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Rule, Britannia!
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This article is about the British patriotic song. For the 1972 book, see Rule Britannia (novel). For the 2011 TV series, see Rule Britannia (TV series).
"Rule, Britannia!"
United States Army performance.
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"Rule, Britannia!"
A copy of a phonograph cylinder recorded by Albert Farrington in 1914 for Edison Records
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First page of an 1890s edition of the sheet music. A PDF is available here.
Second page
"Rule, Britannia!" is a British patriotic song, originating from the poem "Rule, Britannia" by James Thomson and set to music by Thomas Arne in 1740.[1] It is strongly associated with the Royal Navy, but also used by the British Army.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Original masque
2 Original lyrics
3 Lyrics as sung
4 Symbolism
5 Musical derivations
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Original masque[edit]
This British national air was originally included in Alfred, a masque about Alfred the Great co-written by Thomson and David Mallet and first performed at Cliveden, country home of Frederick, Prince of Wales (the eldest son of George II and father of the future George III, as well as the great-grandfather of Queen Victoria), on 1 August 1740, to commemorate the accession of George II and the third birthday of the Princess Augusta.[3]
Frederick, a German prince who arrived in England as an adult and was on very bad terms with his father, was making considerable efforts to ingratiate himself and build a following among his subjects-to-be (which came to naught, as he predeceased his father and never became king). A masque linking the prince with both the medieval hero-king Alfred the Great's victories over the Vikings and with the current building of British sea power – exemplified by the recent successful capture of Porto Bello from the Spanish by Admiral Vernon on 21 November 1739, avenging in the eyes of the British public Admiral Hosier's disastrous Blockade of Porto Bello of 1726–27 – went well with his political plans and aspirations.
Thomson was a Scottish poet and playwright, who spent most of his adult life in England and hoped to make his fortune at Court. He had an interest in helping foster a British identity, including and transcending the older English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish identities.
Thomson had written The Tragedy of Sophonisba (1730), based on the historical figure of Sophonisba – a proud princess of Carthage, a major sea-power of the ancient world, who had committed suicide rather than submit to slavery at the hands of the Romans. This might have some bearing on the song's famous refrain "Britons never will be slaves!". Incidentally, Thomson wrote the word "never" only once, but it has been popularly corrupted to "never, never, never", possibly because it is actually easier to sing. The same theme was repeated in the Navy's own "Heart of Oak", written two decades later: To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves/For who are so free as the sons of the waves?.
In 1751 Mallet altered the lyrics, omitting three of the original six stanzas and adding three others, written by Lord Bolingbroke. This version known as "Married to a Mermaid" became extremely popular when Mallet produced his masque of Britannia at Drury Lane Theatre in 1755.
Original lyrics[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Rule, Britannia!
This version is taken from The Works of James Thomson by James Thomson, Published 1763, Vol II, p. 191, which includes the entire original text of Alfred.
1
When Britain first, at Heaven's command
Arose from out the azure main;
This was the charter of the land,
And guardian angels sang this strain:
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
2
The nations, not so blest as thee,
Must, in their turns, to tyrants fall;
While thou shalt flourish great and free,
The dread and envy of them all.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
3
Still more majestic shalt thou rise,
More dreadful, from each foreign stroke;
As the loud blast that tears the skies,
Serves but to root thy native oak.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
4
Thee haughty tyrants ne'er shall tame:
All their attempts to bend thee down,
Will but arouse thy generous flame;
But work their woe, and thy renown.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
5
To thee belongs the rural reign;
Thy cities shall with commerce shine:
All thine shall be the subject main,
And every shore it circles thine.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
6
The Muses, still with freedom found,
Shall to thy happy coast repair;
Blest Isle! With matchless beauty crown'd,
And manly hearts to guard the fair.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
Lyrics as sung[edit]
Although the lyrics are usually set out as above, the lines as set to the music are sung in contemporary time according to either of the following variants:
Traditionally rendered,
When Britain fi-i-irst, at heaven's command,
Aro-o-o-ose from out the a-a-a-zure main,
Arose, arose from ou-ou-ou-out the a-zure main,
This was the charter, the charter of the land,
And guardian a-a-angels sang this strain:
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.
The nations, no-o-o-o-ot so blest as thee,
Must i-i-i-i-in their turn, to ty-y—yrants fall,
Must in their turn, to ty-y-rants fall,
While thou shalt flourish, shalt flourish great and free,
The dread and e-e-e-e-nvy of them all.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.
