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Caesium chloride
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Caesium chloride
Names
IUPAC name
Caesium chloride
Other names
Cesium chloride
Identifiers
CAS Number
7647-17-8 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChemSpider
22713 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.728
EC Number 231-600-2
PubChem CID
24943
UNII
GNR9HML8BA Y
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/ClH.Cs/h1H;/q;+1/p-1 Y
Key: AIYUHDOJVYHVIT-UHFFFAOYSA-M Y
InChI=1/ClH.Cs/h1H;/q;+1/p-1
Key: AIYUHDOJVYHWHXWOFAO
SMILES[show]
[Cs+].[Cl-]
Properties
Chemical formula
CsCl
Molar mass 168.36 g/mol
Appearance white solid
hygroscopic
Density 3.988 g/cm3[1]
Melting point 646 °C (1,195 °F; 919 K)[1]
Boiling point 1,297 °C (2,367 °F; 1,570 K)[1]
Solubility in water
1910 g/L (25 °C)[1]
Solubility soluble in ethanol[1]
Band gap 8.35 eV (80 K)[2]
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
-56.7·10−6 cm3/mol[3]
Refractive index (nD)
1.712 (0.3 µm)
1.640 (0.59 µm)
1.631 (0.75 µm)
1.626 (1 µm)
1.616 (5 µm)
1.563 (20 µm)[4]
Structure
Crystal structure
CsCl, cP2
Space group
Pm3m, No. 221[5]
Lattice constant
a = 0.4119 nm
Lattice volume (V)
0.0699 nm3
Formula units (Z)
1
Coordination geometry
Cubic (Cs+)
Cubic (Cl−)
Hazards
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
2600 mg/kg (oral, rat)[6]
Related compounds
Other anions
Caesium fluoride
Caesium bromide
Caesium iodide
Caesium astatide
Other cations
Lithium chloride
Sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Rubidium chloride
Francium chloride
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Caesium chloride or cesium chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula CsCl. This colorless solid is an important source of caesium ions in a variety of niche applications. Its crystal structure forms a major structural type where each caesium ion is coordinated by 8 chlorine ions. Caesium chloride dissolves in water. Caesium chloride occurs naturally as impurities in carnallite (up to 0.002%), sylvite and kainite. Less than 20 tonnes of CsCl is produced annually worldwide, mostly from a caesium-bearing mineral pollucite.[7]
Caesium chloride is widely used medicine structure in isopycnic centrifugation for separating various types of DNA. It is a reagent in analytical chemistry, where it is used to identify ions by the color and morphology of the precipitate. When enriched in radioisotopes, such as 137CsCl or 131CsCl, caesium chloride is used in nuclear medicine applications such as treatment of cancer and diagnosis of myocardial infarction. Another form of cancer treatment was studied using conventional non-radioactive CsCl. Whereas conventional caesium chloride has a rather low toxicity to humans and animals, the radioactive form easily contaminates the environment due to the high solubility of CsCl in water. Spread of 137CsCl powder from a 93-gram container in 1987 in Goiânia, Brazil, resulted in one of the worst-ever radiation spill accidents killing four and directly affecting more than 100,000 people.
Contents
[hide]
1 Crystal structure
2 Physical properties
3 Reactions
4 Occurrence and production
4.1 Laboratory methods
5 Uses
5.1 Precursor to Cs metal
5.2 Solute for ultracentrifugation
5.3 Organic chemistry
5.4 Analytical chemistry
5.5 Medicine
5.6 Nuclear medicine and radiography
5.7 Miscellaneous applications
6 Toxicity
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Crystal structure[edit]
Main article: Cubic crystal system
The caesium chloride structure adopts a primitive cubic lattice with a two-atom basis, where both atoms have eightfold coordination. The chloride atoms lie upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube, while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the center of the cubes. This structure is shared with CsBr and CsI and many binary metallic alloys. In contrast, the other alkaline halides have the sodium chloride (rocksalt) structure.[8] When both ions are similar in size (Cs+ ionic radius 174 pm for this coordination number, Cl− 181 pm) the CsCl structure is adopted, when they are different (Na+ ionic radius 102 pm, Cl− 181 pm) the sodium chloride structure is adopted. Upon heating to above 445 °C, the normal caesium chloride structure (α-CsCl) converts to the β-CsCl form with the rocksalt structure (space group Fm3m).[5] The rocksalt structure is also observed at ambient conditions in nanometer-thin CsCl films grown on mica, LiF, KBr and NaCl substrates.[9]
Physical properties[edit]
Caesium chloride is colorless in the form of large crystals and white when powdered. It readily dissolves in water with the maximum solubility increasing from 1865 g/L at 20 °C to 2705 g/L at 100 °C.[10] The crystals are very hygroscopic and gradually disintegrate at ambient conditions.[11] Caesium chloride does not form hydrates.[12]
Solubility of CsCl in water[13]
Т (°C)
0
10
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
S (wt%) 61.83 63.48 64.96 65.64 66.29 67.50 68.60 69.61 70.54 71.40 72.21 72.96
In contrast to sodium chloride and potassium chloride, caesium chloride readily dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid.[14][15] Caesium chloride has also a relatively high solubility in formic acid (1077 g/L at 18 °C) and hydrazine; medium solubility in methanol (31.7 g/L at 25 °C) and low solubility in ethanol (7.6 g/L at 25 °C),[12][15][16] sulfur dioxide (2.95 g/L at 25 °C), ammonia (3.8 g/L at 0 °C), acetone (0.004% at 18 °С), acetonitrile (0.083 g/L at 18 °С),[15] ethylacetates and other complex ethers, butanone, acetophenone, pyridine and chlorobenzene.[17]
Despite its wide band gap of about 8.35 eV at 80 K,[2] caesium chloride weakly conducts electricity, and the conductivity is not electronic but ionic. The conductivity has a value of the order 10−7 S/cm at 300 °C. It occurs through nearest-neighbor jumps of lattice vacancies, and the mobility is much higher for the Cl− than Cs+ vacancies. The conductivity increases with temperature up to about 450 °C, with an activation energy changing from 0.6 to 1.3 eV at about 260 °C. It then sharply drops by two orders of magnitude because of the phase transition from the α-CsCl to β-CsCl phase. The conductivity is also suppressed by application of pressure (about 10 times decrease at 0.4 GPa) which reduces the mobility of lattice vacancies.[18]
