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Grindelwald
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For other uses, see Grindelwald (disambiguation).
in Bern, Switzerland
Grindelwald
View to southeast to the disappearing Lower Grindelwald Glacier with parts of the Mättenberg to the left, the Hörnli (2710 m a.s.l.) to the right, and the Fiescherhorn (4049 m a.s.l.) in the back

Coat of arms
Grindelwald
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Location of Grindelwald
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Grindelwald
Grindelwald (Canton of Bern)
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Coordinates: 46°37′N 8°02′E / 46.617°N 8.033°E / 46.617; 8.033Coordinates: 46°37′N 8°02′E / 46.617°N 8.033°E / 46.617; 8.033
Country
Switzerland
Canton
Bern
District
Interlaken-Oberhasli
Government
• Executive
Gemeinderat
with 7 members
• Mayor
Gemeindepräsident
Christian Anderegg SVP/UDC
(as of 2017)
• Parliament
none (Gemeindeversammlung)
Area[1]
• Total
171.33 km2 (66.15 sq mi)
Elevation (Railway station Grindelwald)
1,034 m (3,392 ft)
Population (Dec 2016[2])
• Total
3,818
• Density
22/km2 (58/sq mi)
Demonym(s)
German: Grindelwaldner(in)
Postal code
3818 Grindelwald, 3816 Burglauenen,
SFOS number
0576
Localities
Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Isch, Mühlebach, Mettenberg, Schwendi, Tschingelberg, Wärgistal, Büössalp, Burg, Alp Grindel, First, Grosse Scheidegg, Pfingstegg
Surrounded by
Brienz, Brienzwiler, Fieschertal (VS), Guttannen, Innertkirchen, Iseltwald, Lauterbrunnen, Lütschental, Meiringen, Schattenhalb
Twin towns
Azumi, now Matsumoto (Japan)
Website
www.gemeinde-grindelwald.ch
SFSO statistics
Grindelwald is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. In addition to the village of Grindelwald, the municipality also includes the settlements of Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg and Wargistal.
Grindelwald village is located at 1,034 m (3,392 ft) above sea level in the Bernese Alps.
Contents
1 History
2 Geography
3 Coat of arms
4 Demographics
5 Heritage sites of national significance
6 Politics
7 Economy
8 Religion
9 Climate
10 Transport
11 Winter sports
12 In the media
13 Education
14 Famous residents
15 In film
16 References
17 External links
History[edit]
Photochrom of Grindelwald between 1890 and 1905.
Grindelwald was first mentioned in 1146 as Grindelwalt.[3]
The oldest traces of a settlement in the area are scattered neolithic tools which have been discovered around Grindelwald village. Several Roman era coins have also been found in the municipality. A castle was built on the Burgbühl hill above the village during the High Middle Ages.[3]
In 1146, King Conrad III granted estates in Grindelwald to Interlaken Monastery. In the late 12th century, the barons of the alpine valleys in what became the Berner Oberland went to war against the expansionist Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. The Duke defeated a coalition of nobles in the Grindlewald valley in 1191. His victory allowed him to expand Zähringen power into the Oberland, to expand the city of Thun and found the city of Bern. Beginning in the 13th century, Interlaken Monastery began to purchase rights and land in Grindelwald and eventually forced the local nobles out of the valley. The Monastery continued to exert influence in the village and in 1315 and again in 1332 ordered the villagers to raid Unterwalden to further the political ambitions of the Abbot's patrons. In response to the raids, in 1342, Unterwalden attacked Grindelwald. A few years later, in 1348–49, the villagers joined in an unsuccessful rebellion against ecclesiastical power. In 1528, the city of Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation and proceeded to spread the new faith in Grindelwald against the populations' wishes. Berne was able to impose its will, converted the village and secularized Interlaken Abbey and the Abbey's lands. Grindelwald became part of the bailiwick of Interlaken, under a Bernese bailiff.[3]
The first village church was a wooden building from the mid-12th century. The wooden building was replaced with the stone St. Mary's Church in 1180. This church was replaced in the 16th century, and the present church was built in 1793.[3]
The tourism industry began in Grindelwald in the late 18th century as foreigners discovered the scenic town. Pictures of the vistas were widely reprinted, quickly making the village internationally famous. In the 19th century many Englishmen came to the village to climb the alpine peaks around the valley. The Finsteraarhorn (4,274 m [14,022 ft]), the Wetterhorn (3,692 m [12,113 ft]), the Eiger (3,967 m [13,015 ft]), the Schreckhorn (4,078 m [13,379 ft]) and the Gross Fiescherhorn (4,049 m [13,284 ft]) were all climbed during the 19th century. The Grindelwald road was built in 1860–72, and the Bernese Oberland railway reached the village in 1890, both of which transformed an arduous journey into a simple trip and allowed tourists to flood into the village. The first resort opened in 1888, there were 10 hotels in 1889, and by 1914 there were 33 in Grindelwald. A rack railway was built to Kleine Scheidegg in 1893, and it was expanded to the Jungfraujoch in 1912. Numerous ski lifts, cable cars, hiking trails and alpine huts were built in the late 19th and 20th centuries to allow tourists to explore the mountains. Today, almost the entire economy of Grindelwald is based on tourism.[3]
