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Battle of New Orleans
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For the battle at New Orleans during the American Civil War, see Capture of New Orleans. For other uses, see Battle of New Orleans (disambiguation).
Battle of New Orleans
Part of the War of 1812

The Battle of New Orleans by Henry Bryan Hall after William Momberger
Date
January 8–18, 1815
Location
About five miles (8.0 km) east-southeast of New Orleans on the grounds of Chalmette Plantation
Result
Decisive American victory[1]
British forces withdraw completely from Louisiana[2][3]
Belligerents
United States United Kingdom
Commanders and leaders
Andrew Jackson
William Carroll
John Coffee
John Adair
Walter Overton
Daniel Patterson
David B. Morgan
Pierre Denis de La Ronde
Jacques Villeré
Thomas Hinds
Joseph Savary
René Trudeau
Francis B. de Bellevue
Daniel Carmick
Jean Laffite Edward Pakenham †
Alexander Cochrane
Samuel Gibbs †
John Keane (WIA)
John Lambert
William Thornton
Thomas Mullins
Units involved
See order of battle See order of battle
Strength
4,732 14,450[4]
Casualties and losses
55 killed
185 wounded
93 missing
Total: 333[5] 386 killed
1,521 wounded
552 missing or captured
Total: 2,459[6]
[show]
v
t
e
American South
Creek War
1st Fort Bowyer
Fayal
Pensacola
13 December 1814
Lake Borgne
New Orleans
Fort St. Philip
Fort Peter
2nd Fort Bowyer
[show]
Post-treaty ratification battles of the War of 1812
HMS Cyane and HMS Levant · HMS Penguin · EIC Nautilus
[show]
v
t
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Naval battles of the War of 1812
Atlantic Ocean
USS Essex vs HMS Alert
USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere
Capture of HMS Frolic
USS United States vs HMS Macedonian
USS Constitution vs HMS Java
Sinking of HMS Peacock
Rappahannock River
Capture of USS Chesapeake
Capture of HMS Dominica
Capture of USS Argus
Capture of HMS Boxer
Capture of USS Frolic
Capture of HMS Epervier
Sinking of HMS Reindeer
Sinking of HMS Avon
Fayal
Capture of USS President
Capture of HMS Cyane and HMS Levant
Capture of HMS Penguin
Capture of East India Company ship Nautilus
East Coast
Chesapeake Bay
Alexandria
Baltimore
Hampden
Fort Peter
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
Lake Ontario
1st Sacket's Harbor
York
Fort George
2nd Sacket's Harbor
Lake Erie
Fort Oswego
Lake Huron
Lake Champlain
West Indies / Gulf Coast
La Guaira
1st Fort Bowyer
Action of 13 December 1814
Lake Borgne
New Orleans
Fort St. Philip
2nd Fort Bowyer
Pacific Ocean
James Island
Charles Island
Nuku Hiva
Downes Expedition
Porter Expedition
Typee Valley
Valparaíso (capture of USS Essex)
Seringapatam Mutiny
Action of 9 May 1814
The Battle of New Orleans was a series of engagements fought between December 14, 1814 and January 18, 1815, constituting the last major battle of the War of 1812.[7][8] American combatants,[9] commanded by Major General Andrew Jackson, prevented a much larger British force, commanded by Admiral Alexander Cochrane and General Edward Pakenham, from seizing New Orleans and the vast territory the United States had acquired with the Louisiana Purchase.[10][11][12][13]
The Treaty of Ghent had been signed on December 24, 1814 (but was not ratified by the US Government until February 1815), and hostilities continued without the involved parties knowing about the Treaty,[14] until January 18 by which time all of the British forces had retreated, finally putting an end to the Battle of New Orleans.[15][16][17]
Contents
[hide]
1 Battle of Lake Borgne
2 Night attack of December 23
3 Battle of January 8
4 Siege of Fort St. Philip
5 Withdrawal of the British
6 Pakenham's secret orders
7 Distinguished service
8 Aftermath
8.1 Victory attributed to a miracle
9 In popular culture
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Battle of Lake Borgne[edit]
Main article: Battle of Lake Borgne
Eighteenth century map of southeast Louisiana
By December 12, 1814, sixty British ships with 14,450 soldiers and sailors aboard, under the command of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, had anchored in the Gulf of Mexico to the east of Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Borgne.[4][18] Preventing access to the lakes was an American flotilla, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones, consisting of five gunboats. On December 14, around 1,200 British sailors and Royal Marines under Captain Nicholas Lockyer[19] set out to attack Jones' force. Lockyer's men sailed in 42 longboats, each armed with a small carronade. Lockyer captured Jones' vessels in a brief engagement known as the Battle of Lake Borgne. 17 British sailors were killed and 77 wounded,[20] while 6 Americans were killed, 35 wounded, and 86 captured.[20] The wounded included both Jones and Lockyer. Now free to navigate Lake Borgne, thousands of British soldiers, under the command of General John Keane, were rowed to Pea Island (possibly now Pearl Island) [21]), about 30 miles (48 km) east of New Orleans, where they established a garrison.
Captain John Keane “Troop of Horses” participated in the Battle December 14, 1814 - March 16, 1815.[22][23]
Night attack of December 23[edit]
Night battle[24]
On the morning of December 23, Keane and a vanguard of 1,800 British soldiers reached the east bank of the Mississippi River, 9 miles (14 km) south of New Orleans.[25] Keane could have attacked the city by advancing for a few hours up the river road, which was undefended all the way to New Orleans, but he made the fateful decision to encamp at Lacoste's Plantation[26] and wait for the arrival of reinforcements.[27]
Meanwhile, General Jackson learned of the advances and position of the British encampment from Colonel Pierre Denis (born Denys) de La Ronde (upon whose plantation, commonly misnamed Versailles, Louisiana, the night battle was later largely fought)[28]), and his son-in-law, Gabriel Villeré, son of Colonel Jacques Villeré. The young major had escaped through a window after capture, when the advancing British invaded his family home.[29][30][30]
“At the close of Major Villere's narrative the General drew up his figure, bowed with disease and weakness, to its full height, and with an eye of fire and an emphatic blow upon the table with his clenched fist, exclaimed: 'By the Eternal, they shall not sleep on our soil!'”
—  Stanley Clisby Arthur, The Story of the Battle of New Orleans[28]
That evening, Jackson, attacking from the north, led 2,131[31] men in a brief three-pronged assault on the unsuspecting British troops, who were resting in their camp. Jackson then pulled his forces back to the Rodriguez Canal, about 4 miles (6.4 km) south of the city. The Americans suffered 24 killed, 115 wounded, and 74 missing,[32] while the British reported their losses as 46 killed, 167 wounded, and 64 missing.[33]
Choctaws and a mixed group of Major Daquin's Battalion of Free Men of Colour in close combat with British soldiers from the 95th Rifles and the 85th Foot.
