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France in the American Revolutionary War
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The British (center) surrender to French (left) and American (right) troops, at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781.
French (left) and British ships (right) at the battle of the Chesapeake off Yorktown in 1781; the outnumbered British fleet departed, leaving the British army no choice but to surrender.
French involvement in the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, when France, a rival of the British Empire, secretly shipped supplies to the Continental Army. A Treaty of Alliance in 1778 soon followed, which led to shipments of money and matériel to the United States. Subsequently, the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic also began to send assistance, leaving the British Empire with no allies.
France's help is considered a vital and decisive contribution to the United States' victory against the British. As a cost of participation in the war, France accumulated over 1 billion livres in debt.
Contents
[hide]
1 American origins of the conflict
2 French involvement
2.1 Debate over quiet aid or declaring open war
2.2 Entry into the war
2.3 North American operations
2.4 Other theaters
3 Peace and consequences
4 Financial aspects
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
7 Bibliography
7.1 English
7.2 Primary sources
7.3 French
American origins of the conflict[edit]
Main article: American Revolution
After its defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763, France lost its vast holdings in North America. Meanwhile, the American colonists and the British government began to fight over whether Parliament in London or the colonial assemblies had primary responsibility for taxation. As part of that conflict, the colonists organized the Boston Tea Party in response to a tax on tea. The British government responded by passing the Intolerable Acts, which included the closing of Boston Harbor and the revocation of Massachusetts's colonial charter.[1] This conflict exacerbated tensions further. The ideological conflict escalated into open warfare in 1775, at which point the American patriots revolted against British rule. France, who had been rebuilding her Navy and other forces, saw this as an opportunity to seriously weaken her perennial enemy. [2]
French involvement[edit]
Choiseul actively reorganized the French army and navy for a future war of revenge against Britain.
France bitterly resented its loss in the Seven Years' War and sought revenge. It also wanted to strategically weaken Britain. Following the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was well received by both the general population and the aristocracy in France. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the "English tyranny." Benjamin Franklin traveled to France in December 1776 in order to rally the nation's support, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. At first, French support was covert: French agents sent the Patriots military aid (predominantly gunpowder) through a company called Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie, beginning in the spring of 1776. Estimates place the percentage of French supplied arms to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign at up to 90%.[3] By 1777, over five million livres of aid had been sent to the American rebels.
Motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or animated by the sincere ideals of liberty and republicanism, volunteers like Pierre Charles L'Enfant joined the American army. The most famous was Lafayette, a charming young aristocrat who defied the king's order and enlisted in 1777 at age 20. He became an aide to George Washington and a combat general. More importantly, he solidified a favorable American view of France. Kramer argues that Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence. Lafayette's personal style was highly attractive; the young man learned quickly, adapted to the Patriot style, avoided politics, and became a fast friend of General Washington. Fifty years later, after a major career in French politics, he returned as a beloved hero of the war.[4]
Debate over quiet aid or declaring open war[edit]
Before open war between France and Britain, Pierre Beaumarchais was at the center of an arms traffic to support American Insurgents.
Up against the British power, the young nation lacked arms and allies, and so it turned towards France. France was not directly interested in the conflict, but saw it as an opportunity to contest British power by supporting a new British opponent. Through negotiations conducted first by Silas Deane and then by Benjamin Franklin, France began covert support of the American cause.
Secretly approached by Louis XVI and France's foreign minister, the comte de Vergennes, Pierre Beaumarchais was authorized to sell gunpowder and ammunition to the Americans for close to a million pounds under the veil of the French company Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie. The aid given by France, much of which passed through the neutral Dutch West Indies port of Sint Eustatius, contributed to George Washington's survival against the British onslaught in 1776 and 1777. The aid was also a major factor in the defeat of General Burgoyne's expedition in the Champlain corridor that ended in a British disaster at Saratoga. French ports accommodated American ships, including privateers and Continental Navy warships, that acted against British merchant ships. France provided significant economic aid, either as donations or loans, and also offered technical assistance, granting some of its military strategists "vacations" so they could assist American troops.
Silas Deane, appointed by the Americans and helped by French animosity towards Britain, obtained unofficial aid, starting in early 1776. However, the goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for the involvement of European nations. Franklin, age 70 and already well known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as the chief diplomat with the title of "minister" (the term "ambassador" was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothes rather than formal court dress, and met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination – there were many images of him sold on the market – and he became the image of the archetypal new American and a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become tenser, Habsburg Austria requested the support of France in the War of the Bavarian Succession against the Prussia in line with the Franco-Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to assist France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize potential gains, and the American revolutionary spirit was seen as threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonies.
Public opinion in France was in favor of open war, but King Louis and his advisors were reluctant due to the possible risks and heavy expenses involved. The king's economic and military advisors, in particular, remained reluctant. The French Navy was being rapidly rebuilt, but there were doubts as to how ready it was for serious conflict. Financiers Turgot and Necker warned war would be very expensive for France's wobbly system of taxation and finance.
The Americans argued that an alliance of the United States, France, and Spain would assure a rapid defeat of the British, but Vergennes, waiting until his navy was ready, hesitated. On July 23, 1777, Vergennes decided that it was time to decide either total assistance, with war, or abandonment of the new nation. The choice, ratified by the king, was war.[5]
Entry into the war[edit]
Main article: Franco-American alliance
Surrender of General Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga, by John Trumbull, 1822
The British had taken Philadelphia in 1777, but American victory at the Battle of Saratoga brought back hope to the Patriots and enthusiasm in France. The army of Burgoyne surrendered to American forces after Saratoga and France realized that the United States could be victorious. The king directed Vergennes to negotiate an alliance with the Americans.[6]
France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778, with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. Hostilities soon followed after Britain declared war on France on March 17, 1778. The British naval force, then the largest fleet afloat, and French fleet confronted each other from the beginning. The British avoided intercepting a French fleet that left Toulon under the comte d'Estaing in April for North America, fearing the French fleet at Brest might then be used to launch an invasion of Britain. France had kept the Brest fleet to protect commercial shipping in European waters, and it sailed out only after a British fleet was confirmed to have left in pursuit of d'Estaing, thus weakening the British Channel fleet. In spite of this reduction, the British fleet still outnumbered the French fleet at Brest, and Admiral d'Orvilliers was instructed to avoid combat when he sailed in July. D'Orvilliers met the fleet of Admiral Augustus Keppel in the indecisive Battle of Ushant on July 27, after which both fleets returned to port for repairs.
France did consider the landing of 40,000 men in the nearby British Isles but abandoned the idea because of logistical issues. On the continent, France was protected through its alliance with Austria which, even if it did not take part in the American Revolutionary War, affirmed its diplomatic support of France.
Other nations in Europe at first refused to openly join the war but both Spain and the Dutch Republic gave unofficial support to the American cause. Vergennes was able to convince the Spanish to formally enter the war in 1779 and, in 1780, Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic over claims of Dutch violations of neutrality.
North American operations[edit]
Franco-American routes during the Yorktown campaign.
