to be members and pay dues. Thus, in Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States permitted agency fees so that employees in the public sector could be required to pay for the costs of representation, even as they opted not to be a member. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder.[30]
Freedom of contract and association
Opponents argue that right-to-work laws restrict freedom of association, and limit the sorts of agreements individuals acting collectively can make with their employer, by prohibiting workers and employers from agreeing to contracts that include "fair share fees". Moreover, American law imposes a duty of fair representation on unions; consequently non-members in right to work states can and do force unions to provide without compensation grievance services that are paid for by union members.[31] Hence right-to-work laws are not neutral, but rather impose an active and artificial burden on labor unions.
In December 2012, libertarian writer J.D. Tuccille, in Reason magazine, wrote:
I consider the restrictions right-to-work laws impose on bargaining between unions and businesses to violate freedom of contract and association. ... I'm disappointed that the state has, once again, inserted itself into the marketplace to place its thumb on the scale in the never-ending game of playing business and labor off against one another. ... This is not to say that unions are always good. It means that, when the state isn't involved, they're private organizations that can offer value to their members.[32]
Corporate interests
Critics from organized labor have pointed out since the late 1970s[33] that while the National Right to Work Committee purports to engage in grass-roots lobbying on behalf of the "little guy", the National Right to Work Committee was formed by a group of southern businessmen with the express purpose of fighting unions, and that they "added a few workers for the purpose of public relations".[34]
The unions also contend that the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation and National Right to Work Committee have received millions of dollars in grants from foundations controlled by major U.S. industrialists like the New York-based Olin Foundation, Inc., which grew out of a family manufacturing business, but now funds primarily conservative think tanks, media outlets, and university law programs.[34][35]
Kahlenberg and Marvit also argue that, at least in efforts to pass a right-to-work law in Michigan, excluding police and firefighter unions—traditionally less hostile to Republicans—from the law caused some to question claims that the law was simply an effort to improve Michigan's businesses climate, not to seek partisan advantage.[27]
Corporate interests have now involved the growing non-profit and voluntary sectors of the economy which "achieved parity in wages and benefits" to the state, unionized workforces, while not assuring provisions such as adverse hearings which benefit employees.
Studies of economic effect
According to Tim Bartik of the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, studies of the effect of right-to-work laws "abound," but are not "consistent." Studies have found both "some positive effect on job growth," and no effect.[36] Thomas Holmes argues that it is difficult to analyze right-to-work laws by comparing states due to other similarities between states that have passed these laws. For instance, right-to-work states often have some strong pro-business policies, making it difficult to isolate the effect of right-to-work laws.[37] Looking at the growth of states in the Southeast following World War II, Bartik notes that while they have right-to-work laws they have also benefited from "factors like the widespread use of air conditioning and different modes of transportation that helped decentralize manufacturing".[38]
Economist Thomas Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right-to-work laws (thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate). He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right-to-work states was 26 percentage points greater than that in the non-right-to-work states.[39] However, given the study design, Holmes points out "my results do not say that it is right-to-work laws that matter, but rather that the 'probusiness package' offered by right-to-work states seems to matter."[40] Moreover, as noted by Kevin Drum and others, this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth, since "businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax."[41]
A February 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute found:[28]
Wages in right-to-work states are 3.2% lower than those in non-RTW states, after controlling for a full complement of individual demographic and socioeconomic variables as well as state macroeconomic indicators. Using the average wage in non-RTW states as the base ($22.11), the average full-time, full-year worker in an RTW state makes about $1,500 less annually than a similar worker in a non-RTW state. The study goes on to say "How much of this difference can be attributed to RTW status itself? There is an inherent “endogeneity” problem in any attempt to answer that question, namely that RTW and non-RTW states differ on a wide variety of measures that are also related to compensation, making it difficult to isolate the impact of RTW status."[28]
The rate of employer-sponsored health insurance (ESI) is 2.6 percentage points lower in RTW states compared with non-RTW states, after controlling for individual, job, and state-level characteristics. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive ESI at this lower rate, 2 million fewer workers nationally would be covered.
The rate of employer-sponsored pensions is 4.8 percentage points lower in RTW states, using the full complement of control variables in [the study's] regression model. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive pensions at this lower rate, 3.8 million fewer workers nationally would have pensions.