Historian Robert Quimby says, "the British certainly did win a tactical victory, which enabled them to maintain their position."[34] However, Quimby goes on to say, "It is not too much to say that it was the battle of December 23 that saved New Orleans. The British were disabused of their expectation of an easy conquest. The unexpected and severe attack made Keane even more cautious...he made no effort to advance on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth."[35] As a consequence, the Americans were given time to begin the transformation of the canal into a heavily fortified earthwork.[36] On Christmas Day, General Edward Pakenham arrived on the battlefield and ordered a reconnaissance-in-force on December 28 against the American earthworks protecting the advance to New Orleans. That evening, General Pakenham, angry with the position in which the army had been placed, met with General Keane and Admiral Cochrane for an update on the situation. General Pakenham wanted to use Chef Menteur Road as the invasion route, but he was overruled by Admiral Cochrane, who insisted that his boats were providing everything that could be needed.[37] Admiral Cochrane believed the veteran British soldiers would easily destroy Jackson's ramshackle army, and he allegedly said that if the army did not do it, his sailors would. Whatever Pakenham's thoughts on the matter, the meeting settled the method and place of the attack.[38]
When the British reconnaissance-in-force withdrew, the Americans immediately began constructing earthworks to protect the artillery batteries. These defenses were christened Line Jackson. The Americans installed eight batteries, which included one 32-pound gun, three 24-pounders, one 18-pounder, three 12-pounders, three 6-pounders, and a 6-inch (150 mm) howitzer. Jackson also sent a detachment to the west bank of the Mississippi to man two 24-pounders and two 12-pounders on the grounded warship USS Louisiana. Even so, Jackson's force was greatly outnumbered by the attacking forces. Jackson's total of 4,732 men was made up of 968 U.S. Army regulars,[39] 58 U.S. Marines (holding the center of the defensive line), 106 seamen of the US Naval battalion, 1,060 Louisiana militia and volunteers (including 462 free people of color), 1,352 Tennessee militia, 986 Kentucky militia, 150 Mississippi militia, and 52 Choctaw warriors, along with a force from the pirate Jean Lafitte's Baratarians. Jackson also had the support of the warships in the Mississippi River, including USS Louisiana, USS Carolina and Enterprise, a steamboat.
Then Major Thomas Hinds' Squadron of Light Dragoons, a militia unit from the Mississippi Territory, learned of the advancing position of the British on December 30, helping to secure victory, after having arrived to the battle December 22 and distinguishing himself and the cavalry under his command.[40][41]
The main British army arrived on New Year's Day 1815, and began an artillery bombardent of the American earthworks. This began an exchange of artillery fire that continued for three hours. Several of the American guns were destroyed or silenced, including the 32-pounder, a 24-pounder, and a 12-pounder, while some damage was done to the earthworks. The British artillery finally exhausted its ammunition, which caused Pakenham to cancel the attack. Pakenham did not know that his attack had come close to success, since the American defenders on the left of Line Jackson near the swamp had broken under the fire and abandoned their position. Pakenham decided to wait for his entire force of over 8,000 men to assemble before continuing his attack. The British regulars included the 4th, 7th, 21st, 43rd, 44th, 85th, 93rd (Highland) Regiments, a 500-man "demi-battalion" of the 95th Rifles, 14th Light Dragoons, and the 1st and 5th West India Regiments of several hundred free black soldiers, recruited from the British West Indies colonies. Other troops included Native Americans of the Hitchiti tribe, led by Kinache.
Battle of January 8[edit]
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1815 painting of the battle by participant Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte of the Louisiana Militia based on his memories and sketches made at the site
Early 19th century map depicting the battlefield at Chalmette Plantation on January 8, 1815
On January 8, 1815 at 0500, the British marched against General Andrew Jackson's lines of defense. The British infantry and two rifle units advanced in two columns under the cover of artillery.[42] The Americans had constructed three lines of defense, the forward one four miles in front of the city, was strongly entrenched at the Rodriguez Canal, which stretched from a swamp to the river, with a timber, loopholed breastwork and earthworks for artillery.[43]:361 [44]
The British battle plan was for an attack against the 20-gun west bank battery, which would then both reduce the American artillery danger and enable those same guns to be turned on the American line which would assist a frontal attack against the defended line.[43]:362 In the early morning of January 8, Pakenham gave his final orders for the two-pronged assault against Jackson's position. Colonel William Thornton (of the 85th Regiment) was to cross the Mississippi during the night with his 780-strong force, move rapidly upriver and storm the battery commanded by Commodore Daniel Patterson on the flank of the main American entrenchments and then open an enfilade fire on Jackson's line with howitzers and rockets.[45] Then, the main attack, directly against the earthworks manned by the vast majority of American troops[46] would be launched in two columns (along the river led by Keane and along the swamp line led by Major General Samuel Gibbs). The brigade commanded by Major General John Lambert was held in reserve.
A canal was dug by the British to enable 42 small boats to get to the river.[43]:362 Preparations for the attack had foundered early on the 8th, as the canal being dug by Cochrane's sailors collapsed and the dam made to divert the flow of the river into the canal failed, leaving the sailors to drag the boats of Col. Thornton's west bank assault force through deep mud and left the force starting off just before daybreak, 12 hours late.[47] The frontal attack was not postponed, however, as it was hoped that the west bank would at least create a diversion, even if they had not succeeded in the assault.[43]:362
The battlefield at Chalmette Plantation on January 8, 1815
The main attack began in darkness and a heavy fog, but as the British neared the main enemy line the fog lifted, exposing them to withering artillery fire. Lt-Col. Thomas Mullins, the British commander of the 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot, had forgotten the ladders and fascines needed to cross the eight-foot-deep and fifteen-foot-wide canal[43]:361 and scale the earthworks, and in the dark and fog confusion descended as the British tried to close the gap. Most of the senior officers were killed or wounded, including Major General Samuel Gibbs, who was killed leading the main attack column on the right, consisting of the 4th, 21st, 44th, and 5th West India Regiments, and Colonel Rennie, who led a detachment of three light companies of the 7th, 43rd, and 93rd on the left by the river.
General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders, as imagined incorrectly by painter Edward Percy Moran in 1910.
Possibly because of Thornton's delay in crossing the river and the withering artillery fire that might hit them from across the river, the 93rd Highlanders were ordered to leave Keane's assault column advancing along the river and move across the open field to join the main force on the right of the field. Keane fell wounded as he crossed the field with the 93rd. Rennie's men managed to attack and overrun an American advance redoubt next to the river, but without reinforcements they could neither hold the position nor successfully storm the main American line behind it. Within a few minutes, the American 7th Infantry arrived, moved forward, and fired upon the British in the captured redoubt: within half an hour, Rennie and nearly all of his men were dead. In the main attack on the right, the British infantrymen either flung themselves to the ground, huddled in the canal, or were mowed down by a combination of musket fire and grapeshot from the Americans. A handful made it to the top of the parapet on the right but were either killed or captured. The 95th Rifles had advanced in open skirmish order ahead of the main assault force and were concealed in the ditch below the parapet, unable to advance further without support.
The two large main assaults on the American position were repulsed. Pakenham and his second-in-command, Major General Samuel Gibbs, were fatally wounded while on horseback, by grapeshot fired from the earthworks. Major Wilkinson of the 21st Regiment reformed his lines and made a third assault. They were able to reach the entrenchments and attempted to scale them. Wilkinson made it to the top, before being shot. The Americans were amazed at his bravery and carried him behind the rampart. With most of their senior officers dead or wounded, the British soldiers, including the 93rd Highlanders, having no orders to advance further or retreat, stood out in the open and were shot apart with grapeshot from Line Jackson. General Lambert was in the reserve and took command. He gave the order for his reserve to advance and ordered the withdrawal of the army. The reserve was used to cover the retreat of what was left of the British army in the field.