Geography[edit]
The Wetterhorn (3692 m a.s.l.) massif rises above the valley settlements of Grindelwald to the northeast
The municipality is quite large and is divided into seven mountain communities. However the municipality is dominated by the large tourist center of Grindelwald. The village is surrounded by the mountains of the Faulhorn, Schwarzhorn, Wellhorn, Wetterhorn, Schreckhorn, Lauteraarhorn, Agassizhorn, Fiescherhorn, Mönch, Eiger, Lauberhorn and Männlichen, all of which are either within or on the border of the municipality.[4]
Grindelwald has an area of 171.33 km2 (66.15 sq mi).[1] Of this area, 49.47 km2 (19.10 sq mi) or 28.9% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.02 km2 (10.82 sq mi) or 16.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 3.06 km2 (1.18 sq mi) or 1.8% is settled (buildings or roads), 1.37 km2 (0.53 sq mi) or 0.8% is either rivers or lakes, and 89.21 km2 (34.44 sq mi) or 52.1% is unproductive land.[5]
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 0.6%. Out of the forested land, 12.9% of the total land area is heavily forested, and 2.3% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 5.1% is pastures and 23.8% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. Of the unproductive areas, 6.6% is unproductive vegetation, 24.0% is too rocky for vegetation, and 21.6% of the land is covered by glaciers.[5]
On 31 December 2009, Amtsbezirk Interlaken, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Interlaken-Oberhasli.[6]
Coat of arms[edit]
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Gules on a Bar Argent a Semi Chamois rampant issuant Sable between seven, 4-3, Mullets of the second.[7]
Demographics[edit]
Alphorn Festival in Grindelwald area
New houses with buried garages under construction in Grindelwald.
Grindelwald has a population (as of December 2016[update]) of 3,818.[2] As of 2010[update], 18.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals.[8] In the period from 2000 to 2010, the population changed at a rate of −1.3%. Migration accounted for 0.2%, while births and deaths accounted for −1.7%.[9]
Most of the population (as of 2000[update]) spoke German (3,531 or 86.8%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (183 or 4.5%) and French was the third (69 or 1.7%). There were 60 people who speak Italian and four people who spoke Romansh.[10]
As of 2008[update], the population was 50.1% male and 49.9% female. The population was made up of 1,556 Swiss men (40.9% of the population) and 354 (9.3%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,568 Swiss women (41.2%) and 331 (8.7%) non-Swiss women.[8] Of the population in the municipality, 1,846 or about 45.4% were born in Grindelwald and lived there in 2000. There were 847 or 20.8% who were born in the same canton, while 510 or 12.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 679 or 16.7% were born outside of Switzerland.[10]
As of 2010[update], children and teenagers (0–19 years old) made up 17.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) made up 62.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 20%.[9]
As of 2000[update], there were 1,750 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,971 married individuals, 221 widows or widowers and 127 individuals who were divorced.[10]
As of 2000[update], there were 679 households that consisted of only one person and 82 households with five or more people. In 2000[update], a total of 1,581 apartments (44.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 1,750 apartments (49.6%) were seasonally occupied and 194 apartments (5.5%) were empty.[11] As of 2010[update], the construction rate of new housing units was 13.1 new units per 1000 residents.[9]
The historical population is given in the following chart:[3][12]
Heritage sites of national significance[edit]
Jungfraubahn mountain railway
Kleine Scheidegg
The Jungfraubahn, a mountain railway up the Jungfrau mountain, is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The land around the Kleine Scheidegg is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.[13]
Politics[edit]
In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 54.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (14.8%), the FDP.The Liberals (8.8%) and the Green Party (6.9%). In the federal election, a total of 1,194 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.4%.[14]
Economy[edit]
Hotels in Grindelwald. The local economy mostly depends on tourism.
As of 2011[update], Grindelwald had an unemployment rate of 1.48%. As of 2008[update], there were a total of 2,714 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 334 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 130 businesses involved in this sector. 393 people were employed in the secondary sector, and there were 51 businesses in this sector. 1,987 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 229 businesses in this sector.[9] There were 2,403 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 45.4% of the workforce.
