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Symbol (chemistry)
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In relation to the chemical elements, a symbol is a code for a chemical element.[nb 1] Many functional groups has their own chemical symbol, e.g. Ph for the phenyl group, and Me for the methyl group. Chemical symbols for elements normally consist of one or two letters from the Latin alphabet, but can contain three when the element has a systematic temporary name (as of March 2017, no discovered elements have such a name), and are written with the first letter capitalized.
Earlier chemical element symbols stem from classical Latin and Greek vocabulary. For some elements, this is because the material was known in ancient times, while for others, the name is a more recent invention. For example, "He" is the symbol for helium (New Latin name, not known in ancient Roman times), "Pb" for lead (plumbum in Latin), and "Hg" for mercury (hydrargyrum in Greek). Some symbols come from other sources, like "W" for tungsten (Wolfram in German, not known in Roman times).
Temporary symbols assigned to newly or not-yet synthesized elements use 3-letter symbols based on their atomic numbers. For example, "Uno" was the temporary symbol for hassium (element 108) which had the temporary name of unniloctium.
Chemical symbols may be modified by the use of prepended superscripts or subscripts to specify a particular isotope of an atom. Additionally, appended superscripts may be used to indicate the ionization or oxidation state of an element. They are widely used in chemistry and they have been officially chosen by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. There are also some historical symbols that are no longer officially used.
This is an example of an atomic symbol. The text boxes explain where the numbers are derived from.
Attached subscripts or superscripts specifying a nucleotide or molecule have the following meanings and positions:
The nucleon number (mass number) is shown in the left superscript position (e.g., 14N). This number defines the specific isotope. Various letters, such as "m" and "f" may also be used here to indicate a nuclear isomer (e.g., 99mTc). Alternately, the number here can represent a specific spin state (e.g., 1O2). These details can be omitted if not relevant in a certain context.
The proton number (atomic number) may be indicated in the left subscript position (e.g., 64Gd). The atomic number is redundant to the chemical element, but is sometimes used to emphasize the change of numbers of nucleons in a nuclear reaction.
If necessary, a state of ionization or an excited state may be indicated in the right superscript position (e.g., state of ionization Ca2+).
The number of atoms of an element in a molecule or chemical compound is shown in the right subscript position (e.g., N2 or Fe2O3). If this number is one, it is normally omitted - the number one is then implicit.
A radical is indicated by a dot on the right side (e.g., Cl• for a neutral chlorine atom). This is often omitted unless relevant to a certain context because it is already deducible from the charge and atomic number information values.
In Chinese each chemical element has a dedicated character, usually created for the purpose (see Chemical elements in East Asian languages). However, Latin symbols are also used, especially in formulas.
The periodic table, elements being denoted by their symbols
A list of current, dated, as well as proposed and historical signs and symbols is included here with its signification. Also given is each element's atomic number, atomic weight or the atomic mass of the most stable isotope, group and period numbers on the periodic table, and etymology of the symbol.
Hazard pictographs are another type of symbols used in chemistry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Symbols for chemical elements
2 Symbols and names not currently used
2.1 Pictographic symbols
3 Symbols for named isotopes
4 Other symbols
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Symbols for chemical elements[edit]
[hide]List of chemical elements
Z[I]
Symbol
Element
Origin of name[1][2]
Group
Period
Atomic weight[3][4] (u (±))
Density (g/cm3)
Melt (K) [5]
Boil (K)
C[I] (J/g · K)
χ[I]
Abundance in Earth's crust[II] (mg/kg)
1 H Hydrogen composed of the Greek elements hydro- and -gen meaning 'water-forming' 1 1 001 !1.008[III][IV][V][VI] 0.00008988 0014 !14.01 20.28 14.304 2.20 1400
2 He Helium the Greek helios, 'sun' 18 1 004 !4.002602(2)[III][V] 0.0001785 0.1 !—[VII] 4.22 5.193 – 0.008
3 Li Lithium the Greek lithos, 'stone' 1 2 007 !6.94[III][IV][V][VIII][VI] 0.534 0454 !453.69 1560 3.582 0.98 20
4 Be Beryllium beryl, a mineral 2 2 009 !9.0121831(5) 1.85 1560 !1560 2742 1.825 1.57 2.8
5 B Boron borax, a mineral 13 2 011 !10.81[III][IV][V][VI] 2.34 2349 !2349 4200 1.026 2.04 10
