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Iron pillar of Delhi
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The iron pillar of Delhi
The iron pillar of Delhi is a 7 m (23 ft) kirti stambha (column of fame or victory column), originally erected and dedicated as dhvaja (banner) to Hindu deity lord Vishnu in 3rd to 4th century CE by king Chandra, currently standing in the Qutb complex at Mehrauli in Delhi, India.[1] It is notable for the rust-resistant composition of the metals used in its construction.
The pillar has attracted the attention of archaeologists and materials scientists because of its high resistance to corrosion and has been called a "testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron."[2][3] The corrosion resistance results from an even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate forming on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the Delhi climate.[2]
The pillar weighs over 6,000 kg (13,000 lb) and is thought to have originally been erected in what is now Udayagiri by one of the Gupta monarchs in approximately 402 CE, though the precise date and location are a matter of dispute.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physical description
2 Inscriptions
2.1 Inscription of King Chandra
2.1.1 Orthography
2.1.2 History of study
2.1.3 Issuance
2.1.4 Text
2.2 Samvat 1109 inscription
3 Original location
3.1 Relocation
4 Scientific analysis
5 Evidence of cannonball strike
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Bibliography
8 External links
Physical description[edit]
The iron pillar stands within the courtyard of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
The height of the pillar, from the top of its capital to the bottom of its base, is 7.21 m (23 ft 8 in), 1.12 m (3 ft 8 in) of which is below ground. Its bell pattern capital is 1.07 m (3 ft 6 in) in height, and its bulb-shaped base is 0.71 m (2 ft 4 in) high. The base rests on a grid of iron bars soldered with lead into the upper layer of the dressed stone pavement. The pillar's lower diameter is 420 mm (17 in), and its upper diameter 306 mm (12 in). It is estimated to weigh more than six tonnes (13,228 lb).[5]
A fence was erected around the pillar in 1997 in response to damage caused by visitors. There is a popular tradition that it was considered good luck if one could stand with one's back to the pillar and make one's hands meet behind it. The practice led to significant wear and visible discolouration on the lower portion of the pillar.
Inscriptions[edit]
The pillar carries a number of inscriptions and graffiti of different dates, some of which have not been studied systematically despite the pillar's prominent location and easy access.
Inscription of King Chandra[edit]
Detail showing the inscription of King Chandragupta II
The oldest inscription on the pillar is that of a king named Chandra (IAST: Candra), generally identified as the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.[6]
Orthography[edit]
The inscription covers an area of 2'9.5" × 10.5". The ancient writing is preserved well because of the corrosion-resistant iron on which it is engraved. However, during the engraving process, iron appears to have closed up over some of the strokes, making some of the letters imperfect.[7]
It contains verses composed in Sanskrit language, in shardulvikridita metre.[8] It is written in the eastern variety of the Gupta script. The letters vary from 0.3125" to 0.5" in size, and resemble closely to the letters on the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta. However, it had distinctive matras (diacritics), similar to the ones in the Bilsad inscription of Kumaragupta I.[9] While the edges of the characters on the Allahabad inscription are more curved, the ones on the Delhi inscription have more straight edges. This can be attributed to the fact that the Allahabad inscription was inscribed on softer sandstone, while the Delhi inscription is engraved on the harder material (iron).[10]
The text has some unusual deviations from the standard Sanskrit spelling, such as:[9]
pranśu instead of praṃśu: the use of dental nasal instead of anusvara
mūrtyā instead of mūrttyā: : omission of the second t
kīrtyā instead of kīrttyā: omission of the second t
śattru instead of śatru (enemy): an extra t
History of study[edit]
In 1831, the East India Company officer William Elliott made a facsimile of the inscription. Based on this facsimile, in 1834, James Prinsep published a lithograph in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (JASB). However, this lithograph did not represent even a single letter of the inscription correctly. Some years later, British engineer T. S. Burt made an ink impression of the inscription. Based on this, in 1838, Prinsep published an improved lithograph in the same journal, with his reading of the script and translation of the text.[11]
Decades later, Bhagwan Lal Indraji made another copy of the inscription on a cloth. Based on this copy, Bhau Daji Lad published a revised text and translation in 1875, in Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (JBBRAS). This reading was the first one to correctly mention the king's name as Chandra. In 1888, John Faithfull Fleet published a critical edition of the text in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum.[11]
In 1945, Govardhan Rai Sharma dated the inscription to the first half of the 5th century CE, on paleographic grounds.[12] He observed that its script was similar to the writing on other Gupta-era inscriptions, including the ones discovered at Bilsad (415 CE), Baigram (449 CE), and Kahanum (449 CE).[10] R. Balasubramaniam (2005) noted that the characters of the Delhi inscription closely resembled the dated inscriptions of Chandragupta II, found at Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh.[13]
Issuance[edit]
