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Challenger Deep
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Location of Challenger Deep within the Mariana Trench and Western Pacific Ocean
The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point in the Earth's seabed hydrosphere, with a depth of 10,898 to 10,916 m (35,755 to 35,814 ft) by direct measurement from submersibles, and slightly more by sonar bathymetry. It is in the Pacific Ocean, at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group. The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor. Its bottom is about 11 km (7 mi) long and 1.6 km (1 mi) wide, with gently sloping sides.[1] The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island (one of the outer islands of Yap), 287 km (178 mi) southwest, and Guam, 304 km (189 mi) to the northeast. It is located in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia, 1.6 km (1 mi) from its border with ocean territory associated with Guam.[2]
The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger, whose expedition of 1872–1876 made the first recordings of its depth. According to the August 2011 version of the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names, the location and depth of the Challenger Deep are 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917 and 10,920 m (35,827 ft) ±10 m (33 ft).[3]
June 2009 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 (sonar multibeam bathymetry system for 300–11,000 m deep water mapping) aboard the RV Kilo Moana indicated a depth of 10,971 metres (35,994 ft). The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with a precision of 0.2% to 0.5% of water depth; this is an error of about 22 to 55 m (72 to 180 ft) at this depth.[4][5][6] Further soundings made by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping in October 2010 are in agreement with this figure, preliminarily placing the deepest part of the Challenger Deep at 10,994 m (36,070 ft), with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ±40 m (131 ft).[7][8] A 2014 study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies a depth uncertainty of ±25 m (82 ft) (95% confidence level) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ±20 to 25 m (66 to 82 ft) (2drms) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is 10,984 m (36,037 ft) at 11°19′48″N 142°11′57″E / 11.329903°N 142.199305°E / 11.329903; 142.199305 (11°19′47.650″N 142°11′57.498″E / 11.32990278°N 142.19930500°E / 11.32990278; 142.19930500).[6]
Only four descents have ever been achieved. The first descent by any vehicle was by the manned bathyscaphe Trieste in 1960. This was followed by the unmanned ROVs Kaikō in 1995 and Nereus in 2009. In March 2012 a manned solo descent was made by the deep-submergence vehicle Deepsea Challenger.[9][10][11] These expeditions measured very similar depths of 10,898 to 10,916 metres (35,755 to 35,814 ft).
Contents
[hide]
1 History of depth mapping from the surface
2 Descents
2.1 Manned descents
2.1.1 Trieste
2.1.2 Deepsea Challenger
2.1.3 Planned manned descents
2.2 Unmanned descents
2.2.1 Kaikō
2.2.2 ABISMO
2.2.3 Nereus
2.2.4 Haidou-1
3 Lifeforms
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
History of depth mapping from the surface[edit]
Over many years, the search for the point of maximum depth has involved many different vessels.[12]
The HMS Challenger expedition (December 1872 – May 1876) first sounded the depths now known as the Challenger Deep. This first sounding was made on 23 March 1875 at station 225.[13] The reported depth was 4,475 fathoms (26,850 ft; 8,184 m) at 11°24′N 143°16′E / 11.400°N 143.267°E / 11.400; 143.267, based on two separate soundings.
A 1912 book, The Depths of the Ocean by Sir John Murray, records the depth of the Challenger Deep as 31,614 ft (9,636 m), reporting the sounding taken by the converted navy collier USS Nero in 1899.[14] Murray was one of the expedition scientists.[15]
In 1951, about 75 years after its original discovery, the entire Mariana Trench was surveyed by a second Royal Navy vessel, captained by George Stephen Ritchie (later Rear Admiral Ritchie); this vessel was also named HMS Challenger, after the original expedition ship. This survey recorded the deepest part of the trench using echo sounding, a more precise and easier way to measure depth than the sounding equipment and drag lines used in the original expedition. A depth of 5,960 fathoms (35,760 ft; 10,900 m) was measured at 11°19′N 142°15′E / 11.317°N 142.250°E / 11.317; 142.250.