6 C Carbon the Latin carbo, 'coal' 14 2 012 !12.011[III][V][VI] 2.267 3800 !3800 4300 0.709 2.55 200
7 N Nitrogen the Greek nitron and '-gen' meaning 'niter-forming' 15 2 014 !14.007[III][V][VI] 0.0012506 0063 !63.15 77.36 1.04 3.04 19
8 O Oxygen from the Greek oxy-, both 'sharp' and 'acid', and -gen, meaning 'acid-forming' 16 2 016 !15.999[III][V][VI] 0.001429 0054 !54.36 90.20 0.918 3.44 461000
9 F Fluorine the Latin fluere, 'to flow' 17 2 019 !18.998403163(6) 0.001696 0053.5 !53.53 85.03 0.824 3.98 585
10 Ne Neon the Greek neos, meaning 'new' 18 2 020 !20.1797(6)[III][IV] 0.0008999 0024.56 !24.56 27.07 1.03 – 0.005
11 Na Sodium the English word soda (natrium in Latin) 1 3 023 !22.98976928(2) 0.971 0371 !370.87 1156 1.228 0.93 23600
12 Mg Magnesium Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece 2 3 024 !24.305[VI] 1.738 0923 !923 1363 1.023 1.31 23300
13 Al Aluminium from alumina, a compound (originally aluminum) 13 3 027 !26.9815385(7) 2.698 0933.5 !933.47 2792 0.897 1.61 82300
14 Si Silicon from the Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium) 14 3 028 !28.085[V][VI] 2.3296 1687 !1687 3538 0.705 1.9 282000
15 P Phosphorus the Greek phoosphoros, 'carrying light' 15 3 031 !30.973761998(5) 1.82 0317.3 !317.30 550 0.769 2.19 1050
16 S Sulfur the Latin sulphur, 'fire and brimstone' 16 3 032 !32.06[III][V][VI] 2.067 0388.4 !388.36 717.87 0.71 2.58 350
17 Cl Chlorine the Greek chloros, 'greenish yellow' 17 3 035 !35.45[III][IV][V][VI] 0.003214 0171.6 !171.6 239.11 0.479 3.16 145
18 Ar Argon the Greek argos, 'idle' 18 3 040 !39.948(1)[III][V] 0.0017837 0083.8 !83.80 87.30 0.52 – 3.5
19 K Potassium New Latin potassa, 'potash' (kalium in Latin) 1 4 039 !39.0983(1) 0.862 0336.5 !336.53 1032 0.757 0.82 20900
20 Ca Calcium the Latin calx, 'lime' 2 4 041 !40.078(4)[III] 1.54 1115 !1115 1757 0.647 1 41500
21 Sc Scandium Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia 3 4 045 !44.955908(5) 2.989 1814 !1814 3109 0.568 1.36 22
22 Ti Titanium Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology 4 4 048 !47.867(1) 4.54 1941 !1941 3560 0.523 1.54 5650
23 V Vanadium Vanadis, an Old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja 5 4 051 !50.9415(1) 6.11 2183 !2183 3680 0.489 1.63 120
24 Cr Chromium the Greek chroma, 'color' 6 4 052 !51.9961(6) 7.15 2180 !2180 2944 0.449 1.66 102
25 Mn Manganese corrupted from magnesia negra, see Magnesium 7 4 055 !54.938044(3) 7.44 1519 !1519 2334 0.479 1.55 950
26 Fe Iron English word (ferrum in Latin) 8 4 056 !55.845(2) 7.874 1811 !1811 3134 0.449 1.83 56300
27 Co Cobalt the German word Kobold, 'goblin' 9 4 059 !58.933194(4) 8.86 1768 !1768 3200 0.421 1.88 25
28 Ni Nickel from Swedish kopparnickel, containing the German word Nickel, 'goblin' 10 4 058 !58.6934(4) 8.912 1728 !1728 3186 0.444 1.91 84
29 Cu Copper English word (Latin cuprum) 11 4 064 !63.546(3)[V] 8.96 1357.77 2835 0.385 1.9 60
30 Zn Zinc the German Zink 12 4 065 !65.38(2) 7.134 0693 !692.88 1180 0.388 1.65 70
31 Ga Gallium Gallia, the Latin name for France 13 4 070 !69.723(1) 5.907 0302.9 !302.9146 2673 0.371 1.81 19
32 Ge Germanium Germania, the Latin name for Germany 14 4 073 !72.630(8) 5.323 1211.40 3106 0.32 2.01 1.5
33 As Arsenic English word (Latin arsenicum) 15 4 075 !74.921595(6) 5.776 1090 !1090 [IX] 887 0.329 2.18 1.8
34 Se Selenium the Greek selene, 'moon' 16 4 079 !78.971(8)[V] 4.809 0453 !453 958 0.321 2.55 0.05
35 Br Bromine the Greek bromos, 'stench' 17 4 080 !79.904[VI] 3.122 0265.8 !265.8 332.0 0.474 2.96 2.4
36 Kr Krypton the Greek kryptos, 'hidden' 18 4 084 !83.798(2)[III][IV] 0.003733 0115.8 !115.79 119.93 0.248 3 .0001 !1×10−4
37 Rb Rubidium the Latin rubidus, 'deep red' 1 5 085 !85.4678(3)[III] 1.532 0312.5 !312.46 961 0.363 0.82 90
38 Sr Strontium Strontian, a small town in Scotland 2 5 087 !87.62(1)[III][V] 2.64 1050 1655 0.301 0.95 370
39 Y Yttrium Ytterby, Sweden 3 5 089 !88.90584(2) 4.469 1799 3609 0.298 1.22 33
40 Zr Zirconium Persian Zargun, 'gold-colored'; German Zirkoon, 'jargoon' 4 5 091 !91.224(2)[III] 6.506 2128 4682 0.278 1.33 165
41 Nb Niobium Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology 5 5 093 !92.90637(2) 8.57 2750 5017 0.265 1.6 20
42 Mo Molybdenum the Greek molybdos meaning 'lead' 6 5 096 !95.95(1)[III] 10.22 2896 4912 0.251 2.16 1.2
43 Tc Technetium the Greek tekhnètos meaning 'artificial' 7 5 098 ![98][X] 11.5 2430 4538 – 1.9 .000000003 !~ 3×10−9[XI]
44 Ru Ruthenium Ruthenia, the New Latin name for Russia 8 5 101.07(2)[III] 12.37 2607 4423 0.238 2.2 0.001
45 Rh Rhodium the Greek rhodos, meaning 'rose coloured' 9 5 102.90550(2) 12.41 2237 3968 0.243 2.28 0.001
46 Pd Palladium the then recently discovered asteroid Pallas, considered a planet at the time 10 5 106.42(1)[III] 12.02 1828.05 3236 0.244 2.2 0.015
47 Ag Silver English word (argentum in Latin) 11 5 107.8682(2)[III] 10.501 1234.93 2435 0.235 1.93 0.075
48 Cd Cadmium the New Latin cadmia, from King Kadmos 12 5 112.414(4)[III] 8.69 0594.22 !594.22 1040 0.232 1.69 0.159
