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Grey matter
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For other uses, see Grey matter (disambiguation).
Grey matter
The formation of the spinal nerve from the dorsal and ventral roots. (Grey matter labeled at center right.)
Micrograph showing grey matter, with the characteristic neuronal cell bodies (dark shade of pink), and white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork-like appearance (left of image - lighter shade of pink). HPS stain.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Substantia grisea
TA
A14.1.00.002
FMA
67242
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter, in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts.[1] The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.
Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) and of the cerebellum (cerebellar cortex), as well as in the depths of the cerebrum (thalamus; hypothalamus; subthalamus, basal ganglia – putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens; septal nuclei), cerebellar (deep cerebellar nuclei – dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, fastigial nucleus), brainstem (substantia nigra, red nucleus, olivary nuclei, cranial nerve nuclei).
Grey matter in the spinal cord is known as the grey column which travels down the spinal cord distributed in three grey columns that are presented in an "H" shape. The forward-facing column is the anterior grey column, the rear-facing one is the posterior grey column and the interlinking one is the lateral grey column. The grey matter on the left and right side is connected by the grey commissure. The grey matter in the spinal cord consists of interneurons, as well as the cell bodies of projection neurons.
Diagram of a spinal vertebra. The grey matter is in the central part of the spinal cord.
Cross-section of spinal cord with grey matter labelled.
Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence.[3] Recent studies using cross-sectional neuroimaging have shown that by around the age of 8 the volume of grey matter begins to decrease.[4] However, the density of grey matter appears to increase as a child develops into early adulthood.[4] Males tend to exhibit grey matter of increased volume but lower density than that of females.
Function[edit]
Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.[5]
The grey matter in the spinal cord is split into three grey columns:
The anterior grey column contains motor neurons. These synapse with interneurons and the axons of cells that have travelled down the pyramidal tract. These cells are responsible for the movement of muscles.
The posterior grey column contains the points where sensory neurons synapse. These receive sensory information from the body, including fine touch, proprioception, and vibration. This information is sent from receptors of the skin, bones, and joints through sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the dorsal root ganglion. This information is then transmitted in axons up the spinal cord in spinal tracts, including the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and the spinothalamic tract.
The lateral grey column is the third column of the spinal cord.
The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.
Interneurons present in the grey matter of the spinal cord
Rexed laminae groups the grey matter in the spinal cord according to its function.
Clinical significance[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume.[6][7] Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter.[8] However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum.[9][10][11] Long-term cannabis use also alters white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner,[12] with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood causing the greatest amount of damage.[13]
Meditation has been shown to change grey matter structure.[14][15][16][17][18]
Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction of grey matter in the hippocampus while 3D platformer games have been reported to increase grey matter in the hippocampus. [19][20][21][22]
Women and men with equivalent IQ scores have differing proportions of grey to white matter in cortical brain regions associated with intelligence.[23]
Pregnancy renders substantial changes in brain structure, primarily reductions in gray matter volume in regions subserving social cognition. The gray matter reductions endured for at least 2 years post-pregnancy. [24]
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
In the current edition[25] of the official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, substantia grisea is used for English grey matter. The adjective grisea for grey is however not attested in classical Latin.[26] The adjective grisea is derived from the French word for grey, gris.[26] Alternative designations like substantia cana [27] and substantia cinerea[28] are being used alternatively. The adjective cana, attested in classical Latin,[29] can mean grey,[26] or greyish white.[30] The classical Latin cinerea means ash-coloured.[29]
Additional images[edit]
Human brain right dissected lateral view
Schematic representation of the chief ganglionic categories (I to V).
See also[edit]
Grey matter heterotopia
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Gennatas ED, Avants BB, Wolf DH, Satterthwaite TD, Ruparel K, Ciric R, Hakonarson H, Gur RE, Gur RC (May 2017). "Age-Related Effects and Sex Differences in Gray Matter Density, Volume, Mass, and Cortical Thickness from Childhood to Young Adulthood". The Journal of Neuroscience. 37 (20): 5065–5073. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3550-16.2017. PMID 28432144.
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Jump up ^ Yang X, Tian F, Zhang H, Zeng J, Chen T, Wang S, Jia Z, Gong Q (July 2016). "Cortical and subcortical gray matter shrinkage in alcohol-use disorders: a voxel-based meta-analysis". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 66: 92–103. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.034. PMID 27108216.
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Jump up ^ Lorenzetti V, Lubman DI, Whittle S, Solowij N, Yücel M (September 2010). "Structural MRI findings in long-term cannabis users: what do we know?". Substance Use & Misuse. 45 (11): 1787–808. doi:10.3109/10826084.2010.482443. PMID 20590400.