French participation in North America was initially maritime in nature and marked by some indecision on the part of its military leaders. In 1778, American and French planners organized an attempt to capture Newport, Rhode Island, then under British occupation. The attempt failed, in part because Admiral d'Estaing did not land French troops prior to sailing out of Narragansett Bay to meet the British fleet. He then sailed to Boston after his fleet was damaged in a storm. In 1779, d'Estaing again led his fleet to North America for joint operations, this time against British-held Savannah, Georgia. About 3,000 French joined with 2,000 Americans in the Siege of Savannah, in which a naval bombardment was unsuccessful. An attempted assault of the entrenched British position was repulsed with heavy losses.
Support became more notable when, in 1780, 6,000 soldiers led by Rochambeau landed at Newport, itself abandoned in 1779 by the British, and then established a naval base there. These forces were largely inactive since the fleet was closely watched by the British fleet from its bases in New York and eastern Long Island. By early 1781, with the war dragging on, French military planners were finally convinced that more significant operations would be required in North America to bring a decisive end to the war. That year's West Indies fleet was commanded by the comte de Grasse, and specific arrangements were made to coordinate operations with him. De Grasse asked to be supplied with North American pilots and to be informed of possible operations in North America to which he might contribute. Rochambeau and Washington met in Wethersfield, Connecticut in May 1781 to discuss their options. Washington wanted to drive the British from both New York City and Virginia (the latter led first by Benedict Arnold, then by Brigadier William Phillips and eventually by Charles Cornwallis). Virginia was also seen as a potent threat that could be fought with naval assistance. These two options were dispatched to the Caribbean along with the requested pilots. Rochambeau, in a separate letter, urged de Grasse to come to the Chesapeake Bay for operations in Virginia. Following the Wethersfield conference, Rochambeau moved his army to White Plains, New York and placed his command under Washington.
De Grasse received these letters in July at roughly the same time Cornwallis was preparing to occupy Yorktown, Virginia. De Grasse concurred with Rochambeau and subsequently sent a dispatch indicating that he would reach the Chesapeake at the end of August but that agreements with the Spanish meant he could only stay until mid-October. The arrival of his dispatches prompted the Franco-American army to begin a march for Virginia. De Grasse reached the Chesapeake as planned and his troops were sent to assist Lafayette's army in the blockade of Cornwallis's army. A British fleet sent to confront de Grasse's control of the Chesapeake was defeated by the French on September 5 at the Battle of the Chesapeake and the Newport fleet delivered the French siege train to complete the allied military arrival. The Siege of Yorktown and following surrender by Cornwallis on October 19 were decisive in ending major hostilities in North America.[7]
Other theaters[edit]
The capture of the island of Grenada by the troops of D'Estaing.
Other important battles between the French and the British were spaced out around the world, from the West Indies to India. France's navy at first dominated in the West Indies, capturing Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Montserrat, Tobago, and St. Kitts, but losing St. Lucia at the beginning of the war. A planned Franco-Spanish invasion of Jamaica was aborted after the decisive Battle of the Saintes in 1782. At the end of the war. the French captured the Turks and Caicos Islands. In European waters, France and Spain joined forces with the entry of Spain into the war in 1779. An attempted invasion of Britain failed due to a variety of factors. French and Spanish forces besieged Gibraltar from 1779 to 1783, but were unsuccessful in either storming the site, or preventing repeated British relief of its garrison. They were more successful in capturing Minorca in Europe and Demerara and Essequibo in South America in February 1782.
In India, British troops gained control of French outposts in 1778 and 1779, sparking the Kingdom of Mysore, a longtime French ally, to begin the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Allied with the French, the Mysoreans for a time threatened British positions on the east coast, but that war ended status quo ante bellum in 1784. A French fleet commanded by the Bailli de Suffren fought a series of largely inconclusive battles with a British fleet under Sir Edward Hughes, and the only major military land action, the 1783 Siege of Cuddalore, was cut short by news that a preliminary peace had been signed.
Because of decisive battles on American soil, the French were in a strong position during the peace negotiations in Paris.
Peace and consequences[edit]
Starting with the Siege of Yorktown, Benjamin Franklin never informed France of the secret negotiations that took place directly between Britain and the United States. Britain acknowledged that the United States owned all the land south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River, except for Florida (which went to Spain). However, since France was not included in the American-British peace discussions, the alliance between France and the U.S. was weakened. Thus the influence of France and Spain in future negotiations was limited.[8]
Ratification of the Treaty of Paris, 1783. The British delegation refused to pose for the picture
The war formally ended in September 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France gained (or regained) territories in the Americas, Africa, and India. Losses in the 1763 Treaty of Paris and in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) were in part regained: Tobago, Saint Lucia, the Senegal River area, as well as increased fishing rights in Terra Nova. Spain regained Florida and Minorca, but Gibraltar remained in the hands of the British.
Because the French involvement in the war was distant and naval in nature, over a billion livres tournois were spent by the French government to support the war effort, raising its overall debt to about 3.315 billion. The finances of the French state were in disastrous shape and were made worse by Jacques Necker, who, rather than increase taxes, used loans to pay off debts. State secretary of Finances Charles Alexandre de Calonne attempted to fix the deficit problem by asking for the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy but was dismissed and exiled for his ideas. The French instability further weakened the reforms that were essential in the re-establishment of stable French finances. Trade also severely declined during the war, but was revived by 1783.
The war was especially important for the prestige and pride of France, who was reinstated in the role of European arbiter. However, Great Britain, not France, became the leading trading partner of the United States.[9] The French took pride in their cultural influence on the young country through the Enlightenment, as attested by Franklin and Jefferson, and as embodied in the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787. In turn, the Revolution influenced France.[10] Liberal elites were satisfied by the victory but there were also some major consequences. European conservative Royalists and nobility had become nervous, and began to take measures in order to secure their positions. On May 22, 1781, the Decree of Ségur closed the military post offices of the upper rank to the common persons, reserving those ranks exclusively for the nobility.
Financial aspects[edit]
In all the French spent 1.3 billion livres to support the Americans directly, in addition to the money it spent fighting Britain on land and sea outside the U.S.[11][12][13]
France's status as a great modern power was re-affirmed by the war, but it was detrimental to the country's finances. Even though France's European territories were not affected, victory in a war against Great Britain with battles like the decisive siege of Yorktown in 1781 had a large financial cost which severely degraded fragile finances and increased the national debt. France gained little except that it weakened its main strategic enemy and gained a new, fast-growing ally that could become a welcome trading partner. However, the trade never materialized, and in 1793 the United States proclaimed its neutrality in the war between Great Britain and the French Republic.[14]
Some historians argue that France primarily sought revenge against Great Britain for the loss of territory in North America and India from the previous conflict. But Jonathan R. Dull states that France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada.[15]
See also[edit]
Franco-American alliance
List of French units in the American Revolutionary War
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "1774: Parliament passes the Boston Port Act". History Channel. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, Ronald, and Peter J. Albert, eds. Diplomacy and Revolution: The Franco-American Alliance of 1778 (United States Capitol Historical Society, 1981)
Jump up ^ "Journal of the American Revolution, The Gunpowder shortage (September 9, 2013).[1]
Jump up ^ Lloyd S. Kramer, "America's Lafayette and Lafayette's America: A European and the American Revolution," William & Mary Quarterly (1981) 38#2 pp 228-241.in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Georges Édouard Lemaître (2005). Beaumarchais. Kessinger Publishing. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Thomas G. Paterson; et al. (2009). American Foreign Relations, Volume 1: A History to 1920. Cengage Learning. pp. 13–15.