The inscription is undated, and contains a eulogy of a king named Chandra, whose dynasty it does not mention.[9] The identity of this king, and thus the date of the pillar, has been the subject of much debate. The various viewpoints about the identity of the issuer were assembled and analyzed in a volume edited by M. C. Joshi and published in 1989.[14]
The king is now generally identified with the Gupta King Chandragupta II.[15] This identification is based on several points:
The script and the poetic style of the inscription, which point to a date in the late fourth or early fifth century CE: the Gupta period.[14]
The inscription describes the king as a devotee of the god Vishnu, and records the erection of a dhvaja ("standard", or pillar) of Vishnu, on a hill called Vishnupada ("hill of the footprint of Vishnu").[16] Other Gupta inscriptions also describe Chandragupta II as a Bhagavata (devotee of Vishnu).[9] The names of the places mentioned in the inscription are also characteristic of the Gupta era. For example, Dakshina Jalanidhi (the Indian Ocean) and Vanga (the Bengal region).[16]
The short name "Chandra" is inscribed on the archer-type gold coins of Chandragupta II, while his full name and titles appear in a separate, circular legend on the coin.[13]
A royal seal of Chandragupta's wife Dhruvadevi contains the phrase Shri Vishnupada-svami Narayana ("Narayana, the lord of the illustrious Vishnupada").[17]
As the inscription is a eulogy and states that the king has abandoned the earth, there has been some discussion as to whether it is posthumous, i.e. whether king Chandra was dead when the record was created. Dasharatha Sharma (1938) argued that it was non-posthumous.[18] According to B. Chhabra and G. S. Gai, the inscription states that the king's mind is "fixed upon Vishnu with devotion", and therefore, indicates that the king was alive at the time. They theorize that it may have been recorded when Chandragupta II abdicated his throne, and settled down as a vanaprastha (retiree) in Vishnupada.[9]
In a volume published in 2009, Michael Willis has summarised the debates and re-translated the relevant portions of the epigraph. He concludes: "Candragupta may have passed away but the legacy of his achievement is so great that he seems to remain on earth by virtue of his fame. Emphasis is placed on Candragupta’s conquest of enemies and the merit of his deeds, ideas which are also found in coin legends: kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṃ jayati vikramādityaḥ, i.e. ‘Having conquered the earth with good conduct, Vikramāditya conquered heaven’. The king’s conquest of heaven combined with the description of him resorting to the other world in bodily form (gām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā), confirms our understanding of the worthy dead as autonomous theomorphic entities."[19]
Text[edit]
Bankelal's 1903 tablets
Following is the Roman script transliteration of the text:[20]
Yasy odvarttayah-pratīpamurasā śattrun sametyāgatan Vańgeshvāhava varttinosbhilikhitā khadgena kīrttir bhuje
Tirtvā sapta mukhāni yena samare sindhor jjitā Vāhlikāyasyādya pyadhivāsyate jalanidhir vviryyānilair ddakshinah
Khinnasy eva visrijya gām narapater ggāmāśritasyaetrām mūr(t)yā karmma-jitāvanim gatavatah kīrt(t)yā sthitasyakshitau
Śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo mahānnadhayā pyutsrijati pranāśista-ripor Yyatnasya śesahkshitim
Prāptena sva bhuj ārjitan cha suchiran ch aikādhirājayam kshitau chandrāhvena samagra chandra sadriśīm vaktra-śriyam bibhratā
Tenāyam pranidhāya bhūmipatinā bhāveva vishno (shnau) matim prānśurvisnupade girau bhagavato Vishnuordhidhvajah sthāpitah
J. F. Fleet's 1888 translation is as follows:[21]
(Verse 1) He, on whose arm fame was inscribed by the sword, when, in battle in the Vanga countries (Bengal), he kneaded (and turned) back with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, came against (him);-he, by whom, having crossed in warfare the seven mouths of the (river) Sindhu, the Vahlikas were conquered;-he, by the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still perfumed;-
(Verse 2) He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which utterly destroyed (his) enemies, like (the remnant of the great glowing heat) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves not the earth; though he, the king, as if wearied, has quit this earth, and has gone to the other world, moving in (bodily) from to the land (of paradise) won by (the merit of his) actions, (but) remaining on (this) earth by (the memory of his) fame;-
(Verse 3) By him, the king, attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world, acquired by his own arm and (enjoyed) for a very long time; (and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of countenance like (the beauty of) the full-moon,-having in faith fixed his mind upon (the god) Vishnu, this lofty standard of the divine Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishnupada.
Due to the tablets installed on the building in 1903 by Pandit Banke Rai, the reading provided by him enjoys wide currency. However, Bankelal's reading and interpretation have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The inscription has been revisited by Michael Willis in his book Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, his special concern being the nature of the king's spiritual identity after death. His reading and translation of verse 2 is as follows:[19]
[khi]nnasyeva visṛjya gāṃ narapater ggām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā karrmajitāvaniṃ gatavataḥ kīrtyā sthitasya kṣitau [*|]
śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo mahān nādyāpy utsṛjati praṇāśitaripor yyatnasya śeṣaḥ kṣitim [||*]
The Sanskrit portion given above can be translated as follows:[19]
The residue of the king's effort – a burning splendour which utterly destroyed his enemies – leaves not the earth even now, just like (the residual heat of) a burned-out conflagration in a great forest.