In 2008[update] there were a total of 2,265 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 165, of which 159 were in agriculture and seven were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 365 of which 42 or (11.5%) were in manufacturing, six or (1.6%) were in mining and 292 (80.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,735. In the tertiary sector; 241 or 13.9% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 193 or 11.1% were in the movement and storage of goods, 1,022 or 58.9% were in a hotel or restaurant, 27 or 1.6% were the insurance or financial industry, 45 or 2.6% were technical professionals or scientists, 46 or 2.7% were in education and 58 or 3.3% were in health care.[15]
In 2000[update], there were 432 workers who commuted into the municipality and 265 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.6 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.[16] Of the working population, 9.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 36.2% used a private car.[9]
Religion[edit]
From the 2000 census[update], 690 or 17.0% were Roman Catholic, while 2,874 or 70.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 31 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.76% of the population), there were two individuals (or about 0.05% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 105 individuals (or about 2.58% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was one individual who was Jewish, and 32 (or about 0.79% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 14 individuals who were Buddhist and one individual who belonged to another church. One hundred forty-four (or about 3.54% of the population) belonged to no church, were agnostic or atheist, and 227 individuals (or about 5.58% of the population) did not answer the question.[10]
Climate[edit]
Between 1981 and 2010, Grindelwald had an average of 145.4 days of rain or snow per year and on average received 1,450 mm (57 in) of precipitation. The wettest month was August during which time Grindelwald received an average of 165 mm (6.5 in) of rain or snow. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 14.4 days. The month with the most days of precipitation was June, with an average of 14.8, but with only 151 mm (5.9 in) of rain or snow. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 89 mm (3.5 in) of precipitation over 9.7 days.[17]
Transport[edit]
Grindelwald railway station
Grindelwald railway station, in the centre of Grindelwald village, is served by trains of the Berner Oberland Bahn (BOB), which run to Interlaken, and by trains of the Wengernalpbahn (WAB), which run to Kleine Scheidegg and on to Wengen and Lauterbrunnen. At Kleine Scheidegg, a connection can be made with the Jungfraubahn, which ascends inside the Eiger to the Jungfraujoch.[4]
Besides Grindelwald station, there are five other railway stations within the municipality of Grindelwald. These are Burglauenen and Schwendi on the BOB, and Grindelwald Grund, Brandegg and Alpiglen on the WAB.[4]
The Gondelbahn Grindelwald-Männlichen connects Grindelwald with the Männlichen and with onward travel on the Luftseilbahn Wengen-Männlichen offers an alternative route to Wengen.
The minor summit of First is accessible by ski lift from Grindelwald.
Winter sports[edit]
Long famed as a winter tourist destination with slopes for beginners, intermediates and the challenges of the Eiger glacier for the experienced, there are activities for the non-skiers, from tobogganing to groomed winter hiking tracks. It is the usual starting point for ascents of the Eiger and the Wetterhorn. Nowadays Grindelwald is also a popular summer activity resort with many miles of hiking trails across the Alps.
The first person to ski there was Englishman, Gerald Fox (who lived at Tone Dale House) who put his skis on in his hotel bedroom in 1881 and walked out through the hotel bar to the slopes wearing them.[clarification needed]
In the media[edit]
Many scenes of the documentary film The Alps were shot in the region of Grindelwald, particularly on the north face of the Eiger. The James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service includes a chase through a skating rink and Christmas festival in Grindelwald.[18] Grindelwald's mountains were used as the basis for the view of Alderaan in Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.[19] Some of the action scenes in The Golden Compass were also shot in Grindelwald.[20]
Education[edit]
Heimatmuseum
In Grindelwald, about 1,647 or (40.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 302 or (7.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 302 who completed tertiary schooling, 57.9% were Swiss men, 24.5% were Swiss women, 9.3% were non-Swiss men and 8.3% were non-Swiss women.[10]
The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower secondary, students may attend additional schooling, or they may enter an apprenticeship.[21]
During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 341 students attending classes in Grindelwald. There were three kindergarten classes with a total of 55 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 27.3% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 20.0% had a mother language different from the classroom language. The municipality had 12 primary classes and 187 students. Of the primary students, 15.0% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 12.8% had a mother tongue different from the classroom language. During the same year, there were six lower secondary classes with a total of 99 students. There were 8.1% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 5.1% who had a mother tongue different from the classroom language.[22]
As of 2000[update], there were 20 students in Grindelwald who came from another municipality, while 39 residents attended schools outside the municipality.[16]
Grindelwald is home to the Bibliothek Grindelwald library. The library has (as of 2008[update]) 6,144 books or other media, and loaned out 10,777 items in the same year. It was open a total of 136 days with average of 6.5 hours per week during that year.[23]
Famous residents[edit]
Richard Wagner, nineteenth century German composer
Martina Schild, alpine skier, runner-up in the 2006 Winter Olympics women's downhill race
Hedy Schlunegger, Olympic champion 1948 in downhill skiing
Oleg Protopopov and Ludmila Belousova, 1964 and 1968 Olympic figure skating champions
In film[edit]
The 1972 movie and television series George was filmed in the village.[24] The show was about a large St. Bernard that grew up in New York who comes for a permanent stay with his new owner in the Swiss Alps. Zsa Zsa Gabor appeared in an episode.