Research vessel Vityaz in Kaliningrad "Museum of world ocean"
The maximum surveyed depth of the Challenger Deep was reported in 1957 by the Soviet Research vessel Vityaz recording a spot 11,034 metres (36,201 ft) ±50 m (164 ft) deep at 11°20.9′N 142°11.5′E / 11.3483°N 142.1917°E / 11.3483; 142.1917.[12] It was dubbed the Mariana Hollow and is listed in many reference sources, including the Encyclopædia Britannica,[16] articles in National Geographic[17] and on maps. The pressure at this depth is approximately 1,099 times that at the surface, or 111 MPa (16,099 psi).[18]
In 1959, the US Navy research vessel RV Stranger using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) at 11°20.0′N 142°11.8′E / 11.3333°N 142.1967°E / 11.3333; 142.1967.[3][12]
In 1962, the US Navy research vessel RV Spencer F. Baird using a frequency-controlled depth recorder surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) at 11°20.0′N 142°11.8′E / 11.3333°N 142.1967°E / 11.3333; 142.1967.[12]
In 1975 and 1980, the US Navy research vessel RV Thomas Washington using a precision depth recorder with satellite positioning surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) at 11°20.0′N 142°11.8′E / 11.3333°N 142.1967°E / 11.3333; 142.1967.[12]
In 1984, the survey vessel Takuyo from the Hydrographic Department of Japan, used a narrow, multibeam echo sounder to take a measurement of 10,924 m (35,840 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) at 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917.[3][12][19]
Deep Sea Research Vessel RV Kairei
In 1998, a regional bathymetric survey of the Challenger Deep was conducted by the Deep Sea Research Vessel RV Kairei, from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, using a SeaBeam 2112 multibeam echosounder. The regional bathymetric map made from the data obtained in 1998 shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are 10,922 m (35,833 ft) ±74 m (243 ft), 10,898 m (35,755 ft) ±62 m (203 ft), and 10,908 m (35,787 ft) ±36 m (118 ft), respectively, making the eastern depression the deepest of the three.[12]
In 1999 and 2002, the RV Kairei revisited the Challenger Deep. The cross track survey in the 1999 RV Kairei cruise shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are 10,920 m (35,827 ft) ±10 m (33 ft), 10,894 m (35,741 ft) ±14 m (46 ft), and 10,907 m (35,784 ft) ±13 m (43 ft), respectively, which supports the results of the 1998 survey. The detailed grid survey in 2002 showed that the deepest site is located in the eastern part of the eastern depression around 11°22.260′N 142°35.589′E / 11.371000°N 142.593150°E / 11.371000; 142.593150, with a depth of 10,920 m (35,827 ft) ±5 m (16 ft), about 290 m (950 ft) southeast of the deepest site determined by the survey vessel Takuyo in 1984 and about 240 m (790 ft) east of the deepest place determined by the 1998 RV Kairei survey.[12]
On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Kongsberg Simrad EM 120 sonar multibeam bathymetry system for deep water (300 – 11,000 metres) mapping aboard the RV Kilo Moana (mothership of the Nereus underwater vehicle) indicated a depth of 10,971 m (35,994 ft). The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, which is capable of an accuracy of 0.2% to 0.5% of water depth across the entire swath.[4][5][20] In 2014 the multibeam bathymetry data of this sonar mapping have yet to be publicly released, so the data are not available for comparisons with other soundings.[6]
On 7 October 2010, further sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping/Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC) aboard the USNS Sumner (T-AGS-61). The results were reported in December 2011 at the annual American Geophysical Union fall meeting. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multibeam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude up to 50 cm (20 in) accuracy, from thousands of individual soundings around the deepest part the CCOM/JHC team preliminary determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of 10,994 m (36,070 ft) at 11°19′35″N 142°11′14″E / 11.326344°N 142.187248°E / 11.326344; 142.187248, with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ±40 m (131 ft) at 2 standard deviations (≈ 95.4%) confidence level.[7] A secondary deep with a depth of 10,951 m (35,928 ft) was located at approximately 23.75 nmi (44.0 km) to the east at 11°22′11″N 142°35′19″E / 11.369639°N 142.588582°E / 11.369639; 142.588582 in the Mariana Trench.[8][21][22][23]
In 2014, a study was conducted regarding the determination of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep based on data collected previous to and during the 2010 sonar mapping of the Mariana Trench with a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multibeam echosounder system aboard the USNS Sumner (T-AGS-61). This study by James. V. Gardner et al. of the Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping-Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC), Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory of the University of New Hampshire splits the measurement attempt history into three main groups: early single-beam echo sounders (1950s - 1970's), early multibeam echo sounders (1980s - 21st century), and modern (i.e., post-GPS, high-resolution) multibeam echo sounders. Taking uncertainties in depth measurements and position estimation into account the raw data of the 2010 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep vicinity consisting of 2,051,371 soundings from eight survey lines was analyzed. The study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies after the analysis a depth uncertainty of ±25 m (82 ft) (95% confidence level) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ±20 to 25 m (66 to 82 ft) (2drms) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is 10,984 m (36,037 ft) at 11°19′48″N 142°11′57″E / 11.329903°N 142.199305°E / 11.329903; 142.199305. The depth measurement uncertainty is a composite of measured uncertainties in the spatial variations in sound-speed through the water volume, the ray-tracing and bottom-detection algorithms of the multibeam system, the accuracies and calibration of the motion sensor and navigation systems, estimates of spherical spreading, attenuation throughout the water volume, and so forth.[6]
The 2009 and 2010 maximal depths were not confirmed by the series of dives Nereus made to the bottom during an expedition in May–June 2009. The direct descent measurements by the four expeditions which have reported from the bottom, have fixed depths in a narrow range from 10,916 m (Trieste) to 10,911 m (Kaikō), to 10,902 m (Nereus) to 10,898 m (Deepsea Challenger) Although an attempt was made to correlate locations, it could not be absolutely certain that Nereus (or the other descents) reached exactly the same points found to be maximally deep by the sonar/echo sounders of previous mapping expeditions, even though one of these echo soundings was made by Nereus mothership.
Descents[edit]
Manned descents[edit]
Lt. Don Walsh, USN (bottom) and Jacques Piccard (center) in the bathyscaphe Trieste.
