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Baaghi 2
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Baaghi 2
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Ahmed Khan
Produced by
Sajid Nadiadwala
Screenplay by
Ahmed Khan
Abbas Hierapurwala
Niraj Kumar Mishra
Story by
Adivi Sesh (original)
Sajid Nadiadwala (adaptation)
Based on
Kshanam
Starring
Tiger Shroff
Disha Patani[1]
Music by
Score:
Julius Packiam
Songs:
Mithoon
Arko Pravo Mukherjee
Sandeep Shirodkar
Gourov-Roshin
Pranaay Rijia
Cinematography
Santhana Krishnan
Production
company
Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment
Distributed by
Fox Star Studios
Release date
30 March 2018 (2018-03-30)[1]
Running time
144 minutes
Country
India
Language
Hindi
Budget
₹59 crore[2]
Box office
est. ₹253.18 crore[3]
Baaghi 2 is a 2018 Indian action thriller film produced by Sajid Nadiadwala under his banner Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment and directed by Ahmed Khan. The film stars Tiger Shroff and Disha Patani.[1] It is a sequel to the 2016 film Baaghi and a remake of 2016 Telugu movie Kshanam.[4][5][6] Baaghi 2 was released on 30 March 2018.[1]
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Filming
4 Marketing and release
5 Reception
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical reception
6 Soundtrack
7 Sequel
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
The film opens with Neha who has a sudden attack and becomes unconscious. On regaining her consciousness, she begins to look for her missing daughter. Helpless, she calls Ronny, her former college boyfriend, now an Indian Army special forces soldier. The film flashes back several years, where Ronny and Neha meet in college and fell in love. After proposing to Neha, Ronny promises to her that he will always help and be with her if she is ever in trouble.
Back to the present, Ronny finds Neha frightened and lost. On asking her about her family, she reveals that her 3-year-old daughter Rhea has been missing since dropping her at school, where she was assaulted outside the gates and her daughter was taken. When Ronny asks her about Shekhar, her husband, she tells him that Shekhar has been depressed since the kidnap. Neha requests Ronny to help her find Rhea. Ronny remembers his promise and accepts the task to find Rhea.
Ronny goes to rent a car, where he meets and befriends a man named Usman Langda. Ronny and Neha visit the Police station where Inspector Kutey acts inappropriately towards Neha. Ronny beats him up, an action that gets him arrested, but he is subsequently released after his boss DIG Shergill requests for it. After his release, he questions Neha in her apartment when suddenly Neha's alcoholic and drug-abusing brother-in-law, Sunny, arrives and she tells Ronny to leave.
After Sunny's exit, Ronny asks Neha for his address. He begins to look for clues but everybody he asks claims that Shekhar and Neha had no daughter. Unable to find her through any CCTV footage, he meets a police inspector who has photos of Rhea including certificates to prove that Neha is telling the truth. Ronny then meets with Shekhar who tells him that Neha had a miscarriage following an accident. She was diagnosed with PTSD, and began thinking that she and Shekhar had a daughter who doesn't exist. On hearing this, Ronny asks Neha but she denies it, claiming everyone is against her and insisting she has a daughter. When Ronny claims she doesn't have a daughter, she asks him to leave which is when he notices the marks of Rhea's height growth on the wall. He starts to doubt his beliefs but he is too late as Neha commits suicide, feeling clueless because no one believed her. The police reach the spot immediately with ACP LSD . The ACP suspects Shekhar. The police find Ronny using Neha's contacts.
After Usman confesses seeing Rhea with Sunny, Ronny leaves the hotel and finds him, but he is taken into custody by the police. While being interrogated, Sunny attacks Shergill but is shot in the subsequent fight. Ronny goes to Usman's office where he is attacked by the thugs that assaulted him, after beating them up Usman dies from his injuries. Ronny takes the phone from one of the thugs, revealing texts about their targets, followed by a photo of Ronny which was taken in Shergill's home. He realises that Shergill is the mastermind. He confronts Shergill in his private home/lair and he reveals that he was paid by Shekhar for planning Rhea's kidnapping. Everyone involved with the family was either killed or bribed into playing along and Neha was being brain-washed so that she would appear insane, as the only person who knew about her daughter's existence. After hearing this Ronny and Shergill fight and the latter is shot by LSD. They successfully find and retrieve Rhea and it is revealed that Rhea is Ronny and Neha's daughter.
Four years ago, Neha and Ronny met up again to formally end their relationship and got intimate. In the present day, Ronny remembers Neha telling him that Rhea is the most beautiful thing about their relationship. LSD tells Ronny that Shekhar confessed and revealed that he kidnapped Rhea since his doctor declared him sterile. In the end, Ronny begins to live with his daughter Rhea. He could see a reflection of Neha sitting behind him.
Cast[edit]
Tiger Shroff as Major Ranveer Pratap Singh a.k.a Ronnie [7]
Disha Patani as Neha Salgaonkar[7]
Manoj Bajpayee as Deputy inspector general of police (DIG) Ajay Shergill[7]
Randeep Hooda as Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) Loha Singh Dhull (LSD)[clarification needed][7]
Darshan Kumar as Shekhar Salgaonkar
Deepak Dobriyal as Usman Langda[7]
Shaurya Bhardwaj as Colonel Ranjit Singh Walia
Prateik Babbar as Sunny Salgaonkar
Jacqueline Fernandez as Mohini (item number "Ek Do Teen")[8][9][10]
Arravya Sharma as Rhea Salgaonkar
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
On 1 May 2017, Tiger Shroff posted the first look poster of the film on his Twitter account.[11] The producer of the film, Sajid Nadiadwala, collaborated with Fox Star Studios and the film was released under Fox Star Studios and Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment.
Initially, it was reported that Jacqueline Fernandez and Kriti Sanon were considered for the lead female role.[12] However, in June 2017, Disha Patani was cast after going through a screen test with Shroff.[13] Talking about the cast, Nadiadwala said, "They share an amazing onscreen chemistry, which was evident in their look test. Disha is just perfect for the role. I am happy with my cast and am excited to kick-start the project."[14]
Shroff went to Hong Kong for training of Martial Arts under action director Tonny Ching while Patani received acrobatic training.[15]
In July 2017, Nadiadwala cast Prateik Babbar to play the negative role.[16]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography started on 8 August 2017.[17] The shoot began with a song featuring the lead cast members on a set in Mumbai, followed by scenes shot on a campus in Pune. Then the team filmed in Manali, Thailand, China, Goa and Ladakh.[18] A torture scene of Shroff's character was filmed while the actor was naked.[19]
Marketing and release[edit]
The first trailer of the film was launched on 21 February 2018 by Shroff and Patani.[20][7] The film was released worldwide on 30 March 2018. It opened in 4,125 screens in 46 countries, including 3,500 screens in India.[21]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
Baaghi 2 earned ₹25.1 crore net on its opening day, marking the biggest opening-day of 2018 (ahead of Padmaavat), the biggest Good Friday opening, the third biggest opening in the last 15 months (behind Tiger Zinda Hai and Golmaal Again),[22] and the seventh biggest for an action film.[23] After a robust opening day, it fell gradually by -20% on its second day earning an additional ₹20.40 crore. In doing so, the film eclipsed the entire opening weekend – ₹38.58 crore – of the first film in just two days. Box office pundits believed the fall could have been lesser had Friday not been a partial holiday, owing to Good Friday.[24] After 2 weeks, the movie has grossed over ₹190.32 crore[25] in India.