In the James Bond movie On Her Majesty's Secret Service, the rotating restaurant Piz Gloria on top of the Schilthorn makes an appearance as the villain′s lair.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Arealstatistik Standard - Gemeindedaten nach 4 Hauptbereichen
^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office - STAT-TAB, online database – Ständige und nichtständige Wohnbevölkerung nach institutionellen Gliederungen, Geburtsort und Staatsangehörigkeit (in German) accessed 30 August 2017
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Grindelwald in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
^ Jump up to: a b c map.geo.admin.ch (Map). Swiss Confederation. Retrieved 2014-10-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office-Land Use Statistics 2009 data (in German) accessed 25 March 2010
Jump up ^ Nomenklaturen – Amtliches Gemeindeverzeichnis der Schweiz (in German) accessed 4 April 2011
Jump up ^ Flags of the World.com accessed 18-March-2013
^ Jump up to: a b Statistical office of the Canton of Bern (in German) accessed 4 January 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Swiss Federal Statistical Office Archived 2016-01-05 at the Wayback Machine. accessed 18 March 2013
^ Jump up to: a b c d e STAT-TAB Datenwürfel für Thema 40.3 - 2000 Archived 2014-04-09 at the Wayback Machine. (in German) accessed 2 February 2011
Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB - Datenwürfel für Thema 09.2 - Gebäude und Wohnungen Archived 2014-09-07 at the Wayback Machine. (in German) accessed 28 January 2011
Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Bevölkerungsentwicklung nach Region, 1850-2000 Archived 2014-09-30 at the Wayback Machine. (in German) accessed 29 January 2011
Jump up ^ "Kantonsliste A-Objekte - KGS Inventar" (in German). Federal Office of Civil Protection. 2009. Archived from the original on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office 2011 Election Archived 2013-11-14 at the Wayback Machine. (in German) accessed 8 May 2012
Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Betriebszählung: Arbeitsstätten nach Gemeinde und NOGA 2008 (Abschnitte), Sektoren 1-3 Archived 2014-12-25 at the Wayback Machine. (in German) accessed 28 January 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Statweb (in German) accessed 24 June 2010
Jump up ^ "Norm Values Tables, 1981-2010" (in German, French, and Italian). Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology - MeteoSwiss. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2013. , the Grindelwald weather station elevation is 1,158 meters above sea level.
Jump up ^ qholway (18 December 1969). "On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith (2005)". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "The Golden Compass (2007)". IMDb.
Jump up ^ EDK/CDIP/IDES (2010). Kantonale Schulstrukturen in der Schweiz und im Fürstentum Liechtenstein / Structures Scolaires Cantonales en Suisse et Dans la Principauté du Liechtenstein (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 24 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Schuljahr 2010/11 pdf document(in German) accessed 4 January 2012
Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office, list of libraries (in German) accessed 14 May 2010
Jump up ^ "George (TV Series 1972–1974)". Internet Movie Database.
External links[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Grindelwald.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Grindelwald.
Grindelwald official website
Webcams
Grindelwald in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
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text:
Courage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bravery" redirects here. For other uses, see Bravery (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Courage (disambiguation).
Godspeed! Edmund Leighton
Part of a series on
Emotions
Affection
Anger
Angst
Anguish
Annoyance
Anticipation
Anxiety
Apathy
Arousal
Awe
Boredom
Confidence
Contempt
Contentment
Courage
Curiosity
Depression
Desire
Despair
Disappointment
Disgust
Distrust
Ecstasy
Embarrassment
Empathy
Enthusiasm
Envy
Euphoria
Fear
Frustration
Gratitude
Grief
Guilt
Happiness
Hatred
Hope
Horror
Hostility
Humiliation
Interest
Jealousy
Joy
Loneliness
Love
Lust
Outrage
Panic
Passion
Pity
Pleasure
Pride
Rage
Regret
Remorse
Resentment
Sadness
Saudade
Schadenfreude
Self-confidence
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Shock
Shyness
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Trust
Wonder
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v
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e
Courage (also called bravery or valour) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship, death or threat of death, while moral courage is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition, shame, scandal, discouragement, or personal loss.
The classical virtue of fortitude (andreia, fortitudo) is also translated "courage", but includes the aspects of perseverance and patience.[1]
In the Western tradition, notable thoughts on courage have come from philosophers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kierkegaard; in the Eastern tradition, some thoughts on courage were offered by the Tao Te Ching. More recently, courage has been explored by the discipline of psychology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Theories
1.1 Ancient Greece
1.2 Ancient Rome
1.3 Medieval philosophy
1.4 Christianity
1.5 Eastern traditions
1.6 Modernity
1.6.1 Pre-19th century
1.6.2 19th century and after
2 Society and symbolism
3 Awards
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Theories[edit]
Ancient Greece[edit]
The early Greek philosopher Plato (c. 428–348 BCE)[2] set the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers. Plato's early writings found in Laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is.[3]
During the debate between three leaders, including Socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned.[4]
"…a man willing to remain at his post and to defend himself against the enemy without running away…"[4]
"…a sort of endurance of the soul…"[4] "…knowledge of the grounds of fear and [clarification needed]
While many definitions are given in Plato's Laches, all are refuted, giving the reader a sense of Plato's argument style. Laches is an early writing of Plato's, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas and shows influence from his teachers like Socrates.[4]
In one of his later writings, The Republic, Plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. Civic courage is described as a sort of perseverance – "preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things and sorts of things are to be feared".[5] Ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in Laches. Plato further explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, and fear.[6]
As a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics,[7] where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness.[8]
Ancient Rome[edit]
In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the universal virtue of virtus.[9] Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (106–43 BCE) lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such:
Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind (animi) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom (prudentiam), justice, courage, temperance.[10] (De Inventione, II, LIII)
Medieval philosophy[edit]
In medieval virtue ethics, championed by Averroes and Thomas Aquinas and still important to Roman Catholicism, courage is referred to as "Fortitude".[11][12]
According to Thomas Aquinas:[13]
Among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other virtues.
