text:
Uranium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Uranium (disambiguation).
Uranium, 92U
General properties
Pronunciation
/jʊˈreɪniəm/ (ew-RAY-nee-əm)
Appearance
silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air
Standard atomic weight (Ar, standard)
7002238028910000000♠238.02891(3)[1]
Uranium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Nd
↑
U
↓
(Uqh)
protactinium ← uranium → neptunium
Atomic number (Z)
92
Group, period
group n/a, period 7
Block
f-block
Element category
actinide
Electron configuration
[Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase (at STP)
solid
Melting point
1405.3 K (1132.2 °C, 2070 °F)
Boiling point
4404 K (4131 °C, 7468 °F)
Density (near r.t.)
19.1 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)
17.3 g/cm3
Heat of fusion
9.14 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
417.1 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
27.665 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
2325 2564 2859 3234 3727 4402
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
6, 5, 4, 3,[2] 2, 1 (a weakly basic oxide)
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.38
Ionization energies
1st: 597.6 kJ/mol
2nd: 1420 kJ/mol
Atomic radius
empirical: 156 pm
Covalent radius
196±7 pm
Van der Waals radius
186 pm
Spectral lines
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
orthorhombic
Speed of sound thin rod
3155 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
13.9 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity
27.5 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity
0.280 µΩ·m (at 0 °C)
Magnetic ordering
paramagnetic
Young's modulus
208 GPa
Shear modulus
111 GPa
Bulk modulus
100 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.23
Vickers hardness
1960–2500 MPa
Brinell hardness
2350–3850 MPa
CAS Number
7440-61-1
History
Naming
after planet Uranus, itself named after Greek god of the sky Uranus
Discovery
Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1789)
First isolation
Eugène-Melchior Péligot (1841)
Main isotopes of uranium
Isotope
Abundance
Half-life (t1/2)
Decay mode
Product
232U
syn 68.9 y SF –
α 228Th
233U
trace 1.592×105 y SF –
α 229Th
234U
0.005% 2.455×105 y SF –
α 230Th
235U
0.720% 7.04×108 y SF –
α 231Th
236U
trace 2.342×107 y SF –
α 232Th
238U
99.274% 4.468×109 y α 234Th
SF –
β−β− 238Pu
view
talk
edit
| references | in Wikidata
Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all isotopes of uranium are unstable, with half-lives varying between 159,200 years and 4.5 billion years. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99%) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, and slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.[3]
In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2739–99.2752%), uranium-235 (0.7198–0.7202%), and a very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0050–0.0059%).[4] Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is 704 million years,[5] making them useful in dating the age of the Earth.
Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurring fissile isotope, which makes it widely used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons. However, because of the tiny amounts found in nature, uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. Uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235 and to a lesser degree uranium-233 have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors, and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium (238U) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating.[6] Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing lemon yellow to green colors. Uranium glass fluoresces green in ultraviolet light. It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography.
The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health and safety.[7] See Nuclear proliferation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Applications
2.1 Military
2.2 Civilian
3 History
3.1 Pre-discovery use
3.2 Discovery
3.3 Fission research
3.4 Nuclear weaponry
3.5 Reactors
3.6 Prehistoric naturally occurring fission
3.7 Contamination and the Cold War legacy
4 Occurrence
4.1 Origin
4.2 Biotic and abiotic
4.3 Production and mining
4.4 Resources and reserves
4.5 Supplies
5 Compounds
5.1 Oxidation states and oxides
5.1.1 Oxides
5.1.2 Aqueous chemistry
5.1.3 Carbonates
5.1.4 Effects of pH
5.2 Hydrides, carbides and nitrides
5.3 Halides
6 Isotopes
6.1 Natural concentrations
6.2 Enrichment
7 Human exposure
7.1 Effects and precautions
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Characteristics
A neutron-induced nuclear fission event involving uranium-235
When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal. It has a Mohs hardness of 6, sufficient to scratch glass and approximately equal to that of titanium, rhodium, manganese and niobium. It is malleable, ductile, slightly paramagnetic, strongly electropositive and a poor electrical conductor.[8][9] Uranium metal has a very high density of 19.1 g/cm3,[10] denser than lead (11.3 g/cm3),[11] but slightly less dense than tungsten and gold (19.3 g/cm3).[12][13]
Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with the exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature.[14] Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly.[8] When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide.[9] Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.
Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to be fissile. Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium-235 isotope will most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs that results in a burst of heat or (in special circumstances) an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by a neutron poison, absorbing some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactor control rods (see nuclear reactor physics for a description of this process of reactor control).
As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb.[15] The first nuclear bomb used in war, Little Boy, relied on uranium fission, but the very first nuclear explosive (the Gadget used at Trinity) and the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki (Fat Man) were both plutonium bombs.
Uranium metal has three allotropic forms:[16]
α (orthorhombic) stable up to 668 °C. Orthorhombic, space group No. 63, Cmcm, lattice parameters a = 285.4 pm, b = 587 pm, c = 495.5 pm.[17]
β (tetragonal) stable from 668 °C to 775 °C. Tetragonal, space group P42/mnm, P42nm, or P4n2, lattice parameters a = 565.6 pm, b = c = 1075.9 pm.[17]
γ (body-centered cubic) from 775 °C to melting point—this is the most malleable and ductile state. Body-centered cubic, lattice parameter a = 352.4 pm.[17]
Applications
Military
Various militaries use depleted uranium as high-density penetrators.
The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such as titanium or molybdenum.[18] At high impact speed, the density, hardness, and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (see Gulf War Syndrome).[15]
Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials. While the metal itself is radioactive, its high density makes it more effective than lead in halting radiation from strong sources such as radium.[8] Other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as ballast for missile re-entry vehicles and as a shielding material.[9] Due to its high density, this material is found in inertial guidance systems and in gyroscopic compasses.[9] Depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost.[19] The main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity (uranium being only a weak alpha emitter).
During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process.[20]
Civilian
The most visible civilian use of uranium is as the thermal power source used in nuclear power plants.
The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel nuclear power plants. One kilogram of uranium-235 can theoretically produce about 20 terajoules of energy (2×1013 joules), assuming complete fission; as much energy as 1500 tonnes of coal.[6]
Commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3% uranium-235.[6] The CANDU and Magnox designs are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Fuel used for United States Navy reactors is typically highly enriched in uranium-235 (the exact values are classified). In a breeder reactor, uranium-238 can also be converted into plutonium through the following reaction:[9]
238
92U
+ n → 239
92U
+ γ β−→ 239
93Np
β−→ 239
94Pu
Uranium glass glowing under UV light
Before (and, occasionally, after) the discovery of radioactivity, uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes, such as uranium glass and in Fiestaware.[21]
The discovery and isolation of radium in uranium ore (pitchblende) by Marie Curie sparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium, which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials.[22] This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product, since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium. This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. Besides the pottery glazes, uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green, yellow, mauve, black, blue, red and other colors.
Uranium glass used as lead-in seals in a vacuum capacitor
Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (especially uranium nitrate as a toner),[9] in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs,[23] to improve the appearance of dentures,[24] and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool. Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron-dense "stains" in transmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell organelles and macromolecules.
The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element. The long half-life of the isotope uranium-238 (4.51×109 years) makes it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types of radiometric dating, including uranium–thorium dating, uranium–lead dating and uranium–uranium dating. Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets in the making of high-energy X-rays.[9]
History
Pre-discovery use
The planet Uranus, which uranium is named after
The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE, when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes.[9] Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy, by R. T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912.[25] Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic), and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry.[26] In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines.
Discovery
Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity by exposing a photographic plate to uranium in 1896.
The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide.[26] Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium).[26][27] He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus (named after the primordial Greek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel.[28]
In 1841, Eugène-Melchior Péligot, Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Central School of Arts and Manufactures) in Paris, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium.[26][29]
Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896.[14] Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt, K2UO2(SO4)2 (potassium uranyl sulfate), on top of an unexposed photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become "fogged".[30] He determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate.
Fission research
Cubes and cuboids of uranium produced during the Manhattan project
A team led by Enrico Fermi in 1934 observed that bombarding uranium with neutrons produces the emission of beta rays (electrons or positrons from the elements produced; see beta particle).[31] The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94, which the Dean of the Faculty of Rome, Orso Mario Corbino, christened ausonium and hesperium, respectively.[32][33][34][35] The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter elements and release binding energy were conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann[31] in Hahn's laboratory in Berlin. Lise Meitner and her nephew, the physicist Otto Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process "nuclear fission".[36] Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that the fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each fission of the rare uranium isotope uranium-235.[31] Fermi urged Alfred O.C. Nier to separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and on February 29, 1940, Nier used an instrument he built at the University of Minnesota to separate the world's first uranium-235 sample in the Tate Laboratory. After mailed to Columbia University's cyclotron, John Dunning confirmed the sample to be the isolated fissile material on March 1.[37] Further work found that the far more common uranium-238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium, which, like uranium-235, is also fissile by thermal neutrons. These discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power.
On 2 December 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustained nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile-1. An initial plan using enriched uranium-235 was abandoned as it was as yet unavailable in sufficient quantities.[38] Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 short tons (360 metric tons) of graphite, 58 short tons (53 metric tons) of uranium oxide, and six short tons (5.5 metric tons) of uranium metal, a majority of which was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant in a makeshift production process.[31][39]
Nuclear weaponry
The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of the uranium-based atomic bomb nicknamed 'Little Boy'
Two major types of atomic bombs were developed by the United States during World War II: a uranium-based device (codenamed "Little Boy") whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium, and a plutonium-based device (see Trinity test and "Fat Man") whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238. The uranium-based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).[30] Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world.[40]
Reactors
Four light bulbs lit with electricity generated from the first artificial electricity-producing nuclear reactor, EBR-I (1951)
The X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor (after Enrico Fermi's Chicago Pile) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation. Argonne National Laboratory's Experimental Breeder Reactor I, located at the Atomic Energy Commission's National Reactor Testing Station near Arco, Idaho, became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 December 1951.[41] Initially, four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility (later, the town of Arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power generated by BORAX-III, another reactor designed and operated by Argonne National Laboratory).[42][43] The world's first commercial scale nuclear power station, Obninsk in the Soviet Union, began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954. Other early nuclear power plants were Calder Hall in England, which began generation on 17 October 1956,[44] and the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania, which began on 26 May 1958. Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine, the USS Nautilus, in 1954.[31][45]
Prehistoric naturally occurring fission
Main article: Natural nuclear fission reactor
In 1972, the French physicist Francis Perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa, collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium-235 constituted about 3% of the total uranium on Earth.[46] This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, provided other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.[46]
Contamination and the Cold War legacy
U.S. and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2005
Above-ground nuclear tests by the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and by France into the 1970s and 1980s[19] spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world.[47] Additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents.[48]
Uranium miners have a higher incidence of cancer. An excess risk of lung cancer among Navajo uranium miners, for example, has been documented and linked to their occupation.[49] The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act, a 1990 law in the USA, required $100,000 in "compassion payments" to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments.[50]
During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states.[15] Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources.[15] From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia.[15] This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box.[51]
Occurrence
Origin
Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, it is only naturally formed in supernovae.[52] Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r-process (rapid neutron capture), because the s-process (slow neutron capture) is too slow and cannot pass the gap of instability after bismuth.[53][54] Besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes, 235U and 238U, the r-process also produced significant quantities of 236U, which has a shorter half-life and has long since decayed completely to 232Th, which was itself enriched by the decay of 244Pu, accounting for the observed higher-than-expected abundance of thorium and lower-than-expected abundance of uranium.[55] While the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct 242Pu (half-life 0.375 million years) and 247Cm (half-life 16 million years), producing 238U and 235U respectively, this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half-lives of these parents and their lower production than 236U and 244Pu, the parents of thorium: the 247Cm:235U ratio at the formation of the Solar System was (7.0 ± 1.6) × 10−5.[56]
Biotic and abiotic
Main article: Uranium in the environment
Uraninite, also known as pitchblende, is the most common ore mined to extract uranium.
The evolution of Earth's radiogenic heat flow over time: contribution from 235U in red and from 238U in green
Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water. Uranium is the 51st element in order of abundance in the Earth's crust. Uranium is also the highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements.[9] The decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium-40 in the Earth's mantle is thought to be the main source of heat[57][58] that keeps the outer core liquid and drives mantle convection, which in turn drives plate tectonics.
Uranium's average concentration in the Earth's crust is (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million,[8][19] or about 40 times as abundant as silver.[14] The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017 kg (2×1017 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg (2×1013 lb).[8] The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion.[19]
Uranium is more plentiful than antimony, tin, cadmium, mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum.[9][19] Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals, including uraninite (the most common uranium ore), carnotite, autunite, uranophane, torbernite, and coffinite.[9] Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in uranium-rich ores[9] (it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1% uranium[14]).
Citrobacter species can have concentrations of uranium in their bodies 300 times the level of the surrounding environment.
Some bacteria, such as Shewanella putrefaciens, Geobacter metallireducens and some strains of Burkholderia fungorum, use uranium for their growth and convert U(VI) to U(IV).[59][60]
Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment.[61] Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium-polluted water.[26][62] The proteobacterium Geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water.[63] The mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant.[64]
In nature, uranium(VI) forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline pH. This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards. However, it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline pH. A Sphingomonas sp. strain BSAR-1 has been found to express a high activity alkaline phosphatase (PhoK) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions. The precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing PhoK protein in E. coli.[65]
Plants absorb some uranium from soil. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million.[26] Dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat.[26]
Production and mining
Main article: Uranium mining
World uranium production (mines) and demand[66]
Yellowcake is a concentrated mixture of uranium oxides that is further refined to extract pure uranium.
Worldwide production of U3O8 (yellowcake) in 2013 amounted to 70,015 tonnes, of which 22,451 t (32%) was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (9,331 t), Australia (6,350 t), Niger (4,518 t), Namibia (4,323 t) and Russia (3,135 t).[66]
Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining).[6] Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore.[67] High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23% uranium oxides on average.[68] Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides U3O8. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion.[69]
Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals.[9] Uranium metal can also be prepared through electrolysis of KUF
5 or UF
4, dissolved in molten calcium chloride (CaCl
2) and sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.[9] Very pure uranium is produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament.[9]
Resources and reserves
It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of uranium exists in ore reserves that are economically viable at US$59 per lb of uranium,[70] while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction).[71] Prices went from about $10/lb in May 2003 to $138/lb in July 2007. This has caused a big increase in spending on exploration,[70] with US$200 million being spent worldwide in 2005, a 54% increase on the previous year.[71] This trend continued through 2006, when expenditure on exploration rocketed to over $774 million, an increase of over 250% compared to 2004. The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency said exploration figures for 2007 would likely match those for 2006.[70]
Australia has 31% of the world's known uranium ore reserves[72] and the world's largest single uranium deposit, located at the Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia.[73] There is a significant reserve of uranium in Bakouma a sub-prefecture in the prefecture of Mbomou in Central African Republic.
Some nuclear fuel comes from nuclear weapons being dismantled,[74] such as from the Megatons to Megawatts Program.
An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible).[75][76] There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water,[77] but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water. In 2012, ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.[78][79]
Supplies
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2016)
Main article: Uranium market
Monthly uranium spot price in US$ per pound. The 2007 price peak is clearly visible.[80]
In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world production) and Australia (22.8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%), Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%), the United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) and China (1.7%) also producing significant amounts.[81] Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may have become the world's largest producer of uranium by 2009 with an expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 t and Australia with 9,430 t.[82][83] In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.[84]
The ultimate available supply is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85 years,[71] although some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the 21st century.[85] Uranium deposits seem to be log-normal distributed. There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade.[86] In other words, there is little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore available.
Compounds
Reactions of uranium metal
Oxidation states and oxides
Oxides
Triuranium octoxide (left) and uranium dioxide (right) are the two most common uranium oxides.
Calcined uranium yellowcake, as produced in many large mills, contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with long retention times or particles recovered in the stack scrubber. Uranium content is usually referenced to U
3O
8, which dates to the days of the Manhattan Project when U
3O
8 was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard.
Phase relationships in the uranium-oxygen system are complex. The most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium(IV) and uranium(VI), and their two corresponding oxides are, respectively, uranium dioxide (UO
2) and uranium trioxide (UO
3).[87] Other uranium oxides such as uranium monoxide (UO), diuranium pentoxide (U
2O
5), and uranium peroxide (UO
4·2H
2O) also exist.
The most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octoxide (U
3O
8) and UO
2.[88] Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel.[88] At ambient temperatures, UO
2 will gradually convert to U
3O
8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal.[88]
Aqueous chemistry
Uranium in its oxidation states III, IV, V, VI
Salts of many oxidation states of uranium are water-soluble and may be studied in aqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms are U3+
(brown-red), U4+
(green), UO+
2 (unstable), and UO2+
2 (yellow), for U(III), U(IV), U(V), and U(VI), respectively.[89] A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions of U3+
liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable. The UO2+
2 ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such as uranyl carbonate, uranyl chloride and uranyl sulfate. UO2+
2 also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate.[89]
Unlike the uranyl salts of uranium and polyatomic ion uranium-oxide cationic forms, the uranates, salts containing a polyatomic uranium-oxide anion, are generally not water-soluble.
Carbonates
The interactions of carbonate anions with uranium(VI) cause the Pourbaix diagram to change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution. While the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water (students are often taught that all carbonates other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates are often soluble in water. This is because a U(VI) cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes.
Pourbaix diagrams[90]
Uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium (e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).[90] Uranium in carbonate solution
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium (e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).[90] Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in an aqueous carbonate solution.[90]
Effects of pH
The uranium fraction diagrams in the presence of carbonate illustrate this further: when the pH of a uranium(VI) solution increases, the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and at high pHs it becomes an anionic hydroxide complex.
When carbonate is added, uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes if the pH is increased. One effect of these reactions is increased solubility of uranium in the pH range 6 to 8, a fact that has a direct bearing on the long term stability of spent uranium dioxide nuclear fuels.
Hydrides, carbides and nitrides
Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide, nitride, and halide compounds.[91] Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C.[91]
Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with water, and can ignite in air to form U
3O
8.[91] Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC
2), and diuranium tricarbide (U
2C
3). Both UC and UC
2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C, U
2C
3 is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC and UC
2 to mechanical stress.[92] Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN
2), and diuranium trinitride (U
2N
3).[92]
Halides
Uranium hexafluoride is the feedstock used to separate uranium-235 from natural uranium.
All uranium fluorides are created using uranium tetrafluoride (UF
4); UF
4 itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide.[91] Reduction of UF
4 with hydrogen at 1000 °C produces uranium trifluoride (UF
3). Under the right conditions of temperature and pressure, the reaction of solid UF
4 with gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF
6) can form the intermediate fluorides of U
2F
9, U
4F
17, and UF
5.[91]
At room temperatures, UF
6 has a high vapor pressure, making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to separate the rare uranium-235 from the common uranium-238 isotope. This compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process:[91]
UO
2 + 4 HF → UF
4 + 2 H
2O (500 °C, endothermic)
UF
4 + F
2 → UF
6 (350 °C, endothermic)
The resulting UF
6, a white solid, is highly reactive (by fluorination), easily sublimes (emitting a vapor that behaves as a nearly ideal gas), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist.[91]
One method of preparing uranium tetrachloride (UCl
4) is to directly combine chlorine with either uranium metal or uranium hydride. The reduction of UCl
4 by hydrogen produces uranium trichloride (UCl
3) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine.[91] All uranium chlorides react with water and air.
Bromides and iodides of uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively, bromine and iodine with uranium or by adding UH
3 to those element's acids.[91] Known examples include: UBr
3, UBr
4, UI
3, and UI
4. Uranium oxyhalides are water-soluble and include UO
2F
2, UOCl
2, UO
2Cl
2, and UO
2Br
2. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as the atomic weight of the component halide increases.[91]
Isotopes
Natural concentrations
Main article: Isotopes of uranium
Natural uranium consists of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.28% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.71%), and uranium-234 (0.0054%). All three are radioactive, emitting alpha particles, with the exception that all three of these isotopes have small probabilities of undergoing spontaneous fission, rather than alpha emission. There are also five other trace isotopes: uranium-239, which is formed when 238U undergoes spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons that are captured by another 238U atom; uranium-237, which is formed when 238U captures a neutron but emits two more, which then decays to neptunium-237; and finally, uranium-233, which is formed in the decay chain of that neptunium-237. It is also expected that thorium-232 should be able to undergo double beta decay, which would produce uranium-232, but this has not yet been observed experimentally.[93]
Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about 4.468×109 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13×108 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48×105 years.[94] For natural uranium, about 49% of its alpha rays are emitted by each of 238U atom, and also 49% by 234U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0% of them by the 235U. When the Earth was young, probably about one-fifth of its uranium was uranium-235, but the percentage of 234U was probably much lower than this.
Uranium-238 is usually an α emitter (occasionally, it undergoes spontaneous fission), decaying through the "Uranium Series" of nuclear decay, which has 18 members, into lead-206, by a variety of different decay paths.[14]
