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Languages with official status in India
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States and union territories of India by the most commonly spoken first language.[1][a]
The Constitution of India designates the official language of the Government of India as Hindi written in the Devanagari script, as well as English.[2] There is no national language as declared by the Constitution of India.[3] Hindi and English are used for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications between the Central Government and a State Government.[2] States within India have the liberty and powers to specify their own official language(s) through legislation and therefore there are 22 officially recognized languages in India of which Hindi is the most used. The number of native Hindi speakers ranges between 14.5 and 24.5% in total Indian population, however, other dialects of Hindi termed as Hindi languages are spoken by nearly 45% of Indians, mostly accounted from the states falling under the Hindi belt. Other Indian languages are each spoken by around 10% or less of the population.[4]
States specify their own official language(s) through legislation. The section of the Constitution of India dealing with official languages therefore includes detailed provisions which deal not just with the languages used for the official purposes of the union, but also with the languages that are to be used for the official purposes of each state and union territory in the country, and the languages that are to be used for communication between the union and the states inter se.
During the British Raj, English was used for purposes at the federal level.[5] The Indian constitution adopted in 1950 envisaged that Hindi would be gradually phased in to replace English over a fifteen-year period, but gave Parliament the power to, by law, provide for the continued use of English even thereafter.[6] Plans to make Hindi the sole official language of the Republic met with resistance in some parts of the country. Hindi continues to be used today, in combination with other (at the central level and in some states) State official languages at the state level.
The legal framework governing the use of languages for official purpose currently includes the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) Rules, 1976, and various state laws, as well as rules and regulations made by the central government and the states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Official languages of the Union
1.1 Parliamentary proceedings and laws
1.2 Judiciary
1.3 Administration
1.4 Implementation
1.5 Legislature and administration
1.6 State judiciary
1.7 List of official languages by states
2 Eighth Schedule to the Constitution
3 Union–state and interstate communication
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Official languages of the Union[edit]
The front cover of a contemporary Indian passport, with the national emblem and inscriptions in Hindi and English language.
The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963,[7] [8][9][10][11][12] which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.
In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also turned violent.[13] As a result, the proposal was dropped,[14][15] and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.[16]
The position was thus that the Union government continues to use English in addition to Hindi for its official purposes[17] as a "subsidiary official language,"[18] but is also required to prepare and execute a programme to progressively increase its use of Hindi.[19] The exact extent to which, and the areas in which, the Union government uses Hindi and English, respectively, is determined by the provisions of the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, the Official Languages Rules, 1976, and statutory instruments made by the Department of Official Language under these laws.
Parliamentary proceedings and laws[edit]
The Indian constitution draws a distinction between the language to be used in Parliamentary proceedings, and the language in which laws are to be made. Parliamentary business, according to the Constitution, may be conducted in either Hindi or English. The use of English in parliamentary proceedings was to be phased out at the end of fifteen years unless Parliament chose to extend its use, which Parliament did through the Official Languages Act, 1963.[20] In addition, the constitution permits a person who is unable to express themselves in either Hindi or English to, with the permission of the Speaker of the relevant House, address the House in their mother tongue.[21]
In contrast, the constitution requires the authoritative text of all laws, including Parliamentary enactments and statutory instruments, to be in English, until Parliament decides otherwise. Parliament has not exercised its power to so decide, instead merely requiring that all such laws and instruments, and all bills brought before it, also be translated into Hindi, though the English text remains authoritative.[22]
Judiciary[edit]
The constitution provides, and the Supreme Court has reiterated, that all proceedings in the Supreme Court of India, the country's highest court and the High Courts, shall be in English.[23] Parliament has the power to alter this by law, but has not done so. However, in many high courts, there is, with consent from the president, allowance of the optional use of Hindi. Such proposals have been successful in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.[24]
Administration[edit]
The Union government is required by law to progressively increase the use of Hindi in its official work,[19] which it has sought to do through "persuasion, incentive and goodwill".[7]
The Official Language Act provides that the Union government shall use both Hindi and English in most administrative documents that are intended for the public.[25] The Official Languages Rules, in contrast, provide for a higher degree of use of Hindi in communications between offices of the central government (other than offices in Tamil Nadu, to which the rules do not apply).[26] Communications between different departments within the central government may be in either Hindi or English, although a translation into the other language must be provided if required.[27] Communications within offices of the same department, however, must be in Hindi if the offices are in Hindi-speaking states,[28] and in either Hindi or English otherwise with Hindi being used in proportion to the percentage of staff in the receiving office who have a working knowledge of Hindi.[29] Notes and memos in files may be in either Hindi or English, with the Government having a duty to provide a translation into the other language if required.[30]
In addition, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to a government officer or authority has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in India.
