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Crawford v. Washington
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Crawford v. Washington
Supreme Court of the United States
Argued November 10, 2003
Decided March 8, 2004
Full case name
Michael D. Crawford v. Washington
Citations
541 U.S. 36 (more)
124 S. Ct. 1354; 158 L. Ed. 2d 177; 2004 U.S. LEXIS 1838; 72 U.S.L.W. 4229; 63 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. (Callaghan) 1077; 17 Fla. L. Weekly Fed. S 181
Prior history
Defendant convicted, Thurston County Superior Court, 11-19-99; reversed, 107 Wn. App. 1025 (2001); reversed, conviction reinstated, 54 P.3d 656 (Wash. 2002); certiorari granted, 539 U.S. 914 (2003)
Subsequent history
None
Holding
The use at trial of out of court statements made to police by an unavailable witness violated a criminal defendant's Sixth Amendment right to confront witnesses against him.
Court membership
Chief Justice
William Rehnquist
Associate Justices
John P. Stevens · Sandra Day O'Connor
Antonin Scalia · Anthony Kennedy
David Souter · Clarence Thomas
Ruth Bader Ginsburg · Stephen Breyer
Case opinions
Majority
Scalia, joined by Stevens, Kennedy, Souter, Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer
Concurrence
Rehnquist, joined by O'Connor
Laws applied
U.S. Const. amend. VI
This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings
Ohio v. Roberts (1980)
Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36 (2004), is a United States Supreme Court decision that reformulated the standard for determining when the admission of hearsay statements in criminal cases is permitted under the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment. The Court held that cross-examination is required to admit prior testimonial statements of witnesses who have since become unavailable.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Trial proceeding
1.2 Procedural history
1.3 Discussion
2 Supreme Court decision and rationale
3 Concurrence
4 Subsequent developments
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Background[edit]
Michael Crawford and his wife Sylvia Crawford confronted Kenneth Lee over an allegation that Lee had attempted to rape Mrs. Crawford. Michael Crawford stabbed Lee in the torso. Crawford claimed he had acted in self-defense when he believed Lee had picked up a weapon. Lee denied doing anything that might make Crawford believe he was trying to attack him.
Both Mr. and Mrs. Crawford were questioned by police after receiving a Miranda warning. Mr. Crawford said to the police that he was not sure if Mr. Lee had a weapon, but that Crawford believed at the time that Lee did. Mrs. Crawford, being interrogated separately, at first said that she had not seen the attack, but under further questioning said that she had seen the attack and that Lee was not holding a weapon.
Trial proceeding[edit]
At trial, Mrs. Crawford could not be compelled to testify by the state, since under Washington's spousal privilege law, a spouse cannot testify in court without the defendant spouse's consent (except when a spouse is a complainant).
The deputy prosecutor, Robert Lund, sought to introduce Mrs. Crawford's statement to the police as evidence that Mr. Crawford had no reasonable belief that he was in danger from Mr. Lee. Generally, out-of-court statements by persons other than the accused are excluded as hearsay. Here the court allowed the statement to be admitted on the basis that the statement was reliable, as it was partially corroborated by Mr. Crawford's statement to police.
Defense counsel objected to the admission of the wife's statement, on the ground that Mr. Crawford would be unable to confront (i.e. cross-examine) Mrs. Crawford on her statement without waiving spousal privilege, and that this would be a violation of the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment.
The statement was allowed into evidence at the trial, and the prosecution relied on it heavily in its closing argument.
Procedural history[edit]
Michael Crawford was convicted. The Washington Court of Appeals overturned the decision of the trial court. After applying a nine-factor test to determine whether Sylvia’s statement was reliable, and therefore admissible under the doctrine of Ohio v. Roberts, the court determined it was not, and gave several reasons why.
However, the Washington Supreme Court reinstated the conviction, ruling that the witness's statement was reliable under Roberts. In particular, the court noted that Michael and Sylvia Crawford's statements interlocked, and therefore concluded that Sylvia’s statements were admissible.
The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari.
Discussion[edit]
The Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment (applicable to the States through the Fourteenth Amendment) provides: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right… to be confronted with the witnesses against him." This right has a very specific purpose. The focus of the Clause is on getting the truth out of a witness, and allowing a trier of fact to determine whether the witness indeed told the truth. Even given these important goals, this right is not absolute.
Admission of out of court statements, therefore, is and has been possible. For over 20 years prior to Crawford, the controlling standard for admitting statements that unavailable witnesses made to other persons was that of Ohio v. Roberts. According to the Court in Roberts, if a witness is unavailable, that witnesses’ testimony can be admitted through a third person if it bears "adequate indicia of reliability". This was true if a statement fell within a "firmly rooted hearsay exception" or had "particularized guarantees of trustworthiness".
When Michael Crawford was accused of stabbing Kenneth Lee on August 5, 1999, the Roberts standard was still controlling law. Crawford and his wife, Sylvia, were questioned separately by police regarding a stabbing incident that had taken place at Lee’s home. The statements of the two were generally corroborating, but while Michael had claimed self-defense, Sylvia implied that Michael was not protecting himself when he stabbed Lee. At trial, the state moved to admit Sylvia’s statement under Roberts. The trial court admitted the evidence, "noting several reasons why it was trustworthy".