And now commonly rendered in alternate form:
When Britain fi-i-irst, at heaven's command,
Aro-o-o-o-ose from out the a-a-a-zure main,
Arose, arose from out the azure main,
This was the charter, the charter of the land,
And guardian a-a-angels sang this strain:
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves
Britons never, never, never will be slaves.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never will be slaves.
Still more maje-e-estic shalt thou rise,
More dre-e-e-e-eadful from each foreign stroke,
More dreadful, dreadful from each foreign stroke,
Loud blast above us, loud blast that tears the skies
Serves but to ro-o-o-ot thy native oak.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never will be slaves.
Rule, Britannia!
Britannia, rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never will be slaves.
Variations: Never, never, never is sometimes sung as a single "never" over the same melodic phrase (an example of a melisma); this being the original arrangement by Arne.
Symbolism[edit]
The song soon developed an independent life of its own, separate from the masque of which it had formed a part. First heard in London in 1745, it achieved instant popularity. It quickly became so well known that Handel quoted it in his Occasional Oratorio in the following year. Handel used the first phrase as part of the Act II soprano aria, "Prophetic visions strike my eye", when the soprano sings it at the words "War shall cease, welcome peace!"[4] Similarly, "Rule, Britannia!" was seized upon by the Jacobites, who altered Thomson's words to a pro-Jacobite version.[5]
However, Thomson's original words remained best-known. Their denunciation of "foreign tyrants" ["haughty tyrants"?] has some foundation as Great Britain's period of Parliamentary Commonwealth had decisively curbed royal prerogative, leading to the Bill of Rights of 1689 and it was on the way to developing its constitutional monarchy, in marked contrast to the Royal Absolutism still prevalent in Europe. Britain and France were at war for much of the century and hostile in between (see "Second Hundred Years' War") and the French Bourbons were undoubtedly the prime example of "haughty tyrants", whose "slaves" Britons should never be.
According to Armitage[6] "Rule, Britannia'" was the most lasting expression of the conception of Britain and the British Empire that emerged in the 1730s, "predicated on a mixture of adulterated mercantilism, nationalistic anxiety and libertarian fervour". He equates the song with Bolingbroke's On the Idea of a Patriot King (1738), also written for the private circle of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in which Bolingbroke had "raised the spectre of permanent standing armies that might be turned against the British people rather than their enemies."[7] Hence British naval power could be equated with civil liberty, since an island nation with a strong navy to defend it could afford to dispense with a standing army which, since the time of Cromwell, was seen as a threat and a source of tyranny.
At the time it appeared the song was not a celebration of an existing state of naval affairs, but an exhortation. Although the Dutch Republic, which in the 17th century presented a major challenge to English sea power, was obviously past its peak by 1745, Britain did not yet "rule the waves", although, since it was written during the War of Jenkins' Ear, it could be argued that the words referred to the alleged Spanish aggression against British merchant vessels that caused the war. The time was still to come when the Royal Navy would be an unchallenged dominant force on the oceans. The jesting lyrics of the mid-18th century would assume a material and patriotic significance by the end of the 19th century.
Britannia rule the waves: decorated plate made in Liverpool circa 1793–1794.
"Rule, Britannia!" is often written as simply "Rule Britannia", erroneously omitting both the comma and the exclamation mark, which changes the interpretation of the lyric by altering the grammar. Richard Dawkins recounts in The Selfish Gene that the repeated exclamation "Rule, Britannia! Britannia, rule the waves!" is often rendered as "Rule, Britannia! Britannia rules the waves!", changing both the meaning and inflection of the verse. This addition of a terminal 's' to the lyrics is used as an example of a successful meme.[8]
Maurice Willson Disher notes that the change from "Britannia, rule the waves" to "Britannia rules the waves" occurred in the Victorian era, at a time when the British did rule the waves and no longer needed to be exhorted to rule them. Disher also notes that the Victorians changed "will" to "shall" in the line "Britons never shall be slaves."[9]
The song assumed extra significance in 1945 at the conclusion of World War II when it was played at the ceremonial surrender of the Japanese imperial army in Singapore. A massed military band of Australian, British and American forces played as Supreme Allied Commander Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma arrived.[10]
"Rule, Britannia!" (in an orchestral arrangement by Sir Malcolm Sargent) is traditionally performed at the BBC's Last Night of the Proms, normally with a guest soloist (past performers have included Jane Eaglen, Bryn Terfel, Thomas Hampson and Felicity Lott). It has always been the last part of Sir Henry Wood's Fantasia on British Sea Songs, except that for many years up until 2000, the Sargent arrangement has been used. However, in recent years the inclusion of the song and other patriotic tunes has been much criticised—notably by Leonard Slatkin—and the presentation has been occasionally amended.[11] For some years the performance at the Last Night of the Proms reverted to Sir Henry Wood's original arrangement. When Bryn Terfel performed it at the Proms in 1994 and 2008 he sang the third verse in Welsh. The text is available at Rule Britannia (in Welsh).