Implementation[edit]
Various steps have been taken by the Indian government to implement the use and familiarisation of Hindi extensively. Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha headquartered at Chennai was formed to spread Hindi in South Indian states. Regional Hindi implementation offices at Bengaluru, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bhopal, Delhi and Ghaziabad have been established to monitor the implementation of Hindi in Central government offices and PSUs.
Annual targets are set by the Department of Official Language regarding the amount of correspondence being carried out in Hindi. A Parliament Committee on Official Language constituted in 1976 periodically reviews the progress in the use of Hindi and submits a report to the President. The governmental body which makes policy decisions and established guidelines for promotion of Hindi is the Kendriya Hindi Samiti (est. 1967). In every city that has more than ten central Government offices, a Town Official Language Implementation Committee is established and cash awards are given to government employees who write books in Hindi. All Central government offices and PSUs are to establish Hindi Cells for implementation of Hindi in their offices.[31]
In 2016, the Modi government announced plans to promote Hindi in government offices in Southern and Northeast India.[32][33]
The Indian constitution does not specify the official languages to be used by the states for the conduct of their official functions, and leaves each state free to, through its legislature, adopt Hindi or any language used in its territory as its official language or languages.[34] The language need not be one of those listed in the Eighth Schedule, and several states have adopted official languages which are not so listed. Examples include Kokborok in Tripura and Mizo in Mizoram.
Legislature and administration[edit]
The constitutional provisions in relation to use of the official language in legislation at the State level largely mirror those relating to the official language at the central level, with minor variations. State legislatures may conduct their business in their official language, Hindi or (for a transitional period, which the legislature can extend if it so chooses) English, and members who cannot use any of these have the same rights to their mother tongue with the Speaker's permission. The authoritative text of all laws must be in English, unless Parliament passes a law permitting a state to use another language, and if the original text of a law is in a different language, an authoritative English translation of all laws must be prepared.
The state has the right to regulate the use of its official language in public administration, and in general, neither the constitution nor any central enactment imposes any restriction on this right. However, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to an officer or authority of the state government has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in that state, regardless of its official status.
In addition, the constitution grants the central government, acting through the President, the power to issue certain directives to the government of a state in relation to the use of minority languages for official purposes. The President may direct a State to officially recognise a language spoken in its territory for specified purposes and in specified regions, if its speakers demand it and satisfy him that a substantial proportion of the State's population desire its use. Similarly, States and local authorities are required to endeavour to provide primary education in the mother tongue for all linguistic minorities, regardless of whether their language is official in that State, and the President has the power to issue directions he deems necessary to ensure that they are provided these facilities.
State judiciary[edit]
States have significantly less freedom in relation to determine the language in which judicial proceedings in their respective High Courts will be conducted. The constitution gives the power to authorise the use of Hindi, or the state's official language in proceedings of the High Court to the Governor, rather than the state legislature, and requires the Governor to obtain the consent of the President of India, who in these matters acts on the advice of the Government of India. The Official Languages Act gives the Governor a similar power, subject to similar conditions, in relation to the language in which the High Court's judgments will be delivered.[35]
Four states—Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan—[36] have been granted the right to conduct proceedings in their High Courts in their official language, which, for all of them, was Hindi. However, the only non-Hindi state to seek a similar power—Tamil Nadu, which sought the right to conduct proceedings in Tamil in its High Court—had its application rejected by the central government earlier, which said it was advised to do so by the Supreme Court.[37] In 2006, the law ministry said that it would not object to Tamil Nadu state's desire to conduct Madras High Court proceedings in Tamil.[38][39][40][41][42] In 2010, the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court allowed lawyers to argue cases in Tamil.[43]
List of official languages by states[edit]
List of official languages of states of India
No.