The decay series of 235U, which is called the actinium series, has 15 members and eventually decays into lead-207.[14] The constant rates of decay in these decay series makes the comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating.
Uranium-234, which is a member of the "Uranium Series", decays to lead-206 through a series of relatively short-lived isotopes.
Uranium-233 is made from thorium-232 by neutron bombardment, usually in a nuclear reactor, and 233U is also fissile.[9] Its decay series ends at bismuth-209 and thallium-205.
Uranium-235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons, because it is the only uranium isotope existing in nature on Earth in any significant amount that is fissile. This means that it can be split into two or three fragments (fission products) by thermal neutrons.[14]
Uranium-238 is not fissile, but is a fertile isotope, because after neutron activation it can produce plutonium-239, another fissile isotope. Indeed, the 238U nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotope uranium-239. 239U decays by beta emission to neptunium-239, also a beta-emitter, that decays in its turn, within a few days into plutonium-239. 239Pu was used as fissile material in the first atomic bomb detonated in the "Trinity test" on 15 July 1945 in New Mexico.[31]
Enrichment
Main article: Enriched uranium
Cascades of gas centrifuges are used to enrich uranium ore to concentrate its fissionable isotopes.
In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%). Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the fissionable uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except for gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a 'critical mass'.
To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%.[95] This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the uranium-235 isotope concentration should be no more than 0.3%.[96] The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001.[96]
The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF
6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process.[30] The gaseous diffusion process had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235).[30] The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution.[6] An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and employs visible tunable lasers such as dye lasers.[97] Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.[8]
Human exposure
A person can be exposed to uranium (or its radioactive daughters, such as radon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process phosphate fertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium weapons have been used, or live or work near a coal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium.[98][99] Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 0.6 mg/m3. At levels of 10 mg/m3, uranium is immediately dangerous to life and health.[100]
Most ingested uranium is excreted during digestion. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more soluble uranyl ion can be up to 5%.[26] However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for many years in bone tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates.[26] Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin.
Incorporated uranium becomes uranyl ions, which accumulate in bone, liver, kidney, and reproductive tissues. Uranium can be decontaminated from steel surfaces[101] and aquifers.[102]
Effects and precautions
Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal.[26][103][104] Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant.[105][106] Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of 238U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Alpha radiation from inhaled uranium has been demonstrated to cause lung cancer in exposed nuclear workers.[107] Uranyl (UO2+
2) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals.[108] While the CDC has published one study that no human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium,[109] exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially radon, are widely known and significant health threats.[19] Exposure to strontium-90, iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons.[110] Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid and uranyl fluoride rather than with uranium itself.[111] Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.[9]
Uranium metal is commonly handled with gloves as a sufficient precaution.[112] Uranium concentrate is handled and contained so as to ensure that people do not inhale or ingest it.[112]
Compilation of 2004 review on uranium toxicity[103]
Body system
Human studies
Animal studies
In vitro
Renal Elevated levels of protein excretion, urinary catalase and diuresis Damage to proximal convoluted tubules, necrotic cells cast from tubular epithelium, glomerular changes (renal failure) No studies
Brain/CNS Decreased performance on neurocognitive tests Acute cholinergic toxicity; Dose-dependent accumulation in cortex, midbrain, and vermis; Electrophysiological changes in hippocampus No studies
DNA Increased reports of cancers[50][113][114][115][116][117] Increased mutagenicity (in mice) and induction of tumors Binucleated cells with micronuclei, Inhibition of cell cycle kinetics and proliferation; Sister chromatid induction, tumorigenic phenotype
Bone/muscle No studies Inhibition of periodontal bone formation; and alveolar wound healing No studies
Reproductive Uranium miners have more first-born female children Moderate to severe focal tubular atrophy; vacuolization of Leydig cells No studies
Lungs/respiratory No adverse health effects reported Severe nasal congestion and hemorrhage, lung lesions and fibrosis, edema and swelling, lung cancer No studies
Gastrointestinal Vomiting, diarrhea, albuminuria No studies No studies
Liver No effects seen at exposure dose Fatty livers, focal necrosis No studies
Skin No exposure assessment data available Swollen vacuolated epidermal cells, damage to hair follicles and sebaceous glands No studies
Tissues surrounding embedded DU fragments Elevated uranium urine concentrations Elevated uranium urine concentrations, perturbations in biochemical and neuropsychological testing No studies
Immune system Chronic fatigue, rash, ear and eye infections, hair and weight loss, cough. May be due to combined chemical exposure rather than DU alone No studies No studies
Eyes No studies Conjunctivitis, irritation inflammation, edema, ulceration of conjunctival sacs No studies
Blood No studies Decrease in RBC count and hemoglobin concentration No studies
Cardiovascular Myocarditis resulting from the uranium ingestion, which ended six months after ingestion No effects No studies
See also
K-65 residues
List of countries by uranium production
List of countries by uranium reserves
List of uranium projects
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
Nuclear engineering
Nuclear fuel cycle
Nuclear physics
Thorium fuel cycle
Uranium bubble of 2007
Uranium nitride
World Uranium Hearing
Notes
Jump up ^ Meija, J.; et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305.
Jump up ^ Morss, L.R.; Edelstein, N.M.; Fuger, J., eds. (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 9048131464.
Jump up ^ "Uranium". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Uranium Isotopes". Retrieved 14 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, US. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Emsley 2001, p. 479.
Jump up ^ "U.S. to pump money into nuke stockpile, increase security," RIA Novosti 18 February 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Uranium". The McGraw-Hill Science and Technology Encyclopedia (5th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 0-07-142957-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Hammond, C. R. (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4.
Jump up ^ "Uranium". Royal Society of Chemistry.
Jump up ^ "Lead". Royal Society of Chemistry.
Jump up ^ "Tungsten". Royal Society of Chemistry.
Jump up ^ "Gold". Royal Society of Chemistry.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "uranium". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Columbia University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "uranium". Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security. The Gale Group, Inc.
Jump up ^ Rollett, A. D. (2008). Applications of Texture Analysis. John Wiley and Sons. p. 108. ISBN 0-470-40835-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Grenthe, Ingmar; Drożdżyński, Janusz; Fujino, Takeo; Buck, Edgar C.; Albrecht-Schmitt, Thomas E.; Wolf, Stephen F. (2006). "Uranium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (PDF). 5 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. pp. 52–160. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Development of DU Munitions". Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II). Gulflink, official website of Force Health Protection & Readiness. 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Emsley 2001, p. 480.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Weapon Design". Federation of American Scientists. 1998. Archived from the original on 26 December 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
Jump up ^ "Statement regarding the Good Morning America broadcast," The Homer Laughlin China Co. Archived 1 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine., 16 March 2011, accessed 25 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dial R for radioactive – 12 July 1997 – New Scientist". Newscientist.com. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "EPA Facts about Uranium" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Uranium Containing Dentures (ca. 1960s, 1970s)". Health Physics Historical Instrumentation Museum Collection. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. 1999. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Emsley 2001, p. 482.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Emsley 2001, p. 477.
Jump up ^ Klaproth, M. H. (1789). "Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallischen Substanz". Chemische Annalen. 2: 387–403.
Jump up ^ "Uranium". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company.
Jump up ^ Péligot, E.-M. (1842). "Recherches Sur L'Uranium". Annales de chimie et de physique. 5 (5): 5–47.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Emsley 2001, p. 478.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Seaborg 1968, p. 773.