Musical derivations[edit]
The melody was the theme for a set of variations for piano by Ludwig van Beethoven (WoO 79)[12] and he also used it in "Wellington's Victory", Op. 91.
Richard Wagner wrote a concert overture in D major based on the theme in 1837 (WWV 42).
Johann Strauss I quoted the song in full as the introduction to his 1838 waltz "Huldigung der Königin Victoria von Grossbritannien" (Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain), Op. 103, where he also quotes the British national anthem "God Save the Queen" at the end of the piece.
The French organist-composer Alexandre Guilmant included this tune in his Fantaisie sur deux mélodies anglaises for organ Op. 43, where he also makes use of the song "Home! Sweet Home!".
Arthur Sullivan, Britain's leading composer during the reign of Queen Victoria, quoted from "Rule, Britannia!" on at least three occasions in music for his comic operas written with W. S. Gilbert and Bolton Rowe. In Utopia Limited, Sullivan used airs from "Rule, Britannia!" to highlight references to Great Britain. In The Zoo (written with Rowe) Sullivan applied the tune of "Rule, Britannia!" to an instance in which Rowe's libretto quotes directly from the patriotic march. Finally, to celebrate the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887, Sullivan added a chorus of "Rule, Britannia!" to the finale of HMS Pinafore, which was playing in revival at the Savoy Theatre. Sullivan also quoted the tune in his 1897 ballet Victoria and Merrie England, which traced the "history" of England from the time of the Druids up to Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, an event the ballet was meant to celebrate.
The part of the tune's refrain on the word "never" (often corrupted to "never, never, never"), is among those claimed to have provided the theme on which Edward Elgar's Enigma Variations are based. Elgar also quotes the opening phrase of "Rule, Britannia!" in his choral work The Music Makers, based on Arthur O'Shaughnessy's Ode at the line "We fashion an empire's glory", where he also quotes "La Marseillaise".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Scholes, Percy A (1970). The Oxford Companion to Music (tenth Edition). Oxford University Press. p. 897.
Jump up ^ "Rule Britannia". The Britannia and Castle: Norfolk Section. 2002. Archived from the original on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Scholes p. 897.
Jump up ^ Scholes p.898
Jump up ^ Pittock, Murray G. H (1994). Poetry and Jacobite Politics in Eighteenth-Century Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-521-41092-4. "when royal Charles by Heaven's command, arrived in Scotland's noble Plain, etc"
Jump up ^ Armitage, David (2000). The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 173.
Jump up ^ Armitage, p.185
Jump up ^ Dawkins, Richard (1989). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press. p. 324. ISBN 0-19-286092-5.
Jump up ^ Disher, Maurice Willson. Victorian Song, Phoenix House, 1955.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. A&C Black. p. 459. ISBN 9781852854171.
Jump up ^ "Proms Conductor Derides Britannia". BBC News. 1 July 2002. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
Jump up ^ Scholes (p.898) says "Beethoven wrote piano variations on the tune (poor ones), and many composers who were no Beethovens have done the like".
Bibliography[edit]
Thomas Augustine Arne: Alfred. Musica Britannica vol. XLVII, editor: Alexander Scott, Stainer & Bell, London 1981, ISBN 0-85249-476-9 (full score, Urtext edition)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rule, Britannia!.
Married To A Mermaid
Band version (121KB, MP3 file)
BBC Symphony Orchestra, Bryn Terfel, Last Night of the Proms, Live 1994 copyright BBC and Teldec Classics GmbH, (4:27 min, ca 4 MB, MP3 file, which has four verses, the third sung in Welsh)
Beethoven Haus Bonn, Variationen über das englische Volkslied "Rule Britannia" für Klavier (D-Dur) WoO 79
"Rule, Britannia!" Sarah Connolly (mezzo-soprano), wearing a naval uniform like those worn in the age of Nelson sings Arne's "Rule, Britannia!" during Last Night of the Proms 2009, inside the Royal Albert Hall. BBC SO's David Robertson conducts the BBC Symphony Orchestra, BBC Singers, BBC Symphony Chorus. Although "Rule, Britannia!" had long been a fixture of the last night, this was the first time Arne's original version had been performed there.