State
Official language(s)
Additional official language(s)
1. Andhra Pradesh Telugu[44]
2. Arunachal Pradesh English
3. Assam English, Assamese[45] Bengali in three districts of Barak Valley[46], Bodo in Bodoland Territorial Council areas
4. Bihar Hindi[47] Urdu[47]
5. Chhattisgarh Hindi[48]
6. Goa Konkani[49] Marathi[50]:27[51]
7. Gujarat Gujarati[52] Hindi[52]
8. Haryana Hindi[53] Punjabi[54]
9. Himachal Pradesh Hindi[55] English
10. Jammu and Kashmir Urdu
11. Jharkhand Hindi Urdu
12. Karnataka Kannada
13. Kerala Malayalam English
14. Madhya Pradesh Hindi[56]
15. Maharashtra Marathi English
16. Manipur Meitei (Manipuri)[57] English
17. Meghalaya English[58] Khasi and Garo[59]
18. Mizoram Mizo, English and Hindi
19. Nagaland English
20. Odisha Odia English[60]
21. Punjab Punjabi
22. Rajasthan Hindi English
23. Sikkim Nepali[61][62] Additional ten local languages[b]
24. Tamil Nadu Tamil English
25. Telangana Telugu & Urdu
26. Tripura Bengali, English and Kokborok[63][64]
27. Uttar Pradesh Hindi Urdu[65]
28. Uttarakhand Hindi Sanskrit
29. West Bengal Bengali Nepali, Hindi, Kamtapuri[66], Kurukh and Urdu[67](specific areas)
List of official languages of Union Territories of India
Union territories[50]
No.
Union territory
Official language(s)
Additional official language(s)
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Hindi and English
2. Chandigarh English
3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli Gujarati, Marathi, and Hindi[68]
4. Daman and Diu Gujarati, Konkani and Marathi
5. Delhi Hindi Punjabi, English and Urdu[69]
6. Lakshadweep Malayalam, Mahl (in Minicoy Island), English[70]
7. Puducherry Tamil, English Telugu, Malayalam and French [c][71][72]
Eighth Schedule to the Constitution[edit]
Main article: Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India
The Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution contains a list of 22 scheduled languages. At the time the constitution was enacted, inclusion in this list meant that the language was entitled to representation on the Official Languages Commission,[73] and that the language would be one of the bases that would be drawn upon to enrich Hindi, the official language of the Union.[74] The list has since, however, acquired further significance. The Government of India is now under an obligation to take measures for the development of these languages, such that "they grow rapidly in richness and become effective means of communicating modern knowledge."[75] In addition, a candidate appearing in an examination conducted for public service at a higher level is entitled to use any of these languages as the medium in which he or she answers the paper.[76]
Via the 92nd Constitutional amendment 2003, four new languages – Dogri, Maithili, Santali and Bodo – were added to the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution.[77]
The table below lists the 22 languages set out in the Eighth Schedule as of May 2008, together with the regions where they are used.
Even though the English language is not included in the Eighth Schedule (as it is a foreign language), it is one of the official languages of the Union of India.[78]
Language[d]
Family
Speakers
(in millions, 2001)[79]
State(s)
Assamese Indo-Aryan, North Eastern 13.2 Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
Bengali Indo-Aryan, Eastern 83.4 West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand[80]
Bodo Tibeto-Burman 1.3 Assam
Dogri Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 2.3 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab
Gujarati Indo-Aryan, Western 46.1 Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Gujarat
Hindi Indo-Aryan 422 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand
Kannada Dravidian 38 Karnataka
Kashmiri Indo-Aryan, Dardic 5.5 Jammu and Kashmir
Konkani Indo-Aryan, Southern 2.5 Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala (The Konkan Coast)[81][82]
Maithili Indo-Aryan, Eastern 12.2 Bihar
Malayalam Dravidian 33.1 Kerala, Lakshadweep, Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Manipuri (also Meitei or Meithei) Tibeto-Burman 1.5 Manipur
Marathi Indo-Aryan, Southern 72 Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu
Nepali Indo-Aryan, Northern 2.9 Sikkim, Darjeeling, Northeast India
Odia Indo-Aryan, Eastern 33 Odisha, Jharkhand[83][84][85]
Punjabi Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 29.1 Chandigarh, Delhi, Punjab
Sanskrit Indo-Aryan 0.01 Uttarakhand
Santali Munda 6.5 Santhal tribals of the Chota Nagpur Plateau (comprising the states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha)
Sindhi Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 2.5 Sindh (now Sindh in Pakistan)
Tamil Dravidian 70 Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Puducherry, Kerala
Telugu Dravidian 74 Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Urdu Indo-Aryan, Central 51.5 Jammu and Kashmir, Telangana, Jharkhand, Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
Of the 22 official languages, 15 are Indo-Aryan, four are Dravidian, two are Tibeto-Burman, and one is Munda.
