text:
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1990
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Sinéad O'Connor (pictured) earned her first Hot 100 number-one single with "Nothing Compares 2 U", which stayed at the top position for four weeks.
This is a list of the U.S. Billboard magazine Hot 100 number-ones of 1990. The three longest running number-one singles of 1990 are "Nothing Compares 2 U" by Sinéad O'Connor, "Vision of Love" by Mariah Carey, and "Because I Love You (The Postman Song)" by Stevie B, which each attained four weeks at the top of the chart.
Key
The yellow background indicates the #1 song on Billboard's 1990 Year-End Chart of Pop Singles.
Issue Date
Song
Artist(s)
Reference
January 6 "Another Day in Paradise" Phil Collins [1]
January 13 [2]
January 20 "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You" Michael Bolton [3]
January 27 [4]
February 3 [5]
February 10 "Opposites Attract" Paula Abdul with The Wild Pair [6]
February 17 [7]
February 24 [8]
March 3 "Escapade" Janet Jackson [9]
March 10 [10]
March 17 [11]
March 24 "Black Velvet" Alannah Myles [12]
March 31 [13]
April 7 "Love Will Lead You Back" Taylor Dayne [14]
April 14 "I'll Be Your Everything" Tommy Page [15]
April 21 "Nothing Compares 2 U" Sinéad O'Connor [16]
April 28 [17]
May 5 [18]
May 12 [19]
May 19 "Vogue" Madonna [20]
May 26 [21]
June 2 [22]
June 9 "Hold On" Wilson Phillips [23]
June 16 "It Must Have Been Love" Roxette [24]
June 23 [25]
June 30 "Step by Step" New Kids on the Block [26]
July 7 [27]
July 14 [28]
July 21 "She Ain't Worth It" Glenn Medeiros featuring Bobby Brown [29]
July 28 [30]
August 4 "Vision of Love" Mariah Carey [31]
August 11 [32]
August 18 [33]
August 25 [34]
September 1 "If Wishes Came True" Sweet Sensation [35]
September 8 "Blaze of Glory" Jon Bon Jovi [36]
September 15 "Release Me" Wilson Phillips [37]
September 22 [38]
September 29 "(Can't Live Without Your) Love and Affection" Nelson [39]
October 6 "Close to You" Maxi Priest [40]
October 13 "Praying for Time" George Michael [41]
October 20 "I Don't Have the Heart" James Ingram [42]
October 27 "Black Cat" Janet Jackson [43]
November 3 "Ice Ice Baby" Vanilla Ice [44]
November 10 "Love Takes Time" Mariah Carey [45]
November 17 [46]
November 24 [47]
December 1 "I'm Your Baby Tonight" Whitney Houston [48]
December 8 "Because I Love You (The Postman Song)" Stevie B [49]
December 15 [50]
December 22 [51]
December 29 [52]
See also
1990 in music
List of number-one hits (United States)
References
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-01-05). "'Another Day in Paradise' Remains No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-01-12). "Phil Collins' Single Holds on to No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-01-20). "It's out with the Old, in with the New". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-01-26). "Singles List Can't Live Without Bolton". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-02-02). "No. 1 LP, No. 2 Single for Abdul". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-02-09). "It Took 'Forever' to Get This Double". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-02-16). "2nd Straight Double for Paula Abdul". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-02-23). "Abdul, Jackson Poised for Battle". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-03-02). "Janet Jackson Wins Single Round". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-03-09). "Abdul, Jackson all over Again". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-03-16). "Raitt Rides Grammy to New Heights". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-03-23). "5 Women Occupy 5 No. 1 Spots". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-03-30). "Newcomers Dominate Singles List". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-04-06). "Dayne, Raitt Keep Women's Streak Going". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-04-13). "Page Takes over with 'Everything'". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-04-20). "Sinead O'Connor Courts Superstardom". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-04-27). "On 2 Charts, Nothing Compares 2 O'Connor". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-05-04). "2nd Straight Double for O'Connor". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-05-11). "O'Connor Holds on for 3rd Double". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-05-18). "'Vogue' Restores Madonna to No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-05-25). "'Vogue' Continues for Madonna". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-06-01). "2 New Entries Cause the Fireworks". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-06-08). "Wilson Phillips Beats Parents to No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-06-15). "Madonna's `Breathless' Rockets up Album Chart". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-06-22). "Roxette's `Love' Holds off New Kids". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-06-29). "New Kids Atop Singles, Album Lists". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-07-06). "New Kids' LP Bumped from No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-07-13). "Kids Stay on Top Step on Singles List". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-07-20). "Good Week for New Edition Connections". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-07-27). "Mariah Carey Making Her Move". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-08-03). "Mariah Carey Takes over 2 Top Spots". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-08-10). "Mariah Carey Tops 3 Singles Lists". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-08-17). "2nd Triple Play for Mariah Carey". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-08-24). "Jackson Puts Pressure on Carey". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-08-31). "Sweet Sensation's Wishes Come True". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-09-07). "Jon Bon Jovi's Solo Flight a Success". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-09-14). "Wilson Phillips' 2nd Single Hits No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-09-21). "'Release Me' Holds on to No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-09-28). "Nelson Matches Rick's Early Success". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-10-05). "Maxi Priest Makes Long Trek to No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-10-12). "Michael's 'Praying' the Easy Winner". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-10-19). "James Ingram Hits No. 1 as a Solo". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-10-26). "Black Cat' is Good Luck for Janet Jackson". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-11-02). "Vanilla Ice's 'Ice Ice Baby' Freezes out 'Black Cat'". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-11-09). "Vanilla Ice Nails Hammer After 21 Weeks". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-11-16). "Carey Holds on with 'Love Takes Time'". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-11-23). "It's another Bright Week for Carey". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-11-30). "Houston Replaces Carey at No. 1". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-12-07). "Houston's No. 1 Song Quickly Topples". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-12-14). "Stevie B at Top Again, but not for Long". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-12-21). "Stevie B Holds on to Top Spot on Singles Chart". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Jump up ^ DeKnock, Jan (1990-12-28). "New Stars Emerge on 1990 Charts". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2009-09-22.
