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Mazda RX-8
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Mazda RX-8
Overview
Manufacturer
Mazda
Production
2003-2012
Assembly
Hiroshima, Japan
Body and chassis
Class
Sports car
Body style
4-door quad coupé
Layout
FMR layout
Related
Mazda MX-5 (3rd generation)
Powertrain
Engine
1.3 L RENESIS (Wankel rotary) NA
Power output
139–168 kW (189–228 PS)
Transmission
4-speed automatic
6-speed automatic
5-speed manual
6-speed manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
2,703 mm (106.4 in)
Length
2002–08: 4,425 mm (174.2 in)
2008–12: 4,470 mm (176.0 in)
Width
1,770 mm (69.7 in)
Height
1,340 mm (52.8 in)
Curb weight
Manual: 1,309–1,373 kg (2,886–3,027 lb)
Auto: 1,384 kg (3,051 lb)
Chronology
Predecessor
Mazda RX-7
Mazda Cosmo
Successor
Mazda RX-9
The Mazda RX-8 was a sports car that was manufactured by Mazda from 2003 to 2012. It was first shown in 2001 at the North American International Auto Show. It is the successor to the RX-7 and, like its predecessors in the RX range, it is powered by a Wankel engine. The RX-8 began North American sales in the 2003 model year.
Mazda announced on August 23, 2011, that the RX-8 was to be discontinued citing the 2012 model as the last line of production. The RX-8 was removed from the European market in 2010 after the car failed to meet emissions standards.
Without the volume sales from Europe coupled with rising Yen prices, Mazda could not justify the continued sale of the RX-8 in other markets.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Development and design
3 First generation (SE3P, 2002–2008)
3.1 Shinka
3.2 Evolve
3.3 PZ
3.4 Revelation
3.5 Nemesis
3.6 Kuro
3.7 40th Anniversary
3.8 Hydrogen RE
3.9 NR-A
4 Mid-Cycle Refresh (2008–2012)
4.1 R3
4.2 SPIRIT-R
5 Warranty extension program
6 Common Problems
7 MAZDASPEED
8 Racing
9 Successor
10 Awards
11 References
12 External links
Background[edit]
Mazda introduced rotary engine vehicles in the US in 1971, beginning with the R100 and eventually introducing the RX-2, RX-3, RX-4, RX-5, and three generations of the RX-7 sports car. However, due the lack of conveniences and user-friendliness, coupled with the high price tag and declining interest in sports cars and coupés at the time, Mazda decided to withdraw the RX-7 from most major markets except Japan. After 1995, Mazda suffered from a relatively undistinguished and ordinary product line in the US except for the MX-5 Miata.
As popular interest in import tuning and performance cars resurged in the late-1990s due in part to various popular cultural influences, Japanese automakers waded back into the performance and sports car market in the US. In addition, Mazda endeavoured to rejuvenate itself around this time, partially with financial and management assistance from Ford, and successfully developed a new product line of high quality cars with desirable styling and superior driving dynamics compared to their competitors, beginning with the Mazda6 and followed by the Mazda3, paving the way for the arrival of Mazda's next-generation rotary sports car.
The RX-8 combined two previous products (the internationally sold RX-7, and the Cosmo which was exclusive to Japan), with the exterior dimensions of the RX-8 to be slightly smaller than those of the Cosmo. Mazda chose not to install the 2.0 L three-rotor 20B-REW, which was discontinued in 1996 when the Cosmo ceased production. In Japan, sales were affected by the fact that the RX-8 did not comply with Japanese Government dimension regulations, and Japanese buyers were liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. The rotary engine had financial advantages to Japanese consumers in that the engine displacement remained below 1.5 litres, a significant determination when paying the Japanese annual road tax which kept the obligation affordable to most buyers, while having more power than the traditional inline engines.
Development and design[edit]
"freestyle" doors
rear door
Development of the RX-8 can be traced as far back as the 1995 Mazda RX-01 concept car, which featured an early iteration of the 13B-MSP engine. Naturally aspirated with side exhaust ports, this engine produced 210 hp (160 kW).[citation needed] Because of Mazda's financial state at the time and the growing market interest in SUVs, the RX-01 did not see further development or production. However, a "skunkworks project" engineering team within Mazda kept the development of the 13B-MSP alive using an elongated MX-5 Miata chassis known internally as "gokiburi-ka", or "coachroach car" translated to english, eventually catching the attention of management, which at this time had come under heavy influence from Ford. Development of the 13B-MSP advanced and eventually led to the RENESIS name debuting along with the RX-EVOLV concept car which began to bear semblance to the production RX-8 with the "freestyle" rear suicide doors. Styling was developed, in Mazda tradition, by competition between its design studios in Japan, the US, and Europe. The lead designer was Ikuo Maeda, the son of Matasaburo Maeda (the lead designer on the original Mazda RX-7).[2] The project obtained official approval from management under one condition, that it have four doors, and eventually the RX-8 concept car (design/engineering model) was produced and shown in 2001, closer resembling the production version. A near-production "reference exhibit" RX-8 was shown shortly thereafter at the 2001 Tokyo Motor Show, pending final approval for production. Production RX-8 closely resembles this vehicle save for minor trim details, and "Job 1" began in February 2003 at Mazda's Hiroshima plant in Japan.
The RX-8 was designed as a front mid-engine, rear-wheel drive four-door, four-seater quad coupe. The car has near 50:50 front-rear weight distribution and a low polar moment of inertia, achieved by mounting the engine behind the front axle and the fuel tank ahead of the rear axle. The front suspension uses double wishbones and the rear is multi-link. Weight is trimmed through the use of materials such as aluminium and plastic for several body panels. The rest of the body is steel, except for the plastic front and rear bumpers. The manual gearbox model uses a carbon fiber composite driveshaft to reduce the rotational mass (momentum of inertia) connected to the engine. At the heart of the Mazda RX-8 is its high-revving, 1.3-liter rotary engine.[1] Power is sent to the rear wheels through a torque-sensing conical limited slip differential for improved handling. While underpowered in comparison to the final RX-7, the RX-8 is considered its successor as Mazda's rotary engine sports sedan. Its layout and clever engineering, along with typical Mazda suspension tuning have endowed it with excellent driving dynamics which have garnered much praise and numerous awards. It has also proved popular in Japan among car enthusiasts as well as aftermarket equipment manufacturers and professional tuners.
A prominent feature of the RX-8 is a pair of rear-hinged "freestyle" doors (similar to suicide doors) to provide easier access to the rear seats. The RX-8 has no B-pillar between the front and rear doors, but the leading edge of the rear door acts as a "virtual pillar" to maintain structural rigidity. Because of the overlapping design, the rear doors can be opened only when the front doors are open. Although by no means expansive, the RX-8's cabin was designed to allow enough room to house four adults, making it a genuine 4-seater rather than a 2+2.