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Jump up ^ Jakabek D, Yücel M, Lorenzetti V, Solowij N (October 2016). "An MRI study of white matter tract integrity in regular cannabis users: effects of cannabis use and age". Psychopharmacology. 233 (19-20): 3627–37. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4398-3. PMID 27503373.
Jump up ^ Becker MP, Collins PF, Lim KO, Muetzel RL, Luciana M (December 2015). "Longitudinal changes in white matter microstructure after heavy cannabis use". Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 16: 23–35. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.004. PMC 4691379  . PMID 26602958.
Jump up ^ Kurth F, Luders E, Wu B, Black DS (2014). "Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxel-based Morphometry". Neuro. 1 (1): 23–26. doi:10.17140/NOJ-1-106. PMC 4306280  . PMID 25632405.
Jump up ^ Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, Lazar SW (January 2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research. 191 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979  . PMID 21071182.
Jump up ^ Kurth F, MacKenzie-Graham A, Toga AW, Luders E (January 2015). "Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu029. PMC 4994843  . PMID 24643652.
Jump up ^ Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.
Jump up ^ Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Evans KC, Hoge EA, Dusek JA, Morgan L, Pitman RK, Lazar SW (March 2010). "Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 5 (1): 11–7. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp034. PMC 2840837  . PMID 19776221.
Jump up ^ "Habitual players of action video games have less grey matter in their brain, study reveals". news-medical.net. 8 August 2017. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Playing action video games can actually harm your brain". umontreal.ca. 1 May 2018. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Collins K. "Video games can either grow or shrink part of your brain, depending on how you play". qz.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ West GL, Zendel BR, Konishi K, Benady-Chorney J, Bohbot VD, Peretz I, Belleville S (5 May 2018). "Playing Super Mario 64 increases hippocampal grey matter in older adults". PloS One. 12 (12): e0187779. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0187779. PMC 5718432  . PMID 29211727. Archived from the original on 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, Head K, Alkire MT (March 2005). "The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters". Neuroimage. 25 (1): 320–7. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.019. PMID 15734366.
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External links[edit]
Why Gray Matter is Gray
[show]
v
t
e
Nervous tissue
CNS
Tissue Types
Grey matter
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Node of Ranvier
Internodal segment
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nerve fibers
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[show]
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t
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The spinal cord
General features
Cervical enlargement
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Grey columns
Posterior grey column
Marginal nucleus
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Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
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Anterior grey column
Interneuron
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ventral
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anterior
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External features
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Anterior median fissure
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[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
Medial frontal gyrus
8
9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
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Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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Biennial bearing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Biennial bearing (or alternate) bearing is a term used in pomology to refer to trees that have an irregular crop load from year to year. In the "on" year too much fruit is set, leading to small fruit size. Excess weight in the main branches can be too much for their mechanical resistance, causing them to break. Another major consequence is that flower induction will be lower, and the subsequent year will be "off" year (too little fruit).
The behavior could be due to plant hormones, particularly gibberellins produced in excess in the "on" years in the embryos of the young fruit. It could also be caused by depletion of carbohydrate reserves in the tree.
Biennial bearing is more common in certain fruit crops like mango, apple, pear, apricot and avocado, and is almost nonexistent in grapes.
Horticultural management[edit]
This disorder can be reduced by thinning of flowers[1] and young fruit.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fruit: biennial bearing, Royal Horticultural Society, retrieved 20 October 2015
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biennial_bearing&oldid=794994288"
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Agricultural terminology
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Transportation in Los Angeles
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Los Angeles Union Station, hub for LACMTA metro lines and buses, Metrolink and Amtrak trains, and the Hollywood Freeway, one of Los Angeles' major thoroughfares
The transportation system in Los Angeles is a complex multimodal infrastructure. It serves as a regional, national and international hub for passenger and freight traffic. The system includes the United States' largest port complex; an extensive freight and passenger rail infrastructure, including light rail lines and subway lines; numerous airports and bus lines; Transportation Network Companies; and an extensive freeway and road system. People in Los Angeles rely on cars as the dominant mode of transportation, [1] but starting in 1990 Los Angeles Metro Rail has built over one hundred miles (160 km) of light and heavy rail serving more and more parts of Los Angeles.
Contents
1 Intercity
1.1 Air transportation
1.2 Intercity train services
1.3 Intercity highways
1.4 Intercity bus services
1.5 Harbors
1.6 Ferry services
2 Intracity
2.1 Freeways
2.2 Rush hour
2.3 Streets, street layout, the boulevards, and street problems
2.4 On foot
2.5 Bicycle travel
2.6 Mass transit
2.6.1 Buses
2.6.2 Metro Rail
2.6.3 Commuter Rail
2.6.4 Los Angeles Public Transportation Statistics
2.7 Taxi Companies
2.8 Transportation Network Companies
3 Commuting
4 Problems
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Intercity[edit]
Air transportation[edit]
See also: List of airports in the Los Angeles area
LAX, the fourth busiest airport in the world.