Part of his justification for this hierarchy is that:
Fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice; since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker.
On fortitude's general and special nature, Aquinas says:[13]
The term "fortitude" can be taken in two ways. First, as simply denoting a certain firmness of mind, and in this sense it is a general virtue, or rather a condition of every virtue, since as the Philosopher states (Ethic. ii), it is requisite for every virtue to act firmly and immovably. Secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. Therefore Tully says (Rhet. ii), that "fortitude is deliberate facing of dangers and bearing of toils." On this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter.
Aquinas holds fortitude or courage as being primarily about endurance, not attack:[13]
As stated above (Article 3), and according to the Philosopher,[14] "fortitude is more concerned to allay fear, than to moderate daring." For it is more difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear, tends by its very nature to check daring to increase fear. Now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates daring, whereas to endure follows the repression of fear. Therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them.
Christianity[edit]
In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. For Thomas Aquinas, Fortitude is the virtue to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason.[11] Thomas Aquinas argues that Courage is a virtue which, along with the Christian virtues in the Summa Theologica, can only be exemplified with the presence of the Christian virtues: faith, hope, and mercy. In order to understand true courage in Christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope, and mercy.[11] Courage is a natural virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians. Thomas Aquinas considers courage a virtue through the Christian virtue of mercy.[15] Only through mercy and charity can we call the natural virtue of courage a Christian virtue. Unlike Aristotle, Aquinas’ courage is about endurance, not bravery in battle.[16]
Eastern traditions[edit]
The Tao Te Ching contends that courage is derived from love ("慈 loving 故 causes 能 ability 勇 brave"), explaining, "One of courage, with audacity, will die. One of courage, but gentle, spares death. From these two kinds of courage arise harm and benefit."[17][18]
Courage (shauriya) and Patience (dhairya) appear as the first two of ten characteristics (lakshana) of dharma in the Hindu Manusmṛti, besides forgiveness (kshama), tolerance (dama), honesty (asthaya), physical restraint (indriya nigraha), cleanliness (shouchya), perceptiveness (dhi), knowledge (vidhya), truthfulness (satya), and control of anger (akrodh).
Islamic beliefs also present courage and self-control as a key factor in facing the Devil and in some cases Jihad to a lesser extent; many believe this because of the courage (through peace and patience) the Prophets of the past displayed against people who despised them for their beliefs.
Modernity[edit]
Pre-19th century[edit]
Thomas Hobbes lists virtues into the categories of moral virtues and virtues of men in his work "Man and Citizen."[19] Hobbes outlines moral virtues as virtues in citizens, that is virtues that without exception are beneficial to society as a whole.[20] These moral virtues are justice (i.e. not violating the law) and charity. Courage as well as prudence and temperance are listed as the virtues of men.[19] By this Hobbes means that these virtues are invested solely in the private good as opposed to the public good of justice and charity. Hobbes describes courage and prudence as a strength of mind as opposed to a goodness of manners. These virtues are always meant to act in the interests of individual while the positive and/or negative effects of society are merely a byproduct. This stems forth from the idea put forth in "Leviathan" that the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." According to Hobbes courage is a virtue of the individual in order to ensure a better chance of survival while the moral virtues address Hobbes's social contract which civilized men display (in varying degrees) in order to avoid the state of nature.[21] Hobbes also uses the idea of fortitude as an idea of virtue. Fortitude is "to dare" according to Hobbes, but also to "resist stoutly in present dangers."[22] This a more in depth elaboration of Hobbes's concept of courage that is addressed earlier in "Man and Citizen." This idea relates back to Hobbes's idea that self-preservation is the most fundamental aspect of behavior.
David Hume listed virtues into two categories in his work A Treatise of Human Nature as artificial virtues and natural virtues. Hume noted in the Treatise that courage is a natural virtue. In the Treatise's section Of Pride and Humility, Their Objects and Causes, Hume clearly stated courage is a cause of pride: "Every valuable quality of the mind, whether of the imagination, judgment, memory or disposition; wit, good-sense, learning, courage, justice, integrity; all these are the cause of pride; and their opposites of humility".[23]
Hume also related courage and joy to have positive effects on the soul: "(...) since the soul, when elevated with joy and courage, in a manner seeks opposition, and throws itself with alacrity into any scene of thought or action, where its courage meets with matter to nourish and employ it".[24] Along with courage nourishing and employing, Hume also wrote that courage defends humans in the Treatise: "We easily gain from the liberality of others, but are always in danger of losing by their avarice: Courage defends us, but cowardice lays us open to every attack".[25]
Hume wrote what excessive courage does to a hero's character in the Treatise's section "Of the Other Virtues and Vices": "Accordingly we may observe, that an excessive courage and magnanimity, especially when it displays itself under the frowns of fortune, contributes in a great measure, to the character of a hero, and will render a person the admiration of posterity; at the same time, that it ruins his affairs, and leads him into dangers and difficulties, with which otherwise he would never have been acquainted".[26]
Other understandings of courage that Hume offered can be derived from Hume's views on morals, reason, sentiment, and virtue from his work An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.