Additional sources
Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition (ISBN 0-8230-7677-6)
Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, 12 Edition (ISBN 0-89820-180-2)
Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties (ISBN 0-89820-137-3)
Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard's online archive services and print editions of the magazine.
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text:
Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with FATCA (the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act).
Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act
Other short titles
Financial Literacy and Education Improvement Act
Long title
An Act to amend the Fair Credit Reporting Act, to prevent identity theft, improve resolution of consumer disputes, improve the accuracy of consumer records, make improvements in the use of, and consumer access to, credit information, and for other purposes.
Acronyms (colloquial)
FACTA, FLEIA
Nicknames
Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003
Enacted by
the 108th United States Congress
Effective
December 4, 2003
Citations
Public law
108-159
Statutes at Large
117 Stat. 1952
Codification
Titles amended
15 U.S.C.: Commerce and Trade
U.S.C. sections amended
15 U.S.C. ch. 41, subch. I § 1601 et seq.
15 U.S.C. ch. 41, subch. III § 1681 et seq.
Legislative history
Introduced in the House as H.R. 2622 by Spencer Bachus (R-AL) on June 26, 2003
Committee consideration by House Financial Services, Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
Passed the House on September 10, 2003 (392-30, Roll call vote 499, via Clerk.House.gov)
Passed the Senate on November 5, 2003 (95-2, Roll call vote 437, via Senate.gov)
Reported by the joint conference committee on November 21, 2003; agreed to by the House on November 21, 2003 (379-49, Roll call vote 667, via Clerk.House.gov) and by the Senate on November 22, 2003 (agreed unanimous consent)
Signed into law by President George W. Bush on December 4, 2003
The Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003 (abbreviated FACT Act or FACTA, Pub.L. 108–159) is a United States federal law, passed by the United States Congress on November 22, 2003,[1] and signed by President George W. Bush on December 4, 2003,[2] as an amendment to the Fair Credit Reporting Act. The act allows consumers to request and obtain a free credit report once every twelve months from each of the three nationwide consumer credit reporting companies (Equifax, Experian and TransUnion). In cooperation with the Federal Trade Commission, the three major credit reporting agencies set up the website, AnnualCreditReport.com, to provide free access to annual credit reports.[3]
The act also contains provisions to help reduce identity theft, such as the ability for individuals to place alerts on their credit histories if identity theft is suspected, or if deploying overseas in the military, thereby making fraudulent applications for credit more difficult. Further, it requires secure disposal of consumer information.
Contents
[hide]
1 Provisions
1.1 Identity Theft Prevention and Credit History Restoration
1.1.1 Fraud alerts
1.1.2 Truncation of credit and debit card numbers
1.1.3 Identification of possible identity theft (Red Flags rule)
1.1.3.1 Confusion with the scope of the Red Flags rule
1.2 Protection and restoration of identity theft victim credit history
1.2.1 Summary of rights of identity theft victims
1.2.2 Blocking of information resulting from identity theft
1.2.3 Coordination of identity theft complaint investigations
2 Criticism
2.1 Pre-emption of state laws
2.2 Difficulty in obtaining credit reports
2.3 The Red Flag rule as a cause of identity theft
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Provisions[edit]
The FACT Act contains seven major titles: Identity Theft Prevention and Credit History Restoration, Improvements in Use of and Consumer Access to Credit Information, Enhancing the Accuracy of Consumer Report Information, Limiting the Use and Sharing of Medical Information in the Financial System, Financial Literacy and Education Improvement, Protecting Employee Misconduct Investigations, and Relation to State Laws.[4]
Identity Theft Prevention and Credit History Restoration[edit]
This title of the act contains provisions that deal mainly with the prevention of identity theft. In particular, it establishes new regulations concerning 'fraud alerts' and 'active duty alerts', establishes new limitations on the printing of customers' credit card numbers on receipts, and prescribes that new regulations be established by certain government agencies regarding the detection of identity theft by financial institutions and creditors.
Fraud alerts[edit]
The title requires that consumer reporting agencies, upon the request of a consumer who believes he is or about to be a victim of fraud or any other related crime, must place a fraud alert on that consumer's file for at least 90 days, and notify all other consumer reporting agencies of the fraud alert.[5]
Consumers may request an extended fraud alert, in which case requires the reporting agency to disclose this fraud alert in any credit score that it issues for the consumer during a seven-year period. An extended alert also requires the reporting agency to exclude the consumer from any list distributed to third parties for the purpose of extending credit or offering insurance to that consumer.[5]
The title also provides for any active duty member to request an active duty alert, which requires the reporting agency to disclose such alert with any credit report issued within 12 months of the request and to exclude the active duty member from any list distributed to third parties for the purpose of extending credit or offering insurance for two years from the request.[5]
Truncation of credit and debit card numbers[edit]
The act also prohibits businesses from printing more than 5 digits of any customer's card number or card expiration date on any receipt provided to the cardholder at the point of sale or transaction. This provision is enforced with statutory damages ranging from $100 to $1000 per violation, and when claims are aggregated in a class action (brought by all the customers of a retailer that failed to truncate credit card numbers) the amount of damages can be massive.[6] The provision excludes receipts that are handwritten or imprinted, where the only method of recording the credit card number is by such means. The act did not become effective for three years after its enactment for any cash register manufactured before January 1, 2005 and did not become effective for one year after its enactment for any cash register manufactured after January 1, 2005.[7]
Identification of possible identity theft (Red Flags rule)[edit]
The act established the Red Flags Rule, which required the Federal banking agencies, the National Credit Union Administration, and the Federal Trade Commission to jointly create regulations regarding identity theft prevention applicable to financial institutions and creditors. The Red Flags Rule also addresses how card issuers must respond to changes of address.[8] Regulations that were established as a result include:[9]
One that requires financial institutions or creditors to develop and implement an Identity Theft Prevention Program in connection with both new and existing accounts. The Program must include reasonable policies and procedures for detecting, preventing, and mitigating identity theft;
Another that requires users of consumer reports to respond to Notices of Address Discrepancies that they receive; and
A third that places special requirements on issuers of debit or credit cards to assess the validity of a change of address if they receive notification of a change of address for a consumer’s debit or credit card account and, within a short period of time afterward they receive a request for an additional or replacement card for the same account.
