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Primus inter pares
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"First among equals" redirects here. For other uses, see First Among Equals.
For the cognitive bias sometimes known as the "primus inter pares" effect, see illusory superiority.
Primus inter pares[1] (Ancient Greek: Πρῶτος μεταξὺ ἴσων, prōtos metaxỳ ísōn) is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for those who are formally equal to other members of their group but are accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their seniority in office.[2] Historically, the princeps senatus of the Roman Senate was such a figure and initially bore only the distinction that he was allowed to speak first during debate. Also, Constantine the Great was given the role of primus inter pares. However, the term is also often used ironically or self-deprecatingly by leaders with much higher status as a form of respect, camaraderie, or propaganda. After the fall of the Republic, Roman emperors initially referred to themselves only as princeps despite having power of life and death over their "fellow citizens". Various modern figures such as the Chair of the Federal Reserve, the prime minister of parliamentary regimes, the Federal President of Switzerland, the Chief Justice of the United States, the Archbishop of Canterbury of the Anglican Communion and the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church fall under both senses: bearing higher status and various additional powers while remaining still merely equal to their peers in important senses.
Contents
1 National use
1.1 China
1.2 Commonwealth usage
1.2.1 Prime minister or premier
1.2.2 Federal and provincial or state viceroys in Canada and Australia
1.3 Germany
1.4 Japan
1.5 Netherlands
1.6 Switzerland
1.7 United Kingdom
1.8 United States
2 Chairmen
3 Religion
3.1 Eastern Orthodox Church
3.2 Catholic Church
3.3 Anglican Communion
3.4 Presbyterianism
3.5 Church of Sweden
3.6 Harvest Bible Chapels/Vertical Churches
4 See also
5 References
National use[edit]
China[edit]
In the People's Republic of China, during the collective leadership of the Politburo Standing Committee which Deng Xiaoping put into place following the death of Mao Zedong, the term "first among equals" was often used to describe China's paramount leader. This has fallen out of favour since the consolidation of power under the current core leader, Xi Jinping.[3][4]
Commonwealth usage[edit]
Prime minister or premier[edit]
In the federal Commonwealth Realms, Canada and Australia, in which Queen Elizabeth II is head of state as constitutional Monarch, a Governor General as viceroy is appointed by the Queen in Council to represent the Queen during her absence. The Governor-General typically appoints the leader of the political party holding at least a plurality of seats in the elected Legislature to be prime minister, whose relationship with the other Ministers of the Crown is primus inter pares, or "first among equals". This is also done at the provincial or state level, wherein the Lieutenant Governors of the Canadian Provinces or Governors of the Australian states as Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council appoints the leader of the provincial or state political party holding at least a plurality of seats in the elected provincial or state legislature to be provincial premier or state premier.
Federal and provincial or state viceroys in Canada and Australia[edit]
As federations, in Canada, lieutenant-governors represent the Queen of Canada in each of the provinces, thus acting as the "heads of state" in the provinces.[citation needed] And, unlike in Australia with the governors of the Australian states, the lieutenant-governors in Canada are not appointed by the Queen-in-Council, but by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister of Canada, known as the Governor-in-Council – this recognizes structurally the fact that the Australian states, unlike the Canadian provinces, had a previous existence as Crown colonies prior to Australian federation in 1901. Similarly, in Australia, there are governors to represent the Queen of Australia in each of the states of Australia that comprise the federal Commonwealth of Australia, making them "head of state" in each of their own states.[citation needed] In each case, these several governors or lieutenant-governors are not envisaged as subordinate to the governor general – the governor-general of Australia and the governor general of Canada – as a federal viceroy – is "first among equals".[5]
Germany[edit]
Mayors of German city states have traditionally acted as primus inter pares. In Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen, which had been Free Imperial Cities from the times of the Holy Roman Empire, the government was called Senate and the mayor was one senator amongst many, often referred to as President of the Senate rather than Mayor. This ended in Lübeck with the incorporation into Prussia in 1937, while in a constitutional reform in 1996 the mayor of Hamburg was given broad powers to shape the politics of the Senate of Hamburg, thus ending his status as primus inter pares. However, in the city state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, which was created after the Second World War, the mayor has had a similar role in the Senate of Bremen. The same was true until 1995 for the Governing Mayor of Berlin among his colleagues within the Senate of Berlin.
Japan[edit]
Main article: Prime Minister of Japan
Starting with the Meiji Constitution of 1885, as part of the "Cabinet System Act", and lasting until the revision of the modern constitution in 1947, the Prime Minister of Japan was considered to be of the same rank as the other ministers who formed the Cabinet. During this time, the Prime Minister was referred to as "同輩中の首席" dōhai-chū no shuseki ("chief among peers").