Jump up ^ Fermi, Enrico (12 December 1938). "Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment: Nobel Lecture" (PDF). Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Jump up ^ De Gregorio, A. (2003). "A Historical Note About How the Property was Discovered that Hydrogenated Substances Increase the Radioactivity Induced by Neutrons". Nuovo Saggiatore. 19: 41–47. arXiv:physics/0309046  . Bibcode:2003physics...9046D.
Jump up ^ Nigro, M (2004). "Hahn, Meitner e la teoria della fissione" (PDF). Retrieved 5 May 2009.
Jump up ^ van der Krogt, Peter. "Elementymology & Elements Multidict". Retrieved 5 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Meitner, L. and Frisch, O. (1939). "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction". Nature. 143 (5218): 239–240. Bibcode:1969Natur.224..466M. doi:10.1038/224466a0. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Alfred O. C. Nier". www.aps.org. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
Jump up ^ "Chicago Pile One". large.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
Jump up ^ Walsh, John (19 June 1981). "A Manhattan Project Postscript" (PDF). Science. AAAS. 212 (4501): 1369–1371. Bibcode:1981Sci...212.1369W. doi:10.1126/science.212.4501.1369. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17746246. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Helmreich, J.E. Gathering Rare Ores: The Diplomacy of Uranium Acquisition, 1943–1954, Princeton UP, 1986: ch. 10 ISBN 0-7837-9349-9
Jump up ^ "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Fast Reactor Technology". U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "History and Success of Argonne National Laboratory: Part 1". U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 1998. Archived from the original on 26 September 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
Jump up ^ "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development". U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "1956:Queen switches on nuclear power". BBC news. 17 October 1956. Retrieved 28 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) in "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development"". U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors". Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. Archived from the original on 3 June 2004. Retrieved 28 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Warneke, T.; Croudace, I. W.; Warwick, P. E. & Taylor, R. N. (2002). "A new ground-level fallout record of uranium and plutonium isotopes for northern temperate latitudes". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 203 (3–4): 1047–1057. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.203.1047W. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00930-5.
Jump up ^ "The Worst Nuclear Disasters". Time.com. 25 March 2009. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Gilliland, Frank D. MD; Hunt, William C. MS; Pardilla, Marla MSW, MPH; Key, Charles R. MD, PhD (March 2000). "Uranium Mining and Lung Cancer Among Navajo Men in New Mexico and Arizona, 1969 to 1993". Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine. 42 (3): 278–283. doi:10.1097/00043764-200003000-00008. PMID 10738707. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Brugge, Doug; Goble, Rob (2002). "The History of Uranium Mining and the Navajo People". American Journal of Public Health. Ajph.org. 92 (9): 1410–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.92.9.1410. PMC 3222290  . PMID 12197966.
Jump up ^ Glaser, Alexander & von Hippel, Frank N. (February 2006). "Thwarting Nuclear Terrorism". Scientific American. 294 (2): 56–63. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294b..56G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0206-56. PMID 16478027.
Jump up ^ "History/Origin of Chemicals". NASA. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
Jump up ^ E. M. Burbidge; G. R. Burbidge; W. A. Fowler; F. Hoyle (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (4): 547. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.
Jump up ^ Clayton, Donald D. (1968). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill. pp. 577–91. ISBN 978-0226109534.
Jump up ^ Trenn, Thaddeus J. (1978). "Thoruranium (U-236) as the extinct natural parent of thorium: The premature falsification of an essentially correct theory". Annals of Science. 35 (6): 581–97. doi:10.1080/00033797800200441.
Jump up ^ Tissot, François L. H.; Dauphas, Nicolas; Grossmann, Lawrence (4 March 2016). "Origin of uranium isotope variations in early solar nebula condensates". Science Advances. 2 (3). arXiv:1603.01780  . Bibcode:2016SciA....2E1400T. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501400.
Jump up ^ Biever, Celeste (27 July 2005). "First measurements of Earth's core radioactivity". New Scientist.
Jump up ^ "Potassium-40 heats up Earth's core". physicsweb. 7 May 2003. Retrieved 14 January 2007.
Jump up ^ Min, M.; Xu, H.; Chen, J.; Fayek, M. (2005). "Evidence of uranium biomineralization in sandstone-hosted roll-front uranium deposits, northwestern China". Ore Geology Reviews. 26 (3–4): 198. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2004.10.003.
Jump up ^ Koribanics, N. M.; Tuorto, S. J.; Lopez-Chiaffarelli, N.; McGuinness, L. R.; Häggblom, M. M.; Williams, K. H.; Long, P. E.; Kerkhof, L. J. (2015). "Spatial Distribution of an Uranium-Respiring Betaproteobacterium at the Rifle, CO Field Research Site". PLoS ONE. 10 (4): e0123378. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123378. PMC 4395306  . PMID 25874721.
Jump up ^ Emsley 2001, pp. 476 and 482.
Jump up ^ Macaskie, L. E.; Empson, R. M.; Cheetham, A. K.; Grey, C. P. & Skarnulis, A. J. (1992). "Uranium bioaccumulation by a Citrobacter sp. as a result of enzymically mediated growth of polycrystalline HUO
2PO
4". Science. 257 (5071): 782–784. Bibcode:1992Sci...257..782M. doi:10.1126/science.1496397. PMID 1496397.
Jump up ^ Anderson, R. T.; Vrionis, H. A.; Ortiz-Bernad, I.; Resch, C. T.; Long, P. E.; Dayvault, R.; Karp, K.; Marutzky, S.; Metzler, D. R.; Peacock, A.; White, D. C.; Lowe, M.; Lovley, D. R. (2003). "Stimulating the In Situ Activity of Geobacter Species To Remove Uranium from the Groundwater of a Uranium-Contaminated Aquifer". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 69 (10): 5884–5891. doi:10.1128/AEM.69.10.5884-5891.2003. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 201226  . PMID 14532040.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Michael Gadd (March 2010). "Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation". Microbiology. 156 (Pt 3): 609–643. doi:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0. PMID 20019082.
Jump up ^ Nilgiriwala, K.S.; Alahari, A.; Rao, A. S. & Apte, S.K. (2008). "Cloning and Overexpression of Alkaline Phosphatase PhoK from Sphingomonas sp. Strain BSAR-1 for Bioprecipitation of Uranium from Alkaline Solutions". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 74 (17): 5516–5523. doi:10.1128/AEM.00107-08. PMC 2546639  . PMID 18641147.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Uranium Mining". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Seaborg 1968, p. 774.
Jump up ^ "Athabasca Basin, Saskatchewan". Retrieved 4 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Gupta, C. K. & Mukherjee, T. K. (1990). Hydrometallurgy in extraction processes. 1. CRC Press. pp. 74–75. ISBN 0-8493-6804-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Exploration drives uranium resources up 17%". World-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Global Uranium Resources to Meet Projected Demand". International Atomic Energy Agency. 2006. Retrieved 29 March 2007.
Jump up ^ "Supply of Uranium".
Jump up ^ "Uranium Mining and Processing in South Australia". South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy. 2002. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2007.
Jump up ^ "Military Warheads as a Source of Nuclear Fuel". World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Uranium recovery from Seawater". Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute. 23 August 1999. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "How long will nuclear energy last?". 12 February 1996. Retrieved 29 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Tsezos, M.; Noh, S. H. (1984). "Extraction of uranium from sea water using biological origin adsorbents". The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering. 62 (4): 559–561. doi:10.1002/cjce.5450620416.
Jump up ^ "ORNL technology moves scientists closer to extracting uranium from seawater". Oak Ridge National Laboratory, United States. 21 August 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Fueling nuclear power with seawater". Pnnl.gov. 21 August 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "NUEXCO Exchange Value (Monthly Uranium Spot)". Archived from the original on 12 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "World Uranium Production". UxC Consulting Company, LLC. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Mithridates (24 July 2008). "Page F30: Kazakhstan to surpass Canada as the world's largest producer of uranium by last year (2009)". Mithridates.blogspot.com. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "Kazakistan uranyum üretimini artıracak". Zaman.com.tr (in Turkish). Zaman Gazetesi. 28 July 2008. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "Big Uranium Find Announced in Somalia". New York Times. 16 March 1968. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lack of fuel may limit U.S. nuclear power expansion". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 21 March 2007. Retrieved 29 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Deffeyes, Kenneth S. & MacGregor, Ian D. (January 1980). "World Uranium Resources". Scientific American. p. 66. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Seaborg 1968, p. 779.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Chemical Forms of Uranium". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Seaborg 1968, p. 778.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Puigdomenech, Ignasi Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium Database and Plotting Software (2004) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, freely downloadable software at "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 29 September 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Seaborg 1968, p. 782.
^ Jump up to: a b Seaborg 1968, p. 780.
Jump up ^ G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; C. Thibault; J. Blachot & O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (PDF). Nuclear Physics A. 729: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Seaborg 1968, p. 777.