A 2008 editorial in The Wall Street Journal comparing job growth in Ohio and Texas stated that from 1998 to 2008, Ohio lost 10,400 jobs, while Texas gained 1,615,000. The opinion piece suggested right-to-work laws might be among the reasons for the economic expansion in Texas, along with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the absence of a state income tax in Texas.[42] Another Wall Street Journal editorial in 2012, by the president and the labor policy director of the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, reported 71% employment growth in right-to-work states from 1980 to 2011, while employment in non-right-to-work states grew just 32% during the same period.[43] The 2012 editorial also stated that since 2001, compensation in right-to-work states had increased 4 times faster than in other states.[43]
Polling
In January 2012, in the immediate aftermath of passage of Indiana's right-to-work law, Rasmussen Reports found that 74% of likely U.S. voters supported right-to-work laws, but "most also don’t think a non-union worker should enjoy benefits negotiated by the union."[44]
In Michigan in January through March 2013, a poll found that 43 percent of those polled thought the law would help Michigan's economy, while 41 percent thought it would hurt.[45]
U.S. states with right-to-work laws
Right-to-work states shown in turquoise.
The following states (28) are right-to-work states:
Alabama (adopted 1953, Constitution 2016)
Arizona (Constitution, State Constitution Article 25 approved 1946)[46] (adopted 1944)
Arkansas (Constitution, 1947, Amendment 34)
Florida (Constitution, 1944, revised 1968, Article 1, Section 6)[47]
Georgia (adopted 1947)
Idaho (adopted 1985)
Indiana[4] (State law, 2012)
Iowa (adopted 1947)
Kansas (Constitution, 1958, Article 15, Section 12)
Kentucky (adopted 2017)
Louisiana (adopted 1976)
Michigan (State law, 2012)[3]
Mississippi (Constitution, adopted 1954)
Missouri (adopted 2017) (Postponed by petition to 2018 for citizen voting)
Nebraska (Constitution and statute, adopted 1946)
Nevada (adopted 1951)
North Carolina (adopted 1947)
North Dakota (adopted 1947)
Oklahoma (Constitution, adopted 2001)
South Carolina[48] (adopted 1954)
South Dakota (adopted 1946)
Tennessee (adopted 1947)
Texas[49] (adopted 1947, revised 1993)
Utah (adopted 1955)
Virginia (adopted 1947)
West Virginia (adopted 2016) (Went into effect September 2017 due to lower court injunctions)
Wisconsin (adopted 2015)
Wyoming (adopted 1963)
In addition, the territory of Guam also has right-to-work laws, and employees of the US Federal Government have the right to choose whether or not to join their respective unions.[50]
New Hampshire adopted a right-to-work bill in 1947, but it was repealed in 1949 by the state legislature and governor.[51]
See also
At-will employment
Closed shop/open shop
United States labor law
References
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Dinan, Elizabeth (January 14, 2011). "N.H. Rep. proposes right to work law". Seacoast Online. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
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External links
Find more aboutRight-to-work lawat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Opposed to right-to-work laws
Wisconsin Contractor Coalition
Supported right-to-work laws
Wisconsin Manufacturers and Commerce
Michigan Chamber of Commerce
National Right to Work Committee
National Right to Work Legal Defense Fund
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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Scheme of a liposome formed by phospholipids in an aqueous solution.
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes (not to be confused with lysosomes). If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Vesicles perform a variety of functions. Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control,[1] and temporary storage of food and enzymes . They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
Sarfus image of lipid vesicles.
IUPAC definition
Closed structure formed by amphiphilic molecules that contains solvent (usually water).[2]
The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by James Rothman, Randy Schekman and Thomas Südhof for their roles (building upon earlier research, some of it by their mentors) on the makeup and function of cell vesicles, especially in yeasts and in humans, including information on each vesicle's parts and how they are assembled. Vesicle dysfunction is thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, some hard-to-treat cases of epilepsy, some cancers and immunological disorders and certain neurovascular conditions.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of vesicle
1.1 Vacuoles
1.2 Lysosomes
1.3 Transport vesicles
1.4 Secretory vesicles
1.4.1 Types
1.5 Extracellular vesicles
1.5.1 Types
1.6 Other types
2 Formation and transport
2.1 Vesicle coat and cargo molecules
2.2 Vesicle docking
2.3 Vesicle fusion
2.4 In receptor downregulation
2.5 Preparation
2.5.1 Isolated vesicles
2.6 Artificial vesicles
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Types of vesicle[edit]
Electron micrograph of a cell containing a food vacuole (fv) and transport vacuole (TV) in a malaria parasite.
