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Special drawing rights
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Special drawing rights
ISO 4217
Code
XDR
Number
960
Denominations
Symbol
SDR
Demographics
Date of introduction
1969
User(s)
IMF
Valuation
Pegged with
4 to 5 international currencies (see article)
Pegged by
SYP
Special Drawing Rights (ISO 4217 currency code XDR,[1] also abbreviated SDR) are supplementary foreign-exchange reserve assets defined and maintained by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The XDR is the unit of account for the IMF, and is not a currency per se.[2] XDRs instead represent a claim to currency held by IMF member countries for which they may be exchanged.[3] The XDR was created in 1969 to supplement a shortfall of preferred foreign-exchange reserve assets, namely gold and the U.S. dollar.[3]
XDRs are allocated to countries by the IMF.[3] Private parties do not hold or use them.[4] The amount of XDRs in existence was around XDR 21.4 billion in August 2009. During the global financial crisis of 2009, an additional XDR 182.6 billion were allocated to "provide liquidity to the global economic system and supplement member countries’ official reserves". By October 2014, the amount of XDRs in existence was XDR 204 billion.[5]
The value of the XDR is based on a basket of key international currencies reviewed by IMF every five years.[3] The weights assigned to each currency in the XDR basket are adjusted to take into account their current prominence in terms of international trade and national foreign exchange reserves.[3] In the review conducted in November 2015, the IMF decided that the Renminbi (Chinese yuan) would be added to the basket effective October 1, 2016.[6] From that date, the XDR basket now consists of the following five currencies: U.S. dollar 41.73%, Euro 30.93%, Renminbi (Chinese yuan) 10.92%, Japanese yen 8.33%, British pound 8.09%.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 History
2.1 Alternative to U.S. dollar
2.2 Use by developing countries
3 Value definition
3.1 Current valuation
4 Interest rate
5 Allocations
6 Exchange
7 Other uses
7.1 Unit of account
7.2 Use in international law
7.3 Currency peg
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Works cited
11 External links
Name[edit]
While the ISO 4217 currency code for Special Drawing Rights is XDR,[1] they are often referred to by their acronym SDR. Both refer to the name "Special Drawing Rights".
Intentionally innocuous and free of connotations because of disagreements over the nature of this new reserve asset during its creation, the name derives from a debate about its primary function—money or credit.[8] While the name would offend neither side, it can be argued that prior to 1981 the XDR was a debt security and so a form of credit. Member countries receiving XDR allocations were required by the reconstitution provision of the XDR articles to hold a prescribed number of XDRs. If a state used any of its allotment, it was expected to rebuild its XDR holdings. As the reconstitution provisions were abrogated in 1981, the XDR now functions less like credit than previously.[9] Countries are still expected to maintain their XDR holdings at a certain level, but penalties for holding fewer than the allocated amount are now less onerous.[3]
The name may actually derive from an early proposal for IMF "reserve drawing rights".[10] The word "reserve" was later replaced with "special" because the idea that the IMF was creating a foreign exchange reserve asset was contentious.[11]
History[edit]
Special drawing rights were created by the IMF in 1969 and were intended to be an asset held in foreign exchange reserves under the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates.[3] 1 XDR was initially defined as US$1, equal to 0.888671 g of gold. After the collapse of that system in the early 1970s the SDR has taken on a less important role.[12] Acting as the unit of account for the IMF has been its primary purpose[2] since 1972.[13]
The IMF itself calls the current role of the XDR "insignificant".[14] Developed countries, who hold the greatest number of XDRs, are unlikely to use them for any purpose.[8] The only actual users of XDRs may be those developing countries that see them as "a rather cheap line of credit".[15]
One reason XDRs may not see much use as foreign exchange reserve assets is that they must be exchanged into a currency before use.[4] This is due in part to the fact private parties do not hold XDRs:[4] they are only used and held by IMF member countries, the IMF itself, and a select few organizations licensed to do so by the IMF.[16] Basic functions of foreign exchange reserves, such as market intervention and liquidity provision, as well as some less prosaic ones, such as maintaining export competitiveness via favorable exchange rates, cannot be accomplished directly using XDRs.[17] This fact has led the IMF to label the XDR as an "imperfect reserve asset".[18]
Another reason they may see little use is that the number of XDRs in existence is relatively few. As of January 2011, XDRs represented less than 4% of global foreign exchange reserve assets.[19] To function well a foreign exchange reserve asset must have sufficient liquidity, but XDRs, because of their small number, may be perceived to be an illiquid asset. The IMF says, "expanding the volume of official XDRs is a prerequisite for them to play a more meaningful role as a substitute reserve asset."[19]
Alternative to U.S. dollar[edit]
The XDR comes to prominence when the U.S. dollar is weak or otherwise unsuitable to be a foreign exchange reserve asset. This usually manifests itself as an allocation of XDRs to IMF member countries. Distrust of the U.S. dollar is not the only stated reason allocations have been made, however. One of its first roles was to alleviate an expected shortfall of U.S. dollars c. 1970.[13] At this time, the United States had a conservative monetary policy[13] and did not want to increase the total amount of U.S. dollars in existence.[citation needed] If the United States had continued down this path, the dollar would have become a less attractive foreign exchange reserve asset: it would not have had the necessary liquidity to serve this function. Soon after XDR allocations began, the United States reversed its former policy and provided sufficient liquidity.[13] In the process a potential role for the XDR was removed. During this first round of allocations, 9.3 billion XDRs were distributed to IMF member countries.