Jump up ^ "Uranium Enrichment". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Diehl, Peter. "Depleted Uranium: a by-product of the Nuclear Chain". Laka Foundation. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Duarte, F. J.; Hillman, L. W., eds. (1990). Dye Laser Principles. Academic. p. 413. ISBN 0-12-222700-X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Radiation Information for Uranium". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "ToxFAQ for Uranium". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. September 1999. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
Jump up ^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Uranium (insoluble compounds, as U)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ Francis, A. J.; Dodge, C. J.; McDonald, J. A.; Halada, G. P. (2005). "Decontamination of uranium-contaminated steel surfaces by hydroxycarboxylic acid with uranium recovery". Environmental Science & Technology. 39 (13): 5015–21. Bibcode:2005EnST...39.5015F. doi:10.1021/es048887c. PMID 16053105.
Jump up ^ Wu, W. M.; Carley, J.; Gentry, T.; Ginder-Vogel, M. A.; Fienen, M.; Mehlhorn, T.; Yan, H.; Caroll, S.; et al. (2006). "Pilot-scale in situ bioremedation of uranium in a highly contaminated aquifer. 2. Reduction of u(VI) and geochemical control of u(VI) bioavailability". Environmental Science & Technology. 40 (12): 3986–95. Bibcode:2006EnST...40.3986W. doi:10.1021/es051960u. PMID 16830572.
^ Jump up to: a b Craft, E. S.; Abu-Qare, A. W.; Flaherty, M. M.; Garofolo, M. C.; Rincavage, H. L. & Abou-Donia, M. B. (2004). "Depleted and natural uranium: chemistry and toxicological effects" (PDF). Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 7 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1080/10937400490452714. PMID 15205046.
Jump up ^ "Toxicological Profile for Uranium" (PDF). Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). September 1999. CAS# 7440-61-1.
Jump up ^ Hindin, Rita; Brugge, D.; Panikkar, B. (2005). "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective". Environ Health. 4: 17. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-17. PMC 1242351  . PMID 16124873.
Jump up ^ Arfsten, D.P.; K.R. Still; G.D. Ritchie (2001). "A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 17 (5–10): 180–91. doi:10.1191/0748233701th111oa. PMID 12539863.
Jump up ^ Grellier, James; Atkinson, Will; Bérard, Philippe; Bingham, Derek; Birchall, Alan; Blanchardon, Eric; Bull, Richard; Guseva Canu, Irina; Challeton-de Vathaire, Cécile; Cockerill, Rupert; Do, Minh T; Engels, Hilde; Figuerola, Jordi; Foster, Adrian; Holmstock, Luc; Hurtgen, Christian; Laurier, Dominique; Puncher, Matthew; Riddell, Tony; Samson, Eric; Thierry-Chef, Isabelle; Tirmarche, Margot; Vrijheid, Martine; Cardis, Elisabeth (2017). "Risk of lung cancer mortality in nuclear workers from internal exposure to alpha particle-emitting radionuclides". Epidemiology. 28 (5): 675–684. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000684. PMC 5540354  . Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Domingo, J. L.; Paternain, J. L.; Llobet, J. M.; Corbella, J. (1989). "The developmental toxicity of uranium in mice". Toxicology. 55 (1–2): 143–52. doi:10.1016/0300-483X(89)90181-9. PMID 2711400.
Jump up ^ "Public Health Statement for Uranium". CDC. Retrieved 15 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Chart of the Nuclides, US Atomic Energy Commission 1968
Jump up ^ Dart, Richard C. (2004). Medical Toxicology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1468. ISBN 0-7817-2845-2.
^ Jump up to: a b "Radiation Fact Sheets #27, Uranium (U)". Washington State Department of Health, Office of Radiation Protection. 2010. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Mulloy KB; James DS; Mohs K; Kornfeld M (2001). "Lung Cancer in a Nonsmoking Underground Uranium Miner". Environ Health Perspect. 109 (3): 305–309. doi:10.1289/ehp.01109305. PMC 1240251  . PMID 11333194.
Jump up ^ Samet JM; Kutvirt DM; Waxweiler RJ; Key CR (1984). "Uranium mining and lung cancer in Navajo men". N Engl J Med. 310 (23): 1481–1584. doi:10.1056/NEJM198406073102301. PMID 6717538.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Susan E (1992). "Navajo Uranium Workers and the Effects of Occupational Illnesses: A Case Study" (PDF). Human Organization. 51 (4): 389–397. doi:10.17730/humo.51.4.e02484g513501t35.
Jump up ^ Gilliland FD; Hunt WC; Pardilla M; Key CR (2000). "Uranium Mining and Lung Cancer Among Navajo Men in New Mexico and Arizona, 1969 to 1993". J Occup Environ Med. 42 (3): 278–283. doi:10.1097/00043764-200003000-00008. PMID 10738707.
Jump up ^ Gottlieb LS; Husen LA (1982). "Lung cancer among Navajo uranium miners". Chest. 81 (4): 449–52. doi:10.1378/chest.81.4.449. PMID 6279361.
References
Emsley, John (2001). "Uranium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 476–482. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
Seaborg, Glenn T. (1968). "Uranium". The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 773–786. LCCCN 68-29938.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uranium.
Look up uranium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
U.S. EPA: Radiation Information for Uranium
"What is Uranium?" from World Nuclear Association
Nuclear fuel data and analysis from the U.S. Energy Information Administration
Current market price of uranium
World Uranium deposit maps
Annotated bibliography for uranium from the Alsos Digital Library
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank—Uranium, Radioactive
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Mining Uranium at Namibia's Langer Heinrich Mine
World Nuclear News
ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Uranium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Uranium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
[hide]
v
t
e
Periodic table
(Large cells)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
chemical
properties
[show]
v
t
e
Uranium compounds
U(II)
UB2
USi2
US
U(III)
UF3
UCl3
UI3
UP
U(OH)3
UH3
UN
Organouranium(III) compounds
U(C5H5)3
U(IV)
U(BH4)4
UCl4
UF4
UBr4
UI4
UO2
US2
U(SO4)2
Organouranium(IV) compounds
U(C8H8)2
U(C5H5)4
U(C5H5)3Cl
U(IV,V)
U2N3
U(V)
UCl5
UF5
UBr5
UI5
U2O5
U(V,VI)
U3O8
U(VI)
(NH4)2U2O7
Na2U2O7
UCl6
UF6
U(PO4)2
UO3
UO4
UO2(CH3COO)2
UO2(CHO2)2
UO2CO3
UO2CO3·2(NH4)2CO3
UO2Cl2
UO2F2
UO2(NO3)2
UO2(OH)2
UO2(SO4)2
ZnUO2(CH3COO)4
UN2
H2UO4
UO6 (hypothetical)
U(XII)
UO6 (hypothetical)
[show]
v
t
e
Nuclear technology
Science
Chemistry
Engineering
Physics
Atomic nucleus
Fission
Fusion
Radiation
ionizing
braking
Fuel
Tritium
Deuterium
Helium-3
Fertile material
Fissile material
Isotope separation
Nuclear material
Uranium
enriched
depleted
Plutonium
Thorium
Neutron
Activation
Capture
Poison
Cross section
Generator
Radiation
Reflector
Temperature
Thermal
Fast
Fusion
Power
by country
Power plant
Economics
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
Accidents and incidents
Policy
Fusion
Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
Propulsion
rocket
Safety and security
Medicine
Imaging
RadBall
Scintigraphy
Single-photon emission (SPECT)
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
Therapy
Fast-neutron
Neutron capture therapy of cancer
Targeted alpha-particle
Proton-beam
Tomotherapy
Brachytherapy
Radiation therapy
Radiosurgery
Radiopharmacology
Weapons
Topics
Arms race
Delivery
Design
Disarmament
Ethics
Explosion
effects
History
Proliferation
Testing
high-altitude
underground
Warfare
Yield
TNTe
Lists
Estimated death tolls from attacks
States with nuclear weapons
Tests
United States
WMD treaties
Weapon-free zones
Weapons
Waste
Products
Actinide
Reprocessed uranium
Reactor-grade plutonium
Minor actinide
Activation
Fission
LLFP
Actinide chemistry
Disposal
Fuel cycle
High-level (HLW)
Low-level (LLW)
Repository
Reprocessing
Spent fuel
pool
cask
Transmutation
Debate
Nuclear power
Nuclear weapons
Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
Anti-nuclear movement
Uranium mining
Nuclear power phase-out
[hide]
Nuclear reactors
[show]
Fission
Moderator
Light water
Aqueous homogeneous
Boiling
BWR
ABWR
ESBWR
Kerena
Pressurized
ACPR-1000
AP1000
APR-1400
APR+
APWR
ATMEA1
CAP1400
CPR-1000
EPR
HPR-1000
VVER
many others
Supercritical (SCWR)
Natural fission
Heavy water
Pressurized (PHWR)
CANDU
CANDU 6
CANDU 9
EC6
AFCR
ACR-1000
AHWR
Steam-generating (SGHWR)
WR-1
Graphite
by coolant
Water
H2O
RBMK
EGP-6
Gas
CO2
Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)
Magnox
Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
He
Ultra-high-temperature experiment (UHTREX)
Pebble-bed (PBMR) (HTR-PM)
Gas-turbine modular-helium (GTMHR)
Very-high-temperature (VHTR)
Molten-salt
Fluorides
Fuji MSR
Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
None
(fast-neutron)
Breeder (FBR)
Integral (IFR)
Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
Traveling-wave (TWR)
Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
Generation IV
Sodium (SFR)
BN-600
BN-800
BN-1200
PFBR
CEFR
Lead (LFR)
Helium gas (GFR)
Others
Organically moderated and cooled reactor
Aircraft Reactor Experiment
[show]
Fusion
by confinement
Magnetic
Field-reversed configuration
Levitated dipole
Reversed field pinch
Spheromak
Stellarator
Tokamak
Inertial
Bubble (acoustic)
Fusor
electrostatic
Laser-driven
Magnetized-target
Z-pinch
Other
Dense plasma focus
Migma
Muon-catalyzed
Polywell
Pyroelectric
Category
Portal
Commons
Authority control
LCCN: sh85141276
GND: 4187153-4
NDL: 00574039
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uranium&oldid=808217757"
Categories:
Uranium
Chemical elements
Actinides
Nuclear fuels
Nuclear materials
Suspected male-mediated teratogens
Manhattan Project
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr)
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Wikipedia articles in need of updating from September 2016
All Wikipedia articles in need of updating
Use dmy dates from February 2013
Featured articles
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
العربية
Armãneashti
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
བོད་ཡིག
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
ChiShona
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Эрзянь
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
ગુજરાતી
गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Коми
Kreyòl ayisyen
Кыргызча
Кырык мары
Ladino
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
La .lojban.
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
पालि
پنجابی
پښتو
Patois
Перем Коми
Piemontèis
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vepsän kel’
Tiếng Việt
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 November 2017, at 16:04.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: This is a featured article. Click here for more information.