Properties of aqueous solutions of CsCl at 20 °C[19][20]
[show]Concentration,
wt%
Density,
kg/L
Concentration,
mol/L
refractive index
(at 589 nm)
Freezing point depression, °С relative to water
Viscosity,
10−3 Pa·s
0.5 – 0.030 1.3334 0.10 1.000
1.0 1.0059 0.060 1.3337 0.20 0.997
2.0 1.0137 0.120 1.3345 0.40 0.992
3.0 0.182 1.3353 0.61 0.988
4.0 1.0296 0.245 1.3361 0.81 0.984
5.0 0.308 1.3369 1.02 0.980
6.0 1.0461 0.373 1.3377 1.22 0.977
7.0 0.438 1.3386 1.43 0.974
8.0 1.0629 0.505 1.3394 1.64 0.971
9.0 0.573 1.3403 1.85 0.969
10.0 1.0804 0.641 1.3412 2.06 0.966
12.0 1.0983 0.782 1.3430 2.51 0.961
14.0 1.1168 0.928 1.3448 2.97 0.955
16.0 1.1358 1.079 1.3468 3.46 0.950
18.0 1.1555 1.235 1.3487 3.96 0.945
20.0 1.1758 1.397 1.3507 4.49 0.939
22.0 1.1968 1.564 1.3528 – 0.934
24.0 1.2185 1.737 1.3550 – 0.930
26.0 1.917 1.3572 – 0.926
28.0 2.103 1.3594 – 0.924
30.0 1.2882 2.296 1.3617 – 0.922
32.0 2.497 1.3641 – 0.922
34.0 2.705 1.3666 – 0.924
36.0 2.921 1.3691 – 0.926
38.0 3.146 1.3717 – 0.930
40.0 1.4225 3.380 1.3744 – 0.934
42.0 3.624 1.3771 – 0.940
44.0 3.877 1.3800 – 0.947
46.0 4.142 1.3829 – 0.956
48.0 4.418 1.3860 – 0.967
50.0 1.5858 4.706 1.3892 – 0.981
60.0 1.7886 6.368 1.4076 – 1.120
64.0 7.163 1.4167 – 1.238
Reactions[edit]
Caesium chloride completely dissociates upon dissolution in water, and the Cs+ cations are solvated in dilute solution. CsCl converts to caesium sulfate upon being heated in concentrated sulfuric acid or heated with caesium hydrogen sulfate at 550–700 °С:[21]
2 CsCl + H2SO4 → Cs2SO4 + 2 HCl
CsCl + CsHSO4 → Cs2SO4 + HCl
Caesium chloride forms a variety of double salts with other chlorides. Examples include 2CsCl·BaCl2,[22] 2CsCl·CuCl2, CsCl·2CuCl and CsCl·LiCl,[23] and with interhalogen compounds:[24]
CsCl + ICl 3 ⟶ Cs [ ICl 4 ] {\displaystyle {\ce {{CsCl}+ ICl3 -> Cs[ICl4]}}}
Occurrence and production[edit]
Monatomic caesium halide wires grown inside double-wall carbon nanotubes.[25]
Caesium chloride occurs naturally as an impurity in the halide minerals carnallite (KMgCl3·6H2O with up to 0.002% CsCl),[26] sylvite (KCl) and kainite (MgSO4·KCl·3H2O),[27] and in mineral waters. For example, the water of Bad Dürkheim spa, which was used in isolation of caesium, contained about 0.17 mg/L of CsCl.[28] None of these minerals are commercially important.
On industrial scale, CsCl is produced from the mineral pollucite, which is powdered and treated with hydrochloric acid at elevated temperature. The extract is treated with antimony chloride, iodine monochloride, or cerium(IV) chloride to give the poorly soluble double salt, e.g.:[29]
CsCl + SbCl3 → CsSbCl4
Treatment of the double salt with hydrogen sulfide gives CsCl:[29]
2 CsSbCl4 + 3 H2S → 2 CsCl + Sb2S3 + 8 HCl
High-purity CsCl is also produced from recrystallized Cs [ ICl 2 ] {\displaystyle {{\ce {Cs[ICl2]}}}} (and Cs [ ICl 4 ] {\displaystyle {{\ce {Cs[ICl4]}}}} ) by thermal decomposition:[30]
Cs [ ICl 2 ] ⟶ CsCl + ICl {\displaystyle {\ce {Cs[ICl2] -> {CsCl}+ ICl}}}
Only about 20 tonnes of caesium compounds, with a major contribution from CsCl, were being produced annually around the 1970s[31] and 2000s worldwide.[32] Caesium chloride enriched with caesium-137 for radiation therapy applications is produced at a single facility Mayak in the Ural Region of Russia[33] and is sold internationally through a UK dealer. The salt is synthesized at 200 °C because of its hygroscopic nature and sealed in a thimble-shaped steel container which is then enclosed into another steel casing. The sealing is required to protect the salt from moisture.[34]
Laboratory methods[edit]
In the laboratory, CsCl can be obtained by treating caesium hydroxide, carbonate, caesium bicarbonate, or caesium sulfide with hydrochloric acid:
CsOH + HCl → CsCl + H2O
Cs2CO3 + 2 HCl → 2 CsCl + 2 H2O + CO2
Uses[edit]
Precursor to Cs metal[edit]
Caesium chloride is the main precursor to caesium metal by high temperature reduction:[31]
2 CsCl + Mg → MgCl2 + 2 Cs
A similar reaction – heating CsCl with calcium in vacuum in presence of phosphorus – was first reported in 1905 by the French chemist M. L. Hackspill[35] and is still used industrially.[31]
Caesium hydroxide is obtained by electrolysis of aqueous caesium chloride solution:[36]
2 CsCl + 2 H2O → 2 CsOH + Cl2 + H2
Solute for ultracentrifugation[edit]
Caesium chloride is widely used in centrifugation in a technique known as isopycnic centrifugation. Centripetal and diffusive forces establish a density gradient that allow separation of mixtures on the basis of their molecular density. This technique allows separation of DNA of different densities (e.g. DNA fragments with differing A-T or G-C content).[31] This application requires a solution with high density and yet relatively low viscosity, and CsCl suits it because of its high solubility in water, high density owing to the large mass of Cs, as well as low viscosity and high stability of CsCl solutions.[29]
Organic chemistry[edit]
Caesium chloride is rarely used in organic chemistry. It can act as a phase transfer catalyst reagent in selected reactions. One of these reactions is the synthesis of glutamic acid derivatives
CH 2 = CHCOOCH 3 Methyl acrylate + ArCH = N − CH ( CH 3 ) − COOC ( CH 3 ) 3 → CPME , 0 ∘ C TBAB , CsCl , K 2 CO 3 ArCH = N − C ( C 2 H 4 COOCH 3 ) ( CH 3 ) − COOC ( CH 3 ) 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {Methyl\ acrylate}{CH2=CHCOOCH3}}+ArCH=N-CH(CH3)-COOC(CH3)3->[{\ce {TBAB,\ CsCl,\ K2CO3}}][{\ce {CPME,\ 0^{\circ }C}}]{ArCH=N-C(C2H4COOCH3)(CH3)-COOC(CH3)3}}}}
where TBAB is tetrabutylammonium bromide (interphase catalyst) and CPME is a cyclopentyl methyl ether (solvent).[37]
Another reaction is substitution of tetranitromethane[38]
C ( NO 2 ) 4 tetranitromethane + CsCl → DMF C ( NO 2 ) 3 Cl + CsNO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {tetranitromethane}{C(NO2)4}}+ CsCl ->[{\ce {DMF}}] {C(NO2)3Cl}+ {CsNO2}}}}
where DMF is dimethylformamide (solvent).