Photo of Chalmette National Park, looking NE from the monument. The main British attack struck just beyond Batteries 5 and 6, the two cannons near the distant treeline.
The Chalmette battlefield was the plantation home of Colonel Denis de La Ronde's half-brother, Ignace Martin de Lino (1755 - 1815), and was burned by invading forces, reputedly causing de Lino's death from a broken heart shortly after returning to his "treasured home" three weeks after the Battle.[48]
The only British success of the battle was the delayed attack on the west bank of the Mississippi River, where Thornton's brigade, comprising the 85th Regiment and detachments from the Royal Navy and Royal Marines,[49][50][51] attacked and overwhelmed the American line.[52] The Navy detachment and the Marine detachment were led by Captain Rowland Money and Brevet Major Thomas Adair, respectively. Money was captain of HMS Trave, and Adair was the commanding officer of HMS Vengeur's detachment of Marines.[53] The sides of the canal by which the boats were to be brought through to the Mississippi caved in and choked the passage, so that only enough got through to take over a half of Thornton’s force. With these, seven hundred in number, he crossed, but as he did not allow for the current, it carried him down about two miles below the proper landing place. Thornton’s brigade won their battle, but Colonel Thornton was dangerously wounded. This success, though a brilliant one, and a disgrace to the American arms, had no effect on the battle.[54] Army casualties among the 85th Foot were: 2 dead, 1 captured, and 41 wounded.[52] Royal Navy casualties were 2 dead, Captain Rowland Money and 18 seamen wounded. Royal Marine casualties were 2 dead, with 3 officers, 1 sergeant and 12 other ranks wounded. Though both Jackson and Commodore Patterson reported that the retreating forces had spiked their cannon, leaving no guns to turn on the Americans' main defense line, Major Mitchell's diary makes it clear this was not so, as he states he had "Commenced cleaning enemy's guns to form a battery to enfilade their lines on the left bank".[55] General Lambert ordered his Chief of Artillery, Colonel Alexander Dickson, to assess the position. Dickson reported back that no fewer than 2,000 men would be needed to hold the position. General Lambert issued orders to withdraw after the defeat of their main army on the east bank and retreated, taking a few American prisoners and cannon with them.[52][56] It was later learned that the Americans were so dismayed by the loss of this battery, which would be capable of inflicting such damage on their lines when the attack was renewed, that they were preparing to abandon the town, when they received the news that the British themselves were withdrawing.[43]:363
The Battle of New Orleans was remarkable for both its brevity and lopsided lethality, though some numbers are in dispute and contradict the official statistics. Charles Welsh[57] and Zachary Smith [58] echo the report of Adjutant-general Robert Butler, in his official report to General Jackson, which claimed that in the space of twenty-five minutes, the British lost 700 killed, 1400 wounded, and 500 prisoners, a total loss of 2600 men; American losses were only seven killed and six wounded. After the battle was over, around 500 British soldiers who had pretended to be dead rose up and surrendered to the Americans. One bugle boy climbed a tree within 200 yards of the American line and played throughout the battle, with projectiles passing close to him. He was captured after the battle and considered a hero by the Americans.
Almost universal blame was assigned to Colonel Mullins, of the 44th Regiment, which was detailed under orders to prepare and have ready, and to carry to the front on the morning of the eighth, fascines and ladders with which to cross the ditch and scale the parapet, as the soldiers fought their way to the breastwork of the Americans. It was freely charged that the Colonel deserted his trust and at the moment of need was half a mile to the rear. It was then that Pakenham, learning of Mullins' conduct, placed himself at the head of the 44th and endeavored to lead them to the front with the implements needed to storm the works, when at around 500 yards away from the enemy front line, he fell wounded after being hit with grapeshot. On being assisted onto a horse, Pakenham was hit again and fell, this time mortally wounded.[43]:363[59]
Siege of Fort St. Philip[edit]
Main article: Siege of Fort St. Philip (1815)
Battle of New Orleans, January 1815
The British planned to sail up the Mississippi River; however Fort St. Philip stood in the way. On January 9, British naval forces attacked Fort St. Philip, which protected New Orleans from an amphibious assault from the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. The American forces, in addition to gunners working from privateer ships, were able to fend off the attacks. They withstood ten days of bombardment by cannon before the British ships withdrew on January 18, 1815.
Withdrawal of the British[edit]
Three days after the battle, General Lambert held a council of war where, despite just receiving the news that the battery on the west bank of the river had been captured, it was concluded that despite his request for reinforcements as well as a siege train, capturing New Orleans and continuing the Louisiana campaign would be too costly and thus agreed with his officers to withdraw.[43]:363 By January 19 the British camp at Villere's Plantation had been abandoned.[15][16]
On February 4, 1815, the fleet, with all of the British troops aboard, set sail toward Mobile Bay, Alabama.[2][60][61] The British army then attacked and captured Fort Bowyer at the mouth of Mobile Bay on February 12. The following day, the British army was making preparations to attack Mobile when news arrived of the peace treaty. General Jackson had made tentative plans to attack the British at Mobile and continue the war into Spanish Florida on the grounds the British were using it as a base. He carried out those plans for Florida much later. The treaty had been ratified by the British Parliament but would not be ratified by Congress and the President until mid-February. It did, however, resolve that hostilities should cease, and the British abandoned Fort Bowyer and sailed home to their base in the West Indies.[62] Although the Battle of New Orleans had no influence on the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, the defeat at New Orleans did compel Britain to abide by the treaty.[63]
It would have been problematic, in any case, for the British to continue the war in North America because of Napoleon's escape from Elba on February 26, 1815, which ensured their forces were needed in Europe.[64] Also, since the Treaty of Ghent did not specifically mention the vast territory America had acquired with the Louisiana Purchase, it only required both sides to give back those lands that had been taken from the other during the war.[65]
Pakenham's secret orders[edit]
On October 24, 1814, in Pakenham's Secret Orders the Secretary of War and the Colonies, Henry Bathurst wrote:
War Department 24th October 1814 M Genl The Hon Sir T. Pakenham
Secret
Sir: It has occurred to me that one case may arise affecting your situation upon the Coasts of America for which the Instructions addressed to the late Major General Ross have not provided. You may possibly hear whilst engaged in active operations that the Preliminaries of Peace between His Majesty and the United States have been signed in Europe and that they have been sent to America in order to receive the Ratification of The President. As the Treaty would not be binding until it shall have received such Ratification in which we may be disappointed by the refusal of the Government of the United States, it is advisable that Hostilities should not be suspended until you shall have official information that The President has actually ratified the Treaty and a Person will be duly authorized to apprise you of this event. As during this interval, judging from the experience we have had, the termination of the war must be considered as doubtful, you will regulate your proceedings accordingly, neither omitting an opportunity of obtaining signal success, nor exposing the troops to hazard or serious loss for an inconsiderable advantage. And you will take special care not so to act under the expectation of hearing that the Treaty of Peace has been ratified, as to endanger the safety of His Majesty’s Forces, should that expectation be unhappily disappointed.
I have etc.