He, as if wearied, has abandoned this world, and resorted in actual form to the other world – a place won by the merit of his deeds – (and although) he has departed, he remains on earth through (the memory of his) fame (kīrti).
Willis concludes: "Candragupta may have passed away but the legacy of his achievement is so great that he seems to remain on earth by virtue of his fame. Emphasis is placed on Candragupta’s conquest of enemies and the merit of his deeds, ideas which are also found in coin legends: kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṃ jayati vikramādityaḥ, i.e. ‘Having conquered the earth with good conduct, Vikramāditya conquered heaven’.[22] The king’s conquest of heaven combined with the description of him resorting to the other world in bodily form (gām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā), confirms our understanding of the worthy dead as autonomous theomorphic entities."[19]
Samvat 1109 inscription[edit]
One short inscription on the pillar is associated with the Tomara king Anangpal, although it is hard to decipher. Alexander Cunningham (1862-63) read the inscription as follows:[23]
Samvat Dihali 1109 Ang Pāl bahi
Translation: "In Samvat 1109 [1052 CE], Ang [Anang] Pāl peopled Dilli"
Based on this reading, Cunningham theorized that Anangpal had moved the pillar to its current location while establishing the city of Delhi. However, his reading has been contested by the later scholars. Buddha Rashmi Mani (1997) read it as follows:[23]
Samvat Kinllī 1109 Angapala bādi
Translation: "Anangpal tightened the nail [iron pillar] in Samvat 1109"
Original location[edit]
While the pillar was certainly used as a trophy in building the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb complex, its original location, whether on the site itself or from elsewhere, is debated.[24][25]
According to the inscription of king Chandra, the pillar was erected at Vishnupadagiri (Vishnupada). J. F. Fleet (1898) identified this place with Mathura, because of its proximity to Delhi (the find spot of the inscription) and the city's reputation as a Vasihnavite pilgrimage centre. However, archaeological evidence indicates that during the Gupta period, Mathura was a major centre of Buddhism, although Vaishnavism may have existed there. Moreover, Mathura lies in plains, and only contains some small hillocks and mounds: there is no true giri (hill) in Mathura.[26]
Based on paleographic similarity to the dated inscriptions from Udayagiri, the Gupta-era iconography, analysis of metallurgy and other evidence, Meera Dass and R. Balasubramaniam (2004) theorized that the iron pillar was originally erected at Udayagiri.[13][27] According to them, the pillar, with a wheel or discus at the top, was originally located at the Udayagiri Caves.[28] This conclusion was partly based on the fact that the inscription mentions Vishnupada-giri (IAST: Viṣṇupadagiri, meaning "hill with footprint of Viṣṇu"). This conclusion was endorsed and elaborated by Michael Willis in his Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, published in 2009.[29] The key point in favour of placing the iron pillar at Udayagiri is that this site was closely associated with Chandragupta and the worship of Vishnu in the Gupta period. In addition, there are well-established traditions of mining and working iron in central India, documented particularly by the iron pillar at Dhar and local place names like Lohapura and Lohangī Pīr (see Vidisha). The king of Delhi, Iltutmish, is known to have attacked and sacked Vidisha in the thirteenth century and this would have given him an opportunity to remove the pillar as a trophy to Delhi, just as the Tughluq rulers brought Asokan pillars to Delhi in the 1300s.
Relocation[edit]
It is not certain when the pillar was moved to Delhi from its original location. Alexander Cunningham attributed the relocation to the Tomara king Anangpal, based on the short pillar inscription ascribed to this king.[23] Pasanaha Chariu, a 1132 CE Jain Apabhramsha text composed by Vibudh Shridhar, states that "the weight of his pillar caused the Lord of the Snakes to tremble". The identification of this pillar with the iron pillar lends support to the theory that the pillar was already in Delhi during Anangpal's reign.[30]
Another theory is that the relocation happened during the Muslim rule in Delhi. Some scholars have assumed that it happened around 1200 CE, when Qutb al-Din Aibak commenced the construction of the Qutb complex as a general of Muhammad of Ghor.[31] Finbarr Barry Flood (2009) theorizes that it was Qutb al-Din's successor Iltutmish (r. 1210-36 CE), who moved the pillar to Delhi.[23]
Scientific analysis[edit]
Details of the top of iron pillar, Qutub Minar, Delhi.