Since 2003, a government committee has been looking into the feasibility of treating all languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution as "Official Languages of the Union".[86]
Union–state and interstate communication[edit]
The language in which communications between different states, or from the union government to a state or a person in a state, shall be sent is regulated by the Official Languages Act and, for states other than Tamil Nadu, by the Official Languages Rules. Communication between states who use Hindi as their official language is required to be in Hindi, whereas communication between a state whose official language is Hindi and one whose is not, is required to be in English, or, in Hindi with an accompanying English translation (unless the receiving state agrees to dispense with the translation).[17]
Communication between the union and states which use Hindi as their official language (classified by the Official Language Rules as "the states in Region A"), and with persons who live in those states, is generally in Hindi, except in certain cases.[87] Communication with a second category of states "Region B", which do not use Hindi as their official language but have elected to communicate with the union in Hindi (currently Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Punjab)[88] is usually in Hindi, whilst communications sent to an individual in those states may be in either Hindi or English.[89] Communication with all other states "Region C", and with people living in them, is in English.[90]
See also[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Official Languages Act, 1963
Languages of India
List of Indian languages by number of native speakers
Names of the Indian Constitution in the official languages of India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some languages may be over- or underrepresented as the census data used is at the state-level. For example, while Urdu has 52 million speakers (2001), in no state is it a majority as the language itself is primarily limited to Indian Muslims yet has more native speakers than Gujarati.
Jump up ^ Bhutia, Gurung, Lepcha, Limboo, Mangar, Mukhia, Newari, Rai, Sherpa and Tamang are the Additional Official Languages for the purpose of preservation of culture and tradition.[50]:84
Jump up ^ See Official languages of Puducherry
Jump up ^ Includes variants and dialects
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In response to this several NGO and political parties have started agitation and some have even re-sorted to violent protests in the Darjeeling for separate statehood, which started in after the official statement in press meet by Central parliamentary affairs minister. The monster himself hails from South India and many party leader of the government has felt as insult to the mother language. The TANA has stated "It's high time the North should learn the lessons from the past and should try not to stir the broth"
The ADMK leader has said in New Delhi "It's a shame to see my neighbouring state leader hailing from Telugu state speaking against the his own mother tongue.
The Dravida Samrakshana Samiti Head has said " it's a direct assault on our culture and is a insult for saying the minister hailing from South India. (Jitendra Singh)". The Indian Express. 2016-06-09. Retrieved 2016-06-11.
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Jump up ^ Kurzon, Dennis (2004). "3. The Konkani-Marathi Controversy : 2000-01 version". Where East Looks West: Success in English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast. Multilingual Matters. pp. 42–58. ISBN 978-1-85359-673-5. Retrieved 26 December 2014. Dated, but gives a good overview of the controversy to give Marathi full "official status".
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Jump up ^ Eleven other languages — Bhutia, Lepcha, Limboo, Newari, Gurung, Mangar, Mukhia, Rai, Sherpa and Tamang - are termed "official", but only for the purposes of the preservation of culture and tradition. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, 43rd report: July 2004 - June 2005, pp. paras 27.3–27.4, archived from the original on 10 April 2009, retrieved 2007-07-16 . See also Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, 41st report: July 2002 - June 2003, p. paras 28.4, 28.9, archived from the original on 2007-02-24, retrieved 2007-07-16
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Jump up ^ Singh, Shiv Sahay. "Official language status for Urdu in some West Bengal areas". The Hindu. Retrieved 2017-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
Jump up ^ Urdu and Punjabi are the two secondary official languages of Delhi under the Delhi Official Language Bill, 2000 Punjabi, Urdu made official languages in Delhi, The Times of India, 2003-06-25, retrieved 2007-07-17
Jump up ^ Thomas Benedikter (2009). Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 134. ISBN 978-3-643-10231-7.
Jump up ^ There are three primary languages used for official purposes - Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam. Only, English is recognized for official uses as per the official language policy. The official language policy of the union territory states that the Tamil language should be the primary language used for all or any of the official purposes of the union territory. In case of Mahe and Yanam, Malayalam and Telugu, respectively, may be used instead of or in conjunction with Tamil. The English language may also be used for official purposes. (ACT 28, Gazetteer, Pondicherry Vol. 1, P. II)Multilingualism and second language acquisition and learning in Pondicherry
Jump up ^ Office of the Chief Electoral Officer, Puducherry, General Information on Pondicherry, archived from the original on 28 September 2007, retrieved 2007-06-06
Jump up ^ Constitution of India, Article 344(1).
Jump up ^ Constitution of India, Article 351.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 2". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 4". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ National Portal of India: Government: Constitution of India Archived 31 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Constitution of India Archived 9 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine., page 330, EIGHTH SCHEDULE, Articles 344 (1) and 351]. Languages.
Jump up ^ "Statement 1 - Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues - 2001". Government of India. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.bihardays.com/jharkhands-11-second-languages-will-create-new-jobs-enrich-national-culture/
Jump up ^ "The Origins of the Konkani Language". www.kamat.com. August 15, 1997 – January 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Indian Languages: Konkani Language". iloveindia.com.