Trieste[edit]
Main article: Bathyscaphe Trieste
On 23 January 1960, the Swiss-designed Trieste, originally built in Italy and acquired by the U.S. Navy, descended to the ocean floor in the trench manned by Jacques Piccard (who co-designed the submersible along with his father, Auguste Piccard) and USN Lieutenant Don Walsh. Their crew compartment was inside a spherical pressure vessel, which was a heavy-duty replacement (of the Italian original) built by Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany. Their descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the three-hour-and-fifteen-minute ascent. Their early departure from the ocean floor was due to their concern over a crack in the outer window caused by the temperature differences during their descent.[24] The measured depth at the bottom was measured with a manometer at 10,916 m (35,814 ft) ±5 m (16 ft).[12][25]
Deepsea Challenger[edit]
Main article: Deepsea Challenger
DSV Deepsea Challenger
On 26 March 2012 (local time), Canadian film director James Cameron made a solo manned descent in the DSV Deepsea Challenger to the bottom of the Challenger Deep.[9][10][11][26] At approximately 05:15 ChST on 26 March (19:15 UTC on 25 March), the descent began.[27] At 07:52 ChST (21:52 UTC), Deepsea Challenger arrived at the bottom. The descent lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes and the recorded depth was 10,898.4 metres (35,756 ft) when Deepsea Challenger touched down.[28] Cameron had planned to spend about six hours near the ocean floor exploring but decided to start the ascent to the surface after only 2 hours and 34 minutes.[29] The time on the bottom was shortened because a hydraulic fluid leak in the lines controlling the manipulator arm obscured the visibility out the only viewing port. It also caused the loss of the submersible's starboard thrusters.[30] At around 12:00 ChST (02:00 UTC on 26 March), the Deepsea Challenger website says the sub resurfaced after a 90-minute ascent,[31] although Paul Allen's tweets indicate the ascent took only about 67 minutes.[32] During a post-dive press conference Cameron said: "I landed on a very soft, almost gelatinous flat plain. Once I got my bearings, I drove across it for quite a distance ... and finally worked my way up the slope." The whole time, Cameron said, he didn't see any fish, or any living creatures more than an inch (2.5 cm) long: "The only free swimmers I saw were small amphipods"—shrimplike bottom-feeders.[33]
Planned manned descents[edit]
Several other manned expeditions are planned. These include:[34]
Triton Submarines, a Florida-based company that designs and manufactures private submarines, whose vehicle, Triton 36000/3, will carry a crew of three to the seabed in 120 minutes;[35]
Virgin Oceanic, sponsored by Richard Branson's Virgin Group, is developing a submersible designed by Graham Hawkes, DeepFlight Challenger,[36] with which the solo pilot will take 140 minutes to reach the seabed;[37]
DOER Marine, a San Francisco Bay Area based marine technology company established in 1992, that is developing a vehicle, Deepsearch (and Ocean Explorer HOV Unlimited), with some support from Google's Eric Schmidt with which a crew of two or three will take 90 minutes to reach the seabed, as the program Deep Search.[38]
Unmanned descents[edit]
Kaikō[edit]
Main article: Kaikō
On 24 March 1995, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe Kaikō broke the depth record for unmanned probes when it reached close to the surveyed bottom of the Challenger Deep. Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was one of the few unmanned deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The manometer measured depth of 10,911 m (35,797 ft) ±3 m (10 ft) at 11°22.39′N 142°35.54′E / 11.37317°N 142.59233°E / 11.37317; 142.59233[39] for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken yet.[12] Kaikō also collected sediment cores containing marine organisms from the bottom of the deep.[17][18] Kaikō made many unmanned descents to the Mariana Trench during three expeditions in 1995, 1996 and 1998.[40] The greatest depth measured by Kaikō in 1996 was 10,898 m (35,755 ft) at 11°22.10′N 142°25.85′E / 11.36833°N 142.43083°E / 11.36833; 142.43083 and in 1998 10,907 m (35,784 ft) at 11°22.95′N 142°12.42′E / 11.38250°N 142.20700°E / 11.38250; 142.20700.[12] It was lost at sea off Shikoku Island during Typhoon Chan-Hom on 29 May 2003.
ABISMO[edit]
Main article: ABISMO
On 3 June 2008, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ABISMO (Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile) reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench about 150 km (93 mi) east of the Challenger Deep and collected core samples of the deep sea sediment and water samples of the water column. Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was the only unmanned deep-sea probe in use that could dive deeper than 10,000 m (32,808 ft) after that of Nereus. During ABISMO's deepest Mariana Trench dive its manometer measured a depth of 10,258 m (33,655 ft) ±3 m (10 ft)[41]
Nereus[edit]
HROV Nereus
Main article: Nereus (underwater vehicle)
On 31 May 2009 the United States sent the Nereus hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) to the Challenger Deep.[42] Nereus thus became the first vehicle to reach the Mariana Trench since 1998 and the deepest-diving vehicle then in operation.[42] Project manager and developer Andy Bowen heralded the achievement as "the start of a new era in ocean exploration".[42] Nereus, unlike Kaikō, did not need to be powered or controlled by a cable connected to a ship on the ocean surface.[43]
Nereus spent over 10 hours at the bottom of the Challenger Deep and measured a depth of 10,902 m (35,768 ft) at 11°22.1′N 142°35.4′E / 11.3683°N 142.5900°E / 11.3683; 142.5900, while sending live video and data back to its mothership RV Kilo Moana at the surface and collecting geological and biological samples from the Challenger Deep bottom with its manipulator arm for further scientific analysis.[4][42][44][45]
The Nereus was operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. It was lost on May 10, 2014.[46]
Haidou-1[edit]
On 23 May 2016 the Chinese submersible Haidou-1 dove to a depth of 10,767 m (35,325 ft) in the Mariana Trench. This autonomous and remotely operated vehicle has a design depth of 11,000 m (36,089 ft).[47]
Lifeforms[edit]
The Summary Report of the HMS Challenger expedition lists radiolaria from the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered.[48] These (Nassellaria and Spumellaria) were reported in the Report on Radiolaria (1887)[49] written by Ernst Haeckel.