Netherlands[edit]
Main article: Prime Minister of the Netherlands
The Prime Minister of the Netherlands (officially, the "minister-president") is the chairman of the Council of Ministers and active executive authority of the Dutch government. Although formally no special powers are assigned, the Prime Minister functions as the "face" of the cabinet of the Netherlands. Usually, the prime minister is also Minister of General Affairs. Until 1945, the position of head of the Council of Ministers officially switched between the ministers, although practices differed throughout history. In 1945, the position was formally instituted. Although not formally necessary, the Prime Minister in practice is the leader of the largest party in the majority coalition in the House of Representatives, the lower house of parliament.
Switzerland[edit]
Main article: President of the Swiss Confederation
In Switzerland the seven-member Federal Council constitutes the government. Each year, the Federal Assembly elects a President of the Confederation. By convention, the positions of President and Vice President rotate annually, each Councillor thus becoming Vice President and then President every seven years while in office.
The President is not the Swiss head of state, but he or she is the highest-ranking Swiss official. He or she presides over Council meetings and carries out certain representative functions that, in other countries, are the business of the Head of State. In urgent situations where a Council decision cannot be made in time, the President is empowered to act on behalf of the whole Council. Apart from that, though, the President is a primus inter pares, having no power above and beyond the other six Councillors.
United Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
The term "Prime Minister" can be compared to "primary minister" or "first minister". Because of this, the Prime Ministers of many countries are traditionally considered to be "first among equals" – they are the chairman or "head" of a Cabinet rather than holding an office that is de jure superior to that of ministers.
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has frequently been described as "first among equals". In the UK, the executive is the Cabinet, and during Hanoverian times a minister had the role of informing the monarch about proposed legislation in the House of Commons and other matters. In modern times, however, although the phrase is still occasionally used, it understates the powers of the Prime Minister, which now include many broad, exclusive, executive powers over which cabinet members have little influence.
First Among Equals is the title of a popular political novel (1984) by Jeffrey Archer, about the careers and private lives of several men vying to become British Prime Minister. It was later adapted into a ten-part miniseries, produced by Granada Television.
Countries and jurisdictions that have adapted the British parliamentary system (such as Canada and Australia) would have the same use for the phrase.
United States[edit]
Main article: Chief Justice of the United States
The phrase "first among equals" has also been used to describe the Chief Justice of the United States. The Chief Justice has considerable administrative powers, and can assign the writing of decisions in cases in which he is in the majority, but has no direct control over the decisions of his colleagues on the Supreme Court of the United States. This situation is often found in supreme courts around the world.[citation needed]
Chairmen[edit]
In many private parliamentary bodies, such as clubs, boards, educational faculty, and committees, the officer or member who holds the position of chair or chairman is often regarded as a "first among equals". That is, while most rules of order will grant the chair special powers within the context of a meeting, the position of chair is usually temporary, rotating, and powerless in other contexts, making the occupant merely a temporary leader required to instil order. This is the case for mayors under a council–manager government, as the "mayor" has the same vote as all other council members and cannot override them, although their opinion may have more sway among other members.
Religion[edit]
Eastern Orthodox Church[edit]
The phrase "first among equals" is also used to describe the role of the Patriarch of Constantinople, who, as the Ecumenical Patriarch, is the first among all the bishops of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He has no direct jurisdiction over the other patriarchs or the other autocephalous Orthodox churches and cannot interfere in the election of bishops in autocephalous churches, but he alone enjoys the right of convening extraordinary synods consisting of them (and/or their delegates) to deal with ad hoc situations, and he has also convened well-attended Pan-Orthodox Synods in the last forty years. His title is an acknowledgement of his historic significance and of his privilege to serve as primary spokesman for the Eastern Orthodox Communion. His moral authority is highly respected.
The Eastern Orthodox Church also uses the term "first among equals" in regard to the Bishop of Rome during the first thousand years of Christianity.[6] Whereas the Patriarch of Constantinople is now considered first among the Orthodox patriarchs, the Orthodox Church considers the Bishop of Rome (regarded as the "Patriarch of the West") the "first among equals" in the Pentarchy of the Patriarchal Sees according to the ancient, first millennial order (or "taxis" in Greek) of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, established after Constantinople became the eastern capital of the Roman/Byzantine Empire.[6][7] The Bishop of Rome no longer holds this distinction in the Orthodox Church because, following the East–West Schism, he is no longer in communion with the Orthodox Church.[8]
Catholic Church[edit]
The Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches consider the Pope of Rome to be the single Vicar of Christ, successor of Saint Peter, and leader of all their bishops (Patriarchs included), in Apostolic succession to the Apostles. As such, the Roman Catholic Church does not see the Pope merely as being "first among equals," but as actually holding an office with supreme authority in canon law over all other bishops. This jurisdictional claim was one of the main causes of the East-West Schism in the Church, which became formal in 1054.