Another key item was the requirement that mortgage lenders provide consumers with a Credit Disclosure Notice that included their credit scores, range of scores, credit bureaus, scoring models, and factors affecting their scores. This form is typically available from credit reporting agencies, and many will send this directly to the consumer on the lenders' behalf.
Confusion with the scope of the Red Flags rule[edit]
Financial institutions faced a mandatory deadline of November 1, 2008, to comply with the Red Flags Rule,[10] section 114 and 315 of the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions (FACT) Act. However, due to widespread confusion over coverage under the act, specifically whether the term "creditor" applies to particular businesses, members of Congress repeatedly requested that FTC postpone the deadline for compliance with Section 315 until after December 31, 2010.[11]
According to a Business Alert issued by the Federal Trade Commission in June 2008,[12] the Red Flags Rule applies to a very broad list of businesses including "financial institutions" and "creditors" with "covered accounts". A "creditor" is defined to include "lenders such as banks, finance companies, automobile dealers, mortgage brokers, utility companies and telecommunications companies". However, this is not an all-inclusive list.
The regulations apply to all businesses that have "covered accounts". A "covered account" includes any account for which there is a foreseeable risk of identity theft. For example, credit cards, monthly billed accounts like utility bills or cell phone bills, social security numbers, drivers license numbers, medical insurance accounts, and many others. This significantly expands the definition to include all companies, regardless of size, that maintain, or otherwise possess, consumer information for a business purpose. Because of the broad definitions in these regulations, few businesses will be able to escape these requirements.[13]
Protection and restoration of identity theft victim credit history[edit]
Summary of rights of identity theft victims[edit]
Provisions in this title require that the Federal Trade Commission, in consultation with the Federal banking agencies and the National Credit Union Agency, "prepare a model summary of the rights of consumers ... with respect to the procedures for remedying the effects of fraud or identity theft...". Beginning sixty days after the summary of these rights were established, all reporting agencies are required to provide a copy of this summary to any consumer that contacts an agency and states that he believes he has been a victim of fraud or identity theft.[14]
Blocking of information resulting from identity theft[edit]
The Act also allows requires any reporting agency to block the reporting of any information in a consumer's file that the consumer identifies as information that originated from an alleged identity theft. Such agency must block the information within four days of receiving proof, a copy of an identity theft report, the identification of the information by the consumer, and a statement from the consumer that the information is not a result of any transaction he participated in.
Agencies are not required to block any information (and may rescind any existing blocks) in the case that the block was found to be made in error or based on erroneous information as provided by the consumer, or that the consumer "obtained possession of goods, services, or money as a result of the blocked transaction or transactions.[15]
Coordination of identity theft complaint investigations[edit]
This section requires that all consumer reporting agencies develop a means of communicating to each other consumer complaints regarding fraud or identity theft, or requests for fraud alerts or blocks. Furthermore, the section requires that each consumer reporting agency release a report each year to the Federal Trade Commission of fraud alert requests and complaints involving fraud or identity theft received by the reporting agency. Finally, the section requires the Federal Trade Commission to set up a means by which consumers can contact the reporting agencies and creditors with a complaint involving identity theft or fraud.[16]
Criticism[edit]
After its enactment, some consumer advocacy groups criticised the FACT Act claiming that it preempts some stricter and already-existing state regulations, and provides exceptions that are 'far too generous' to new regulations regarding disclosure of personal information by banks as found in the act.[17] Furthermore, an article in The Washington Post criticised the difficulty in retrieving the credit reports in some of the states that were first eligible under the act.[18]
Pre-emption of state laws[edit]
Vermont, Colorado, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California had all established laws by 1994 requiring credit bureaus to provide a free credit report on demand. However, according to U.S. Pirg, "[w]ith the FACT Act, the financial industry won its primary goal: permanent preemption of stronger state credit and privacy laws."[19] Specifically, state laws are preempted in certain areas, such as the content of a consumer report, the responsibilities of "furnishers", responses of consumer reporting agencies to disputes over inaccurate information (although there is an exception for statutes in place before 1996), and duties of those who take an adverse action based on a report.[20]
Difficulty in obtaining credit reports[edit]
An article dated March 13, 2005 and published in the Washington Post stated that while "[r]esidents of six East Coast states—Maryland, Georgia, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey and Vermont—are already eligible for free reports from all three agencies as a result of state laws", the phone numbers provided to request these reports connected to automated systems that the article described as "maddening in their complexity and unforgiving if your circumstances vary from the system's programming." Furthermore, the article criticised automated systems for forcing consumers to "navigate a thicket of recorded information -- including sales pitches for their products, such as a credit 'score' (an evaluation of your creditworthiness) or a 'monitoring' service to help guard against identity theft".[18] Since 2012, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) has published a list of consumer reporting agencies (CRAs). It enables consumers to see which CRAs might be important to them and gives them the contact information of each CRA in the list, so consumers can more easily order their personal consumer reports. Many of the CRAs in the list provide personal reports to consumers for free. The 2016 edition of the list is available on the CFPB's website here.
The Red Flag rule as a cause of identity theft[edit]
As the Red Flag rule widely defines creditors, many businesses (such as utilities)[21] are now required to collect personal information (such as SSN and driver's license numbers) that they do not need and have no use for. This policy is precisely contrary to the FTC's advice to consumers that they should disclose their social security number to companies only when absolutely necessary.[22] This aspect of the Red Flag rule has the unintended consequences of increasing the number of businesses that hold consumers' Social Security numbers, thereby putting consumers at greater risk for identity theft through data theft.