Jump up ^ Henry Lumpkin (2000). From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South. iUniverse. p. 235.
Jump up ^ Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (1975)
Jump up ^ Peter S. Onuf (1991). Establishing the New Regime: The Washington Administration. Taylor & Francis. pp. 30–31.
Jump up ^ Library of Congress (2002). The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad. The Minerva Group, Inc. pp. 21–23.
Jump up ^ Stacy Schiff (2006). A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America. Macmillan. p. 5.
Jump up ^ Christopher Hodson and Brett Rushforth, "Bridging the Continental Divide: Colonial America's 'French Quarter.'" OAH Magazine of History 25.1 (2011): 19-24.
Jump up ^ Peter McPhee (2015). The French Revolution. Melbourne U. p. 34.
Jump up ^ Peter P. Hill (1988). French Perceptions of the Early American Republic, 1783-1793. American Philosophical Society. p. 172.
Jump up ^ Jonathan R. Dull, The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774-1787 (1975)
Bibliography[edit]
English[edit]
Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (1935)
Brown, John L. "Revolution and the Muse: the American War of Independence in Contemporary French Poetry." William and Mary Quarterly 1984 41(4): 592–614. Issn: 0043-5597 Fulltext in : Jstor
Brecher, Frank W. Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance. Praeger Publishers, 2003. Pp. xiv, 327 online
Chartrand, René, and Back, Francis. The French Army in the American War of Independence Osprey; 1991.
Corwin, Edward S. French Policy and the American Alliance of 1778 Archon Books; 1962.
Dull, Jonathan R. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution; Yale U. Press, 1985.
Dull, Jonathan R. The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy 1774–1787 (1975)
Kaplan, Lawrence S. "The Diplomacy of the American Revolution: the Perspective from France." Reviews in American History 1976 4(3): 385–390. review of Dull (1975) in JSTOR
Gottschalk, Louis. Lafayette Comes to America 1935 online; Lafayette Joins the American Army (1937)
Hoffman, Ronald and Albert, Peter J., ed. Peace and the Peacemakers: The Treaty of 1783. U. Press of Virginia, 1986. 263 pp.
Hoffman, Ronald and Albert, Peter J., ed. Diplomacy and Revolution: The Franco-American Alliance of 1778. U. Press of Virginia, 1981. 200 pp.
Hudson, Ruth Strong. The Minister from France: Conrad-Alexandre Gérard, 1729–1790. Lutz, 1994. 279 pp.
Hutson, James H. John Adams and the Diplomacy of the American Revolution (1980)
Kennett, Lee. The French Forces in America, 1780–1783.Greenwood, 1977. 188 pp.
Kramer, Lloyd. Lafayette in Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Personal Identities in an Age of Revolutions. (1996). 355 pp.
Morris, Richard B. "The Great Peace of 1783," Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings (1983) Vol. 95, pp 29–51.
Morris, Richard B. The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (1975)
Perkins, James Breck. France in the American Revolution 1911 online
Popofsky, Linda S. and Sheldon, Marianne B. "French and American Women in the Age of Democratic Revolution, 1770–1815: a Comparative Perspective." History of European Ideas1987 8(4–5): 597–609. Issn: 0191-6599
Pritchard, James. "French Strategy and the American Revolution: a Reappraisal." Naval War College Review 1994 47(4): 83–108. Issn: 0028-1484
Schaeper, Thomas J. France and America in the Revolutionary Era: The Life of Jacques-Donatien Leray de Chaumont, 1725–1803. Berghahn Books, 1995. 384 pp. He provided military supplies.
Unger, Harlow Giles. Lafayette Wiley, 2002 online
Van Tyne, C. H. "Influences which Determined the French Government to Make the Treaty with America, 1778," American Historical Review (1916) 21#3 pp. 528–541 in JSTOR
Primary sources[edit]
Lafayette, Marquis de. Lafayette in the Age of the American Revolution: Selected Letters and Papers, 1776–1790. Vol. 2: April 10, 1778–March 20, 1780. Cornell U. Press, 1979. 518 pp.
French[edit]
Susan Mary Alsop, Les Américains à la cour de Louis XVI, 1982. Traduction française : Jean-Claude Lattès (1983).
Henri Haeau, Complot pour l'Amérique 1775–1779, Paris, Éditions Robert Laffont, 1990, ISBN 2-221-05364-8
J.-M. Bizière et J. Sole, Dictionnaire des Biographies, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 1993.
Olivier Chaline, La France au XVIIIe siècle (1715–1787), Paris, Éditions Belin, 1996.
Joël Cornette, Absolutisme et Lumière 1652–1783, collection Carré Histoire, Paris, Éditions Hachette, 2000. ISBN 2-01-145422-0
Jean Egret, Necker, ministre de Louis XVI, 1776–1790, Honoré Champion; Paris, 1975.
André Zysberg, La Monarchie des Lumières (1775–1786), Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 2002.
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Succession to the British throne
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Sovereign's Throne in the House of Lords, from which the speech is delivered at State Openings of Parliament
Succession to the British throne is determined by descent, gender (for people born before October 2011), legitimacy, and religion. Under common law, the Crown is inherited by a sovereign's children or by a childless sovereign's nearest collateral line. The Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, restrict succession to the throne to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover that are in "communion with the Church of England".[1] Spouses of Roman Catholics were disqualified from 1689 until the law was amended in 2015. Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Roman Catholics are eligible.[2]
Queen Elizabeth II is the sovereign, and her heir apparent is her eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales. Next in line after him is Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, the Prince of Wales's elder son. Third in line is Prince George, the son of the Duke of Cambridge, followed by his sister, Princess Charlotte. Fifth in line is Prince Henry of Wales, the younger son of the Prince of Wales. Sixth in line is Prince Andrew, Duke of York, the Queen's second-eldest son. Any of the first six in line marrying without the sovereign's consent would be disqualified from succession.
The first four individuals in the line of succession who are over 21, and the sovereign's consort, may be appointed Counsellors of State. Counsellors of State perform some of the sovereign's duties in the United Kingdom while he or she is out of the country or temporarily incapacitated. Otherwise, individuals in the line of succession need not have specific legal or official roles.