19th century and after[edit]
Søren Kierkegaard opposed courage to angst, while Paul Tillich opposed an existential courage to be to non-being,[27] fundamentally equating it with religion:
Courage is the self-affirmation of being in spite of the fact of non-being. It is the act of the individual self in taking the anxiety of non-being upon itself by affirming itself ... in the anxiety of guilt and condemnation. ... every courage to be has openly or covertly a religious root. For religion is the state of being grasped by the power of being itself.[28]
J.R.R. Tolkien identified in his 1936 lecture "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" a "Northern 'theory of courage'" – the heroic or "virtuous pagan" insistence to do the right thing even in the face of certain defeat without promise of reward or salvation:
It is the strength of the northern mythological imagination that it faced this problem, put the monsters in the centre, gave them victory but no honor, and found a potent and terrible solution in naked will and courage. 'As a working theory absolutely impregnable.' So potent is it, that while the older southern imagination has faded forever into literary ornament, the northern has power, as it were, to revive its spirit even in our own times. It can work, as it did even with the goðlauss Viking, without gods: martial heroism as its own end.[29]
Virtuous pagan heroism or courage in this sense is "trusting in your own strength," as observed by Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology:
Men who, turning away in utter disgust and doubt from the heathen faith, placed their reliance on their own strength and virtue. Thus in the Sôlar lioð 17 we read of Vêbogi and Râdey â sik þau trûðu, "in themselves they trusted."[30]
Ernest Hemingway famously defined courage as "grace under pressure."[31]
Winston Churchill stated, "Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities because it is the quality that guarantees all others."
According to Maya Angelou, "Courage is the most important of the virtues, because without courage you can't practice any other virtue consistently. You can practice any virtue erratically, but nothing consistently without courage."
In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche describes master–slave morality, in which a noble man regards himself as a "determiner of values;" one who does not require approval, but passes judgment. Later, in the same text, he lists man's four virtues as "courage, insight, sympathy, and solitude," and goes on to emphasize the importance of courage: "The great epochs of our life are the occasions when we gain the courage to re-baptize our evil qualities as our best qualities."[32]
Society and symbolism[edit]
Its accompanying animal is the lion.[33] Often, fortitude is depicted as having tamed the ferocious lion. Cf. e.g. the Tarot trump called Strength. It is sometimes seen in the Catholic Church as a depiction of Christ's triumph over sin (see Revelation 5:5). It also is a symbol in some cultures as a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and corruption.[34]
Awards[edit]
See also Category:Courage awards
Several awards claim to recognize courageous actions, including:
The Edelstam Prize awarded for outstanding contributions and exceptional courage in standing up for one's beliefs in the defense of Human Rights.
The Victoria Cross is the highest military award that may be received by members of the British Armed Forces and the Armed Forces of other Commonwealth countries for valour "in the face of the enemy." A total of 1,356 have been awarded to individuals, 13 since World War II. The civilian equivalent being the George Cross.
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on members of the United States armed forces who distinguish themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States".
Distinguished Service Cross (United States) is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force.
The Carnegie Hero Fund – was established to recognize persons who perform extraordinary acts of heroism in civilian life in the United States and Canada, and to provide financial assistance for those disabled and the dependents of those killed saving or attempting to save others.
The Profile in Courage Award is a private award given to recognize displays of courage similar to those John F. Kennedy described in his book Profiles in Courage. It is given to individuals (often elected officials) who, by acting in accord with their conscience, risked their careers or lives by pursuing a larger vision of the national, state or local interest in opposition to popular opinion or pressure from constituents or other local interests.
The Civil Courage Prize is a human rights award which is awarded to "steadfast resistance to evil at great personal risk – rather than military valor." It is awarded by the Trustees of The Train Foundation annually and may be awarded posthumously.
Courage to Care Award is a plaque with miniature bas-reliefs depicting the backdrop for the rescuers' exceptional deeds during the Nazis' persecution, deportation and murder of millions of Jews.
The Ivan Allen Jr. Prize for Social Courage is a prize awarded by Georgia Institute of Technology to individuals who uphold the legacy of former Atlanta Mayor Ivan Allen Jr., whose actions in Atlanta, Georgia and testimony before congress in support of the 1963 Civil Rights Bill legislation set a standard for courage during the turbulent civil rights era of the 1960s.
The Param Vir Chakra is the highest military award in India given to those who show the highest degree of valour or self-sacrifice in the presence of the enemy. It can be, and often has been, awarded posthumously.