On their 1960 descent, the crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish" lying on the seabed.[50]
"... And as we were settling this final fathom, I saw a wonderful thing. Lying on the bottom just beneath us was some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 foot long and 6 inches across. Even as I saw him, his two round eyes on top of his head spied us — a monster of steel — invading his silent realm. Eyes? Why should he have eyes? Merely to see phosphorescence? The floodlight that bathed him was the first real light ever to enter this hadal realm. Here, in an instant, was the answer that biologists had asked for the decades. Could life exist in the greatest depths of the ocean? It could! And not only that, here apparently, was a true, bony teleost fish, not a primitive ray or elasmobranch. Yes, a highly evolved vertebrate, in time's arrow very close to man himself. Slowly, extremely slowly, this flatfish swam away. Moving along the bottom, partly in the ooze and partly in the water, he disappeared into his night. Slowly too — perhaps everything is slow at the bottom of the sea — Walsh and I shook hands.[51]
Many marine biologists are now skeptical of this supposed sighting, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber.[52][53] The video camera on board the Kaiko probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom.[54][55] At the bottom of the Challenger deep, the Nereus probe spotted one polychaete worm (a multi-legged predator) about an inch long.[56]
An analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko found large numbers of simple organisms at 10,900 m (35,800 ft).[57] While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (> 7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent taxa distinct from those in shallower ecosystems.
Most of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic[58]), with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax. Eighty-five percent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled allogromiids, which is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%. As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment.[59] The species that survived the change in depth were the ancestors of the Challenger Deep's current denizens.[citation needed]
On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive in the Challenger Deep.[60][61] Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 1,900 ft (579 m) below the sea floor under 8,500 ft (2,591 m) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States.[60][62] According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."[60]
See also[edit]
Sirena Deep
Horizon Deep
Galathea Depth
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ All Things Considered (9 March 2012). "Diving Back to the Bottom of the Mariana Trench". NPR. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ The Colbert Report, airdate: 2012 April 12, interview with James Cameron
^ Jump up to: a b c "IHO-IOC GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names, August 2011 version". GEBCO. August 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA June and July 2009". University of Hawaii Marine Center. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Inventory of Scientific Equipment aboard the R/V KILO MOANA". University of Hawaii Marine Center. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "So, How Deep Is the Mariana Trench?" (PDF). Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping-Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC), Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory of the University of New Hampshire. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Amos, Jonathan (7 December 2011). "Oceans' deepest depth re-measured". BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong, Andrew A. (2011-12-22). "Cruise Report - UNH-CCOM/JHC Technical Report 11-002" (PDF). NOAA/UNH Joint Hydrographic Center University of New Hampshire. p. 12. Retrieved 2012-05-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Than, Ker (25 March 2012). "James Cameron Completes Record-Breaking Mariana Trench Dive". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Broad, William J. (25 March 2012). "Filmmaker in Submarine Voyages to Bottom of Sea". New York Times. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b AP Staff (25 March 2012). "James Cameron has reached deepest spot on Earth". MSNBC. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Nakanishi, Masao (10 April 2011). "A precise bathymetric map of the world's deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench" (PDF). Faculty of Fisheries, Nagasaki University. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years of 1872-76 (page 877)". 19thcenturyscience.org. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Theberge, A. (24 March 2009). "Thirty Years of Discovering the Mariana Trench". Hydro International. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Page 131 of Murray's book refers to the Challenger Deep.
Jump up ^ "Mariana Trench". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Jump up to: a b "Life Is Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point", National Geographic News, 3 February 2005
^ Jump up to: a b Akimoto; et al. (2001). "The deepest living foraminifera, Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench". Marine Micropaleontology. 42: 95. doi:10.1016/S0377-8398(01)00012-3.