Analytical chemistry[edit]
Caesium chloride is a reagent in traditional analytical chemistry used for detecting inorganic ions via the color and morphology of the precipitates. Quantitative concentration measurement of some of these ions, e.g. Mg2+, with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, is used to evaluate the hardness of water.[39]
[show]Ion
Accompanying reagents
Residue
Morphology
Detection limit (µg)
AsO33− KI Cs2[AsI5] or Cs3[AsI6] Red hexagons 0.01
Au3+ AgCl, HCl Cs2Ag[AuCl6] Gray-black crosses, four and six-beamed stars 0.01
Au3+ NH4SCN Cs[Au(SCN)4] Orange-yellow needles 0.4
Bi3+ KI, HCl Cs2[BiI5] or 2.5H2O Red hexagons 0.13
Cu2+ (CH3COO)2Pb, CH3COOH, KNO2 Cs2Pb[Cu(NO2)6] Small black cubes 0.01
In3+ — Cs3[InCl6] Small octahedra 0.02
[IrCl6]3− — Cs2[IrCl6] Small dark-red octahedra –
Mg2+ Na2HPO4 CsMgPO4 or 6H2O Small tetrahedra –
Pb2+ KI Cs[PbI3] Yellow-green needles 0.01
Pd2+ NaBr Cs2[PdBr4] Dark-red needles and prisms –
[ReCl4]− — Cs[ReCl4] Dark-red rhombs, bipyramids 0.2
[ReCl6]2− — Cs2[ReCl6] Small yellow-green octahedra 0.5
ReO4− — CsReO4 Tetragonal bipyramids 0.13
Rh3+ KNO2 Cs3[Rh(NO2)6] Yellow cubes 0.1
Ru3+ — Cs3[RuCl6] Pink needles –
[RuCl6]2− — Cs2[RuCl6] Small dark-red crystals 0.8
Sb3+ — Cs2[SbCl5]·nH2O Hexagons 0.16
Sb3+ NaI Cs [ SbI 4 ] {\displaystyle {{\ce {Cs[SbI4]}}}} or Cs 2 [ SbI 5 ] {\displaystyle {\ce {Cs2[SbI5]}}} Red hexagons 0.1
Sn4+ — Cs2[SnCl6] Small octahedra 0.2
TeO33− HCl Cs2[TeCl6] Light yellow octahedra 0.3
Tl3+ NaI Cs [ TlI 4 ] {\displaystyle {\ce {Cs[TlI4]}}} Orange-red hexagons or rectangles 0.06
It is also used for detection of the following ions:
Ion
Accompanying reagents
Detection
Detection limit (µg/mL)
Al3+ K2SO4 Colorless crystals form in neutral media after evaporation 0.01
Ga3+ KHSO4 Colorless crystals form upon heating 0.5
Cr3+ KHSO4 Pale-violet crystals precipitate in slightly acidic media 0.06
Medicine[edit]
The American Cancer Society state that "available scientific evidence does not support claims that non-radioactive cesium chloride supplements have any effect on tumors."[40]
Nuclear medicine and radiography[edit]
Caesium chloride composed of radioisotopes such as 137CsCl and 131CsCl,[41] is used in nuclear medicine, including treatment of cancer (brachytherapy) and diagnosis of myocardial infarction.[42][43] In the production of radioactive sources, it is normal to choose a chemical form of the radioisotope which would not be readily dispersed in the environment in the event of an accident. For instance, radiothermal generators (RTGs) often use strontium titanate, which is insoluble in water. For teletherapy sources, however, the radioactive density (Ci in a given volume) needs to be very high, which is not possible with known insoluble caesium compounds. A thimble-shaped container of radioactive caesium chloride provides the active source.
Miscellaneous applications[edit]
Caesium chloride is used in the preparation of electrically conducting glasses[41][44] and screens of cathode ray tubes.[31] In conjunction with rare gases CsCl is used in excimer lamps[45][46] and excimer lasers. Other uses include activation of electrodes in welding;[47] manufacture of mineral water, beer[48] and drilling muds;[49] repellents[50] and high-temperature solders.[51] High-quality CsCl single crystals have a wide transparency range from UV to the infrared and therefore had been used for cuvettes, prisms and windows in optical spectrometers;[31] this use was discontinued with the development of less hygroscopic materials.
CsCl is a potent inhibitor of HCN channels, which carry the h-current in excitable cells such as neurons.[52] Therefore, it can be useful in electrophyisiology experiments in neuroscience.