The pillar was manufactured by the forge welding of pieces of wrought iron. In a report published in the journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam of the IIT Kanpur explains how the pillar's resistance to corrosion is due to a passive protective film at the iron-rust interface. The presence of second-phase particles (slag and unreduced iron oxides) in the microstructure of the iron, that of high amounts of phosphorus in the metal, and the alternate wetting and drying existing under atmospheric conditions are the three main factors in the three-stage formation of that protective passive film.[32]
Lepidocrocite and goethite are the first amorphous iron oxyhydroxides that appear upon oxidation of iron. High corrosion rates are initially observed. Then, an essential chemical reaction intervenes: slag and unreduced iron oxides (second phase particles) in the iron microstructure alter the polarisation characteristics and enrich the metal–scale interface with phosphorus, thus indirectly promoting passivation of the iron[33] (cessation of rusting activity). The second-phase particles act as a cathode, and the metal itself serves as anode, for a mini-galvanic corrosion reaction during environment exposure. Part of the initial iron oxyhydroxides is also transformed into magnetite, which somewhat slows down the process of corrosion. The ongoing reduction of lepidocrocite and the diffusion of oxygen and complementary corrosion through the cracks and pores in the rust still contribute to the corrosion mechanism from atmospheric conditions.
The Iron Pillar in Qutub Minar, c. 1905
The next main agent to intervene in protection from oxidation is phosphorus, enhanced at the metal–scale interface by the same chemical interaction previously described between the slags and the metal. The ancient Indian smiths did not add lime to their furnaces. The use of limestone as in modern blast furnaces yields pig iron that is later converted into steel; in the process, most phosphorus is carried away by the slag.[34] The absence of lime in the slag and the use of specific quantities of wood with high phosphorus content (for example, Cassia auriculata) during the smelting induces a higher phosphorus content (> 0.1%, average 0.25%) than in modern iron produced in blast furnaces (usually less than 0.05%). One analysis gives 0.10% in the slags for 0.18% in the iron itself. This high phosphorus content and particular repartition are essential catalysts in the formation of a passive protective film of misawite (d-FeOOH), an amorphous iron oxyhydroxide that forms a barrier by adhering next to the interface between metal and rust. Misawite, the initial corrosion-resistance agent, was thus named because of the pioneering studies of Misawa and co-workers on the effects of phosphorus and copper and those of alternating atmospheric conditions in rust formation.[35]
The most critical corrosion-resistance agent is iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate (FePO4-H3PO4-4H2O) under its crystalline form and building up as a thin layer next to the interface between metal and rust. Rust initially contains iron oxide/oxyhydroxides in their amorphous forms. Due to the initial corrosion of metal, there is more phosphorus at the metal–scale interface than in the bulk of the metal. Alternate environmental wetting and drying cycles provide the moisture for phosphoric-acid formation. Over time, the amorphous phosphate is precipitated into its crystalline form (the latter being therefore an indicator of old age, as this precipitation is a rather slow happening). The crystalline phosphate eventually forms a continuous layer next to the metal, which results in an excellent corrosion resistance layer.[2] In 1,600 years, the film has grown just one-twentieth of a millimetre thick.[33]
In 1969, in his first book, Chariots of the Gods?, Erich von Däniken cited the absence of corrosion on the Delhi pillar and the unknown nature of its creation as evidence of extraterrestrial visitation.[36] When informed by an interviewer, in 1974, that the column was not in fact rust-free, and that its method of construction was well-understood, von Däniken responded that he no longer considered the pillar or its creation to be a mystery.[37][38]
Balasubramaniam states that the pillar is "a living testimony to the skill of metallurgists of ancient India". An interview with Balasubramaniam and his work can be seen in the 2005 article by Veazy.[39] Further research published in 2009 showed that corrosion has developed evenly over the surface of the pillar.[40]
It was claimed in the 1920s that iron manufactured in Mirjati near Jamshedpur is similar to the iron of the Delhi pillar.[41] Further work on Adivasi (tribal) iron by the National Metallurgical Laboratory in the 1960s did not verify this claim.[42]
Evidence of cannonball strike[edit]
Upper half of pillar, demonstrating horizontal fissuring thought to be caused by cannonball strike
A significant indentation on the middle section of the pillar, approximately 4 m (13 ft) from the current courtyard ground level, has been shown to be the result of a cannonball fired at close range.[43] The impact caused horizontal fissuring of the column in the area diametrically opposite to the indentation site, but the column itself remained intact. While no contemporaneous records, inscriptions, or documents describing the event are known to exist, historians generally agree that Nadir Shah is likely to have ordered the pillar's destruction during his invasion of Delhi in 1739 CE, as he would have considered a Hindu temple monument undesirable within an Islamic mosque complex.[44] Alternatively, he may have sought to dislodge the decorative top portion of the pillar in search of hidden precious stones or other items of value.[45]
No additional damage attributable to cannon fire has been found on the pillar, suggesting that no further shots were taken. Historians have speculated that ricocheting fragments of the cannonball may have damaged the nearby Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque — which is known to have suffered damage to its southwestern portion during the same period — and the assault on the pillar might have been abandoned as a result.[46]
See also[edit]
Pillars of Ashoka
History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent
Wootz steel
Parkerizing
Serpent Column
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Some Observations on Corrosion-Resistance of Ancient Delhi Iron Pillar and Present-time Adivasi Iron Made by Primitive Methods, A.K. Lahiri, T. Banerjee and B.R. Nijhawan. NML Tech. J., 5 (1963) 46-5. Cited in On the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar, R. Balasubramaniam.