The XDR resurfaced in 1978 when many countries were wary of taking on more foreign exchange reserve assets denominated in U.S. dollars. This suspicion of the dollar precipitated an allocation of 12 billion XDRs over a period of four years.[9]
Concomitant with the financial crisis of 2007–08, the third round of XDR allocations occurred in the years 2009[3] and 2011.[20] The IMF recognized the financial crisis as the cause for distributing the large majority of these third-round allotments, but some allocations were couched as distributing XDRs to countries that had never received any[3] and others as a re-balancing of IMF quotas, which determine how many XDRs a country is allotted, to better represent the economic strength of emerging markets.[20]
During this time China, a country with large holdings of U.S. dollar foreign exchange reserves,[21] voiced its displeasure at the current international monetary system, and promoted measures that would allow the XDR to "fully satisfy the member countries' demand for a reserve currency."[22] These comments, made by a chairman of the People's Bank of China, Zhou Xiaochuan, drew media attention,[23] and the IMF showed some support for China's stance. It produced a paper exploring ways the substance and function of the XDR could be increased.[14] China has also suggested the creation of a substitution account to allow exchange of U.S. dollars into XDRs.[8] When substitution was proposed before, in 1978, the United States appeared reluctant to allow such a mechanism to become operational.[9]
Use by developing countries[edit]
In 2001, the UN suggested allocating XDRs to developing countries for use by them as cost-free alternatives to building foreign exchange reserves through borrowing or running current account surpluses.[24] In 2009, an XDR allocation was made to countries that had joined the IMF after the 1979–1981 round of allocations was complete (and so had never been allocated any).[3] First proposed in 1997,[25] many of the beneficiaries of this 2009 allocation were developing countries.[a]
Value definition[edit]
The value of the XDR is determined by the value of several currencies important to the world’s trading and financial systems.[citation needed]
In November 2005, the IMF executive board declared that the currency in the XDR basket must meet two criteria:[citation needed]
It must be issued by IMF members or Monetary Unions. It is one of the world's four largest exports of goods and services during the five years of investigation before the effective date.[clarification needed]
The currency must be free to use.
Firstly, it is widely used in international transactions, including export quotas in the IMF members and the number of official reserve assets which were in their own currencies. Secondly, it is widely traded on the main foreign exchange market, including foreign exchange trading volume, whether there are forward exchange markets and so on. Also it requires no less than 70% of the votes among the IMF members. [3] Initially its value was fixed, so that 1 XDR = 1 U.S. dollar[8] (as equivalent to 0.888671 grams of fine gold), but this was abandoned in favor of a currency basket after the 1973 collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates.[13]
From July 1974 to December 1980, the XDR consisted of a basket of 16 currencies. From January 1981 until the birth of the euro, the basket was updated to include U.S. dollar, the Deutsche mark, the French franc, the British pound and the Japanese yen as the constituents.[59]
When the euro was introduced in January 1999, it replaced the mark and franc; the basket was then composed of the U.S. dollar, the euro, the British pound and the Japanese yen.[3]
As of 1 October 2016, the SDR included the Chinese Renminbi in the currency basket.[6]
This basket is re-evaluated every five years, and the currencies included as well as the weights given to them can then change. A currency's importance is currently measured by the degree to which it is used as a foreign exchange reserve asset and the amount of exports sold in that currency.[3]
Current valuation[edit]
Because of fluctuating exchange rates, the relative value of each currency varies continuously and so does the value of the XDR. The IMF fixes the value of one XDR in terms of U.S. dollars every day. The latest U.S. dollar valuation of the XDR is published on the IMF website.[60]
Value of 1 XDR[b]
Period
USD
DEM
FRF
JPY
GBP
1981–1985[61]
0.540 (42%) 0.460 (19%) 0.740 (13%) 34.0 (13%) 0.0710 (13%)
1986–1990[61]
0.452 (42%) 0.527 (19%) 1.020 (12%) 33.4 (15%) 0.0893 (12%)
1991–1995[61]
0.572 (40%) 0.453 (21%) 0.800 (11%) 31.8 (17%) 0.0812 (11%)
1996–1998[61]
0.582 (39%) 0.446 (21%) 0.813 (11%) 27.2 (18%) 0.1050 (11%)
USD
EUR
JPY
GBP
1999–2000[61]
0.5820 (39%) 0.2280 (21%) 0.1239 (11%) 27.2 (18%) 0.1050 (11%)
= 0.3519 (32%)[62]
2001–2005[61]
0.5770 (44%) 0.4260 (31%) 21.0 (14%) 0.0984 (11%)
2006–2010[63]
0.6320 (44%) 0.4100 (34%) 18.4 (11%) 0.0903 (11%)
2011–2015[63][64][c]
0.6600 (41.9%) 0.4230 (37.4%) 12.1000 (9.4%) 0.1110 (11.3%)
USD
EUR
CNY
JPY
GBP
2016–2020[7][65]
0.58252 (41.73%) 0.38671 (30.93%) 1.0174 (10.92%) 11.900 (8.33%) 0.085946 (8.09%)
Interest rate[edit]