Supreme Court decision and rationale[edit]
The United States Supreme Court held that the use of the spouse's recorded statement made during police interrogation violated the defendant's Sixth Amendment right to be confronted with the witnesses against the defendant where the spouse, because of the state law marital privilege, did not testify at the trial and so was unavailable.
Associate Justice Antonin Scalia, writing for the majority, expressed concern over the inconsistent results reached by courts under Ohio v. Roberts, the standard used by the Washington state courts. He thought the results of the Crawford decisions at the various levels of Washington state courts exemplary of this problem. Justice Scalia gave a thorough history of the Confrontation Clause, explaining how the Clause became part of the Constitution using famous English cases, such as that of Sir Walter Raleigh. He then described the context in which the Constitutional Framers drafted the clause, and displayed how early American courts interpreted the clause.
This history, Scalia concluded, clearly shows that the Confrontation Clause was directed at keeping "ex parte" examinations out of the evidentiary record. Specifically, the Confrontation Clause applies to "witnesses" against the accused, meaning "those who 'bear testimony'". Relying on this and the historical record, Scalia stated, "the Framers would not have allowed admission of testimonial statements of a witness who did not appear at trial unless he was unavailable to testify, and the defendant had had a prior opportunity for cross-examination." Scalia determined that a prior opportunity for cross-examination was mandatory, and dispositive of whether or not testimonial statements of an unavailable witness are admissible. Testimonial statements are formal declarations, i.e. those made to law enforcement or government personnel. "Dispensing with confrontation because testimony is obviously reliable is akin to dispensing with jury trial because a defendant is obviously guilty."
The Crawford Court determined that where non-testimonial statements are involved, the Confrontation Clause allows a court to use its discretion to determine the reliability of the statements. "Where testimonial evidence is at issue, however, the Sixth Amendment demands what the common law required: unavailability and a prior opportunity for cross-examination... . [T]he only indicium of reliability sufficient to satisfy constitutional demands is the one the Constitution actually prescribes: confrontation."
Concurrence[edit]
Chief Justice William Rehnquist concurred in the result, but would have decided the case on narrower grounds, within the older Roberts framework. Rehnquist, joined by O'Connor, stated he would not have expanded the right of defendants to exclude out-of-court statements on the basis that they could not confront the witness.
Subsequent developments[edit]
This decision had an immediate, profound effect upon the ability of prosecutors to prove their cases through the use of evidence that had previously been admissible via various exceptions to the hearsay rule. Justice Scalia's opinion explicitly states that any out-of-court statement that is "testimonial" in nature is not admissible, unless the declarant is unavailable to testify in court, and the defendant has had a prior opportunity to cross-examine him or her. However, the opinion does not define "testimonial", which has allowed courts across the country to determine that issue for themselves.
Legal scholars' main criticism of the decision was its failure to define "testimonial". One of the main areas in which lower courts struggled to resolve this issue was the use of 911 calls during the course of trial where the caller is not available to testify. This was the factual situation in Davis v. Washington, in which the Court laid out a definition of "testimonial."[1] Other cases have dealt with the issue of the previously common practice of admitting certain types of certified documents under the business records or public records exception to the hearsay rule.
Crawford, and the decisions following it, also radically changed the handling of domestic violence cases by curtailing evidence-based prosecution, a common practice allowing the accused to be prosecuted without the participation of their accusers in the criminal court process. Evidence-based prosecution relies heavily on admission of statements under hearsay exceptions to reproduce the evidentiary effect of a victim testifying in court. The Crawford Court's decision renders most of these statements inadmissible without the accuser coming to court and testifying against the person he or she is accusing.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://federalevidence.com/pdf/2008/07-July/Davis_v._Washington.pdf
Further reading[edit]
Friedman, Richard D. (2004). "Adjusting To Crawford: High Court Restores Confrontation Clause Protection". Crim. Just. 19: 4. ISSN 0047-2352.
King-Ries, Andrew (2005). "Crawford v. Washington: The End of Victimless Prosecution?". Seattle University Law Review. 28: 301. ISSN 1078-1927.
Lininger, Tom (2005). "Prosecuting Batterers After Crawford". Virginia Law Review. Virginia Law Review. 91 (3): 747–822. JSTOR 3649456.
Mosteller, Robert P. (2005). "Crawford v. Washington: Encouraging and Ensuring the Confrontation of Witnesses". University of Richmond Law Review. 39: 511. ISSN 0566-2389.
Westover, Andrew L.; Thompson, Dori (2008). "Crawford And Expert Testimony As Hearsay: A Practical Guide To Navigating The Uncertain Currents Of Expert Testimony Under Crawford" (PDF). Federal Criminal Defense Journal. 1: 1–24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-25.
External links[edit]
PDF Decision of Court
[hide]
v
t
e
United States Sixth Amendment case law
[show]
Speedy Trial Clause
Beavers v. Haubert (1905)
United States v. Provoo (1955)
Pollard v. United States (1957)
United States v. Ewell (1966)
Klopfer v. North Carolina (1967)
Smith v. Hooey (1969)
Dickey v. Florida (1970)
United States v. Marion (1971)
Barker v. Wingo (1972)
Strunk v. United States (1973)
United States v. Lovasco (1977)
United States v. MacDonald (1982)