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Bibliography[edit]
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King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar, M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal, Eds., Kusumanjali Publications, Meerut, 1989.
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"Delhi Iron Pillar" (in two parts), R. Balasubramaniam, IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 2, April 2004, pp. 11–17 and IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 5–13. [6]
New Insights on the 1600-Year Old Corrosion Resistant Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Indian Journal of History of Science 36 (2001) 1–49.
The Early use of Iron in India, Dilip K. Chakrabarti, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1992, ISBN 0195629922.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to iron pillar.
Detailed list of Publications on Delhi Iron Pillar by Balasubramaniam, IIT Kanpur
Corrosion resistance of Delhi iron pillar
Nondestructive evaluation of the Delhi iron pillar Current Science, Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 88, No. 12, 25 June 2005 (PDF)
The Delhi Iron Pillar
IIT team solves the pillar mystery, 21 Mar 2005, Times of India (About Nondestructive evaluation of the Delhi iron pillar)
(General article on Delhi Iron Pillar in "One India One People", May 2006, By Prof R Balasubramanium, IIT Kanpur and S M Khened, Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai)
Coordinates: 28°31′28.76″N 77°11′6.25″E / 28.5246556°N 77.1850694°E / 28.5246556; 77.1850694
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2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony
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This article is incomplete. Please help to improve it, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (March 2018)
2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony
Date
25 February 2018 (2018-02-25)
Time
20:00-22:05 KST (UTC+9)
Location
Pyeongchang, South Korea
Filmed by
SBS and OBS
Part of a series on the
2018 Winter Olympics
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The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics took place at Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium in Pyeongchang County, South Korea, on 25 February 2018 at 20:00 KST (UTC+9).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Ceremony
1.1 Opening
1.2 Parade of Nations
1.3 Concert section
2 Handover of the Olympic flag
3 Beijing 2022 performance
4 Games declared closed
5 Dignitaries in attendance
6 Anthems
7 References
Ceremony[edit]
Opening[edit]
South Korean singer Jang Sa-ik performed Aegukga with children from Gangwon Province.
South Korean guitarist Yang Tae-Hwan performed "Winter" of Vivaldi's Four Seasons.[2][3]
South Korean post-rock band Jambinai performed "Time of Extinction" including many geomungo players.[3]
Parade of Nations[edit]
Main article: 2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony flag bearers
The flag bearers of 92 National Olympic Committees arrived into the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium. The flag bearers from each participating country entered the stadium informally in single file, ordered by ganada order of the Korean alphabet, and behind them marched all the athletes, without any distinction or grouping by nationality. Marching alongside the athletes were Soohorang, the Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic mascot, and Hodori, mascot of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.
Concert section[edit]
South Korean singer and rapper CL, leader of disbanded South Korean girl group 2NE1 (2009-2016), performed "The Baddest Female" and world hit "I Am the Best".[4]
South Korean-Chinese boy group EXO performed "Growl" and "Power".[4][5]
Dutch DJ Martin Garrix headlined the afterparty segment performing "Forever", "Together", "Animals", "Like I Do", and "Pizza".[6]
Handover of the Olympic flag[edit]
First, the Greek flag was raised while its anthem played. The Olympic flag was then lowered and passed, by the mayor of Pyeongchang County, Shim Jae-kook, to IOC President, Thomas Bach, who then handed it over to the mayor of Beijing, Chen Jining. This was then followed by the raising of the flag of China, and the playing of its anthem.[1] The flag will be raised again in Tokyo, Japan, for the opening ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 24 July 2020.
Beijing 2022 performance[edit]
Beijing, the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, presented a special performance See you in Beijing in 2022 directed by Chinese film director Zhang Yimou, who also presented the 2008 Summer Olympics opening and closing ceremonies. The presentation featured two pandas skating and people forming red lines that became a dragon, as pandas and dragons are national icons for China. The skaters also trail lines to form the emblem of the games. China's Paramount leader Xi Jinping made a cameo appearance by video expressing the welcome message on behalf of the Chinese people.
Games declared closed[edit]
IOC President Thomas Bach formally closed the games, calling them 'The Games of New Horizons.' Soon after, the cauldron was extinguished.