Kiri te Kanawa
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text:
Supply creates its own demand
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: Say's law
"Supply creates its own demand" is the formulation of Say's law. The rejection of this doctrine is a central component of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936) and a central tenet of Keynesian economics.
Keynes's rejection of Say's law has on the whole been accepted within mainstream economics since the 1940s and 1950s in the neoclassical synthesis, but debate continues between Keynesian economists and neoclassical economists (see saltwater and freshwater economics).
Keynes's interpretation is rejected by many economists as a misinterpretation or caricature of Say's law — see Say's law: Keynes vs. Say — and the advocacy of the phrase "supply creates its own demand" is today most associated with supply-side economics, which retorts that "Keynes turned Say on his head and instead stated that 'demand creates its own supply'".
The exact phrase "supply creates its own demand" does not appear to be found in the writings of classical economists;[1] similar sentiments, though different wordings, appear in the work of John Stuart Mill (1848), whom Keynes credits and quotes, and his father, James Mill (1808), whom Keynes does not.
Contents
[hide]
1 Keynes's formulation
2 Other sources
3 References
4 Bibliography
Keynes's formulation[edit]
Keynes coined the phrase thusly (emphasis added):
From the time of Say and Ricardo the classical economists have taught that supply creates its own demand; —meaning by this in some significant, but not clearly defined, sense that the whole of the costs of production must necessarily be spent in the aggregate, directly or indirectly, on purchasing the product.
In J. S. Mill's Principles of Political Economy the doctrine is expressly set forth:
What constitutes the means of payment for commodities is simply commodities. Each person’s means of paying for the productions of other people consist of what he himself possesses. All sellers are inevitably, and by the meaning of the word, buyers. Could we suddenly double the productive powers of the country, we should double the supply of commodities in every market; but we should, by the same stroke, double the purchasing power. Everybody would bring a double demand as well as supply; everybody would be able to buy twice as much, because every one would have twice as much to offer in exchange. (Principles of Political Economy, Book III, Chap. xiv. § 2.)
—  The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, John Maynard Keynes, Chapter 2, Section VI, p. 18
Keynes then restates this in the language of Keynesian economics as:
(3) [S]upply creates its own demand in the sense that the aggregate demand price is equal to the aggregate supply price for all levels of output and employment.
—  The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, John Maynard Keynes, Chapter 2, Section VII
Other sources[edit]
Another source widely cited as a classical expression of the idea, and the original statement of Say's law in English, is by James Mill, in Commerce Defended (1808):
The production of commodities creates, and is the one and universal cause that creates a market for the commodities produced.
—  James Mill, Commerce Defended (1808), Chapter VI: Consumption, p. 81
Keynes does not cite a specific source for the phrase, and, as it does not appear to be found in the pre-Keynesian literature,[1] some consider its ultimate origin a "mystery".[2] The phrase "supply creates its own demand" appears earlier, in quotes, in a 1934 letter of Keynes,[2] and has been suggested that the phrase was an oral tradition at Cambridge, in the circle of Joan Robinson,[2] and that it may have derived from the following 1844 formulation by John Stuart Mill:[3]
Nothing is more true than that it is produce which constitutes the market for produce, and that every increase of production, if distributed without miscalculation among all kinds of produce in the proportion which private interest would dictate, creates, or rather constitutes, its own demand.
—  John Stuart Mill, Essays On Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844), "Of the Influence of Consumption On Production", p. 73
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b (Clower 2004, p. 92)
^ Jump up to: a b c (Clower 2004, p. 91)
Jump up ^ (Clower 2004, p. 91–92)
Bibliography[edit]
Clower, Robert W. (22 April 2004). "5: Trashing J.B. Say: The Story of a Mare's Nest". In Velupillai, K. Vela. Macroeconomic Theory and Economic Policy: Essays in Honour of Jean-Paul Fitoussi. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-35650-0.
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Jet fuel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"JP-1" redirects here. For other uses, see JP1.