See also[edit]
Ethics portal
Philosophy portal
Psychology portal
Anxiety
Boldness
Bushido
Chivalry
Dharma
Karma
Risk
Virtue
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Rickaby, John (1909). "Fortitude". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ "Plato Biography Philosopher, Writer (c. 428–348 BCE)". Biography. Retrieved October 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Walton 1986, p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Walton 1986, pp. 56–58.
Jump up ^ Plato, Cooper & Hutchinson 1997, pp. 1061–75.
Jump up ^ Plato, Cooper & Hutchinson 1997, pp. 2061–75.
Jump up ^ Walton 1986, pp. 59–61.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1103b15-20, 1104a15-25, 1104b1-10, 1107a30-1107b5, 1108b15-35, 1109a5-15, 1115a5-1117b25, 1129b20-5, 1137a20-5, 144b5-10, 1167a20, 1177a30-b1, 1178a10-5, 1178a30-5, 1178b10-5, in Aristotle, Translation, Introduction, and Commentary, Broadie, Sarah, & Rowe, C., Oxford University Press, 2002.
Jump up ^ McDonnell 2006, p. 31.
Jump up ^ McDonnell 2006, p. 129.
^ Jump up to: a b c Walton 1986, pp. 62–63.
Jump up ^ "Summa Theologica". Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Summa Theologica: Fortitude (Secunda Secundae Partis, Q. 123)". New Advent.
Jump up ^ Ethic. iii, 9
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, p. 204.
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Chapter 67 and 73, Tao Te Ching (C. Ganson uses the word "courage", but the Mitchell translation does not.)
Jump up ^ Zhonwen.com, Tao Te Ching with Hanzi translations
^ Jump up to: a b Hobbes 1972, pp. 68–70.
Jump up ^ Hobbes 1972, pp. 17–18.
Jump up ^ Hobbes 1972, p. 290.
Jump up ^ Hobbes 1972, pp. 150–52.
Jump up ^ Hume 1751, p. 434.
Jump up ^ Hume 1751, p. 666.
Jump up ^ Hume 1751, p. 459.
Jump up ^ Hume 1751, p. 900.
Jump up ^ Tillich 1952, p. 89.
Jump up ^ Tillich 1952, pp. 152–183.
Jump up ^ Tolkien, JRR. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics". The Tolkien Estate. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
Jump up ^ Grimm, Jacob (1835). Deutsche Mythologie (Teutonic Mythology) (in German) (1 ed.). Dieterich: Göttingen.
Jump up ^ Carter, Richard (1999). "Celebrating Ernest Hemingway's Century". neh.gov. National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
Jump up ^ Nietzsche 1989, p. 65.
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, pp. 101–102.
Jump up ^ Walton 1986, pp. 199–202.
References[edit]
Jeanmart, G.; Blésin, L. (dir.), Figures du courage politique dans la philosophie moderne et contemporaine, numéro thématique de la revue Dissensus. Revue de philosophie politique de l'Université de Liège (http://popups.ulg.ac.be/dissensus/), n°2, automne 2009.
Avramenko, Richard (2011). Courage: The Politics of Life and Limb. University of Notre Dame Press.
"Catholic Encyclopedia "Fortitude"". New Advent.
"Summa Theologica "Second Part of the Second Part"". New Advent. See Questions 123–140
Becker, Ernest (1973). The Denial of Death. New York: The Free Press.
Bussey, K. (1992). "Lying and truthfulness: Children's definitions, standards, and evaluative reactions". Child Development. pp. 63, 129–37.
Deci, E. L.; Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The 'what' and 'why' of gal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior". Psychological Inquiry. pp. 4, 227–68.
Eisenberger, R. (1992). "Learned industriousness". Psychological Review. pp. 99, 248–67.
Evans, P. D.; White, D. G. (1981). "Towards an empirical definition of courage". Behaviour Research and Therapy. pp. 19, 419–24.
Hobbes, Thomas (1972). Bernard Gert, ed. Man and Citizen (De Homine and De Cive). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8446-4756-X.
Hobbes, Thomas; Tuck, Richard (1991). Leviathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hume, David (2009). A Treatise On Human Nature : Being An Attempt To Introduce The Experimental Method Of Reasoning Into Moral Subjects. The Floating Press.
Hume, David (1751). An Enquiry Concerning The Principles Of Morals. Lanham: Start Publishing LLC.
Peterson, C.; Seligman M. E. P. (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 197–289.
Putnam, Daniel (2004). "Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology". Psychological Courage. pp. 1–11. ISBN 0-7618-2820-6.
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1989). Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-521-77078-5.
Ryan, R. M.; Frederick, C. (1997). "On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being". Journal of Personality. pp. 65, 529–65.
McDonnell, Myles (2006). Roman Manliness: "Virtus" and the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5218-2788-4.
Miller, William Ian (2000). The Mystery of Courage. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00826-X.
Osho (1999). Courage: The Joy of Living Dangerously. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-20517-1.
Palmquist, Stephen (2000). "Angst and the Paradox of Courage". The Tree of Philosophy. Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press.
Plato; Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S. (1997). Complete Works. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5.
Tillich, Paul (1952). The Courage To Be. Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08471-4.