Bathurst[66]
Distinguished service[edit]
“In his general orders of January 21, General Jackson, in thanking the troops, paid special tributes to the Louisiana organizations, and made particular mention of Capts. Dominique and Belluche, and the Lafitte brothers, all of the Barataria privateers; of General Garrique de Flanjac, a State Senator, and brigadier of militia, who served as a volunteer; of Majors Plauche, St. Geme. Lacoste, D'Aquin, Captain Savary, Colonel De la Ronde, General Humbert, Don Juan de Araya. the Mexican Field-Marshal; Major-General Villere and General Morgan, the Engineers Latour and Blanchard; the Attakapas dragoons, Captain Dubuclay; the cavalry from the Felicianas and the Mississippi territory. General Labattut had command of the town, of which Nicolas Girod was then the mayor.”
—  William Head Coleman, Historical sketch book and guide to New Orleans and environs[67]
“Among those who most distinguished themselves during this brief but memorable campaign, were, next to the Commander-in-chief, Generals Villere, Carroll, Coffee, Ganigues, Flanjac, Colonel Delaronde, Commodore Patterson, Majors Lacoste, Planche, Hinds, Captain Saint Gerne, Lieutenants Jones, Parker, Marent, and Dominique; Colonel Savary, a man of colour nor must we omit to mention Lafitte, pirate though he was.”
—  E. Bunner, History of Louisiana[30]
“Over the course of several days, the logistically and numerically superior British force was repelled, in no small part to a small contingent of Marines led by Maj. Daniel Carmick and Lt. Francis de Bellevue of the New Orleans Navy Yard” [François-Godefroy Barbin de Bellevue (1789-1845)].
—  26th Marine Expeditionary Unit A Certain Force in an Uncertain World[68]
Aftermath[edit]
Battle of New Orleans postage stamp depicting Andrew Jackson. Issued in 1965 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans, Chalmettte Plantation, Jan. 8–18.
From December 25, 1814, to January 26, 1815, British casualties during the Louisiana Campaign, apart from the assault on January 8, were 49 killed, 87 wounded and 4 missing.[69] Thus, British casualties for the entire campaign totaled 2,459 with 386 killed, 1,521 wounded, and 552 missing. American casualties for the entire campaign totaled 333 with 55 killed, 185 wounded, and 93 missing.[70]
Six currently active battalions of the Regular Army (2-7 Inf, 3-7 Inf, 1-5 FA, 1-6 FA, 1-1 Inf and 2-1 Inf) and one Mississippi Army National Guard regiment (155th Inf) are derived from American units that fought at the Battle of New Orleans.
Although the engagement was small in scale compared to other contemporary battles of 1815, such as the Battle of Waterloo, it was important for the meaning applied to it by Americans in general and Andrew Jackson in particular.[71]
US troops along Jackson's Line fire on British soldiers on a stamp issued January 8, 2015. This was the final US stamp in a War of 1812 series of four marking its bicentennial.
Americans believed that a vastly powerful British fleet and army had sailed for New Orleans (Jackson himself thought 25,000 troops were coming), and most expected the worst. The news of victory, one man recalled, "came upon the country like a clap of thunder in the clear azure vault of the firmament, and traveled with electromagnetic velocity, throughout the confines of the land."[72] The battle boosted the reputation of Andrew Jackson and helped to propel him ultimately to the White House. The anniversary of the battle was celebrated as a national holiday for many years, called "The Eighth", following Jackson's election as President and ended after 1861[73] and it continues to be commemorated in south Louisiana.
In honor of Jackson, the newly organized Louisiana Historical Association dedicated its new Memorial Hall facility on January 8, 1891, the 76th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans.[74]
A federal park was established in 1907 to preserve the battlefield; today it features a monument and is part of Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve.
The 8th of January became a traditional American fiddle tune, honoring the date of the battle. More than a century later, the melody was used by Jimmie Driftwood to write the song "The Battle of New Orleans", which was a hit for Johnny Horton and Lonnie Donegan. That song was converted into punk rock tune for the play Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson.
Victory attributed to a miracle[edit]
Mosaic of Our Lady of Prompt Succor. Old Ursulines Convent complex, French Quarter, New Orleans
With the Americans outnumbered it seemed as though the city of New Orleans was in danger of being captured. Consequently, the Ursuline nuns along with many faithful people of New Orleans gathered in the Ursuline Convent's chapel before the statue of Our Lady of Prompt Succor. They spent the night before the battle praying and crying before the holy statue, begging for the Virgin Mary's intercession.
On the morning of January 8, the Very Rev. William Dubourg, Vicar General, offered Mass at the altar on which the statue of Our Lady of Prompt Succor had been placed. The Prioress of the Ursuline convent, Mother Ste. Marie Olivier de Vezin, made a vow to have a Mass of Thanksgiving sung annually should the American forces win. At the very moment of communion, a courier ran into the chapel to inform all those present that the British had been defeated.
General Jackson went to the convent himself to thank the nuns for their prayers: "By the blessing of heaven, directing the valor of the troops under my command, one of the most brilliant victories in the annals of war was obtained."[75] The vow made by Mother Ste. Marie has been faithfully kept throughout the years.[76]
In popular culture[edit]
The battle was immediately politicized by the Democratic-Republican Party. Across the nation, it used the great victory to ridicule the Federalists as cowards, defeatists, and secessionists. Pamphlets, songs, newspaper editorials, speeches and entire plays on the battle drove home the point, and glorified Jackson's heroic image.[77]
The Battle and General Andrew Jackson are mentioned in George Washington Dixon's 1834 version of "Zip Coon", a popular minstrel show song.
The Buccaneer was a 1938 American adventure film produced and directed by Cecil B. De Mille based on Jean Lafitte and the Battle of New Orleans. The movie was remade in 1958.
Country singer Johnny Horton had a Number 1 hit in 1959 with "The Battle of New Orleans" (written by Jimmy Driftwood), which won the 1960 Grammy Award for Best Country & Western Recording and was awarded the Grammy Hall of Fame Award. It was ranked No. 333 of the Recording Industry Association of America's "Songs of the (20th) Century." The melody is from a 19th-century fiddle tune, "The Eighth of January," which presumably was inspired by the American victory. Also in 1959, Lonnie Donegan, the "King of Skiffle", also had a U.K. Number 2 hit with his cover of "The Battle of New Orleans."
Folk singer Phil Ochs mentions the Battle Of New Orleans in the opening stanza of his 1964 anti-war protest song, "I Ain't Marching Any More."
The Battle features prominently in Episode #5 "The Lost Patrol," of the 1966 American television series The Time Tunnel.
The Battle was mentioned in Johnny Cash's 1974 song "Ragged Old Flag."
The Battle is also depicted in Eric Flint's 2005 alternate history novel 1812: The Rivers of War, wherein the battle was decided when a battalion of black U.S. soldiers ("The Iron Battalion") repelled the British assault.
The final song of the play Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson, "The Hunters of Kentucky," is a punk rock rendition of the 19th century song of the same name.
See also[edit]
New Orleans American order of battle
Chalmette, Louisiana History
Enterprise, a steamboat that was sent by her owners and traveled 2,200 miles to aid the American cause.
"The Hunters of Kentucky", a song commemorating the Kentucky men who fought at the Battle of New Orleans.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812: People, Politics, and Power, Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 209.
^ Jump up to: a b Gleig, George Robert (1827), pp. 184–192.
Jump up ^ Smith, Zachary F., pp. 126–132.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Zachary F., pp.1-2.