attrs: href title

values: mw-indicator-featured-star mw-indicator

values: mw-indicator-pp-default mw-indicator

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Uranium_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Uranium (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: span

value: sub

value: caption

values: Two hands in brown gloves holding a blotched gray disk with a number 2068 hand-written on it

value: td

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

values: display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc; border:1px solid black; margin:-1px;

values: empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;

values: background-color:transparent; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;

values: vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; width:10px; border:none;

values: text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; padding-top:0; padding-bottom:1px; border:none;

values: text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:transparent; border:none;

values: text-align:center; width:100%; margin:0; border-width:1px; background:#f8f8f8;

values: display:inline-block; vertical-align:middle; width:6px; height:8px; border:1px solid black; background:#ff99cc

values: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

values: STP: standard temperature and pressure: 0 °C and 101.325 kPa

values:
/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole
mw-redirect
Kilojoule per mole

values:
/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity
mw-redirect
Molar heat capacity

values: text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0; padding:0;

values: width: 250px; height: 30px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; top: -0px; left: -0px; width: 400px

values: Orthorhombic crystal structure for uranium

values:
/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion
mw-redirect
Coefficient of thermal expansion

values:
/wiki/Brinell_hardness_test
mw-redirect
Brinell hardness test

values: Timeline of chemical element discoveries

values: text-align: center; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0; padding: 0;

values: List of data references for chemical elements

values:
/wiki/Atomic_weight
mw-redirect
Atomic weight

values:
/wiki/Uranium_enrichment
mw-redirect
Uranium enrichment

values: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

values: Collapse of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: A diagram showing a chain transformation of uranium-235 to uranium-236 to barium-141 and krypton-92

values:
/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
mw-redirect
Electrical conductivity

values:
/wiki/Lattice_parameter
mw-redirect
Lattice parameter

values:
/wiki/Body-centered_cubic
mw-redirect
Body-centered cubic

values: Shiny metallic cylinder with a sharpened tip. The overall length is 9 cm and diameter about 2 cm.