Jump up ^ "Oriya gets its due in neighbouring state- Orissa- IBNLive". Ibnlive.in.com. 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
Jump up ^ Naresh Chandra Pattanayak Sep 1, 2011, 08.04am IST (2011-09-01). "Oriya second language in Jharkhand - Times Of India". Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 2012-11-29. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Bengali, Oriya among 12 dialects as 2nd language in Jharkhand". daily.bhaskar.com. 2011-08-31. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
Jump up ^ "A Committee has been constituted under the Chairmanship of Shri Sita Kant Mohapatra to make recommendation, inter-alia on the feasibility of treating all languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution, including Tamil, as Official Languages of the Union. The Government will consider the recommendations of the Committee and take a suitable decision in the matter."Indian parliament Archived 21 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 3(1)". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 2(g)". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 3(2)". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) - Rules 1976 (As Amended, 1987) - Paragraph 3(3)". Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
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Department of Official Language (DOL) – Official webpage explains the chronological events related to Official Languages Act and amendments
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Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History and the Future of Language Policy in India by Jason Baldridge
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Deep sea community
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Giant tube worms
Asterechinus elegans
A deep sea community is any community of organisms associated by a shared habitat in the deep sea. Deep sea communities remain largely unexplored, due to the technological and logistical challenges and expense involved in visiting this remote biome. Because of the unique challenges (particularly the high barometric pressure, extremes of temperature and absence of light), it was long believed that little life existed in this hostile environment. Since the 19th century however, research has demonstrated that significant biodiversity exists in the deep sea.
The three main sources of energy and nutrients for deep sea communities are marine snow, whale falls, and chemosynthesis at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Environment
2.1 Darkness
2.2 Hyperbaricity
2.3 Temperature
2.4 Salinity
3 Zones
3.1 Mesopelagic
3.2 Bathyal
3.3 Abyssal and Hadal
4 Energy sources
4.1 Marine snow
4.2 Whale falls
4.3 Chemosynthesis
4.3.1 Hydrothermal vents
4.3.2 Cold seeps
5 Ecology
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
History[edit]
Prior to the 19th century scientists assumed life was sparse in the deep ocean. In the 1870s Sir Charles Wyville Thomson and colleagues aboard the Challenger expedition discovered many deep-sea creatures of widely varying types.
The first discovery of any deep-sea chemosynthetic community including higher animals was unexpectedly made at hydrothermal vents in the eastern Pacific Ocean during geological explorations (Corliss et al., 1979).[1] Two scientists, J. Corliss and J. van Andel, first witnessed dense chemosynthetic clam beds from the submersible DSV Alvin on February 17, 1977, after their unanticipated discovery using a remote camera sled two days before.[1]
The Challenger Deep is the deepest surveyed point of all of Earth's oceans; it is located at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group. The depression is named after HMS Challenger, whose researchers made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at station 225. The reported depth was 4,475 fathoms (8184 meters) based on two separate soundings. In 1960, Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard descended to the bottom of the Challenger Deep in the Trieste bathyscaphe. At this great depth a small flounder-like fish was seen moving away from the spotlight of the bathyscaphe.
The Japanese remote operated vehicle (ROV) Kaiko became the second vessel to reach the bottom of the Challenger Deep in March 1995. Nereus, a hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, is the only vehicle capable of exploring ocean depths beyond 7000 meters. Nereus reached a depth of 10,902 meters at the Challenger Deep on May 31, 2009.[2][3] On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 multibeam sonar bathymetry system aboard the R/V Kilo Moana indicated a maximum depth of 10,971 meters (6.817 miles). The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth (this is an error of about 22 meters at this depth).[3][4]
Environment[edit]
Darkness[edit]
Pelagic zones
The ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various zones, depending on depth, and presence or absence of sunlight. Nearly all life forms in the ocean depend on the photosynthetic activities of phytoplankton and other marine plants to convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon, which is the basic building block of organic matter. Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon.[5]
The stratum of the water column up till which sunlight penetrates is referred to as the photic zone. The photic zone can be subdivided into two different vertical regions. The uppermost portion of the photic zone, where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants, is referred to as the euphotic zone (also referred to as the epipelagic zone, or surface zone).[6] The lower portion of the photic zone, where the light intensity is insufficient for photosynthesis, is called the dysphotic zone (dysphotic means "poorly lit" in Greek).[7] The dysphotic zone is also referred to as the mesopelagic zone, or the twilight zone.[8] Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 °C (54 °F), which, in the tropics generally lies between 200 and 1000 meters.[9]
The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0.1–1% of surface sunlight irradiance, depending on season, latitude and degree of water turbidity.[6][7] In the clearest ocean water, the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about 150 meters,[6] or rarely, up to 200 meters.[8] Dissolved substances and solid particles absorb and scatter light, and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth. In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of meters deep or less.[6][8] The dysphotic zone, where light intensity is considerably less than 1% of surface irradiance, extends from the base of the euphotic zone to about 1000 meters.[9] Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the seabed is the aphotic zone, a region of perpetual darkness.[8][9]
Since the average depth of the ocean is about 4300 meters,[10] the photic zone represents only a tiny fraction of the ocean’s total volume. However, due to its capacity for photosynthesis, the photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and biomass of all oceanic zones. Nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here. Any life forms present in the aphotic zone must either be capable of movement upwards through the water column into the photic zone for feeding, or must rely on material sinking from above,[5] or must find another source of energy and nutrition, such as occurs in chemosynthetic archaea found near hydrothermal vents and cold seeps.