Vacuoles[edit]
Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole in the center of the cell that is used for osmotic control and nutrient storage.
Contractile vacuoles are found in certain protists, especially those in Phylum Ciliophora. These vacuoles take water from the cytoplasm and excrete it from the cell to avoid bursting due to osmotic pressure.
Lysosomes[edit]
Lysosomes are involved in cellular digestion. Food can be taken from outside the cell into food vacuoles by a process called endocytosis. These food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes which break down the components so that they can be used in the cell. This form of cellular eating is called phagocytosis.
Lysosomes are also used to destroy defective or damaged organelles in a process called autophagy. They fuse with the membrane of the damaged organelle, digesting it.
Transport vesicles[edit]
Transport vesicles can move molecules between locations inside the cell, e.g., proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
Membrane-bound and secreted proteins are made on ribosomes found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Most of these proteins mature in the Golgi apparatus before going to their final destination which may be to lysosomes, peroxisomes, or outside of the cell. These proteins travel within the cell inside of transport vesicles.
Secretory vesicles[edit]
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed.
Types[edit]
Synaptic vesicles are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons and store neurotransmitters. When a signal comes down an axon, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane releasing the neurotransmitter so that it can be detected by receptor molecules on the next nerve cell.
In animals endocrine tissues release hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones are stored within secretory vesicles. A good example is the endocrine tissue found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This tissue contains many cell types that are defined by which hormones they produce.
Secretory vesicles hold the enzymes that are used to make the cell walls of plants, protists, fungi, bacteria and Archaea cells as well as the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
Bacteria, Archaea, fungi and parasites release membrane vesicles (MVs) containing varied but specialized toxic compounds and biochemical signal molecules, which are transported to target cells to initiate processes in favour of the microbe, which include invasion of host cells and killing of competing microbes in the same niche.[5]
Extracellular vesicles[edit]
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life including complex eukaryotes, both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi.
Types[edit]
Exosomes: membraneous vesicles of endocytic origin (50-100 nm diameter)[6]:Table 1 enriched in CD63 and CD81.[6]
microvesicle (also referred to as shedding microvesicles, SMVs[citation needed]), that are shed directly from the plasma membrane (20–1000 nm[6]:Table 1).
membrane particles (50–80 nm), or large membranous vesicles (~600 nm) CD133+, CD63−[6]
Apoptotic blebs or vesicles (1000–5000 nm diameter): released by dying cells.[6]:Table 1
These are often separated by density[6]:Table 1 by differential centrifugation.
Ectosomes were named in 2008, but in 2012 are not considered a separate type.[6]
In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management.[6] The extracellular vesicles of (mesenchymal) stem cells, also known as the secretome of stem cells, are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly degenerative, auto-immune and/or inflammatory diseases. [7]
In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host-pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.[8]
Ocean cyanobacteria have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open-ocean seawater samples.[9]
Other types[edit]
Main article: Gas vesicle
Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. These vesicles are typically lemon-shaped or cylindrical tubes made out of protein;[10] their diameter determines the strength of the vesicle with larger ones being weaker. The diameter of the vesicle also affects it's volume and how efficiently it can provide buoyancy. In cyanobacteria natural selection has worked to create vesicles that are at the maximum diameter possible while still being structurally stable. The protein skin is permeable to gasses but not water, keeping the vesicles from flooding.[11]
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy they were discovered independently in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson[12] and Ermanno Bonucci.[13] These cell-derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self-destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium-loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine:calcium:phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue's matrix unless the Golgi are non-existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane-bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.
Formation and transport[edit]
Cell biology
The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome (little dots)
Vesicle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
Cytoskeleton
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the cytoplasm)
Lysosome
Centrosome
Cell membrane
Some vesicles are made when part of the membrane pinches off the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi complex. Others are made when an object outside of the cell is surrounded by the cell membrane.
Vesicle coat and cargo molecules[edit]
The vesicle "coat" is a collection of proteins that serve to shape the curvature of a donor membrane, forming the rounded vesicle shape. Coat proteins can also function to bind to various transmembrane receptor proteins, called cargo receptors. These receptors help select what material is endocytosed in receptor-mediated endocytosis or intracellular transport.
There are three types of vesicle coats: clathrin, COPI and COPII. The various types of coat proteins help with sorting of vesicles to their final destination. Clathrin coats are found on vesicles trafficking between the Golgi and plasma membrane, the Golgi and endosomes and the plasma membrane and endosomes. COPI coated vesicles are responsible for retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER, while COPII coated vesicles are responsible for anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi.