Smith described in detail the British expedition as "a fleet of sixty great ships", "Nearly one half of these vessels were formidable warships, the best of the English navy," that had transported "not fewer than eighteen thousand men [including 14,450 soldiers and sailors], veterans in the service of their country in the lines of their respective callings, to complete the equipment of this powerful armada.".
Jump up ^ "The Battle of New Orleans". CMH News and Features. Retrieved April 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ U.S. Army Center of Military History. "The Battle of New Orleans".
Jump up ^ Also known as the "Battle of Chalmette Plantation".
Jump up ^ Britain's Louisiana Campaign consisted of several military engagements that were less important than the battle of January 8, 1815, widely known as the Battle of New Orleans. The first, the Battle of Lake Borgne, occurred on December 14, 1814, when British forces captured an American flotilla protecting Lake Borgne. The next occurred on December 23 when Andrew Jackson led a night attack on the British camp. The last, which began on January 9, ended on January 18 when the British terminated their unsuccessful bombardment of Fort St. Philip and began to withdraw the last of their troops and ships, signalling the end of their Louisiana Campaign.
Jump up ^ Thomas, pp. 36–38.
Jump up ^ Smith, Zachary F. (1904). The battle of New Orleans. Louisville, Kentucky: John P. Morton & Co.
Excerpts from a section entitled, "England's Purpose to Conquer and Hold Possession of the Territory Ceded by Napoleon and to Establish Her Dominion in the Mississippi Valley." pp. 146-53.

pp. 152-53:
"Then he [Andrew Jackson] answered that: If Pakenham had taken New Orleans, the British would have claimed and held the whole of Louisiana Purchase."

"… I [Andrew Jackson] have learned, from diplomatic sources of the most unquestionable authority, that the British ministry did not intend the Treaty of Ghent to apply to the Louisiana Purchase at all. The [British ministry at Ghent] denied in toto the legal right of Napoleon to sell Louisiana to us. They held, therefore, that we had no right to that Territory."
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 348:
"The Battle of New Orleans settled once and for all the question over the Louisiana Purchase. Neither the British nor the Spanish government had recognized the legality of the transfer, and, in consequence, the British planned either to retain the region or return Louisiana to Spain had they won the battle."
Jump up ^ Thomas, Gregory M. (2005). The Battle of New Orleans. Master of Arts dissertation, Louisiana State University. p. 88:
"[The Battle of] New Orleans also eliminated vague British designs on a second colonization of America by expanding Canadian possessions down the Mississippi to the Gulf."
Jump up ^ Chapman, pp. 13–21. Chapman concludes the chapter:
"It provides proper recognition for the sacrifices made by the humble American participants who confronted overwhelming odds, yet gained a shocking victory in this major military campaign for control of the interior of the American continent during the War of 1812."
Jump up ^ Carr, James A. (July 1979). "The Battle of New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent". Diplomatic History. 3 (3): 273–82. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1979.tb00315.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Gleig, p. 340:
"These preparations [to withdraw] being continued for some days, on the 17th [of January] no part of our force remained in camp except the infantry. Having delayed therefore only till the abandoned guns were rendered unserviceable, on the evening of the 18th it also began its retreat."
^ Jump up to: a b Latour, p. 184:
"On the morning of the 19th [of January], it was perceived that the enemy [British] had evacuated, not a single man appearing."
Jump up ^ Latour, Appendix lvi-lviii, Copy of a letter from Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, Secretary of War, dated January 19, 1815:

"Last night at twelve o'clock, the enemy precipitately decamped and returned to his boats,"

"I am advised by major Overton, who commands at fort St. Philip, in a letter of the 18th, that the enemy... had on the morning of that day retired."
Jump up ^ Refer to the map of Louisiana.
Jump up ^ Quimby, p. 824.
^ Jump up to: a b Quimby, p. 826.
Jump up ^ Russell Guerin. "A Creole In Mississippi".
Jump up ^ historyofstcharlesparish. "Battle of New Orleans – 1814-1815". www.historyofstcharlesparish.org.
Jump up ^ "Captain Rene Trudeau's "St. Charles Troop of Horse": Stewart - de Jaham Family Genealogy". www.raymondjohnson.net.
Jump up ^ Lossing, Benson (1868). The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. Harper & Brothers, Publishers. p. 1032.
Jump up ^ Remini (1999), pp. 62–64.
Jump up ^ Quimby, p. 836.
Jump up ^ Thomas, p. 61.
^ Jump up to: a b Arthur, Stanley Clisby; Louisiana Historical Society (September 25, 2017). "The story of the battle of New Orleans". New Orleans, La., Louisiana historical society – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ "NPS Historical Handbook: Jean Lafitte". www.nps.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bunner, E. (September 25, 2017). "History of Louisiana, from its first discovery and settlement to the present time". New York, Harper & brothers – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ Quimby, p. 843.
Jump up ^ James, pp. 535–536.
Jump up ^ Thomas, pp. 61–64.
Jump up ^ Quimby, p. 852.
Jump up ^ Quimby, pp. 852–853.
Jump up ^ Groom, pp. 145–147.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Benton Rain, pp. 214–215.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Benton Rain, pp. 215–216.
Jump up ^ "French Creoles - Battalion of Creoles 1".
Jump up ^ Remini, Robert V. (1999), The Battle of New Orleans. p. 74.
Jump up ^ Hinds' Dragoons became the 155th Infantry Regiment of the Mississippi Army National Guard, one of only 19 Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812.
Jump up ^ History, U.S. Army Center of Military. "The Battle of New Orleans, 1815 | Center of Military History". history.army.mil. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers.
Jump up ^ History.com staff. "January 08, 1815: The Battle of New Orleans". History.com. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Quimby, pp. 892–893.
Jump up ^ United States forces (3,500 to 4,500 strong) were composed of U.S. Army troops; state militiamen from Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana; U.S. Marines; U.S. Navy sailors; Barataria Bay pirates; Choctaw Indians; "freemen of color" and freed black slaves (a large amount of the work building the parapet however was done by local black slaves). Major-General Jacques Villeré, who would become Louisiana's first Creole Governor the following year, commanded the Louisiana Militia, and Major Jean Baptiste Plauché headed the New Orleans uniformed militia companies.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Benton Rain, p. 236.
Jump up ^ "New Orleans Bar Association: Chalmette, by Ned Hémard; 2011, p. 3" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Patterson, Benton Rain, p. 230.
Jump up ^ "Correspondence from Cochrane, ADM 1/508 folio 757, states 'the whole amounting to about six hundred men'".
Jump up ^ Gleig, George (1840). "Recollections of the Expedition to the Chesapeake, and against New Orleans, by an Old Sub". United Service Journal (2). Gleig, on p340, uses the source document a report from Thornton to Pakenham 'we were unable to proceed across the river until eight hours after the time appointed, and even then with only a third part of the force which you had allotted for the service * viz 298 of the 85th, and 200 Seamen and Marines'
^ Jump up to: a b c "No. 16991". The London Gazette. March 9, 1815. pp. 440–446.
Jump up ^ The Navy List, Corrected to the end of January 1815, pg 72. John Murray. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (1882). The Naval War of 1812. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons. p. 204.