United States v. Loud Hawk (1986)
Doggett v. United States (1992)
Vermont v. Brillon (2009)
Betterman v. Montana (2016)
[show]
Public Trial Clause
Gaines v. Washington (1928)
In re Oliver (1948)
Gannett Co., Inc. v. DePasquale (1979)
Waller v. Georgia (1984)
Presley v. Georgia (2010)
[show]
Impartial Jury Clause
Availability
Callan v. Wilson (1888)
Natal v. State (1891)
Schick v. United States (1904)
District of Columbia v. Colts (1930)
District of Columbia v. Clawans (1937)
United States v. Barnett (1964)
Cheff v. Schnackenberg (1966)
Duncan v. Louisiana (1968)
Bloom v. Illinois (1968)
DeStefano v. Woods (1968)
Frank v. United States (1969)
Baldwin v. New York (1970)
Mayberry v. Pennsylvania (1971)
Taylor v. Haynes (1974)
Codispoti v. Pennsylvania (1974)
Blanton v. North Las Vegas (1989)
United States v. Nachtigal (1993)
Lewis v. United States (1996)
Impartiality
Reynolds v. United States (1878)
Connors v. United States (1895)
Aldridge v. United States (1931)
Glasser v. United States (1942)
Dennis v. United States (1950)
Irvin v. Dowd (1961)
Beck v. Washington (1962)
Rideau v. Louisiana (1963)
Sheppard v. Maxwell (1966)
Witherspoon v. Illinois (1968)
Ham v. South Carolina (1973)
Murphy v. Florida (1975)
Ristaino v. Ross (1976)
Adams v. Texas (1980)
Rosales-Lopez v. United States (1981)
Patton v. Yount (1984)
Wainwright v. Witt (1985)
Turner v. Murray (1986)
Lockhart v. McCree (1986)
Gray v. Mississippi (1987)
Ross v. Oklahoma (1988)
Mu'Min v. Virginia (1991)
Morgan v. Illinois (1992)
United States v. Martinez-Salazar (2000)
Skilling v. United States (2010)
McDonnell v. United States (2016)
Facts found
McMillan v. Pennsylvania (1986)
Walton v. Arizona (1990)
Almendarez-Torres v. United States (1998)
Jones v. United States (1999
Apprendi v. New Jersey (2000)
Harris v. United States (2002)
Ring v. Arizona (2002)
Blakely v. Washington (2004)
Schriro v. Summerlin (2004)
United States v. Booker (2005)
Washington v. Recuenco (2006)
Cunningham v. California (2007)
Oregon v. Ice (2009)
Southern Union Co. v. United States (2012)
Alleyne v. United States (2013)
Hurst v. Florida (2016)
Size and unanimity
Thompson v. Utah (1898)
Maxwell v. Dow (1900)
Rassmussen v. United States (1905)
Patton v. United States (1930)
Williams v. Florida (1970)
Apodaca v. Oregon (1972)
Ballew v. Georgia (1978)
Burch v. Louisiana (1979)
Vicinage Clause
United States v. Dawson (1853)
Jones v. United States (1890)
Cook v. United States (1891)
Burton v. United States (1905, 1906)
Ruthenberg v. United States (1918)
Lewis v. United States (1929)
United States v. Cabrales (1998)
Impeachment of verdicts
McDonald v. Pless (1915)
Tanner v. United States (1987)
Warger v. Shauers (2014)
Peña-Rodriguez v. Colorado (2017)
[show]
Information Clause
Twitchell v. Pennsylvania (1868)
Cole v. Arkansas (1948)
Russell v. United States (1962)
Rabe v. Washington (1972)
[hide]
Confrontation Clause
Out-of-court statements
Reynolds v. United States (1878)
Mattox v. United States (1895)
Kirby v. United States (1899)
Motes v. United States (1900)
Dowdell v. United States (1911)
Pointer v. Texas (1965)
Brookhart v. Janis (1966)
Barber v. Page (1968)
Bruton v. United States (1968)
Berger v. California (1969)
Frazier v. Cupp (1969)
California v. Green (1970)
Dutton v. Evans (1970)
Mancusi v. Stubbs (1972)
Ohio v. Roberts (1980)
Tennessee v. Street (1985)
Delaware v. Fensterer (1985)
United States v. Inadi (1986)
Lee v. Illinois (1986)
Crawford v. Washington (2004)
Davis v. Washington (2006)
Whorton v. Bockting (2007)
Giles v. California (2008)
Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts (2009)
Michigan v. Bryant (2011)
Bullcoming v. New Mexico (2011)
Williams v. Illinois (2012)
Ohio v. Clark (2015)
Face-to-face confrontation
Snyder v. Massachusetts (1934)
Kentucky v. Stincer (1987)
Coy v. Iowa (1988)
Maryland v. Craig (1990)
Restrictions on cross-examination
Douglas v. Alabama (1965)
McCray v. Illinois (1967)
Smith v. Illinois (1968)
Chambers v. Mississippi (1973)
Davis v. Alaska (1974)
Delaware v. Fensterer (1985)
Delaware v. Van Arsdall (1986)
Right to present relevant evidence
Cooper v. California (1967)
McCray v. Illinois (1967)
Pennsylvania v. Ritchie (1987)
Olden v. Kentucky (1988)
Michigan v. Lucas (1991)
[show]
Compulsory Process Clause
Washington v. Texas (1967)
United States v. Valenzuela-Bernal (1982)
Taylor v. Illinois (1988)
[show]
Assistance of Counsel Clause
Choice
Chandler v. Fretag (1954)
Morris v. Slappy (1983)
Wheat v. United States (1988)
Caplin & Drysdale, Chartered v. United States (1989)
United States v. Gonzalez-Lopez (2006)
Appointment
Powell v. Alabama (1932)
Johnson v. Zerbst (1938)
Betts v. Brady (1942)
Hamilton v. Alabama (1961)
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Anders v. California (1967)
Argersinger v. Hamlin (1972)
Gagnon v. Scarpelli (1973)
Scott v. Illinois (1979)
Baldasar v. Illinois (1980)
Pennsylvania v. Finley (1987)
McCoy v. Court of Appeals of Wisconsin (1988)
Penson v. Ohio (1988)
Murray v. Giarratano (1989)
Nichols v. United States (1994)
Smith v. Robbins (2000)
Alabama v. Shelton (2002)
Constructive denial
Avery v. Alabama (1940)
Ferguson v. Georgia (1961)
Brooks v. Tennessee (1972)
Herring v. New York (1975)
Geders v. United States (1976)
Perry v. Leeke (1989)
Conflict-free
Glasser v. United States (1942)
Dukes v. Warden (1972)
Holloway v. Arkansas (1978)
Cuyler v. Sullivan (1980)
Burger v. Kemp (1987)
Wheat v. United States (1988)
Mickens v. Taylor (2002)
Ineffective assistance
McMann v. Richardson (1970)
Jones v. Barnes (1983)
United States v. Cronic (1984)
Strickland v. Washington (1984)
Hill v. Lockhart (1985)
Nix v. Whiteside (1986)
Kimmelman v. Morrison (1986)
Lockhart v. Fretwell (1993)
Smith v. Robbins (2000)
Roe v. Flores-Ortega (2000)
Williams v. Taylor (2000)
Glover v. United States (2001)
Bell v. Cone (2002)
Woodford v. Visciotti (2002)
Wiggins v. Smith (2003)
Holland v. Jackson (2004)
Florida v. Nixon (2004)
Rompilla v. Beard (2005)
Schriro v. Landrigan (2007)
Wright v. Van Patten (2008)
Knowles v. Mirzayance (2009)
Bobby v. Van Hook (2009)
Wong v. Belmontes (2009)
Porter v. McCollum (2009)
Wood v. Allen (2010)
Padilla v. Kentucky (2010)
Sears v. Upton (2010)
Premo v. Moore (2011)
Harrington v. Richter (2011)
Cullen v. Pinholster (2011)
Missouri v. Frye (2012)