Dignitaries in attendance[edit]
South Korea - President of the Republic of Korea Moon Jae-in, First Lady of the Republic of Korea Kim Jung-sook
North Korea - Supreme People's Assembly Presidium member Kim Yong-chol[7]
United States - First Daughter and Senior Advisor to the President Ivanka Trump[8]
China - Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China Liu Yandong[9]
Anthems[edit]
Jang Sa-ik and a choir of local schoolchildren - National Anthem of South Korea
London Symphony Orchestra - National Anthem of Greece
Oh Yeon-joon - Olympic Hymn (English version)
A choir of singers from the 56 ethnic groups of China - National Anthem of the People's Republic of China
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Pyeongchang 2018 Closing Ceremony Not LIVE on 19 February 2020
Jump up ^ http://loudwire.com/13-year-old-guitar-prodigy-winter-olympics-closing-ceremony/
^ Jump up to: a b Kornhaber, Spencer. "A Rock Star Is Born at the Olympics Closing Ceremony". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Herman, Tamar (2018-02-25). "K-Pop Stars CL & EXO Impress at Winter Olympics Closing Ceremony". Billboard.com. Retrieved 2018-03-17.
Jump up ^ "In just over 24 hours #EXO will perform in the #ClosingCeremony #PyeongChang2018 @weareoneEXO #엑소 #Suho #Olympicspic.twitter.com/GfHxE1Xdte". Twitter. 24 February 2018. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.livetracklist.com/martin-garrix-winter-olympics-pyeongchang-2018-closing-ceremony/
Jump up ^ "Winter Olympics 2018: North Korea's General Kim Yong-chol to attend". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
Jump up ^ CNN, Betsy Klein,. "Ivanka Trump is South Korea-bound for Olympics closing ceremony". CNN. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
Jump up ^ Kim, Christine; Rampton, Roberta (February 26, 2018). "Seoul pushes for U.S.-Korea talks, Trump says 'We'll see'". Reuters. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
[hide]
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The flag of South Africa was designed in March 1994 and adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africa's 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the country's new democracy after the end of apartheid.
The flag has horizontal bands of red (on the top) and blue (on the bottom), of equal width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal "Y" shape, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side (and follow the flag's diagonals). The "Y" embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5:1:3:1:5 ratio.
Contents
1 Colours
2 Construction sheet
3 Symbolism
4 History
4.1 1902–1910
4.2 1910–1928
4.3 1928–1994 flag
4.4 Current flag since 1994
5 Proper display of the flag
6 Heraldic description
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Colours[edit]
At the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design and without a seal and brocade. The design and colours are a synopsis of principal elements of the country's flag history. The colours themselves have no essential meaning.[1]:18
The central design of the flag, beginning at the flagpost in a "V" form and flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly.
Colour
Textile colour
Pantone equivalent
RGB
RGB sample
Green CKS 42 c Spectrum green 3415 c #007749
Black CKS 401 c Blue black #000000
White CKS 701 c National flag white #FFFFFF
Gold CKS 724 c Gold yellow 1235 c #FFB81C
Red CKS 750 c Chilli red 179 c #E03C31
Blue CKS 762 c National flag blue Reflex blue c #001489
Construction sheet[edit]
Flag construction sheet
Symbolism[edit]
According to official South African government information, the South African flag is "a synopsis of principal elements of the country's flag history." Although different people may attribute personal symbolism to the individual colours or colour combinations, "no universal symbolism should be attached to any of the colours." The only symbolism in the flag is the V or Y shape, which can be interpreted as "the convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity".[2]
From time to time explanations of the meanings or symbolism of the flag's colours are published in various media, including official government publications and speeches by government officials.
Three of the colours — black, green and yellow — are found in the flag of the African National Congress. The other three — red, white and blue — are used in the modern flag of the Netherlands and the flag of the United Kingdom; the colours white and blue were also found in the old flag of South Africa. Former South African President F.W. de Klerk, who proclaimed the new flag on 20 April 1994,[3] stated in his autobiography, The Last Trek: a New Beginning, that chilli red was chosen instead of plain red (which Anglo-Africans would have preferred) or orange (as Afrikaners would have preferred).
History[edit]
1902–1910[edit]
The Anglo-Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek (Transvaal) became British colonies along with the existing Cape and Natal colonies. Each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition.
1910–1928[edit]
Main article: South Africa Red Ensign
On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa and the individual colonial flags were no longer used and new South African flags came into being. Once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags.
As was the case throughout the British Empire, the Red and Blue Ensigns were the official flags for merchant and government vessels at sea, and the British Admiralty authorised them to be defaced in the fly with the shield from the South African coat of arms.[4][5] These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Union's national flag, although they were used by some people as such. Although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land.
The South Africa Red Ensign was South Africa's de facto national flag between 1910 and 1928 and was flown at times from Government buildings.
The design of the Red Ensign was modified slightly in 1912 when the shield was placed on a white disc so as to make it more distinguishable. The Red Ensign continued to be used as the flag of the South African merchant marine until 1951.[6]
The Blue Ensign was flown over the Union’s offices abroad between 1910 and 1928.
The Blue Ensign from 1912 to 1928.