49 In Indium indigo 13 5 114.818(1) 7.31 0429.75 !429.75 2345 0.233 1.78 0.25
50 Sn Tin English word (stannum in Latin) 14 5 118.710(7)[III] 7.287 0505.08 !505.08 2875 0.228 1.96 2.3
51 Sb Antimony uncertain: perhaps from the Greek anti, 'against', and monos, 'alone', or the Old French antimoine, 'Monk's bane' (stibium in Latin) 15 5 121.760(1)[III] 6.685 0903.78 !903.78 1860 0.207 2.05 0.2
52 Te Tellurium Latin tellus, 'earth' 16 5 127.60(3)[III] 6.232 0722.66 !722.66 1261 0.202 2.1 0.001
53 I Iodine French iode (after the Greek ioeides, 'violet') 17 5 126.90447(3) 4.93 0386.85 !386.85 457.4 0.214 2.66 0.45
54 Xe Xenon the Greek xenos, 'strange' 18 5 131.293(6)[III][IV] 0.005887 0161.4 !161.4 165.03 0.158 2.6 .00003 !3×10−5
55 Cs Caesium the Latin caesius, 'sky blue' 1 6 132.90545196(6) 1.873 0301.59 !301.59 944 0.242 0.79 3
56 Ba Barium the Greek barys, 'heavy' 2 6 137.327(7) 3.594 1000 2170 0.204 0.89 425
57 La Lanthanum the Greek lanthanein, 'to lie hidden' 3 6 138.90547(7)[III] 6.145 1193 3737 0.195 1.1 39
58 Ce Cerium the then recently discovered asteroid Ceres, considered a planet at the time 6 140.116(1)[III] 6.77 1068 3716 0.192 1.12 66.5
59 Pr Praseodymium the Greek praseios didymos meaning 'green twin' 6 140.90766(2) 6.773 1208 3793 0.193 1.13 9.2
60 Nd Neodymium the Greek neos didymos meaning 'new twin' 6 144.242(3)[III] 7.007 1297 3347 0.19 1.14 41.5
61 Pm Promethium Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humans 6 145 ![145][X] 7.26 1315 3273 – 1.13 .0000000000000000002 !2×10−19[XI]
62 Sm Samarium Samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it was first isolated 6 150.36(2)[III] 7.52 1345 2067 0.197 1.17 7.05
63 Eu Europium Europe 6 151.964(1)[III] 5.243 1099 1802 0.182 1.2 2
64 Gd Gadolinium Johan Gadolin, chemist, physicist and mineralogist 6 157.25(3)[III] 7.895 1585 3546 0.236 1.2 6.2
65 Tb Terbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 158.92535(2) 8.229 1629 3503 0.182 1.2 1.2
66 Dy Dysprosium the Greek dysprositos, 'hard to get' 6 162.500(1)[III] 8.55 1680 2840 0.17 1.22 5.2
67 Ho Holmium Holmia, the New Latin name for Stockholm 6 164.93033(2) 8.795 1734 2993 0.165 1.23 1.3
68 Er Erbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 167.259(3)[III] 9.066 1802 3141 0.168 1.24 3.5
69 Tm Thulium Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia 6 168.93422(2) 9.321 1818 2223 0.16 1.25 0.52
70 Yb Ytterbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 173.045(10)[III] 6.965 1097 1469 0.155 1.1 3.2
71 Lu Lutetium Lutetia, the Latin name for Paris 6 174.9668(1)[III] 9.84 1925 3675 0.154 1.27 0.8
72 Hf Hafnium Hafnia, the New Latin name for Copenhagen 4 6 178.49(2) 13.31 2506 4876 0.144 1.3 3
73 Ta Tantalum King Tantalus, father of Niobe from Greek mythology 5 6 180.94788(2) 16.654 3290 5731 0.14 1.5 2
74 W Tungsten the Swedish tung sten, 'heavy stone' (W is wolfram, the old name of the tungsten mineral wolframite) 6 6 183.84(1) 19.25 3695 5828 0.132 2.36 1.3
75 Re Rhenium Rhenus, the Latin name for the river Rhine 7 6 186.207(1) 21.02 3459 5869 0.137 1.9 .0007 !7×10−4
76 Os Osmium the Greek osmè, meaning 'smell' 8 6 190.23(3)[III] 22.61 3306 5285 0.13 2.2 0.002
77 Ir Iridium Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow 9 6 192.217(3) 22.56 2719 4701 0.131 2.2 0.001
78 Pt Platinum the Spanish platina, meaning 'little silver' 10 6 195.084(9) 21.46 2041.4 4098 0.133 2.28 0.005
79 Au Gold English word (aurum in Latin) 11 6 196.966569(5) 19.282 1337.33 3129 0.129 2.54 0.004
80 Hg Mercury the New Latin name mercurius, named after the Roman god (Hg from former name hydrargyrum, from Greek hydr-, 'water', and argyros, 'silver') 12 6 200.592(3) 13.5336 0234.43 !234.43 629.88 0.14 2 0.085
81 Tl Thallium the Greek thallos, 'green twig' 13 6 204.38[VI] 11.85 0577 !577 1746 0.129 1.62 0.85
82 Pb Lead English word (plumbum in Latin) 14 6 207.2(1)[III][V] 11.342 0600.61 !600.61 2022 0.129 1.87 14
83 Bi Bismuth Uncertain, possibly Arabic or German 15 6 208.98040(1)[X] 9.807 0544.7 !544.7 1837 0.122 2.02 0.009
84 Po Polonium Named after the home country of Marie Curie (Polonia, Latin for Poland), who is also the discoverer of Radium 16 6 209 ![209][X] 9.32 0527 !527 1235 – 2.0 .0000000002 !2×10−10[XI]
85 At Astatine the Greek astatos, 'unstable' 17 6 210 ![210][X] 7 0575 !575 610 – 2.2 0.000000000000000000003 !3×10−20[XI]
86 Rn Radon From radium, as it was first detected as an emission from radium during radioactive decay 18 6 222 ![222][X] 0.00973 0202 !202 211.3 0.094 2.2 .0000000000004 !4×10−13[XI]
87 Fr Francium Francia, the New Latin name for France 1 7 223 ![223][X] 1.87 0300 !300 950 – 0.7 0.000000000000000001 !~ 1×10−18[XI]
88 Ra Radium the Latin radius, 'ray' 2 7 223 ![226][X] 5.5 0973 !973 2010 0.094 0.9 .0000009 !9×10−7[XI]
89 Ac Actinium the Greek aktis, 'ray' 3 7 227 ![227][X] 10.07 1323 3471 0.12 1.1 .00000000055 !5.5×10−10[XI]