The Dean of the College of Cardinals in the Catholic Church is generally considered to be the first among equal Prince of the Church in the College, which is the Pope's highest-ranking council and elects as conclave (where an age limit applies) the papal successor, generally from its ranks.
Various (archi)episcopal sees were granted and/or claim the title of Primate (usually of a past and/or present political entity), which grants such a primas (usually a Metropolitan archbishopric, often in a former/present capital) precedence over all other sees in its circumscription, outranking (other) Metropolitan sees, but the incumbent Primates can be trumped by personal ranks, as they rank below Cardinals. More commonly, dioceses are geographically grouped in an ecclesiastical province, where only one holds the rank of Metropolitan Archbishop, which outranks his colleagues, who are therefore called his suffragans, even if these include (fairly rarely) another Archbishop.
Anglican Communion[edit]
In the Anglican Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury is considered to be "first among equals" in his presidency over the Communion.[9] The senior bishop of the seven diocesan bishops of the Scottish Episcopal Church bears the truncated title Primus from primus inter pares. Leading bishops or primates in other Anglican 'national' churches are often said to be primus inter pares within their provinces (e.g. Church of Ireland), while the (first) Primatial see of Canterbury remains primus among them.
Based on the antiquity with which ecumenical councils have conceded some kind of universal primacy to the Bishops of Rome, participants in Anglican–Catholic dialogues have acknowledged for decades that the Pope would properly serve as the titular leader of a reunited church; the Anglicans typically have in mind an honorary (non-jurisdictional) primacy such as the phrase "primus inter pares" implies. In one example of such acknowledgement, the International Anglican-Catholic Commission for Unity and Mission, in its 2007 agreed statement Growing Together in Unity and Mission, "urge[s] Anglicans and Catholics to explore together how the ministry of the Bishop of Rome might be offered and received in order to assist our Communions to grow towards full, ecclesial communion."
Presbyterianism[edit]
The Moderator of the General Assembly in a Presbyterian church is similarly designated as a primus inter pares. This concept holds also for the Moderators of each Synod, Presbytery, and Kirk Session. As all elders are ordained –some for teaching and some for ruling- none sit in higher status, but all are equal behind the one and only head of the church Jesus Christ.[10]
Church of Sweden[edit]
In the Lutheran Church of Sweden, the Archbishop of Uppsala is considered primus inter pares.[11]
Harvest Bible Chapels/Vertical Churches[edit]
In each local Harvest Bible Chapel (or Vertical Church), the Senior Pastor is an elder who is "first among equals" of the other elders within that local church. The church's position on what this means is that "All elders are equal in authority but not necessarily equal in influence."[12] This is differentiated from plural eldership where unanimous voting occurs. Instead, the governing principle is for the first among equals to possess a 50% voting block among a large group of elders.[13]
See also[edit]
Animal Farm, a George Orwell dystopian novel published in 1945, where the motto 'All are equal, but some are more equal than others' is a variant on this theme.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Grammatically, the expression refers to a single male figure. A female would be prima inter pares and the plurals of both forms would be primi inter pares and primæ inter pares. in the nominative case and primos inter pares and primas inter pares in the accusative. All these forms are exceedingly rare in English usage, however.
Jump up ^ Hutchinson Encyclopedia. "Primus inter pares" . 2007. Hosted at Tiscali. Archived November 29, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Weatherhead, Timothy (28 February 2018). "Xi is no longer 'the first among equals' in China; just the first". The Hill. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Jun Mai; Choi Chi-yuk (27 October 2016). "Chinese Communist Party expands Xi Jinping's political power, anointing him 'core' leader". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Government House Archived 2012-08-14 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (Oxford: Penguin, 1993), 214–17.
Jump up ^ Ecclesiological and Canonical Consequences of the Sacramental Nature of the Church: Ecclesial Communion, Conciliarity and Authority (The Ravenna Document), Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic and the Orthodox Church, 13 October 2007, n. 35.
Jump up ^ "Primus inter pares - OrthodoxWiki". orthodoxwiki.org.
