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Amazon rainforest
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"Amazonia" redirects here. For other uses, see Amazonia (disambiguation).
Amazon rainforest
Forest
Amazon rainforest, near Manaus, Brazil.
Countries
Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, France (French Guiana)
Part of
South America
River
Amazon River
Area
5,500,000 km2 (2,123,562 sq mi)
Map of the Amazon rainforest ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. The yellow line approximately encloses the Amazon drainage basin. National boundaries are shown in black.
(Satellite image from NASA)
The Amazon rainforest (Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica, Amazonía or usually Amazonia; French: Forêt amazonienne; Dutch: Amazoneregenwoud), also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle, is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. States or departments in four nations contain "Amazonas" in their names. The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests,[1] and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species.[2]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Natural
2.1.1 Sahara Desert dust windblown to the Amazon
2.2 Human activity
3 Biodiversity
4 Deforestation
5 Conservation and climate change
5.1 Remote sensing
5.2 Impact of early 21st-century Amazon droughts
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Etymology
The name Amazon is said to arise from a war Francisco de Orellana fought with the Tapuyas and other tribes. The women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was their custom.[3] Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the Amazons of Greek mythology, described by Herodotus and Diodorus.[3]
History
See also: History of South America § Amazon
Natural
Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, near Manaus
The rainforest likely formed during the Eocene era. It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the Atlantic Ocean had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of savanna-type biomes at least until the current ice age, when the climate was drier and savanna more widespread.[4][5]
Following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, the extinction of the dinosaurs and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66–34 Mya, the rainforest extended as far south as 45°. Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into the tropics. During the Oligocene, for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the Middle Miocene, then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the last glacial maximum.[6] However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these glacial periods, allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species.[7]
Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest.
During the mid-Eocene, it is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the Purus Arch. Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic, while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the Amazonas Basin. As the Andes Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the Solimões Basin. Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through the Purus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic.[8][9]
There is evidence that there have been significant changes in Amazon rainforest vegetation over the last 21,000 years through the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and from the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for the present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin.[10] There is debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated refugia separated by open forest and grassland;[11] other scientists argue that the rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today.[12] This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data.
Sahara Desert dust windblown to the Amazon
More than 56% of the dust fertilizing the Amazon rainforest comes from the Bodélé depression in Northern Chad in the Sahara desert. The dust contains phosphorus, important for plant growth. The yearly Sahara dust replaces the equivalent amount of phosphorus washed away yearly in Amazon soil from rains and floods.[13] Up to 50 million tonnes of Sahara dust per year are blown across the Atlantic Ocean.[14][15] NASA Video.
NASA's CALIPSO satellite has measured the amount of dust transported by wind from the Sahara to the Amazon: an average 182 million tons of dust are windblown out of the Sahara each year, at 15 degrees west longitude, across 1,600 miles (2,600 km) over the Atlantic Ocean (some dust falls into the Atlantic), then at 35 degrees West longitude at the eastern coast of South America, 27.7 million tons (15%) of dust fall over the Amazon basin, 132 million tons of dust remain in the air, 43 million tons of dust are windblown and falls on the Caribbean Sea, past 75 degrees west longitude.[16]
CALIPSO uses a laser range finder to scan the Earth's atmosphere for the vertical distribution of dust and other aerosols. CALIPSO regularly tracks the Sahara-Amazon dust plume. CALIPSO has measured variations in the dust amounts transported— an 86 percent drop between the highest amount of dust transported in 2007 and the lowest in 2011.
A possibility causing the variation is the Sahel, a strip of semi-arid land on the southern border of the Sahara. When rain amounts in the Sahel are higher, the volume of dust is lower. The higher rainfall could make more vegetation grow in the Sahel, leaving less sand exposed to winds to blow away.[17]
Human activity
Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the Brazilian state of Acre in 2009.
Based on archaeological evidence from an excavation at Caverna da Pedra Pintada, human inhabitants first settled in the Amazon region at least 11,200 years ago.[18] Subsequent development led to late-prehistoric settlements along the periphery of the forest by AD 1250, which induced alterations in the forest cover.[19]
Geoglyphs on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, Acre.