Jump up ^ Ritchie, Steve. "The deepest depths". Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
Jump up ^ EM 120 sonar multibeam bathymetry system brochure
Jump up ^ EM 122 Multibeam echosounder
Jump up ^ EM 122 sonar multibeam bathymetry system brochure
Jump up ^ Instruction manual EM Series (EM 120 & EM 122) Multibeam echo sounders
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Press Release, Office of Naval Research (1 February 1960). "Research Vessels: Submersibles – Trieste". United States Navy. Archived from the original on 18 April 2002. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Prince, Rosa (25 March 2012). "James Cameron becomes first solo diver to visit Earth's deepest point". The Telegraph. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ National Geographic (25 March 2012). "James Cameron Begins Descent to Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
Jump up ^ National Geographic (25 March 2012). "James Cameron Now at Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
Jump up ^ National Geographic (26 March 2012). "Cameron's Historic Dive Cut Short by Leak; Few Signs of Life Seen". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ National Geographic (28 March 2012). "Cameron's Historic Dive Cut Short by Leak; Few Signs of Life Seen". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
Jump up ^ www.deepseachallenge.com (25 March 2012). "We Just Did the Impossible". www.deepseachallenge.com. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ https://twitter.com/PaulGAllen (27 March 2012). "Paul Allen Tweets from Challenger Deep". https://twitter.com/PaulGAllen. Retrieved 27 March 2012. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ National Geographic (27 March 2012). "James Cameron on Earth's Deepest Spot: Desolate, Lunar-Like". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Race to the bottom of the ocean". BBC News. 22 February 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Triton 36,000 Full Ocean Depth Submersible". Triton Submarines. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Virgin Oceanic, Operations Team Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 25 March 2012)
Jump up ^ "Virgin Oceanic". Virgin Oceanic. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Deep Search". DOER Marine. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Kaiko 7000II". Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Revisiting the Challenger Deep using the ROV Kaiko" (PDF). Winter 2009 Volume 43, Number 5. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/about/press_release/20080616/ “ABISMO", Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile, Succeeds in World’s First Multiple Vertical Sampling from Mid-ocean, Sea Floor and Sub-seafloor over Depth of 10,000 m in Mariana Trench June 16, 2008 Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Robot sub reaches deepest ocean". BBC News. 3 June 2009. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "'Nereus' reaches deepest part of the ocean". physorg.com. 2 June 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA April and May 2009". University of Hawaii Marine Center. 31 May 2009. Retrieved 31 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Hybrid Remotely Operated Vehicle "Nereus" Reaches Deepest Part of the Ocean". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2 June 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27374326
Jump up ^ Nitrogen experiment among breakthroughs, by Zhao Xinying, Tuesday, August 23, 2016
Jump up ^ [1], entry on 23 March 1875.
Jump up ^ [2], Report on the Radiolaria collected by H.M.S. Challenger by Ernst Haeckel.
Jump up ^ "To the bottom of the sea", T. A. Heppenheimer, AmericanHeritage.com
Jump up ^ Seven Miles Down: The Story of the Bathyscaph Trieste (1961) by J. Piccard and R. S. Dietz. pp. 172–174. Published by the Putnam, New York.
Jump up ^ "James Cameron dives deep for Avatar", Guardian, 18 January 2011
Jump up ^ "James Cameron heads into the abyss", Nature, 19 March 2012
Jump up ^ "Mission to Marianas", New Scientist, 2 November 1996
Jump up ^ "The last frontier", Time, 14 August 1995
Jump up ^ Accessed 8 Oct 2009 Archived 1996-10-27 at the Wayback Machine. Geography of the ocean floor near Guam with some notes on exploration of the Challenger Deep.
Jump up ^ Todo, Yuko; et al. (2005). "Simple Foraminifera Flourish at the Ocean's Deepest Point". Science. 307 (5710): 689. doi:10.1126/science.1105407. PMID 15692042.
Jump up ^ Roach, John (3 February 2005). "Life Is Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic News.
Jump up ^ Roach, John. "Life If Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Choi, Charles Q. (17 March 2013). "Microbes Thrive in Deepest Spot on Earth". LiveScience. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Glud, Ronnie; Wenzhöfer, Frank; Middleboe, Mathias; Oguri, Kazumasa; Turnewitsch, Robert; Canfield, Donald E.; Kitazato, Hiroshi (17 March 2013). "High rates of microbial carbon turnover in sediments in the deepest oceanic trench on Earth". Nature Geoscience. 6 (4): 284. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..284G. doi:10.1038/ngeo1773. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Oskin, Becky (14 March 2013). "Intraterrestrials: Life Thrives in Ocean Floor". LiveScience. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
External links[edit]
"Official press release regarding Challenger Deep operation". Archived from the original on 18 April 2002.
Mariana Trench
Mariana Trench: Seven miles deep, the ocean is still a noisy place
Location of Challenger Deep Interactive map

Coordinates: 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917
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Representative of North Cyprus, London
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Representative of North Cyprus in London
Location
Fitzrovia, London
Address
29 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3ED
Coordinates
51°31′7.6″N 0°7′52.2″W / 51.518778°N 0.131167°W / 51.518778; -0.131167Coordinates: 51°31′7.6″N 0°7′52.2″W / 51.518778°N 0.131167°W / 51.518778; -0.131167
High Commissioner
Sayın Oya Tuncalı
The Representative of North Cyprus in London is the diplomatic mission of North Cyprus in the United Kingdom.[1] It is not a fully-fledged embassy owing to the ongoing Cyprus dispute; however, it is the highest-level representation of the North Cypriot government in the United Kingdom. The office has been at its current location on Bedford Square since 1996; prior to this it was located at Great Marlborough Street.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Representative of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus". 13 December 2013.
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Official site
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text:
United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia
(E.D.Va.)