In the Los Angeles metropolitan area there are five commercial airports and many more general-aviation airports.
The primary Los Angeles airport is Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). The seventh busiest commercial airport in the world and the third busiest in the United States, LAX handled 61.9 million passengers, 1.884 million metric tons (2.077 million short tons; 1.854 million long tons) of cargo and 680,954 aircraft movements in 2007.[2]
Other major nearby commercial airports include: LA/Ontario International Airport (serves the Inland Empire); Bob Hope Airport (formerly known as Burbank Airport; serves the San Fernando and San Gabriel Valleys); Long Beach Airport (serves the Long Beach/Harbor area); and John Wayne Airport (serves the Orange County area).
The world's busiest general-aviation airport is also located in Los Angeles, Van Nuys Airport.[3]
Intercity train services[edit]
Major freight rail lines in southern Los Angeles County, including the Alameda Corridor highlighted in pink
Union Station is the major regional train station for Amtrak, Metrolink and Metro Rail. The station is Amtrak's fifth busiest station, having 1,464,289 Amtrak boardings and de-boardings in 2006.[4] Amtrak operates eleven daily round trips between San Diego and Los Angeles, five of which continue to Santa Barbara via the Pacific Surfliner, the only service that runs through Los Angeles multiple times daily. Two of those trips continue to San Luis Obispo, California. The Coast Starlight provides additional service on the route and beyond to the San Francisco Bay Area, Sacramento, and on to Seattle, Washington. Amtrak motor coaches connect from Los Angeles to the San Joaquin Route in Bakersfield with frequent service through the Central Valley of California to Sacramento and Oakland, and eastward to San Bernardino and Las Vegas.
There is also daily service to Chicago, Illinois on the Southwest Chief, and three times a week to New Orleans, Louisiana on the Sunset Limited. Due to the effects from Hurricane Katrina, Sunset Limited service between New Orleans to Jacksonville, Florida has been discontinued, although Amtrak is required by current Federal Law to develop a plan to reinstate the service. The Texas Eagle is a second train to Chicago, which operates thrice weekly. Sunset Limited and Texas Eagle trains operate on the same track between Los Angeles and San Antonio, Texas before splitting off towards their respective destinations.
Amtrak Pacific Surfliner trains stop at several locations in Los Angeles County, including: Glendale, Bob Hope Airport in Burbank, Chatsworth, and Van Nuys.
Due to the large volumes of import freight that flows into the city's port complex, Los Angeles is a major freight railroad hub. Freight is hauled by Union Pacific Railroad and BNSF Railway. The now-defunct Southern Pacific Railroad once served the Los Angeles area before merging with Union Pacific. The Alameda Corridor, a below-grade rail corridor connects the port to the city's main rail yards and to points further north and east.
Intercity highways[edit]
The major highway routes providing intercity connections are Interstate 5 (north to Sacramento and south to San Diego), U.S. Route 101 (north to Santa Barbara), and Interstate 10 (west to Santa Monica and east to Phoenix, Arizona).
Intercity bus services[edit]
Greyhound, Megabus, BoltBus (owned by Greyhound) and various smaller bus lines provide intercity bus services. Megabus and Boltbus departs from Union Station and directly connects Los Angeles to San Francsico and Las Vegas. Greyhound connects smaller communities and departs from various locations within metro Los Angeles. The main station is located in downtown Los Angeles.
Greyhound Lines operates several stations within the city of Los Angeles:
Hollywood Station (Hollywood)[5]
Los Angeles Station (Downtown Los Angeles)[6]
Los Angeles Wall[7]
North Hollywood Station (North Hollywood)[8]
Greyhound Lines operates stations in the following cities and areas surrounding Los Angeles:
Anaheim: Anaheim Station[9]
Compton: Compton Station[10]
East Los Angeles: Los Angeles Olympic Station[11]
El Monte
El Monte Station[12]
El Monte AAU[13]
Glendale: Glendale Station[14]
Lancaster: Lancaster Station[15]
Long Beach: Long Beach Station[16]
Palmdale: Palmdale Transportation Center
Pasadena: Pasadena Station[17]
Santa Ana
Santa Ana Station[18]
Santa Ana Main Street[19]
Greyhound Lines also services bus stops at:
Huntington Park[20]
Los Angeles: Union Station[20]
Harbors[edit]
A view of the Vincent Thomas Bridge reaching Terminal Island.
The Port of Los Angeles is located in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro neighborhood, approximately 20 miles (30 km) south of Downtown. Also called Los Angeles Harbor and WORLDPORT L.A., the port complex occupies 7,500 acres (30 km2) of land and water along 43 miles (69 km) of waterfront. It adjoins the separate Port of Long Beach.