Special drawing rights carry a weekly determined interest rate, but no party pays interest if an IMF member country maintains the amount of XDRs allocated to it. Based on "a weighted average of representative interest rates on short-term debt in the money markets of the XDR basket currencies", interest is paid by an IMF member country if it holds fewer XDRs than it was allocated, and interest is paid to a member country if it holds more XDRs than it was allocated.[3]
Allocations[edit]
Special drawing rights are allocated to member countries by the IMF. A country's IMF quota, the maximum amount of financial resources that it is obligated to contribute to the fund, determines its allotment of XDRs.[3] Any new allocations must be voted on in the XDR Department of the IMF and pass with an 85% majority.[18] All IMF member countries are represented in the XDR Department,[16] but this is not a one country, one vote system; voting power is determined by a member country's IMF quota.[66] For example, the United States has 16.7% of the vote as of March 2, 2011.[67]
Allocations are not made on a regular basis and have only occurred on several occasions. The first round took place because of a situation that was soon reversed, the possibility of an insufficient amount of U.S. dollars because of U.S. reluctance to run the deficit necessary to supply future demand. Extraordinary circumstances have, likewise, led to the other XDR allocation events.
Date
Amount
1970–1972[13] XDR 9.3 billion[3]
1979–1981[3] XDR 12.1 billion[3]
August 28, 2009[3] XDR 161.2 billion[3]
September 9, 2009[d] XDR 21.4 billion[3]
Sometime after March 3, 2011[e] XDR 20.8 billion[20]
Exchange[edit]
In order to use its XDRs, a country must find a willing party to buy them.[9] The IMF acts as an intermediary in this voluntary exchange; it also has the authority under the designation mechanism to ask member countries with strong foreign exchange reserves to purchase XDRs from those with weak reserves.[3] The maximum obligation any country has under this mechanism is currency equal to twice the amount of its XDR allocation.[17] As of 2015, XDRs may only be exchanged for Euro, Japanese yen, UK pounds, or U.S. dollars.[17] The IMF says exchanging XDRs can take "several days."[68]
It is not, however, the IMF that pays out foreign currency in exchange for XDRs: the claim to currency that XDRs represent is not a claim on the IMF.[3]
Other uses[edit]
Unit of account[edit]
Some international organizations use the XDR as a unit of account.[69] The IMF says using the XDR in this way "help[s] cope with exchange rate volatility."[18] As of 2001, organizations that use the XDR as a unit of account, besides the IMF itself, include: African Development Bank, Arab Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, Bank for International Settlements,[70] Common Fund for Commodities, East African Development Bank, Economic Community of West African States, International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, International Fund for Agricultural Development, and Islamic Development Bank.[71] It is not only international organizations that use the XDR in this way. JETRO uses XDRs to price foreign aid.[72] In addition, charges, liabilities, and fees prescribed by some international treaties are denominated in XDRs.[73] In 2003, the Bank for International Settlements ceased to use the gold franc as their currency, in favour of XDR.
Use in international law[edit]
In some international treaties and agreements, XDRs are used to value penalties, charges or prices. For example, the Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims caps personal liability for damages to ships at XDR 330,000.[74] The Montreal Convention and other treaties also use XDRs in this way.[75]
Currency peg[edit]
According to the IMF, "the SDR may not be any country’s optimal basket",[70] but a few countries do peg their currencies to the XDR. One possible benefit to nations with XDR pegs is that they may be perceived to be more transparent.[70] As of 2000, the number of countries that did so was four.[76] This is a substantial decrease from 1983, when 14 countries had XDR pegs.[69] As of 2010, Syria pegs its pound to the XDR.[77][78]
See also[edit]
Bancor
Reserve currency
Group of Ten (economic)
Central securities depository
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Countries that joined the IMF post-1981 include: Albania (1991),[26] Angola (1989),[27] Antigua and Barbuda (1982),[28] Armenia (1992),[29] Azerbaijan (1992),[30] Belarus (1992),[31] Belize (1982),[32] Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992),[33] Brunei Darussalam (1995),[34] Bulgaria (1990),[35] Croatia (1992),[36] Czech Republic (1993),[37] Eritrea (1994),[38] Estonia (1992),[37] Georgia (1992),[39] Hungary (1982),[37] Kazakhstan (1992),[40] Kiribati (1986),[41] Kosovo (2009),[42] Kyrgyz Republic (1992),[43] Latvia (1992),[37] Lithuania (1992),[37] Macedonia (1992),[44] Marshall Islands (1992),[41] Micronesia (1993),[41] Moldova (1992),[45] Mongolia (1991),[46] Montenegro (2007),[47] Mozambique (1984),[48] Namibia (1990),[49] Palau (1997),[41] Poland (1986),[37] Russia (1992),[50] San Marino (1992),[51] Serbia (1992),[52] St. Kitts and Nevis (1984),[28] Tajikistan (1993),[53] Timor-Leste (2002),[54] Tonga (1985),[41] Turkmenistan (1992),[55] Tuvalu (2010–as Tuvalu joined after the 2009 special allocation, it may not have received XDRs),[41] Ukraine (1992),[56] Uzbekistan (1992),[57] and Yemen (1990).[58]
Jump up ^ Relative compositions expressed in per cent are rounded.