Lafler v. Cooper (2012)
Buck v. Davis (2017)
Weaver v. Massachusetts (2017)
Jae Lee v. United States (2017)
Uncounseled statements
Massiah v. United States (1963)
Brewer v. Williams (1977)
United States v. Henry (1980)
Maine v. Moulton (1985)
Kuhlmann v. Wilson (1986)
Kansas v. Ventris (2009)
Pro se representation
Faretta v. California (1975)
McKaskle v. Wiggins (1984)
Rock v. Arkansas (1987)
Martinez v. California Court of Appeals (2000)
Indiana v. Edwards (2008)
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Journey to the Center of the Earth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Journey to the Centre of the Earth (disambiguation).
Journey to the Center of the Earth
Book cover made in 1874
Author
Jules Verne
Original title
Voyage au centre de la Terre
Illustrator
Édouard Riou
Cover artist
Édouard Riou
Country
France
Language
French
Series
The Extraordinary Voyages #3
Genre
Science fiction, adventure novel
Publisher
Pierre-Jules Hetzel
Publication date
1864
Published in English
1871
Media type
Print (Hardback)
Pages
183
ISBN
0486440885
Preceded by
The Adventures of Captain Hatteras
Followed by
From the Earth to the Moon
Journey to the Center of the Earth (French: Voyage au centre de la Terre, also translated under the titles A Journey to the Centre of the Earth and A Journey to the Interior of the Earth) is an 1864 science fiction novel by Jules Verne. The story involves German professor Otto Lidenbrock who believes there are volcanic tubes going toward the centre of the Earth. He, his nephew Axel, and their guide Hans descend into the Icelandic volcano Snæfellsjökull, encountering many adventures, including prehistoric animals and natural hazards, before eventually coming to the surface again in southern Italy, at the Stromboli volcano.
The genre of subterranean fiction already existed long before Verne. However, the present book considerably added to its popularity and influenced later such writings. For example, Edgar Rice Burroughs explicitly acknowledged Verne's influence on his own Pellucidar series.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Inspiration
3 Main characters
4 Prehistoric animals featured
5 Publication notes
6 Adaptations
6.1 Film
6.2 Television
6.3 Radio
6.4 Theatre
6.5 Theme park (themed areas) and rides
6.6 Other
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Plot[edit]
The story begins in May 1863, in the Lidenbrock house in Hamburg, Germany, with Professor Lidenbrock rushing home to peruse his latest purchase, an original runic manuscript of an Icelandic saga written by Snorri Sturluson (Snorre Tarleson in some versions of the story), "Heimskringla"; the chronicle of the Norwegian kings who ruled over Iceland. While looking through the book, Lidenbrock and his nephew Axel find a coded note written in runic script along with the name of a 16th-century Icelandic alchemist, Arne Saknussemm. (This was a first indication of Verne's love for cryptography. Coded, cryptic, or incomplete messages as a plot device would continue to appear in many of his works and in each case Verne would go a long way to explain not only the code used but also the mechanisms used to retrieve the original text.) Lidenbrock and Axel transliterate the runic characters into Latin letters, revealing a message written in a seemingly bizarre code. Lidenbrock attempts a decipherment, deducing the message to be a kind of transposition cipher; but his results are as meaningless as the original.
Professor Lidenbrock decides to lock everyone in the house and force himself and the others (Axel, and the maid, Martha) to go without food until he cracks the code. Axel discovers the answer when fanning himself with the deciphered text: Lidenbrock's decipherment was correct, and only needs to be read backwards to reveal sentences written in rough Latin.[a] Axel decides to keep the secret hidden from Professor Lidenbrock, afraid of what the Professor might do with the knowledge, but after two days without food he cannot stand the hunger and reveals the secret to his uncle. Lidenbrock translates the note, which is revealed to be a medieval note written by the (fictional) Icelandic alchemist Arne Saknussemm, who claims to have discovered a passage to the centre of the Earth via Snæfell in Iceland. In what Axel calls bad Latin, the deciphered message reads:
The Runic cryptogram
In Snefflls [sic] Iokulis kraterem kem delibat umbra Skartaris Iulii intra kalendas deskende, audas uiator, te [sic] terrestre kentrum attinges. Kod feki. Arne Saknussemm.
In slightly better Latin, with errors amended:
In Sneffels Jokulis craterem, quem delibat umbra Scartaris, Julii intra kalendas descende, audax viator, et terrestre centrum attinges; quod feci. Arne Saknussemm
which, when translated into English, reads:
Descend, bold traveller, into the crater of the jökull of Snæfell, which the shadow of Scartaris touches (lit: tastes) before the Kalends of July, and you will attain the centre of the earth. I did it. Arne Saknussemm
Snæfellsjökull.
Professor Lidenbrock is a man of astonishing impatience, and departs for Iceland immediately, taking his reluctant nephew with him. Axel, who, in comparison, is cowardly and anti-adventurous, repeatedly tries to reason with him, explaining his fears of descending into a volcano and putting forward various scientific theories as to why the journey is impossible, but Professor Lidenbrock repeatedly keeps himself blinded against Axel's point of view. After a rapid journey via Kiel and Copenhagen, they arrive in Reykjavík, where the two procure the services of Hans Bjelke (a Danish-speaking Icelander eiderdown hunter) as their guide, and travel overland to the base of the volcano.
In late June, they reach the volcano, which has three craters. According to Saknussemm's message, the passage to the center of the Earth is through the one crater that is touched by the shadow of a nearby mountain peak at noon. However, the text also states that this is only true during the last days of June. During the next few days, with July rapidly approaching, the weather is too cloudy for any shadows. Axel silently rejoices, hoping this will force his uncle – who has repeatedly tried to impart courage to him only to succeed in making him even more cowardly still – to give up the project and return home. Alas for Axel, however, on the second to last day, the sun comes out and the mountain peak shows the correct crater to take.