The sea ports of the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach together make up the Los Angeles–Long Beach Harbor. There are also smaller, non-industrial harbors along L.A.'s coastline. Most of these like Redondo Beach and Marina del Rey are used primarily by sailboats and yachts.
The Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach comprise the largest seaport complex in the United States and the fifth busiest in the world. Over 11 percent of United States international trade (by value) passes through the Los Angeles region and it the Los Angeles customs district collects over 37 percent of the nation’s import duties.[21]
The port includes four bridges: the Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Gerald Desmond Bridge, and Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge.
Ferry services[edit]
There are ferries serving the offshore island community of Avalon, California; they are mainly used for day excursions and to move supplies to Catalina Island. There is no regular vehicle ferry service to Avalon, since the city restricts the use of cars and trucks within its borders.[22]
Intracity[edit]
Rush hour on the Harbor Freeway in downtown Los Angeles
A traffic jam on the Santa Monica Freeway, near the Robertson Boulevard exit
The Judge Harry Pregerson Interchange, connecting the Century Freeway (I-105) and the Harbor Freeway (I-110).
Freeways[edit]
See also: Southern California freeways
There are a dozen major freeways that crisscross the region. California's first freeway was the California State Route 110, also known as the Pasadena Freeway or the Arroyo Seco Parkway. It opened on January 1, 1940 and links downtown Los Angeles to downtown Pasadena. From Chavez Ravine north to Pasadena can be quite dangerous because there is no shoulder, the lanes are narrow, the turns are sharp (and not always properly banked), and the ramps are quite short and offer little room for acceleration to freeway speed; all of this is because the freeway was designed for much slower cars of a different era and much less traffic volume than exists today.[original research?] Commercial vehicles over 6,000 pounds (2.7 t; 2.7 long tons) are prohibited from using this freeway. More recent freeways are straighter, wider, and allow for higher speeds.
Major freeways of Los Angeles include:
Glendale Freeway
Santa Ana Freeway
Golden State Freeway
Santa Monica Freeway/San Bernardino Freeway
Antelope Valley Freeway
Seaside Freeway
Pomona Freeway
Marina Freeway
Gardena Freeway
Hollywood Freeway
Ventura Freeway
Terminal Island Freeway
Glenn M. Anderson Freeway/Century Freeway
Harbor Freeway
Arroyo Seco Parkway
Ronald Reagan Freeway
Foothill Freeway
San Diego Freeway
Long Beach Freeway
Major highways of Los Angeles include:
Pacific Coast Highway/Lincoln Boulevard
Santa Monica Boulevard
Decker Canyon Road
Topanga Canyon Boulevard
Alameda Street
Slauson Avenue
Highland Avenue
Venice Boulevard
Angelenos are noted for referring to freeways with the definite article ("The 101"), in contrast to most other areas of the United States, who omit the article. Referring to freeways by name, for example "The San Diego Freeway", is essentially a holdover from the time when the freeways were built, and is diminishing. Nevertheless, freeways continue to be officially named, and the 118 was recently christened The Ronald Reagan Freeway.
Rush hour[edit]
Rush hour occurs on weekdays between 5 am and 10 am, and in the afternoon between 3 pm and 7 pm (although rush-hour traffic can occasionally spill out to 11 am and start again from 2:00 pm until as late as 10 pm, especially on Fridays). Traffic can occur at almost any time, particularly before major holidays (including Thanksgiving, Christmas, and three-day weekends) and even on regular weekends when one otherwise would not expect it. Experienced Angelenos know that they need to factor traffic into their commute.
Despite the congestion in the city, the mean travel time for commuters in Los Angeles is shorter than other major cities, including New York City, Philadelphia and Chicago. Los Angeles' mean travel time for work commutes in 2006 was 29.2 minutes, similar to those of San Francisco and Washington, DC.[23]
Los Angeles has synchronized its traffic lights. [24] [25] [26]
Streets, street layout, the boulevards, and street problems[edit]
The city has an extensive street grid. Arterial streets (referred to as surface streets by locals, in contrast with freeways which are usually grade-separated roadways) connect freeways with smaller neighborhood streets, and are often used to bypass congested freeway routes. Consequently, most of the surface arterial streets in Los Angeles have various forms of congestion control.
Some of the more common means of maintaining surface street traffic flow is the use of loop-sensors embedded in the pavement allowing for intersection traffic signal timing adjustments to favor the more heavily delayed roadways; the use of a traffic control system allows for the synchronization of traffic signals to improve traffic flow (as of October 2009 this system is currently installed at 85% of the city's signalized intersections, more than any other US city); restrictions on vehicle turns on roadways without designated turning lanes during rush-hours; and the extensive use of rush-hour parking restrictions, allowing for an extra lane of travel in each direction during peak hours (weekdays excluding holidays generally from 7-9am thru 4-7pm, although hours vary by location) by eliminating on street parking and standing of vehicles, with violators being ticketed, and in the case of priority routes known as "anti-gridlock zones", immediately towed by specialized enforcement teams dubbed "tiger teams" at steep cost to the violator.