Overseas, is has made ₹41.76 crore after 2 weeks.[26]
Critical reception[edit]
Baaghi 2 received generally negative reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Baaghi 2 has an approval rating of 40% on the basis of 5 reviews with an average rating of 4.3 out of 10.[27]
Rajeev Masand gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 saying that, "It’s hard to feel anything other than sheer frustration watching Baaghi 2, given how the filmmakers have squandered the potential of the central idea. This remake of the 2016 Telugu hit Kshanam is weighed down by a flawed script, and frankly by ‘mis-direction’ on the part of director Ahmed Khan.[28] Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times criticized the film saying that, "It’s a badly planned screenplay that doesn’t know what it wants to be. From chasing Rambo’s trail to taking the baton from Dum Maaro Dum, it tries every trick in the book and manages to make them worse" and gave it a rating of 1 out of 5.[29]
Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5 and said that, "The trouble with a full-on masala film going in search of a plot is evident in the way the film unspools. The bare bones are borrowed from Telugu thriller Kshanam, but the fillings are all strictly Bollywood".[30] Rachit Gupta of The Times of India gave the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5 and said that, "Director Ahmed Khan’s movie trades style for substance. The action sequences look slick, but they feel completely needless and bit too excessive. It’s disappointing that the story suffers in this attempt to impress with the action choreography and stunts."[31]
Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 saying that, "Baaghi 2 is more a two-and-a-half-hour stunt show than a genuine piece of cinema. Neither the heart nor the mind stands a chance of surviving this relentless onslaught of biceps, pecs and clenched fists."[32]
The movie was criticised for featuring a scene in which the protagonist Ronny (Tiger Shroff) ties a Kashmiri civilian to a jeep for burning the Indian flag and pelting stones; a direct reference to a controversial 2017 incident in which a group of Indian soldiers similarly used a human shield as a precautionary measure against violent crowds in Kashmir.[33] In her review for the Hindustan Times, Priyanka Sundar called the scene "one of the most distasteful and offensive portrayals of the Jammu and Kashmir unrest".[34] In Scroll, Nandini Ramnath criticised the "tone-deafness and staggering lack of sensitivity to the reality of the April human rights violation".[35]
Soundtrack[edit]
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Baaghi 2
Soundtrack album by Mithoon, Arko Pravo Mukherjee, Sandeep Shirodkar, Gourov-Roshin and Pranaay Rijia
Released
20 March 2018 (2018-03-20)[36]
Recorded
2017-2018
Genre
Feature film soundtrack
Length
25:03
Language
Hindi
Label
T-Series
Director
Ahmed Khan
Producer
Sajid Nadiadwala
External audio
Audio Jukebox on YouTube
Mithoon chronology
Hate Story 4
(2018) Baaghi 2
(2018) Mercury
(2018)
Arko Pravo Mukherjee chronology
Hate Story 4
(2018) Baaghi 2
(2018) Gold
(2018)
Sandeep Shirodkar chronology
Judwaa 2
(2017) Baaghi 2
(2018)
Gourov-Roshin chronology
Mubarakan
(2017) Baaghi 2
(2018)
Pranaay Rijia chronology
Munna Michael
(2017) Baaghi 2
(2018)
Singles from Baaghi 2
"Mundiyan"
Released: 1 March 2018
"O Saathi"
Released: 9 March 2018
"Lo Safar"
Released: 13 March 2018
"Ek Do Teen"
Released: 19 March 2018
The music of the film is composed by Mithoon, Arko Pravo Mukherjee, Sandeep Shirodkar, Gourov-Roshin and Pranaay Rijia while lyrics were written by Kumaar, Ginny Diwan, Javed Akhtar, Arko Pravo Mukherjee and Sayeed Quadri. The background score is composed by Julius Packiam. The songs featured in the film are sung by Atif Aslam, Jubin Nautiyal, Ankit Tiwari, Navraj Hans, Shreya Ghoshal, Palak Muchhal, Shruti Pathak, Parry G, Pranaay Rijia, Anand Bhaskar, Siddharth Basrur, Jatinder Singh and Big Dhillon. The first song of the film, "Mundiyan", which is a recreated version of the Panjabi MC song "Mundian To Bach Ke", has been sung by Navraj Hans and Palak Muchhal, and was released on 1 March 2018. The second single to be released was O Saathi which is sung by Atif Aslam and was released on 9 March 2018. The third song of the film, Lo Safar which is sung by Jubin Nautiyal was released on 13 March 2018. The fourth song of the film, Ek Do Teen which is an item song featuring Jacqueline Fernandez, from the 1988 film, "Tezaab" has been recreated for this film and was sung by Shreya Ghoshal with rap by Parry G was released on 19 March 2018. Although in the film the track was voiced by Palak Muchhal as a scratch rehearsal version went by mistake to the film print[37] . The music album was released on 20 March 2018 by T-Series.
Track listing
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Singer(s)
Length
1. "Mundiyan" Ginny Diwan Sandeep Shirodkar Navraj Hans, Palak Muchhal 3:30
2. "Ek Do Teen" Javed Akhtar Sandeep Shirodkar Shreya Ghoshal, Rap by: Parry G 4:04
3. "O Saathi" Arko Arko Atif Aslam 4:11
4. "Lo Safar" Sayeed Quadri Mithoon Jubin Nautiyal 4:42
5. "Soniye Dil Nayi" Kumaar Gourov-Roshin Ankit Tiwari, Shruti Pathak 5:20
6. "Get Ready To Fight Again" Ginny Diwan Pranaay Rijia Pranaay, Anand Bhaskar, Jatinder Singh, Siddharth Basrur, Big Dhillon 3:16
Total length: 25:03
Sequel[edit]
On 19 February 2018, the third installment of the film was announced under the title of Baaghi 3, with Nadiadwala as producer, Khan as director, and Shroff starring in the lead role. The team will start shooting in December 2018.[38]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hungama, Bollywood (4 January 2018). "Tiger Shroff – Disha Patani starrer Baaghi 2 to release on March 30 - Bollywood Hungama". Retrieved 25 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 - Movie - Worldwide Gross & Budget". Box Office India. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Hungama, Bollywood (31 March 2018). "Box Office: Worldwide collections and day wise break up of Baaghi 2 - Bollywood Hungama". Retrieved 16 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2: Aditya and his tryst with Telugu cinema". 21 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive: Tiger Shroff-Disha Patani's Baaghi 2 is remake of Telugu film Kshanam". 28 September 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 trailer: Aditya breaks bones as Disha Patani plays damsel in distress". India Today. 21 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Baaghi 2 trailer: Aditya, our desi Rambo, returns. There is an army of villains to keep him busy". Hindustan Times. 21 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "'Unpopular' Bollywood remix gets 18m views". 21 March 2018 – via www.bbc.com.