90 Th Thorium Thor, the Scandinavian god of thunder 7 232.0377(4)[X][III] 11.72 2115 5061 0.113 1.3 9.6
91 Pa Protactinium the Greek protos, 'first', and actinium, which is produced through the radioactive decay of protactinium 7 231.03588(2)[X] 15.37 1841 4300 – 1.5 .0000014 !1.4×10−6[XI]
92 U Uranium Uranus, the seventh planet in the Solar System 7 238.02891(3)[X] 18.95 1405.3 4404 0.116 1.38 2.7
93 Np Neptunium Neptune, the eighth planet in the Solar System 7 237 ![237][X] 20.45 0917 !917 4273 – 1.36 0.000000000003 !≤ 3×10−12[XI]
94 Pu Plutonium Pluto, a dwarf planet in the Solar System (then considered the ninth planet) 7 244 ![244][X] 19.84 0912.5 !912.5 3501 – 1.28 0.00000000003 !≤ 3×10−11[XI]
95 Am Americium The Americas, as the element was first synthesized on the continent, by analogy with europium 7 243 ![243][X] 13.69 1449 2880 – 1.13 0 !0[XII]
96 Cm Curium Pierre Curie, a physicist, and Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist, named after great scientists by analogy with gadolinium 7 247 ![247][X] 13.51 1613 3383 – 1.28 0 !0[XII]
97 Bk Berkelium Berkeley, California, where the element was first synthesized, by analogy with terbium 7 247 ![247][X] 14.79 1259 2900 – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
98 Cf Californium California, where the element was first synthesized 7 251 ![251][X] 15.1 1173 1743 !(1743)[XIII] – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
99 Es Einsteinium Albert Einstein, physicist 7 252 ![252][X] 8.84 1133 1269 !(1269)[XIII] – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
100 Fm Fermium Enrico Fermi, physicist 7 257 ![257][X] 9.7 !(9.7)[XIII] 1125 !(1125)[XIII] – – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
101 Md Mendelevium Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist and inventor 7 258 ![258][X] 10.3 !(10.3)[XIII] 1100 !(1100)[XIII] – – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
102 No Nobelium Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer 7 259 ![259][X] 9.9 !(9.9)[XIII] 1100 !(1100)[XIII] – – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
103 Lr Lawrencium Ernest O. Lawrence, physicist 7 266 ![266][X] 15.6 !(15.6)[XIII] 1900 !(1900)[XIII] – – 1.3 0 !0[XII]
104 Rf Rutherfordium Ernest Rutherford, chemist and physicist 4 7 267 ![267][X] 23.2 !(23.2)[XIII] 2400 !(2400)[XIII] 5800 !(5800)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
105 Db Dubnium Dubna, Russia 5 7 268 ![268][X] 29.3 !(29.3)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
106 Sg Seaborgium Glenn T. Seaborg, scientist 6 7 269 ![269][X] 35.0 !(35.0)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
107 Bh Bohrium Niels Bohr, physicist 7 7 270 ![270][X] 37.1 !(37.1)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
108 Hs Hassium Hesse, Germany, where the element was first synthesized 8 7 277 ![277][X] 40.7 !(40.7)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
109 Mt Meitnerium Lise Meitner, physicist 9 7 278 ![278][X] 37.4 !(37.4)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
110 Ds Darmstadtium Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first synthesized 10 7 281 ![281][X] 34.8 !(34.8)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
111 Rg Roentgenium Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, physicist 11 7 282 ![282][X] 28.7 !(28.7)[XIII] – – – – 0 !0[XII]
112 Cn Copernicium Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer 12 7 285 ![285][X] 23.7 !(23.7)[XIII] – 357 !~357[XIV] – – 0 !0[XII]
113 Nh Nihonium the Japanese name for Japan, Nihon, where the element was first synthesized 13 7 286 ![286][X] 16 !(16)[XIII] 0700 !(700)[XIII] 1400 !(1400)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
114 Fl Flerovium Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, part of JINR where the element was synthesized; itself named for Georgy Flyorov, physicist 14 7 289 ![289][X] 14 !(14)[XIII] – 210 !~210 – – 0 !0[XII]
115 Mc Moscovium Moscow Oblast, Russia, where the element was first synthesized 15 7 290 ![290][X] 13.5 !(13.5)[XIII] 0700 !(700)[XIII] 1400 !(1400)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
116 Lv Livermorium Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (in Livermore, California) which collaborated with JINR on its synthesis 16 7 293 ![293][X] 12.9 !(12.9)[XIII] 0709 !(709)[XIII] 1085 !(1085)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
117 Ts Tennessine Tennessee, United States 17 7 294 ![294][X] 7.2 !(7.2)[XIII] 0723 !(723)[XIII] 0883 !(883)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
118 Og Oganesson Yuri Oganessian, physicist 18 7 294 ![294][X] 5.0 !(5.0)[XIII][XV] – 350 !(350)[XIII] – – 0 !0[XII]
[show]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b c Z is the standard symbol for atomic number; C is the standard symbol for heat capacity; and χ is the standard symbol for electronegativity on the Pauling scale.