Toxicity[edit]
Caesium chloride has a low toxicity to human and animals.[53] Its median lethal dose (LD50) in mice is 2300 mg per kilogram of body weight for oral administration and 910 mg/kg for intravenous injection.[54] The mild toxicity of CsCl is related to its ability to lower the concentration of potassium in the body and partly substitute it in biochemical processes.[55] When taken in large quantities, however, can cause a significant imbalance in potassium and lead to hypokalemia, arrythmia, and acute cardiac arrest.[56] However, caesium chloride powder can irritate the mucous membranes and cause asthma.[49]
Because of its high solubility in water, caesium chloride is highly mobile and can even diffuse through concrete. This is a drawback for its radioactive form which urges a search for more stable radioisotope materials. Commercial sources of radioactive caesium chloride are well sealed in a double steel enclosure.[34] However, in the Goiânia accident in Brazil, such a source containing about 93 gram of 137CsCl, was stolen from an abandoned hospital and forced open by two scavengers. The blue glow emitted in the dark by the radioactive caesium chloride attracted the thieves and their relatives who were unaware of the associated dangers and spread the powder. This resulted in one of the worst radiation spill accidents in which 4 people died within a month from the exposure, 20 showed signs of radiation sickness, 249 people were contaminated with radioactive caesium chloride, and about a thousand received a dose exceeding a yearly amount of background radiation. More than 110,000 people overwhelmed the local hospitals, and several city blocks had to be demolished in the cleanup operations. In the first days of the contamination, stomach disorders and nausea due to radiation sickness were experienced by several people, but only after several days one person associated the symptoms with the powder and brought a sample to the authorities.[57][58]
See also[edit]
List of ineffective cancer treatments
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Jump up ^ Morris, Ch. G., ed. (1992). "Cesium chloride". Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 395. ISBN 0-12-200400-0.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cesium Chloride MSDS" (pdf). Cesium Fine Chemicals. Cabot Corporation. Retrieved 2011-04-11.
Jump up ^ Qureshi J. A.; Buschman L. L.; Throne J. E.; Whaley P. M.; Ramaswamy S. B. (2004). "Rubidium Chloride and Cesium Chloride Sprayed on Maize Plants and Evaluated for Marking Diatraea grandiosella (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in Mark–Recapture Dispersal Studies". Environmental Entomology. 33 (4): 930–940. doi:10.1603/0046-225X-33.4.930.
Jump up ^ Kogel, J. E.; Trivedi, N. C.; Barker, J. M, eds. (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses (7th ed.). Littleton: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 1430. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8.
Jump up ^ Biel, Martin; Christian Wahl-Schott; Stylianos Michalakis; Xiangang Zong (2009). "Hyperpolarization-Activated Cation Channels: From Genes to Function". Physiological Reviews. 89 (3): 847–85. doi:10.1152/physrev.00029.2008. PMID 19584315.
Jump up ^ "Chemical Safety Data: Caesium chloride". Hands-on Science (H-Sci) Project: Chemical Safety Database. Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
Jump up ^ "Safety data for caesium chloride". Chemical and Other Safety Information. The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory Oxford University. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
Jump up ^ Lazarev N.V. and Gadaskina, I.D., ed. (1977). Вредные вещества в промышленности. Справочник для химиков, инженеров и врачей (in Russian). 3 (7 ed.). St. Petersburg: Khimiya. pp. 328–329.
Jump up ^ Melnikov, P; Zanoni, LZ (June 2010). "Clinical effects of cesium intake". Biological trace element research. 135 (1–3): 1–9. doi:10.1007/s12011-009-8486-7. PMID 19655100.
Jump up ^ The Radiological Accident in Goiânia. Vienna: IAEA. 1988. ISBN 92-0-129088-8. . See pp. 1–6 for summary and p. 22 for the source description
Jump up ^ The Worst Nuclear Disasters, Time Magazine
Bibliography[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caesium chloride.
Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 1439855110.
Lidin, R. A; Andreeva, L. L.; Molochko V. A. (2006). Константы неорганических веществ: справочник (Inorganic compounds: data book). Moscow. ISBN 5-7107-8085-5.
Plyushev, V. E.; Stepin B. D. (1970). Химия и технология соединений лития, рубидия и цезия (in Russian). Moscow: Khimiya.
[hide]
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Caesium compounds
CsBr
CsCl
CsClO4
Cs2CrO4
CsF
CsH
CsI
CsLiB6O10
CsNO3
CsOH
Cs2CO3
CsHCO3
Cs2SO4
CsC2H3O2
Cs2O
Cs2TiO3
Cs2WO4
CsAu
Authority control
GND: 4147136-2
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U.S. Route 27
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
U.S. Route 27
Route information
Length
1,373 mi[citation needed] (2,210 km)
Existed
1926[citation needed]–present
Major junctions
South end
US 1 (Biscayne Boulevard) at Miami, FL
I‑4 at Davenport, FL
I‑75 at Ocala, FL
I‑10 at Tallahassee, FL
I‑85 at LaGrange, GA
I-20 at Bremen, GA
I‑24 at Chattanooga, TN
I‑40 at Harriman, TN
I‑64 / I‑75 at Lexington, KY
I‑71 / I‑74 / I‑75 at Cincinnati, OH
I‑70 at Richmond, IN
North end
I‑69 / US 24 / US 30 at Fort Wayne, IN
Location
States
Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana
Highway system
United States Numbered Highway System
List
Special
Divided
Replaced
U.S. Route 27 (US 27) is a north–south United States highway in the southern and midwestern United States. The southern terminus is at US 1 in Miami, Florida. The northern terminus is at Interstate 69 (I-69) in Fort Wayne, Indiana.[1] From Miami it goes up the center of Florida, then west to Tallahassee, Florida, and north through such cities and towns as Columbus, Georgia; Rome, Georgia; Chattanooga, Tennessee; Lexington, Kentucky; Cincinnati, Ohio; Oxford, Ohio; Richmond, Indiana; and Fort Wayne, Indiana. It once extended north through Lansing, Michigan, to Cheboygan, Mackinaw City, and for about 3 years as far as St. Ignace.
US 27 appeared in 1926, replacing what had been the western route of the Dixie Highway in many places.
Contents
1 Route description
1.1 Florida
1.2 Georgia
1.3 Tennessee
1.4 Kentucky
1.5 Ohio
1.6 Indiana
2 History
2.1 Indiana
2.2 Michigan
3 Major intersections
4 Related routes
5 References
6 External links
Route description[edit]
Florida[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Florida
A US 27 shield used in Florida prior to 1993
In Florida, US 27 has been designated the Claude Pepper Memorial Highway by the Florida State Legislature. It was named after long-time Florida US Senator and congressman Claude Pepper. Nearly the entire length of US 27 in Florida is a divided highway.
US 27 begins as North 36th Street in Midtown Miami, heading west from US 1 for 4.4 miles (7.1 km) before turning northwest to pass under the western terminus of the Airport Expressway (State Road 112, SR 112). It then proceeds northwest for five miles (8 km) as South Okeechobee Road, parallel to the Miami Canal, forming the southwest boundary of the city of Hialeah. After an interchange with the Palmetto Expressway (SR 826), it continues northwest as North Okeechobee Road for five miles (8 km) before an interchange with the Homestead Extension of the Florida Turnpike (SR 821). After another four miles (6 km), the highway curves to the north and, after passing the northern terminus of Krome Avenue (SR 997), crosses into Broward County.