Jump up ^ The basket of currencies that values the XDR could be re-evaluated sooner than 2015 if the IMF decides that the current basket no longer reflects "the relative importance of currencies in the world’s trading and financial systems".[3]
Jump up ^ A special allocation of XDRs became effective August 10, 2009 and was issued on September 9, 2009, to countries that joined the IMF after 1981 and so had never been allocated any.[3]
Jump up ^ This allocation was made under the 2008 Quota and Voice Reforms to 54 countries with "dynamic economies" that were under-represented in the previous quota system. Date of allocation may vary from country to country, as allocation will occur "for those members that have consented to their increases once quota subscriptions are paid".[20]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
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"China questions the dollar's role as a reserve currency". The Economist. March 26, 2009.
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Works cited[edit]
Strategy, Policy, and Review Department (January 7, 2011). Enhancing International Monetary Stability: A Role for the XDR? (PDF). International Monetary Fund. p. 1. Retrieved June 19, 2011. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Financial Organization and Operations of the IMF: Pamphlet No. 45 (PDF) (6th ed.). International Monetary Fund. January 7, 2011.
Williamson, John (June 2009). "Policy Brief: Understanding Special Drawing Rights" (PDF). The Peterson Institute for International Economics.
External links[edit]
Today's US dollar value of the XDR from the IMF
SDRs per Currency unit and Currency units per SDR last five days
XDR Interest Rate, Rate of Remuneration, Rate of Charge and Burden Sharing Adjustments 2009
XDR Interest Rate Calculation
Can IMF Currency Replace the Dollar?
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Autonomy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Autonomy (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Autotomy.
This lead needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy[1] is the capacity to make an informed, un-coerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. For example, the Roman Catholic Church is governed by its canon law which applies to all Roman Catholic churches which are thus not considered autonomous. Various denominations of Protestant churches usually have more decentralized power, and churches may be autonomous, thus having their own rules or laws of government, at the national, local, or even individual level.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sociology
2 Politics
3 Philosophy
3.1 According to Piaget
3.2 According to Kohlberg
4 Religion
5 Medicine
6 International human rights law
7 Celebrity Culture on Teenage Autonomy
8 Robotics
9 Various uses
10 See also
11 References
12 Sources
13 External links
Sociology[edit]
In the sociology of knowledge, a branch of sociology, a controversy over the boundaries of autonomy stopped at the concept of relative autonomy,[2] until a typology of autonomy was created and developed within science and technology studies. According to it, the contemporary form of science's existing autonomy is the reflexive autonomy: actors and structures within the scientific field are able to translate or to reflect diverse themes presented by social and political fields, as well as influence them regarding the thematic choices on research projects.
Politics[edit]
Main article: Political freedom
In governmental parlence, autonomy refers to self-governance. An example of an autonomous jurisdiction was the former United States governance of the Philippine Islands. The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 provided the framework for the creation of an autonomous government under which the Filipino people had broader domestic autonomy than previously, although it reserved certain privileges to the United States to protect its sovereign rights and interests.[3] Another example was the status of Kosovo as the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo under the former Yugoslav government of Marshal Tito.[4]
Philosophy[edit]
Autonomy is a key concept that has a broad impact on different fields of philosophy.
In moral philosophy, autonomy refers to subjecting oneself to objective moral law.[5] Kant (1724–1804) argued that morality presupposes this autonomy (German: Autonomie) in moral agents, since moral requirements are expressed in categorical imperatives. An imperative is categorical if it issues a valid command independent of personal desires or interests that would provide a reason for obeying the command. It is hypothetical if the validity of its command, if the reason why one can be expected to obey it, is the fact that one desires or is interested in something further that obedience to the command would entail. "Don't speed on the freeway if you don't want to be stopped by the police" is a hypothetical imperative. "It is wrong to break the law, so don't speed on the freeway" is a categorical imperative. The hypothetical command not to speed on the freeway is not valid for you if you do not care whether you are stopped by the police. The categorical command is valid for you either way. Autonomous moral agents can be expected to obey the command of a categorical imperative even if they lack a personal desire or interest in doing so. It remains an open question whether they will, however.