The United Kingdom is one of the 16 Commonwealth realms. Each of those countries has the same person as monarch and the same order of succession. In 2011, the prime ministers of the realms agreed unanimously to adopt a common approach to amending the rules on the succession to their respective Crowns so that absolute primogeniture would apply for persons born after the date of the agreement, instead of male-preference primogeniture, and the ban on marriages to Roman Catholics would be lifted, but the monarch would still need to be in communion with the Church of England. After the necessary legislation had been enacted in accordance with each realm's constitution, the changes took effect on 26 March 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current line of succession
2 History
2.1 England
2.2 Scotland
2.3 After the union of the crowns
2.3.1 Stuarts
2.3.2 Hanoverians and Windsors
2.4 Commonwealth realms
3 Current rules
3.1 Marriages
3.2 Religion
3.3 Treason
4 Accession
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
Current line of succession[edit]
First six in line[n 1] from 2 May 2015
1. The Prince of Wales
2. The Duke of Cambridge
3. Prince George of Cambridge
4. Princess Charlotte of Cambridge
5. Prince Henry of Wales
6. The Duke of York
No official, complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained. The exact number, in remoter collateral lines, of the persons who would be eligible is uncertain. In 2001 genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner compiled a list of 4,973 living descendants of the Electress Sophia in order of succession, but did so disregarding Roman Catholic status.[3] When updated in January 2011, the number was more than five thousand.[4]
The annotated list below covers the first part of this line of succession, being limited to descendants of the sons of George V (the present Queen's grandfather). Persons named in italics are unnumbered either because they are deceased or because sources report them to be excluded from the succession. The order of the first sixteen numbered in the list is given on the official website of the British Monarchy;[1] other list numbers and exclusions are explained by annotations ("Notes and sources" below) and footnotes.
King George V (1865–1936)
King Edward VIII (1894–1972)
King George VI (1895–1952)
Queen Elizabeth II (born 1926)
(1) Charles, Prince of Wales (b. 1948) B D W
(2) Prince William, Duke of Cambridge (b. 1982) B D W
(3) Prince George of Cambridge (b. 2013) B D W
(4) Princess Charlotte of Cambridge (b. 2015) B D W
(5) Prince Henry of Wales (Prince Harry) (b. 1984) B D W
(6) Prince Andrew, Duke of York (b. 1960) B D W
(7) Princess Beatrice of York (b. 1988) B D W
(8) Princess Eugenie of York (b. 1990) B D W
(9) Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex (b. 1964) B D W
(10) James, Viscount Severn (b. 2007) B D W
(11) Lady Louise Windsor (b. 2003) B D W
(12) Anne, Princess Royal (b. 1950) B D W
(13) Peter Phillips (b. 1977) B D W
(14) Savannah Phillips (b. 2010) B D W
(15) Isla Phillips (b. 2012) B D W
(16) Zara Tindall (née Phillips; b. 1981) B D W
(17) Mia Tindall (b. 2014) W
Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (1930–2002) 1952
(18) David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon (b. 1961) D W
(19) Charles Armstrong-Jones, Viscount Linley (b. 1999) D W
(20) Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones (b. 2002) D W
(21) Lady Sarah Chatto (née Armstrong-Jones; b. 1964) D W
(22) Samuel Chatto (b. 1996) D W
(23) Arthur Chatto (b. 1999) D W
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (1900–1974) 1952
(24) Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1944) D W
(25) Alexander Windsor, Earl of Ulster (b. 1974) D W
(26) Xan Windsor, Lord Culloden (b. 2007) D W
(27) Lady Cosima Windsor (b. 2010) D W
(28) Lady Davina Lewis (née Windsor; b. 1977) D W
(29) Senna Lewis (b. 2010) D W
(30) Tāne Lewis (b. 2012) W
(31) Lady Rose Gilman (née Windsor; b. 1980) D W
(32) Lyla Gilman (b. 2010) D W
(33) Rufus Gilman (b. 2012) W
Prince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942)
(34) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (b. 1935) D W
(35) George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews (b. 1962) MC / D W
Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick (b. 1988) XC / D W
Lady Marina Charlotte Windsor (b. 1992) XC / W[n 2]
(36) Lady Amelia Windsor (b. 1995) D W
Lord Nicholas Windsor (b. 1970) XC / D W
(37) Albert Windsor (b. 2007) D W[n 3]
(38) Leopold Windsor (b. 2009) D W
(39) Louis Windsor (b. 2014) D W
(40) Lady Helen Taylor (née Windsor; b. 1964) D W
(41) Columbus Taylor (b. 1994) D W
(42) Cassius Taylor (b. 1996) D W
(43) Eloise Taylor (b. 2003) D W
(44) Estella Taylor (b. 2004) D W
(45) Prince Michael of Kent (b. 1942) MC / W
(46) Lord Frederick Windsor (b. 1979) W
(47) Maud Windsor (b. 2013) W
(48) Isabella Windsor (b. 2016)
(49) Lady Gabriella Windsor (b. 1981) W
(50) Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy (b. 1936) W
(51) James Ogilvy (b. 1964) W
(52) Alexander Ogilvy (b. 1996) W
(53) Flora Ogilvy (b. 1994) W
(54) Marina Ogilvy (b. 1966) W
(55) Christian Mowatt (b. 1993) W
(56) Zenouska Mowatt (b. 1990) W
Notes and sources:
XC Excluded as Roman Catholics. This exclusion is not affected by changes subsequent to the Perth Agreement.
MC These people were excluded through marriage to a Roman Catholic. This exclusion was repealed on 26 March 2015, restoring them to the line of succession, when the Perth Agreement came into effect.
B Listed by the official website of the British Monarchy, "Succession", retrieved 13 May 2015.
D Listed on Debrett's website (as of 20 June 2015): "The Line of Succession"
W Listed by Whitaker's Almanack 2015, London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-4729-0929-9, p. 22
1952 Succession as published on the accession of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952[5]
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The current succession law in the United Kingdom evolved from succession law in both England and Scotland. Originally in both countries, there were no fixed rules governing succession to the throne. The individual could have relied on inheritance, statute, election (by Parliament or by another body), nomination (by a reigning sovereign in his or her will), conquest or prescription (de facto possession of the Crown). It was often unclear which of these bases should take precedence; often, the outcome depended not on the legal strength of the claims, but on the political or military power of the claimants.
However, over time, the default rule became male primogeniture: later monarchs coming to the throne by exception to this rule went to great lengths to explain and justify going against these rules, and to prove their rivals illegitimate. Eventually, Parliament asserted control of succession.
England[edit]
In 1485, Henry Tudor, a female-line descendant of a legitimated branch of the royal house of Lancaster, the House of Beaufort, assumed the English crown as Henry VII, after defeating Richard III, who was killed at the battle of Bosworth when leading a charge against Henry's standard. Richard was the last king of the House of York, and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. Henry declared himself king retroactively from 21 August 1485, the day before his victory over Richard at Bosworth Field,[6] and caused Richard's Titulus Regius to be repealed and expunged from the Rolls of Parliament.[7] After Henry's coronation in London in October that year, his first parliament, summoned to meet at Westminster in November, enacted that "the inheritance of the crown should be, rest, remain and abide in the most royal person of the then sovereign lord, King Henry VII, and the heirs of his body lawfully coming."[8]
Henry VII was followed by his son, Henry VIII. Though his father descended from the Lancastrians, Henry VIII could also claim the throne through the Yorkist line, as his mother Elizabeth was the sister and heiress of Edward V. In 1542 Henry also assumed the title King of Ireland; this would pass down with the monarchs of England, and later Great Britain, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate crowns into that of the United Kingdom.