Jump up ^ Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l The value listed is the conventional atomic-weight value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Since 2009, IUPAC provides the standard atomic-weight values for these elements using the interval notation. The corresponding standard atomic weights are:
Hydrogen: [1.00784, 1.00811]
Lithium: [6.938, 6.997]
Boron: [10.806, 10.821]
Carbon: [12.0096, 12.0116]
Nitrogen: [14.00643, 14.00728]
Oxygen: [15.99903, 15.99977]
Magnesium: [24.304, 24.307]
Silicon: [28.084, 28.086]
Sulfur: [32.059, 32.076]
Chlorine: [35.446, 35.457]
Bromine: [79.901, 79.907]
Thallium: [204.382, 204.385]
Jump up ^ This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. Helium can only solidify at pressures above 25 atmospheres, which corresponds to a melting point of absolute zero.
Jump up ^ The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
Jump up ^ This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, four such elements, bismuth, thorium, protactinium, and uranium, have characteristic terrestrial isotopic compositions, and thus their standard atomic weights are given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k This element is transient – it occurs only through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x This element is synthetic – the transuranic elements 95 and above do not occur naturally, but they can all be produced artificially.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj The value has not been precisely measured, usually because of the element's short half-life; the value given in parentheses is a prediction.
Jump up ^ With error bars: 357+112
−108 K.
Jump up ^ This predicted value is for liquid oganesson, not gaseous oganesson.
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:
Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Unknown
chemical
properties
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas
Antimatter atoms are denoted by a bar above the symbol for their matter counterpart, so e.g. H is the symbol for antihydrogen.
Symbols and names not currently used[edit]
The following is a list of symbols and names formerly used or suggested for elements, including symbols for placeholder names and names given by discredited claimants for discovery.
Chemical symbol
Name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol
Why not used
Refs
A Argon 18 A used for Argon until 1957. Current symbol is Ar. [nb 2] [6]
Ab Alabamine 85 Discredited claim to discovery of astatine. [nb 3] [7]
Ad Aldebaranium 70 Former name for ytterbium. [nb 3]
Am Alabamium 85 Discredited claim to discovery of astatine. The symbol is now used for americium. [nb 3] [7]
An Athenium 99 Proposed name for einsteinium. [nb 4]
Ao Ausonium 93 Discredited claim to discovery of neptunium. [nb 3] [7]
Az Azote 7 Former name for nitrogen. [nb 2]
Bo Boron 5 Current symbol is B. [nb 2]
Bv Brevium 91 Former name for protactinium. [nb 2]
Bz Berzelium Baskerville wrongly believed berzelium to be a new element. Was actually thorium. [nb 4] [8]
Cb Columbium 41 Former name for niobium. [nb 2] [7][8]
Ch Chromium 24 Current symbol is Cr. [nb 2]
Cl Columbium 41 Former name for niobium. The symbol is now used for chlorine. [nb 2]
Cn Carolinium Baskerville wrongly believed carolinium to be a new element. Was actually thorium. The symbol is now used for copernicium. [8]
Cp Cassiopeium 71 Former name for lutetium. [nb 2]
Cp Copernicium 112 Current symbol is Cn. [nb 2]
Ct Celtium 72 Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium. [nb 3]
Ct Centurium 100 Proposed name for fermium. [nb 4]
D Didymium Mixture of the elements praseodymium and neodymium. Mosander wrongly believed didymium to be an element. [9]
Da Davyum 43 Discredited claim to discovery of technetium. [nb 3] [7]
Db Dubnium 104 Proposed name for rutherfordium. The symbol and name were instead used for element 105. [nb 2][nb 4] [7]
Di Didymium Mixture of the elements praseodymium and neodymium. Mosander wrongly believed didymium to be an element. [9]
Ds Dysprosium 66 Current symbol is Dy. The symbol is now used for darmstadtium. [nb 2]
E Einsteinium 99 Current symbol is Es. [nb 2]
E Erbium 68 Current symbol is Er. [nb 2]
Ea Ekaaluminium 31 Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, gallium closely matched the prediction. [nb 4][nb 5]
Eb Ekaboron 21 Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, scandium closely matched the prediction. [nb 4][nb 5] [7]
El Ekaaluminium 31 Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, gallium closely matched the prediction. [nb 4][nb 5] [7]
Em Ekamanganese 43 Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, technetium closely matched the prediction. [nb 4][nb 5] [7]
Em Emanation 86 Also called "radium emanation", the name was originally given by Friedrich Ernst Dorn in 1900. In 1923, this element officially became radon (the name given at one time to 222Rn, an isotope identified in the decay chain of radium). [nb 2] [7]
Em Emanium 89 Alternate name formerly proposed for actinium. [nb 4]
Es Ekasilicon 32 Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, germanium closely matched the prediction. The symbol is now used for einsteinium. [nb 4][nb 5] [7]
Es Esperium 94 Discredited claim to discovery of plutonium. The symbol is now used for einsteinium. [nb 3] [7]
Fa Francium 87 Current symbol is Fr. [nb 2]
Fl Florentium 61 Discredited claim to discovery of promethium. The symbol is now used for flerovium. [nb 3]
Fl Fluorine 9 Current symbol is F. The symbol is now used for flerovium. [nb 2]
Fr Florentium 61 Discredited claim to discovery of promethium. The symbol is now used for francium. [nb 3] [7]
G Glucinium 4 Former name for beryllium. [nb 2]
Gl Glucinium 4 Former name for beryllium. [nb 2] [7]