The clathrin coat is thought to assemble in response to regulatory G protein. A protein coat assembles and disassembles due to an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) protein.
Vesicle docking[edit]
Surface proteins called SNAREs identify the vesicle's cargo and complementary SNAREs on the target membrane act to cause fusion of the vesicle and target membrane. Such v-SNARES are hypothesised to exist on the vesicle membrane, while the complementary ones on the target membrane are known as t-SNAREs.
Often SNAREs associated with vesicles or target membranes are instead classified as Qa, Qb, Qc, or R SNAREs owing to further variation than simply v- or t-SNAREs. An array of different SNARE complexes can be seen in different tissues and subcellular compartments, with 36 isoforms currently identified in humans.
Regulatory Rab proteins are thought to inspect the joining of the SNAREs. Rab protein is a regulatory GTP-binding protein and controls the binding of these complementary SNAREs for a long enough time for the Rab protein to hydrolyse its bound GTP and lock the vesicle onto the membrane.
Vesicle fusion[edit]
Further information: Vesicle fusion
Vesicle fusion can occur in one of two ways: full fusion or kiss-and-run fusion. Fusion requires the two membranes to be brought within 1.5 nm of each other. For this to occur water must be displaced from the surface of the vesicle membrane. This is energetically unfavorable and evidence suggests that the process requires ATP, GTP and acetyl-coA. Fusion is also linked to budding, which is why the term budding and fusing arises.
In receptor downregulation[edit]
Membrane proteins serving as receptors are sometimes tagged for downregulation by the attachment of ubiquitin. After arriving an endosome via the pathway described above, vesicles begin to form inside the endosome, taking with them the membrane proteins meant for degradation; When the endosome either matures to become a lysosome or is united with one, the vesicles are completely degraded. Without this mechanism, only the extracellular part of the membrane proteins would reach the lumen of the lysosome and only this part would be degraded.[14]
It is because of these vesicles that the endosome is sometimes known as a multivesicular body. The pathway to their formation is not completely understood; unlike the other vesicles described above, the outer surface of the vesicles is not in contact with the cytosol.
Preparation[edit]
Isolated vesicles[edit]
Producing membrane vesicles is one of the methods to investigate various membranes of the cell. After the living tissue is crushed into suspension, various membranes form tiny closed bubbles. Big fragments of the crushed cells can be discarded by low-speed centrifugation and later the fraction of the known origin (plasmalemma, tonoplast, etc.) can be isolated by precise high-speed centrifugation in the density gradient. Using osmotic shock, it is possible temporarily open vesicles (filling them with the required solution) and then centrifugate down again and resuspend in a different solution. Applying ionophores like valinomycin can create electrochemical gradients comparable to the gradients inside living cells.
Vesicles are mainly used in two types of research:
To find and later isolate membrane receptors that specifically bind hormones and various other important substances.[15]
To investigate transport of various ions or other substances across the membrane of the given type.[16] While transport can be more easily investigated with patch clamp techniques, vesicles can also be isolated from objects for which a patch clamp is not applicable.
Artificial vesicles[edit]
Phospholipid vesicles have also been studied in biochemistry. For such studies, a homogeneous phospholipid vesicle suspension can be prepared by extrusion or sonication,[17] injection of a phospholipid solution into the aqueous buffer solution membranes.[18] In this way aqueous vesicle solutions can be prepared of different phospholipid composition, as well as different sizes of vesicles.
See also[edit]
Bleb (cell biology)
DODAB
Host-pathogen interface
Membrane contact sites
Membrane nanotube
Membrane vesicle trafficking
Micelle
Microsome
Protocell
Spitzenkörper, a structure of many small vesicles found in fungal hyphae
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Walsby AE (1994). "Gas vesicles". Microbiological reviews. 58 (1): 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173.
Jump up ^ "Terminology of polymers and polymerization processes in dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (12): 2229–2259. 2011. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Nobel medical prize goes to 2 Americans, 1 German". CNN. 2005-10-19. Retrieved 2013-10-09.