Henry VIII's numerous marriages led to several complications over succession. Henry VIII was first married to Catherine of Aragon, by whom he had a daughter named Mary. His second marriage, to Anne Boleyn, resulted in a daughter named Elizabeth. Henry VIII had a son, Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. An Act of Parliament passed in 1533 declared Mary illegitimate; another passed in 1536 did the same for Elizabeth. Though the two remained illegitimate, an Act of Parliament passed in 1544 allowed reinserting them, providing further "that the King should and might give, will, limit, assign, appoint or dispose the said imperial Crown and the other premises … by letters patent or last will in writing." Mary and Elizabeth, under Henry VIII's will, were to be followed by descendants of the King's deceased sister Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk (he however excluded his niece Frances Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk). This will also excluded from the succession the descendants of Henry's eldest sister Margaret Tudor, who were the rulers of Scotland.
Queen Elizabeth I enthroned in Parliament
When Henry VIII died in 1547, the young Edward succeeded him, becoming Edward VI. Edward VI was the first Protestant Sovereign to succeed to the rule of England. He attempted to divert the course of succession in his will to prevent his Catholic half-sister, Mary, from inheriting the throne. He excluded Mary and Elizabeth, settling on the Duchess of Suffolk's daughter, Lady Jane Grey. Jane was also originally excluded on the premise that no woman could reign over England. Nonetheless, the will, which originally referred to Jane's heirs-male, was amended to refer to Jane and her heirs-male. Upon Edward VI's death in 1553, Jane was proclaimed Queen of England and Ireland. She was not universally recognised and after nine days she was overthrown by the popular Mary. As Henry VIII's will had been approved by an Act of Parliament in 1544, Edward's contravening will was unlawful and ignored.
Mary was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth, who broke with the precedents of many of her predecessors, and refused to name an heir. Whilst previous monarchs (including Henry VIII) had specifically been granted authority to settle uncertain successions in their wills, the Treasons Act 1571 asserted that Parliament had the right to settle disputes, and made it treason to deny Parliamentary authority. Wary of threats from other possible heirs, Parliament further passed the Act of Association 1584, which provided that any individual involved in attempts to murder the Sovereign would be disqualified from succeeding. (The Act was repealed in 1863.)
Scotland[edit]
The House of Stewart (later Stuart) had ruled in Scotland since 1371. It had followed strict rules of primogeniture until the deposition and exile of Mary I in 1567; even then she was succeeded by her son, James VI.
After the union of the crowns[edit]
Stuarts[edit]
Elizabeth I of England and Ireland was succeeded by King James VI of Scotland, her first cousin twice removed, even though his succession violated Henry VIII's will, under which Lady Anne Stanley, heiress of Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, was supposed to succeed. James asserted that hereditary right was superior to statutory provision, and as King of Scotland was powerful enough to deter any rival. He reigned as James I of England and Ireland, thus effecting the Union of the Crowns, although England and Scotland remained separate sovereign states until 1707. His succession was rapidly ratified by Parliament.[9]
center
James's eldest surviving son and successor, Charles I, was overthrown and beheaded in 1649. The monarchy itself was abolished. A few years later, it was replaced by the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, effectively a monarch with the title of Lord Protector rather than King. Cromwell had the right to name his own successor, which he exercised on his deathbed by choosing his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard was ineffective, and was quickly forced from office. Shortly afterwards, the monarchy was restored, with Charles I's son Charles II as King.
After the death of her last child in 1700, Princess Anne became the last individual left in the line of succession determined by the Bill of Rights.
James II and VII, a Roman Catholic, followed his brother Charles II, despite efforts in the late 1670s to exclude him in favour of Charles's illegitimate Protestant son, the Duke of Monmouth. James was deposed when his Protestant opponents forced him to flee from England in 1688. Parliament then deemed that James had, by fleeing the realms, abdicated the thrones and offered the Crowns not to the King's infant son James but to his Protestant daughter Mary and to her husband William, who as James's nephew was the first person in the succession not descended from him. The two became joint Sovereigns (a unique circumstance in British history) as William III of England and Ireland (and II of Scotland) and Mary II of England, Scotland and Ireland. William had insisted on this unique provision as a condition of his military leadership against James.
The English Bill of Rights passed in 1689 determined succession to the English, Scottish and Irish Thrones. First in the line were the descendants of Mary II. Next came Mary's sister Princess Anne and her descendants. Finally, the descendants of William by any future marriage were added to the line of succession. Only Protestants were allowed to succeed to the Thrones, and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded.
After Mary II died in 1694, her husband continued to reign alone until his own death in 1702. The line of succession provided for by the Bill of Rights was almost at an end; William and Mary never had any children, and Princess Anne's children had all died. Therefore, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement. The Act maintained the provision of the Bill of Rights whereby William would be succeeded by Princess Anne and her descendants, and thereafter by his own descendants from future marriages. The Act, however, declared that they would be followed by James I & VI's granddaughter Sophia, Electress Dowager of Hanover (the daughter of James's daughter Elizabeth Stuart), and her heirs. As under the Bill of Rights, non-Protestants and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded.
Electress Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714)
Upon William's death, Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Because the Parliament of England settled on Sophia as Anne's heir-presumptive without consulting Scottish leaders, the Estates of Scotland retaliated by passing the Scottish Act of Security. The Act provided that, upon the death of Anne, the Estates would meet to select an heir to the throne of Scotland, who could not be the same person as the English Sovereign unless numerous political and economic conditions were met. Anne originally withheld the Royal Assent, but was forced to grant it when the Estates refused to raise taxes and sought to withdraw troops from the Queen's army. England's Parliament responded by passing the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to cripple Scotland's economy by cutting off trade with them. Thus, Scotland had little choice but to unite with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707; the Crown of the new nation (along with the Crown of Ireland) was subject to the rules laid down by the English Act of Settlement.
Hanoverians and Windsors[edit]
Benjamin Harris's Protestant Tutor, a primer popular for decades and the source for the New England Primer. Edition of 1713. Hanoverian propaganda extended to books for children's education.
Anne was predeceased by Sophia, Electress Dowager of Hanover, and was therefore succeeded by the latter's son, who became George I in 1714.
Attempts were made in the risings of 1715 and 1745 to restore Stuart claimants to the Throne, supported by those who recognised the Jacobite succession. The House of Hanover nonetheless remained undeposed, and the Crown descended in accordance with the appointed rules. In 1801, following the Acts of Union 1800, the separate crowns of Great Britain and Ireland were merged and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Between 1811 and 1820, when George III was deemed unfit to rule, the Prince of Wales (later George IV) acted as his regent. Some years later the Regency Act 1830 made provision for a change in the line of succession had a child been born to William IV after his death, but this event did not come about.
George VI receiving homage at his coronation in 1937
The succession was next called into doubt in 1936, when Edward VIII abdicated in the same year as he succeeded to the throne immediately on his father's death. Edward was proclaimed King in January 1936,[10] and mounted the throne in the House of Lords for the first and last time at the opening of Parliament in November 1936, but he had not yet been crowned when he renounced the throne in December. Edward VIII had desired to marry Wallis Simpson, a divorcee, but the Church of England, of which the British Sovereign is Supreme Governor, would not authorise the marriage of divorcees. Consequently, Parliament passed His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, by which Edward VIII ceased to be Sovereign "immediately upon" his royal assent as King being signified in Parliament on 11 December. The Act provided that he and his descendants, if any, were not to have any "right, title or interest in or to the succession to the Throne". (In fact Edward died childless in 1972.)