Jump up ^ Office, Anglican Communion. "Page not found - Anglican Communion". Anglican Communion Website.
Jump up ^ Westminster Confession of Faith Chapter XXV, article vi
Jump up ^ "Church Structures and Regulations". Church of Sweden.
Jump up ^ Chapel, Harvest Bible. "Church Government - Harvest Bible Chapel". www.harvestbiblechapel.org.
Jump up ^ "The Power". 5 September 2012.
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Relay race
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about relay races in sport. For relay races in electronic circuits and in ladder logic, see race condition.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
World Orienteering Championship 2008 gold medal winners in relay
A relay race is a racing competition where members of a team take turns completing parts of racecourse or performing a certain action. Relay races take the form of professional races and amateur games. Relay races are common in running, orienteering, swimming, cross-country skiing, biathlon, or ice skating (usually with a baton in the fist). In the Olympic Games, there are several types of relay races that are part of track and field.
Contents
[hide]
1 Relays in swimming
2 Relays in athletics
2.1 Rules and strategy
2.2 Competitions
2.3 Long-distance relays
2.4 Cross-country relays
2.5 Medley relay
2.6 Relays on coinage
3 Other relays
4 See also
5 Notes and references
6 External links
Relays in swimming[edit]
Swimmers about to make the pass during a relay race.
A swimming relay of four swimmers usually follows this strategy: second-fastest, third-fastest, slowest, then fastest (anchor). However, it is not uncommon to see either the slowest swimmer racing in the second slot (creating an order of second-fastest, slowest, third-fastest, and then fastest), or an order from slowest to fastest (an order of slowest, third-fastest, second-fastest, fastest).[citation needed]
FINA rules require that a foot of the second, third or fourth swimmer must be contacting the platform while (and before) the incoming teammate is touching the wall; the starting swimmer may already be in motion, however, which saves 0.6–1.0 seconds compared to a regular start. Besides, many swimmers perform better in a relay than in an individual race owing to a team spirit atmosphere. As a result, relay times are typically 2–3 seconds faster than the sum of best times of individual swimmers.[1]
In medley swimming, each swimmer uses a different stroke (in this order): backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, and freestyle, with the added limitation that the freestyle swimmer cannot use any of the first three strokes. At competitive levels, essentially all freestyle swimmers use the front crawl. Note that this order is different from that for the individual medley, in which a single swimmer swims butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle in a single race, in that order.
The three standard relays raced at the Olympics are the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and 4 × 100 m medley relay.
Mixed-gendered relays were introduced at the 2014 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) (4×50 m) and 2015 World Aquatics Championships (4×100 m). The event will debut at the 2020 Summer Olympics (4 × 100 m).
Relays in athletics[edit]
A final leg runner for the University of Wisconsin
In athletics, the two standard relays are the 4 × 100 metres relay and the 4 × 400 metres relay. 4 × 200, 4 × 800, and 4 × 1600 relays exist as well, but they are rarer. Mixed-gendered 4 × 400 metres relays were introduced at the 2017 IAAF World Relays.
Traditionally, the 4 × 400 m relay finals are the last event of a track meet,[citation needed] and is often met with a very enthusiastic crowd, especially if the last leg is a close race.[A] It is hard to measure exact splits in a 4 × 400 (or a 4 × 100) relay. For example, if a team ran a 3-minute 4 × 400, it does not mean every runner on the team has to run a 45-second open 400, because a person starts accelerating before he/she has the baton, therefore allowing for slightly slower overall open 400 times. A 4 × 400 relay generally starts in lanes for the first leg, including the handoff. The second leg then proceeds to run in lanes for the first 100 metres, after which point the runners are allowed to break into the first lane on the backstretch, as long as they do not interfere with other runners. A race organizer then puts the third leg runners into a line depending on the order in which they are running (with the first place closest to the inside). The faster teams pass first, while the slower teams have to slide in to the inside lanes as they come available.
Rules and strategy[edit]
Each runner must hand off the baton to the next runner within a certain zone, usually marked by triangles on the track. In sprint relays, runners typically use a "blind handoff", where the second runner stands on a spot predetermined in practice and starts running when the first runner hits a visual mark on the track (usually a smaller triangle). The second runner opens their hand behind them after a few strides, by which time the first runner should be caught up and able to hand off the baton. Usually a runner will give an auditory signal, such as "Stick!" repeated several times, for the recipient of the baton to put out his hand. In middle-distance relays or longer, runners begin by jogging while looking back at the incoming runner and holding out a hand for the baton.