Jump up ^ 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, press release 2013-10-07
Jump up ^ Deatherage, B. L.; Cookson, B. T. (2012). "Membrane Vesicle Release in Bacteria, Eukaryotes, and Archaea: a Conserved yet Underappreciated Aspect of Microbial Life". Infection and Immunity. 80 (6): 1948–1957. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 3370574  . PMID 22409932. doi:10.1128/IAI.06014-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h van der Pol, Edwin; Böing, Anita N.; Harrison, Paul; Sturk, Augueste; Nieuwland, Rienk (2012-07-01). "Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (3): 676–705. ISSN 1521-0081. PMID 22722893. doi:10.1124/pr.112.005983. Free full text
Jump up ^ Teixeira, Fábio G.; Carvalho, Miguel M.; Sousa, Nuno; Salgado, António J. (2013-10-01). "Mesenchymal stem cells secretome: a new paradigm for central nervous system regeneration?". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 70 (20): 3871–3882. ISSN 1420-682X. doi:10.1007/s00018-013-1290-8.
Jump up ^ Kuehn, Meta J.; Kesty, Nicole C. (2005-11-15). "Bacterial outer membrane vesicles and the host-pathogen interaction". Genes & Development. 19 (22): 2645–2655. ISSN 0890-9369. PMID 16291643. doi:10.1101/gad.1299905.
Jump up ^ Biller, Steven J.; Schubotz, Florence; Roggensack, Sara E; Thompson, Anne W.; Summons, Roger E.; Chisholm, Sallie W. (2014-01-10). "Bacterial Vesicles in Marine Ecosystems". Science. 343 (6167): 183–186. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 24408433. doi:10.1126/science.1243457.
Jump up ^ Pfeifer F (2012). "Distribution, formation and regulation of gas vesicles". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 10 (10): 705–15. PMID 22941504. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2834.
Jump up ^ Walsby, Anthony (March 1994). "Gas Vesicles" (PDF). Microbiological Reviews. 58: 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173. Retrieved Jan 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Anderson HC (1967). "Electron microscopic studies of induced cartilage development and calcification". J. Cell Biol. 35 (1): 81–101. PMC 2107116  . PMID 6061727. doi:10.1083/jcb.35.1.81.
Jump up ^ Bonucci E (1967). "Fine structure of early cartilage calcification". J. Ultrastruct. Res. 20 (1): 33–50. PMID 4195919. doi:10.1016/S0022-5320(67)80034-0.
Jump up ^ Katzmann DJ, Odorizzi G, Emr SD (2002). "Receptor downregulation and multivesicular-body sorting" (PDF). Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3 (12): 893–905. PMID 12461556. doi:10.1038/nrm973.
Jump up ^ Sidhu VK, Vorhölter FJ, Niehaus K, Watt SA (2008). "Analysis of outer membrane vesicle associated proteins isolated from the plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris". BMC Microbiol. 8: 87. PMC 2438364  . PMID 18518965. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-8-87.
Jump up ^ Scherer GG, Martiny-Baron G (1985). "K+
/H+
exchange transport in plantmembranevesicles is evidence for K+
transport". Plant Science. 41 (3): 161–8. doi:10.1016/0168-9452(85)90083-4.
Jump up ^ Barenholz, Y.; Gibbes, D.; Litman, B. J.; Goll, J.; Thompson, T. E.; Carlson, F. D. (1977). "A simple method for the preparation of homogeneous phospholipid vesicles". Biochemistry. 16 (12): 2806–10. PMID 889789. doi:10.1021/bi00631a035.
Jump up ^ Batzri S, Korn ED (April 1973). "Single bilayer liposomes prepared without sonication". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 298 (4): 1015–9. PMID 4738145. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(73)90408-2.
Further reading[edit]
Alberts, Bruce; et al. (1998). Essential Cell Biology: An Introduction to the Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Pub. ISBN 978-0-8153-2971-8.
External links[edit]
Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
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values: حويصلة (أحياء) – Arabic

values: Секреторно мехурче – Bulgarian

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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezikula
Vezikula – Bosnian
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https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezikul
Vezikul – Czech
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesikel
Vesikel – Danish
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values: Κυστίδιο – Greek

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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veziketo
Veziketo – Esperanto
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https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besikula
Besikula – Basque
eu
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values: وزیکول – Persian

values: Ներառուկ – Armenian

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezikula
Vezikula – Croatian
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesikel
Vesikel – Indonesian
id
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values: בועית – Hebrew

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https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicula
Vesicula – Latin
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Vesikkel – Norwegian
no
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values: Везикула – Russian

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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezikula
Vezikula – Serbo-Croatian
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesikkeli
Vesikkeli – Finnish
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Vesikel – Swedish
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