The Kantian concept of autonomy is often misconstrued, leaving out the important point about the autonomous agent's self-subjection to the moral law. It is thought that autonomy is fully explained as the ability to obey a categorical command independently of a personal desire or interest in doing so—or worse, that autonomy is "obeying" a categorical command independently of a natural desire or interest; and that heteronomy, its opposite, is acting instead on personal motives of the kind referenced in hypothetical imperatives.
In his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant applied the concept of autonomy also to define the concept of personhood and human dignity. Autonomy, along with rationality, are seen by Kant as the two criteria for a meaningful life. Kant would consider a life lived without these not worth living; it would be a life of value equal to that of a plant or insect.[6] According to Kant autonomy is part of the reason that we hold others morally accountable for their actions. Human actions are morally praise or blameworthy in virtue of our autonomy. Non- autonomous beings such as plants or animals are not blameworthy due to their actions being non-autonomous.[6] Kant’s position on crime and punishment is influenced by his views on autonomy. Brainwashing or drugging criminals into being law-abiding citizens would be immoral as it would not be respecting their autonomy. Rehabilitation must be sought in a way that respects their autonomy and dignity as human beings.[7]
In How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, philosopher Iain King developed an 'Autonomy Principle', which he defines as "Let people choose for themselves, unless we know their interests better than they can."[8] King argues it is not enough to know someone else's interests better than the person; autonomy should only be infringed if a person is unable to know their own interests on a particular matter.[9]
Nietzsche wrote about autonomy telling about moral fight [10]
In metaphysical philosophy, the concept of autonomy is referenced in discussions about free will, fatalism, determinism, and agency.
According to Piaget[edit]
The Swiss philosopher Jean Piaget (1896-1980) studied the cognitive development of children by analyzing them during their games and through interviews, establishing (among other principles) that the children moral maturation process occurs in two phases, the first of heteronomy and the second of autonomy:
Heteronomous reasoning:
Rules are objective and unchanging. They must be literal, because the authority ordering it, and do not fit exceptions or discussions. The base of the rule is the superior authority (parents, adults, the State), that it should not give reason for the rules imposed or fulfilled them in any case.
Autonomous reasoning:
Rules are the product of an agreement and, therefore, are modifiable. They can be subject to interpretation and fit exceptions and objections. The base of the rule is its own acceptance, and its meaning has to be explained. Sanctions must be proportionate to the absence, assuming that sometimes offenses can go unpunished, so that collective punishment is unacceptable if it is not the guilty. The circumstances may not punish a guilty.
According to Kohlberg[edit]
The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) continues the studies of Piaget, this time to pose moral dilemmas to different adult and ordering the answers. His studies collected information from different latitudes to eliminate the cultural variability, and focused on the moral reasoning, and not so much in the behavior or its consequences. In this way, Kohlberg established three stages of morality, each of which is subdivided into two levels. They are read in progressive sense, that is, higher levels indicate greater autonomy.
Level 1: Premoral/Preconventional Morality: Standards are met (or not met) depending on the hedonistic or physical consequences.
[Stage 0: Egocentric Judgment: There is no moral concept independent of individual wishes, including a lack of concept of rules or obligations.]
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation: The rule is obeyed only to avoid punishment. Physical consequences determine goodness or badness and power is deferred to unquestioningly with no respect for the human or moral value, or the meaning of these consequences. Concern is for the self.
Stage 2: Instrumental-Relativist Orientation: Morals are individualistic and egocentric. There is an exchange of interests but always under the point of view of satisfying personal needs. Elements of fairness and reciprocity are present but these are interpreted in a pragmatic way, instead of an experience of gratitude or justice. Egocentric in nature but beginning to incorporate the ability to see things from the perspective of others.
Level 2: Conventional Morality/Role Conformity: Rules are obeyed according to the established conventions of a society.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation: Morals are conceived in accordance with the stereotypical social role. Rules are obeyed to obtain the approval of the immediate group and the right actions are judged based on what would please others or give the impression that one is a good person. Actions are evaluated according to intentions.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation: Morals are judged in accordance with the authority of the system, or the needs of the social order. Laws and order are prioritized.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality/Self-Accepted Moral Principles: Standards of moral behavior are internalized. Morals are governed by rational judgment, derived from a conscious reflection on the recognition of the value of the individual inside a conventionally established society.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: There are individual rights and standards that have been lawfully established as basic universal values. Rules are agreed upon by through procedure and society comes to consensus through critical examination in order to benefit the greater good.
Stage 6: Universal Principle Orientation: Abstract ethical principles are obeyed on a personal level in addition to societal rules and conventions. Universal principles of justice, reciprocity, equality and human dignity are internalized and if one fails to live up to these ideals, guilt or self-condemnation results.