For a long time, it was thought that the Amazon rainforest was only ever sparsely populated, as it was impossible to sustain a large population through agriculture given the poor soil. Archeologist Betty Meggers was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. She claimed that a population density of 0.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (0.52/sq mi) is the maximum that can be sustained in the rainforest through hunting, with agriculture needed to host a larger population.[20] However, recent anthropological findings have suggested that the region was actually densely populated. Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in AD 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at Marajó, and inland dwellers.[21] By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000.[21]
The first European to travel the length of the Amazon River was Francisco de Orellana in 1542.[22] The BBC's Unnatural Histories presents evidence that Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that a complex civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that the civilization was later devastated by the spread of diseases from Europe, such as smallpox.[23]
Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land dating between AD 1–1250, furthering claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations.[24][25] Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre.[23][26] The BBC's Unnatural Histories presented evidence that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta.[23] Terra preta is found over large areas in the Amazon forest; and is now widely accepted as a product of indigenous soil management. The development of this fertile soil allowed agriculture and silviculture in the previously hostile environment; meaning that large portions of the Amazon rainforest are probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.[27] In the region of the Xingu tribe, remains of some of these large settlements in the middle of the Amazon forest were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the University of Florida. Among those were evidence of roads, bridges and large plazas.[28]
Biodiversity
Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest threatens many species of tree frogs, which are very sensitive to environmental changes (pictured: giant leaf frog)
Scarlet macaw, which is indigenous to the American tropics.
Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia.[29] As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest.[30] This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.
The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species,[31] tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 fishes,[32] 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region.[33] One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 invertebrate species in Brazil alone.[34]
The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species.[35] A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare.[36] To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued.[37] The total number of tree species in the region is estimated at 16,000.[2]
A giant, bundled liana in western Brazil
The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during the dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration.[38]
The rainforest contains several species that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans.[39] Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in the rainforest and can spread the rabies virus.[40] Malaria, yellow fever and Dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region.
Hoatzin
Mygalomorphae
Howler monkey
Heliconia
Brown-throated sloth
Emperor tamarin
Blue poison dart frog
South American jaguar
Bald uakari
Bullet ants have an extremely painful sting
Parrots at clay lick in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador
Deforestation
Deforestation in the Maranhão state of Brazil, 2016
Main articles: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest, Trans-Amazonian highway, and Trans-Amazonian Railway
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and development of the land.[41] Prior to the early 1960s, access to the forest's interior was highly restricted, and the forest remained basically intact.[42] Farms established during the 1960s were based on crop cultivation and the slash and burn method. However, the colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops because of the loss of soil fertility and weed invasion.[43] The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more land.[43] These farming practices led to deforestation and caused extensive environmental damage.[44] Deforestation is considerable, and areas cleared of forest are visible to the naked eye from outer space.
In the 1970s construction began on the Trans-Amazonian highway. This highway represented a major threat to the Amazon rainforest.[45] Fortunately for the rainforest, the highway has not been completed, hereby reducing the environmental damage.
Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of forest lost in the Amazon rose from 415,000 to 587,000 square kilometres (160,000 to 227,000 sq mi), with most of the lost forest becoming pasture for cattle.[46] Seventy percent of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, is used for livestock pasture.[47][48] Currently, Brazil is the second-largest global producer of soybeans after the United States. New research however, conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al., has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. So despite the popular perception, there has been no economical advantage for Brazil from logging rainforest zones and converting these to pastoral fields.[49]
The needs of soy farmers have been used to justify many of the controversial transportation projects that are currently developing in the Amazon. The first two highways successfully opened up the rainforest and led to increased settlement and deforestation. The mean annual deforestation rate from 2000 to 2005 (22,392 km2 or 8,646 sq mi per year) was 18% higher than in the previous five years (19,018 km2 or 7,343 sq mi per year).[50] Although deforestation has declined significantly in the Brazilian Amazon between 2004 and 2014, there has been an increase to the present day.[51]
NASA satellite observation of deforestation in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil. The transformation from forest to farm is evident by the paler square shaped areas under development.
Fires and deforestation in the state of Rondônia.
One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest.
Conservation and climate change
See also: Gaviotas
Amazon rainforest
Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity that will result from destruction of the forest, and also about the release of the carbon contained within the vegetation, which could accelerate global warming. Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's terrestrial primary productivity and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems[52]—of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon.[53] Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996.[53]
One computer model of future climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions shows that the Amazon rainforest could become unsustainable under conditions of severely reduced rainfall and increased temperatures, leading to an almost complete loss of rainforest cover in the basin by 2100.[54][55] However, simulations of Amazon basin climate change across many different models are not consistent in their estimation of any rainfall response, ranging from weak increases to strong decreases.[56] The result indicates that the rainforest could be threatened though the 21st century by climate change in addition to deforestation.