Jump up ^ "Tezaab director on Jacqueline Fernandez's Ek Do Teen: It's crass beyond imagination, a sex act". 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Tezaab director N Chandra and Saroj Khan will take action against Jacqueline Fernandez's Ek Do Teen redux". Times Now News. 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Shroff reveals crackling new look from Baaghi 2 and drops release date". Deccan Chronicle. 2 May 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Shroff is back: Hollywood-style Baaghi 2 poster". Hindustan Times. 20 May 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Confirmed! Rumoured couple Tiger Shroff and Disha Patani to star in Baaghi 2". Deccan Chronicle. 8 June 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Bhavna, Agerwal (2 August 2017). "Baaghi 2: Tiger Shroff will soon shoot a song with girlfriend Disha Patani". Pinkvilla. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Shroff hungry for big box-office numbers". The Indian Express. 2 August 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Prateik Babbar to play negative role against Childhood friend Tiger Shroff in Baaghi 2". Firstpost. 14 July 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Shroff, Disha Patani start shooting for 'Baaghi 2'". The Times of India. 8 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Shroff starrer film Baaghi 2 to have more exotic locations". Filmfare. 1 August 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ डेस्क, एबीपी न्यूज़, वेब. "'Baaghi 2' में पहली बार बड़े पर्दे पर न्यूड दिखेंगे टाइगर श्रॉफ, ट्रेलर देखें".
Jump up ^ "Watch Theatrical Trailer Baaghi 2". Bollywood Hungama. 21 Feb 2018. Retrieved 21 Feb 2018.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 Overseas Collections: Takes A Higher Start Than Jolly LLB 2 & Judwaa 2 In UAE-GCC". Koimoi. March 31, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Joginder Tuteja (March 31, 2018). "Box Office: Baaghi 2 Takes Biggest Opening Of 2018, Comfortably Goes Past Padmaavat, PadMan & Raid". Koimoi. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Mohak Agarwal (March 31, 2018). "Baaghi 2 Crosses 2 Hrithik Roshan Films & 1 Salman Khan Film In Top 10 Opening Days For An Action Film". Koimoi.com. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Vishnu Gade (April 1, 2018). "Box Office: Tiger Shroff's Baaghi 2 Goes Past Entire Weekend Collections Of Baaghi In Just 2 Days". Koimoi. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ Hungama, Bollywood (31 March 2018). "Box Office: Worldwide collections and day wise break up of Baaghi 2 - Bollywood Hungama". Retrieved 25 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "taran adarsh on Twitter". Retrieved 25 April 2018.
Jump up ^ . Rotten Tomatoes https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/baaghi_2/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Plot without purpose". Rajeev Masand.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 movie review: Goa bears Tiger Shroff's wrath and so do we". Hindustan Times.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 movie review: The Tiger Shroff film has more fight than bite". The Indian Express.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 Movie Review". The Times of India.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 Movie Review: Tiger Shroff Roars, Disha Patani Is Pretty But This Is Just A 2.5-Hour Stunt Show". NDTV.
Jump up ^ "Indian Army Ties Kashmiri Man to Jeep and Parades Him Through Villages". The New York Times. 2017-04-16. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 vs Kshanam: Tiger Shroff film is not even a watered-down version of Adivi Sesh's edge-of-seat original". hindustantimes.com/. 2018-04-01. Retrieved 2018-05-02.
Jump up ^ Ramnath, Nandini. "'Baaghi 2' film review: High on action, low on spark". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2018-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Baaghi 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)". iTunes.
Jump up ^ "Ek Do Teen Controversy". LatestLY. 9 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "The third instalment in #Baaghi film series announced: #Baaghi3... Here's the official announcement". 19 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
External links[edit]
India portal
2010s portal
Film portal
Bollywood portal
Baaghi 2 on IMDb
Baaghi 2 on Bollywood Hungama
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Sajid Nadiadwala
Producer
Zulm Ki Hukumat (1992)
Waqt Hamara Hai (1993)
Andolan (1995)
Jeet (1996)
Judwaa (1997)
Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega (2000)
Mujhse Shaadi Karogi (2004)
Jaan-E-Mann (2006)
Heyy Babyy (2007)
Kambakkht Ishq (2009)
Housefull (2010)
Anjaana Anjaani (2010)
Housefull 2 (2012)
Highway (2014)
2 States (2014)
Heropanti (2014)
Kick (2014)
Phantom (2015)
Tamasha (2015)
Baaghi (2016)
Housefull 3 (2016)
Dishoom (2016)
Rangoon (2017)
Judwaa 2 (2017)
Baaghi 2 (2018)
Director
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Related
Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment
Divya Bharti (spouse) (1992–1993) (her death)
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History of Saudi Arabia
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The history of Saudi Arabia in its current form as a state began with its foundation in 1744, although the human history of the region extends as far as 20,000 years ago. The region has had a global impact twice in world history:
In the 7th century it became the cradle of Islam and the capital of the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate.[citation needed]
From the mid-20th century the discovery of vast oil deposits propelled it into a key economic and geo-political role.[citation needed]
At other times, the region existed in relative obscurity and isolation, although from the 7th century the cities of Mecca and Medina had the highest spiritual significance for the Muslim world, with Mecca becoming the destination for the Hajj pilgrimage, an obligation, at least once in a believer's lifetime, if at all possible.[1]
For much of the region's history a patchwork of tribal rulers controlled most of the area. The Al Saud (the Saudi royal family) emerged as minor tribal rulers in Najd in central Arabia. Over the following 150 years, the extent of the Al Saud territory fluctuated. However, between 1902 and 1927, the Al Saud leader, Abdulaziz, carried out a series of wars of conquest which resulted in his establishing the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1930.
From 1930 until his death in 1953, Abdulaziz ruled Saudi Arabia as an absolute monarchy. Thereafter six of his sons in succession have reigned over the kingdom:
Saud, the immediate successor of Abdulaziz, faced opposition from most in the royal family and was eventually deposed.