1st Street divides the block numbering grid north and south, and southwest of the Los Angeles River, Main Street divides the city east and west. Northeast of the river, block designations are divided east and west by Pasadena Avenue and N Figueroa Street.
From downtown Los Angeles to Long Beach, in a straight-down vertical pattern, east–west streets are numbered (starting with 1st Street in downtown, to 266th Street in Harbor City), and north–south streets are named. (1st St. is one block south of Temple.) There are many exceptions to the numbered streets, but the above pattern is generally used. This same numbered pattern is not mirrored north of Temple. Addresses are then numbered East or West stemming from Main St (a major north south artery). Therefore, the landmark Watts Towers at 1765 E. 107th St. is approximately 107 streets south of 1st Street, and on the 17th street east of Main St. Although the numbered streets are sequential, they do not necessarily equal the number of blocks south of 1st Street, as there are streets such as 118th St. and then 118th Place.
Many of the numbered streets also continue into neighboring cities; but some cities, such as Manhattan Beach, have made their own numbered street grid. Also, some districts of Los Angeles, such as Wilmington, San Pedro, and Venice, have their own numbered street grids.
Many arterials have been labeled as boulevards, and many of those mentioned below have been immortalized in movies, music, and literature.
Major east–west routes include: Victory, Ventura, Hollywood, Sunset, Santa Monica, Beverly, Wilshire, Olympic, Pico, Venice, Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Exposition and Martin Luther King Jr. The major north–south routes include: Topanga Canyon, Crenshaw, Reseda, Lincoln, Sepulveda, Van Nuys, Westwood, Beverly Glen, San Vicente, Robertson, La Cienega, Laurel Canyon, Glendale, and Avalon.
There are many other famous L.A. streets which carry significant traffic but are not labeled as boulevards. Examples include: Broadway, Bundy Drive, Barrington Avenue, Centinela Avenue, Fountain Avenue, Mulholland Drive, Slauson Avenue, Pacific Coast Highway, Century Park East, Avenue of the Stars, Normandie Avenue, Highland Avenue, Melrose Avenue, Florence Avenue, Vermont Avenue, La Brea Avenue, Fairfax Avenue, Western Avenue, Figueroa Street, Grand Avenue, Huntington Drive, Central Avenue, and Alameda Street. West Los Angeles has many streets named after states that run east and west. Somewhat confusingly, adjacent Santa Monica uses a few of the same state names for different streets of its own.
Potholes are a notorious problem in Los Angeles and frequently cause severe damage to all kinds of vehicles. Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa made "Operation Pothole" one of his top priorities in 2008 and pledged to fill 1 million potholes.[27] However, due to the city's poorly managed budget, the city's Bureau of Street Services has only a single dedicated pothole-repair truck to cover 275 miles (440 km) of streets (meaning that the backlog is still bad and getting worse).[28] Many city streets, such as Wilshire Boulevard, were engineered when cars, trucks, and buses were much smaller, and desperately need to be torn up and rebuilt from scratch to handle the weight of today's larger vehicles.[28]
Furthermore, due to its severe budget problems, Los Angeles is one of the few California cities that does not use raised pavement markers on its streets. Thus, Los Angeles drivers must be vigilant not only for potholes, but for other drivers drifting out of lanes due to the lack of tactile feedback normally provided by such markers.