The RX-8 was sold on export markets including Europe, whereas the RX-7 had been withdrawn from these markets after 1996 due to falling sales and thereafter only sold in Japan.
First generation (SE3P, 2002–2008)[edit]
2004–2008 Mazda RX-8
2002–2007 Mazda RX-8
The first version of the RX-8, chassis code SE3P, and JM1FE, was produced from model year 2003, though the car's U.S. debut was the 2004 model. It is powered by the RENESIS 13B-MSP (2-rotor, multi-side-port) Wankel engine displacing 1.3 litres non-turbo (1308 cc). At launch, the RENESIS was available in standard and high power versions. The 4-port standard RENESIS produced 191 hp (142 kW) and was coupled with either a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. The 6-port high power RENESIS was only available with a six-speed manual transmission and was rated at 237 hp (177 kW). For the North American market, Mazda revised the reported output rating of the standard and high power RENESIS soon after launch to 237 hp (177 kW) and 237 hp (177 kW), respectively.[3] With exhaust ports now located in the side housing, the RENESIS boasted improved fuel efficiency and emissions rating over the 13B-REW employed by the last RX-7, thereby making it possible to be sold in North America.
At launch, the RX-8 was available in various models in different markets around the world.
6-speed manual with a claimed output of 231 hp @ 8,500 rpm and a 9,000 rpm redline (Sold in North America). This model was equivalent to the "Type S" trim in Japan.
5-speed manual tuned to 141 kW (192 PS; 189 hp) with the redline reduced to 7,500 rpm. This powertrain combination was not available in North America.
6-speed automatic with manual paddle-shifting option (introduced in the U.S. with the 2006 model, replacing the 4-speed automatic of '04-'05) developing 158 kW (215 PS; 212 hp) and 159 lb·ft (216 N·m) of torque with a redline at 7,500 rpm.[4] This was the revised standard RENESIS, now with two extra intake ports like the high power version. The '06 automatic RX-8 also was given a second oil cooler, as was standard in the manual transmission model.
Automatic versions all had lower output/lower rpm engines due to the lack of availability of a transmission that would be able to reliably cope with the engine's high rpm limits. The 2004 - 2005 automatic version only had one oil cooler instead of two and is prone to overheating if raced.
Shinka[edit]
In 2005, Mazda introduced the first special edition RX-8 called "Sports Prestige Limited" in Japan and "Shinka" in North America. Shinka takes its name from the Japanese word meaning "transformation" or "evolution".[5] Billed as a more luxurious grand touring model, this Shinka came with Black Cherry Mica exterior color and Parchment leather interior along with subtly chromed 18" wheels. Out of the total production of 2150 vehicles, 1357 were produced for North America market. The most significant mechanical change were slightly revised Bilstein shocks and suspension cross member injected with urethane foam to improve ride quality.
Evolve[edit]
Launched in 2006 the ‘Evolve’ was the first special edition for the UK. The new model was named after the original Mazda concept car seen in Detroit in 2000 and was limited to a production run of just 500.
Based on the 231 PS (170 kW; 228 hp) high-power version, it had several unique exterior features. These include a choice of two exclusive colours (Copper Red Mica 400 and Phantom Blue Mica 100), unique dark silver 18 × 8J alloy wheels, a polished aluminium Rotary crest on the front air dam, dark silver bezel headlamps, sports door mirrors, polished aluminium side air outlet fins, Rotary branded B-pillar trims, chrome exhaust surrounds.
Inside, the Evolve features unique stone leather and Alcantara sporty seat trim, plus black leather-wrapped steering wheel, gear knob and hand-brake lever. The Evolve Special Edition with its enhanced specification was great value for money the same price as a standard RX-8 231 PS model with leather trim.
PZ[edit]
RX-8 PZ edition
In May 2006, the Mazda released the RX-8 PZ for the UK market. This car was jointly developed with motorsports company Prodrive. Only available in six-speed manual, it featured custom 10-spoke alloy wheels supplied by Italian F1 team supplier OZ Racing in "Dark Silver" finish, mirrors developed to reduce drag, front and rear black mesh grilles, and a rear spoiler to provide more stability at higher speeds. Both the wheels and rear wing are badged in carbon fiber with "Prodrive." Significant revisions were also made to the suspension to improve the handling: dampers from Bilstein and coil springs from Eibach are used in addition to reducing the ride height by 15 mm (0.6 in) and an increase in spring rate of 60%. Finally the car was supplied with a unique upgraded twin exhaust system, with exhaust tailpipes branded "Prodrive." Only 800 were made at an MSRP of £25,995. It was available in two colours, Galaxy Grey (380) and Brilliant Black (420).
Revelation[edit]
The Revelation model was an Australian special edition of the RX8 with a 1000 car limited production run. The model incorporated the top spec features of the current RX8 with the 9 speaker Bose sound system, leather seats and with the same 13B Renesis rotary engine. Like regular RX-8 variants, the Revelation features 18-inch alloy wheels and tyres, traction control, Dynamic Stability Control (DSC), six airbags, cruise control, power windows/mirrors, limited-slip differential, six-CD in-dash audio system and climate control air-conditioning. The revelation though, added stiffer anti roll bars, foam filled cross members and special edition grey spoke alloys. The Revelation also offered new colors such as the new Mazda Galaxy Grey, Phantom Blue, Copper Red, Brilliant Black and white pearl.
Nemesis[edit]
The 'Nemesis' model is the 3rd special edition model launched in the UK and is a UK exclusive. It was launched in 2006, although some cars were registered in 2007 due to stock runoff. The ‘Nemesis’ features unique paint colours and interior trim, plus an exclusive accessory package, at a cost that was at the time £330 less than the model on which it is based - when similarly specified. Based on the standard 192 PS (141 kW) version of the Mazda RX-8, it included a unique stone leather seat trim interior and came with a five-speed manual transmission. The Nemesis has several other unique exterior and interior features. Two exclusive colours were available, Copper Red Mica and Stormy Blue Mica, each Nemesis also comes with a polished aluminium Rotary crest on the front air dam, polished aluminium side air-outlet trims behind the front wheel arches, special B-pillar trims with a Rotary crest and ‘Nemesis’ badging. Inside these special edition models also featured Nemesis branded luxury carpet mats and Mazda RX-8 branded aluminium door scuff plates. Like other standard 248 PS (182 kW; 245 hp) RX-8s, the Nemesis has front fog lights, heated front seats, electrically operated driver’s seat, climate control air-conditioning, nine-speaker BOSE premium audio system with 6-CD auto-changer, plus a black leather-wrapped steering wheel, gear knob and hand-brake lever. The Nemesis has a top speed of 139 mph (224 km/h) and accelerates from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 7.2 seconds. Each Nemesis buyer also qualified for a complimentary Prodrive experience day. Just 350 examples were commissioned, 200 in Copper Red and 150 in Stormy Blue.