Appeals to
Fourth Circuit
Established
February 4, 1819
Judges assigned
11
Chief Judge
Rebecca Beach Smith
U.S. Attorney
Dana Boente
www.vaed.uscourts.gov
The Norfolk courthouse for the United States District Court, Eastern District of Virginia
The Richmond courthouse for the United States District Court, Eastern District of Virginia
The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia (in case citations, E.D. Va.) is one of two United States district courts serving the Commonwealth of Virginia. It has jurisdiction over the Northern Virginia, Hampton Roads, and Richmond metro areas and surrounding locations with courthouses located in Alexandria, Norfolk, Richmond and Newport News (whose judges are shared with Norfolk).
Appeals from the Eastern District of Virginia are taken to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Jurisdiction
3 United States Attorney
4 Current judges
5 Vacancies and pending nominations
6 Former judges
7 Chief judges
8 Succession of seats
9 Notable cases
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
The United States District Court for the District of Virginia was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, 1 Stat. 73, on September 24, 1789.[1][2]
On February 13, 1801, the Judiciary Act of 1801, 2 Stat. 89, divided Virginia into three judicial districts: the District of Virginia, which included the counties west of the Tidewater and south of the Rappahannock River; the District of Norfolk, which included the Tidewater counties south of the Rappahannock; and the District of Potomac, which included the counties north and east of the Rappahannock as well as Maryland counties along the Potomac.[2] Just over a year later, on March 8, 1802, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed and Virginia became a single District again, 2 Stat. 132, effective July 1, 1802.[2]
The District of Virginia was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on February 4, 1819, by 3 Stat. 478.[1][2] At that time, West Virginia was still part of Virginia, and was encompassed in Virginia's Western District, while the Eastern District essentially covered what is now the entire state of Virginia. With the division of West Virginia from Virginia during the American Civil War, the Western District of Virginia became the District of West Virginia, and those parts of the Western District that were not part of West Virginia were combined with the Eastern District to again form a single District of Virginia on June 11, 1864, by 13 Stat. 124.[2] Congress again divided Virginia into Eastern and the Western Districts on February 3, 1871, by 16 Stat. 403.[2]
During the 1960s, Judge Albert V. Bryan Jr. ran the Alexandria court, often ruled cases on the spot after motions were argued. The court earned the nickname of "rocket docket" for the speed and efficiency for which it processes its cases. Since 1997, the court has processed civil cases the fastest of the 94 federal districts, and eighth fastest in dealing with criminal cases.[3] Courts at Richmond are located in the Spottswood W. Robinson III and Robert R. Merhige, Jr., Federal Courthouse,[4] having previously been held in the historic Lewis F. Powell, Jr. United States Courthouse.
Jurisdiction[edit]
The Eastern District of Virginia has within its jurisdiction the following counties: Accomack, Amelia, Arlington, Brunswick, Caroline, Charles City, Chesterfield, Dinwiddie, Essex, Fairfax, Fauquier, Gloucester, Goochland, Greensville, Hanover, Henrico, Isle of Wight, James City, King and Queen, King George, King William, Lancaster, Loudoun, Lunenburg, Mathews, Mecklenburg, Middlesex, New Kent, Northampton, Northumberland, Nottoway, Powhatan, Prince Edward, Prince George, Prince William, Richmond, Southampton, Spotsylvania, Stafford, Surry, Sussex, Westmoreland, York County.[5] The district also has jurisdiction over independent cities that are geographically located with these counties, but that are not politically part of them.[6]
The Eastern District of Virginia court's jurisdiction covers slightly over six million people, comprising approximately 85% of the state's population.
United States Attorney[edit]
The current U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia is Dana J. Boente, serving as prosecution for criminal cases brought by the Federal government, and representing the United States in civil cases in the court. He served in an acting capacity until he was confirmed on December 15, 2015. The U.S. Attorney's office also manages the Project Safe Neighborhoods program within the district to reduce gun violence (part of a nationwide program), and is involved with federal initiatives on drug trafficking, terrorism, cybercrime, and the prevention/combating of elder care abuse.[7] Neil H. MacBride and Chuck Rosenberg previously served as the U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia.