Faisal replaced Saud in 1964. Until his murder by a nephew in 1975, Faisal presided over a period of growth and modernization fueled by oil wealth. Saudi Arabia's role in the 1973 oil crisis and, the subsequent rise in the price of oil, dramatically increased the country's political significance and wealth.
Khalid, Faisal's successor, reigned during the first major signs of dissent: Islamist extremists temporarily seized control of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979.
Fahd became king in 1982 - during his reign Saudi Arabia became the largest oil producer in the world. However, internal tensions increased when the country allied itself with the United States, and others, in the Gulf War of 1991. In the early 2000s, the Islamicist opposition to the regime carried out a series of terrorist attacks.
Abdullah succeeded Fahd in 2005. He instituted a number of mild reforms to modernize many of the country's institutions and, to some extent, increased political participation.
Salman became king in 2015
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-Islamic Arabia
2 The spread of Islam
3 Umayyad and Abbasid periods
4 Sharifate of Mecca
4.1 Ottoman Era
4.1.1 Rise of Wahhabism and the first Saudi state
4.1.2 Return to Ottoman domination
4.1.3 Arab Revolt
5 Unification
6 Modern history
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Pre-Islamic Arabia[edit]
Main article: Pre-Islamic Arabia
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 63,000 years ago.[2][3]
Archaeology has revealed some early settled civilizations: the Dilmun civilization on the east of the Arabian Peninsula, Thamud north of the Hejaz, and Kindah kingdom and Al-Magar civilization in the central of Arabian Peninsula. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.[4]
There is also evidence from Timna (Israel) and Tell el-Kheleifeh (Jordan) that the local Qurayya/Midianite pottery originated within the Hejaz region of NW Saudi Arabia, which suggests that the biblical Midianites originally came from the Hejaz region of NW Saudi Arabia before expanding into Jordan and Southern Israel.[5][6]
The spread of Islam[edit]
Main article: History of Islam
Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there, he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian Peninsula.
The tribes of Arabia at the time of the spread of Islam (expandable map)
Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph. After putting down a rebellion by the Arab tribes (known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy"), Abu Bakr attacked the Byzantine Empire. On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as the Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate (al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn). Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.[7][8]
Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Quran requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime.[9] The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad tomb; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Muslim world.[10]
Umayyad and Abbasid periods[edit]
After the fall of the Umayyad empire in 750 CE, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule soon after the initial Muslim conquests, and remained a shifting patchwork of tribes and tribal emirates and confederations of varying durability.[11][12]
Muawiyah I, the first Umayyad caliph, took an interest in his native Mecca, erecting buildings and digging wells.[13] Under his Marwanids successors, Mecca became the abode of poets and musicians. Even then, Medina eclipsed Mecca in importance for much of the Umayyad period, as it was home to the new Muslim aristocracy.[13] Under Yazid I, the revolt of Abd Allah bin al-Zubair brought Syrian troops to Mecca.[13] An accident led to a fire that destroyed the Kaaba, which was rebuilt by Ibn al-Zubair.[13] In 747, a Kharidjit rebel from Yemen seized Mecca unopposed, but he was soon defeated by Marwan II.[13] In 750, Mecca, along with the rest of the caliphate, was passed to the Abbasids.[13]
Sharifate of Mecca[edit]
Main article: Sharifate of Mecca
Atlas map of 1883
The Arabian Peninsula in 1914
From the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz. Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz, they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks of Egypt.[11]
Ottoman Era[edit]
Main article: Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia
Beginning with Selim I's acquisition of Medina and Mecca in 1517, the Ottomans, in the 16th century, added to their Empire the Hejaz and Asir regions along the Red Sea and the Al Hasa region on the Persian Gulf coast, these being the most populous parts of what was to become Saudi Arabia. They also laid claim to the interior, although this remained a rather nominal suzerainty. The degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority. In the Hejaz, the Sharifs of Mecca were largely left in control of their territory (although there would often be an Ottoman governor and garrison in Mecca). On the eastern side of the country, the Ottomans lost control of the Al Hasa region to Arab tribes in the 17th century but regained it again in the 19th century. Throughout the period, the interior remained under the rule of a large number of petty tribal rulers in much the same way as it had in previous centuries.[14]
The first Saudi State 1744-1818
Rise of Wahhabism and the first Saudi state[edit]
Arabia in the 19th century
The second Saudi state 1824-1891, at its greatest extent.
The Rashidi realm 1830-1921, at its greatest extent
See also: Emirate of Diriyah and Wahhabi movement
The emergence of the Saudi dynasty began in central Arabia in 1744. In that year, Muhammad ibn Saud, the tribal ruler of the town of Ad-Dir'iyyah near Riyadh, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab,[15] the founder of the Wahhabi movement.[16] This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. Over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control of the peninsula.[3][11]
The first Saudi State was established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia through conquests made between 1786 and 1816; these included Mecca and Medina.[17] Concerned at the growing power of the Saudis, the Ottoman Sultan, Mustafa IV, instructed his viceroy in Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha, to reconquer the area. Ali sent his sons Tusun Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha who were eventually successful in routing the Saudi forces in 1818 and destroyed the power of the Al Saud.[3][11]
Return to Ottoman domination[edit]
See also: Emirate of Najd and Emirate of Jabal Shammar
The Al Saud returned to power in 1824 but their area of control was mainly restricted to the Saudi heartland of the Najd region, known as the second Saudi state. However, their rule in Najd was soon contested by new rivals, the Rashidis of Ha'il. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud and the Al Rashid fought for control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia. By 1891, the Al Saud were conclusively defeated by the Al Rashid, who drove the Saudis into exile in Kuwait.[3][11][11][18]
Meanwhile, in the Hejaz, following the defeat of the first Saudi State, the Egyptians continued to occupy the area until 1840. After they left, the Sharifs of Mecca reasserted their authority, albeit with the presence of an Ottoman governor and garrison.[11]
Arab Revolt[edit]
Main article: Arab Revolt
By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty (albeit nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers (including the Al Saud who had returned from exile in 1902 – see below) with the Sharif of Mecca having preeminence and ruling the Hejaz.[11][14][19]
In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain and France[20] (which were fighting the Ottomans in the World War I), the sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire with the aim of securing Arab independence and creating a single unified Arab state spanning the Arab territories from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen.
Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918, carrying the Flag of the Arab Revolt and pictured in the Arabian Desert.