In 1989, environmentalist C.M. Peters and two colleagues stated there is economic as well as biological incentive to protecting the rainforest. One hectare in the Peruvian Amazon has been calculated to have a value of $6820 if intact forest is sustainably harvested for fruits, latex, and timber; $1000 if clear-cut for commercial timber (not sustainably harvested); or $148 if used as cattle pasture.[57]
As indigenous territories continue to be destroyed by deforestation and ecocide, such as in the Peruvian Amazon[58] indigenous peoples' rainforest communities continue to disappear, while others, like the Urarina continue to struggle to fight for their cultural survival and the fate of their forested territories. Meanwhile, the relationship between non-human primates in the subsistence and symbolism of indigenous lowland South American peoples has gained increased attention, as have ethno-biology and community-based conservation efforts.
From 2002 to 2006, the conserved land in the Amazon rainforest has almost tripled and deforestation rates have dropped up to 60%. About 1,000,000 square kilometres (250,000,000 acres) have been put onto some sort of conservation, which adds up to a current amount of 1,730,000 square kilometres (430,000,000 acres).[59]
Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases broken down by sector for the year 2000.
Aerosols over the Amazon each September for four burning seasons (2005 through 2008). The aerosol scale (yellow to dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles that absorb sunlight.
Aerial roots of red mangrove on an Amazonian river.
A 2009 study found that a 4 °C rise in global temperatures by 2100 would kill 85% of the Amazon rainforest while a temperature rise of 3 °C would kill some 75% of the Amazon.[60]
Remote sensing
This image reveals how the forest and the atmosphere interact to create a uniform layer of "popcorn-shaped" cumulus clouds.
The use of remotely sensed data is dramatically improving conservationists' knowledge of the Amazon basin. Given the objectivity and lowered costs of satellite-based land cover analysis, it appears likely that remote sensing technology will be an integral part of assessing the extent and damage of deforestation in the basin.[61] Furthermore, remote sensing is the best and perhaps only possible way to study the Amazon on a large scale.[62]
The use of remote sensing for the conservation of the Amazon is also being used by the indigenous tribes of the basin to protect their tribal lands from commercial interests. Using handheld GPS devices and programs like Google Earth, members of the Trio Tribe, who live in the rainforests of southern Suriname, map out their ancestral lands to help strengthen their territorial claims.[63] Currently, most tribes in the Amazon do not have clearly defined boundaries, making it easier for commercial ventures to target their territories.
To accurately map the Amazon's biomass and subsequent carbon related emissions, the classification of tree growth stages within different parts of the forest is crucial. In 2006 Tatiana Kuplich organized the trees of the Amazon into four categories: (1) mature forest, (2) regenerating forest [less than three years], (3) regenerating forest [between three and five years of regrowth], and (4) regenerating forest [eleven to eighteen years of continued development].[64] The researcher used a combination of Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and Thematic Mapper (TM) to accurately place the different portions of the Amazon into one of the four classifications.
Impact of early 21st-century Amazon droughts
In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in one hundred years,[65] and there were indications that 2006 could have been a second successive year of drought.[66] A July 23, 2006 article in the UK newspaper The Independent reported Woods Hole Research Center results showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought.[67][68] Scientists at the Brazilian National Institute of Amazonian Research argue in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of deforestation on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a "tipping point" where it would irreversibly start to die. It concludes that the forest is on the brink of being turned into savanna or desert, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate.
According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the combination of climate change and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels forest fires.[69]
In 2010 the Amazon rainforest experienced another severe drought, in some ways more extreme than the 2005 drought. The affected region was approximate 1,160,000 square miles (3,000,000 km2) of rainforest, compared to 734,000 square miles (1,900,000 km2) in 2005. The 2010 drought had three epicenters where vegetation died off, whereas in 2005 the drought was focused on the southwestern part. The findings were published in the journal Science. In a typical year the Amazon absorbs 1.5 gigatons of carbon dioxide; during 2005 instead 5 gigatons were released and in 2010 8 gigatons were released.[70][71] Additional severe droughts occurred in 2010, 2015, and 2016.[72]
See also
Amanyé
Amazon Conservation Association
Amazon Conservation Team (ACT)
Amazonian manatee
Amazon Surveillance System (Sistema de Vigilância da Amazônia)
Amazon Watch
Atlantic Forest
Bandeirantes
Brazilian Amazon
Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin (COICA)
Jungle
List of plants of Amazon Rainforest vegetation of Brazil
Peruvian Amazon
Rainforest Action Network
Rainforest Alliance
Rainforest Foundation Fund
Save the Amazon Rainforest Organisation (STARO)
Tapiche Ohara's Reserve
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Jump up ^ Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis (Abridged ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-89947-0.