On foot[edit]
Pedestrians walking on the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica
Despite the assertion of a popular song that "nobody walks in L.A.",[29] 3.5% of Los Angeles residents commuted to work by walking in 2016[30] and Los Angeles residents walk for exercise at rates similar to those of other major U.S. cities.[31][not in citation given]
There are a number of commercial areas in nearby cities that have been redeveloped in the past two decades specifically to accommodate pedestrian traffic. Old Town Pasadena was redeveloped in the late 1980s by moving parking off Colorado Boulevard so as to make the street pedestrian-focused. Likewise, the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica was closed off to vehicular traffic altogether in 1965 and revitalized with improved pedestrian amenities in 1988.[32]
Downtown Los Angeles has numerous public escalators and skyways, such as the Bunker Hill steps[33] to facilitate pedestrian traffic in the traffic-laden and hilly terrain. Downtown Los Angeles is one of two neighborhoods in Los Angeles ranked as a "walker's paradise" (with walk scores 90 or above) by Walkscore. The other is Mid-City West, which encompasses the area of the city immediately south of West Hollywood and east of Beverly Hills.[34]
Nevertheless, much of Los Angeles remains pedestrian unfriendly. A large percentage of sidewalks in the City of Los Angeles (43% or 4,600 miles (7,400 km) of the 10,600 total miles (17,100 km)) are in ill repair stemming from the City Council decision in 1973 to use the federal money they had to take over the responsibility from the adjacent property owners. Previously they had conformed to California law which puts the responsibility for repair of sidewalks on the property owners. As certain popular species of trees accelerated the damage caused by roots, council failed to concurrently allocate funds for continuing city repairs of such sidewalks. Voters will unwilling to approve funding repairs with a tax or a bond measure. The city again began dedicating funds for sidewalk repairs in 2000 but defunded the program during the 2008 financial crisis.[35] In 2015, the city agreed to a landmark legal settlement that would fix the backlog of broken sidewalks and make other improvements to help those with disabilities navigate the city. The biggest agreement of its kind in U.S. history would settle a lawsuit on behalf of people in wheelchairs or others with mobility impairments who argued that crumbling, impassable sidewalks and other barriers were a violation of the Americans With Disabilities Act since they were prevented from accessing public pathways.[36][37]
Bicycle travel[edit]
Main article: Cycling in Los Angeles
Bicycling accounts for approximately 1% of Los Angeles commuting and has almost doubled in the last ten years. People in Los Angeles commute to work by bicycle about twice as frequently as the US average[38] There are extended stretches of bicycle paths such as the Los Angeles River bicycle path, which runs from Burbank to Long Beach, with only a brief hiatus through downtown.
Mass transit[edit]
Foothill Transit Silver Streak bus in front of the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Downtown Los Angeles
The primary regional public transportation agency is the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA), commonly referred to as Metro or MTA. The agency, which operates bus, light rail and subway services, averages 1.6 million transit trips per weekday,[39] making it the third largest transit agency in the United States. Other municipal transportation agencies in Los Angeles County (LADOT, Long Beach Transit, Montebello Bus Lines, Norwalk Transit, Redondo Beach, Santa Monica's Big Blue Bus, Santa Clarita Transit, Torrance Transit[40] and Foothill Transit) have an additional 405,000 average weekday boardings.[41]
In February 2008, LACMTA introduced a new universal fare system called 'TAP' which stands for Transit Access Pass. The TAP smart card allows bus and rail passengers to tap their cards on the farebox for faster boarding. TAP readers are installed on bus fareboxes and on turnstiles and standalone validators at rail stations. Because not all Metro Rail stations have turnstiles, it operates on a proof-of-payment system: as such, Metro's fare inspectors randomly check to make sure TAP users have validated their card by using a wireless handheld unit. TAP is now accepted on a number of different transit systems in Los Angeles County.
Buses[edit]
The extensive bus system operated by LACMTA includes the Metro Local, Metro Rapid, and Metro Express services. Local buses tend to be orange, rapid buses red, and express buses blue. Rapid bus route numbers usually begin with a 7 and express bus numbers begin with a 9. The buses have an estimated 1.3 million boardings on the weekdays.[39] Including other municipal bus operators, Los Angeles County averages 1.7 million bus boardings per weekday,[41] accounting for approximately 5.9% of the 29 million daily trips originating in Los Angeles County.[42]
LACMTA has two bus rapid transit lines: the Orange Line and the Silver Line. The Orange Line runs from Warner Center/Woodland Hills to the North Hollywood Red Line station, began operations on October 29, 2005. For 13 of its 14-mile (23 km) stretch (21 km of its 22.5 km stretch), the 60-foot (18 m) articulated buses, built by North American Bus Industries and dubbed Metro Liners, operate on bus-only lanes that follow an old railroad right-of-way. Portions of the route parallel Chandler and Victory Boulevards, and Oxnard Street.
The Silver Line travels 26 miles (42 km) along Interstate 10 and Interstate 110 between El Monte Station and the Harbor Gateway Transit Center.
Foothill Transit also operates a bus rapid transit system called the Silver Streak, which runs from Montclair to Downtown Los Angeles along the El Monte Busway on Interstate 10.
Other bus systems:
Culver CityBus - green (local) and grey (rapid)
Santa Monica's Big Blue Bus
Montebello Bus Lines
Numerous other municipal bus systems
Metro Rail[edit]
Main article: Los Angeles Metro Rail
Map of Metro rail, subway, and BRT systems.