These flags never enjoyed much popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo-Boer War. The Afrikaner descendants of the Dutch settlers from the former Boer Republics found the prominent position of the British Union Flag to be offensive while the English-speakers saw any move to remove it as an Afrikaner plot to deprive them of their imperial symbol.
1928–1994 flag[edit]
Main article: Flag of South Africa (1928–1994)
South Africa
Proportion
2:3
Adopted
May 1928
Relinquished
April 1994
The three flags in the centre representing the former British colonies of Cape Colony and Natal with the Union Jack on the left, followed by the flags of the former Boer republics of Orange Free State and the South African Republic on the right. The Union Jack is shown with the hoist on the right.
Due to the lack of popularity of these flags, there were intermittent discussions about the desirability of a more distinctive national flag for South Africa after 1910,[1]:70 it was only after a coalition government took office in 1925 that a bill was introduced in Parliament to introduce a national flag for the Union. This provoked an often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new flag design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it.
Finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so-called Van Riebeeck flag or "Prince's Flag" (Prinsenvlag in Afrikaans) that was originally the Dutch flag; it consisted of orange, white, and blue horizontal stripes. A version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company (known as the VOC) at the Cape (with the VOC logo in the centre) from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe. The miniature flags were the British Union Flag (mirrored) towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the miniature flags is such that each has equal status. However, to ensure that the Dutch flag in the canton of the Orange Free State flag is placed nearest to the upper hoist of the main flag, the Free State flag must be reversed. The British Union Flag, which is nearest to the hoist and is thus in a more favoured position, is spread horizontally from the Free State flag towards the hoist and is thus also reversed. Although placed horizontally furthest from the hoist, to balance the British Union Flag, the Vierkleur is the only one of the miniature flags which is spread in the same direction as the main flag. This compensates for its otherwise less favourable position. In this arrangement, each of the miniature flags enjoy equal precedence.[7] Note that the miniature flag of the Orange Free State contains a miniature of the Dutch flag, making the old South African flag the only former national flag in the world containing a flag in a flag in a flag.
The choice of the Prinsenvlag (which was believed to be the first flag hoisted on South African soil by Jan van Riebeeck of the VOC) as the basis upon which to design the South African flag had more to do with compromise than Afrikaner political desires, since the Prinsenvlag was politically neutral, as it was no longer the national flag of any nation. A further element of this compromise was that the British Union Flag would continue to fly alongside the new South African national flag over official buildings. This dual flag arrangement continued until 1957 when the British Union Flag lost its official status per an Act of Parliament.
Following a referendum the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, but the design of the flag remained unchanged. However, there was intense pressure to change the flag, particularly from Afrikaners who still resented the fact that the British Union Flag was a part of the flag. In 1968, the then Prime Minister, John Vorster, proposed the adoption of a new flag from 1971, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the declaration of a republic but this never materialised.[8]
Current flag since 1994[edit]
South African Ambassador Harry Schwarz presenting the new flag to the U.S. president Bill Clinton and vice president Al Gore in May 1994.
The present South African national flag was first flown on 27 April 1994,[9] the day of the 1994 election. However, the flag was first intended to be an interim flag only, and its design was decided upon only a week beforehand.[10]
The choice of a new flag was part of the negotiation process set in motion when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. When a nationwide public competition was held in 1993, the National Symbols Commission received more than 7,000 designs.[11] Six designs were shortlisted and presented to the public and the Negotiating Council, but none elicited enthusiastic support. A number of design studios were then contacted to submit further proposals, but these also did not find favour. Parliament went into recess at the end of 1993 without a suitable candidate for the new national flag.
In February 1994, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer, the chief negotiators of the African National Congress and the National Party government of the day respectively, were given the task of resolving the flag issue. A final design was adopted on 15 March 1994, derived from a design developed by the State Herald Fred Brownell,[12] who had also previously designed the Flag of Namibia. This interim flag was hoisted officially for the first time on the 27 April 1994, the day when the nation’s first fully inclusive elections commenced which resulted in Nelson Mandela being inaugurated as South Africa’s first democratically elected president on 10 May 1994.[13] The flag was well-received by most South Africans though a small minority objected to it; hundreds of Afrikaner Volksfront members in Bloemfontein burned the flag in protest a few weeks before the April 1994 elections.[9]
The flag flying at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
The proclamation of the new national flag by South African President F. W. de Klerk was only published on 20 April 1994,[3] a mere seven days before the flag was to be inaugurated, sparking a frantic last-minute flurry for flag manufacturers. As stated in South Africa's post-apartheid interim constitution, the flag was to be introduced on an interim probationary period of five years, after which there would be discussion about whether or not to change the national flag in the final draft of the constitution. The Constitutional Assembly was charged with the responsibility of drafting the country’s new constitution and had called for submissions, inter alia, on the issues of its various national symbols. It received 118 submissions recommending the retention of the new flag and 35 suggesting changes to it. Thus on 28 September 1995 it decided that the flag should be retained unchanged and accordingly it was included as Section One of the Constitution of South Africa which came into force in February 1997.[14]
Proper display of the flag[edit]
See also: List of South African flags
The South African government published guidelines for proper display of the flag at designated flag stations, in Government Notice 510 of 8 June 2001 (Gazette number 22356). These rules apply only to official flag stations and not to the general public.
The Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA), a non-official association for the study of flags, published their own guide for proper display of the flag in 2002. This guide has no official authority but was drawn up with generally accepted vexillological etiquette and principles in mind.[15]
Heraldic description[edit]
An addendum to the Transitional Executive Council agenda (April 1994) described the flag in heraldic terms as follows:
The National flag shall be rectangular in the proportion of two in the width to three to the length; per pall from the hoist, the upper band red (chilli) and lower band blue, with a black triangle at the hoist; over the partition lines a green pall one fifth the width of the flag, fimbriated white against the red and blue, and gold against the black triangle at the hoist, and the width of the pall and its fimbriations is one third the width of the flag.
Schedule One of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) replaced the heraldic definition and described the flag in plain English as follows:[16]
The national flag is rectangular; it is one and a half times as long as it is wide.
It is black, gold, green, white, chilli red and blue.
It has a green Y-shaped band that is one fifth as wide as the flag. The centre lines of the band start in the top and bottom corners next to the flag post, converge in the centre of the flag, and continue horizontally to the middle of the free edge.
The green band is edged, above and below in white, and towards the flag post end, in gold. Each edging is one fifteenth as wide as the flag.
The triangle next to the flag post is black.
The upper horizontal band is chilli red and the lower horizontal band is blue. These bands are each one third as wide as the flag.
See also[edit]
List of South African flags
Coat of arms of South Africa
National anthem of South Africa
National symbols of South Africa
Southern African Vexillological Association
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Brownell, Frederick G (2015). Convergence and Unification : The National Flag of South Africa (1994) in historical perspective, (PhD). Pretoria: University of Pretoria. hdl:2263/50847.
Jump up ^ About government - National flag
^ Jump up to: a b South Africa Government Gazette No 15663 dated 20 April 1994
Jump up ^ Flags of the World. "South African Vessels Ensign". Retrieved 2005-03-20.
Jump up ^ Volker Preuß. "Südafrika – Großbritannien Flaggensystem eingeführt" (in German). Retrieved 2008-05-26.
Jump up ^ Merchant Shipping Act 1951 (South Africa); South Africa Government Gazette No 6085 dated 25 July 1958.
Jump up ^ Brownell, F. G. (1993). National and Provincial Symbols and Flora and Fauna Emblems of the Republic of South Africa. C. van Rensburg. ISBN 978-0-86846-074-1.
Jump up ^ "New flag". The Glasgow Herald. 12 September 1968. p. 18 col C. Retrieved 2016-04-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Antonio Coppola (24 May 2018). "Raising of the New South African Flag" – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "South African Election Special, 2". C-SPAN.org.
Jump up ^ "Finding Symbols For New S. Africa // Citizens Submit 7,000 Flag Designs". 27 October 1993.
Jump up ^ "Fred Brownell: The man who made South Africa's flag". BBC News. 27 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Bornman, E. (2006). "National symbols and nation-building in the post-apartheid South Africa". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 30: 383–399. hdl:10500/23252.
Jump up ^ Berry, Bruce B. (September 2015), “Zero to Hero” - the role of the national flag in nation building in post-apartheid South Africa, Sydney: 26th International Congress of Vexillology
Jump up ^ "No need to get in a flap over flag etiquette". IOL News. 12 September 2002. Retrieved 2013-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Schedule 1 to the South African Constitution, 1996" (PDF). Department of Justice and Constitutional Development. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Saker, Harry (1980). The South African flag controversy, 1925-1928. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Pama, C (1984). Die vlae van Suider-Afrika (in Afrikaans). Tafelberg. ISBN 978-0-624-02070-7.
Brownell, F.G. (March 1994). "The Union Jack over Southern and Central Africa: 1795–1994". SAVA Journal. ISBN 0-620-18833-2.
Van Zyl, J.A. (April 1995). "The History of Flags of South Africa before 1900". SAVA Journal. ISBN 0-620-19798-6.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of South Africa.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Flag of South Africa
Fred Brownell and the creation of the South African flag
Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA)
South Africa at Flags of the World
South Africa (1928-1994) at Flags of the World
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display: none;

values: 南アフリカの国旗 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Flag faan Süüdafrikoo – Northern Frisian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Det sørafrikanske flagget – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Флаг Южно-Африканской Республики – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-st
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Застава Јужноафричке Републике – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Zastava Južnoafričke Republike – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: ธงชาติแอฟริกาใต้ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti bayrağı – Turkish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Прапор Південно-Африканської Республіки – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Flag_of_South_Africa rootpage-Flag_of_South_Africa skin-vector action-view