Edward's abdication was "a demise of the Crown" (in the words of the Act), and the Duke of York, his brother who was then next in the line, immediately succeeded to the throne and to its "rights, privileges, and dignities", taking the regnal name George VI. He in turn was succeeded in 1952 by his own elder daughter, Elizabeth II. By that time the monarch of the United Kingdom no longer reigned in the greater part of Ireland (which had become a republic in 1949), but was the monarch of a number of independent sovereign states (Commonwealth realms).
Commonwealth realms[edit]
Further information: Perth Agreement
Elizabeth II at her coronation in 1953, passing to the left of the Coronation Chair
Each of the Commonwealth realms has the same person as monarch and, to maintain that arrangement, they have agreed to continue the same line of succession; some realms do so through domestic succession laws, while others stipulate whoever is monarch of the United Kingdom will also be monarch of that realm. In February 1952, on her accession, Elizabeth II was proclaimed as sovereign separately throughout her realms. In October 2011, the heads of government of all 16 realms agreed unanimously at a meeting held in Perth, Australia, to proposed changes to the royal succession laws that would see the order of succession for people born after 28 October 2011 governed by absolute primogeniture—wherein succession passes to an individual's children according to birth order, regardless of gender—instead of male-preference primogeniture. They also agreed to lift a ban on those who marry Roman Catholics. The ban on Catholics themselves was retained to ensure that the monarch would be in communion with the Church of England.[11] The changes came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, after legislation was made according to each realm's constitution.[12][13]
Following the changes coming into effect, the positions of the first 27 in line remained unchanged, including Princess Anne and her children and grandchildren, until the birth of Princess Charlotte of Cambridge on 2 May 2015. The first to be affected by the changes, on the day they came into effect in March, were the children of Lady Davina Lewis—her son Tāne (born 2012) and her daughter Senna (born 2010)—who were reversed in the order of succession, becoming 29th and 28th in line respectively.[14]
Current rules[edit]
The Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement (restated by the Acts of Union) still govern succession to the throne. They were amended in the United Kingdom by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, which was passed mainly "to make succession to the Crown not depend on gender" and "to make provision about Royal Marriages" (according to its long title), thereby implementing the Perth Agreement in the UK and in those realms that, by their laws, have as their monarch automatically whoever is monarch of the UK. Other realms passed their own legislation.
Anyone ineligible to succeed is treated as if they were "dead". That individual's descendants are not also disqualified, unless they are personally ineligible.
Marriages[edit]
The Act of Settlement 1701 provides that Protestant "heirs of the body" (that is, legitimate descendants) of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, are eligible to succeed to the throne, unless otherwise disqualified. The meaning of heir of the body is determined by the common law rules of male preference primogeniture (the "male-preference" criterion is no longer applicable, in respect of succession to the throne, to persons born after 28 October 2011), whereby older children and their descendants inherit before younger children, and a male child takes precedence over a female sibling.[15] Children born out of wedlock and adopted children are not eligible to succeed. Illegitimate children whose parents subsequently marry are legitimated, but remain ineligible to inherit the Crown.[n 4]
The Royal Marriages Act 1772 (repealed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013) further required descendants of George II to obtain the consent of the reigning monarch to marry. (The requirement did not apply to descendants of princesses who married into foreign families, as well as, from 1936, any descendants of Edward VIII,[n 5] of which there are none.) The Act provided, however, that if a dynast older than twenty-five years notified the Privy Council of his or her intention to marry without the consent of the Sovereign, then he or she may have lawfully done so after one year, unless both houses of Parliament expressly disapproved of the marriage. A marriage that contravened the Royal Marriages Act was void, and the resulting offspring illegitimate and thus ineligible to succeed, though the succession of the dynast who failed to obtain consent was not itself affected. This also had the consequence that marriage to a Roman Catholic without permission was void, so that the dynast was not disqualified from succeeding on account of being married to a Roman Catholic. Thus when the future George IV attempted to marry the Roman Catholic Maria Fitzherbert in 1785 without obtaining permission from George III he did not disqualify himself from inheriting the throne in due course.[2] A marriage voided by the 1772 act prior to its repeal remains void "for all purposes relating to the succession to the Crown" under the 2013 act.[16]
The constitutional crisis arising from Edward VIII's decision to marry a divorcee in 1936 led to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, which provided that Edward VIII and his descendants would have no claim to the throne.[17] The Act is no longer applicable, because Edward died in 1972 without issue.
Under the 2013 Succession to the Crown Act, the first six persons in line to the throne must obtain the sovereign's approval before marrying.[16] Marriage without the Sovereign's consent disqualifies the person and the person's descendants from the marriage from succeeding to the Crown,[16] but the marriage is still legally valid.
Religion[edit]
Rules relating to eligibility established by the Bill of Rights are retained under the Act of Settlement. The preamble to the Act of Settlement notes that the Bill of Rights provides "that all and every person and persons that then [at the time of the Bill of Right's passage] were, or afterwards should be reconciled to, or shall hold communion with the see or Church of Rome, or should profess the popish religion, or marry a papist, should be excluded."[18] The Act of Settlement continues, providing "that all and every Person and Persons who shall … is, are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish religion or shall marry a papist shall be subject to such Incapacities"[19] as the Bill of Rights established.
The precise meaning of the aforementioned clauses is subject to contention. Under one interpretation, the religion of an individual at the precise moment of succession is relevant. Under another interpretation, anyone who has been a Roman Catholic at any time since 1689 ("then … or afterwards") is forever ineligible to succeed. The former interpretation allows a Roman Catholic to convert to Protestantism and succeed to the Throne just before a vacancy on the throne occurs devolving the crown on the first dynast in the line of succession; the latter does not. In either case, however, other denominations of faith are not affected; it is clear that any non-Catholic may convert to Protestantism and succeed to the Throne. It is a requirement that the monarch must be a Protestant.[1]
The Act of Settlement further provided that anyone who married a Roman Catholic was ineligible to succeed. The Act did not require that the spouse be Protestant; it only barred those who marry Roman Catholics. Since the passage of the Act it has been determined (in the case of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent) that an individual is not barred because his or her spouse later converts to Roman Catholicism after their marriage. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 removed the bar on individuals married to Roman Catholics, though not on Roman Catholics themselves.
Treason[edit]
Under the Treason Act 1702 and the Treason (Ireland) Act 1703, it is treason to "endeavour to deprive or hinder any person who shall be the next in succession to the crown ... from succeeding ... to the imperial crown of this realm". Since the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, the maximum penalty has been life imprisonment.
Accession[edit]
The Accession Council normally meets in St James's Palace to proclaim the new sovereign.