After descending into the crater, the three travellers set off into the bowels of the Earth, encountering many strange phenomena and great dangers, including a chamber filled with firedamp, and steep-sided wells around the "path". After taking a wrong turn, they run out of water and Axel almost dies, but Hans taps into a neighbouring subterranean river. Lidenbrock and Axel name the resulting stream the "Hansbach" in his honour and the three are saved. At another point, Axel becomes separated from the others and is lost several miles from them. Luckily, a strange acoustic phenomenon allows him to communicate with them from some miles away, and they are soon reunited.
After descending many miles, following the course of the Hansbach, they reach an unimaginably vast cavern. This underground world is lit by electrically charged gas at the ceiling, and is filled with a very deep subterranean ocean, surrounded by a rocky coastline covered in petrified trees and giant mushrooms. The travelers build a raft out of trees and set sail. The Professor names this sea the "Lidenbrock Sea" and the port as "Port Gräuben", after the name of his goddaughter. While on the water, they see several prehistoric creatures such as a giant Ichthyosaurus, which fights with a Plesiosaurus and wins. After the battle between the monsters, the party comes across an island with a huge geyser, which Lidenbrock names "Axel Island".
A lightning storm again threatens to destroy the raft and its passengers, but instead throws them onto the coastline. This part of the coast, Axel discovers, is alive with prehistoric plant and animal life forms, including giant insects and a herd of mastodons. On a beach covered with bones, Axel discovers an oversized human skull. Axel and Lidenbrock venture some way into the prehistoric forest, where Professor Lidenbrock points out, in a shaky voice, a prehistoric human, more than twelve feet in height, leaning against a tree and watching a herd of mastodons. Axel cannot be sure if he has really seen the man or not, and he and Professor Lidenbrock debate whether or not a proto-human civilization actually exists so far underground. The three wonder if the creature is a man-like ape, or an ape-like man. The sighting of the creature is considered the most alarming part of the story, and the explorers decide that it is better not to alert it to their presence as they fear it may be hostile.
The travellers continue to explore the coastline, and find a passageway marked by Saknussemm as the way ahead. However, it is blocked by what appears to be a recent cave-in and two of the three, Hans and the Professor, despair at being unable to hack their way through the granite wall. The adventurers plan to blast the rock with gun cotton and paddle out to sea to escape the blast. Upon executing the plan, however, they discover that behind the rockfall was a seemingly bottomless pit, not a passage to the center of the earth. The travellers are swept away as the sea rushes into the large open gap in the ground. After spending hours being swept along at lightning speeds by the water, the raft ends up inside a large volcanic chimney filling with water and magma. Terrified, the three are rushed upwards, through stifling heat, and are ejected onto the surface from a side-vent of a stratovolcano. When they regain consciousness, they discover that they have been ejected from Stromboli, a volcanic island located in southern Italy. They return to Hamburg to great acclaim – Professor Lidenbrock is hailed as one of the great scientists of history, Axel marries his sweetheart Gräuben, and Hans eventually returns to his peaceful life in Iceland. The Professor has some regret that their journey was cut short.
At the very end of the book, Axel and Lidenbrock realize why their compass was behaving strangely after their journey on the raft. They realize that the needle was pointing the wrong way after being struck by an electric fireball which nearly destroyed the wooden raft.
Inspiration[edit]
The book was inspired by Charles Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man of 1863 (and probably also influenced by Lyell's earlier ground-breaking work Principles of Geology, published 1830–33). By that time geologists had abandoned a literal biblical account of Earth's development and it was generally thought that the end of the last glacial period marked the first appearance of humanity, but Lyell drew on new findings to put the origin of human beings much further back in the deep geological past. Lyell's book also influenced Louis Figuier's 1867 second edition of La Terre avant le déluge ("The Earth before the flood") which included dramatic illustrations of savage men and women wearing animal skins and wielding stone axes, in place of the Garden of Eden shown in the 1863 edition.[1]
It is noteworthy that at the time of writing Verne had no hesitation with having sympathetic German protagonists with whom the reader could identify. Verne's attitude to Germans would drastically change in the aftermath of the 1871 Franco-Prussian War. After 1871, the sympathetic if eccentric Professor Otto Lidenbrock would be replaced in Verne's fiction by the utterly evil and demonic Professor Schultze of The Begum's Fortune.
Main characters[edit]
Professor Otto Lidenbrock: a professor of geology.
Axel: the nephew of Professor Lidenbrock, overcautious and unadventurous student.
Hans Bjelke: a Danish-speaking Icelandic eiderduck hunter who becomes their guide; dependable, resourceful and imperturbable.
Gräuben: the goddaughter of Professor Lidenbrock with whom Axel is in love, from the Vierlande area of Hamburg.
Martha: the maid at the house of Professor Lidenbrock.
Prehistoric animals featured[edit]
Deinotherium (teeth only)
Pterichthys
Dipterides – A two-finned fish
Leptotherium – A gazelle-like creature
Merycotherium – A cattle-like creature
Lophiodon
Anoplotherium
Mastodon
Megatherium
Unidentified pterosaur, probably Pterodactylus
Unknown species of giant bird, probably a teratorn
Ichthyosaurus
Plesiosaurus
Glyptodon (shell only)