Hyperbaricity[edit]
Further information: Barophile
Location of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench
These animals have evolved to survive the extreme pressure of the sub-photic zones. The pressure increases by about one atmosphere every ten meters. To cope with the pressure, many fish are rather small, usually not exceeding 25 cm in length. Also, scientists have discovered that the deeper these creatures live, the more gelatinous their flesh and more minimal their skeletal structure. These creatures have also eliminated all excess cavities that would collapse under the pressure, such as swim bladders.[11]
Pressure is the greatest environmental factor acting on deep-sea organisms. In the deep sea, although most of the deep sea is under pressures between 200 and 600 atm, the range of pressure is from 20 to 1,000 atm. Pressure exhibits a great role in the distribution of deep sea organisms. Until recently, people lacked detailed information on the direct effects of pressure on most deep-sea organisms, because virtually all organisms trawled from the deep sea arrived at the surface dead or dying. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger metazoan animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition. Some of these have been maintained for experimental purposes, and we are obtaining more knowledge of the biological effects of pressure.
Temperature[edit]
Further information: Thermophile
The two areas of greatest and most rapid temperature change in the oceans are the transition zone between the surface waters and the deep waters, the thermocline, and the transition between the deep-sea floor and the hot water flows at the hydrothermal vents. Thermoclines vary in thickness from a few hundred meters to nearly a thousand meters. Below the thermocline, the water mass of the deep ocean is cold and far more homogeneous. Thermoclines are strongest in the tropics, where the temperature of the epipelagic zone is usually above 20 °C. From the base of the epipelagic, the temperature drops over several hundred meters to 5 or 6 °C at 1,000 meters. It continues to decrease to the bottom, but the rate is much slower. Below 3,000 to 4,000 m, the water is isothermal. At any given depth, the temperature is practically unvarying over long periods of time. There are no seasonal temperature changes, nor are there any annual changes. No other habitat on earth has such a constant temperature.
Hydrothermal vents are the direct contrast with constant temperature. In these systems, the temperature of the water as it emerges from the "black smoker" chimneys may be as high as 400 °C (it is kept from boiling by the high hydrostatic pressure) while within a few meters it may be back down to 2–4 °C.[12]
Salinity[edit]
Further information: Halophile
NOAA rendering of a brine pool in the Gulf of Mexico
Salinity is constant throughout the depths of the deep sea. There are two notable exceptions to this rule:
In the Mediterranean Sea, water loss through evaporation greatly exceeds input from precipitation and river runoff. Because of this, salinity in the Mediterranean is higher than in the Atlantic Ocean.[13] Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase in this area.[14] The resulting pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic Ocean across the basin. This water warms and becomes saltier as it travels eastward, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill back into the Atlantic over the Strait of Gibraltar.[15] The net effect of this is that at the Strait of Gibraltar, there is an eastward surface current of cold water of lower salinity from the Atlantic, and a simultaneous westward current of warm saline water from the Mediterranean in the deeper zones. Once back in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist for thousands of kilometers away from its source.[16]
Brine pools are large areas of brine on the seabed. These pools are bodies of water that have a salinity that is three to five times greater than that of the surrounding ocean. For deep sea brine pools the source of the salt is the dissolution of large salt deposits through salt tectonics. The brine often contains high concentrations of methane, providing energy to chemosynthetic extremophiles that live in this specialized biome. Brine pools are also known to exist on the Antarctic continental shelf where the source of brine is salt excluded during formation of sea ice. Deep sea and Antarctic brine pools can be toxic to marine animals. Brine pools are sometimes called seafloor lakes because the dense brine creates a halocline which does not easily mix with overlying seawater. The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a distinct surface and shoreline for the pool.[17]
The deep sea, or deep layer, is the lowest layer in the ocean, existing below the thermocline, at a depth of 1000 fathoms (1800 m) or more. The deepest part of the deep sea is Mariana Trench located in the western North Pacific. It is also the deepest point of the earth's crust. It has a maximum depth of about 10.9 km which is deeper than the height of Mount Everest. In 1960, Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard reached the bottom of Mariana Trench in the Trieste bathyscaphe. The pressure is about 11,318 metric tons-force per square meter (110.99 MPa or 16100 psi).