See also[edit]
Fair Credit Reporting Act
Policy and Economic Research Council—think tank that did much of the research on FACTA
Securities regulation in the United States
Commodity Futures Trading Commission
Securities Commission
Chicago Stock Exchange
Financial regulation
List of financial regulatory authorities by country
NASDAQ
New York Stock Exchange
Stock exchange
Regulation D (SEC)
Related legislation
1933 - Securities Act of 1933
1934 – Securities Exchange Act of 1934
1938 – Temporary National Economic Committee (establishment)
1939 - Trust Indenture Act of 1939
1940 - Investment Advisers Act of 1940
1940 - Investment Company Act of 1940
1968 – Williams Act (Securities Disclosure Act)
1975 – Securities and Exchange Act
1982 – Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act
1999 – Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act
2000 – Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000
2002 – Sarbanes–Oxley Act
2006 - Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006
2010 – Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Library of Congress Congress.gov, searched for H.R. 2622 (108th Congress) Major Congressional Actions on September 7, 2008
Jump up ^ White House fact sheet, December 4, 2003
Jump up ^ Facts for Consumers, Federal Trade Commission, March 2008
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, retrieved 2009-02-02
^ Jump up to: a b c FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, pp. 117 STAT. 1955–117 STAT. 1959, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ Bray, Samuel L. (2012). "Announcing Remedies". Cornell Law Review. 97. SSRN 1967184  .
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, pp. 117 STAT. 1959–117 STAT. 1960, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, pp. 117 STAT. 1960–117 STAT. 1961, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ http://ftc.gov/opa/2007/10/redflag.shtm
Jump up ^ Red Flags Resource Center
Jump up ^ http://ftc.gov/opa/2010/05/redflags.shtm
Jump up ^ FTC Business Alert, Federal Trade Commission, June 2008
Jump up ^ http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/microsites/redflagsrule/faqs.shtm#B
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, p. 117 STAT. 1961, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, pp. 117 STAT. 1964–1965, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT TRANSACTIONS ACT OF 2003, Public Law 108-159, 108th Congress, p. 117 STAT. 1966, retrieved 2009-02-02
Jump up ^ Singletary, Michelle (2003-12-11). "Somewhat More Fair And Increasingly Accurate". The Washington Post. p. Financial; E03. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "It's Free, But Not So Easy; Another Try at Helping You Get That Credit Report". The Washington Post. 2005-03-15. p. Outlook; B04. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Mistakes Do Happen: A Look at Errors in Consumer Credit Reports". June 2004.
Jump up ^ More S. (2006). Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act: More Protection for Consumers. The Information Management Journal.
Jump up ^ "Start or Install Service".
Jump up ^ ftc.gov. "Deter Minimize Your Risk". Archived from the original on 2011-10-13.
External links[edit]
White House press release
Full text of the "Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003"
Federal Register, Vol 72. No. 217, Friday, November 9, 2007, Rules and Regulations. pp 63718–63775.
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) List of consumer reporting companies current as of January 2016
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text:
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
Citations
Public law
Pub.L. 89–10
Statutes at Large
79 Stat. 27
Codification
Acts amended
Pub.L. 81–874, 64 Stat. 1100; Pub.L. 83–531, 68 Stat. 533
Titles amended
20 U.S.C.: Education
U.S.C. sections created
20 U.S.C. ch. 70
Legislative history
Introduced in the House as H.R. 2362
Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1965
Major amendments
Bilingual Education Act
Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
Improving America's Schools Act of 1994
No Child Left Behind Act
Every Student Succeeds Act
Lyndon B. Johnson at the ESEA signing ceremony, with his childhood schoolteacher Ms. Kate Deadrich Loney
Education in the United States
By state and in insular areas
By subject area
History of
Issues: Finance – Law – Literacy – Reform
Levels: Pre-kindergarten – Primary – Secondary – Higher
Organizations
Education portal
United States portal
v
t
e
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed as a part of United States President Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty" and has been the most far-reaching federal legislation affecting education ever passed by the United States Congress. The act was an extensive statute that funded primary and secondary education.[1] It also emphasizes equal access to education and establishes high standards and accountability.[2]
In addition, the bill aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing each child with fair-equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education. As mandated in the act, the funds are authorized for professional development, instructional materials, for resources to support educational programs, and for parental involvement promotion.
The act was originally authorized through 1965; however, the government has reauthorized the act every five years since its enactment. The reauthorization of ESEA by President George W. Bush was known as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. ESEA was reauthorized on December 10, 2015 as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) by President Barack Obama.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
2 Sections of the original 1965 Act
2.1 Title I
2.1.1 Overview
2.1.2 Historical context
2.1.2.1 Changes over time
2.1.2.2 First 15 years
2.1.2.3 The 1980s
2.1.2.4 From the 1990s to the present
2.1.3 Funding
2.1.3.1 Basic Grant
2.1.3.2 Concentration Grant
2.1.3.3 Targeted Assistance Grant
2.1.3.4 Education Finance Incentive Grant
2.2 Title III
2.3 Title V
2.4 Title VII
3 Effects on bilingual education
4 Landmark court cases
5 Notable reauthorizations
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Historical context[edit]
On January 25, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson Congressional to improve education opportunities for America's children. Wary of popular fears regarding increased federal involvement in local schools, the Johnson administration advocated giving local districts great leeway to use the new funds, which were to be first distributed as grants to each state. Shortly thereafter, Carl D. Perkins (D-KY), the chair of the General Education Subcommittee of the House Committee on Education and Labor introduced H.R. 2362. With the Johnson administration's support, and after significant wrangling over the structure of the bill's funding formula committee, the full committee voted 23–8 to report it on March 2, 1965. Following a failed attempt to derail the bill by Representative Howard K. Smith (D-VA), the House passed H.R. 2362 on March 26, 1965 in a 263–153 roll-call vote.[4]
As the Senate prepared to consider the education bill, S. 370, Democratic leaders urged their colleagues to pass it without amendment, so as to avoid throwing it back to the House for reconsideration. S. 370 was assigned to the Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee, which subsequently reported the bill to the Senate floor with unanimous support. During the Senate debates, several amendments were introduced, though none passed. The Senate passed the bill in a 73–18 vote on April 7, 1965.[4]
President Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act into law two days later on April 9, 1965.[4]
Sections of the original 1965 Act[edit]
Title I – Financial Assistance To Local Educational Agencies For The Education Of Children Of Low-Income Families
Title II – School Library Resources, Textbooks, and other Instructional Materials
Title III – Supplementary Educational Centers and Services
Title IV – Educational Research And Training
Title V – Grants To Strengthen State Departments Of Education
Title VI – General Provisions
New Titles Created by Early Amendments to 1965 Law
2008 No Child Left Behind Blue Ribbon School Logo
1966 amendments (Public Law 89-750)
Title VI – Aid to Handicapped Children (1965 title VI becomes Title VII)[5]
1967 amendments (Public Law 90-247)
Title VII – Bilingual Education Programs (1966 title VII becomes Title VIII)
Title I[edit]
"Title I" redirects here. For other uses of "Title I", see Title I (disambiguation).