Publication notes[edit]
The first English edition was published in its entirety by Henry Vickers in 12 installments of a Boys magazine entitled "The Boys Journal". The plates are more numerous than the book form which was published with an 1872 title page. If it was released in 1871 as a single volume it was late in the year. This "True" first edition also found in an octavo normal book size (not Annual size), has been overlooked by bibliographers. It has a place of pre-eminence up to about a 3rd of the way through the 12 monthly issues and then slides down into the main body of the journal. The Magazine does not seem to have survived in its loose format of 12 individual parts.[2]
The 1871 English language edition published by Griffith and Farran (named Journey to the Centre of the Earth at Project Gutenberg) is an abridged and altered translation. It changes the Professor's name to Hardwigg, Axel's name to Harry (or Henry) Lawson, and Grauben's name to Gretchen. It omits some chapters, while rewriting or adding portions to others. The redactor's note by Norm Wolcott, at Project Gutenberg, claims that this translation is the most popularly reprinted one, despite the flaws. The 1877 translation by Ward, Lock, & Co., Ltd., translated by Frederick Amadeus Malleson, is more faithful, though it too has some slight rewrites (according to the redactor at its Project Gutenberg page, where its title is translated as Journey to the Interior of the Earth).
The 1877 translation by Ward Lock & Co Ltd., translated by Frederick Amadeus Malleson was adapted by AD Classic Books' 2008 edition of Journey to the Center of the Earth. In this edit by A.R. Roumanis, antiquated writing and out of date sayings were replaced which makes this the most modernized version available.
The novel frequently uses the device of the Professor explaining or arguing scientific matters with Axel, in order to communicate scientific facts on which the world-view is based. In the midst of their descent, this role reverses at one point, as Axel points out strata to the Professor as another example of the same story-telling method. Many things postulated in the novel are now known to be incorrect, including the temperature of space being minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit, and volcanoes erupting due to a reaction between water and chemicals in the Earth's crust.
Adaptations[edit]
Film[edit]
1959: Journey to the Center of the Earth, USA, directed by Henry Levin, starring James Mason and Pat Boone. In the film, the character of Axel becomes Alec and is more adventurous than cowardly as he is in the novel. The film introduces two new main characters: a female explorer and a main antagonist.
1978: Viaje al centro de la Tierra, Spain, directed by Juan Piquer Simón, starring Kenneth More and Pep Munné. It was distributed in Great Britain and the US as Where Time Began.
1989: Journey to the Center of the Earth took only the title and a general idea from the Verne novel, and had a unique plot aimed at a teen audience. It was written by Debra Ricci, Regina Davis, Kitty Chalmers, and Rusty Lemorande, and was directed by Lemorande and Albert Pyun. It stars Emo Philips, Paul Carafotes, Jaclyn Bernstein, Kathy Ireland, Janet Du Plessis, Nicola Cowper, Lochner De Kock, and Ilan Mitchell-Smith. It was based on an uncompleted version, more faithful to Verne's text, written and directed by Lemorande, that had been left unfinished because of Cannon Films' premature closure.
2008: Journey to the Center of the Earth is a 3-D film by Eric Brevig. Cast members include Brendan Fraser, Anita Briem and Josh Hutcherson. The film follows as a sequel to the original book.
2008: Journey to the Center of the Earth – A direct-to-DVD release by The Asylum, which is a loose adaptation of the original book. It was released as Journey to Middle Earth in the United Kingdom.
Walt Disney Pictures began work on a "Journey" in the late 1990s, but was not happy with the appearance of the subterranean caverns, so the project was scrapped and the cavern scenes were altered and used in the production of their 2001 film Atlantis: The Lost Empire.
Television[edit]
An animated television series, Journey to the Center of the Earth, first broadcast in 1967 on ABC, starring the voices of Ted Knight, Pat Harrington, Jr., and Jane Webb, only loosely based on Verne's novel.[3]
A limited animation television special in the Famous Classic Tales series was aired by CBS in 1977.
In 1993, NBC aired a made-for-TV film version with a cast including John Neville, F. Murray Abraham and Kim Miyori. The film used the title and general premise of Verne's novel, but had its heroes carry out the journey in an earth-penetrating machine.[4] A television series was supposed to follow, but was never produced.[citation needed]
The Wishbone 1996 episode "Hot Diggety Dawg" was based on the novel, featuring several major scenes starring the title character as Professor Lidenbrock.
The 1999 Hallmark Entertainment miniseries starred Treat Williams, Jeremy London, Bryan Brown, Tushka Bergen, and Hugh Keays-Byrne (this version deviates considerably from Verne's original).
A TV film version by RHI Entertainment starring Rick Schroder, Peter Fonda, Victoria Pratt, Steven Grayhm and Mike Dopud was shot on location in and around Vancouver on high definition video during the summer of 2007. The show aired on February 4, 2008 and been released on DVD. Victoria Pratt and Peter Fonda's characters were added to the original story.
Radio[edit]
A 7-part radio serial was broadcast on the BBC Home Service in 1962. It was produced by Claire Chovil, and starred Trevor Martin and Nigel Anthony.[5]
An 8-part radio serial was produced for BBC Radio 4 by Howard Jones in 1963. It starred Bernard Horsfall and Jeffrey Banks.
A radio drama adaptation was broadcast by National Public Radio in 2000 for its series "Radio Tales".
A 90-minute radio adaptation by Stephen Walker directed by Owen O'Callan was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra on 20 November 2011 and re-broadcast on 11 and 12 November 2012. Nicholas Le Prevost starred as Professor Otto Lidenbrock, Nathaniel Parker as Axel and Oliver Senton as Hans. Rosemary McNab, an original female character who funds and accompanies the expedition (and has affairs with both Hans and Otto along the way), was played by Kristen Millwood.[6]