An aerial shot of US 27 North near the Everglades.
US 27, looking south towards the I-75 interchange near Andytown, Florida
In Broward County, the highway passes protected wetlands and heavy duty power lines on the west and the outer reaches of the suburban communities of Pembroke Pines and Weston on the east. US 27 then reaches an interchange with I-75 and Alligator Alley before curving to the northwest toward South Bay and Lake Okeechobee.
The highway skirts the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee and then heads west at Clewiston, before making a sharp turn to the north towards Moore Haven. The road then proceeds in a northerly direction toward the central Florida communities of Lake Placid, Sebring, Avon Park, and Lake Wales.
Widening of US 27 to a six-lane highway continues in Polk County. The following sections have been completed and are open to six lanes of traffic:
SR 60 to SR 540 in Lake Wales
SR 542 in Dundee to north of I-4 in Davenport
North of I-4, US 27 contains un-numbered interchanges with US 192 and then County Road 474 (CR 474) in Citrus Ridge, SR 50 in Clermont, and SR 19 south of Howey-in-the-Hills, which also includes a southbound interchange with Florida's Turnpike. The northbound Turnpike interchange can be found further northwest. US 441 later joins US 27 in Leesburg and US 301 in Belleview, only for the road to break away from both in Ocala.
US 27 resumes its status as its own route until it reaches Williston and joins US 41. This concurrency continues northward until US 41 reaches High Springs, and joins US 441. US 27 heads west along the unsigned SR 20 towards Perry and joins US 19 until US 19 breaks away in Capps, but not before resuming a westward direction. In Tallahassee, the road becomes Apalachee Parkway, a major east–west thoroughfare. Constructed in 1957, the Apalachee Parkway starts at Monroe Street in front of the Florida State Capitol building. It has a short expressway section just east of the capitol, then is a busy four-lane surface boulevard with service roads for the next few miles, passing the Governor's Square Mall and many state office buildings. Past Tallahassee, US 27 finally resumes its northwesterly direction. The highway goes through Havana before entering Georgia.
Georgia[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Georgia
In Georgia, US 27 has been designated the Martha Berry Highway by the Georgia State Legislature. It was named after Martha Berry, founder of Berry College in Rome. US 27 is a designated Governor's Road Improvement Program (GRIP) developmental highway corridor which will eventually be widened to four lanes (mostly divided) from the Florida state line to the Tennessee state line. All of US 27 in Georgia is concurrent with Georgia State Route 1.
Tennessee[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Tennessee
US 27 at its intersection with SR 303, near Graysville, Tennessee
In Chattanooga, a portion of US 27 was once signed as I-124. Though the designation still exists, it is no longer signed as such.[2] In and around the Chattanooga area, US 27 is sometimes referred to as Corridor J, the designation of a road in the Appalachian Development Highway System between Chattanooga and London, Kentucky, intended to follow the route of US 27.
Throughout its approximately 80-mile (130 km) stretch between Chattanooga and Harriman, US 27 traverses a valley between the Tennessee River to the east and the Cumberland Plateau to the west. The plateau's Walden Ridge escarpment is frequently visible to the west. From Chattanooga, the highway passes through Soddy-Daisy. Here, it intersects State Route 111 (SR 111), which veers northwestward across the Plateau into Middle Tennessee. US 27 continues through Sale Creek and Graysville before reaching Dayton. At Dayton, it intersects SR 30, which connects Dayton with Pikeville to the west and Decatur to the east, and SR 60, which connects Dayton with Cleveland to the southeast. US 27 continues northward through Evensville before arriving at Spring City. At Spring City, it intersects SR 68, which connects the area to Crossville, atop the plateau to the west.
From here, US 27 enters Roane County, running concurrently with US 70 going through the city of Rockwood. After US 70 splits to the east, US 27 runs concurrently with SR 61 through Harriman, where it is crossed by I-40. During this stretch, it forms part of the Harvey H. Hannah Memorial Highway, and is signed as such. Just beyond Harriman, near the DeArmond community, US 27 ascends the Cumberland Plateau, and continues northward across the plateau for its remaining 55 miles (89 km) or so in Tennessee.
In Morgan County, the highway passes through Wartburg and Sunbright. At Elgin, it intersects SR 52, which connects the area with the historic village of Rugby, Tennessee, and Fentress County to the west. Beyond Elgin, US 27 passes through Robbins, Huntsville, and Helenwood before reaching Oneida in Scott County. In Oneida, US 27 intersects SR 297, which continues westward into the Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area. A short time later, US 27 intersects with SR 456, which continues to Tennessee State Route 63. After coming to a stop, it then makes a sharp left turn to go through downtown Oneida. After a further 5 to 7 miles (8.0 to 11.3 km), it then reaches Winfield. Winfield is the last sizable town that US 27 passes through in Tennessee before it reaches the community of Isham on the Kentucky border.
Kentucky[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Kentucky
US 27 in Falmouth, Kentucky
US 27 enters Kentucky near Whitley City. The first major town it goes through is Somerset, followed by Stanford, Lancaster, Nicholasville, and Lexington, where it begins a concurrency with US 68 that continues to Paris. US 27 continues north from there through Cynthiana, Falmouth, Alexandria, Highland Heights, Fort Thomas, Southgate, and Newport before crossing into Ohio at Cincinnati via Taylor-Southgate Bridge. From its junction with Interstate 471 in Highland Heights through Campbell County, it is a four-lane highway with a center turn lane for both directions of traffic. Near the "welcome to Alexandria" sign at KY 536, US 27 becomes a divided four-lane highway with a grass median. It is currently being constructed as such for the rest of its length from 536 through southern Campbell county. Currently, US 27 is under-going a widening project near Garrard CR 1355 to HWY 34. The road will become a four lane into Lexington.
Ohio[edit]
US 27 crosses into Ohio and Downtown Cincinnati via the Taylor–Southgate Bridge. US 27 follows Mehring Way, Central Avenue, Ezzard Charles Drive and Central Parkway through Downtown Cincinnati. US 27 briefly duplexes with I-75, exiting at I-74 for another brief duplex before exiting onto Colerain Road. US 27 then continues Northwest eventually to Oxford, and then reaches the Indiana border another 6 miles northwest at College Corner.
Overall, US 27 is in Ohio for 40.6 miles: 18.5 miles in Hamilton County and another 22.1 miles in Butler County.