Two runners prepare to pass the baton.
A team may be disqualified from a relay for:
Losing the baton (dropping the baton)
Making an improper baton pass, especially when not passing in the exchange zone
False starting (usually once but sometimes twice)
Improperly overtaking another competitor
Preventing another competitor from passing
Wilfully impeding, improperly crossing the course, or in any other way interfering with another competitor
Based on the speed of the runners, the generally accepted strategy used in setting up a 4-person relay team is: second-fastest, third-fastest, slowest, then fastest (anchor). Although some teams (usually middle school or young high school) use second-fastest, slowest, third-fastest, then the fastest (anchor). But if a runner is better in the starting blocks than the others, he is sometimes moved to the first spot because it is the only spot that uses starting blocks.
Competitions[edit]
The largest relay event in the world is the Norwegian Holmenkollstafetten, 2,944 teams of 15 starting and ending at Bislett Stadium in Oslo which had a total of 44,160 relay-competitors on May 10, 2014.
Another large relay event is the Penn Relays, which attracts over 15,000 competitors annually on the high-school, collegiate and professional levels, and over its three days attracts upwards of 100,000 spectators. It is credited with popularizing relay racing in the sport of track & field.
Athletes in the Southern Counties 12-Stage Road Relay Championships, Wimbledon Common, London, 1988
Long-distance relays[edit]
Long-distance relays have become increasingly popular with runners of all skill-levels. These relays typically have 5 to 36 legs, each usually between 5 and 10 km (3.1 and 6.2 miles) long, though sometimes as long as 16 kilometres (9.9 mi).
The IAAF World Road Relay Championships was held from 1986 to 1998, with six-member teams covering the classic 42.195 km marathon distance.
Races under 100 kilometres (62 mi) are run in a day, with each runner covering one or two legs. Longer relays are run overnight, with each runner typically covering three legs.
The world's longest relay race is Japan's Prince Takamatsu Cup Nishinippon Round-Kyūshū Ekiden, which begins in Nagasaki and continues for 1,064 kilometres (661 mi).
Cross-country relays[edit]
For the 2017 IAAF World Cross Country Championships, a mixed relay race was added (4 × 2 km).
Medley relay[edit]
Medley relay events are also occasionally held in track meets, usually consisting of teams of four runners running progressively longer distances. The distance medley relay consists of four legs run at distances of 1200, 400, 800, and 1,600 metres, in that order. The sprint medley relay usually consists of four legs run at distances of 400, 200, 200, and 800 metres, though a more uncommon variant of 200, 100, 100 and 400 metres (sometimes called a short sprint medley) also exists. See also Swedish relay.
Relays commemorative coin
Relays on coinage[edit]
Relay race events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Relays commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin three modern athletes run, holding their batons while in the background three ancient athletes are shown running a race known as the dolichos (a semi-endurance race of approximately 3,800 metres distance).
Other relays[edit]
The ITU Triathlon Mixed Relay World Championships is a mixed-gendered relay triathlon race held since 2009. Previously, the Triathlon Team World Championships were held in 2003, 2006 and 2007. Also, the triathlon at the Youth Olympic Games has a mixed relay race since 2010. As in standard triathlons, each triathlon competitor must do a segment of swimming, cycling and running.
The madison is a track cycling event where two riders take turns to complete the race. Riders can alternate at any moment by touching the partner with the hand. The madison is featured at the UCI Track Cycling World Championships since 1995 and the Olympics since 2000. The format has been used in six-day racing.
The game show Triple Threat had a bonus round called the "Triple Threat Relay Round" which was played like a relay race. The winning team had to take turns matching song titles to its corresponding musical artists.
See also[edit]
Athletics portal
4 × 100 metres relay
4 × 400 metres relay
Ekiden
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Each segment of the relay (the distance run by one person) is referred to as a leg.
Jump up ^ Maglischo, Ernest W. (2003). Swimming Fastest. Human Kinetics. pp. 279–. ISBN 978-0-7360-3180-6.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Relay race (athletics).
IAAF list of relay-records in XML
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Reproduction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Reproduction (disambiguation).
Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the miracle leaf plant (Kalanchoe pinnata). The small plant in front is about 1 cm (0.4 in) tall. The concept of "individual" is obviously stretched by this asexual reproductive process.
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual.
In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms. The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself. The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle for biologists. The two-fold cost of sexual reproduction is that only 50% of organisms reproduce[1] and organisms only pass on 50% of their genes.[2]
Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual interaction of two specialized organisms, called gametes, which contain half the number of chromosomes of normal cells and are created by meiosis, with typically a male fertilizing a female of the same species to create a fertilized zygote. This produces offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms.