Jet fuel
Identifiers
CAS Number
70892-11-4 (fuel oil no. 5) Y
8008-20-6 (kerosene) Y
64742-47-8 (Aviation Kerosene) Y
ChemSpider
none
Properties
Appearance Straw-colored liquid
Density 775.0-840.0 g/L
Melting point −47 °C (−53 °F; 226 K)
Boiling point 176 °C (349 °F; 449 K)
Hazards
Safety data sheet [2] [3]
NFPA 704
2
2
0
Flash point 38 °C (100 °F; 311 K)
Autoignition
temperature
210 °C (410 °F; 483 K)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is Y ?)
Infobox references
Jet fuel, aviation turbine fuel (ATF), or avtur, is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance.
Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes (molecular weights or carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B), between about 5 and 15.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Standards
3 Types
3.1 Jet A
3.2 Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1
3.3 Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1
3.4 Jet B
4 Additives
5 Water in jet fuel
6 Military jet fuels
7 Piston engine use
8 Synthetic jet fuel
9 USAF synthetic fuel trials
10 Jet biofuels
11 Worldwide consumption of jet fuel
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
History[edit]
Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a low flash point to improve its ignition characteristics. Turbine engines can operate with a wide range of fuels, and jet-aircraft engines typically use fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.
The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the Junkers Jumo 004 used on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption.[2] Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures.
Standards[edit]
Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce.[3] In the United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels.[3] For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and former Soviet Union countries, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available in Russia and members of the CIS being TS-1.
Types[edit]
Jet A[edit]
Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.
A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport.
An Iberia Airbus A340 being fueled at La Aurora International Airport.
Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States[4] and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto and Vancouver,[5] whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in the rest of the world other than the former Soviet states where TS-1 is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an autoignition temperature of 210 °C (410 °F).[6]
Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1[edit]
The primary difference is the lower freezing point of A-1:[4]
Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F)
Jet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F)
The other difference is the mandatory addition of an anti-static additive to Jet A-1.
Jet A trucks, storage tanks, and plumbing that carry Jet A are marked with a black sticker with "Jet A" in white printed on it, adjacent to another black stripe.
Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1[edit]
Jet A-1 fuel must meet:
DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1),
ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and
IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.
Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A)[7]
Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1[8]
Jet A-1 Jet A
Flash point 38 °C (100 °F)
Autoignition temperature 210 °C (410 °F)[6]
Freezing point −47 °C (−53 °F) −40 °C (−40 °F)
Max adiabatic burn temperature 2,500 K (2,230 °C) (4,040 °F) open air burn temperature: 1,030 °C (1,890 °F)[9][10][11]
Density at 15 °C (59 °F) 0.804 kg/l (6.71 lb/US gal) 0.820 kg/l (6.84 lb/US gal)
Specific energy 42.80 MJ/kg (11.90 kWh / kg) 43.02 MJ/kg (11.95 kWh / kg)
Energy density 34.7 MJ/L [12] (9.6 kWh / L) 35.3 MJ/L (9.8 kWh / L)
Jet B[edit]
Jet B is a fuel in the naphtha-kerosene region that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle.[7] For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F), and a low flash point as well. It is primarily used in some military aircraft. It is also used in Northern Canada, Alaska, and sometimes Russia, because of its low freezing point.
Additives[edit]
The DEF STAN 91-91 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:[13][14]
Antioxidants to prevent gumming, usually based on alkylated phenols, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37;
Antistatic agents, to dissipate static electricity and prevent sparking; Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as a component, is an example
Corrosion inhibitors, e.g., DCI-4A used for civilian and military fuels, and DCI-6A used for military fuels;
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) agents, e.g., Di-EGME; FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense.
Biocides are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Currently, two biocides are approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF.[15]
Metal deactivator can be added to remediate the deleterious effects of trace metals on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is N,N’-disalicylidene 1,2-propanediamine.
As the aviation industry’s jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high value product, by varying process techniques. New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.
Water in jet fuel[edit]
It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper atmosphere. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C. If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes.[16] This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.
There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water.[17] A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer.
Military jet fuels[edit]
A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship
Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8, Jet B is similar to JP-4.[18] Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications.
Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha-type.[3] Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels, sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.[3]
JP-1
was an early jet fuel[19] specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high flash point (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as avtur.
JP-2
an obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.[20]
JP-3
was an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants, John D. Clark described the specification as, "remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of Kentucky moonshiner's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel".[21] It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.[22]
JP-4
was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower flash point than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary United States Air Force jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its NATO code is F-40. It is also known as avtag.