Browse numbered routes
← SR 26 OH SR 27 →
Indiana[edit]
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Indiana
Looking south at the northern terminus of US 27 in Fort Wayne, Indiana
US 27 enters the southeastern part of Indiana south of the town of Liberty. At Liberty, US 27 turns north, paralleling the Ohio state line. It intersects I-70 at Richmond, Indiana, and continues north to Decatur. US 33 joins US 27 just south of Decatur and the two routes share a northwesterly alignment on a divided surface highway from Decatur to I-469 south of Fort Wayne. US 33 turns west and follows I-469, while US 27 continues north into downtown Fort Wayne as Clinton Street. North of downtown, US 27 follows Lima Road to its terminus at I-69/US 30 (Lima Road continues north from this point as SR 3).
History[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
US 27 no longer exists in Michigan. It has been replaced by I-69, I-75, and US 127.
Originally, the southern terminus of US 27 was in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1928, the route was extended south to Chattanooga, Tennessee, then to Tallahassee, Florida in 1934. In 1949, it was extended to its current terminus in Miami. At its northern end, US 27 originally terminated at Cheboygan, Michigan. In 1937, the route was extended concurrently with US 23 to Mackinaw City, where it ended at the Michigan State Auto Ferry Dock along with US 23 and US 31. After the completion of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957, US 27 was extended across the bridge to the current intersection of I-75 and US 2 near St. Ignace. In 1961, what became I-75 was completed, enabling the roadway to be designated as I-75. At the same time, US 27 was truncated to an interchange with I-75 six miles (10 km) south of Grayling. In 2002, the northern terminus was moved to its current location.
From Grayling to I-69 near Lansing, the road is now designated US 127. US 27 signs were removed from I-69 between Lansing and Fort Wayne in 2001. Officially, the current northern terminus is at the junction of I-69, US 30, and SR 3, but heading north on I-69 one will still see US 27 shields on some of the older overhead signs heading to the I-469 interchange on the northern edge of Fort Wayne.[3]
Indiana[edit]
On March 9, 2007, legislation was introduced in the Indiana House of Representatives to designate US 27 as historic highway. Richmond, one of the cities US 27 passes through, would have two historic highways passing through it. The original National Road (US 40) runs through Richmond.
Michigan[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: U.S. Route 27 in Michigan
US 27 was one of the highways in Michigan to carry the TEMP I-75 designation when I-75 was being constructed along then M-76.
The at-grade routing of US 27 in Michigan has been largely superseded by I-75, which follows a roughly similar route and in some places actually replaced the older highway. From Lansing north to I-75, the former US 27 is now US 127; from Lansing south to Fort Wayne, US 27 was replaced by I-69. In many places the route markers and the highway itself serve to connect local communities bypassed by the Interstate Highway.
Major intersections[edit]
Florida
US 1 in Miami
US 441 in Miami
I‑75 in Weston
US 98 south-southeast of Sebring. The highways travel concurrently to east of West Frostproof.
US 17 / US 92 in Haines City
I‑4 in Davenport
US 192 in Four Corners
US 441 in Leesburg. The highways travel concurrently to Ocala.
US 301 in Belleview. The highways travel concurrently to Ocala.
I‑75 in Ocala
US 41 in Williston. The highways travel concurrently to High Springs.
US 129 east of Branford. The highways travel concurrently to Branford.
US 221 in Perry
US 19 / US 98 in Perry. US 19/US 27 travel concurrently to Capps.
US 319 in Tallahassee
US 90 in Tallahassee
Georgia
US 84 in Bainbridge. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 280 in Cusseta. The highways travel concurrently to Columbus.
I‑185 in Fort Benning
US 80 in Columbus
I‑185 southeast of LaGrange
I‑85 in LaGrange
US 29 in LaGrange. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑20 in Bremen
US 78 in Bremen
US 278 in Cedartown. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 411 in Six Mile. The highways travel concurrently to Rome.
Tennessee
I‑24 in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 41 in Chattanooga
I‑124 in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 127 in Chattanooga
US 70 south-southwest of Rockwood. The highways travel concurrently into Rockwood.
I‑40 in Harriman
Kentucky
US 150 in Stanford
US 68 in Lexington. The highways travel concurrently to Paris.
US 60 in Lexington. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 25 / US 60 / US 421 in Lexington
I‑64 / I‑75 in Lexington
US 460 in Paris
US 62 in Cynthiana. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑471 in Highland Heights
I‑471 on the Fort Thomas–Southgate city line
Ohio
US 42 / US 50 / US 52 in Cincinnati. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
US 22 in Cincinnati
US 127 in Cincinnati
I‑75 in Cincinnati
I‑74 in Cincinnati
I‑275 in Bevis
Indiana
US 40 in Richmond
I‑70 in Richmond
US 36 in Lynn
US 33 in Decatur. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Fort Wayne.
US 224 in Decatur. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
I‑469 / US 24 / US 33 south-southeast of Fort Wayne
I‑69 / US 24 / US 30 in Fort Wayne
Related routes[edit]
Further information: Special routes of U.S. Route 27
U.S. Route 127
U.S. Route 227
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Endpoints of U.S. highways". Retrieved October 9, 2014. [self-published source]
Jump up ^ "Interstate 124 Tennessee @ Interstate-Guide.com". Retrieved September 28, 2007. [self-published source]
Jump up ^ "Historic US 27". Michigan Highways. Retrieved October 9, 2014. [self-published source]
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to U.S. Route 27.
Endpoints of US 27
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History of Central America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Political Evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present
Part of a series on
Central America
Countries[show]
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
Culture[show]
Central American Spanish
Cuisine
Mesoamerica
Music
Ethnic groups
Ethnic groups
List of indigenous peoples
Visual arts by indigenous peoples
Religion
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Buddhism
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Sport
Central American Games
Central American and Caribbean Games
Football Union
By country
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
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Demographics[show]
By country
Belize
Costa Rica
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Guatemala
Honduras
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Economy[show]
By country
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Education[show]
By country
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Environment[show]
Bioregion
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Greater Republic
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(Extreme summits
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Middle America
Middle America Trench
By country
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
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Honduras
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Panama
Politics and government[show]
Integration System
Parliament
Elections by country
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
Foreign relations by country
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
Transportation[show]
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Related topics[show]
Index of articles
Americas (terminology)
Central Time Zone
Latin America
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The history of Central America is the study of the region known as Central America.