In the Commonwealth realms, upon the death of a sovereign, the heir apparent or heir presumptive succeeds to the throne immediately, with no need for confirmation or further ceremony.[20][n 6] Nevertheless, the Accession Council meets and decides upon the making of the accession proclamation, which by custom has for centuries been ceremonially proclaimed in public places, in London, York, Edinburgh and other cities. The anniversary is observed throughout the sovereign's reign as Accession Day, including royal gun salutes in the United Kingdom.[22]
Formerly, a new sovereign proclaimed his or her own accession. But on the death of Elizabeth I an Accession Council met to proclaim the accession of James I to the throne of England. James was then in Scotland and reigning as King James VI of Scotland. This precedent has been followed since. Now, the Accession Council normally meets in St James's Palace. Proclamations since James I's have usually been made in the name of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, the Privy Council, the Lord Mayor, Aldermen and citizens of the City of London and "other principal Gentlemen of quality", though there have been variations in some proclamations. The proclamation of accession of Elizabeth II was the first to make mention of representatives of members of the Commonwealth.
Upon his or her accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths. The Bill of Rights of 1689 first required the sovereign to make a public declaration of non-belief in Roman Catholicism.[n 7] This declaration, known as the Accession Declaration, is required to be taken at either the first meeting of parliament of his or her reign (i.e. during the State Opening of Parliament) or at his or her coronation, whichever occurs first. The current wording of this declaration was adopted in 1910 as the previous wording was deemed to be controversial and overtly anti-Catholic. Rather than denouncing Roman Catholicism, the sovereign now declares him or herself to be a Protestant and that he or she will "uphold and maintain" the Protestant succession.[23] In addition to the Accession Declaration, the new sovereign is required by the Acts of Union 1707 to make an oath to "maintain and preserve" the Church of Scotland.[24] This oath is normally made at the sovereign's first meeting of the Privy Council following his or her accession. According to the Regency Act 1937, should the sovereign be under the age of 18, such oaths and declarations required to be taken by the sovereign shall be made upon his attainment of that age.[25]
After a period of mourning,[26] the new sovereign is usually consecrated and crowned in Westminster Abbey. Normally, the Archbishop of Canterbury officiates, though the sovereign may designate any other bishop of the Church of England. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; for example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet during his short reign was the undoubted king.
See also[edit]
Biography portal
Royalty portal
United Kingdom portal
Accession Declaration Act 1910
Alternative successions of the English crown
British prince
British princess
Family tree of the British royal family
Jacobite succession
List of descendants of George V
List of heirs to the British throne
List of heirs to the English throne
List of heirs of Scotland
List of monarchs in the British Isles
Patrilineal descent of Elizabeth II
Posthumous birth
Royal Succession Act 2013 (New Zealand)
Royal Succession Bills and Acts
Succession to the Crown Act 2013 (United Kingdom)
Succession to the Crown Act 2015 (Australia)
Succession to the Throne Act, 2013 (Canada)
Perth Agreement 2011 and other articles, linked directly or indirectly – Wikipedia book
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Succession to the Crown Act 2013, s. 3: "A person who (when the person marries) is one of the 6 persons next in the line of succession to the Crown must obtain the consent of Her Majesty before marrying."
Jump up ^ Most sources, including Whitaker's Almanack, exclude her as a confirmed Catholic, but Debrett's includes her in line.
Jump up ^ Albert and Leopold Windsor were listed on The Official Website of the British Monarchy until 2015 and in the 2013 edition of Whitaker's Almanack as following Estella Taylor (b 2004) and eligible to succeed; MSN News, Debrett's and Whitaker's Almanack 2015 lists them after Lady Amelia Windsor and before Lady Helen Taylor. They were baptised as Catholics, and are not listed in line in editions of Whitaker's earlier than 2012.
Jump up ^ Neither the Legitimacy Act 1926 nor the Legitimacy Act 1959 changed the Law of Succession.
Jump up ^ Per the His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936.
Jump up ^ A letter from Tony Newton as Lord President of the Council to Tony Benn indicated this was the effect of the Act of Settlement after Benn had indicated he intended to block the next accession at the Privy Council.[21]
Jump up ^ This declaration was similar to what members of both Houses of Parliament were originally required to take by the Test Acts. Eventually, by the time it was changed in 1910, the monarch was the only one left required to make the declaration.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Succession". Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Bogdanor (1995), p. 55.
Jump up ^ Reitwiesner, W. A. "Persons eligible to succeed to the British Throne as of 1 Jan 2001". wargs.com. Archived from the original on 18 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Lewis, David. "Persons eligible to succeed to the British Throne as of 1 Jan 2011". wargs.com. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Line of succession to the throne". The Sydney Morning Herald. 7 February 1952. p. 6.
Jump up ^ Chrimes, S. B. (1999). Henry VII. Yale University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780300078831.
Jump up ^ "Rotuli Parliamentorum A.D. 1485 1 Henry VII".
Jump up ^ Smith, G. Barnett (1892). History of the English Parliament. Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co. p. 298.
Jump up ^ "Succession to the Crown Act 1603".
Jump up ^ UPI, London, 21 January 1936http://www.upi.com/Archives/1936/01/21/Prince-of-Wales-proclaimed-King-Edward-VIII/7807693511214/]
Jump up ^ "Girls equal in British throne succession". BBC News. 28 October 2011.
Jump up ^ The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 (Commencement) Order 2015 legislation.gov.uk
Jump up ^ Clegg, Nick (26 March 2015). "Commencement of Succession to the Crown Act 2013: Written statement". UK Parliament.
Jump up ^ "What do the new royal succession changes mean?". Royal Central. 26 March 2015.[unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Blackstone (1765).
^ Jump up to: a b c "Succession to the Crown Act 2013". UK Parliament. Section 3.
Jump up ^ His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, section 2
Jump up ^ Act of Settlement, preamble
Jump up ^ Act of Settlement, section 2
Jump up ^ "Accession". Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Bogdanor (1995), p. 45.
Jump up ^ "Gun Salutes". Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Accession Declaration Act 1910, schedule
Jump up ^ Union with Scotland Act 1706, article XXV. "...And Lastly that after the Decease of Her Present Majesty (whom God long preserve) the Soveraign succeeding to her in the Royal Government of the Kingdom of Great Britain shall in all time comeing at his or her accession to the Crown Swear and Subscribe That they shall inviolably maintain and preserve the foresaid settlement of the True Protestant Religion with the Government Worship Discipline Right and Priviledges of this Church as above established by the Laws of this Kingdom in prosecution of the Claim of Right..."
Jump up ^ Regency Act 1937, section 1(2)
Jump up ^ "Coronation". Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
Sources[edit]
Blackstone, William (1765). "Chapter 3: Of The King, and His Title". Commentaries on the Laws of England, Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bogdanor, Vernon (1995). The Monarchy and the Constitution. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829334-7.
Bryant, A. (1975). A Thousand Years of British Monarchy. London: Collins.
Cox, Noel (1999). "The Law of Succession to the Crown in New Zealand". Waikato Law Review. 7: 49–72.
External links[edit]
Text of the Bill of Rights 1689
Text of the Act of Settlement 1701
Full text of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.
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Jean (song)
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"Jean"
Single by Oliver
from the album Good Morning Starshine
B-side
"The Arrangement"
Released
August 1969
Format
7" single (45 rpm)
Recorded
1969
Genre
Pop
Length
3:22
Label
Crewe Records
Songwriter(s)
Rod McKuen
Producer(s)
Bob Crewe
Oliver singles chronology
"Good Morning Starshine"
(1969) "Jean"
(1969) "Sunday Mornin'"
(1969)
"Good Morning Starshine"
(1969) "Jean"
(1969) "Sunday Mornin'"
(1969)
"Jean" is a popular song from the 1969 movie The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. It was written by the American poet and composer Rod McKuen, who also recorded a version of the song.