The Arab army comprised bedouin and others from across the peninsula, but not the Al Saud and their allied tribes who did not participate in the revolt partly because of a long-standing rivalry with the Sharifs of Mecca and partly because their priority was to defeat the Al Rashid for control of the interior. Nevertheless, the revolt played a part in the Middle-Eastern Front and tied down thousands of Ottoman troops thereby contributing to the Ottomans' World War I defeat in 1918.[11][21]
However, with the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the British and French reneged on promises to Hussein to support a pan-Arab state. Although Hussein was acknowledged as King of the Hejaz, Britain later shifted support to the Al Saud, leaving him diplomatically and militarily isolated. The revolt, therefore, failed in its objective to create a pan-Arab state but Arabia was freed from Ottoman suzerainty and control.[21]
Unification[edit]
Main article: Unification of Saudi Arabia
In 1902, Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, leader of the Al Saud, returned from exile in Kuwait to resume the conflict with the Al Rashid, and seized Riyadh – the first of a series of conquests ultimately leading to the creation of the modern state of Saudi Arabia in 1930. The main weapon for achieving these conquests was the Ikhwan, the Wahhabist-Bedouin tribal army led by Sultan bin Bajad Al-Otaibi and Faisal al-Duwaish.[18][22][23]
By 1906, Abdulaziz had driven the Al Rashid out of Najd and the Ottomans recognized him as their client in Najd. His next major acquisition was Al-Hasa, which he took from the Ottomans in 1913, bringing him control of the Persian Gulf coast and what would become Saudi Arabia's vast oil reserves. He avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, having acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty in 1914, and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid in northern Arabia. In 1920, the Ikhwan's attention turned to the south-west, when they seized Asir, the region between the Hejaz and Yemen. In the following year, Abdul-Aziz finally defeated the Al Rashid and annexed all northern Arabia.[12][18]
Prior to 1923, Abdulaziz had not risked invading the Hejaz because Hussein bin Ali, King of the Hejaz, was supported by Britain. However, in that year, the British withdrew their support. At a conference in Riyadh in July 1924 complaints were stated against the Hejaz; principally that pilgrimage from Najd was prevented and it boycotted the implementation of certain public policy in contravention of shari'a. Ikhwan units were massed on a large scale for the first time, and under Khalid bin Lu'ayy and Sultan bin Bajad rapidly advanced on Mecca and plundered it, laying waste to symbols of "heathen" practices.[24] The Ikhwan completed their conquest of the Hejaz by the end of 1925. On 10 January 1926 Abdulaziz declared himself King of the Hejaz and, then, on 27 January 1927 he took the title King of Najd (his previous title was Sultan). The use of the Ikhwan to effect the conquest had important consequences for the Hejaz: The old cosmopolitan society was uprooted, and a radical version of Wahhabi culture was imposed as a new compulsory social order.[25]
Abdulaziz Al Saud, founder of Saudi Arabia
By the Treaty of Jeddah, signed on 20 May 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul-Aziz's realm (then known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Najd).[12][18] After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leaders wanted to continue the expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait. Abdul-Aziz, however, refused to agree to this, recognizing the danger of a direct conflict with the British. The Ikhwan therefore revolted but were defeated in the Battle of Sabilla in 1929, and the Ikhwan leadership were massacred.[26]
In 1930, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Najd were united as the 'Kingdom of Saudi Arabia'.[18][22] Boundaries with Transjordan, Iraq, and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two "neutral zones" created, one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Ta'if, which ended a brief border war between the two states.[27]
Modern history[edit]
Main article: Modern history of Saudi Arabia
Abdulaziz's military and political successes were not mirrored economically until vast reserves of oil were discovered in 1938 in the Al-Hasa region along the Persian Gulf coast. Development began in 1941 and by 1949 production was in full swing.
In February 1945, King Abdul Aziz met President Franklin D. Roosevelt aboard the USS Quincy in the Suez Canal. An historic handshake agreeing on supplying oil to the USA in exchange for guaranteed protection to the Saudi regime is still in force today. It has survived seven Saudi Kings and twelve US presidents.
Abdulaziz died in 1953. King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and a great deal of political leverage in the international community. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and lavish. Despite the new wealth, extravagant spending led to governmental deficits and foreign borrowing in the 1950s.[12][28][29]
However, by the early 1960s an intense rivalry between the King and his half-brother, Prince Faisal emerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964.[12]
The mid-1960s saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over Yemen. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen. Saudi forces did not participate in the Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War of June 1967, but the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies.[12][30]
During the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia participated in the Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the OPEC, Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political influence.[12]
Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid,[31] and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid during whose reign economic and social development continued at an extremely rapid rate, revolutionizing the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.
The surviving insurgents of the seizure of the Grand Mosque,1979 under custody of Saudi authorities. c. 1980.
In 1979, two events occurred which the Al Saud perceived as threatening the regime, and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic revolution. There were several anti-government riots in the region in 1979 and 1980. The second event was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[12][28][29][32] Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of Islamic and traditional Saudi norms. Islamism continued to grow in strength.[12][28][29][32]
King Khalid died in June 1982.[12] Khalid was succeeded by his brother King Fahd in 1982, who maintained Saudi Arabia’s foreign policy of close cooperation with the United States and increased purchases of sophisticated military equipment from the United States and Britain.
Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia joined the anti-Iraq Coalition. King Fahd, fearing an attack from Iraq, invited American and Coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. Saudi troops and aircraft took part in the subsequent military operations.
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Prince Abdullah assumed day-to-day responsibility for the government. In 2003, Saudi Arabia refused to support the US and its allies in the invasion of Iraq.[12] Terrorist activity within Saudi Arabia increased dramatically in 2003, with the Riyadh compound bombings and other attacks, which prompted the government to take more stringent action against terrorism.[32]
In 2005, King Fahd died and his half-brother, Abdullah, ascended to the throne. Despite growing calls for change, the king has continued the policy of moderate reform.[33] King Abdullah has pursued a policy of limited deregulation, privatization and seeking foreign investment. In December 2005, following 12 years of talks, the World Trade Organization gave the green light to Saudi Arabia's membership.[34]
As the Arab Spring unrest and protests began to spread across Arab world in early 2011, King Abdullah announced an increase in welfare spending. No political reforms were announced as part of the package.[35] At the same time, Saudi troops were sent to participate in the crackdown on unrest in Bahrain. King Abdullah gave asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[36]
On 23 January 2015, King Abdullah died and was succeeded by King Salman.