Map of Westside Metro rail system including lines under construction (Exposition line in Aqua has been completed)
Between its light rail and heavy rail systems, Metro Rail has 83 miles (134 km) of rail, averaging 308,653 trips per weekday,[39] and accounting for approximately 1.1% of the 29 million daily trips originating in Los Angeles County.[42] The network includes four above-ground light rail lines (Gold Line, Expo Line, Blue Line, and Green Line) and one underground subway with two branches (Red Line and Purple Line). Ranked by daily ridership, the Los Angeles subway ranked as the ninth-busiest rapid transit system in the United States. Ranked by passengers per route mile, however, the system ranks sixth, transporting 8,846 passengers per route mile,[39] more than San Francisco's Bay Area Rapid Transit or the Chicago 'L'.
The Los Angeles Metro Rail system connects disperse areas of the county including Long Beach, Pasadena, Norwalk, El Segundo, North Hollywood, and Downtown Los Angeles. The Expo Line's first phase from Downtown Los Angeles to Culver City opened April 28, 2012. In June 2010, construction extending the Gold Line from Pasadena to Azusa began. Construction on the Expo Line's extension to Santa Monica has also begun. There are several additional rail expansion projects currently under study. The timing of their construction will depend on the availability of funding. These projects include:
Crenshaw/LAX Line, that will run through the Crenshaw district and City of Inglewood to LAX (now under construction)
Connection of the Green Line and Crenshaw/LAX Line to LAX through a people mover.
Regional Connector in Downtown Los Angeles, connecting the Expo, Blue, and Gold lines (now under construction).
Further extensions of the Gold Line from Azusa to Ontario Airport and East Los Angeles to Whittier
Westward extension of the Purple Line subway to Westwood, UCLA and possible connection to the Red Line through West Hollywood and Beverly Hills (now under construction).
Commuter Rail[edit]
Also serving Los Angeles and several surrounding counties is Metrolink, a regional commuter rail service. Metrolink averages 42,600 trips per weekday, the busiest line being the San Bernardino line.[41]
Los Angeles Public Transportation Statistics[edit]
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Los Angeles, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 86 min. 31% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 20 min, while 38% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 11.1 km (6.9 mi), while 30% travel for over 12 km (7.5 mi) in a single direction. [43]
Taxi Companies[edit]
Main article: Taxicabs of the United States
Taxis in Los Angeles are regulated by the Board of Taxicab Commissioners. There are nine taxi companies in Los Angeles that operate more than 2300 taxis. Some of the largest Taxi companies in Los Angeles are LA Yellow Cab, Bell Cab and United Independent Taxi. Recently Taxi Applications have emerged in order to provide users with on demand rides with lower wait times. RideYellow, Curb and Flywheel are three of the largest taxi apps providing taxi service in Los Angeles.[44][45]
Transportation Network Companies[edit]
Main article: Transportation network company
Transportation Network Companies arrange one-time rides on very short notice. These companies use smartphones and GPS technology to allow travelers to request a ride from wherever they happen to be, to the place they want to go. Drivers have passed background checks and their cars have also passed thorough inspections.[46] Uber, and Lyft are the two largest companies in Los Angeles.
Commuting[edit]
Commuting statistics for major U.S. cities in 2006
In 2006, of the 4,423,725 workers aged 16 or older in Los Angeles County, 72.0% commuted to work driving alone, 11.9% commuted by driving in a carpool and 7.0% commuted on public transportation. 64.9% of public transportation commuters were non-white, 70.2% were Hispanic and 67.6% were foreign born. 75.5% of public transportation commuters earned less than $25,000. However, only 32.7% of public transportation commuters had no vehicle available to them for their commute.[23]
In the same year, for the City of Los Angeles, of the 1,721,778 workers aged 16 or older, 63.3% commuted to work driving alone, 11.5% commuted by driving in a carpool, 11.0% commuted by public transportation, and 3.4% walked. The percentage of population using public transport in Los Angeles is lower than other large U.S. cities such as Chicago and New York, but similar to or higher than other western U.S. cities such as Portland and Denver. 63.8% of public transportation commuters in the City of Los Angeles in 2006 were non-white, 75.1% were Hispanic and 73.9% were foreign born. 79.4% of public transportation commuters earned less than $25,000 and 37.6% had no vehicle available to them for their commute.[23]
Since 2006, driving alone increased at the expense of carpooling and public transportation. According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 69.7% of working Los Angeles (city) residents commuted by driving alone, 8.7% carpooled, 9.2% used public transportation, and 3.5% walked. About 2.8% commuted by all other means, including taxi, bicycle, and motorcycle. About 6.1% worked at home.[30]
Problems[edit]
See also: Smog § Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley
Los Angeles is strongly predisposed to accumulation of smog, because of peculiarities of its geography and weather patterns. The millions of vehicles in the area combined with the additional effects of the Los Angeles/Long Beach port complexes frequently contribute to further air pollution. Though Los Angeles was one of the best known cities suffering from transportation smog for much of the 20th century, so much so that it was sometimes said that Los Angeles was a synonym for smog,[47] In particular, the entire area in between Los Angeles Harbor to Riverside has become known as the "Diesel Death Zone".[48]
Despite LAX being one of the largest airports in the world by passenger volume, LAX lacks a direct rail connection to terminals, though funding has been identified for an extension of the Green Line light rail to the airport using sales tax monies.[49] There are no plans for a direct air-to-rail transfer station for the California High Speed Rail to alleviate any of the commuter jet problems linking LAX to outlying areas such as San Diego, San Bernardino, Santa Barbara, and Fresno.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Asbury Rapid Transit System
Freeway system of Los Angeles
Great American Streetcar Scandal
List of current Metro Local bus routes
Transportation in Greater Los Angeles
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History of Transportation".