Contents
[hide]
1 Before European contact
2 Spanish Colonial Era
3 Independence
3.1 United Provinces of Central America
3.2 United Provinces of Central America (Further Reading)
3.3 Greater Republic of Central America
4 The liberal reforms period
5 20th century
6 History of Central American nations
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Colonial era
8.2 Post-independence
Before European contact[edit]
In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of the relaxing Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some[1] culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo-Colombian Area.
Spanish Colonial Era[edit]
See also: Spanish conquest of Guatemala, Petén, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua
Central America is composed of seven independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was the Western Caribbean Zone, which included the Caribbean coast and encompassed both semi-independent indigenous polities, runaway slave communities, and settlers, especially British settlers who would eventually form British Honduras (the modern-day nation of Belize), a sparsely populated area that was inhabited by the British through the Treaty of Madrid from Spain. When Spain failed to regain control over British Honduras, the British continued to inhabit the country, and eventually colonized it. When Guatemala gained its independence, they assumed inheritance of British Honduras from Spain. British Honduras had been a British settlement, not a Colony (the treaty between Spain and The United Kingdom prohibited British Colonies in the territory)for several years. After many years of controversy, a treaty was signed between Guatemala and the United Kingdom in which the Guatemalan President of the time recognized the original territory (granted by the kingdom of Spain to the British Crown) of Belize. Within this treaty, was also an agreement that a cart road be built from Guatemala City through British Honduras to the Caribbean Sea. Since the cart road was never built, Guatemala declared the treaty null and void. British Honduras for the British and Belize for the Spaniards and Guatemalans gained its independence from Great Britain in 1981 and adopted the name "Belize". Guatemala still disputes the Belizean Territory.
From the 16th century through 1821, Central America formed the Captaincy General of Guatemala, sometimes known also as the Kingdom of Guatemala, composed by a part of the state of Chiapas (nowadays Mexico), Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Officially, the Captaincy was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and therefore under the supervision of the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City. It was, however, administered not by the viceroy or his deputies, but by an independently appointed Captain General headquartered first in Antigua Guatemala and later in Guatemala City.
Independence[edit]
In 1811, independence movements broke out in El Salvador in reaction to events in the Peninsular War, and again in 1814 after the restoration of Ferdinand VII. Both revolts were easily suppressed and the political unrest was subsumed into the general political process in the Spanish world that led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Between 1810 and 1814, the Captaincy General elected seven representatives to the Cádiz Cortes, in addition to forming a locally-elected Provincial Deputation.[2] In 1821 a congress of Central American Criollos in Guatemala City composed the Act of Independence of Central America to declare the region's independence from Spain, effective on 15 September of that year.[3] That date is still marked as independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on 5 January 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent.
When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including North America and a Republica system of government, was established.
Coat of arms of the United Provinces of Central America in 1823.
Central America, 1892
United Provinces of Central America[edit]
Main article: Federal Republic of Central America
In 1823, the nation of Central America was formed. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America. It was provisionally known as "The United Provinces of Central America," while the final name according to the Constitution of 1824 was "The Federal Republic of Central America." It is sometimes incorrectly referred in English as "The United States of Central America." The Central American nation consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In the 1830s, an additional state was added, Los Altos, with its capital in Quetzaltenango, occupying parts of what is now the western highlands of Guatemala and part of Chiapas (now part of Mexico), but this state was reincorporated into Guatemala and Mexico respectively in 1840.
Central American liberals had high hopes for the federal republic, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.
The Union dissolved in civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5, 1838.
United Provinces of Central America (Further Reading)[edit]
UPCA
The United Provinces of Central America (or PUCA- Provincias Unidas De Centro-America in Spanish) is the name given to the different states of Central America in the time after Central America’s independence and before becoming their own distinct nations (between 1823-1840[4]). It was a political movement that strived to unify the regions of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (Panama and Belize at the time were under separate ownership) under a liberal federal government that believed that united they would be a stronger political unit. Unfortunately, due to many strong political disagreements within the different states, the UPCA eventually disbanded and the regions became separate nations with devastating political and economic civil wars that are still felt today.
The kingdom of Guatemala (what Central America was more commonly known as during Spanish and Mexican rule) was annexed into Mexico in 1822 under the rule of emperor Agustín de Iturbide. Shortly after, opposition from Central Americans began against the monarch and they pushed for independence from Mexico. Iturbide’s unsuccessful leadership of Central America caused his party to fail against the uprising rebels and on July 1, 1823, Central America gained its independence.
After receiving independence, officials from the different regions gathered in a junta to decide the future of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. They decided on uniting themselves into a federation of 5 autonomous states, thus creating the UPCA, a term coined by Brigadier General Filisola who was stationed in Guatemala City.
The UPCA’s aims were to be a liberal government with political principles modeled after the United States,[5] and also to remain united. They felt that the “provinces alone were too small and weak economically to survive as sovereign states” so they “avert[ed] fragmentation of the isthmus”[6] and pushed for union. However, the UPCA soon noticed that there were many political ideals between the regions and conservative parties on the other end of the political spectrum actively showed their discontent under the new liberal regime. Despite this, the beginning of the federation went relatively smooth and negotiations helped them reform borders, capital cities were moved to accommodate the citizens, and economies of coffee grew high. All the while, tensions between the liberals and conservatives and power struggles within the different economies increasingly grew.
One the most notable key figures of UPCA was Francisco Morazan, a liberal advocate who was chosen as president of the UPCA. Between the 1820s through the 1830s Morazan took an active role in liberal movements throughout Central America, especially in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras against conservative parties. These battles between parties increasingly divided the nation causing sour relationships and distance between them. Differences between liberals who wanted free trade favored a republic and had anti-clerical views contested those of the conservatives who wanted a monarchy, trade under close control and power to the church. These conflicts, along with cholera outbreaks, foreign intervention and distress among those in poverty caused many insurgencies those rose up against liberal movements and vice versa resulted in various civil wars throughout Central America.
Morazan was captured in Costa Rica by the conservative party and they assassinated him on September 15, 1842),[7] which marked the official end of the UPCA. Upon notification of his death, greater turmoil and fights among the opposing liberal and conservative parties increased. It is said that the conservative-liberal struggles that Morazan campaigned for are still in effect today.[8] In addition, lacking a central authority proved to be unproductive and created more disputes and distrust within the different nations. In fact, foreigners who were looking to make economic and/or political negations were told that they had to go to each individual region for consultations and found it inconvenient.[6] The desire for power and their inability to overcome bad relations among each other led to the fall of the UPCA. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica seceded from the union in 1838. In 1839 Guatemala seceded, and in 1840 El Salvador did the same.