See also[edit]
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1] "Hajj Explained" in Al Arabia News 03 Oct 2014 by Shounaz Meky
Jump up ^ "Early humans settled in Arabia". usatoday. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Saudi Embassy (US) Website Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. retrieved 20 January 2011
Jump up ^ Philip Khuri Hitti (2002), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition
Jump up ^ http://www.pnas.org/content/105/43/16460.full
Jump up ^ Bimson, John J.; Tebes, Juan Manuel, Timna revisited : egyptian chronologyand the silver mines of the southernArabah Antiguo Oriente Vol. 7, 2009
Jump up ^ See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003), p.22, Lapidus (2002), p.32, Madelung (1996), p.43, Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
Jump up ^ L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.), pp.145–147 ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0
Jump up ^ Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.), p.48 ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Encyclopædia Britannica Online: History of Arabia retrieved 18 January 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Joshua Teitelbaum. "Saudi Arabia History". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f M. Th. Houtsma (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. BRILL. pp. 441–442. ISBN 978-90-04-09791-9. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire (2003) Amazon.com
Jump up ^ King Abdul Aziz Information Resource – First Ruler of the House of Saud Archived 14 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine. retrieved 20 January 2011
Jump up ^ 'Wahhabi', Encyclopædia Britannica Online retrieved 20 January 2011
Jump up ^ The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam. Library of Congress Country Studies.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Global Security Retrieved 19 January 2011
Jump up ^ David Murphy, The Arab Revolt 1916-18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze, Osprey Publishing, 2008,
Jump up ^ Murphy, David The Arab Revolt 1916-1918, London: Osprey, 2008 page 18
^ Jump up to: a b David Murphy, The Arab Revolt 1916-18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze, Osprey Publishing, 2008
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Jump up ^ 'Arabian Sands' by Wilfred Thesiger, 1991
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^ Jump up to: a b c al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-521-64335-X
^ Jump up to: a b c Robert Lacey, THE KINGDOM: Arabia & The House of Sa'ud, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc, 1981 (Hard Cover) and Avon Books, 1981 (Soft Cover). Library of Congress: 81-83741 ISBN 0-380-61762-5
Jump up ^ "Background note: Saudi Arabia". US State Department. 2012-06-29. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
Jump up ^ Robert Lacey, The Kingdom: Arabia and the House of Saud (Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich Publishing: New York, 1981) p. 426.
^ Jump up to: a b c 'Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979' by Thomas Hegghammer, 2010, Cambridge Middle East Studies ISBN 978-0-521-73236-9
Jump up ^ "Saudi Arabia | The Middle East Channel". Mideast.foreignpolicy.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
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Jump up ^ Black, Ian (31 January 2011). "Egypt Protests could spread to other countries". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
Further reading[edit]
Bowen, Wayne H. The History of Saudi Arabia (The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations, 2007)
Determann, Jörg. Historiography in Saudi Arabia: Globalization and the State in the Middle East (2013)
Kostiner, Joseph. The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916-1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State (1993)
Parker, Chad H. Making the Desert Modern: Americans, Arabs, and Oil on the Saudi Frontier, 1933–1973 (U of Massachusetts Press, 2015), 161 pp.
al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia (2nd ed. 2010)
Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia (2013)
Wynbrandt, James and Fawaz A. Gerges. A Brief History of Saudi Arabia (2010)
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History of the internal combustion engine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2017)
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Video montage of the Otto engines running at the Western Minnesota Steam Threshers Reunion (WMSTR), in Rollag, Minnesota. (2 min 16 s, 320x240, 340 kbit/s video)
Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel (gasoline), and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens designed the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year, the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially.
Father Eugenio Barsanti, an Italian engineer, together with Felice Matteucci of Florence invented the first real internal combustion engine in 1853. Their patent request was granted in London on June 12, 1854, and published in London's Morning Journal under the title "Specification of Eugene Barsanti and Felix Matteucci, Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gasses". In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fueled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world's first jet aircraft. In 1954 German engineer Felix Wankel patented a "pistonless" engine using an eccentric rotary design.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prior to 1860
2 1860–1910
3 1920–1980
4 1980 to present
5 Engine starting
6 Modern vs. historical piston engines
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Prior to 1860[edit]
al-Jazari's hydropowered saqiya chain pump device
Model of the Barsanti-Matteucci engine (1853) in the Osservatorio Ximeniano in Florence
Early internal combustion engines were used to power farm equipment similar to these models.
202 BCE–220 CE: The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han Dynasty.[1]
3rd century CE: Evidence of a crank and connecting rod mechanism dates to the Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (Turkey), then part of the Roman Empire.
6th century: Several sawmills use a crank and connecting rod mechanism in Asia Minor and Syria, then part of the Byzantine Empire.
9th century: The crank appears in the mid-9th century in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[2]
1206: Al-Jazari invented an early crankshaft,[3][4] which he incorporated with a crank-connecting rod mechanism in his twin-cylinder pump. Like the modern crankshaft, Al-Jazari's mechanism consisted of a wheel setting several crank pins into motion, with the wheel's motion being circular and the pins moving back-and-forth in a straight line.[3] The crankshaft described by al-Jazari[3][4] transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion.
17th century: Samuel Morland experiments with using gunpowder to drive water pumps.
17th century: Christiaan Huygens designs gunpowder to drive water pumps, to supply 3000 cubic meters of water/day for the Versailles palace gardens, essentially creating the first idea of a rudimentary internal combustion piston engine.
1780s: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol[5] in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.
1791: John Barber receives British patent #1833 for A Method for Rising Inflammable Air for the Purposes of Producing Motion and Facilitating Metallurgical Operations. In it he describes a turbine.
1794: Robert Street built a compressionless engine. He was also the first to use liquid fuel in an internal combustion engine.[6]
1794: Thomas Mead patents a gas engine.[7]
1798: John Stevens builds the first double-acting, crankshaft-using internal combustion engine.
1801: Philippe LeBon D'Humberstein comes up with the use of compression in a two-stroke engine.
1807: Nicéphore Niépce installed his "moss, coal-dust and resin" fueled Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saône in France. A patent was subsequently granted by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte on 20 July 1807.
1807: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a hydrogen and oxygen mixture, and ignited by electric spark. (See 1780s: Alessandro Volta above.)[8]
1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. It was compressionless and based on what Hardenberg[9] calls the "Leonardo cycle", which, as the name implies, was already out of date at that time.
1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines.
1826 April 1: American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compressionless "Gas or Vapor Engine."[9] This is also the first recorded example of a carburetor.
1833: Lemuel Wellman Wright, UK patent no. 6525, table-type gas engine. Double-acting gas engine, first record of water-jacketed cylinder.[10]
1838: A patent was granted to William Barnett, UK patent no. 7615 April 1838. According to Dugald Clerk, this was the first recorded use of in-cylinder compression.[11]
1853–1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an engine using the free-piston principle in an atmospheric two cycle engine.[12][13]
1856: in Florence at Fonderia del Pignone (now Nuovo Pignone, later a subsidiary of General Electric), Pietro Benini realized a working prototype of the Italian engine supplying 5 HP. In subsequent years he developed more powerful engines—with one or two pistons—which served as steady power sources, replacing steam engines.