Religion[edit]
In Christianity, autonomy is manifested as a partial self-governance on various levels of church administration. During the history of Christianity, there were two basic types of autonomy. Some important parishes and monasteries have been given special autonomous rights and privileges, and the best known example of monastic autonomy is the famous Eastern Orthodox monastic community on Mount Athos in Greece. On the other hand, administrative autonomy of entire ecclesiastical provinces has throughout history included various degrees of internal self-governance.
In ecclesiology of Eastern Orthodox Churches, there is a clear distinction between autonomy and autocephaly, since autocephalous churches have full self-governance and independence, while every autonomous church is subjected to some autocephalous church, having a certain degree of internal self-governance. Since every autonomous church had its own historical path to ecclesiastical autonomy, there are significant differences between various autonomous churches in respect of their particular degrees of self-governance. For example, churches that are autonomous can have their highest-ranking bishops, such as an archbishop or metropolitan, appointed or confirmed by the patriarch of the mother church from which it was granted its autonomy, but generally they remain self-governing in many other respects.
In the history of Western Christianity the question of ecclesiastical autonomy was also one of the most important questions, specially during the first centuries of Christianity, since various archbishops and metropolitans in Western Europe have often opposed centralizing tendencies of the Church of Rome.[11]
Medicine[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal autonomy is considered one of many fundamental ethical principles in medicine. Autonomy can be defined as the ability of the person to make his or her own decisions. This faith in autonomy is the central premise of the concept of informed consent and shared decision making. This idea, while considered essential to today's practice of medicine, was developed in the last 50 years. According to Tom Beauchamp and James Childress (in Principles of Biomedical Ethics), the Nuremberg trials detailed accounts of horrifyingly exploitative medical "experiments" which violated the subjects' physical integrity and personal autonomy.[12] These incidences prompted calls for safeguards in medical research, such as the Nuremberg Code which stressed the importance of voluntary participation in medical research. It is believed that the Nuremberg Code served as the premise for many current documents regarding research ethics.[13]
However, autonomy does not only apply in a research context. Users of the health care system have the right to be treated with respect for their autonomy, instead of being dominated by the physician. This is referred to as paternalism. While paternalism is meant to be overall good for the patient, this can very easily interfere with autonomy[14]. Through the therapeutic relationship, a thoughtful dialogue between the client and the physician may lead to better outcomes for the client, as he or she is more of a participant in decision-making.
The seven elements of informed consent (as defined by Beauchamp and Childress) include threshold elements (competence and voluntariness), information elements (disclosure, recommendation, and understanding) and consent elements (decision and authorization).[15] Some philosophers such as Harry Frankfurt consider Beauchamp and Childress criteria insufficient. They claim that an action can only be considered autonomous if it involves the exercise of the capacity to form higher-order values about desires when acting intentionally.[16] What this means is that patients may understand their situation and choices but would not be autonomous unless the patient is able to form value judgements about their reasons for choosing treatment options they would not be acting autonomously.
There are many different definitions of autonomy, many of which place the individual in a social context. See also: relational autonomy, which suggests that a person is defined through their relationships with others, and "supported autonomy"[17] which suggests that in specific circumstances it may be necessary to temporarily compromise the autonomy of the person in the short term in order to preserve their autonomy in the long-term. Other definitions of the autonomy imagine the person as a contained and self-sufficient being whose rights should not be compromised under any circumstance.[18]
In certain unique circumstances government may have the right to temporarily override the right to bodily integrity in order to preserve the life and well-being of the person. Such action can be described using the principle of "supported autonomy",[17] a concept that was developed to describe unique situations in mental health (examples include the forced feeding of a person dying from the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, or the temporary treatment of a person living with a psychotic disorder with antipsychotic medication). While controversial, the principle of supported autonomy aligns with the role of government to protect the life and liberty of its citizens. Terrence F. Ackerman has highlighted problems with these situations, he claims that by undertaking this course of action physician or governments run the risk of misinterpreting a conflict of values as a constraining effect of illness on a patient’s autonomy.[19]
Since the 1960s, there have been attempts to increase patient autonomy including the requirement that physician’s take bioethics courses during their time in medical school[20]. Despite large scale commitment to promoting patient autonomy, public mistrust of medicine in developed countries has remained.[21] Onora O'Neill has ascribed this lack of trust to medical institutions and professionals introducing measures that benefit themselves, not the patient. O’Neill claims that this focus on autonomy promotion has been at the expense of issues like distribution of healthcare resources and public health.
One proposal to increase patient autonomy is through the use of support staff. The use of support staff including medical assistants, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, nurses, and other staff that can promote patient interests and better patient care[22]. Nurses especially can learn about patient beliefs and values in order to increase informed consent and possibly persuade the patient through logic and reason to entertain a certain treatment plan [23] [24]. This would promote both autonomy and beneficence, while keeping the physician’s integrity intact. Furthermore, Humphreys asserts that nurses should have professional autonomy within their scope of practice (35-37). Humphreys argues that if nurses exercise their professional autonomy more, then there will be an increase patient autonomy (35-37).