Kuro[edit]
In 2007 Mazda released a Japan-North America limited edition known as the Kuro (Japanese for black). Production run was limited to 500 cars. All cars were finished in Sparkling Black paint, with 18" Monoblock wheels. Kuro version used a more evolved 13B High Power engine, 6 speed manual with a claimed output of 250rwhp @ 9,000 rpm and a 10,000 rpm redline.[citation needed]. Inside this very special edition Mazda featured black coloured leather interior, Bose premium audio system with 6-CD auto-changer, heated seats, electrically operated driver's seat, and climate control air-conditioning, cruise control, traction control, dynamic stability control and eight airbags. This edition has racing-type fully adjustable front & rear Tein suspension, bigger exhaust tips, fog lights, stiffer anti roll bars, better engine cooling system, limited slip differential and a rear spoiler to provide more stability at higher speeds. After Kuro version Mazda announced that this is the absolute Mazda RX-8 version with suggested retail price off 60,000USD($)/6,653,550.00JPY(¥).
40th Anniversary[edit]
2007 saw the release of a special edition to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Mazda's rotary engine. The 40th Anniversary special editions were different in the Japan and North American markets. The Japanese version came in Marble White as an homage to the Mazda Cosmo Sport, which was initially only available in white. The North American version came in Metropolitan Grey Mica exterior with the interior clad in special Cosmo Red leather. It also had wheels of a new design that were later incorporated in the 2009 facelift, however the tinted color of the wheels remained exclusive to the 40th Anniversary Edition. Exclusive sport-tuned suspension with Bilstein dampers were added along with an enhanced urethane foam injected front cross member intended to improve steering feel.[6] In North America, this special edition was available only in 2008.
For the Australian market, only 200 examples of the 40th Anniversary Edition were produced in 2008 exclusively. It was available in Metropolitan Grey, Dark Blue, or Brilliant Black exterior paint. The interior came with exclusive white Alcantara and black leather seats with contrasting white stitching.
Hydrogen RE[edit]
Main article: Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE
Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE
At the 2004 North American International Auto Show, Mazda unveiled the RX-8 Hydrogen RE concept car, designed to run on either hydrogen or gasoline. In February 2006, Mazda revealed that it would start leasing a dual fuel RX-8 to commercial customers in Japan, and in March 2006 announced its first two customers, claiming the first fleet deliveries of a dual hydrogen/gasoline production car. In 2008 30 RX-8 HRE were delivered to Hynor.
NR-A[edit]
Following suit with the Roadster, Mazda introduced the NR-A/Party Race program for RX-8 in Japan in 2004. The NR-A kit, sold through Mazda dealers, brings the RX-8 up to spec in terms of eligibility for participation in the one-make Party Race sanctioned by the Japan Automobile Federation (JAF). The kit includes roll bar, sports radiator, oil cooler kit, tow hooks, and racing brake pads, and was only available for the Type S (high power) model.
Mid-Cycle Refresh (2008–2012)[edit]
2nd generation Mazda RX-8
2nd generation Mazda RX-8
In 2008 November, Mazda engineers improved the RX-8 body rigidity through the addition of structural reinforcements, by adding a trapezoidal shock tower brace and enhancing the local rigidity of the front suspension tower areas. The rear suspension geometry was revised for better handling, and the final-drive-gear ratio on manual transmission cars was shortened from 4.444 to 4.777 for improved off-the-line performance. While minimal, these changes gave the updated RX-8 increased acceleration and performance. Mazda engineers claimed that the 2nd generation RX-8 was (slightly) faster than the previous generation due to the lower gearing and improved suspension. The Renesis II motor iteration that launched with the 2009 model year included a third oil injection port in each rotor housing to feed oil to the middle of the rotor facing, making this their first all new EMOP (Electric Metering Oil Pump) with a total of 6 lubrication injectors, plus an all new engine oil pump.
The updated RX-8 also received design enhancements that were meant to freshen the styling and give the RX-8 a new look, without impairing the basic design theme. Refinements for the 2009 model year included a more aggressive restyled front and rear bumper as well as a new front fascia. The updated RX-8 also came with sporty, high-quality finish front and rear headlamps as well as larger exhaust pipes (now measuring 90 mm (3.5 in) across). The 09 RX-8 also offered a new five-spoke wheel design featuring a symbolic and sporty design reminiscent of the rotary engine, with different arrangements for each wheel size. There were three trims available to consumers from 2009 to 2012: Sport, Grand Touring, and R3.
R3[edit]
Mazda RX-8 R3
The R3 version was introduced for the 2009 year model. The R3 package added slightly improved suspension over the base model by adding Bilstein shock absorbers and a foam filled front crossmember to improve rigidity. The R3 also came with 19-inch forged aluminum-alloy wheels and high performance tires. On the exterior, the R3 had a different, lower front bumper sporting a splitter, lower side sills, and a standard rear spoiler. There is a pair of special Recaro seats up front, along with the same 300-watt Bose audio system, Bluetooth, and Mazda advanced keyless entry and start system. No electric sunroof was offered in the R3 model.
SPIRIT-R[edit]
Spirit-R
The Spirit R is a limited edition RX-8 built to celebrate the end of RX-8 production. The name "Spirit R" was based on the final limited edition Mazda RX-7, the RX-7 Spirit R. It is the fastest and most expensive RX-8 ever made. Limited to only 1000 cars and exclusively sold in Japan, it's also the rarest RX-8 ever made. With the car having such a limited run, the Spirit R was mainly bought by car collectors and die hard enthusiasts. Mazda claims that over 40% of their buyers were car collectors. Because it is so rare, prices skyrocketed, with low milage used Spirit Rs costing much more than when new.
The car had 2 transmission choices, a 6 speed manual transmission and a 6 speed automatic with paddle shifters. Features exclusive to the RX-8 Spirit R were bi-xenon piano-black headlights, 4 piston front and rear red brake calipers, high performance Bridgestone Potenza summer tires, a 7.1 channel 300 watt Bose premium audio system with AudioPilot noise cancellation technology, and piano-black transmission tunnel trim.