Zones[edit]
Further information: Benthic zone, Benthos, Benthic fish, Benthopelagic fish, and Demersal fish
Mesopelagic[edit]
Main articles: Mesopelagic zone and Mesopelagic fish
Most mesopelagic fish are ambush predators with upward-facing eyes, like this sabertooth fish.
The mesopelagic zone is the upper section of the midwater zone, and extends from 200 to 1,000 metres (660 to 3,280 ft) below sea level. This is colloquially known as the "twilight zone" as light can still penetrate this layer, but it is too low to support photosynthesis. The limited amount of light, however, can still allow organisms to see, and creatures with a sensitive vision can detect prey, communicate, and orientate themselves using their sight. Organisms in this layer have large eyes to maximize the amount of light in the environment.[18]
Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day.[19][20]:585 These vertical migrations often occur over a large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swimbladder. The swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the mesopelegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated.[21] Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F), thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change.[20]:590
Mesopelagic fish usually lack defensive spines, and use colour and bioluminescence to camouflage them from other fish. Ambush predators are dark, black or red. Since the longer, red, wavelengths of light do not reach the deep sea, red effectively functions the same as black. Migratory forms use countershaded silvery colours. On their bellies, they often display photophores producing low grade light. For a predator from below, looking upwards, this bioluminescence camouflages the silhouette of the fish. However, some of these predators have yellow lenses that filter the (red deficient) ambient light, leaving the bioluminescence visible.[22]
Bathyal[edit]
Main articles: Bathyal zone and Bathypelagic fish
Gulper eels use their mouth like a net to catch prey, and have a bioluminescent tail to attract prey.
The bathyl zone is the lower section of the midwater zone, and encompasses the depths of 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 ft). Light does not reach this zone, giving it its nickname "the midnight zone"; due to the lack of light, it is less densely population than the epipelagic zone, despite being much larger.[23] Fish find it hard to live in this zone, as there is crushing pressure, cold temperatures of 4 °C (39 °F), a low level of dissolved oxygen, and a lack of sufficient nutrients.[20]:585 What little energy is available in the bathypelagic zone filters from above in the form of detritus, faecal material, and the occasional invertebrate or mesopelagic fish.[20]:594 About 20% of the food that has its origins in the epipelagic zone falls down to the mesopelagic zone, but only about 5% filters down to the bathypelagic zone.[24] The fish that do live there may have reduced or completely lost their gills, kidneys, hearts, and swimbladders, have slimy instead of scaly skin, and have a weak skeletal and muscular build.[20]:587 Most of the animals that live in the bathyl zone are invertebrates such as sea sponges, cephalopods, and echinoderms. With the exception of very deep areas of the ocean, the bathyl zone usually reaches the benthic zone on the seafloor.[23]
Abyssal and Hadal[edit]
Main articles: Abyssal plain, Abyssal zone, and Hadal zone
Giant tube worms chemosynthesize near hydrothermal vents
The abyssal zone remains in perpetual darkness at a depth of 4,000 to 6,000 metres (13,000 to 20,000 ft). The only organisms that inhabit this zone are chemotrophs and predators that can withstand immense pressures, sometimes as high as 76 megapascals (750 atm; 11,000 psi). The hadal zone (named after Hades, the Greek god of the underworld) is a zone designated for the deepest trenches in the world, reaching depths of below 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The deepest point in the hadal zone is the Marianas Trench, which descends to 10,911 metres (35,797 ft) and has a pressure of 110 megapascals (1,100 atm; 16,000 psi).[25][26][27]
Energy sources[edit]
Wood fall as an energy source.
Marine snow[edit]
The upper photic zone of the ocean is filled with particle organic matter (POM) and is quite productive, especially in the coastal areas and the upwelling areas. However, most POM is small and light. It may take hundreds, or even thousands of years for these particles to settle through the water column into the deep ocean. This time delay is long enough for the particles to be remineralized and taken up by organisms in the food webs.
Scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conducted an experiment three decades ago in deep Sargasso Sea looking at the rate of sinking.[28] They found what became known as marine snow in which the POM are repackaged into much larger particles which sink at much greater speed, 'falling like snow'.