JP-5
is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard aircraft carriers, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, naphthenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons that weighs 6.8 pounds per U.S. gallon (0.81 kg/l) and has a high flash point (min. 60 °C or 140 °F).[23] Because some US naval air stations, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea-based and shore-based (e.g., "land based") naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. In addition, JP-5 may well have been used by other countries for their military aircraft. Its freezing point is −46 °C (−51 °F). It does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is F-44. It is also called AVCAT fuel for Aviation Carrier Turbine fuel.[24]
The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452),[25] are intended for use in aircraft turbine engines. These fuels require military-unique additives that are necessary in military weapon systems, engines, and missions.
JP-6
Flash point: tbd
Autoignition temperature: tbd
Freezing point: -65 °F
Open air burning temperatures: tbd
Specific Weight: 6.55 lb/gal[26]
Military Specification: MIL-J-25656
JP-6
This is a type of jet fuel developed for the General Electric YJ93 jet engine of the XB-70 Valkyrie supersonic aircraft. JP-6 was ideal for the high altitude bomber, being similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.[27]
JP-7
was developed for the twin Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet/ramjet engines of the SR-71 Blackbird and has a high flash point to better cope with the heat and stresses of high speed supersonic flight.
JP-8
is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the U.S. military. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is F-34.
JP-9
is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the Tomahawk containing the TH-dimer TetraHydroDiMethylCycloPentadiene produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer.
JP-10
is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the ALCM.[28] It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C).[28]
JPTS
was developed in 1956 for the Lockheed U-2 spy plane.
Zip fuel
designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ballistic missile removed the principal application of zip fuel.
Syntroleum
has been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a B-52 took off from Edwards Air Force Base for the first time powered solely by a 50-50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft.
Piston engine use[edit]
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Jet fuel is very similar to diesel fuel, and in some cases, may be burned in diesel engines. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas, and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft.[29] As a result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine, have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel. This technology has potential to simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may also potentially be more environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War.
Jet fuel is often used in ground support vehicles at airports, instead of diesel. The United States military makes heavy use of JP-8, for instance. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, thereby increasing wear on fuel pumps and other related engine parts.[citation needed] Civilian vehicles tend to disallow its use, or require that an additive be mixed with the jet fuel to restore its lubricity. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances.
Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it is more lubricative and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require. The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.
Synthetic jet fuel[edit]
Main article: Synthetic fuel
Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel.[30] As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosine plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.
Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions.[31][32][33][34][35] It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.[36]
Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.[37]
The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol.[38]
Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.[39][40][41][42][43][44]
USAF synthetic fuel trials[edit]
On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program.
The USAF C-17 Globemaster III was built to perform development testing.
This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the C-17 Globemaster III and then the B-1B to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 l) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gal (34,000 l; 7,500 imp gal) to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines.[needs update]
The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, C-130J, F-4 (as QF-4 target drones), F-15, F-22, and T-38 to use the synthetic fuel blend.[45]
The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels.[46][47] The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013.[47] The U.S. Army is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs.[47] The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend.[47] The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.[48]
Jet biofuels[edit]
Main articles: Aviation biofuel and Sustainable Aviation Fuel
The air transport industry is responsible for 2-3 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emitted.[49] Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic fuel derived from algae with existing jet fuel:[50]
Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from Reno Stead Airport in Stead, Nevada was in an Aero L-29 Delfín piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante.[51]
Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with Tecbio[52] Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.
Virgin Atlantic successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent babassu nuts and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a 747 flight from London Heathrow to Amsterdam Schiphol.[53]
A consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's Glenn Research Center, MTU Aero Engines (Germany), and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.[54]
British Airways and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.[55]
24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using Honeywell “Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet.[56]
In 2011, United Continental Holdings was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel. Solazyme developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.[57]
Solazyme produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.[58]
Oil prices increased about fivefold from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming unable to keep up with demand. The fact that there are few alternatives to petroleum for aviation fuel adds urgency to the search for alternatives. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs.[59]
In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production.[60]
Worldwide consumption of jet fuel[edit]
Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010.[61] Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012).
See also[edit]
Aviation portal
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Jump up ^ "Environ Sci Technol. 2011 Dec 15 Comparison of PM emissions from a commercial jet engine burning conventional, biomass, and Fischer-Tropsch fuels. Lobo P, Hagen DE, Whitefield PD".