Mazda reworked a lot of the engine and electronics to produce the most amount of power. A high pressure fuel pump was added. A larger radiator with faster fans helped with cooling. The cold air intake system was upgraded, S-DIAS now has two intake ports, instead of one. The second port would open at 5500RPM to allow more air into the engine. The Oil metering pump was upgraded to provide more oil to the rotors. A less restricted stainless steel exhaust was added with larger 3.5 inch tips. A Tochigi Fuji torque vectoring limited-slip differential was added. The engine ignition system was upgraded to the high output revision-C coils, for increased performance and engine response. A bespoke track-ready suspension with Bilstein dampers and a urethane-foam-injected front suspension cross member was added. Mazda also focused on reducing weight. The front hood, rear doors and boot lid were made from aluminum. A magnesium steering frame, along with a lightweight carbon fiber prop shaft was also added. The manual transmission model came with exclusive lightweight red leather SPIRIT R bucket seats from Recaro, and lightweight, forged 19-inch BBS bronze aluminum alloy wheels. The automatic transmission model included 10-way power leather seats with lumbar support and 2 position memory in black with red stitching, and 18-inch lightweight BBS dark gunmetal alloy wheels wrapped in Bridgestone Potenza summer tires. Some models came with red leather seats with white stitching. A tire upgrade was available, swapping the Bridgestone's for higher performance Falken extreme summer tires. The automatic models could be specified with the manual transmission model's Recaro bucket seats and 19 inch wheels.
With all the improvements combined, the Spirit R could accelerate from 0-100 in 5.7 seconds, opposed to the base model's 6 second time. The car could also reach a top speed of over 270 km/h, making it the fastest factory RX-8 ever built.
The body color choices for the Spirit R were limited to Aluminum Metallic, Sparkling Black Mica, and a special color, Crystal White Pearl Mica, exclusive to the Spirit R.[7]
A small number of Spirit R RX-8's were sold in Indonesia, Malaysia, and New Zealand.
Warranty extension program[edit]
Mazda North American Operations extended the engine warranty on all model year 2004-2008 RX-8s. The warranty extension covers only the engine core which consists of the rotor housing and internal parts as well as the seals and gaskets. It does not include clutch or drive train (transmission or differential). An extended engine warranty for emissions was not offered in any other RX-8 markets.[8]
Common Problems[edit]
Series 1 (2004-2008) RX-8 Renesis commonly suffer from engine failures between 80,000 and 120,000 miles due to premature apex seal wear from the lack of a center/middle oil injector which gets its oil from the oil metering pump. The rotor main bearing can also fail due to various problems like low oil pressure, and a lower viscosity oil was recommended in the North American market. The oil pan has a common problem of being crushed or bent during maintenance and can decrease the oil pickup tube flow causing main bearing failures as well. Modified Renesis engines can experience side seal failures due to a combination of exhaust back pressure and higher exhaust temperature. Overheating and heat expansion of housings can cause seals in the rotary engine to fail as well. Most of the issues can be circumvented by using a higher viscosity oil and adding 2 cycle oil to the gas. Flooding can occur in the RX-8 as in previous generations of rotary engine cars.[citation needed]
Engine failures have been alleviated by Mazda with ECU updates that can be flashed by Mazda Dealerships. Some flashes instructed the ECU to inject more oil into the combustion chamber which alleviated premature apex seal failures.[citation needed]
MAZDASPEED[edit]
Mazda RX-8 MS
Mazdaspeed, Mazda's in-house tuning and high-performance arm, has produced various after-sale parts and accessories for the RX-8, including full body kits, suspension upgrades, engine upgrades (such as cold air intake kit and catback exhausts), and various interior accessories. In addition, Mazdaspeed has also produced several series of showroom-ready limited-production RX-8s in Japan featuring some of these parts and accessories. To date, however, there has not yet been a full Mazdaspeed-tuned RX-8 along the same line as the Mazdaspeed Protegé, Mazdaspeed MX-5, Mazdaspeed6, or the Mazdaspeed3.
Racing[edit]
RX-8 competing in a Grand-Am Cup race in 2006
RX-8 GTD competing in a Grand-Am race in 2010
The RX-8 has been campaigned and used in various racing series by privateers. It has seen a considerable amount of success, the most prominent of which being the 2008 and 2010 24 Hours of Daytona GT-class wins campaigned by SpeedSource Race Engineering. This victory also marks the 23rd endurance race win at Daytona by a Mazda rotary-powered race car. While the cars are powered by the 20B rotary engines, the car is in fact built on a tube frame chassis and not on the production car.[9]
Ryan Eversley won both races of the 2010 SCCA World Challenge Mid-Ohio Grand Prix in the touring car class.
Other racing series include the KONI Challenge Series in the Street Tuner class. In the UK, the RX8 featured in the Mazda sponsored "Formula Women" series (2004), which involved all women drivers with slightly modified RX8s, and the RX8 was also run successfully in Britcar series endurance races (2005/2006). In Belgium, Mazda are currently sponsoring an RX8 silhouette racer in the GT series. The car also won the IMSA Continental Tire Sports Car Challenge in 2005.
Successor[edit]
Contrary to popular belief, the RX-Vision is no more a successor to the RX-8 than the RX-8 is to the RX-7. The only concrete linking factor between these cars are their Wankel engines and the RX nomenclature. In reality, the RX nomenclature is much like BMW's M nomenclature. An M3 is not a predecessor to the -5 or vice versa.
The next generation rotary engine, dubbed 16x (Sky R), is currently under development.[10] Rumours suggest that the RX-8 may be replaced by a new smaller, lighter, simpler sports car set to compete with the likes of the Toyota 86. Mazda’s new 16x (Sky R) rotary engine is rumored to be at the heart of the RX-8 successor. Rumors suggest the RX-8 successor will include the introduction of direct injection and hybrid technology, as well as aluminium side housings with 1600 cc capacity instead of the 1308 cc capacity from the RX-8. Rumors also suggest that the new engine dimensions of the 16x will have increased stroke and reduced rotor width for improved thermal efficiency and more torque. Japanese reports and Autocar both state that the next generation RX-8 will have around 290 horsepower, and weigh around 2,700 lb (1,200 kg).date=March 2015}}
Rumors suggest that development work on the next generation rotary engine have been given a lower priority and will proceed at a slower pace, due to limited engineering resources and tightening emission regulations, making development of a high performance rotary engine a lower priority compared to the next generation MX-5.[11] However, in a press release on February 2012 Mazda stated that development of rotary engines will continue.[12][13][14]
The sales of the RX-8 ended in 2010 in Europe after failing to meet increasingly demanding[dubious – discuss] emission standards.[15][16][17][18]
The production of the RX-8 ended in 2012 in Japan. Mazda has produced 192,094 RX-8s since 2003.[7] Production of the rotary ended in June 21, 2012, followed by the end of RX-8 assembly on June 22, 2012 at Mazda's Ujina, Hiroshima plant.[19][20]
By the end of 2015 the trend away from rotary engines at Mazda seems to be reversing, with the announcement of the RX-9[21] which incorporates some of the improvements mentioned above but heavier and more powerful than the RX-8.