Ha Hahnium 105 Proposed name for dubnium. [nb 4]
Hn Hahnium 108 Proposed name for hassium. [nb 4] [7]
Hv Helvetium 85 Discredited claim to discovery of astatine. [nb 3] [8]
Hy Mercury 80 Hy from the Greek hydrargyrum for "liquid silver". Current symbol is Hg. [nb 2] [6]
I Iridium 77 Current symbol is Ir. The symbol is now used for iodine. [nb 2]
Il Illinium 61 Discredited claim to discovery of promethium. [nb 3] [7]
J Jodium 53 Former name for iodine. [nb 2]
Jg Jargonium 72 Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium. [nb 3] [7]
Jl Joliotium 105 Proposed name for dubnium. [nb 4] [7]
Ka Potassium 19 Current symbol is K. [nb 2]
Ku Kurchatovium 104 Proposed name for rutherfordium. [nb 4] [7]
L Lithium 3 Current symbol is Li. [nb 2]
Lw Lawrencium 103 Current symbol is Lr. [nb 2]
M Muriaticum 17 Former name for chlorine. [nb 2]
Ma Manganese 25 Current symbol is Mn. [nb 2]
Ma Masurium 43 Disputed claim to discovery of technetium. [nb 3] [7]
Md Mendelevium 97 Proposed name for berkelium. The symbol and name were later used for element 101. [nb 2][nb 4]
Ml Moldavium 87 Discredited claim to discovery of francium. [nb 3] [8]
Ms Magnesium 12 Current symbol is Mg. [nb 2]
Ms Masrium 88 Discredited claim of discovery of radium. [nb 3]
Ms Masurium 43 Disputed claim to discovery of technetium. [nb 3]
Mv Mendelevium 101 Current symbol is Md. [nb 2]
Ng Norwegium 72 Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium. [nb 3]
No Norium 72 Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium. The symbol is now used for nobelium. [nb 3]
Np Nipponium 43 Discredited claim to discovery of technetium. The symbol is now used for neptunium. [nb 3] [7]
Ns Nielsbohrium 105 Proposed name for dubnium. [nb 4] [7]
Ns Nielsbohrium 107 Proposed name for bohrium. [nb 4] [7]
Nt Niton 86 Former name for radon. [nb 2] [7]
Ny Neoytterbium 70 Former name for ytterbium. [nb 2]
P Lead 82 Current symbol is Pb. The symbol is now used for phosphorus. [nb 2]
Pa Palladium 46 Current symbol is Pd. The symbol is now used for protactinium. [nb 2]
Pe Pelopium 41 Former name for niobium. [nb 2]
Pl Palladium 46 Current symbol is Pd. [nb 2]
Po Potassium 19 Current symbol is K. The symbol is now used for polonium. [nb 2]
R Rhodium 45 Current symbol is Rh. [nb 2]
Rd Radium 88 Current symbol is Ra. [nb 2]
Rf Rutherfordium 106 Proposed name for seaborgium. The symbol and name were instead used for element 104. [nb 2][nb 4] [7]
Ro Rhodium 45 Current symbol is Rh. [nb 2]
Sa Samarium 62 Current symbol is Sm. [nb 2] [7]
So Sodium 11 Current symbol is Na. [nb 2]
St Antimony 51 Current symbol is Sb. [nb 2]
St Tin 50 Current symbol is Sn. [nb 2]
Tn Tungsten 74 Current symbol is W. [nb 2]
Tr Terbium 65 Current symbol is Tb. [nb 2]
Tu Thulium 69 Current symbol is Tm. [nb 2]
Tu Tungsten 74 Current symbol is W. [nb 2]
Unb Unnilbium 102 Temporary name given to nobelium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Une Unnilennium 109 Temporary name given to meitnerium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Unh Unnilhexium 106 Temporary name given to seaborgium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uno Unniloctium 108 Temporary name given to hassium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Unp Unnilpentium 105 Temporary name given to dubnium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Unq Unnilquadium 104 Temporary name given to rutherfordium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uns Unnilseptium 107 Temporary name given to bohrium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Unt Unniltrium 103 Temporary name given to lawrencium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Unu Unnilunium 101 Temporary name given to mendelevium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uub Ununbium 112 Temporary name given to copernicium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uuh Ununhexium 116 Temporary name given to livermorium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uun Ununnilium 110 Temporary name given to darmstadtium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uuo Ununoctium 118 Temporary name given to oganesson until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uup Ununpentium 115 Temporary name given to moscovium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uuq Ununquadium 114 Temporary name given to flerovium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uus Ununseptium 117 Temporary name given to tennessine until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uut Ununtrium 113 Temporary name given to nihonium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Uuu Unununium 111 Temporary name given to roentgenium until it was permanently named by IUPAC. [nb 5]
Ur Uranium 92 Current symbol is U. [nb 2]
Vi Virginium 87 Discredited claim to discovery of francium. [nb 3] [7]
Vm Virginium 87 Discredited claim to discovery of francium. [nb 3] [7]
Va Vanadium 23 Current symbol is V. [nb 2]
Wo Tungsten 74 Current symbol is W. [nb 2]
X Xenon 54 Current symbol is Xe. [nb 2]
Yt Yttrium 39 Current symbol is Y. [nb 2] [7]
Pictographic symbols[edit]
The following is a list of pictographic symbols employed to symbolize elements known since ancient times (for example to the alchemists). Not included in this list are symbolic representations of substances previously called elements (such as certain rare earth mineral blends and the classical elements fire and water of ancient philosophy) which are known today to be multi-atomic. Also not included are symbolic representations currently used for elements in other languages such as the Chinese characters for elements. Modern alphabetic notation was introduced in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius.