Jump up ^ Elgowainy, A., et al. (2012). Life-cycle analysis of alternative aviation fuels in GREET, Argonne National Laboratory (ANL).
Jump up ^ Corporan, E et al. (2010). Alternative Fuels Tests on a C-17 Aircraft: Emissions Characteristics, DTIC Document
Jump up ^ "Anderson, BE et al. (February 2011). Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX), NASA Langley Research Centre" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Best Synth Jet Fuel[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Qatar Airways Becomes First to Operate Commercial Flight on GTL Jet Fuel Blend". Green Car Congress. 2009-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Sasol takes to the skies with the world's first fully synthetic jet fuel". Sasol. 2010-09-22. Archived from the original on 2011-05-15.
Jump up ^ Parry, Daniel (September 24, 2012). "Fueling the Fleet, Navy Looks to the Seas". Naval Research Laboratory News.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Roxanne (December 17, 2013). "How The Navy Might Spin Seawater Into Jet Fuel". International Business Times.
Jump up ^ Tozer, Jessica L. (April 11, 2014). "Energy Independence: Creating Fuel from Seawater". Armed with Science. U.S. Department of Defense. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Koren, Marina (December 13, 2013). "Guess What Could Fuel the Battleships of the Future?". National Journal.
Jump up ^ Tucker, Patrick (April 10, 2014). "The Navy Just Turned Seawater Into Jet Fuel". Defense One.
Jump up ^ Ernst, Douglas (April 10, 2014). "U.S. Navy to turn seawater into jet fuel". The Washington Times.
Jump up ^ Sirak, Michael (2010-01-27). "B-2 Goes Synthetic". Air Force Magazine. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Dowdell, Richelle (February 10, 2011). "Officials certify first aircraft for biofuel usage". The Official Website of the U.S. Air Force. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Morales, Alex; Louise Downing (October 18, 2011). "Fat Replaces Oil for F-16s as Biofuels Head to War: Commodities". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ "UOP To Develop Technology to Produce Bio JP-8 for Military Jets". Green Car Congress. June 28, 2007. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Beginner's Guide to Aviation Biofuels" (PDF). Air Transport Action Group. May 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-20. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy". The Washington Post. 2008-01-06. Retrieved 2010-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Gfi Home". Greenflightinternational.com. Archived from the original on 2011-01-25. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Tecbio". Tecbio. Archived from the original on 2011-01-23. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Crop this: Virgin takes off with nut-fuel - 26 Feb 2008 - NZ Herald: New Zealand Business, Markets, Currency and Personal Finance News". NZ Herald. 2008-02-26. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
Jump up ^ "2008 Environment Report". Boeing. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Velocys press release, "Partnership formed, aimed at waste-to-jet-fuel plants in UK". September 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Koch, Wendy (November 7, 2011). "United flies first US passengers using fuel from algae". USA Today. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "United Airlines Flies First U.S. Commercial Advanced Biofuel Flight". United Continental Holdings, Inc. Archived from the original on April 12, 2013. Retrieved November 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Price, Toby (November 10, 2011). "Solazyme completes first commercial flight on biofuel". Renewable Energy Magazine. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA". News.asiaone.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
Jump up ^ http://www.astmnewsroom.org/default.aspx?pageid=3656
Jump up ^ "Jet fuel consumption on Index Mundi". Retrieved 19 November 2014.
External links[edit]
History of Jet Fuel
MIL-DTL-5624U
MIL-DTL-83133H
Aviation Fuel Properties 1983
show
v
t
e
Jet engines and aircraft gas turbines
Gas turbines
and jet propulsion
Types
Propfan
Turbofan
Turbojet
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Turboshaft
Ramjet
Rocket
Mechanical
components
Accessory drive
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Axial compressor
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Turbine blade
Principles
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Bypass ratio
Compressor stall
Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
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Jet engine performance
Overall pressure ratio
Propulsive efficiency
Specific impulse
Thrust
Thrust lapse
Thrust specific fuel consumption
Thrust to weight ratio
Variable cycle engine
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Propellers
Components
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Principles
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Proprotor
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Engine
instruments
Annunciator panel
Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
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Flight data recorder
Glass cockpit
Engine controls
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Thrust lever
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Fuel and induction
systems
Jet fuel
Other systems
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GND: 4163647-8
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_fuel&oldid=838410604"
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