Awards[edit]
As of October 2006 the RX-8 has won 37 international motoring awards including 2003 International Engine of the Year, the 2003 Japanese Car of the Year, Australia's Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for 2003, the 2004 Singapore Car of the Year, the 2004 U.S. Best Sports Car, and several UK Best Car Awards. It was named on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 2004, 2005, and 2006. It also took home 1st place on Car and Driver's "Four of a Kind" comparison test.[22] 2010 RX-8 placed 3rd out of 7 on Car and Driver's The Best-Handling Car in America for Less Than $100,000.[23][24] It was also awarded the Editors' Choice Award by Grassroots Motorsports in 2003.[25]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "The Best-Handling Car in America for Less Than $100,000 - Video - Auto Reviews". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Design awards and honours". Mazda Australia. Archived from the original on May 22, 2006. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
Jump up ^ http://www.grassrootsmotorsports.com
"2009 MAZDA RX-8: Further Evolution for the Rotary Revolution". Mazda USA.
"Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen rotary engine". Ford Media. Archived from the original on April 25, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
"Mazda Adds 6-Speed Automatic and New Shinka Package for 2006 RX-8". Fast-Autos.net. Archived from the original on August 22, 2006. Retrieved September 8, 2006.
"Future Products - Mazda". AutoWeek. Retrieved August 16, 2006.
"Mazda RX-9 could use 1.6-litre 16X rotary engine". Retrieved November 4, 2010.
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Mid-size 626 626 Mazda6 Mazda6 Mazda6
Millenia
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Fatty acid synthesis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Fatty acid synthesis is the creation of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and NADPH through the action of enzymes called fatty acid synthases. This process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. Most of the acetyl-CoA which is converted into fatty acids is derived from carbohydrates via the glycolytic pathway. The glycolytic pathway also provides the glycerol with which three fatty acids can combine (by means of ester bonds) to form triglycerides (also known as "triacylglycerols", to distinguish them from fatty "acids" - or simply as "fat"), the final product of the lipogenic process. When only two fatty acids combine with glycerol and the third alcohol group is phosphorylated with a group such as phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid is formed. Phospholipids form the bulk of the lipid bilayers that make up cell membranes and surround the organelles within the cells (e.g. the cell nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus etc.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Straight-chain fatty acids
1.1 Saturated straight-chain fatty acids
1.2 Glycolytic end products are used in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids
1.3 Animals cannot resynthesize carbohydrates from fatty acids
1.3.1 Anaerobic desaturation
1.3.2 Aerobic desaturation
2 Branched-chain fatty acids
2.1 Branch-chain fatty acid synthesizing system
2.2 Branch-chain fatty acid synthase
2.3 Omega-alicyclic fatty acids
2.4 Tuberculostearic acid synthesis
3 See also
4 Foot note
5 References
6 External links
Straight-chain fatty acids[edit]
Straight-chain fatty acids occur in two types: saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated straight-chain fatty acids[edit]
Synthesis of saturated fatty acids via Fatty Acid Synthase II in E. coli
Much like β-oxidation, straight-chain fatty acid synthesis occurs via the six recurring reactions shown below, until the 16-carbon palmitic acid is produced.[1][2]
The diagrams presented show how fatty acids are synthesized in microorganisms and list the enzymes found in Escherichia coli.[1] These reactions are performed by fatty acid synthase II (FASII), which in general contain multiple enzymes that act as one complex. FASII is present in prokaryotes, plants, fungi, and parasites, as well as in mitochondria.[3]
In animals, as well as some fungi such as yeast, these same reactions occur on fatty acid synthase I (FASI), a large dimeric protein that has all of the enzymatic activities required to create a fatty acid. FASI is less efficient than FASII; however, it allows for the formation of more molecules, including "medium-chain" fatty acids via early chain termination.[3]
Once a 16:0 carbon fatty acid has been formed, it can undergo a number of modifications, resulting in desaturation and/or elongation. Elongation, starting with stearate (18:0), is performed mainly in the ER by several membrane-bound enzymes. The enzymatic steps involved in the elongation process are principally the same as those carried out by FAS, but the four principal successive steps of the elongation are performed by individual proteins, which may be physically associated.[4][5]
Step
Enzyme
Reaction
Description
(a) Acetyl CoA:ACP transacylase
Activates acetyl CoA for reaction with malonyl-ACP
(b) Malonyl CoA:ACP transacylase Activates malonyl CoA for reaction with acetyl-ACP
(c) 3-ketoacyl-ACP synthase
Reacts priming acetyl-ACP with chain-extending malonyl-ACP.
(d) 3-ketoacyl-ACP reductase
Reduces the carbon 3 ketone to a hydroxyl group
(e) 3-Hydroxyacyl ACP dehydrase
Removes water
(f) Enoyl-ACP reductase
Reduces the C2-C3 double bond.
Abbreviations: ACP – Acyl carrier protein, CoA – Coenzyme A, NADP – Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.
Note that during fatty synthesis the reducing agent is NADPH, whereas NAD is the oxidizing agent in beta-oxidation (the breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA). This difference exemplifies a general principle that NADPH is consumed during biosynthetic reactions, whereas NADH is generated in energy-yielding reactions.[6] (Thus NADPH is also required for the synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-CoA; while NADH is generated during glycolysis.) The source of the NADPH is two-fold. When malate is oxidatively decarboxylated by “NADP+-linked malic enzyme" pyruvate, CO2 and NADPH are formed. NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate.[6]
Glycolytic end products are used in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids[edit]
Main article: Citric acid cycle § Glycolytic end products are used in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids
In humans, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver and adipose tissue, as well as in the mammary glands during lactation.