Jump up ^ Reilly, Robin, p. 296.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Benton Rain, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Welsh, Charles (Oct–Dec 1899). "Rhyme Relating to the Battle of New Orleans". The American Folklore. 12 (47): 291. JSTOR 533063.
Jump up ^ Smith, Zachary (1904). The Battle of New Orleans including the Previous Engagements between the Americans and the British, the Indians and the Spanish which led to the Final Conflict on the 8th of January, 1815 (19 ed.). Louisville, KY: Filson Club Publications. p. 85.
Jump up ^ Smith, Zachary (1904). The Battle of New Orleans including the Previous Engagements between the Americans and the British, the Indians and the Spanish which led to the Final Conflict on the 8th of January, 1815 (19 ed.). Louisville KY: Filson Club Publications. p. 105.
Jump up ^ James, p. 391.
Jump up ^ Smith, Zachary F., p. 132.
Jump up ^ Fraser, p. 297, quote: 'Rear Admiral Cockburn, at the end of February, was making preparations for a move on Savannah in March when official intelligence that the treaty of peace had been signed by the American President reached him and all proceedings were stopped. The force continued on Cumberland Island until, early in April, it was informed that the treaty had been ratified, on which all withdrew to Bermuda prior to returning to England.'
Jump up ^ Remini (1999), pp. 5, 195.
Jump up ^ Lambert, p. 381 "While Napoleon remained in power, few British soldiers could be spared for North America. Wellington was always looking for more manpower."
Jump up ^ "Avalon Project - British-American Diplomcay : Treaty of Ghent; 1814".
Jump up ^ "Instructions to Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham for the New Orleans Campaign". The War of 1812 Magazine, Issue 16: September 2011. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Coleman, William Head (September 25, 1885). "Historical sketch book and guide to New Orleans and environs, with map. Illustrated with many original engravings; and containing exhaustive accounts of the traditions, historical legends, and remarkable localities of the Creole city". New York, W. H. Coleman – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ "26th Marine Expeditionary Unit sails south to New Orleans".
Jump up ^ James, pp. 542, 543, 568.
Jump up ^ James, p. 563.
Jump up ^ "BBC - Radio 4 - America".
Jump up ^ Ward 1962, pp. 4–5.
Jump up ^ "The War of 1812", Northeast Regional Office, National Park Service, Eastern National, published in 2013, p. 147
Jump up ^ "Kenneth Trist Urquhart, "Seventy Years of the Louisiana Historical Association", March 21, 1959, Alexandria, Louisiana" (PDF). lahistory.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2010. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia, Volume 23, By American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia, p. 128 (1912).
Jump up ^ Arthur, pp. 239–242.
Jump up ^ Joseph F. Stoltz, "'It Taught our Enemies a Lesson:' The Battle of New Orleans and the Republican Destruction of the Federalist Party." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 71#2 (2012): 112-127. in JSTOR
References[edit]
Arthur, Stanley Clisby (1915), The story of the Battle of New Orleans, New Orleans: Louisiana Historical Society, OCLC 493033588
Borneman, Walter H. (2004), 1812: The War that forged a nation, New York: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-053112-6
Brooks, Charles B. (1961), The Siege of New Orleans, Seattle: University of Washington Press, OCLC 425116
Brown, Wilburt S (1969), The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana, 1814–1815, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, ISBN 0-8173-5100-0
Chapman, Ron (2013). The Battle of New Orleans: "But For A Piece Of Wood". Pelican Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4836-9761-1.
Cooper, John Spencer (1996) [1869], Rough Notes of Seven Campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and America During the Years 1809–1815, Staplehurst: Spellmount, ISBN 1-873376-65-0
Drez, Ronald J. (2014). The War of 1812, conflict and deception: the British attempt to seize New Orleans and nullify the Louisiana Purchase. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 362 pages, ISBN 978-0-8071-5931-6.
Forrest, Charles Ramus (1961), The Battle of New Orleans: a British view; the journal of Major C.R. Forrest; Asst. QM General, 34th. Regiment of Foot, New Orleans: Hauser Press, OCLC 1253280
Fraser, Edward, & L. G. Carr-Laughton (1930). The Royal Marine Artillery 1804–1923, Volume 1 [1804–1859]. London: The Royal United Services Institution. OCLC 4986867
Gleig, George Robert (1827), The Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans, 1814–1815, London: J. Murray, ISBN 0-665-45385-X
Groom, Winston. Patriotic Fire: Andrew Jackson and Jean Laffite at the Battle of New Orleans. New York: Vintage Books, 2006. ISBN 1-40004-436-7
Hickey, Donald R. Glorious Victory: Andrew Jackson and the Battle of New Orleans (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015). xii, 154 pp.
James, William (1818), A full and correct account of the military occurrences of the late war between Great Britain and the United States of America; with an appendix, and plates. Volume II, London: Printed for the author and distributed by Black et al., ISBN 0-665-35743-5, OCLC 2226903
Lambert, Andrew (2012), The Challenge: Britain Against America in the Naval War of 1812, London: Faber and Faber, ISBN 0-571-27319-X
Latour, Arsène Lacarrière (1999) [1816], Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814–15, with an Atlas, Gainesville: University Press of Florida, ISBN 0-8130-1675-4, OCLC 40119875
Maass, Alfred R (1994), "Brownsville's steamboat Enterprize and Pittsburgh's supply of general Jackson's army", Pittsburgh History, 77: 22–29, ISSN 1069-4706
Caffrey, Kate (1977), The Twilight's Last Gleaming, New York: Stein and Day, ISBN 0-8128-1920-9
Owsley, Frank (1981), Struggle for the Gulf borderlands: the Creek War and the battle of New Orleans 1812–1815, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, ISBN 0-8173-1062-2
Patterson, Benton Rains (2008), The Generals, Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the road to New Orleans, New York: New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-6717-6
Pickles, Tim (1993), New Orleans 1815, Osprey Campaign Series, 28, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-150-8, OCLC 52914335 .
Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers.
Quimby, Robert S. (1997), The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: an operational and command study, East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, ISBN 0-87013-441-8
Reilly, Robin (1974), The British at the gates – the New Orleans campaign in the War of 1812, New York: Putnam, OCLC 839952
Remini, Robert V. (1977), Andrew Jackson and the course of American empire, 1767–1821, New York: Harper & Row, ISBN 0-06-013574-3
Remini, Robert V. (1999), The Battle of New Orleans, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc., ISBN 0-670-88551-7
Rowland, Eron (1971) [1926], Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813–1815, Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, ISBN 0-8369-5637-0
Smith, Gene A. (2004), A British eyewitness at the Battle of New Orleans, the memoir of Royal Navy admiral Robert Aitchison, 1808–1827, New Orleans: The Historic New Orleans Collection, ISBN 0-917860-50-0
Smith, Sir Harry "Various Anecdotes and Events of my Life – The Autobiography of Lt. Gen. Sir Harry Smith, covering the period 1787 to 1860" First published in 2 volumes, edited by G.C. Moore, London (1901)
Smith, Zachary F. (1904), The battle of New Orleans, Louisville, Kentucky: John P. Morton & Co.
Stanley, George F. G. (1983), The War of 1812 – Land Operations, MacMillan & National Museum of Canada
Stoltz, Joseph F., The Gulf Theatre, 1813-1815. (https://josephfstoltz.com/new-orleans-campaign/)
Stoltz, Joseph F. A Bloodless Victory: The Battle of New Orleans in History and Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017.