Contents
1 Asexual
2 Sexual
2.1 Allogamy
2.2 Autogamy
2.3 Mitosis and meiosis
3 Same-sex
4 Strategies
4.1 Other types
5 Asexual vs. sexual reproduction
6 Life without
7 Lottery principle
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Asexual
Main article: Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses; Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydroidea) and yeasts are able to reproduce by budding. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more copies of themselves. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.
Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast (See Mating of yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation.
Other ways of asexual reproduction include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves only mitosis. Parthenogenesis is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, some bees and parasitic wasps), and vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles,[3] fish, and, very rarely, birds[4] and sharks[5]). It is sometimes also used to describe reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species which can self-fertilize.
Sexual
Main article: Sexual reproduction
See also: Human reproduction
Hoverflies mating in midair flight
Sexual reproduction is a biological process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms in a process that starts with meiosis, a specialized type of cell division. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating haploid gametes. Most organisms form two different types of gametes. In these anisogamous species, the two sexes are referred to as male (producing sperm or microspores) and female (producing ova or megaspores). In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or identical in form (isogametes), but may have separable properties and then may be given other different names (see isogamy). For example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, there are so-called "plus" and "minus" gametes. A few types of organisms, such as many fungi and the ciliate Paramecium aurelia,[6] have more than two "sexes", called syngens. Most animals (including humans) and plants reproduce sexually. Sexually reproducing organisms have different sets of genes for every trait (called alleles). Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent. Thus, offspring have a combination of the parents' genes. It is believed that "the masking of deleterious alleles favors the evolution of a dominant diploid phase in organisms that alternate between haploid and diploid phases" where recombination occurs freely.[7][8]
Bryophytes reproduce sexually, but the larger and commonly-seen organisms are haploid and produce gametes. The gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into a sporangium, which in turn produces haploid spores. The diploid stage is relatively small and short-lived compared to the haploid stage, i.e. haploid dominance. The advantage of diploidy, heterosis, only exists in the diploid life generation. Bryophytes retain sexual reproduction despite the fact that the haploid stage does not benefit from heterosis. This may be an indication that the sexual reproduction has advantages other than heterosis, such as genetic recombination between members of the species, allowing the expression of a wider range of traits and thus making the population more able to survive environmental variation.
Allogamy
Main article: Allogamy
Allogamy is the fertilization of the combination of gametes from two parents, generally the ovum from one individual with the spermatozoa of another. (In isogamous species, the two gametes will not be defined as either sperm or ovum.)
Autogamy
Main article: Autogamy
Self-fertilization, also known as autogamy, occurs in hermaphroditic organisms where the two gametes fused in fertilization come from the same individual, e.g., many vascular plants, some foraminiferans, some ciliates. The term "autogamy" is sometimes substituted for autogamous pollination (not necessarily leading to successful fertilization) and describes self-pollination within the same flower, distinguished from geitonogamous pollination, transfer of pollen to a different flower on the same flowering plant,[9] or within a single monoecious Gymnosperm plant.
Mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis are types of cell division. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in gametes.
Mitosis The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells. The number of chromosomes in the offspring cells is the same as that of the parent cell.
Meiosis The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This results in cells with half the number of chromosomes present in the parent cell. A diploid cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (tetraploid to diploid to haploid), in the process forming four haploid cells. This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II.
Same-sex
In recent decades, developmental biologists have been researching and developing techniques to facilitate same-sex reproduction.[10] The obvious approaches, subject to a growing amount of activity, are female sperm and male eggs, with female sperm closer to being a reality for humans, given that Japanese scientists have already created female sperm for chickens. "However, the ratio of produced W chromosome-bearing (W-bearing) spermatozoa fell substantially below expectations. It is therefore concluded that most of the W-bearing PGC could not differentiate into spermatozoa because of restricted spermatogenesis."[11] In 2004, by altering the function of a few genes involved with imprinting, other Japanese scientists combined two mouse eggs to produce daughter mice.[12]
Strategies
Further information: Modes of reproduction and Life history theory
There are a wide range of reproductive strategies employed by different species. Some animals, such as the human and northern gannet, do not reach sexual maturity for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive to adulthood. For example, a rabbit (mature after 8 months) can produce 10–30 offspring per year, and a fruit fly (mature after 10–14 days) can produce up to 900 offspring per year. These two main strategies are known as K-selection (few offspring) and r-selection (many offspring). Which strategy is favoured by evolution depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring; for these types of animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called sperm storage thereby increasing the duration of their fertility.