Jump up ^ "Impacts and Causes of Deforestation in the Amazon Basin". kanat.jsc.vsc.edu.
Jump up ^ Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2004)
Jump up ^ Steinfeld, Henning; Gerber, Pierre; Wassenaar, T. D.; Castel, Vincent (2006). Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-105571-8. Archived from the original on July 26, 2008. Retrieved August 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ Margulis, Sergio (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (PDF). World Bank Working Paper No. 22. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. ISBN 0-8213-5691-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 10, 2008. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Research paper of Leydimere Oliveira on the amazon Archived 2013-08-03 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Barreto, P.; Souza Jr. C.; Noguerón, R.; Anderson, A. & Salomão, R. 2006. Human Pressure on the Brazilian Amazon Forests[permanent dead link]. Imazon. Retrieved September 28, 2006. (The Imazon web site contains many resources relating to the Brazilian Amazonia.)
Jump up ^ "INPE: Estimativas Anuais desde 1988 até 2009". inpe.br.
Jump up ^ Melillo, J. M.; McGuire, A. D.; Kicklighter, D. W.; Moore III, B.; Vörösmarty, C. J.; Schloss, A. L. (May 20, 1993). "Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production". Nature. 363 (6426): 234–240. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..234M. doi:10.1038/363234a0.
^ Jump up to: a b Tian, H.; Melillo, J.M.; Kicklighter, D.W.; McGuire, A.D.; Helfrich III, J.; Moore III, B.; Vörösmarty, C.J. (July 2000). "Climatic and biotic controls on annual carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 9 (4): 315–335. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00198.x.
Jump up ^ Cox, Betts, Jones, Spall and Totterdell. 2000. "Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model". Nature, November 9, 2000. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Radford, T. 2002. "World may be warming up even faster". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Houghton, J.T. et al. 2001. "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis" Archived May 7, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Jump up ^ Peters, C.M.; Gentry, A. H.; Mendelsohn, R. O. (1989). "Valuation of an Amazonian forest". Nature. 339 (6227): 656–657. Bibcode:1989Natur.339..655P. doi:10.1038/339655a0.
Jump up ^ Dean, Bartholomew. (2003) State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A Lost Decade, 1990–2000. In The Politics of Ethnicity Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States David Maybury-Lewis, Ed. Harvard University Press
Jump up ^ Cormier, L. (April 16, 2006). "A Preliminary Review of Neotropical Primates in the Subsistence and Symbolism of Indigenous Lowland South American Peoples". Ecological and Environmental Anthropology. 2 (1): 14–32. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ David Adam. "Amazon could shrink by 85% due to climate change, scientists say". the Guardian.
Jump up ^ Wynne, R. H.; Joseph, K. A.; Browder, J. O.; Summers, P. M. (2007). "A Preliminary Review of Neotropical Primates in the Subsistence and Symbolism of Indigenous Lowland South American Peoples". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 28: 1299–1315. Bibcode:2007IJRS...28.1299W. doi:10.1080/01431160600928609. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Asner, Gregory P.; Knapp, David E.; Cooper, Amanda N.; Bustamante, Mercedes M.C.; Olander, Lydia P. (June 2005). "Ecosystem Structure throughout the Brazilian Amazon from Landsat Observations and Automated Spectral Unmixing". Earth Interactions. 9 (1): 1–31. Bibcode:2005EaInt...9g...1A. doi:10.1175/EI134.1.
Jump up ^ Isaacson, Andy. 2007. With the Help of GPS, Amazonian Tribes Reclaim the Rain Forest. Wired 15.11: https://www.wired.com/science/planetearth/magazine/15-11/ps_amazon
Jump up ^ Kuplich, Tatiana M. (October 2006). "Classifying regenerating forest stages in Amazônia using remotely sensed images and a neural network". Forest Ecology and Management. 234 (1–3): 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.05.066.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Drought Worst in 100 Years". www.ens-newswire.com.