1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci describe the principles of the free piston engine where the vacuum after the explosion allows atmospheric pressure to deliver the power stroke (British patent no. 1625).
[13]
1860–1910[edit]
Patent of Otto-Langen engine 1863
Sir Dugald Clerk's two cycle engine from 1879
This internal combustion engine was an integral aspect of the patent for the first patented automobile, made by Karl Benz on January 29, 1886.
Karl Benz
1860: Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822–1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine similar in appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
1861: Nikolaus Otto builds a copy of the Lenoir engine.
1862: Nikolaus Otto attempts the construction of the compressed charge four cycle engine, and fails.
1862: The earliest confirmed patent of the 4-cycle engine, by Alphonse Beau de Rochas. This was principle only, there was NO engine built to prove the concept.
1862: The German Nikolaus Otto begins to manufacture a no compression gas Lenoir engine with a free piston.[14]
1864: Nikolaus Otto, patented in England and other countries his first atmospheric gas engine. Otto was the first to build and sell this type of compressionless engine designed with an indirect-acting free-piston, whose great efficiency won the support of Eugen Langen and then most of the market, which at that time was mainly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas. Eugen Langen collaborated with Otto in the design and they began to manufacture it in 1864.[15]
1865: Pierre Hugon started production of the Hugon engine, similar to the Lenoir engine, but with better economy, and more reliable flame ignition.
1867: Otto and Langen exhibited their free piston engine at the Paris Exhibition in 1867, and they won the greatest award. It had less than half the gas consumption of the Lenoir or Hugon engines.
1870: In Vienna, Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline and the first modern internal combustion engine on a handcart.
1872: In America George Brayton invented Brayton's Ready Motor and went into commercial production, this used constant pressure combustion, and was the first commercial liquid fuelled internal combustion engine.
1876: Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-stroke engine.[16] The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four-stroke cycle, and after this decision, in-cylinder compression became universal.
1878: Dugald Clerk designed the first two-stroke engine with in-cylinder compression. He patented it in England in 1881.
1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his reliable two-stroke, internal combustion engine, gas engine.
1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson's engine had one power phase per revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes, potentially making it more efficient than the Otto cycle, but certainly avoiding Otto's patent.
1884: British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol (gasoline) internal combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, and was the first to use the word petrol.[17]
1885: German engineer Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for a supercharger [18]
1885/1886 Karl Benz designed and built his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobile, which was developed in 1885, patented in 1886, and became the first automobile in series production.
1887: Gustaf de Laval introduces the de Laval nozzle
1889: Félix Millet begins development of the first vehicle to be powered by a rotary engine in transportation history.
1891: Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They built the first cold-start compression-ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping station. In the same year, an experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone.
1892: Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine .[19]
1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for his compression ignition (diesel) engine.
1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, or the flat engine, in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead center at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.
1897: Robert Bosch was the first to adapt a magneto ignition to a vehicle engine.
1898: Fay Oliver Farwell designs the prototype of the line of Adams-Farwell automobiles, all to be powered with three or five cylinder rotary internal combustion engines.
1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) using peanut oil fuel (see biodiesel).[20]
1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named Daimler-Mercedes after his daughter. In 1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.[21][22]
1903: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of theoretical papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space. A major point in his work is liquid fueled rockets.
1903: Ægidius Elling builds a gas turbine using a centrifugal compressor which runs under its own power. By most definitions, this is the first working gas turbine.
1905: Alfred Buchi patents the turbocharger and starts producing the first examples.
1903–1906: The team of Armengaud and Lemale in France build a complete gas turbine engine. It uses three separate compressors driven by a single turbine. Limits on the turbine temperatures allow for only a 3:1 compression ratio, and the turbine is not based on a Parsons-like "fan", but a Pelton wheel-like arrangement. The engine is so inefficient, at about 3% thermal efficiency, that the work is abandoned.
1908: New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward started a motorcycle business in Invercargill and fitted the imported bikes with his own invention–a petrol economiser. His economisers worked as well in cars as they did in motorcycles.
1908: Hans Holzwarth starts work on extensive research on an "explosive cycle" gas turbine,[23] based on the Otto cycle. This design burns fuel at a constant volume and is somewhat more efficient. By 1927, when the work ended, he has reached about 13% thermal efficiency.
1908: René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
1916: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressors to improve high-altitude performance, the first example of the turbocharger.
1920–1980[edit]
1920: William Joseph Stern reports to the Royal Air Force that there is no future for the turbine engine in aircraft. He bases his argument on the extremely low efficiency of existing compressor designs. Due to Stern's eminence, his paper is so convincing there is little official interest in gas turbine engines anywhere, although this does not last long.
1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow gas turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.
1923: Edgar Buckingham at the United States National Bureau of Standards publishes a report on jets, coming to the same conclusion as W.J. Stern, that the turbine engine is not efficient enough. In particular he notes that a jet would use five times as much fuel as a piston engine.[24]
1925: The Hesselman engine is introduced by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman represented the first use of direct gasoline injection on a spark-ignition engine.[25][26]
1925: Wilhelm Pape patents a constant-volume engine design.
1926: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes his groundbreaking paper Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, changing the low confidence in jet engines. In it he demonstrates that existing compressors are "flying stalled", and that major improvements can be made by redesigning the blades from a flat profile into an airfoil, going on to mathematically demonstrate that a practical engine is definitely possible and showing how to build a turboprop.
1926: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket
1927: Aurel Stodola publishes his "Steam and Gas Turbines"—basic reference for jet propulsion engineers in the US.
1927: A testbed single-shaft turbo-compressor based on Griffith's blade design is tested at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.
1929: Frank Whittle's thesis on jet engines is published
1930: Schmidt patents a pulse-jet engine in Germany.
1935: Hans von Ohain creates plans for a turbojet engine and convinces Ernst Heinkel to develop a working model. Along with a single mechanic von Ohain develops the worlds first turbojet on a test stand.
1936: French engineer René Leduc, having independently rediscovered René Lorin's design, successfully demonstrates the world's first operating ramjet.
1937: The first successful run of Sir Frank Whittle's gas turbine for jet propulsion.
March, 1937: The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental hydrogen fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth.
27 August 1939: Flight of the world's first turbojet power aircraft. Hans von Ohain's Heinkel He 178 V1 pioneer turbojet aircraft prototype makes its first flight, powered by an He S 3 von Ohain engine.
15 May 1941: The Gloster E.28/39 becomes the first British jet-engined aircraft to fly, using a Power Jets W.1 turbojet designed by Frank Whittle and others.