Current judges[edit]
#
Title
Judge
Duty station
Born
Term of service
Appointed by
Active
Chief
Senior
30 Chief Judge Rebecca Beach Smith Norfolk 1949 1989–present 2011–present — G.H.W. Bush
33 District Judge Leonie Brinkema Alexandria 1944 1993–present — — Clinton
34 District Judge Raymond Alvin Jackson Norfolk 1949 1993–present — — Clinton
37 District Judge Henry E. Hudson Richmond 1947 2002–present — — G.W. Bush
39 District Judge Liam O'Grady Alexandria 1950 2007–present — — G.W. Bush
40 District Judge Mark Steven Davis Norfolk 1962 2008–present — — G.W. Bush
41 District Judge Anthony John Trenga Alexandria 1949 2008–present — — G.W. Bush
42 District Judge John A. Gibney, Jr. Richmond 1951 2010–present — — Obama
43 District Judge Arenda L. Wright Allen Norfolk 1960 2011–present — — Obama
44 District Judge M. Hannah Lauck Richmond 1963 2014–present — — Obama
45 District Judge vacant — — — — — —
21 Senior Judge Albert Vickers Bryan Jr. inactive 1926 1971–present 1985–1991 1991–present Nixon
25 Senior Judge James C. Cacheris Alexandria 1933 1981–1998 1991–1997 1998–present Reagan
26 Senior Judge Robert G. Doumar Norfolk 1930 1981–1997 — 1997–present Reagan
27 Senior Judge Claude M. Hilton Alexandria 1940 1985–2005 1997–2004 2005–present Reagan
29 Senior Judge T. S. Ellis, III Alexandria 1940 1987–2007 — 2007–present Reagan
31 Senior Judge Henry Coke Morgan, Jr. Norfolk 1935 1992–2004 — 2004–present G.H.W. Bush
32 Senior Judge Robert E. Payne Richmond 1941 1992–2007 — 2007–present G.H.W. Bush
Vacancies and pending nominations[edit]
Seat
Seat last held by
Vacancy reason
Date of vacancy
Nominee
Date of nomination
8 Gerald Bruce Lee Retirement September 30, 2017 0 !– 0 !–
11 Henry E. Hudson Senior Status June 1, 2018[8] 0 !– 0 !–
Former judges[edit]
#
Judge
State
Born–died
Active service
Chief Judge
Senior status
Appointed by
Reason for
termination
1 Tucker, St. GeorgeSt. George Tucker VA 1752–1827 1813–1825[9] — — Madison, Madison resignation
2 Hay, GeorgeGeorge Hay VA 1765–1830 1825–1830[10] — — Adams, J.Q.J.Q. Adams death
3 Barbour, Philip PendletonPhilip Pendleton Barbour VA 1783–1841 1830–1836[11] — — Jackson, Jackson appointment to Supreme Court
4 Daniel, Peter VivianPeter Vivian Daniel VA 1784–1860 1836–1841 — — Jackson, Jackson appointment to Supreme Court
5 Mason, John Y.John Y. Mason VA 1799–1859 1841–1844 — — Van Buren, Van Buren resignation
6 Halyburton, James DandridgeJames Dandridge Halyburton VA 1803–1879 1844–1861 — — Tyler, Tyler resignation
7 Underwood, John CurtissJohn Curtiss Underwood VA 1809–1873 1863–1873[12][13] — — Lincoln, Lincoln death
8 Hughes, Robert WilliamRobert William Hughes VA 1821–1901 1874–1898 — — Grant, Grant retirement
9 Waddill Jr., EdmundEdmund Waddill Jr. VA 1855–1931 1898–1921 — — McKinley, McKinley appointment to 4th Cir.
10 Groner, Duncan LawrenceDuncan Lawrence Groner VA 1873–1957 1921–1931 — — Harding, Harding appointment to D.C. Cir.
11 Way, Luther B.Luther B. Way VA 1879–1943 1931–1943 — — Hoover, Hoover death
12 Pollard, Robert NelsonRobert Nelson Pollard VA 1880–1954 1936–1947 — 1947–1954 Roosevelt, F.F. Roosevelt death
13 Hutcheson, Charles SterlingCharles Sterling Hutcheson VA 1894–1969 1944–1959 1948–1959 1959–1969 Roosevelt, F.F. Roosevelt death
14 Bryan, Albert VickersAlbert Vickers Bryan VA 1899–1984 1947–1961 1959–1961 — Truman, Truman appointment to 4th Cir.
15 Hoffman, Walter EdwardWalter Edward Hoffman VA 1907–1996 1954–1974 1961–1973 1974–1996 Eisenhower, Eisenhower death
16 Lewis, Oren RitterOren Ritter Lewis VA 1902–1983 1960–1974 — 1974–1983 Eisenhower, Eisenhower death
17 Butzner Jr., John DeckerJohn Decker Butzner Jr. VA 1917–2006 1962–1967 — — Kennedy, Kennedy appointment to 4th Cir.
18 Kellam, Richard BoykinRichard Boykin Kellam VA 1909–1996 1967–1981 1973–1979 1981–1996 Johnson, L.L. Johnson death
19 MacKenzie, John AshtonJohn Ashton MacKenzie VA 1917–2010 1967–1985 1979–1985 1985–1998 Johnson, L.L. Johnson retirement
20 Merhige Jr., Robert ReynoldRobert Reynold Merhige Jr. VA 1919–2005 1967–1986 — 1986–1998 Johnson, L.L. Johnson retirement
22 Warriner, David DortchDavid Dortch Warriner VA 1929–1986 1974–1986 — — Nixon, Nixon death
23 Clarke Jr., Joseph CalvittJoseph Calvitt Clarke Jr. VA 1920–2004 1974–1991 — 1991–2004 Ford, Ford death
24 Williams, Richard LeroyRichard Leroy Williams VA 1923–2011 1980–1992 — 1992–2011 Carter, Carter death
28 Spencer, James R.James R. Spencer VA 1949–present 1986–2014 2004–2011 2014–2017 Reagan, Reagan retirement
35 Friedman, Jerome B.Jerome B. Friedman VA 1943–present 1997–2010 — 2010–2011 Clinton, Clinton retirement
36 Lee, Gerald BruceGerald Bruce Lee VA 1952–present 1998–2017 — — Clinton retirement
38 Kelley Jr., Walter DeKalbWalter DeKalb Kelley Jr. VA 1955–present 2004–2008 — — Bush, G.W.G.W. Bush resignation
Chief judges[edit]
Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.