Other types
Main article: Semelparity and iteroparity
Polycyclic animals reproduce intermittently throughout their lives.
Semelparous organisms reproduce only once in their lifetime, such as annual plants (including all grain crops), and certain species of salmon, spider, bamboo and century plant. Often, they die shortly after reproduction. This is often associated with r-strategists.
Iteroparous organisms produce offspring in successive (e.g. annual or seasonal) cycles, such as perennial plants. Iteroparous animals survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes). This is more associated with K-strategists.
Asexual vs. sexual reproduction
Illustration of the twofold cost of sexual reproduction. If each organism were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), (a) the population remains the same size each generation, where the (b) asexual population doubles in size each generation.
Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large amount of variation in their genes makes them less susceptible to disease.
Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Aphids, slime molds, sea anemones, some species of starfish (by fragmentation), and many plants are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant food supply, adequate shelter, favorable climate, disease, optimum pH or a proper mix of other lifestyle requirements. Populations of these organisms increase exponentially via asexual reproductive strategies to take full advantage of the rich supply resources.
When food sources have been depleted, the climate becomes hostile, or individual survival is jeopardized by some other adverse change in living conditions, these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction. Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species. The variations found in offspring of sexual reproduction allow some individuals to be better suited for survival and provide a mechanism for selective adaptation to occur. The meiosis stage of the sexual cycle also allows especially effective repair of DNA damages (see Meiosis and Bernstein et al.).[13] In addition, sexual reproduction usually results in the formation of a life stage that is able to endure the conditions that threaten the offspring of an asexual parent. Thus, seeds, spores, eggs, pupae, cysts or other "over-wintering" stages of sexual reproduction ensure the survival during unfavorable times and the organism can "wait out" adverse situations until a swing back to suitability occurs.
Life without
The existence of life without reproduction is the subject of some speculation. The biological study of how the origin of life produced reproducing organisms from non-reproducing elements is called abiogenesis. Whether or not there were several independent abiogenetic events, biologists believe that the last universal ancestor to all present life on Earth lived about 3.5 billion years ago.
Scientists have speculated about the possibility of creating life non-reproductively in the laboratory. Several scientists have succeeded in producing simple viruses from entirely non-living materials.[14] However, viruses are often regarded as not alive. Being nothing more than a bit of RNA or DNA in a protein capsule, they have no metabolism and can only replicate with the assistance of a hijacked cell's metabolic machinery.
The production of a truly living organism (e.g. a simple bacterium) with no ancestors would be a much more complex task, but may well be possible to some degree according to current biological knowledge. A synthetic genome has been transferred into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial production of a new M. mycoides organism.[15]
There is some debate within the scientific community over whether this cell can be considered completely synthetic[16] on the grounds that the chemically synthesized genome was an almost 1:1 copy of a naturally occurring genome and, the recipient cell was a naturally occurring bacterium. The Craig Venter Institute maintains the term "synthetic bacterial cell" but they also clarify "...we do not consider this to be "creating life from scratch" but rather we are creating new life out of already existing life using synthetic DNA".[17] Venter plans to patent his experimental cells, stating that "they are pretty clearly human inventions".[16] Its creators suggests that building 'synthetic life' would allow researchers to learn about life by building it, rather than by tearing it apart. They also propose to stretch the boundaries between life and machines until the two overlap to yield "truly programmable organisms".[18] Researchers involved stated that the creation of "true synthetic biochemical life" is relatively close in reach with current technology and cheap compared to the effort needed to place man on the Moon.[19]
Lottery principle
Sexual reproduction has many drawbacks, since it requires far more energy than asexual reproduction and diverts the organisms from other pursuits, and there is some argument about why so many species use it. George C. Williams used lottery tickets as an analogy in one explanation for the widespread use of sexual reproduction.[20] He argued that asexual reproduction, which produces little or no genetic variety in offspring, was like buying many tickets that all have the same number, limiting the chance of "winning" - that is, producing surviving offspring. Sexual reproduction, he argued, was like purchasing fewer tickets but with a greater variety of numbers and therefore a greater chance of success. The point of this analogy is that since asexual reproduction does not produce genetic variations, there is little ability to quickly adapt to a changing environment. The lottery principle is less accepted these days because of evidence that asexual reproduction is more prevalent in unstable environments, the opposite of what it predicts.[citation needed]
See also
Allogamy
Birth
Breeding season
Masting
Mating system
Modes of reproduction
Plant reproduction
Reproductive system
Notes
Jump up ^ Ridley M (2004) Evolution, 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing, p. 314.