Surtees, W. (1996) [1833], Twenty-Five Years in the Rifle Brigade (Reprint ed.), London: Greenhill Books, ISBN 1-85367-230-0
Ward, John William (1962), Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age, New York: Oxford University Press
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of New Orleans.
The Gulf Theatre in the War of 1812 - by Joseph F. Stoltz III
The War of 1812 Magazine, Documents, Artifacts, and Imagery, Instructions to Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham for the New Orleans Campaign Issue 16: September 2011
Battle of New Orleans — detailed account, with maps and pictures, hosted by the National Park Service <--Broken page link, Apr. 2017.
Battle of New Orleans: Myths and Legends — detailed account by military historians
Battle of New Orleans at KnowLouisiana.org
Map
The Battle of New Orleans — summary account by the Louisiana State Museum, with photographs<--Broken page link, Apr. 2017.
Battle of New Orleans Pathfinder — research collection by The Historic New Orleans Collection <--Broken page link, Apr. 2017.
History of Louisiana, Vol. 5, Chapter 10 — detailed account by Charles Gayarré
The Battle of New Orleans — detailed account by John Smith Kendall
The Glorious Eighth of January — colorful account by Grace King
The Battle of New Orleans — account by Theodore Roosevelt
Siege of Fort St. Philip — eyewitness accounts, as published in the Louisiana Historical Quarterly
BattleofNewOrleans.org — detailed account of battles, photos and movies of reenactments
History of the steamboat Enterprise at the Battle of New Orleans — courtesy of the Louisiana State History Museum
Battle of New Orleans reenactment December 2011 on YouTube
Battle of New Orleans reenactment January 2010 Cox Living Louisiana television segment on YouTube
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Coordinates: 29°56′31″N 89°59′24″W / 29.942°N 89.990°W / 29.942; -89.990
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Alaska boundary dispute
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Varying claims in Southeast Alaska before arbitration in 1903.
The Alaska boundary dispute was a territorial dispute between the United States and the United Kingdom, which then controlled Canada's foreign relations. It was resolved by arbitration in 1903. The dispute had been going on between the Russian and British Empires since 1821, and was inherited by the United States as a consequence of the Alaska Purchase in 1867.[1] The final resolution favored the American position, and Canada did not get an all-Canada outlet from the Yukon gold fields to the sea. The disappointment and anger in Canada was directed less at the United States, and more at the British government for betraying Canadian interests in favour of healthier Anglo-American relations.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 1825–1898
1.2 Klondike gold rush
2 Arbitration
3 Aftermath
3.1 Growth of a distinct Canadian identity
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Bibliography
6 Further reading
Background[edit]
1825–1898[edit]
In 1825 Russia and Britain signed a treaty to define the borders of their respective colonial possessions, the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825. Part of the wording of the treaty was that:
the said line shall ascend to the north along the channel called Portland Channel as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude; from this last-mentioned point, the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude[3]
The vague phrase "the mountains parallel to the coast" was further qualified thus:
Whenever the summit of the mountains... shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit... shall be formed by a line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom.[3]
This part of the treaty language was an agreement on general principles for establishing a boundary in the area in the future, rather than any exact demarcated line.
Signed in 1839, the RAC-HBC Agreement created an understanding between the Russian-American Company and the Hudson's Bay Company. Typically referred to as the lisière, a stretch of the Alaskan Panhandle from Cross Sound to 54-40 was given to the HBC as a fur trade monopoly in exchange for the agricultural and pastoral products produced by its subsidiary, the Puget Sound Agricultural Company, along with an annual amount of furs given to the Russian company. The lease was renewed until the end of Russian America. This lease was later brought up by the Province of British Columbia as bearing upon its own territorial interests in the region, but was ignored by Ottawa and London.[4]
The United States bought Alaska in 1867 from Russia in the Alaska Purchase, but the boundary terms were ambiguous. In 1871, British Columbia united with the new Canadian Confederation. The Canadian government requested a survey of the boundary, but the United States rejected it as too costly; the border area was very remote and sparsely settled, and without economic or strategic interest. In 1898, the national governments agreed on a compromise, but the government of British Columbia rejected it. U.S. President McKinley proposed a permanent lease to Canada of a port near Haines, but Canada rejected that compromise.
Klondike gold rush[edit]
In 1897–98 the Klondike Gold Rush in Yukon, Canada, enormously increased the population of the general area, which reached 30,000, composed largely of Americans. Some 100,000 fortune seekers moved through Alaska to the Klondike gold region.[5]
The presence of gold and a large new population greatly increased the importance of the region and the desirability of fixing an exact boundary. Canada wanted an all-Canadian route from the gold fields to a seaport. There are claims that Canadian citizens were harassed by the U.S. as a deterrent to making any land claims.[6]
The head of Lynn Canal was the main gateway to the Yukon, and the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) sent a detachment to secure the location for Canada. This was based on Canada's assertion that that location was more than ten marine leagues from the sea, which was part of the 1825 boundary definition. A massive influx of American stampeders through Skagway very quickly forced the Canadian police to retreat. They set up posts on the desolate summits of Chilkoot and White Passes, complete with a mounted Gatling gun at each post. This was still disputed territory, as many Americans believed that the head of Lake Bennett, another 12 miles (19 km) north, should be the location of the border. To back up the police in their sovereignty claim, the Canadian government also sent the Yukon Field Force, a 200-man Army unit, to the territory. The soldiers set up camp at Fort Selkirk so that they could be fairly quickly dispatched to deal with problems at either the coastal passes or the 141st Meridian.
Arbitration[edit]
The posts set up on the passes by the NWMP were effective in the short term, as the provisional boundary was accepted, if grudgingly. In September 1898, serious negotiations began between the United States and Canada to settle the issue, but those meetings failed.
The treaty of 1825 was drawn in French and the 1903 English advocates discussed the meaning of words like "côte-coast", "lisière strip" and "crête-crest". The maps of George Vancouver, which were used as a fixing line by the commission of 1825, showed a continuous line of mountains parallel to the coast — however, the mountain range is neither parallel to the coast nor continuous.[7]
Finally, in 1903, the Hay-Herbert Treaty between the United States and Britain entrusted the decision to an arbitration by a mixed tribunal of six members: three Americans (Elihu Root, Secretary of War; Henry Cabot Lodge, senator from Massachusetts; and George Turner, ex-senator from Washington), two Canadians (Sir Louis A. Jette, Lieutenant Governor of Quebec; and Allen B. Aylesworth, K.C., from Toronto), and one Briton (Baron Alverstone). All sides respected Root, but he was a member of the U.S. Cabinet. Canadians ridiculed the choice of the obscure ex-Senator Turner and, especially, Lodge, a leading historian and diplomatic specialist whom they saw as an unobjective.[8]
The tribunal considered six main points:[8]
Where the boundary began.
What "Portland Channel" meant, and how to draw the boundary line through it. Four islands were in dispute.
The definition of the line from "the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island to Portland Channel", which depended on the answer to the previous question.
The line from Portland Channel to the 56th parallel.
The width of the lisière (border or edge), and how to measure it.
Whether mountain ranges existed in the area.