When the office was created in 1948, the chief judge was the longest-serving judge who had not elected to retire on what has since 1958 been known as senior status or declined to serve as chief judge. After August 6, 1959, judges could not become or remain chief after turning 70 years old. The current rules have been in operation since October 1, 1982.
Succession of seats[edit]
Seat 1
Seat established on February 4, 1819 by 3 Stat. 478
Tucker 1819–1825
Hay 1825–1830
Barbour 1830–1836
Daniel 1836–1841
Mason 1841–1844
Halyburton 1844–1861
Underwood 1863–1864
Seat reassigned to the District of Virginia on June 11, 1864 by 13 Stat. 124
Seat reassigned from the District of Virginia on February 3, 1871 by 16 Stat. 403
Underwood 1871–1873
Hughes 1874–1898
Waddill, Jr. 1898–1921
Groner 1921–1931
Way 1931–1943
Hutcheson 1944–1959
Lewis 1960–1974
Warriner 1974–1986
Smith 1989–present
Seat 2
Seat established on August 2, 1935 by 49 Stat. 508
Pollard 1936–1947
Bryan 1947–1961
Butzner, Jr. 1962–1967
Merhige, Jr. 1967–1986
Ellis III 1987–2007
Davis 2008–present
Seat 3
Seat established on February 10, 1954 by 68 Stat. 8
Hoffman 1954–1974
Clarke, Jr. 1974–1991
Payne 1992–2007
Gibney, Jr. 2010–present
Seat 4
Seat established on March 18, 1966 by 80 Stat. 75
Kellam 1967–1981
Doumar 1981–1996
Friedman 1997–2010
Allen 2011–present
Seat 5
Seat established on March 18, 1966 by 80 Stat. 75
MacKenzie 1967–1985
Spencer 1986–2014
Lauck 2014–present
Seat 6
Seat established on June 2, 1970 by 84 Stat. 294
Bryan, Jr. 1971–1991
Brinkema 1993–present
Seat 7
Seat established on October 20, 1978 by 92 Stat. 1629
Williams 1980–1992
Jackson 1993–present
Seat 8
Seat established on October 20, 1978 by 92 Stat. 1629
Cacheris 1981–1998
Lee 1998–2017
vacant 2017–present
Seat 9
Seat established on July 10, 1984 by 98 Stat. 333
Hilton 1985–2005
O'Grady 2007–present
Seat 10
Seat established on December 1, 1990 by 104 Stat. 5089 (temporary)
Seat made permanent on November 2, 2002 by 116 Stat. 1758
Morgan, Jr. 1992–2004
Kelley, Jr. 2004–2008
Trenga 2008–present
Seat 11
Seat established on December 21, 2000 by 114 Stat. 2762
Hudson 2002–present
Notable cases[edit]
The Eastern District of Virginia has handled many notable cases, including:
United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui,[14] No. 01-455-A (E.D. Va.)
United States v. Ahmed Omar Abu Ali
United States v. John Walker Lindh,[14] No. 02-37-A (E.D. Va.)
Yaser Hamdi v. Donald Rumsfeld,[14] No. 02-439 (E.D. Va.)
United States v. Michael Vick,[14] No. 3:07CR274 (E.D. Va) (the Bad Newz Kennels dogfighting case)
eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C., 271 F. Supp. 2d 789 (E.D. Va. 2002) (in which the court took the position, eventually upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court, that a prevailing plaintiff in a patent suit is not necessarily entitled to injunctive relief)
Extradition of Kevin Dahlgren,[15] charged with committing mass murder in Brno, Czech Republic in 2013
Bostic v. Rainey
Matter of Baby K, controversial ruling to provide life-sustaining care to an anencephalic newborn.
See also[edit]
Courts of Virginia
List of United States federal courthouses in Virginia
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Asbury Dickens, A Synoptical Index to the Laws and Treaties of the United States of America (1852), p. 388.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f U.S. District Courts of Virginia, Legislative history, Federal Judicial Center.
Jump up ^ Markon, Jerry (October 3, 2004). "A Double Dose of Molasses in the Rocket Docket". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ "Richmond Courthouse". Retrieved March 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 127(a)
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 127(c)
Jump up ^ U.S. Attorney's Office – Eastern District of Virginia – Priorities
Jump up ^ Future Judicial Vacancies
Jump up ^ Initially appointed to the United States District Court for the District of Virginia, reassigned by operation of law to the Eastern District of Virginia on February 4, 1819.
Jump up ^ Recess appointment; formally nominated on December 13, 1825, confirmed by the United States Senate on March 31, 1826, and received commission on March 31, 1826.
Jump up ^ Recess appointment; formally nominated on December 14, 1830, confirmed by the United States Senate on December 16, 1830, and received commission on December 16, 1830.
Jump up ^ Recess appointment; formally nominated on January 5, 1864, confirmed by the United States Senate on January 25, 1864, and received commission on January 25, 1864.
Jump up ^ Reassigned to the United States District Court for the District of Virginia on June 11, 1964, reassigned to the Eastern District of Virginia on February 3, 1871.
^ Jump up to: a b c d United States District Court, Eastern District of Virginia, Notable cases
Jump up ^ "Soudní jednání o vydání Kevina Dahlgrena začne 12. září" (in Czech). Týden. August 13, 2013. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
External links[edit]
United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia Official Website
United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia Official Website
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Current active district judges of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals
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