The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol.[6] This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs. This cannot occur directly. To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.[6] There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate can be used for gluconeogenesis (in the liver), or it can be returned into mitochondrion as malate.[7] The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is carboxylated by acetyl CoA carboxylase into malonyl CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids.[7][8]
Animals cannot resynthesize carbohydrates from fatty acids[edit]
The main fuel stored in the bodies of animals is fat. The young adult human’s fat stores average between about 10–20 kg, but varies greatly depending on age, gender, and individual disposition.[9] By contrast the human body stores only about 400 g of glycogen, of which 300 g is locked inside the skeletal muscles and is unavailable to the body as a whole. The 100 g or so of glycogen stored in the liver is depleted within one day of starvation.[10] Thereafter the glucose that is released into the blood by the liver for general use by the body tissues, has to be synthesized from the glucogenic amino acids and a few other gluconeogenic substrates, which do not include fatty acids.[11]
Fatty acids are broken down to acetyl-CoA by means of beta oxidation inside the mitochondria, whereas fatty acids are synthesized from acetyl-CoA outside the mitochondrion, in the cytosol. The two pathways are distinct, not only in where they occur, but also in the reactions that occur, and the substrates that are used. The two pathways are mutually inhibitory, preventing the acetyl-CoA produced by beta-oxidation from entering the synthetic pathway via the acetyl-CoA carboxylase reaction.[11] It can also not be converted to pyruvate as the pyruvate decarboxylation reaction is irreversible.[10] Instead it condenses with oxaloacetate, to enter the citric acid cycle. During each turn of the cycle, two carbon atoms leave the cycle as CO2 in the decarboxylation reactions catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. Thus each turn of the citric acid cycle oxidizes an acetyl-CoA unit while regenerating the oxaloacetate molecule with which the acetyl-CoA had originally combined to form citric acid. The decarboxylation reactions occur before malate is formed in the cycle. This is the only substance that can be removed from the mitochondrion to enter the gluconeogenic pathway to form glucose or glycogen in the liver or any other tissue.[11] There can therefore be no net conversion of fatty acids into glucose.
Only plants possess the enzymes to convert acetyl-CoA into oxaloacetate from which malate can be formed to ultimately be converted to glucose.[11]
Regulation
Acetyl-CoA is formed into malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase, at which point malonyl-CoA is destined to feed into the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase is the point of regulation in saturated straight-chain fatty acid synthesis, and is subject to both phosphorylation and allosteric regulation. Regulation by phosphorylation occurs mostly in mammals, while allosteric regulation occurs in most organisms. Allosteric control occurs as feedback inhibition by palmitoyl-CoA and activation by citrate. When there are high levels of palmitoyl-CoA, the final product of saturated fatty acid synthesis, it allosterically inactivates acetyl-CoA carboxylase to prevent a build-up of fatty acids in cells. Citrate acts to activate acetyl-CoA carboxylase under high levels, because high levels indicate that there is enough acetyl-CoA to feed into the Krebs cycle and produce energy.[12]
High plasma levels of insulin in the blood plasma (e.g. after meals) cause the dephosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, thus promoting the formation of malonyl-CoA from acetyl-CoA, and consequently the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids, while epinephrine and glucagon (released into the blood during starvation and exercise) cause the phosphorylation of this enzyme, inhibiting lipogenesis in favor of fatty acid oxidation via beta-oxidation.[6][8]
Anaerobic desaturation[edit]
Many bacteria use the anaerobic pathway for synthesizing unsaturated fatty acids. This pathway does not utilize oxygen and is dependent on enzymes to insert the double bond before elongation utilizing the normal fatty acid synthesis machinery. In Escherichia coli, this pathway is well understood.
Synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids via anaerobic desaturation
FabA is a β-hydroxydecanoyl-ACP dehydrase – it is specific for the 10-carbon saturated fatty acid synthesis intermediate (β-hydroxydecanoyl-ACP).
FabA catalyzes the dehydration of β-hydroxydecanoyl-ACP, causing the release of water and insertion of the double bond between C7 and C8 counting from the methyl end. This creates the trans-2-decenoyl intermediate.
Either the trans-2-decenoyl intermediate can be shunted to the normal saturated fatty acid synthesis pathway by FabB, where the double bond will be hydrolyzed and the final product will be a saturated fatty acid, or FabA will catalyze the isomerization into the cis-3-decenoyl intermediate.
FabB is a β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase that elongates and channels intermediates into the mainstream fatty acid synthesis pathway. When FabB reacts with the cis-decenoyl intermediate, the final product after elongation will be an unsaturated fatty acid.[13]
The two main unsaturated fatty acids made are Palmitoleoyl-ACP (16:1ω7) and cis-vaccenoyl-ACP (18:1ω7).[14]
Most bacteria that undergo anaerobic desaturation contain homologues of FabA and FabB.[15] Clostridia are the main exception; they have a novel enzyme, yet to be identified, that catalyzes the formation of the cis double bond.[14]
Regulation
This pathway undergoes transcriptional regulation by FadR and FabR. FadR is the more extensively studied protein and has been attributed bifunctional characteristics. It acts as an activator of fabA and fabB transcription and as a repressor for the β-oxidation regulon. In contrast, FabR acts as a repressor for the transcription of fabA and fabB.[13]
Aerobic desaturation[edit]
Synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids via aerobic desaturation
Aerobic desaturation is the most widespread pathway for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. It is utilized in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. This pathway utilizes desaturases to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids from full-length saturated fatty acid substrates.[16] All desaturases require oxygen and ultimately consume NADH even though desaturation is an oxidative process. Desaturases are specific for the double bond they induce in the substrate. In Bacillus subtilis, the desaturase, Δ5-Des, is specific for inducing a cis-double bond at the Δ5 position.[7][16] Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains one desaturase, Ole1p, which induces the cis-double bond at Δ9.[7]
In mammals the aerobic desaturation is catalyzed by a complex of three membrane-bound enzymes (NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase, cytochrome b5, and a desaturase). These enzymes allow molecular oxygen, O2, to interact with the saturated fatty acyl-CoA chain, forming a double bond and two molecules of water, H2O. Two electrons come from NADH + H+ and two from the single bond in the fatty acid chain.[6] These mammalian enzymes are, however, incapable of introducing double bonds at carbon atoms beyond C-9 in the fatty acid chain.(For the numbering of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid see Foot Note [nb 1].) Hence mammals cannot synthesize linoleate or linolenate (which have double bonds at the C-12 (= Δ12), or the C-12 and C-15 (= Δ12 and Δ15) positions, respectively, as well as at the Δ9 position), nor the polyunsaturated, 20-carbon arachidonic acid that is derived from linoleate. These are all termed essential fatty acids, meaning that they are required by the organism, but can only be supplied via the diet. (Arachidonic acid is the precursor the prostaglandins which fulfill a wide variety of functions as local hormones.)[6]
Regulation
In B. subtilis, this pathway is regulated by a two-component system: DesK and DesR. DesK is a membrane-associated kinase and DesR is a transcriptional regulator of the des gene.[7][16] The regulation responds to temperature; when there is a drop in temperature, this gene is upregulated. Unsaturated fatty acids increase the fluidity of the membrane and stabilize it under lower temperatures. DesK is the sensor protein that, when there is a decrease in temperature, will autophosphorylate. DesK-P will transfer its phosphoryl group to DesR. Two DesR-P proteins will dimerize and bind to the DNA promoters of the des gene and recruit RNA polymerase to begin transcription.[7][16]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
In general, both anaerobic and aerobic unsaturated fatty acid synthesis will not occur within the same system, however Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio ABE-1 are exceptions.[17][18][19] While P. aeruginosa undergoes primarily anaerobic desaturation, it also undergoes two aerobic pathways. One pathway utilizes a Δ9-desaturase (DesA) that catalyzes a double bond formation in membrane lipids. Another pathway uses two proteins, DesC and DesB, together to act as a Δ9-desaturase, which inserts a double bond into a saturated fatty acid-CoA molecule. This second pathway is regulated by repressor protein DesT. DesT is also a repressor of fabAB expression for anaerobic desaturation when in presence of exogenous unsaturated fatty acids. This functions to coordinate the expression of the two pathways within the organism.[18][20]
Branched-chain fatty acids[edit]
Branched-chain fatty acids are usually saturated and are found in two distinct families: the iso-series and anteiso-series. It has been found that Actinomycetales contain unique branch-chain fatty acid synthesis mechanisms, including that which forms tuberculosteric acid.