Recordings[edit]
The song was the theme to the 1969 film adaptation of Dame Muriel Spark's The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, which starred noted British film actress Maggie Smith. Smith won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of the lead character in the film, Jean Brodie. The song was performed by songwriter McKuen, who was nominated for an Academy Award in the category Best Original Song. Although released as a single in the summer of 1969, McKuen's version of the song failed to reach the American music charts. Sergio Franchi performed the song on the January 3, 1971, broadcast of The Ed Sullivan Show, subsequently released on a rare Franchi DVD.[1]
"Jean" was also recorded by the American singer Oliver. Earlier in 1969, Oliver had reached #3 on the Billboard pop and easy listening charts with his version of "Good Morning Starshine," a song from the musical Hair. While working on an album with producer Bob Crewe (which would also be called Good Morning Starshine), "Jean" was selected as a song for the record and subsequently chosen as the follow-up single. It became another hit for the singer, reaching #2 on the pop chart and spending four weeks at #1 on the adult contemporary chart. Oliver would later describe his cover version of the song: "We had no idea it would be a single. It was a 3/4 ballad in the psychedelic era...it was a beautiful arrangement."[2]
See also[edit]
List of RPM number-one singles of 1969
List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1969 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Official Ed Sullivan Site
Jump up ^ Hyatt, Wesley (1999). The Billboard Book of #1 Adult Contemporary Hits (Billboard Publications)
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Oliver
Studio albums
Good Morning Starshine
Again
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Prisms
Singles
"Good Morning Starshine"
"Jean"
"Sunday Mornin'"
Cover Songs
"Both Sides Now"
"If You Go Away"
"In My Life"
"Leaving on a Jet Plane"
"Ruby Tuesday"
"The Twelfth of Never"
"Until It's Time for You to Go"
"Where Is Love?"
show
v
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Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song
1960s
"Town Without Pity" Lyrics by Ned Washington, Music by Dimitri Tiomkin (1961)
"Circus World" Lyrics by Ned Washington, Music by Dimitri Tiomkin (1964)
"Forget Domani" Lyrics by Norman Newell, Music by Riz Ortolani (1965)
"Strangers in the Night" Lyrics by Charles Singleton, Eddie Snyder, Music by Bert Kaempfert (1966)
"If Ever I Would Leave You" Lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner, Music by Frederick Loewe (1967)
"The Windmills of Your Mind" Lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman, Music by Michel Legrand (1968)
"Jean" Music & Lyrics by Rod McKuen (1969)
1970s
"Whistling Away the Dark" Lyrics by Johnny Mercer, Music by Henry Mancini (1970)
"Life Is What You Make It" Lyrics by Johnny Mercer, Music by Marvin Hamlisch (1971)
"Ben" Lyrics by Don Black, Music by Walter Scharf (1972)
"The Way We Were" Lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman, Music by Marvin Hamlisch (1973)
"I Feel Love" Lyrics by Betty Box, Music by Euel Box (1974)
"I'm Easy" Music & Lyrics by Keith Carradine (1975)
"Evergreen" Lyrics by Paul Williams, Music by Barbra Streisand (1976)
"You Light Up My Life" Music & Lyrics by Joseph Brooks (1977)
"Last Dance" Music & Lyrics by Paul Jabara (1978)
"The Rose" Music & Lyrics by Amanda McBroom (1979)
1980s
"Fame" Lyrics by Dean Pitchford, Music by Michael Gore (1980)
"Arthur's Theme (Best That You Can Do)" Music & Lyrics by Peter Allen, Burt Bacharach, Christopher Cross, & Carole Bayer Sager (1981)
"Up Where We Belong" Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings, Music by Jack Nitzsche & Buffy Sainte-Marie (1982)
"Flashdance... What a Feeling" Lyrics by Irene Cara, Keith Forsey, Music by Giorgio Moroder (1983)
"I Just Called to Say I Love You" Music & Lyrics by Stevie Wonder (1984)
"Say You, Say Me" Music & Lyrics by Lionel Richie (1985)
"Take My Breath Away" Lyrics by Tom Whitlock, Music by Giorgio Moroder (1986)
"(I've Had) The Time of My Life" Lyrics by Franke Previte, Music by John DeNicola & Donald Markowitz (1987)
"Let the River Run" Music & Lyrics by Carly Simon/"Two Hearts" Lyrics by Phil Collins, Music by Lamont Dozier (1988)
"Under the Sea" Lyrics by Howard Ashman, Music by Alan Menken (1989)
1990s
"Blaze of Glory" Music & Lyrics by Jon Bon Jovi (1990)
"Beauty and the Beast" Lyrics by Howard Ashman, Music by Alan Menken (1991)
"A Whole New World" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Alan Menken (1992)
"Streets of Philadelphia" Music & Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen (1993)
"Can You Feel the Love Tonight" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Elton John (1994)
"Colors of the Wind" Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz, Music by Alan Menken (1995)
"You Must Love Me" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber (1996)
"My Heart Will Go On" Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings, Music by James Horner (1997)
"The Prayer" Music & Lyrics by David Foster, Tony Renis, Carole Bayer Sager, Alberto Testa (1998)
"You'll Be in My Heart" Music & Lyrics by Phil Collins (1999)
2000s
"Things Have Changed" Music and lyrics by Bob Dylan (2000)
"Until..." Music and lyrics by Sting (2001)
"The Hands That Built America" Music and lyrics by Bono, Adam Clayton, The Edge & Larry Mullen Jr. (2002)
"Into the West" Music and lyrics by Annie Lennox, Howard Shore & Frances Walsh (2003)
"Old Habits Die Hard" Music and lyrics by Mick Jagger & David A. Stewart (2004)
"A Love That Will Never Grow Old" Lyrics by Bernie Taupin, Music by Gustavo Santaolalla (2005)
"The Song of the Heart" Music and lyrics by Prince Rogers Nelson (2006)
"Guaranteed" Music and lyrics by Eddie Vedder (2007)
"The Wrestler" Music and lyrics by Bruce Springsteen (2008)
"The Weary Kind" Music and lyrics by Ryan Bingham & T Bone Burnett (2009)
2010s
"You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" Music & Lyrics by Diane Warren (2010)
"Masterpiece" Music & Lyrics by Madonna, Julie Frost and Jimmy Harry (2011)
"Skyfall" by Adele Adkins and Paul Epworth (2012)
"Ordinary Love" by U2 and Danger Mouse (2013)
"Glory" by Common and John Legend (2014)
"Writing's on the Wall" by Sam Smith and Jimmy Napes (2015)
"City of Stars" by Justin Hurwitz, Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016)
"This Is Me" by Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2017)
Complete List
(1960s)
(1970s)
(1980s)
(1990s)
(2000s)
(2010s)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_(song)&oldid=847132916"
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1969 singles
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Best Original Song Golden Globe winning songs
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1969 songs
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