Jump up ^ Drought Threatens Amazon Basin – Extreme conditions felt for second year running, Paul Brown, The Guardian, 16 July 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014
Jump up ^ "Amazon rainforest 'could become a desert'" Archived August 6, 2006, at the Wayback Machine., The Independent, July 23, 2006. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Dying Forest: One year to save the Amazon", The Independent, July 23, 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Climate change a threat to Amazon rainforest, warns WWF", World Wide Fund for Nature, March 22, 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
Jump up ^ 2010 Amazon drought record: 8 Gt extra CO2, Rolf Schuttenhelm, Bits Of Science, 4 February 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2014
Jump up ^ "Amazon drought 'severe' in 2010, raising warming fears", BBC News, 3 February 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2014
Jump up ^ Abraham, John (August 3, 2017). "Study finds human influence in the Amazon's third 1-in-100 year drought since 2005 - John Abraham". the Guardian.
Further reading
Sheil, D.; Wunder, S. (2002). "The value of tropical forest to local communities: complications, caveats, and cautions". Conservation Ecology. 6 (2): 9.
"Deforestation." World Geography. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill/Glencoe, 2000. 202–204
Wade, Lizzie. (2015). "Drones and satellites spot lost civilizations in unlikely places." Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), doi:10.1126/science.aaa7864
External links
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Amazonia.
Media related to Amazon Rainforest at Wikimedia Commons
Journey Into Amazonia
The Amazon: The World's Largest Rainforest
WWF in the Amazon rainforest
Amazonia.org.br Good daily updated Amazon information database on the web, held by Friends of The Earth – Brazilian Amazon.
amazonia.org Sustainable Development in the Extractive Reserve of the Baixo Rio Branco – Rio Jauaperi – Brazilian Amazon.
Amazon Rainforest News Original news updates on the Amazon.
Amazon-Rainforest.org Information about the Amazon rainforest, its people, places of interest, and how everyone can help.
Conference: Climate change and the fate of the Amazon. Podcasts of talks given at Oriel College, University of Oxford, March 20–22, 2007.
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The Finale (Will & Grace)
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23rd episode of the eighth season of Will & Grace
"The Finale"
Will & Grace episode
Promotional poster for "The Finale", showing the main cast bowing.
Episode no.
Season 8
Episode 23
Directed by
James Burrows
Written by
David Kohan
Max Mutchnick
Original air date
May 18, 2006
Guest appearance(s)
Kevin Bacon as himself
Harry Connick, Jr. as Leo
Leslie Jordan as Beverley Leslie
Bobby Cannavale as Vince
Episode chronology
← Previous
"Whatever Happened to Baby Gin?" Next →
"11 Years Later"
Will & Grace (season 8)
List of Will & Grace episodes
"The Finale" is the twenty-third episode of American television series Will & Grace's eighth season, which originally served as the series finale prior to the announcement of a 16-episode ninth season revival slated for the 2017–18 TV season. It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in the United States on May 18, 2006, when it was watched by an average of eighteen million viewers, making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace. In the finale, Will and Grace have a falling-out that lasts for years. They each have a child with their respective partners, and eventually reconcile when their children (Laila and Ben) meet at college. Meanwhile, Karen's arch-enemy Beverley Leslie makes an offer to Jack which ultimately leads to Jack inheriting Beverley's fortune.
The episode was written by series creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, and directed by James Burrows. Filming took place at CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California in April 2006. The cast members took the news about the show ending well, but they became emotional as the final scene was being filmed. NBC heavily promoted the finale, and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show to bid farewell. An hour-long series retrospective, "Say Goodnight Gracie", featuring interviews with the cast, crew, and guest stars, preceded the hour-long series finale. Since airing, the finale has received mixed reviews from television critics.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Broadcast and reception
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Grace Adler (Debra Messing), heavily pregnant, is having bizarre dreams of the future in which she and her gay friend and roommate Will Truman (Eric McCormack) are an old couple raising their child. In her dream, Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes) is married to actor Kevin Bacon, and Karen Walker (Megan Mullally)—who has not aged (her explanation: "Money")—is now in a relationship with her maid Rosario Salazar (Shelley Morrison). In Grace's real life, however, her relationship with Will is complicated. Grace is not sure if she wants to spend the rest of her life living with Will. When her ex-husband Marvin "Leo" Markus (Harry Connick, Jr.) shows up and proposes to her—unaware she is pregnant with his child—she immediately accepts. Will feels betrayed, and stops speaking to her.