Chemical symbol
Original name
Modern name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol
☉ Hydrogen Hydrogen 1 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
⬤ Carbon Carbon 6 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
⦶ Azote Nitrogen 7 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
◯ Oxygen Oxygen 8 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
⦷ Soda Sodium 11 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
⊛ Magnesium Magnesium 12 Alchemical symbol.
Sulfur Sulfur 16 Alchemical symbol.
Pallas Sulfur 16 Alchemical symbol.
🜍 Sulfur Sulfur 16 Alchemical symbol.
ⴲ Sulfur Sulfur 16 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
♂ Mars Iron 26 Alchemical symbol.
Ⓘ Iron Iron 26 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
Stellae Fixae Copper 29 Pre–16th-century alchemical symbol.
♀ Venus Copper 29 Alchemical symbol.
Copper Copper 29 Alchemical symbol.
Ⓒ Copper Copper 29 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
Ⓩ Zinc Zinc 30 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
Arsenic Arsenic 33 Alchemical symbol.
🜺 Arsenic Arsenic 33 Alchemical symbol.
☽ Luna Silver 47 Alchemical symbol.
🜛 Silver Silver 47 Alchemical symbol.
Ⓢ Silver Silver 47 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
♃ Iupiter Tin 50 Alchemical symbol.
♁ Antimony Antimony 51 Alchemical symbol.
☾ Platinum Platinum 78 Alchemical symbol.
☉ Platinum Platinum 78 Alchemical symbol.
⛢ Uranus Platinum 78 Alchemical symbol.
☼ Sol Gold 79 Alchemical symbol from the 16th century.
☉ Sol Gold 79 Alchemical symbol from 1700 through 1783.
🜚 Gold Gold 79 Alchemical symbol.
♓ Pisces Mercury 80 Pre–16th-century alchemical symbol.
♆ Neptunus Mercury 80 Alchemical symbol from the 17th century.
☿ Mercurius Mercury 80 Alchemical symbol from 1700 through 1783.
♄ Saturnus Lead 82 Alchemical symbol circa 1783.
Ⓛ Lead Lead 82 Daltonian symbol circa 1808.
♉ Taurus Bismuth 83 Alchemical symbol.
Symbols for named isotopes[edit]
The following is a list of isotopes of elements given in the previous tables which have been designated unique symbols. By this it is meant that a comprehensive list of current systematic symbols (in the uAtom form) are not included in the list and can instead be found in the Isotope index chart. The symbols for the named isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (D) and tritium (T) are still in use today. Heavy water and other deuterated solvents are commonly used in chemistry, and it is convenient to use a single character rather than a symbol with a subscript in these cases. The practice also continues with tritium compounds. When the name of the solvent is given, a lowercase d is sometimes used. For example, d6-benzene and C6D6 can be used instead of [2H6]C6H6.[10]
The symbols for isotopes of elements other than hydrogen are no longer in use within the scientific community. Many of these symbols were designated during the early years of radiochemistry, and several isotopes (namely those in the actinium decay family, the radium decay family, and the thorium decay family) bear placeholder names using the early naming system devised by Ernest Rutherford.[11]
Chemical symbol
Name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol
Ac Actinium 89 From the Greek aktinos. Name restricted at one time to 227Ac, an isotope of actinium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 89.
AcA Actinium A 84 From actinium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 215Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcB Actinium B 82 From actinium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcC Actinium C 83 From actinium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcC' Actinium C' 84 From actinium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcC" Actinium C" 81 From actinium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 207Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcK Actinium K 87 Name given at one time to 223Fr, an isotope of francium identified in the decay chain of actinium.
AcU Actino-uranium 92 Name given at one time to 235U, an isotope of uranium.
AcX Actinium X 88 Name given at one time to 223Ra, an isotope of radium identified in the decay chain of actinium.
An Actinon 86 From actinium and emanation. Name given at one time to 219Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of actinium.
D Deuterium 1 From the Greek deuteros. Name given to 2H.
Io Ionium 90 Name given to 230Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.
MsTh1 Mesothorium 1 88 Name given at one time to 228Ra, an isotope of radium.
MsTh2 Mesothorium 2 89 Name given at one time to 228Ac, an isotope of actinium.
Pa Protactinium 91 From the Greek protos and actinium. Name restricted at one time to 231Pa, an isotope of protactinium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 91.
Ra Radium 88 From the Latin radius. Name restricted at one time to 226Ra, an isotope of radium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 88.
RaA Radium A 84 From radium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 218Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaB Radium B 82 From radium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaC Radium C 83 From radium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaC' Radium C' 84 From radium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaC" Radium C" 81 From radium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 210Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaD Radium D 82 From radium and D. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaE Radium E 83 From radium and E. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaE" Radium E" 81 From radium and E". Placeholder name given at one time to 206Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of radium.
RaF Radium F 84 From radium and F. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.
RdAc Radioactinium 90 Name given at one time to 227Th, an isotope of thorium.
RdTh Radiothorium 90 Name given at one time to 228Th, an isotope of thorium.
Rn Radon 86 From radium and emanation. Name restricted at one time to 222Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of radium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 86 in 1923.