A two-part BBC Radio 4 adaptation of Journey to the Centre of the Earth was broadcast on 19 and 26 March 2017, with Stephen Critchlow as Professor Lidenbrock, Joel MacCormack as Axel and Gudmundur Ingi Thorvaldsson as Hans. It was directed and produced by Tracey Neale and adapted by Moya O'Shea.[7]
Theatre[edit]
A stage version of Journey to the Center of the Earth, written by Gerald Fitzgerald and directed by Steven-Shayle Rhodes, was produced at Pegasus Theatre in Dallas, Texas in 2000, with substantial changes made to the characters and the plot.
In 2014, Fitzgerald's 2-act script was adapted into a 3-act melodrama format and presented at the Pocket Sandwich Theatre in Dallas, directed by Joey Dietz.
Theme park (themed areas) and rides[edit]
A thrill ride based on the book, Journey to the Center of the Earth, is open at The Mysterious Island section of Tokyo DisneySea's theme park. Its also includes a dark ride based on Twenty thousand leagues under the Sea.
Le Visionarium (Timekeeper) - featuring Jules Verne in a circle vision ride (1992 - 2005) and Space Mountain, de la Terre à la Lune, in its original version (1995 - 2005), based directly on From the earth to the Moon in Discoveryland (the hub facing part of the Land features Steampunk related theming) at Euro Disneyland (now Disneyland Paris) between 1992 and 2005.
A water ride at Water World in Federal Heights, Colorado called 'Voyage to the Center of the Earth' is loosely based on the book.
A mill chute ride, called 'Journey to the Center of the Earth' and loosely based on the book, existed at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom from 1960 to 1992.
Other[edit]
Video games called Journey to the Center of the Earth: in 1984 by Ozisoft for the Commodore 64; in 1989 by Topo Soft [8] for the ZX Spectrum and in 2003 by Frogwares.[9]
A board game adaptation of the book designed by Rüdiger Dorn was released by Kosmos in 2008.[10]
A concept album called Journey to the Centre of the Earth by Rick Wakeman, was released in 1974. It combines song, narration and instrumental pieces to retell the story
Rick Wakeman released a second concept album called Return to the Centre of the Earth in 1999, it tells the story of a later set of travelers attempting to repeat the original journey.
Alien Voices, an audio theater group led by Leonard Nimoy and John de Lancie, released a dramatized version of Journey to the Center of the Earth through Simon and Schuster Audio in 1997.
Christopher Lloyd's character of Doctor Emmett Brown, one of the two main fictional characters of the Back To The Future film series, attributed the origins of his lifelong devotion to science to having read as a child the works of Jules Verne in general, and Journey to the Center of the Earth in particular. (This is evident when he reveals that he tried to dig to the Center of the Earth at the age of twelve.) Back to the Future Part III, especially, pays homage to Journey of the Center of the Earth where Dr. Brown carves his initials in a mineshaft after storing the time machine, just like Arne Saknussemm did to help guide future explorers. At the end of the film, it is also revealed that Dr. Brown's two sons are named Jules and Verne.
The first part of the second season of Around the World with Willy Fog by Spanish studio BRB Internacional was "Journey to the Centre of the Earth".
Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote the Pellucidar series using the Journey to the Center of the Earth concept.
The surname of Kathy Ireland's character in Alien From L.A. (1988), a film about a girl who falls through the earth and discovers a repressive subterranean society, is Saknussemm.
The 1992 adventure/role-playing game Quest for Glory III by Sierra Entertainment used Arne Saknoosen the Aardvark as a bit character for exploration information, alluding to the explorer Arne Saknussemm.
The DC Comics comic book series Warlord took place in Skartaris, a land supposed to exist within a Hollow Earth. Its creator, Mike Grell, has confirmed that "the name comes from the mountain peak Scartaris that points the way to the passage to the earth's core in Journey to the Center of the Earth."[11]
Louis MacNeice's final play Persons from Porlock contains a reference to Journey to the Center of the Earth at the beginning. Because his mother used to read it aloud to him, Hank became 'completely fascinated' with 'caves and pot-holes and things' (p 111). At the end of the play 'Herr Professor Lidebrock' is one of the characters Hank meets down the pot hole. Hank says to him, 'Oh, my dear Professor, I've always wanted to meet you, since my mother used to read me your adventures. How you went down the volcano and ran into all those mastodons. But, of course, in your case you got out again.' The Professor replies, 'That was because I am a character in fiction.' He continues, 'Jules Verne invented me'(p 141).[12]
Halldór Laxness, the only Icelandic author to be awarded the Nobel Prize, situated his novel Under the Glacier in the area of Snæfellsjökull. The glacier has a mystic quality in the story and there are several references to A Journey to the Center of the Earth in connection with it.
In the Exile computer game series and its remake, the Avernum series, the player's party is exiled to a vast underground cavern similar to the one described in A Journey to the Center of the Earth. It also contains a subterranean ocean and networks of tunnels, but it is lit by bioluminescent mushrooms rather than an electric phenomenon. One of the goals of several of the games is to escape from the cavern.
See also[edit]
Subterranean fiction
Pellucidar
Spartakus and the Sun Beneath the Sea
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ To produce the cipher, the text is written backwards, and then each letter and punctuation mark is placed in a separate cell of a 7x3 matrix, going row by row. When each cell is filled with the first 21 letters, the 22nd letter is placed in the first cell, and so again through the matrix repeatedly until the message is complete. To decipher, one copies out the first letter of each cell, then the second, and so forth, and finally the resulting message is read backwards.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Criticism: Browne, E. Janet (2002), Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place, London: Jonathan Cape, pp. 130, 218, 515, ISBN 0-7126-6837-3