Jump up ^ John Maynard Smith The Evolution of Sex 1978.
Jump up ^ Halliday, Tim R.; Adler, Kraig (eds.) (1986). Reptiles & Amphibians. Torstar Books. p. 101. ISBN 0-920269-81-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Savage, Thomas F. (September 12, 2005). "A Guide to the Recognition of Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on November 15, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
Jump up ^ "Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find", Washington Post, Wednesday, May 23, 2007; Page A02
Jump up ^ T. M. Sonneborn. Mating Types in Paramecium Aurelia: Diverse Conditions for Mating in Different Stocks; Occurrence, Number and Interrelations of the Types. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 79, No. 3 (Sep. 30, 1938), pp. 411-434. American Philosophical Society. JSTOR 984858.
Jump up ^ S. P. Otto and D. B. Goldstein. "Recombination and the Evolution of Diploidy". Genetics. Vol 131 (1992): 745-751.
Jump up ^ Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE. (1987) The molecular basis of the evolution of sex. Adv Genet. 24:323-370. Review. PMID 3324702
Jump up ^ Eckert, C.G. (2000). "Contributions of autogamy and geitonogamy to self-fertilization in a mass-flowering, clonal plant". Ecology. 81 (2): 532–542. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0532:coaagt]2.0.co;2.
Jump up ^ "Timeline of same-sex procreation scientific developments". samesexprocreation.com.
Jump up ^ "Differentiation of female chicken primordial germ cells into spermatozoa in male gonads". 39 (3). June 1997: 267–71. doi:10.1046/j.1440-169X.1997.t01-2-00002.x. PMID 9227893.
Jump up ^ "Japanese scientists produce mice without using sperm". Washington Post. Sarasota Herald-Tribune. April 22, 2004.
Jump up ^ Bernstein H., Bernstein C. and Michod R.E. (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19: 357-382 in DNA Repair, Inna Kruman (Ed.), InTech (publisher) ISBN 978-953-307-697-3. Available online from intechopen.com
Jump up ^ Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template
Scientists Create Artificial Virus
Jump up ^ Gibson, D.; Glass, J.; Lartigue, C.; Noskov, V.; Chuang, R.; Algire, M.; Benders, G.; Montague, M.; Ma, L.; Moodie, M. M.; Merryman, C.; Vashee, S.; Krishnakumar, R.; Assad-Garcia, N.; Andrews-Pfannkoch, C.; Denisova, E. A.; Young, L.; Qi, Z. -Q.; Segall-Shapiro, T. H.; Calvey, C. H.; Parmar, P. P.; Hutchison Ca, C. A.; Smith, H. O.; Venter, J. C. (2010). "Creation of a Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome". Science. 329 (5987): 52–56. Bibcode:2010Sci...329...52G. doi:10.1126/science.1190719. PMID 20488990.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Lee Hotz (May 21, 2010). "Scientists Create First Synthetic Cell". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved April 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Craig Venter Institute. "FAQ". Retrieved 2011-04-24.
Jump up ^ W. Wayte Gibbs (May 2004). "Synthetic Life". Scientific American.
Jump up ^ "NOVA: Artificial life". Retrieved 2007-01-19.
Jump up ^ Williams G C. 1975. Sex and Evolution. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
References
Tobler, M. & Schlupp, I. (2005) Parasites in sexual and asexual mollies (Poecilia, Poeciliidae, Teleostei): a case for the Red Queen? Biol. Lett. 1 (2): 166-168.
Zimmer, Carl. Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures, New York: Touchstone, 2001.
"Allogamy, cross-fertilization, cross-pollination, hybridization". GardenWeb Glossary of Botanical Terms (2.1 ed.). 2002.
"Allogamy". Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary (27 ed.). 2004.
Further reading
Judson, Olivia (2003) Dr.Tatiana's Sex Advice to All Creation: Definitive Guide to the Evolutionary Biology of Sex. ISBN 978-0-09-928375-1
The Evolution of Sex: An Examination of Current Ideas Richard E. Michod and Bruce E. Levin, editors (1987) Sinauer Associates Inc., Publishers, Sunderland, Massachusetts ISBN 0878934596 ISBN 978-0878934591
Michod, R.E. Eros and Evolution: A natural philosophy of sex (1994). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts ISBN 0201442329 ISBN 978-0201442328
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
Journal of Biology of Reproduction
Journal of Andrology
"Reproduction". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Replication and Reproduction." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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