The provinces shortly after became their own separate republican nations, of which we are more familiar with today and eventually Panama and Belize joined what we know today as “Central America.” Tensions among the different nations, however, continued to grow more aggressive throughout the rest of the 19th century. Despite knowing that being unified would overall work better for Central America, they remained separate. Though many attempts to reunite the nations have been attempted throughout the years it always resulted with unsuccessful results. Civil wars continued to be part of Central America through the 20th and parts of the 21st century as well.
Greater Republic of Central America[edit]
Main article: Greater Republic of Central America
Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the 19th century, but none succeeded for any length of time:
The first attempt was in 1842 by former President Francisco Morazán, who was quickly captured and executed. The abortive attempt proposed to restore the union as the Confederation of Central America and planned to include El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. This first attempt lasted until 1844.
A second attempt was made and lasted from October to November 1852, when El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua created a Federation of Central America (Federacion de Centro America).
Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios attempted to reunite the nation by force of arms in the 1880s and was also killed in the process, like his 1842 predecessor.
The third union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador as the Greater Republic of Central America or "Republica Mayor de Centroamerica" lasted from 1896 to 1898.
The last attempt occurred between June 1921 and January 1922 when El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica formed a (second) Federation of Central America. The treaty establishing this federation was signed at San José, Costa Rica on January 19, 1921. This second Federation was nearly moribund from the start, having only a Provisional Federal Council made up of delegates from each state.
Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856-1857, the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by U.S. adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).
The liberal reforms period[edit]
Even though the dates for this period change from country to country, they approximately correspond to the years between 1870 and 1930. During this time, political elites in the five Central American countries advanced reforms on agriculture, commerce, and redefined the relationship between the state, society and the economy. The most relevant political figures during this period were the presidents Justo Rufino Barrios in Guatemala, Rafael Zaldivar in El Salvador, Braulio Carrillo and Tomas Guardia in Costa Rica, Macro Aurelio Soto in Honduras, and Jose Santos Zelaya in Nicaragua. The key result of this period in all the Central American countries was a transition from communal to private property of land. The extent to which liberals targeted common lands for privatization varied from country to country. Likewise, there were important differences in the size of the commercial landholding estate. Another source of variance among the policies promoted by the liberal governments was the use of coercion and security organizations in the implementation of the different reforms to the landholding policies.[9]
20th century[edit]
In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market ("CACM"). Costa Rica chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras.
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana Republic. [10]
A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. The regional parliament seat deputies from the four former members of the Union (Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras), as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Another initiative is known as Free Movement of Persons in the CA-4, which has opened the borders between Nicaragua and Guatemala removing the need to carry a passport to cross borders, just a national ID (cédula de identidad) is enough to cross borders. This initiative is the result of negotiations of the Central American Commission of Directors of Migration (OCAM) with the support of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This initiative has been in effect since 2007.[citation needed]
History of Central American nations[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Central America.
History of Belize
History of Guatemala
History of El Salvador
History of Honduras
History of Nicaragua
History of Costa Rica
History of Panama
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hoopes, John W. and Oscar Fonseca Z. (2003). Goldwork and Chibchan Identity:Endogenous Change and Diffuse Unity in the Isthmo-Colombian Area (Online text reproduction). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-82631-000-1.
Jump up ^ Marie Laure Rieu-Millan. Los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz: Igualdad o independencia. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1990, 43. ISBN 978-84-00-07091-5
Jump up ^ "Documentos de la Union Centroamericana" (pdf). Organization of American States - Foreign Trade Information System. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Editors of Encyclopedia, Britannica. "United Provinces of Central America". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 15, 2016. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Foster, Lyn (April 15, 2016). A Brief History of Central America (2nd ed.). New York: Facts on File. pp. 135–160. ISBN 9780816066711.
^ Jump up to: a b Foster, Lyn (April 15, 2016). A Brief History of Central America (2nd ed.). New York: Facts on File. p. 136. ISBN 9780816066711.
Jump up ^ Pearcy, Thomas (April 15, 2016). The History of Central America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 40–60. ISBN 0313322937.
Jump up ^ Pearcy, Thomas (April 15, 2016). The History of Central America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 54. ISBN 0313322937.
Jump up ^ Mahoney, James (2001-03-01). "Path-Dependent Explanations of Regime Change: Central America in Comparative Perspective". Studies in Comparative International Development. 36 (1): 111–141. ISSN 0039-3606. doi:10.1007/BF02687587.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.ca/books?id=WH5jDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31&dq=United+Fruit+company+Banana+republics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjnh8TCgdPVAhWr7oMKHdOqCHQ4ChDoAQgnMAA#v=onepage&q=United%20Fruit%20company%20Banana%20republics&f=false
Further reading[edit]
Hall, Carolyn, Historical atlas of Central America. Norman, Okla. : University of Oklahoma Press, c2003.
Pérez Brignoli, Héctor. A brief history of Central America. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1989.
Woodward, Ralph Lee. Central America, a nation divided, 3rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Colonial era[edit]
Brown, Richmond F. Juan Fermín de Aycinena, Central American Colonial Entrepreneur, 1729-1796. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997.
Dym, Jordana and Christophe Belaubre, eds. Politics, Economy, and Society in Bourbon Central America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2007.
Gerhard, Peter. The Southeast Frontier of New Spain. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1979.
Jones, Grant D., The conquest of the last Maya kingdom. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998.
Jones, Grant D., Maya resistance to Spanish rule: time and history on a colonial frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, c1989.
Kinkead, D.T., ed. Urbanization in Colonial Central America. Seville 1985.
Lanning, John Tate, The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment in the University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2001.
MacLeod, Murdo J., Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520-1720. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1973.
Patch, Robert W. Indians and the Political Economy of Colonial Central America, 1670-1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2013.
Sherman, William. Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth Century Central America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979.
Wortman, Miles. Government and Society in Colonial Central America. New York 1982.
Post-independence[edit]
Booth, John A., Christine J. Wade, and Thomas Walker, eds. Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change (Westview Press, 2014)
Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. Political Economy of Central America Since 1920. New York: Cambridge University Press 1987.
Coatsworth, John H. Central America and the United States: the clients and the `colossus (Twayne Pub, 1994)
LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd edition). New York, Norton & Company, 1993. ISBN 978-0-393-01787-8
LeoGrande, William M. Our Own Backyard: The United States in Central America, 1977-1992 (Univ of North Carolina Press, 1998) Online edition
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