Walton, Douglas N. (1986). Courage: A Philosophical Investigation. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05443-1.
Zimmerman, Barry J. (1995). Self-regulation involves more than meta cognition: A social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychologist. pp. 30, 217–21.
External links[edit]
Quotations related to Courage at Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of courage at Wiktionary
Media related to Courage at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
v
t
e
Catholic virtue ethics
Great Commandment; "On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets." – Matthew 22:35-40
Cardinal virtues
Prudence (Prudentia)
Justice (Iustitia)
Fortitude (Fortitudo)
Temperance (Temperantia)
Sources: Plato
Republic, Book IV
Cicero
Ambrose
Augustine of Hippo
Thomas Aquinas
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1805–1809
Theological virtues
Faith (Fides)
Hope (Spes)
Charity (Caritas)
Sources: Paul the Apostle
1 Corinthians 13
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1812–1829
Seven heavenly virtues
Chastity (Castitas)
Temperance (Temperantia)
Charity (Caritas)
Diligence (Industria)
Patience (Patientia)
Kindness (Humanitas)
Humility (Humilitas)
Source: Church Fathers
Seven deadly sins
Lust (Luxuria)
Gluttony (Gula)
Greed (Avaritia)
Sloth (Acedia)
Wrath (Ira)
Envy (Invidia)
Pride (Superbia)
Source: Prudentius, Psychomachia
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The Imperialism of Free Trade
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"The Imperialism of Free Trade" is an academic article by John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson which was published in The Economic History Review in 1953. The article was influential in the debate concerning theories of 19th century imperialism which, after John A. Hobson's Imperialism: A Study, had focused on economic motivation. Instead, Gallagher and Robinson claimed that the New Imperialism — "the new spate of imperial expansion that gathered momentum from the 1880s" — could be best characterised as a continuation of a long-term policy in which informal empire, based on the principles of free trade, was favoured over formal imperial control unless circumstances made such rule impossible.[1] As well as reigniting scholarly interest in theorizing New Imperialism, the article helped launch the Cambridge School of historiography.
The arguments proposed in the article were later developed in a full-length book, Africa and the Victorians (1961), in conjunction with Alice Denny. The book put forward a subtly different explanation for European expansion in Africa, built around geopolitics and a strategy of protecting British India from encroachment by European powers. The strategic model and its relevance to East Africa was criticised for its limited documentary basis and sequential inconsistencies by John Darwin in 1997,[2] a refutation that was further consolidated and contextualised by Jonas Gjersø in 2015.[3]
Reviewing the debate from the end of the 20th century, historian Martin Lynn argues that Gallagher and Robinson exaggerated the impact. He says that Britain achieved its goal of increasing its economic interests in many areas, "but the broader goal of 'regenerating' societies and thereby creating regions tied as 'tributaries' to British economic interests was not attained." The reasons were:
the aim to reshape the world through free trade and its extension overseas owed more to the misplaced optimism of British policy-makers and their partial views of the world than to an understanding of the realities of the mid-19th century globe.... the volumes of trade and investment...the British were able to generate remained limited....Local economies and local regimes proved adept at restricting the reach of British trade and investment. Local impediments to foreign inroads, the inhabitants' low purchasing power, the resilience of local manufacturing, and the capabilities of local entrepreneurs meant that these areas effectively resisted British economic penetration.[4]
The idea that free-trade imperial states use informal controls to secure their expanding economic influence has attracted Marxists trying to avoid the problems of earlier Marxist interpretations of capitalism. The approach is most often applied to American policies.[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 542–557. ISBN 978-0199236633.
Jump up ^ Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The dynamics of territorial expansion." English Historical Review (1997) 112#447 pp: 614–642. http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXII/447/614.full.pdf
Jump up ^ Gjersø, Jonas Fossli (2015). "The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. Taylor & Francis. 43 (5): 831–60. doi:10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Martin Lynn, "British Policy, Trade, and Informal Empire in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Andrew Porter, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The 19th Century (1999) 3:101–21, quote at 3:118–19.
Jump up ^ Chris Grocott and Jo Grady. "‘Naked abroad’: The continuing imperialism of free trade." Capital & Class 38.3 (2014): 541–562.
Further reading[edit]
Cain, Peter J., and Antony Gerald Hopkins. British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688–1914 (Routledge, 2014)
Gallagher, John and Ronald Robinson. "The Imperialism of Free Trade," The Economic History Review (August 1953) 6#1 pp 1–15, doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1953.tb01482.x in JSTOR
Platt, D. C. M. "The Imperialism of Free Trade: Some Reservations", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Aug., 1968), pp. 296–306
Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The Dynamics of Imperial Expansion," English Historical Review (1997) CXII#447 pp. 614–42, doi:10.1093/ehr/CXII.447.614 [1]
Gjersø, Jonas Fossli. "The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95", The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (2015) Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 831–60. doi:10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131 [2]
External links[edit]
Talking Empire: The Gallagher-Robinson Controversy at the University of Exeter
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Imperialism_of_Free_Trade&oldid=817442742"
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