International human rights law[edit]
The Yogyakarta Principles, a document with no binding effect in international human rights law, contend that "self-determination" used as meaning of autonomy on one's own matters including informed consent or sexual and reproductive rights, is integral for one's self-defined or gender identity and refused any medical procedures as a requirement for legal recognition of the gender identity of transgender.[25] If eventually accepted by the international community in a treaty, this would make these ideas human rights in the law. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines autonomy as principles of rights of a person with disability including "the freedom to make one's own choices, and independence of persons".[26]
Celebrity Culture on Teenage Autonomy[edit]
A study conducted by David C. Giles and John Maltby conveyed that after age effecting factors were removed a high emotional autonomy was a significant predictor of celebrity interest, as well as high attachment to peers with a low attachment to parents. Patterns of intense personal interest in celebrities was found to be conjunction with low levels of closeness and security. Furthermore the results suggested that adults with a secondary group of pseudo-friends during development from parental attachment, usually focus solely on one particular celebrity, which could be due to difficulties in making this transition.[27]
Robotics[edit]
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (October 2014)
See also: Unmanned aerial vehicle and Cybernetics
Autonomy or Autonomous behavior is a contentious term in reference to unmanned vehicles due to the poor understanding of whether something acting without outside commands is doing so through its own ability to make decisions or through a method of decision making pre-programmed into it. It is a quality which is rather abstract in nature and rather difficult to measure. The word is used only in an analogical sense at this point, and the analogical application carries very little of the primary content, which refers to moral choices of rational beings.
Automatic means that a system will do exactly as programmed, it has no choice. Autonomous means that a system has a choice to make free of outside influence, i.e., an autonomous system has free will.
Brian T Clough, "Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway[28]"
An example of semi-autonomous vehicles is unmanned spacecraft. Autonomy is an increasing feature of unmanned vehicles with two objectives
Mandatory for new functions:
e.g. several spacecraft in formation flight adjust their relative positions so that interferometric measurements with wide basis can be performed
Cost reduction:
e.g. failure detection and recovery by spacecraft system without ground station involvement reduces Up-/Downlink usage and reduces operational costs on ground.
See Robotics:
An Autonomous Space Craft might make certain decisions for itself based on imagery observation and a pre-programmed algorithm that will determine the only possible logical outcome and then perform that task without having to ask controllers NAND NOR AND types of parameters. Autonomy in Space does not relate to the socio-political definitions, here we are talking about a device that can make basic or convoluted decisions based on LOGIC (in an electronic usage) - see X37b Military Space Plane for an example
To have true Autonomy however a device (or entity) would need to have a longer leash being able to complete complex missions without human intra direction. Such a system would say further automate the other elements of the total process making the whole of the "system" larger by including more devices that multicommunicate with each other without involving ground based technicians or communications. (the military might not want to send possibly interceptable signals to and from said same)
^^nonsensical; please revise^^
vvthis toovv
For example: If they automated the ground based tracking and control sending and or included additional satellites and/or space planes OR other devices (autonomous air and seacraft) the X37b Missions could someday become totally Autonomous.
Basically: Send it on a mission and recover it when it lands.
Obviously Autonomy here too has its authority hierarchy whereby command override is in effect.
If the ground controllers want to they can take control of the space craft at any time. A typical mission though will be preprogrammed and perform as directed and land.. OR perform a task WHILE and/or UNTIL (in a software sense) a condition is met (say a signal sent from the ground) IF/THEN Land the Un-Manned SpaceCraft without further direction from the ground. The systems so happen to interact but that is not a necessary condition for autonomy. As each device becomes more and more autonomous the total network becomes more and more intelligent and at the same time secure
Various uses[edit]
In computing, an autonomous peripheral is one that can be used with the computer turned off
Within self-determination theory in psychology, autonomy refers to 'autonomy support versus control', "hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social contexts tend to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy development, and optimal functioning."
In mathematical analysis, an ordinary differential equation is said to be autonomous if it is time-independent.
In linguistics, an autonomous language is one which is independent of other languages, for example has a standard, grammar books, dictionaries or literature etc.
In robotics, "autonomy means independence of control. This characterization implies that autonomy is a property of the relation between two agents, in the case of robotics, of the relations between the designer and the autonomous robot. Self-sufficiency, situatedness, learning or development, and evolution increase an agent’s degree of autonomy.", according to Rolf Pfeifer.
In spaceflight, autonomy can also refer to manned missions that are operating without control by ground controllers.
In economics, autonomous consumption is consumption expenditure when income levels are zero, making spending autonomous to income.
In politics, autonomous territories are States wishing to retain territorial integrity in opposition to ethnic or indigenous demands for self-determination or independence (sovereignty).
In anti-establishment activism, an autonomous space is another name for a non-governmental social center or free space (for community interaction).