Branch-chain fatty acid synthesizing system[edit]
Valine primer
Leucine primer
Isoleucine primer
Synthetic pathways of the branched-chain fatty acid synthesizing system given differing primers
The branched-chain fatty acid synthesizing system uses α-keto acids as primers. This system is distinct from the branched-chain fatty acid synthetase that utilizes short-chain acyl-CoA esters as primers.[21] α-Keto acid primers are derived from the transamination and decarboxylation of valine, leucine, and isoleucine to form 2-methylpropanyl-CoA, 3-methylbutyryl-CoA, and 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA, respectively.[22] 2-Methylpropanyl-CoA primers derived from valine are elongated to produce even-numbered iso-series fatty acids such as 14-methyl-pentadecanoic (isopalmitic) acid, and 3-methylbutyryl-CoA primers from leucine may be used to form odd-numbered iso-series fatty acids such as 13-methyl-tetradecanoic acid. 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA primers from isoleucine are elongated to form anteiso-series fatty acids containing an odd number of carbon atoms such as 12-Methyl tetradecanoic acid.[23] Decarboxylation of the primer precursors occurs through the branched-chain α-keto acid decarboxylase (BCKA) enzyme. Elongation of the fatty acid follows the same biosynthetic pathway in Escherichia coli used to produce straight-chain fatty acids where malonyl-CoA is used as a chain extender.[24] The major end products are 12–17 carbon branched-chain fatty acids and their composition tends to be uniform and characteristic for many bacterial species.[23]
BCKA decarboxylase and relative activities of α-keto acid substrates
The BCKA decarboxylase enzyme is composed of two subunits in a tetrameric structure (A2B2) and is essential for the synthesis of branched-chain fatty acids. It is responsible for the decarboxylation of α-keto acids formed by the transamination of valine, leucine, and isoleucine and produces the primers used for branched-chain fatty acid synthesis. The activity of this enzyme is much higher with branched-chain α-keto acid substrates than with straight-chain substrates, and in Bacillus species its specificity is highest for the isoleucine-derived α-keto-β-methylvaleric acid, followed by α-ketoisocaproate and α-ketoisovalerate.[23][24] The enzyme’s high affinity toward branched-chain α-keto acids allows it to function as the primer donating system for branched-chain fatty acid synthetase.[24]
Substrate
BCKA activity
CO2 Produced (nmol/min mg)
Km (μM)
Vmax (nmol/min mg)
L-α-keto-β-methyl-valerate 100% 19.7 <1 17.8
α-Ketoisovalerate 63% 12.4 <1 13.3
α-Ketoisocaproate 38% 7.4 <1 5.6
Pyruvate 25% 4.9 51.1 15.2
Factors affecting chain length and pattern distribution
α-Keto acid primers are used to produce branched-chain fatty acids that, in general, are between 12 and 17 carbons in length. The proportions of these branched-chain fatty acids tend to be uniform and consistent among a particular bacterial species but may be altered due to changes in malonyl-CoA concentration, temperature, or heat-stable factors (HSF) present.[23] All of these factors may affect chain length, and HSFs have been demonstrated to alter the specificity of BCKA decarboxylase for a particular α-keto acid substrate, thus shifting the ratio of branched-chain fatty acids produced.[23] An increase in malonyl-CoA concentration has been shown to result in a larger proportion of C17 fatty acids produced, up until the optimal concentration (≈20μM) of malonyl-CoA is reached. Decreased temperatures also tend to shift the fatty-acid distribution slightly toward C17 fatty-acids in Bacillus species.[21][23]
Branch-chain fatty acid synthase[edit]
This system functions similarly to the branch-chain fatty acid synthesizing system, however it uses short-chain carboxylic acids as primers instead of alpha-keto acids. In general, this method is used by bacteria that do not have the ability to perform the branch-chain fatty acid system using alpha-keto primers. Typical short-chain primers include isovalerate, isobutyrate, and 2-methyl butyrate. In general, the acids needed for these primers are taken up from the environment; this is often seen in ruminal bacteria.[25]
The overall reaction is:
Isobutyryl-CoA + 6 malonyl-CoA +12 NADPH + 12H+ → Isopalmitic acid + 6 CO2 12 NADP + 5 H2O + 7 CoA[21]
The difference between (straight-chain) fatty acid synthase and branch-chain fatty acid synthase is substrate specificity of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of acyl-CoA to acyl-ACP.[21]
Omega-alicyclic fatty acids[edit]
Omega-alicyclic fatty acids typically contain an omega-terminal propyl or butyryl cyclic group and are some of the major membrane fatty acids found in several species of bacteria. The fatty acid synthetase used to produce omega-alicyclic fatty acids is also used to produce membrane branched-chain fatty acids. In bacteria with membranes composed mainly of omega-alicyclic fatty acids, the supply of cyclic carboxylic acid-CoA esters is much greater than that of branched-chain primers.[21] The synthesis of cyclic primers is not well understood but it has been suggested that mechanism involves the conversion of sugars to shikimic acid which is then converted to cyclohexylcarboxylic acid-CoA esters that serve as primers for omega-alicyclic fatty acid synthesis[25]
Tuberculostearic acid synthesis[edit]
Mechanism of the synthesis of Tuberculostearic acid
Tuberculostearic acid (D-10-Methylstearic acid) is a saturated fatty acid that is known to be produced by Mycobacterium spp. and two species of Streptomyces. It is formed from the precursor oleic acid (a monounsaturated fatty acid).[26] After oleic acid is esterified to a phospholipid, S-adenosyl-methionine donates a methyl group to the double bond of oleic acid.[27] This methylation reaction forms the intermediate 10-methylene-octadecanoyal. Successive reduction of the residue, with NADPH as a cofactor, results in 10-methylstearic acid[22]
See also[edit]
Fatty acid
Essential fatty acid
Fatty acid metabolism
Fatty acid synthase
Foot note[edit]
Jump up ^
Numbering of carbon atoms
The position of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid can be indicated from the COOH- (or carboxy) end, or from the -CH3 (or methyl) end. If indicated from the -COOH end, then the C-1, C-2, C-3, ….(etc.) notation is used (blue numerals in the diagram on the right, where C-1 is the –COOH carbon). If the position is counted from the other, -CH3, end then the position is indicated by the ω-n notation (numerals in red, where ω-1 refers to the methyl carbon).