T Tritium 1 From the Greek tritos. Name given to 3H.
Th Thorium 90 After Thor. Name restricted at one time to 232Th, an isotope of thorium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 90.
ThA Thorium A 84 From thorium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 216Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of thorium.
ThB Thorium B 82 From thorium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of thorium.
ThC Thorium C 83 From thorium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of thorium.
ThC' Thorium C' 84 From thorium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of thorium.
ThC" Thorium C" 81 From thorium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 208Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of thorium.
ThX Thorium X 88 Name given at one time to 224Ra, an isotope of radium identified in the decay chain of thorium.
Tn Thoron 86 From thorium and emanation. Name given at one time to 220Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of thorium.
UI Uranium I 92 Name given at one time to 238U, an isotope of uranium.
UII Uranium II 92 Name given at one time to 234U, an isotope of uranium.
UX1 Uranium X1 90 Name given at one time to 234Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.
UX2 Uranium X2 91 Name given at one time to 234mPa, an isotope of protactinium identified in the decay chain of uranium.
UY Uranium Y 90 Name given at one time to 231Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.
UZ Uranium Z 91 Name given at one time to 234Pa, an isotope of protactinium identified in the decay chain of uranium.
Other symbols[edit]
See also Skeletal formula § Pseudoelement symbols.
General:
An: any actinide
E: any element or electrophile
L: any ligand
Ln: any lanthanide
M: any metal
Mm: mischmetall (occasionally used)[12]
Ng: any noble gas (Rg is sometimes used, but that is also used for the element roentgenium: see above)
Nu: any nucleophile
R: any unspecified radical (moiety) not important to the discussion
St: steel (occasionally used)
X: any halogen
From organic chemistry:
Ac: acetyl – (also used for the element actinium: see above)
Ad: adamantyl
Ar: aryl – (also used for the element argon: see above)
Bn: benzyl
Bu: butyl
Bz: benzoyl
Cp: cyclopentadienyl
Cy: cyclohexyl
Et: ethyl
i-Pr, iPr, Pri: isopropyl
Me: methyl
Mes: mesityl (2,3,6-trimethylphenyl)
Ms: mesyl (methylsulfonyl)
Np: neopentyl – (also used for the element neptunium: see above)
Ph: phenyl
Pr: propyl – (also used for the element praseodymium: see above)
s-Bu: sec-butyl
R: In organic chemistry contexts, an unspecified "R" is often understood to be an alkyl group
t-Bu: tert-butyl
Tf: triflyl (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)
Tr: trityl (triphenylmethyl)
Ts (occasionally Tos): tosyl (para toluenesulfonyl) – (also used for the element tennessine: see above)
Exotic atoms:
Mu: muonium
Pn: protonium
Ps: positronium
See also[edit]
List of chemical elements naming controversies
List of elements
Nuclear notation
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This should not be confused with formula. When a number is present at the bottom right corner of the symbol of the element, only then is it said to be a formula, but if the number is not present, it is a symbol.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba Name changed due to a standardization of, modernization of, or update to older formerly-used symbol.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Name designated by discredited/disputed claimant.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Name proposed prior to discovery/creation of element or prior to official re-naming of a placeholder name.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Temporary placeholder name.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Periodic Table – Royal Society of Chemistry". www.rsc.org.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ Wieser, Michael E.; et al. (2013). "Atomic weights of the elements 2011 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure Appl. Chem. IUPAC. 85 (5): 1047–1078. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-13-03-02. (for standard atomic weights of elements)
Jump up ^ Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-06. (for atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers 103–118)
Jump up ^ Holman, S. W.; Lawrence, R. R.; Barr, L. (1 January 1895). "Melting Points of Aluminum, Silver, Gold, Copper, and Platinum". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 31: 218–233. doi:10.2307/20020628.
^ Jump up to: a b Holden, N. E. (12 March 2004). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". National Nuclear Data Center.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Leal, João P. (2013). "The Forgotten Names of Chemical Elements". Foundations of Science. 19: 175–183. doi:10.1007/s10699-013-9326-y.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2014). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199383344.
^ Jump up to: a b Praseodymium. was.chemistryexplained.com.
Jump up ^ IUPAC. "Isotopically Modified Compounds". IUPAC. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Morgan, G. T., ed. (1905). "Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry for 1904". Journal of the Chemical Society. Gurney & Jackson. 1: 268. In view of the extraordinarily complex nature of the later changes occurring in Radium, Rutherford has proposed a new and convenient system of nomenclature. The first product of the change of the radium emanation is named radium A, the next radium B, and so on.
Jump up ^ Jurczyk, M.; Rajewski, W.; Majchrzycki, W.; Wójcik, G. (1999-08-30). "Mechanically alloyed MmNi5-type materials for metal hydride electrodes". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 290 (1–2): 262–266. doi:10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00202-9.
Element name etymologies. Retrieved July 15, 2005.
Atomic Weights of the Elements 2001, Pure Appl. Chem. 75(8), 1107–1122, 2003. Retrieved June 30, 2005. Atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers from 1–109 taken from this source.
IUPAC Standard Atomic Weights Revised (2005).
WebElements Periodic Table. Retrieved June 30, 2005. Atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers 110–116 taken from this source.
Lapp, Ralph E. Matter. Life Science Library. New York: Time, Inc. 1963.
Leighton, Robert B. Principles of Modern Physics. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1959.
Scerri, E.R. "The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance". New York, Oxford University Press. 2007.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Symbol (chemistry).
Berzelius' List of Elements
History of IUPAC Atomic Weight Values (1883 to 1997)
American Chemical Society, Committee on Nomenclature, Terminology & Symbols
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