Two years later, Grace moves with Leo to Rome and lives there for a year. They then move back to New York City, where they raise their daughter, Laila. Will and Vince D'Angelo (Bobby Cannavale) have since reconciled, and are raising a son, Ben. Karen and Jack grow tired of the fact that Will and Grace are not speaking with each other, so they lure them to the same place and force them to make up. The four meet at Will and Vince's apartment, and even though Will and Grace have a pleasant evening together, they find that too much has changed between them, and drift apart.
Meanwhile, Karen finalizes her divorce from Stan, but soon finds out that all his money was borrowed and that she will be left with nothing. When learning that Beverley Leslie (Leslie Jordan) and his "business associate" Benji (Brian A. Setzer) have broken up, Karen plots to have Jack take Benji's place, after Jack confesses that Beverly offered to share his entire fortune with him. When Beverly dies after being blown off a balcony from high winds, Jack inherits all of his money.
Around twenty years later, Laila meets Ben as they both move into college. Will and Grace are reunited while helping their children move into their dorm rooms, and rekindle their friendship. Laila and Ben eventually marry. Jack and Karen, meanwhile, are now living comfortably with each other and Rosario. While everyone else is older, Karen—just like in Grace's dream—has not aged due to extensive plastic surgery, and she and Jack perform a duet of the song "Unforgettable". The show ends with Will and Grace watching ER together, reminiscing and discussing the marriage of their respective children. Feeling uplifted, the four friends gather at a bar to toast to their friendship, which then flashes back to the four as their younger selves.
Production[edit]
Will & Grace creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, who had not served as writers since the season four season finale, wrote the script for the series finale. Regarding the finale, Mutchnick stated: "We wrote about what you want to have happen with people you love. I think Will and Grace end up very fleshed out. They end up as full adults. All the things that matter in life, they end up having."[1] Three years before the series finale was created, Mutchnick was asked on his opinion regarding how he would like to see the character's story come to a conclusion, "The truth is that [Will and Grace] serve each other's dysfunction. And the best way for their story to end is to find love."[2]
Debra Messing, who plays Grace, thought Will & Grace fans would be satisfied with the finale.
The episode was shot in Studio City, California on Stage 17 at CBS Studio Center.[3] It was filmed on April 10, 11, and 13, 2006.[3] The make-up effects used in Grace's dream and the scenes fifteen years into the future were done by Academy Award-winning make-up artists.[3] Kohan and Mutchnick joined long-time director James Burrows on the set as filming began. The cast and crew tried to remain cheerful in front of the live audience between takes while the writers gathered in a room to rework lines for potentially larger laughs.[1] However, "there were a lot of snotty, tearful faces all around the set. When we got to the very, very last scene, everybody was just a mess. We started sobbing and hugging each other," said Megan Mullally, who plays Karen.[4] Eric McCormack, who portrays Will, commented that his saddest moment was "the last time I stood in Will's kitchen. That was the most colorful position for me, standing there and stirring something. It was my pulpit, the place where I delivered my best jokes."[4]
The set was already being broken down the day after filming finished. Debra Messing, who plays Grace, said it was "cordoned off like an accident scene. It was a shock to see parts of it gone already."[4] Each cast member was allowed to keep their favorite souvenir from the set. Messing took the door to Grace's office; she wanted to lean it up against the wall at her house as a piece of modern art. Sean Hayes was given a couple of pieces from Will's apartment: "There's a leather box that was on Will’s desk that I want to find a place for."[4] Mullally chose a simple portrait from one of the walls, and McCormack took a small ceramic dog, though he said he would have taken everything if he could.[4]
The cast members of the show took the news about the show ending well. Hayes said: "I'm proud of being a part of something in history and I'm proud to have been given a platform to make people laugh."[5] McCormack added, "We have never taken ourselves or this show too seriously but now that it's over I take our collective achievement very, very seriously."[5] The actors were satisfied with the episode and thought the viewers would find it satisfying as well. "It's daring and ambitious and more far-reaching than most finales go. I think people will be quite surprised," McCormack said.[6] Messing added: "I think Will & Grace fans will be satisfied. Ultimately, [the episode] was done beautifully and it ties up loose ends for all of the characters in a way that's wonderful."[6]
Broadcast and reception[edit]
Eric McCormack and the rest of the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show to bid farewell.