The positions of the double bonds in a fatty acid chain can, therefore, be indicated in two ways, using the C-n or the ω-n notation. Thus, in an 18 carbon fatty acid, a double bond between C-12 (or ω-7) and C-13 (or ω-6) is reported either as Δ12 if counted from the –COOH end (indicating only the “beginning” of the double bond), or as ω-6 (or omega-6) if counting from the -CH3 end. The “Δ” is the Greek letter “delta”, which translates into “D” ( for Double bond) in the Roman alphabet. Omega (ω) is the last letter in the Greek alphabet, and is therefore used to indicate the “last” carbon atom in the fatty acid chain. Since the ω-n notation is used almost exclusively to indicate the positions of the double bonds close to the -CH3 end in essential fatty acids, there is no necessity for an equivalent “Δ”-like notation - the use of the ”ω-n” notation always refers to the position of a double bond.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dijkstra, Albert J., R. J. Hamilton, and Wolf Hamm. "Fatty Acid Biosynthesis." Trans Fatty Acids. Oxford: Blackwell Pub., 2008. 12. Print.
Jump up ^ "MetaCyc pathway: superpathway of fatty acids biosynthesis (E. coli)".
^ Jump up to: a b "Fatty Acids: Straight-chain Saturated, Structure, Occurrence and Biosynthesis." Lipid Library – Lipid Chemistry, Biology, Technology and Analysis. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/lipids/fa_sat/index.htm>.
Jump up ^ "MetaCyc pathway: stearate biosynthesis I (animals)".
Jump up ^ "MetaCyc pathway: very long chain fatty acid biosynthesis II".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 559–565, 614–623. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Ferre, P.; F. Foufelle (2007). "SREBP-1c Transcription Factor and Lipid Homeostasis: Clinical Perspective". Hormone Research. 68 (2): 72–82. PMID 17344645. doi:10.1159/000100426. Retrieved 2010-08-30. this process is outlined graphically in page 73
^ Jump up to: a b Voet, Donald; Judith G. Voet; Charlotte W. Pratt (2006). Fundamentals of Biochemistry, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 547, 556. ISBN 0-471-21495-7.
Jump up ^ Sloan, A.W; Koeslag, J.H.; Bredell, G.A.G. (1973). "Body composition work capacity and work efficiency of active and inactive young men". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 32: 17–24. doi:10.1007/bf00422426.
^ Jump up to: a b Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 581–602, 613, 775–778. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Stryer, Lubert (1995). "Fatty acid metabolism.". In: Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 603–628. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
Jump up ^ Diwan, Joyce J. "Fatty Acid Synthesis." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) :: Architecture, Business, Engineering, IT, Humanities, Science. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/fasynthesis.htm>.
^ Jump up to: a b Feng, Youjun, and John ECronan. "Complex binding of the FabR repressor of bacterial unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis to its cognate promoters." Molecular microbiology 80.1 (2011):195–218.
^ Jump up to: a b Zhu, Lei, et al. "Functions of the Clostridium acetobutylicium FabF and FabZ proteins in unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis." BMC microbiology 9(2009):119.
Jump up ^ Wang, Haihong, and John ECronan. "Functional replacement of the FabA and FabB proteins of Escherichia coli fatty acid synthesis by Enterococcus faecalis FabZ and FabF homologues." Journal of Biological Chemistry 279.33 (2004):34489-95.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mansilla, Mara C, and Diegode Mendoza. "The Bacillus subtilis desaturase: a model to understand phospholipid modification and temperature sensing." Archives of microbiology 183.4 (2005):229-35.
Jump up ^ Wada, M, N. Fukunaga, and S. Sasaki. "Mechanism of biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in Pseudomonas sp. strain E-3, a psychrotrophic bacterium." Journal of bacteriology 171.8 (1989):4267-71.
^ Jump up to: a b Subramanian, Chitra, Charles ORock, and Yong-MeiZhang. "DesT coordinates the expression of anaerobic and aerobic pathways for unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa." Journal of bacteriology 192.1 (2010):280-5.
Jump up ^ Morita, N, et al. "Both the anaerobic pathway and aerobic desaturation are involved in the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in Vibrio sp. strain ABE-1." FEBS Letters 297.1–2 (1992):9–12.
Jump up ^ Zhu, Kun, et al. "Two aerobic pathways for the formation of unsaturated fatty acids in Pseudomonas aeruginosa." Molecular microbiology 60.2 (2006):260-73.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kaneda, Toshi. "Iso- and Anteiso-Fatty Acids in Bacteria: Biosynthesis, Function, and Taxonomic Significance." Microbiological Reviews 55.2 (1991): 288–302
^ Jump up to: a b "Branched-chain Fatty Acids, Phytanic Acid, Tuberculostearic Acid Iso/anteiso- Fatty Acids." Lipid Library – Lipid Chemistry, Biology, Technology and Analysis. Web. 1 May 2011. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 12 January 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2014. .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Naik, Devaray N., and Toshi Kaneda. "Biosynthesis of Branched Long-chain Fatty Acids by Species of Bacillus: Relative Activity of Three α-keto Acid Substrates and Factors Affecting Chain Length." Can. J. Microbiol. 20 (1974): 1701–708.
^ Jump up to: a b c Oku, Hirosuke, and Toshi Kaneda. "Biosynthesis of Branched-chain Fatty Acids in Bacillis Subtilis." The Journal of Biological Chemistry 263.34 (1988): 18386-8396.
^ Jump up to: a b Christie, William W. "Fatty Acids: Natural Alicyclic Structures, Occurrence, and Biochemistry." The AOCS Lipid Library. 5 Apr. 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011. < "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011. >.
Jump up ^ Ratledge, Colin, and John Stanford. The Biology of the Mycobacteria. London: Academic, 1982. Print.
Jump up ^ Kubica, George P., and Lawrence G. Wayne. The Mycobacteria: a Sourcebook. New York: Dekker, 1984. Print.
External links[edit]
Overview at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Overview at Indiana State University
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