The British member Lord Alverstone sided with the U.S. position on these basic issues, although the final agreed demarcation line fell significantly short of the maximal U.S. claim (it was a compromise falling roughly between the maximal U.S. and maximal British/Canadian claim). The BC Panhandle (the Tatshenshini-Alsek region) was not quite exclaved from the rest of British Columbia.
In 1929 Canadian scholar Hugh L.L. Keenlyside concluded, "The Americans, of course, did have the better case." He judged that most of the tribunal's decisions were fair. Regarding the key issue of the islands in the Portland Channel, however,[8]
there can be little doubt that the tribunal in this instance accepted a compromise, which, however justified by the political considerations involved, was a direct violation of the judicial character of the court. Instead of accepting either the American or the British claim in toto, the line was drawn through Tongas Passage, thus giving each country a portion of its claim, but entirely disregarding the real problem involved. The original negotiators might, logically, have intended the line to be drawn either as the British claimed or as the Americans claimed; certainly they had no intention of dividing the channel islands between the two ... There can be scarcely any doubt that Lord Alverstone's final pronouncement was merely an attempt to rationalize a political expedient ... In all but one case they seem justified by the facts, and yet that one case of political compromise tarnished the whole award.[8]
This was one of several concessions that Britain offered to the United States (the others being on fisheries and the Panama Canal). It was part of a general policy of ending the chill in Anglo–U.S. relations, achieving rapprochement, winning American favour and resolving outstanding issues (the Great Rapprochement).[9]
Aftermath[edit]
Growth of a distinct Canadian identity[edit]
Keenlyside and Brown wrote that[8]
Had the United States been willing to submit her case to The Hague, or to an impartial juridical body, as Canada had desired, the result would have been, in all probability, substantially the same, except that Canadians could not feel that they had been unfairly treated. ... Had justices of the United States Supreme Court been appointed in the place of the two Senators, Canadian criticism of the award would not have been audible.[8]
The Canadian judges refused to sign the award, issued on 20 October 1903, due to the Canadian delegates' disagreement with Lord Alverstone's vote. Canadians protested the outcome, not so much the decision itself but that the Americans had chosen politicians instead of jurists for the tribunal, and that the British had helped its own interests by betraying Canada's.[8] This led to intense anti-British emotions erupting throughout Canada (including Quebec) as well as a surge in Canadian nationalism as separate from an imperial identity.[10] Although suspicions of the U.S. provoked by the award may have contributed to Canada's rejection of a free trade with the United States in the 1911 "reciprocity election",[8] historian F.W. Gibson concluded that Canadians vented their anger less upon the United States and "to a greater degree upon Great Britain for having offered such feeble resistance to American aggressiveness. The circumstances surrounding the settlement of the dispute produced serious dissatisfaction with Canada's position in the British Empire."[11] Infuriated, like most Canadians, Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier explained to Parliament, "So long as Canada remains a dependency of the British Crown the present powers that we have are not sufficient for the maintenance of our rights."[12] Canadian anger gradually subsided, but the feeling that Canada should control its own foreign policy may have contributed to the Statute of Westminster.[8]
See also[edit]
Canada portal
Alaska portal
International relations portal
List of areas disputed by the United States and Canada
Foreign relations of Canada
Canada–United States border
Canada–United States relations
Canada–United Kingdom relations
United Kingdom–United States relations
Pig War
Oregon boundary dispute
List of Boundary Peaks of the Alaska–British Columbia/Yukon border
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Farr, D.M.L. (February 6, 2006). "Alaska Boundary Dispute". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gibson (1943)
^ Jump up to: a b Political Geography, by Norman J. G. Pounds (ISBN 0-07-050566-7), 1972 p. 82
Jump up ^ "The Dryad Affair: Corporate Warfare and Anglo-Russian Rivalry for the Alaskan Lisière", J. W. Shelest, ExploreNorth.com website
Jump up ^ "Alaska Boundary Dispute". 2009.
Jump up ^ Statement of facts regarding the Alaska boundary question, p.3487 Alexander Begg, Victoria, British Columbia, publ. R. Wolfenden, 1902, report to David McEwen Eberts, Attorney-General of British Columbia.
Jump up ^ Brown, John W. (1909). An Abridged History of Alaska (1 ed.). Author.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Keenlyside, Hugh LL.; Brown, Gerald S. (1952). Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations. Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 178–189.
Jump up ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p 251
Jump up ^ John A. Munro, "English-Canadianism and the Demand for Canadian Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision, 1903." Ontario History 1965 57(4): 189–203.
Jump up ^ Gibson (1943) at notes 60–61
Jump up ^ Joseph Schull, Laurier (1965) pp 431–32
Bibliography[edit]
Bailey, Thomas A. "Theodore Roosevelt and the Alaska Boundary Settlement," Canadian Historical Review (1937) 18#2 pp: 123-130.
Carroll, F. M. "Robert Lansing and the Alaska Boundary Settlement." International History Review 1987 9(2): 271-290. in JSTOR
Cranny, Michael "Horizons: Canada Moves West" pg 256 1999 Prentice Hall Ginn Canada
Gelber, Lionel M. The rise of Anglo-American friendship: a study in world politics, 1898-1906 (1938)
Gibson, F. W. "The Alaskan Boundary Dispute," Canadian Historical Association Report (1945) pp 25–40
Haglund, David G. and Tudor Onea, "Victory without Triumph: Theodore Roosevelt, Honour, and the Alaska Panhandle Boundary Dispute," Diplomacy and Statecraft (March 2008) 19#1 pp 20–41
Kohn, Edward P. This Kindred People: Canadian-American Relations and the Anglo-Saxon Idea, 1895-1903 (2005)
Munro, John A. "English-Canadianism and the Demand for Canadian Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision, 1903." Ontario History 1965 57(4): 189-203. ISSN 0030-2953
Munro, John A., ed. The Alaska Boundary Dispute (Copp Clark Publishing Company, 1970), primary and secondary sources
Neary, Peter. "Grey, Bryce, and the Settlement of Canadian‐American Differences, 1905–1911" Canadian Historical Review (1968) 49#4 pp 357–380. ...
Penlington, Norman. The Alaska Boundary Dispute: A Critical Reappraisal. McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972. 120 pp.
The Canadian Encyclopedia: Alaska Boundary Dispute
Further reading[edit]
Report relative to the Alaska Boundary Question, submitted to the Hon. J.H. Turner, Minister of Finance etc. etc. (sic), 15 August 1896., Alexander Begg, Victoria, British Columbia: R. Wolfenden, 1896
Review of the Alaskan boundary question, Alexander Begg, Victoria, British Columbia, publ. Unknown, 1900
Statement of facts regarding the Alaska boundary question, Alexander Begg, Victoria, British Columbia, publ. R. Wolfenden, 1902, report to David McEwen Eberts, Attorney-General of British Columbia.
Survey of boundary line between Alaska and British Columbia : letter from the Acting Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting a communication from the Secretary of State, submitting an estimate of appropriation for survey of the boundary line between Alaska and British Columbia, R.Wike, US Dept. of State, publ. s.l.: s.n., 1895.
British Columbia from the earliest times to the present, Vol 2, Chapter XXXI - Alaska Boundary Dispute, E.O.S. Scholefield & Frederic William Howay, S.J. Clarke Pub. Co., Vancouver, British Columbia, 1914
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alaska_boundary_dispute&oldid=799140916"
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