Jump up ^ The Boys Journal. Published By Henry Vickers, London. 1870
Jump up ^ "Journey to the Center of the Earth". IMDb. IMDb.com, Inc. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Journey to the Center of the Earth". IMDb. IMDb.com, Inc. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "A Journey to the Centre of the Earth". BBC Genome. BBC. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jules Verne- Journey to the Centre of the Earth", BBC Radio 4, 20 Nov 2011.
Jump up ^ [1]"Radio 4 relevant page"
Jump up ^ "Viaje al Centro de la Tierra - World of Spectrum". www.worldofspectrum.org.
Jump up ^ "Journey to the Center of the Earth for Windows (2003) - MobyGames". MobyGames.
Jump up ^ "Journey to the Center of the Earth". BoardGameGeek.
Jump up ^ Brian Cronin, 2006, "Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #54!" (archive)
Jump up ^ Louis MacNeice, Persons from Porlock, London: BBC, 1969.
Further reading[edit]
Debus, Allen (July 2007). "Re-Framing the Science in Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth". Science Fiction Studies. 33 (3): 405–20. JSTOR 4241461. .
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Journey into the Interior of the Earth
French Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Voyage au centre de la Terre
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Journey to the Center of the Earth.
A Journey to the Centre of the Earth (Griffith and Farran, 1871) entire early English translation.
Journey to the Centre of the Earth and PDF Full text of the Oxford University Press translation, with introduction, notes and appendices. Most modern translation available online.
Journey into the Interior of the Earth (Malleson, trans.; Ward, Lock & Co., 1877) from JV.Gilead.org.il
A Journey to the Interior of the Earth (Malleson, trans.; Ward, Lock & Co., 1877) – in easy to read HTML format.
A Journey to the Interior of the Earth at Project Gutenberg (English)
Journey to the Interior of the Earth public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Free Audio Book of "Journey to the Center of the Earth" from The Drama Pod
Journey to the Center of the Earth – Classics Illustrated comic book
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Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth
Films
1959 film
1978 film
1989 film
2008 TV film
2008 Asylum film
2008 theatrical film
Other
1967 series
1999 miniseries
1974 album
2008 video game
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island
Journey Through the Impossible
[show]
v
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Works by Jules Verne
Voyages
extraordinaires
Five Weeks in a Balloon (1863)
Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864)
From the Earth to the Moon (1865)
The Adventures of Captain Hatteras (1866)
In Search of the Castaways (1867–68)
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869–70)
Around the Moon (1870)
A Floating City (1871)
The Adventures of Three Englishmen and Three Russians in South Africa (1872)
The Fur Country (1873)
Around the World in Eighty Days (1873)
The Mysterious Island (1874–75)
The Survivors of the Chancellor (1875)
Michael Strogoff (1876)
Off on a Comet (1877)
The Child of the Cavern (1877)
Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen (1878)
The Begum's Fortune (1879)
Tribulations of a Chinaman in China (1879)
The Steam House (1880)
Eight Hundred Leagues on the Amazon (1881)
Godfrey Morgan (1882)
The Green Ray (1882)
Kéraban the Inflexible (1883)
The Vanished Diamond (1884)
The Archipelago on Fire (1884)
Mathias Sandorf (1885)
The Lottery Ticket (1886)
Robur the Conqueror (1886)
North Against South (1887)
The Flight to France (1887)
Two Years' Vacation (1888)
Family Without a Name (1889)
The Purchase of the North Pole (1889)
César Cascabel (1890)
Mistress Branican (1891)
The Carpathian Castle (1892)
Claudius Bombarnac (1892)
Foundling Mick (1893)
Captain Antifer (1894)
Propeller Island (1895)
Facing the Flag (1896)
Clovis Dardentor (1896)
An Antarctic Mystery (1897)
The Mighty Orinoco (1898)
The Will of an Eccentric (1899)
The Castaways of the Flag (1900)
The Village in the Treetops (1901)
The Sea Serpent (1901)
The Kip Brothers (1902)
Travel Scholarships (1903)
A Drama in Livonia (1904)
Master of the World (1904)
Invasion of the Sea (1905)
Other works
Novels
The Waif of the Cynthia (1885)
The Lighthouse at the End of the World (1905)
The Golden Volcano (1906)
The Chase of the Golden Meteor (1908)
The Danube Pilot (1908)
The Survivors of the "Jonathan" (1909)
The Secret of Wilhelm Storitz (1910)
The Barsac Mission (1919)
Backwards to Britain (1989, written 1859)
Paris in the Twentieth Century (1994, written 1863)
Collections
Doctor Ox (1874)
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VIAF: 181861005
GND: 4835489-2
SUDOC: 089079728
BNF: cb12342582t (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth&oldid=827456096"
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Journey to the Center of the Earth
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values: رحلة إلى مركز الأرض – Arabic

values: Viatge al centre de la Terra (novel·la) – Catalan

values: Die Reise zum Mittelpunkt der Erde – German

values: Ταξίδι στο Κέντρο της Γης – Greek

values: Vojaĝo al la centro de la Tero – Esperanto

values: سفر به مرکز زمین – Persian

values: 지구 속 여행 – Korean

values: Ուղևորություն դեպի երկրի կենտրոնը – Armenian

values: Journey to the Center of the Earth – Indonesian

values: Viaggio al centro della Terra (romanzo) – Italian

values: מסע אל בטן האדמה – Hebrew

values: მოგზაურობა დედამიწის ცენტრისკენ – Georgian

values: Utazás a Föld középpontja felé (regény) – Hungarian

values: O călătorie spre centrul Pământului – Romanian

values: Путешествие к центру Земли – Russian

values: Voyage au centre de la Terre – Serbo-Croatian

values: Подорож до центру Землі – Ukrainian

values: Hành trình vào tâm Trái đất – Vietnamese

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