The series finale was heavily promoted by NBC, and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Today Show, and Live with Regis and Kelly to bid farewell.[7] NBC devoted a two-hour block in its primetime schedule on May 18, 2006, for the Will & Grace send-off. An hour-long series retrospective, "Say Goodnight Gracie", featuring interviews with the cast, crew, and guest stars, preceded the hour-long series finale.[8][9][10][11] The retrospective was viewed by an estimated 12.7 million viewers,[12] while the finale drew 18.43 million viewers[13] and a Nielsen rating of 11.5/18,[14] making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace.[13]
Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. Richard Keller of TV Squad thought the finale's theme of Will and Grace's connection to each other was well-presented by director James Burrows. Keller added, "While not as satisfying as, say, the Friends finale or as crushing as the Seinfeld finale, the series finale to Will & Grace did have its moments and came back to the original concept of friendship among a close group of people. There were some moments where I did laugh out loud, but they were few."[15] CHUD.com's David Oliver praised the finale for not having characters "go on wild tangents that betray who they were during the entirety of the show's run."[16] He also commented that Messing and McCormack are "affecting in their performances" and the episode "nicely summarizes [Will and Grace's] friendship over the course of the entire show."[16]
Setting the finale in several different time periods was criticized by some critics. Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said "we endure a swirl of confusing, unnecessary sequences, from Grace's dream to current reality to two years later to their kids' first day of college to their kids' impending wedding. By the end, instead of being sad to bid adieu, we're just relieved not to have yet another disbelief-suspending flash-forward thrust upon us."[17] Jim Schembri of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote: "The time-jumping device is overused and a tad awkward but, by and large, it’s a noble finale to one of the better standard three-wall sitcoms from America."[18] Amy Amatangelo of Zap2it commented that Will & Grace "is a show that spent eight seasons predicated on the lasting friendship of Will and Grace, and we're supposed to believe that they spent over 20 years not talking to each other just because their lives went in different directions? That there is no way their friendship could have been sustained once they both found the love of their life?"[19] Amatangelo enjoyed Jack and Karen's performance of "Unforgettable", but the rest of the finale she "could have done without."[19]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Keveney, Bill (May 17, 2006). "NBC's 'Will' bows out gracefully". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
Jump up ^ Will & Grace: Season One – Interviews with the Creators (DVD). Lions Gate Entertainment. 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c Will & Grace: Series Finale – The Final Bow: Curtain Call (DVD). Lions Gate Entertainment. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Will & Grace's Last Laugh". People. May 12, 2006. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Bowes, Peter (May 19, 2006). "Will and Grace bid farewell". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Elber, Lynn (May 15, 2006). "TV odd couple Will & Grace take their final bow". The Standard. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
Jump up ^ Furman, Phyllis (May 1, 2006). "'Will & Grace' Opts For Quick DVD Finish". Daily News. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
Jump up ^ Duffy, Mike (May 8, 2006). "Several old TV friends saying goodbye in coming weeks". The Seattle Times. p. E5.
Jump up ^ Bark, Ed (May 14, 2006). "Four popular shows with staying power now bid adieu". The Dallas Morning News. p. 3.
Jump up ^ Ostrow, Joanne (May 16, 2006). ""Will & Grace" shocked and charmed us. And it's amazing what the writers got away with". The Denver Post. p. F-01.
Jump up ^ Huff, Richard (May 14, 2006). "'Will' Ends On A Grace Note". Daily News. Archived from the original on September 7, 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
Jump up ^ Aurthur, Kate (May 20, 2006). "Arts, Briefly; The Twilight of 'Will & Grace'". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Kissell, Rick (May 21, 2006). "'Will' has its way in finale". Variety. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
Jump up ^ "'Will & Grace' Helps NBC Stay Tough on Thursday". Zap2it. May 19, 2006. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
Jump up ^ Keller, Richard (May 18, 2006). "Will & Grace: The Finale (series finale)". TV Squad. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Oliver, David (June 24, 2006). "DVD Review: Will & Grace — Series Finale". CHUD.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Jennifer (May 26, 2006). "Will & Grace: Series Finale". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
Jump up ^ Schembri, Jim (February 1, 2007). "Will & Grace (finale)". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Amatangelo, Amy (July 12, 2008). "TV Gal Is Conflicted by The CW". Zap2it. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
External links[edit]
"The Finale" at the Internet Movie Database
"The Finale" at TV.com
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