values:
/wiki/Vehicle_armor
mw-redirect
Vehicle armor

values:
/wiki/Gulf_War_Syndrome
mw-redirect
Gulf War Syndrome

values:
/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry
mw-redirect
Atmospheric reentry

values:
/wiki/Inertial_guidance_system
mw-redirect
Inertial guidance system

values:
/wiki/Fast_neutron
mw-redirect
Fast neutron

values: Photograph featuring sunflowers in front and a plant on the back. The plant has a wide smoking chimney with diameter comparable to its height.

values: display:block; line-height:1em; font-size:70%; padding:0 0.1em;

values: display:block; line-height:1em; padding:0 0.1em;

values: display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em; padding:0 0.1em;

values: display:none; display:inline-block; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;

values: A glass place on a glass stand. The plate is glowing green while the stand is colorless.

values: A glass cylinder capped on both ends with metal electrodes. Inside the glass bulb there is a metal cylinder connected to the electrodes.

values:
/wiki/Uranium_nitrate
mw-redirect
Uranium nitrate

values:
/wiki/Negative_staining
mw-redirect
Negative staining

values:
/wiki/Cell_organelle
mw-redirect
Cell organelle

values: Two fuzzy black features on a fuzzy white paper-like background. There is a handwriting at the top of the picture.

values: Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers

values: White fragmentred mushroom-like smoke cloud evolving from the ground.

values:
/wiki/Trinity_test
mw-redirect
Trinity test

values: An industrial room with four large illuminated light bulbs hanging down from a bar.

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_waste
mw-redirect
Nuclear waste

values: A graph showing evolution of number of nuclear weapons in the US and USSR and in the period 1945–2005. US dominates early and USSR later years with and crossover around 1978.

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_testing
mw-redirect
Nuclear testing

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents
mw-redirect
Nuclear and radiation accidents

values:
/wiki/Navajo_people
mw-redirect
Navajo people

values: A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.

values:
/wiki/Radiogenic_heat
mw-redirect
Radiogenic heat

values: Five cylinder-like bodies on a flat surface: four in a group and one separate.

values:
/wiki/Glomus_intraradices
mw-redirect
Glomus intraradices

values: A yellow sand-like rhombic mass on black background.

values:
/wiki/In-situ_leach
mw-redirect
In-situ leach

values:
/wiki/Olympic_Dam,_South_Australia
mw-redirect
Olympic Dam, South Australia

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update

values:
/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
mw-redirect
People's Republic of China

values: Ball and stick model of layered crystal structure containing two types of atoms.

values: Ball and stick model of cubic-like crystal structure containing two types of atoms.

values:
/wiki/Complex_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Complex (chemistry)

values: A graph of potential vs. pH showing stability regions of various uranium compounds

values: Snow-like substance in a sealed glass ampoule.

values:
/wiki/Sublimation_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Sublimation (chemistry)

values:
/wiki/Alpha_emission
mw-redirect
Alpha emission

values:
/wiki/Decay_series
mw-redirect
Decay series

values:
/wiki/Fission_products
mw-redirect
Fission products

values:
/wiki/Beta_emission
mw-redirect
Beta emission

values:
/wiki/Atomic_bomb
mw-redirect
Atomic bomb

values: A photo of a large hall filled with arrays of long white standing cylinders.

values:
/wiki/Gas_cooled_reactor
mw-redirect
Gas cooled reactor

values:
/wiki/Pressurised_heavy_water_reactor
mw-redirect
Pressurised heavy water reactor

values: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

values: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

values:
/wiki/Toxic_metal
mw-redirect
Toxic metal

values:
/wiki/Renal_failure
mw-redirect
Renal failure

values: Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

values: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ie.lbl.gov/toi/nucSearch.asp

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.answers.com/uranium

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/physics/0309046

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Otto_Frisch
mw-redirect
Otto Frisch

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F224466a0

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17746246

values:
nofollow
external text
http://web.em.doe.gov/tie/history.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10738707

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.92.9.1410

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12197966

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16478027

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.29.547

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/1603.01780

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.1501400

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25874721

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1496397

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1496397

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-2240

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14532040

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.037143-0

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20019082

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.00107-08

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18641147

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fcjce.5450620416

values:
nofollow
http://www.kemi.kth.se/medusa/
external text

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_Physics_A
mw-redirect
Nuclear Physics A

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.opticsjournal.com/dlp.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts150.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fes048887c

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16053105

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fes051960u

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16830572

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15205046

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-069X-4-17

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16124873

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1191%2F0748233701th111oa

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12539863

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2711400

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.01109305

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11333194

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM198406073102301

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6717538

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1378%2Fchest.81.4.449

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6279361

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.eia.gov/nuclear/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.uxc.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.wise-uranium.org/umaps.html

values:
nofollow
http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/uranium/
external text

values: Template:Periodic table (32 columns, compact)

values: Template talk:Periodic table (32 columns, compact)

values: text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:1px solid black; ;

values: Meitnerium, 109 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Darmstadtium, 110 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Roentgenium, 111 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Copernicium, 112 (post-transition metal)

values: Nihonium, 113 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Flerovium, 114 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Moscovium, 115 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Livermorium, 116 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Tennessine, 117 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Oganesson, 118 (unknown chemical properties)

values:
0
table-layout:fixed; width:100%;
periodic-table-legend

values:
/wiki/Polyatomic_nonmetal
mw-redirect
Polyatomic nonmetal

values:
/wiki/Diatomic_nonmetal
mw-redirect
Diatomic nonmetal

values: width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; font-size:85%; background:#f8f8f8; margin:0; font-size:90%; margin-top:0.5em;

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-inner

values: Uranium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Uranium_tetraiodide
mw-redirect
Uranium tetraiodide

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Thermal_neutron
mw-redirect
Thermal neutron

values:
/wiki/Fusion_neutron
mw-redirect
Fusion neutron

values: Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

values: Single-photon emission computed tomography

values: List of estimated death tolls from nuclear attacks on cities

values: List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States

values: List of weapons of mass destruction treaties

values: Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future

values: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor

values:
/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor
mw-redirect
Kerena boiling water reactor

values:
/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor
mw-redirect
Heavy-water reactor

values:
/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor
mw-redirect
Advanced gas-cooled reactor

values:
/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor
mw-redirect
Fast breeder reactor

values: Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor

values: Organically moderated and cooled reactor

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4187153-4

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr)

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from September 2016

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating

values: Category:Use dmy dates from February 2013

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Uranium
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraan
Uraan – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values: يورانيوم – Arabic

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniu
Uraniu – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: ইউরেনিয়াম – Bangla

values: Уран (хімічны элемент) – Belarusian

values: Уран (хімічны элемэнт) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: यूरेनियम – Bhojpuri

values: Уран (елемент) – Bulgarian

values: ཡུ་རེ་ནིམ། – Tibetan

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranij
Uranij – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniom
Uraniom – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Уран (элемент) – Chuvash

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyo
Uranyo – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurenyamu
Yurenyamu – Shona
sn
sn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniu
Uraniu – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wraniwm
Wraniwm – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraan
Uraan – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ουράνιο – Greek

values: Уран (элемент) – Erzya

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: اورانیوم – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Friulian
fur
fur
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraanium
Uraanium – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: યુરેનિયમ – Gujarati

values:
https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Hakka Chinese
hak
hak
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уранум – Kalmyk

values: Ուրան (տարր) – Armenian

values: यूरेनियम – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranij