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Title I (education). (Discuss) (April 2018)
Overview[edit]
Title I ("Title One"), a provision of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act passed in 1965, is a program created by the U.S. Department of Education to distribute funding to schools and school districts with a high percentage of students from low-income families. Funding is distributed first to state educational agencies (SEAs) which then allocate funds to local educational agencies (LEA's) which in turn dispense funds to public schools in need.[6] Title I also helps children from families that have migrated to the United States and youth from intervention programs who are neglected or at risk of abuse. The act appropriates money for educational purposes for the next five fiscal years until it is reauthorized.[7] In addition, Title I appropriates money to the education system for prevention of dropouts and the improvement of schools; these appropriations are carried out for five fiscal years until reauthorization.[7][8]
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, to be an eligible Title I school, at least 40% of a school's students must be from low-income families who qualify under the United States Census's definition of low-income, according to the U.S. Department of Education.[6][9]
Title I mandates services both to eligible public school students and eligible private school students.[6] This is outlined in section 1120 of Title I, Part A of the ESEA as amended by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Title I states that it gives priority to schools that are in obvious need of funds, low-achieving schools, and schools that demonstrate a commitment to improving their education standards and test scores.
There are two types of assistance that can be provided by Title I funds.[6] The first is a “schoolwide program” in which schools can dispense resources in a flexible manner.[10] The second is a “targeted assistance program” which allows schools to identify students who are failing or at risk of failing.[6]
Assistance for school improvement includes government grants, allocations, and reallocations based on the school's willingness to commit to improving their standing in the educational system. Each educational institution requesting these grants must submit an application that describes how these funds will be used in restructuring their school for academic improvement.[8]
Schools receiving Title I funding are regulated by federal legislation. Most recently, this legislation includes the No Child Left Behind Act, which was passed in 2001.[6] In the 2006–2007 school year, Title I provided assistance to over 17 million students who range from kindergarten through twelfth grade.[6] The majority of the funds (60%) were given to students between kindergarten through fifth grade.[6] The next highest group that received funding were students in sixth through eighth grade (21%).[6] Finally, 16% of the funds went to students in high school with 3% provided to students in preschool.[6]
Historical context[edit]
In its original conception, Title I under the ESEA, was designed by President Lyndon B. Johnson to close the skill gap in reading, writing and mathematics between children from low-income households who attend urban or rural school systems and children from the middle-class who attend suburban school systems.[10] This federal law came about during President Johnson’s “War on Poverty” agenda.[7] Numerous studies have been conducted since the original authorization of the ESEA in 1965 that have shown that there is an inverse relationship between student achievement and school poverty.[7] Specifically, student achievement has been found to decrease as school poverty increases.[7] According to the United States Department of Education (USDOE), students from low-income households are “three times as likely to be low achievers if they attend high-poverty schools as compared to low-poverty schools.”[11] Within this context, Title I was conceived in order to compensate for the considerable educational deprivations associated with child poverty.[7]
Changes over time[edit]
First 15 years[edit]
In the years since 1965, Title I has changed considerably.[12] For the first 15 years, the program was reauthorized every three years with additional emphasis placed on how funds were to be allocated.[12] In the course of these reauthorizations, strict federal rules and regulations were created for the guarantee that funds would be allocated solely to students in need – specifically students eligible for services based on socioeconomic status and academic achievement.[12]
Regulations also included added attention to uniformity in regards to how resources were distributed to Title I and non-Title he schools and the role of parents in the revisions of the program.[12] In addition to more stringent rules, during these years, policy makers outlined punitive actions that could be taken for those who were out of compliance.[12] Attention was also placed upon the assurance that Title I funds would not serve as replacements for local funds; but rather they would serve as ancillary resources.[12] These federal regulations, which were focused on financial resources, influenced local Title I programs in many ways.[12] Pull-out programs were adopted by Title I schools in order to comply with the financial stipulations that were made in the initial reauthorizations.[12] These programs separated eligible students from ineligible ones to ensure that those who were in-need would benefit from the program.[12] By 1978, in response to the extensive criticism of pull-outs on the grounds that they were asynchronous with the instruction occurring in Template:Classrooms, another option for providing assistance to students was introduced, the school wide approach.[12] Schools with a student body in which the make-up had 100% or more low-income students could use Title I funds for the entire school’s improvement rather than for specific individuals.[12] Despite this amendment, local fund requirements prevented all eligible students from using the school wide approach.
The 1980s[edit]
During the Reagan Administration, Congress passed the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act (ECIA) in 1981 to reduce federal regulations of Title I.[13] This reflected the administration’s stance that resource control should be in the hands of states and local jurisdictions rather than at a federal level.[13] Despite the change outlined by the ECIA and the new designation of Title I as Chapter I, little was done to implement it and traditional Title I practices, like the use of pull-outs, continued.[12]
As the financial regulations became incorporated into practice, the conversation shifted around Title I to student achievement.[12] In 1988, the Hawkins-Stafford Elementary and Secondary School Improvement Act, re-focused Title I on cultivating school improvement and excellent programs.[12] The additions that were made through this legislation called for synchrony between Chapter I and classroom instruction, it raised the achievement standard for low-income students by emphasizing advanced skills instead of basic ones and increased parental involvement.[12] It also had two new provisions: program improvement and school wide projects.[14] Program improvements were modifications that would occur when students who received funding were not improving.[14] The school wide projects altered the requirement that local funds had to match school wide program funding by Title I, allowing a larger number of high need schools to implement school wide programming.[12][14]
From the 1990s to the present[edit]
A 1993 National Assessment noted shortcomings of the 1980s alterations to Title I.[12] These catalyzed the introduction of the 1994 Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA), which significantly revised the original ESEA.
This was the last major alteration prior to those made by No Child Left Behind. The IASA attempted to coordinate federal resources and policies with the pre-exisiting efforts at the state and local levels in order to improve instruction for all students. This reform made three major changes to Title I.[12] It added math and reading/language arts standards to be used to assess student progress and provide accountability.[12] It reduced the threshold for schools to implement school-wide programs from 75% poverty to 50% and gave schools a longer reign to use federal funding from multiple programs to dispense funds at a school wide level.[12] Lastly, the IASA gave more local control overall so that federal officials and states could waive federal requirements that interfered with school improvements.[12]
The most recent and significant alteration to the original Title I was made by its reauthorization under No Child Left Behind (NCLB).[15] In this reauthorization, NCLB required increased accountability from its schools both from the teachers and from the students.[15] Yearly standardized tests were mandated in order to measure how schools were performing against the achievement bars set by Title I.[15] Schools were also responsible for publishing annual report cards that detailed their student achievement data and demographics.[15] Schools were now held accountable not only by punitive measures that would be taken if schools fail to meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), but also corrective actions were taken if states did not have an assessment system approved by Title I.[15] Under NCLB, Schools are also required to plan for “restructuring” if they fail to make AYP for three years after being identified for improvement.[15] More schools took corrective action under NCLB than under IASA.[15] NCLB also required teachers to be highly qualified if hired using Title I funding.[15]
Modern applications of the Title I money have been diverse. Recent uses include wide-scale purchasing of iPads and other Internet using devices as electronic textbooks for students in 1:1 initiatives. Along with this, students from low-income families often do not have adequate Internet access from home. Thus, various public money, including Title I funds, are being investigated for possible use to provide cellular Internet access for students to receive remediation or other instructional content from home. The purpose of 24/7 internet access from home is to close the gap between higher income families where remediation resources are generally more available through parents and additional services and low-income students where such resources are scarce. Educational Technology advocates have long cited 24/7 Internet access as a boon to the education and advancement of at-risk children.
Funding[edit]
Under NCLB, Title I funding is given to schools where at least 35% of the children in the school attendance area come from low-income families or to schools where 35% of the student population is low-income.[16] To determine the percentage of low-income families, school districts may select a poverty measure from among the following data sources: (1) the number of children ages 5–17 in poverty counted in the most recent census; (2) the number of children eligible for free and reduced price lunches under the National School Lunch Program; (3) the number of children in families receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families; (4) the number of children eligible to receive Medicaid assistance; or (5) a composite of these data sources. The district must use the same measure to rank all its school attendance areas. The funds are appropriated for the use of improving academic achievement for students in low-income households.[16]
Title I funding is received by more than 50% of all public schools.[16] NCLB also requires that for funding to be received, all districts and schools must meet adequate yearly progress goals for their student populations and specific demographic subgroups.[16] Non-Title I schools are schools that do not receive federal Title I funds.[16] Although school districts have some freedom in how Title I funding is distributed among schools within a district, Title I requires them to prioritize the highest-poverty schools.[16]
There are 4 distribution formulas under NCLB for Title I funding: Basic Grant, Concentration Grant, Targeted Assistance Grant, and the Education Finance Incentive Grant.[17] The Federal Education Budget Project details the requirements for each formula extensively.[17]
Basic Grant[edit]
The Basic Grant formula provides funding to school districts based on the number of poor children they serve.[17] To receive money through this grant, the school district must meet the requirement of having at least 10 poor children and 2% of its students in poverty.[17]
Concentration Grant[edit]
The Concentration Grant formula is similar to the basic grant formula because it gives funding to schools based on the number of poor children they serve.[17] To receive money through this grant, school districts must meet the requirement of having at least 15% of children in poverty or a total of 6,500 poor children.[17]
Targeted Assistance Grant[edit]
The Targeted Assistance Grant formula allocates more money for each child as the poverty rate in a district increases.[17] This means that school districts with more poverty get more money for each poor child than districts with low poverty.[17]
Education Finance Incentive Grant[edit]
The Education Finance Incentive Grant Formula has a two-pronged approach.[17] It is meant to reward schools that expend more state resources on public education and distribute funding in an equitable manner.[17] It is also meant to concentrate funds in districts with high poverty that inequitably distributes state and local education funding.[17] In states, funding is allocated to school districts in a way similar to the Targeted Assistance Grant formula but the weight of schools in districts with high poverty that inequitably distribute funding is doubled.[17]
Since 2001, Federal Title I funding has increased by 88%. In dollars, this has been a $7.7 billion increase.[17] These funds were distributed through the Targeted Assistance and Education Finance Incentive Grant formulas, which target funds to disadvantaged students most directly.[17]
Title III[edit]
Title III of ESEA originally provided matching grants for supplementary education centers (Political Education, Cross 2004).
Title III was the innovations component of ESEA. It was, for its time, the greatest federal investment in education innovation ever.[18] Its best innovations, after validation, became part of the National Diffusion Network.
Title V[edit]
This section of the original ESEA provided for strengthening state departments of education (Political Education, Cross 2004). The original Title V was amended to state the purposes of education reform efforts between local and state educational systems. Title V states that the government should endorse and support local education reforms that parallel reforms occurring at the state level. Parts of this section also state that the government should support innovative programs that help to improve an educational system. This includes support programs for libraries, scientific research leading to state and local educational agencies to put promising reforms into place, as well as for programs to improve teacher performance.[8]
Title V also provides government grants given to educational institutions appropriating money to gifted programs for students, foreign language developers, as well as physical education, the arts, and overall mental health care of children and students.[8]
Title VII[edit]
Added during the 1967 reauthorization of ESEA, Title VII introduced a program for bilingual education. It was championed by Texas Democrat Ralph Yarborough (Political Education, Cross 2004). It was originally created to aid Spanish-speaking students. However, in 1968 it transformed to the all-encompassing Bilingual Education Act (BEA). In its original form, the BEA was not explicit in mandating that all school districts provide bilingual education services—it left much room for interpretation by districts. The ruling in Lau v. Nichols provided some clarity—specific program goals were established, support centers for bilingual education were created, and what a “bilingual education program” should look like was defined. The courts upheld the language of the BEA as it declared a “bilingual education program” as one providing English instruction in unison with the native language. The idea was to push students to high academic achievement via a program encouraging them to learn English while maintaining the native language.[19] "It proposed to cultivate in this child his ancestral pride, to reinforce (not destroy) the language he natively speaks, to cultivate his inherent strengths, to give him the sense of personal idenfitication so essential to social maturation," summarizes Professor Cordasco of Montclair State College.[20]
In addition to programs for bilingual students, Title VII implemented plans to help Indian, Native Hawaiian, and Alaskan natives be provided opportunities for achieving academic equality.[8] In late 1967, Congress gave $7.5 million to school districts, scholars, and private research groups who proposed the best programs for improving bilingual education.[21] This section of the ESEA promotes the federal government working closely with local educational institutions to ensure that Indian, Hawaiian, and Alaskan students are being aided in getting the same educational experiences as all other students.[8] This is achieved through programs that keep cultural values intact and push students to strive for academic excellence.
It is worth noting that Title VII was replaced in the most recent reauthorization of the ESEA, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and is now Title III “Language Instruction for Limited English Proficient and Immigrant Students.”
Effects on bilingual education[edit]
In 1980, President Jimmy Carter established the Department of Education which allowed for the Bilingual Education campaign to expand bilingual education programs.[22] In addition to Carter’s efforts, President Clinton also showed his support through the Improving America's Schools Act of 1994. The act dramatically increased funding for bilingual and immigrant education.[23] In 1998, the Linguistic Society of America showed its support for the BEA arguing that bilingual education was a basic human right; it believed that children should be educated in order to maintain their native language and cultural identity while acquiring the English language.[24]
In 2001 Texas authorized and encouraged school districts to adopt dual language immersion programs for elementary-aged students. It stipulated that instruction in each language should be split 50–50 in class.[25] More recently “The Civil Rights Project, a research center founded at Harvard University and located at UCLA since 2007 is calling on policymakers to develop a new vision for bilingual education. Gándara and Hopkins gather compelling evidence that shows English-only policies in the states that adopted these restrictions aren’t working[26] The project proposes a new attitude that embraces bilingualism: “It is time that the U.S. join the rest of the developed world in viewing bilingualism as an asset, not a deficit,” argues Gary Orfield, co-director of the project.[27]
A 2014 bill, the Native Language Immersion Student Achievement Act, "cites reports from the Bureau of Indian Affairs and educational institutions 'that use primarily Native American languages to deliver education' and 'have indicated that students from these schools have generally had high school graduation and college attendance rates above the norm for their peers.'"[28]
The biggest obstacle to the BEA and expansion of bilingual education programs is the English-only Movement. There is no official language in the U.S., although some states have declared English as their official language. Three states in particular, California, Arizona, and Massachusetts, have declared English as their official language. In 1998, California passed Proposition 227 with the help of sponsor, Ron Unz, essentially ending bilingual education programs in exchange for an English immersion model which values assimilation over multiculturalism. In 2000, Arizona passed the English for Children initiative backed, again, by Ron Unz which mirrored California’s Proposition 227 in replacing bilingual education programs with English immersion ones.
Many Americans question whether bilingual education programs or English immersion models are the best route to helping students acquire English. The question of whether public education should encourage the development of the native tongue or completely leave that up to the parent is a difficult one. Some point out that California’s Proposition 227 is failing the students for simply failing to address both the linguistic and cultural struggles that students face; in 2004, the test results for California public school students showed the achievement gap for English learners widening and the test scores of English learners to be declining across grade levels.[29] Scholar Stephen Krashen maintains that these three states who have taken the harshest anti-bilingual education policies have seen progress that is modest, at best.[30] In a report to the United States Government, an Arizona study shows that English language learners can take up to 13 years to attain fluency—most school programs only offer 3 years of participation in English-immersion or bilingual programs, putting the effectiveness of these programs into question.[31] In order to ease the worries and qualms that people had in the programs' effectiveness, the Obama Administration has recently proposed the implementation of an evaluation system that it would require states to use in order to judge the progress seen in English language learners in schools. This would potentially restore faith in the bilingual programs and hold schools more accountable to student achievement and progress. The question remains if states are properly equipped across the board to meet such high expectations.[32]
Landmark court cases[edit]
1972: Aspira of New York, Inc v. New York Board of Education
Court ruled in favor of Puerto Rican and other Hispanic students whose language and cultural needs weren’t being addressed. This triggered an increased development of bilingual programs in New York public schools.[22]
1973: Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1
Court ruled in favor of Keyes recognizing the right that Hispanic children had to go to desegregated schools and not be racially isolated. The ruling recognizes Latinos’ suffering from systemic educational inequities.[22]
1974: Lau v. Nichols
Court ruled in favor of Lau which guarantees students the right to a “meaningful education” regardless of language. This ruling ensures that districts will provide students with the same curriculum via initiatives such as bilingual programs and ESL classes. It also increased district accountability—schools with high numbers of English language learners must submit reports to the federal government to show they’re providing adequate support for these students.[33]
1974: Serna v. Portales
Court ruled in favor of Serna that Portales Municipal Schools must provide a bilingual curriculum to accommodate the non-English speaking students. Texas also commits to employ bilingual personnel in schools.[22]
1978: Rios v. Reed
Court ruled in favor of Rios that the Pastchogue-Medford School District’s bilingual program offered to students was essentially an English-only course. The ruling states that these students were denied an equal education since they weren’t instructed in Spanish extensively in elementary school.[22]
1981: Castañeda v. Pickard
Court ruled in favor of Castañeda that the school was racially segregating the Hispanic children in classes and not providing adequate bilingual programs to help them overcome English-language barriers. The decision established a clear evaluation system to hold bilingual programs accountable for providing equal educational opportunities (programs based on educational theory, implemented effectively, and proven to be successful in overcoming language barriers).
2009: Horne v. Flores
Court ruled in favor of Horne that the state should have the right to determine the requirements of its English Language Learner programs. This holds schools less accountable for producing fluent English-speakers.
Notable reauthorizations[edit]
Clinton's Improving America's Schools Act of 1994
Bush's No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Obama's Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015
House Bill 610 https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/610
See also[edit]
Federal Impact Aid
Little School of the 400
Native Language Immersion Student Achievement Act
School Improvement Grant
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Secretary Riley Reignites the Math Wars". hoover.org. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
Jump up ^ ESEA. "No Child Left Behind Act". www.k12.wa.us. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) - U.S. Department of Education". www.ed.gov. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Elementary and Secondary Education Act" The Legislation, The Great Society Congress
Jump up ^ Beyer, Bonnie; Johnson, Eileen S. (1 June 2014). Special Programs and Services in Schools Creating Options, Meeting Needs, Revised, 2nd Edition (2nd ed.). Lancaster PA: DEStech Publications, Inc. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-60595-175-1. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "Fast Facts". Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved 28 November 2011. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Carmichael, Paul H. (1997). "Who Receives Federal Title I Assistance?: Examination of Program Funding by School Poverty Rate in New York State". Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 19 (4): 354–59. doi:10.3102/01623737019004354.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001)". www2.ed.gov. 6 December 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Title I, Part A Program". www.ed.gov. 5 October 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Farkas, George; Hall, L. Shane (2000). "Can Title I Attain Its Goal?". Brookings Papers on Education Policy: 59–123.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Education (USDOE) (June 1992). "National assessment of the Chapter 1 program: The interim report". Washington, DC.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "Part I: Title I In Perspective". National School Boards Association. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy, M.M; Birman, B.F.; Demaline, R.E. (1986). "The effectiveness of Chapter 1 services: National assessment of Chapter 1". U.S. Department of Education.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Chapter 1 Survey of the Hawkins-Stafford School Improvement Amendments. A Report Prepared for the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education of the Committee on Education and Labor. House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, Second Session. Committee Print". Superintendent of Documents. February 1990.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Executive Summary – Evaluation of Title I Accountability Systems and School Improvement Efforts (TASSIE): First-Year Findings (2004)". U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Requirements for Schools". Great Schools.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "No Child Left Behind Act – Title I Distribution Formulas". New American Foundation. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Answers - The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions". Answers.com. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Bilingual Education Act." K12academics, 2004–2011
Jump up ^ Cordasco, F., "The Bilingual Education Act." The Phi Delta Kappan, 1969, Vol. 51, No. 2, p. 75
Jump up ^ Cannon, G., "Bilingual Problems and Developments in the United States." Modern Language Association, 1971, Vol. 86, No. 3, p. 453
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Cerda N. and Hernandez C., "History of Bilingual Education" Bilingual Education, 2006
Jump up ^ "Improving America's Schools Act." K12academics, 2004–2011
Jump up ^ "Bilingual Education is a Human and Civil Right." Rethinking Schools, 2002–2003
Jump up ^ "Recent State Policies/Activities: Bilingual/ESL." United States Education Commission of the States, 2011
Jump up ^ "Forbidden Language: English Learners and Restrictive Language Policies — The Civil Rights Project at UCLA". civilrightsproject.ucla.edu. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Wyer, Kathy. "The Civil Rights Project" (PDF). sudikoff.gseis.ucla.edu. Teachers College Press. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Bridget (2014-01-17). "Bill Would Reward Schools That Teach All Curriculum in Native American Languages". The PJ Tatler. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ Cerda N. and Hernandez C., "Legislation Timeline" Archived 2011-09-20 at the Wayback Machine. Bilingual Education, 2006
Jump up ^ Krashen, S., "How Well Are They Doing? The Impact of English Immersion for English Language Learners in California, Arizona, and Massachusetts." University of Southern California, 2006
Jump up ^ "Public Education: Meeting the Needs of Students with Limited English Proficiency." General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Requesters, 2001
Jump up ^ Zehr, M., "Ability to Evaluate ELL Programs Questioned." Education Week (02774232), Vol. 29, Issue 28, 7 Apr. 2010
Jump up ^ Sugarman, ["Equal Protection for Non-English-Speaking School Children: Lau v. Nichols."] California Law Review (0008-1221), 1974, vol. 62, issue 1, pp. 157–182
External links[edit]
Copy of the Original Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, (P.L. 89-10; 79 Stat. 27), Federal Education Policy History website.
Resource Page About Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, si.unm.edu
Title I, Part A Program
What is ESEA
"Title I". Education Week.
The Great Society Congress
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