Jump up ^ Airports Council International. "Statistics World Airport Traffic 2007" (PDF). Retrieved 10 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "LAWA - VNY".
Jump up ^ Amtrak National Facts Archived 2011-05-27 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed July 2, 2008
Jump up ^ "Greybegale Station[permanent dead link]," Greybegal Lines
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greybeagle Lines
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles Wall, CA[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "North Hollywood Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Anaheim Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Compton Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles Olympic, California[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "El Monte Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "El Monte AAU[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Glendale Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Lancaster Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Long Beach Greyhound Station Archived 2015-02-02 at the Wayback Machine.," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Pasadena Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Santa Ana Greyhound Station[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ "Santa Ana Main Street, CA[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
^ Jump up to: a b "Locations: California[permanent dead link]," Greyhound Lines
Jump up ^ Federal Highway Administration. "Southern California Regional Freight Study".
Jump up ^ "City of Avalon - FAQ". Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "American Community Survey 2006, Table S0802". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2008-09-16.
Jump up ^ Lovett, Ian (2013-04-01). "To Fight Gridlock, Los Angeles Synchronizes Every Red Light". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ "L.A. stoplights synchronized to improve traffic". CBS News. May 25, 2013. Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ Epstein, Eli (April 2, 2013). "Los Angeles syncs up all 4,500 of its traffic lights". MSN News. Archived from the original on March 13, 2014. Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ Melissa MacBride, "Pothole milestone: Mayor repairs 800,000," ABC7 Eyewitness News, 17 March 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Steven Leigh Morris, "L.A. Metro Buses Hammered By Potholes on Aging Wilshire Boulevard," LA Weekly, 5 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "You won't see a cop walkin' on the beat / You only see 'em drivin' cars out on the street / You won't see a kid walkin' home from school / Their mothers pick 'em up in a car pool / Nobody's walkin' walkin' walkin' walkin—nobody walks in LA" Missing Persons, "Walking in LA"
^ Jump up to: a b "Means of Transportation to Work by Age". Census Reporter. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ CDC Walking for Exercise Prevalence Statistics 2000
Jump up ^ History of Third Street Promenade Archived 2008-07-09 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Bunker Hill Steps". Los Angeles Conservancy. Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Living in Los Angeles". Walkscore. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Zahniser, David (February 21, 2008) "City to pass the bucks on sidewalks?" Los Angeles Times
Jump up ^ Reyes, Emily Alpert (April 1, 2015). "L.A. agrees to spend $1.3 billion to fix sidewalks in ADA case". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "Willits v. City of Los Angeles Sidewalk Settlement Announced". Legal Aid Society–Employment Law Center. April 1, 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Bureau, US Census. "1.0 percent of Workers Commute by Bike in Los Angeles".
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Facts at a Glance". LACMTA. 11 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "Negligence: Broken manhole cover causes accident" (PDF). Tri-Service. 17 September 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b c American Public Transportation Association (1Q 2008). "Transit Ridership Report". Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2008. Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "2008 Long Range Transportation Plan Technical Document" (PDF). LACMTA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles Public Transportation Statistics". Global Public Transit Index by Moovit. Retrieved June 19, 2017. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Jump up ^ Bustillos, Maria (December 12, 2014). "How Los Angeles's Taxi Boss Plans to Take on Uber". The New Yorker. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Watt, Brian (September 28, 2015). "More than 100 LA taxi drivers vote to join national union". KPCC. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "DECISION ADOPTING RULES AND REGULATIONS TO PROTECT PUBLIC SAFETY WHILE ALLOWING NEW ENTRANTS TO THE TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY" (PDF). California Public Utilities Commission. December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Roger G. Noll (1999). The Economics and Politics of the Slowdown in Regulatory Reform.
Jump up ^ "California's Air Pollution Causes Asthma, Allergies and Premature Births | DiscoverMagazine.com". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 2017-02-22.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-09. Retrieved 2011-04-14. Measure R Sales Tax Expenditure Plan
External links[edit]
City streets that existed in 1903-04 but are no longer extant
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