In social psychology, autonomy is a personality trait characterized by a focus on personal achievement independence, and a preference for solitude, often labeled as an opposite of sociotropy.[29]
See also[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Autonomy.
Autonomism
List of autonomous areas by country
Cornelius Castoriadis
Direct democracy
Equality of autonomy
Flat organization
Takis Fotopoulos
Home rule
Personal boundaries
Self-determination theory
Self-governing colony
Sui iuris
Teaching for social justice
Viable system model
Workplace democracy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ancient Greek: αὐτονομία autonomia from αὐτόνομος autonomos from αὐτο- auto- "self" and νόμος nomos, "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's own law"
Jump up ^ BOURDIEU, 2001 (MARANHÃO, 2005; 2006 Archived October 8, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.; 2007; SOBRAL & MARANHÃO, 2008[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Philippine Bill of 1902 (note: Philippine Autonomy Act)". Corpus Juris. Archived from the original on 2016-05-25.
Jump up ^ Bokovoy, Melissa Katherine; Irvine, Jill A.; Lilly, Carol S. (1997). State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 295–301. ISBN 978-0-312-12690-2.
Jump up ^ Autonomy in Moral and Political Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Shafer-Landau, Russ. "The fundamentals of ethics." (2010). p. 161
Jump up ^ Shafer-Landau, Russ. "The fundamentals of ethics." (2010). p. 163
Jump up ^ How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, Iain King, Continuum, 2008, ISBN 978-1847-063-472. p. 100.
Jump up ^ Chapter 17, 'Letting People Choose for Themselves', of How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, Iain King, Continuum, 2008, ISBN 978-1847-063-472.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-04-07. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ Meyendorff 1989, pp. 59-66, 130-139.
Jump up ^ L., Beauchamp, Tom (2013). Principles of biomedical ethics. Childress, James F. (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199924585. OCLC 808107441.
Jump up ^ Fischer, Bernard A (January 2006). "A Summary of Important Documents in the Field of Research Ethics". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 32 (1): 69–80. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbj005. ISSN 0586-7614. PMC 2632196  . PMID 16192409.
Jump up ^ Sandman, Lars (2012). "Adherence, Shared Decision-Making and Patient Autonomy". Medicine, Health Care, and Philosophy: 115–27.
Jump up ^ Informed Consent : Legal Theory and Clinical Practice: Legal Theory and ... - Schools of Law and Medicine Jessica W. Berg Assistant Professor of Law and Bioethics Case Western Reserve University, Paul S. Appelbaum A. F. Zeleznik Distinguished Professor and Chair University of Massachusetts, Medical School and Director of the Center for Mental Health Services Research Charles W. Lidz Research Professor of Psychiatry University of Massachusetts, Center for Bioethics and Health Law University of Pittsburgh Lisa S. Parker Associate Professor and Director of Graduate Education - Google Books. Books.google.ca. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Jump up ^ Mappes Thomas, A., and David DeGrazia. "Biomedical Ethics." (2006). Pp54-55
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-05-24. Retrieved 2015-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-05-24.
Jump up ^ Mappes Thomas, A., and David DeGrazia. "Biomedical Ethics." (2006). pp62
Jump up ^ Pilnick, Alison; Dingwall, Robert (April 2011). "On the Remarkable Persistence of Asymmetry in Doctor/Patient Interaction: A Critical Review". Social Science & Medicine. 72: 1374–82. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.02.033.
Jump up ^ O'neill, Onora. Autonomy and Trust in bioethics. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Pp3
Jump up ^ Sheather, Julian (2011). "Patient Autonomy". Student BMJ; London. 19.
Jump up ^ Charles, Sonya (2017). "The Moral Agency of Institutions: Effectively Using Expert Nurses to Support Patient Autonomy". Journal of Medical Ethics. 43.8: 506–509.
Jump up ^ Humphreys, Sally (January 2005). "Patient Autonomy". British Journal of Perioperative Nursing. 15 (1): 35–38,40–41,43.
Jump up ^ The Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 3, The Right to Recognition before the Law
Jump up ^ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 3, (a)
Jump up ^ Giles, David & Maltby, John. (2004). The Role of Media Figures in Adolescent Development: Relations Between Autonomy, Attachment, and Interest in Celebrities. Personality and Individual Differences. 36. 813-822. 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00154-5.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-10-26. Retrieved 2014-10-26.
Jump up ^ Cognitive Therapy and Research. 24: 763–780. doi:10.1023/A:1005599714224. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Sources[edit]
Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3.
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of autonomy at Wiktionary
Kastner, Jens. "Autonomy" (2015). University Bielefeld - Center for InterAmerican Studies.
Authority control
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Autonomy (disambiguation)

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Territorial autonomy

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Autonomie – Czech
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Autonomi – Danish
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Autonomie – German
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Autonomie – French
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Autonomy – Western Frisian
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Autonomie – Limburgish
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Autonomie – Dutch
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Autonomia – Polish
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