1942: Max Bentele discovers in Germany that turbine blades can break if vibrations are in its resonance range, a phenomenon already known in the US from the steam turbine experience.
18 July 1942: The Messerschmitt Me 262 first jet engine flight
1946: Samuel Baylin develops the Baylin Engine a three cycle internal combustion engine with rotary pistons. A crude but complex example of the future Wankel engine.[27]
1951: Engineers for The Texas Company—i.e. now Chevron—developed a four stroke engine with a fuel injector that employed what was called the Texaco Combustion Process, which unlike normal four stroke gasoline engines which used a separate valve for the intake of the air-gasoline mixture, with the T.C.P. engine the intake valve with a built in special shroud delivers the air to the cylinder in a tornado type fashion and then the fuel is injected and ignited by a spark plug. The inventors claimed their engine could burn on almost any petroleum based fuel of any octane and even some alcohol based fuels—e.g. kerosene, benzine, motor oil, tractor oil, etc.—without the pre-combustion knock and the complete burning of the fuel injected into the cylinder. While development was well advanced by 1950, there are no records of the T.C.P. engine being used commercially.[28]
1950s: Development begins by US firms of the Free-piston engine concept which is a crankless internal combustion engine.[29]
1954: Felix Wankel's first working prototype DKM 54 of the Wankel engine
1980 to present[edit]
1986: Benz Gmbh[30] files for patent protection for a form of Scotch yoke engine and begins development of same. Development subsequently abandoned.
1996: Ford Motor Company files patent for compact turbine engine.[31]
2004: Hyper-X first scramjet to maintain altitude
2004: Toyota Motor Corp files for patent protection for new form of Scotch yoke engine.[32]
Engine starting[edit]
Main article: Starter motor
Early internal combustion engines were started by hand cranking. Various types of starter motor were later developed. These included:
An auxiliary petrol engine for starting a larger petrol or diesel engine. The Hucks starter is an example
Cartridge starters, such as the Coffman engine starter, which used a device like a blank shotgun cartridge. These were popular for aircraft engines
Pneumatic starters
Hydraulic starters
Electric starters
Electric starters are now almost universal for small and medium-sized engines, while pneumatic starters are used for large engines.
Modern vs. historical piston engines[edit]
The first piston engines did not have compression, but ran on an air-fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression of the fuel charge prior to combustion.
The problem of ignition of fuel was handled in early engines with an open flame and a sliding gate. To obtain a faster engine speed Daimler adopted a Hot Tube ignition which allowed 600 rpm immediately in his 1883 horizontal cylinder engine and very soon after over 900 rpm. Most of the engines of that time could not exceed 200 rpm due to their ignition and induction systems.[33]
The first practical engine, Lenoir's, ran on illuminating gas (coal gas). It wasn't until 1883, that Daimler created an engine that ran on liquid petroleum, a fuel called Ligroin which has a chemical makeup of Hexane-N. The fuel is also known as petroleum naptha.
Otto's first engines were push engines which produced a push through the entire stroke (like a Diesel). Daimler's engines produced a rapid pulse, more suitable for mobile engine use.
See also[edit]
Bertha Benz Memorial Route, commemorating the world's first long distance journey with an automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine in 1888.
Harry Ricardo
Timeline of heat engine technology
Timeline of motor vehicle brands
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Pages 118–119.
Jump up ^ A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 0-521-32763-6
^ Jump up to: a b c Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009), Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 41, ISBN 1-4358-5066-1
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.
Jump up ^ "ELECTRIC PISTOL". ppp.unipv.it.
Jump up ^ "The Early History of Combustion Engines".
Jump up ^ Spies, Albert. "Modern gas and oil engines". [New York, The Cassier's magazine company – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Automobile - Gas Engines". About.com. 2009-09-11. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardenberg, Horst O. (1992). Samuel Morey and his atmospheric engine. SP-922. Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 1-56091-240-5.
Jump up ^ Dugald Clerk, "Gas and Oil Engines", Longman Green & Co, (7th Edition) 1897, pp 3-5.
Jump up ^ Dugald Clerk, "Gas and Oil Engines", Longman Green & Co, 1897.
Jump up ^ "The Historical Documents". Barsanti e Matteucci. Fondazione Barsanti & Matteucci. 2009. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Ricci, G.; et al. (2012). "The First Internal Combustion Engine". In Starr, Fred; et al. The Piston Engine Revolution. London: Newcomen Society. pp. 23–44. ISBN 978-0-904685-15-2. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Machines: A Pictorial History; Sigvard Strandh. ISBN 84-86115-20-5
Jump up ^ http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~johnd/ICEngines/HISTORY%20OF%20THE%20OTTO.pdf
Jump up ^ Zeleznik, F. J.; Mcbride, B. J. "Modeling the Internal Combustion Engine". NASA Reference Publication. NASA Technical Reports Server. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hiram Maxim and Edward Butler:Two local inventors". Bexley. Bexley. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gottlieb Daimler".
Jump up ^ DE patent 67207 Rudolf Diesel: "Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen" pg 4.
Jump up ^ Martin Leduc, "Biography of Rudolph Diesel" Archived 2010-06-11 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Wilhelm Maybach". www.nndb.com.
Jump up ^ The history behind the Mercedes-Benz brand and the three-pointed star. eMercedesBenz.com. April 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Museum, Deutsches. "Deutsches Museum: Holzwarth Gas Turbine, 1908". www.deutsches-museum.de.
Jump up ^ "Report #159" (PDF). casi.ntrs.nasa.gov.
Jump up ^ Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 (in Swedish). 1992. ISBN 91-7886-074-1. (Translated title: Vehicle history of Scania 1891-1991)
Jump up ^ Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag (in Swedish). 1987. ISBN 91-86442-76-7. (Translated title: Volvo trucks yesterday and today)
Jump up ^ "How the Baylin Engine Works." Popular Mechanics, July 1946, pp. 131-132.
Jump up ^ "Engine With A Built In Tornado." Popular Mechanic, September 1950, pp. 94-95.
Jump up ^ "Revolution of the Free-Piston Engine" Popular Mechanics, September 1950, pp. 114-118.
Jump up ^ "BENZ GmbH Werkzeugsysteme". www.benz-tools.de.
Jump up ^ "US Patent # 5,584,174. Power turbine flywheel assembly for a dual shaft turbine engine - Patents.com". patents.com.
Jump up ^ Patent application number: JP2004293387.
Jump up ^ "1883: High-speed engine with hot-tube ignition".
Further reading[edit]
Sloss, Robert (January 1911). "The Children Of The Gas-Engine: The Revolution In Speed And In Convenience In Transportation - Automobiles, Motor-Cycles, Motor-Boats, Aeroplanes And Other Queer Craft That Ten Years Have Brought". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XXI: 13869–13877. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
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