Because of the sparsity of food, the organisms living on and in the bottom are generally opportunistic. They have special adaptations for this extreme environment: rapid growth, effect larval dispersal mechanism and the ability to use a ‘transient’ food resource. One typical example is wood-boring bivalves, which bore into wood and other plant remains and are fed on the organic matter from the remains.
Whale falls[edit]
For the deep-sea ecosystem, the death of a whale is the most important event. A dead whale can bring hundreds of tons of organic matter to the bottom. Whale fall community progresses through three stages:[29]
Mobile scavenger stage: Big and mobile deep-sea animals arrive at the site almost immediately after whales fall on the bottom. Amphipods, crabs, sleeper sharks and hagfish are all scavengers.
Opportunistic stage: Organisms arrive which colonize the bones and surrounding sediments that have been contaminated with organic matter from the carcass and any other tissue left by the scavengers. One genus is Osedax.,[30] a tube worm. The larva is born without sex. The surrounding environment determines the sex of the larva. When a larva settles on a whale bone, it turns into a female; when a larva settles on or in a female, it turns into a dwarf male. One female Osedax can carry more than 200 of these male individuals in its oviduct.
Sulfophilic stage: Further decomposition of bones and seawater sulfate reduction happen at this stage. Bacteria create a sulphide-rich environment analogous to hydrothermal vents. Polynoids, bivalves, gastropods and other sulphur-loving creatures move in.
Chemosynthesis[edit]
Hydrothermal vents[edit]
hydrothermal vent
Hydrothermal vents were discovered in 1977 by scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography. So far, the discovered hydrothermal vents are all located at the boundaries of plates: East Pacific, California, Mid-Atlantic ridge, China and Japan.
New ocean basin material is being made in regions such as the Mid-Atlantic ridge as tectonic plates pull away from each other. The rate of spreading of plates is 1–5 cm/yr. Cold sea water circulates down through cracks between two plates and heats up as it passes through hot rock. Minerals and sulfides are dissolved into the water during the interaction with rock. Eventually, the hot solutions emanate from an active sub-seafloor rift, creating a hydrothermal vent.
Chemosynthesis of bacteria provide the energy and organic matter for the whole food web in vent ecosystems. Giant tube worms can grow to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) tall because of the richness of nutrients. Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents.[31]
Hydrothermal vents are entire ecosystems independent from sunlight, and may be the first evidence that the earth can support life without the sun.
Cold seeps[edit]
A cold seep (sometimes called a cold vent) is an area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs, often in the form of a brine pool.
Ecology[edit]
Deep sea food webs are complex, and aspects of the system are poorly understood. Typically, predator-prey interactions within the deep are compiled by direct observation (likely from remotely operated underwater vehicles), analysis of stomach contents, and biochemical analysis. Stomach content analysis is the most common method used, but it is not reliable for some species.[32]
In deep sea pelagic ecosystems off of California, the trophic web is dominated by deep sea fishes, cephalopods, gelatinous zooplankton, and crustaceans. Between 1991–2016, 242 unique feeding relationships between 166 species of predators and prey demonstrated that gelatinous zooplankton have an ecological impact similar to that of large fishes and squid. Narcomedusae, siphonophores (of the family Physonectae), ctenophores, and cephalopods consumed the greatest diversity of prey, in decreasing order.[32] Cannibalism has been documented in squid of the genus Gonatus.[33]
See also[edit]
Deep sea fish
Movile Cave
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopædia Britannica (2010). "Photic zone". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 18 June 2010. External link in |publisher= (help)
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Jump up ^ The Deep Sea at MarineBio.org – Ocean biology, Marine life, Sea creatures, Marine conservation
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Jump up ^ NOAA exploration of a brine pool
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Moyle, P. B.; Cech, J. J. (2004). Fishes, An Introduction to Ichthyology (5 ed.). Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-13-100847-2.
Jump up ^ Douglas, E.; Friedl, W.; Pickwell, G. (1976). "Fishes in oxygen-minimum zones: Blood oxygenation characteristics". Science. 191 (4230): 957–9. Bibcode:1976Sci...191..957D. doi:10.1126/science.1251208. PMID 1251208.
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Further reading[edit]
Kupriyanova, E.K., Vinn, O., Taylor, P.D., Schopf, J.W., Kudryavtsev, A.B. and Bailey-Brock, J. (2014). "Serpulids living deep: calcareous tubeworms beyond the abyss". Deep-Sea Research Part I. 90: 91–104. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2014.04.006. Retrieved 2014-01-09. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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values: مجتمعات البحار العميقة – Arabic

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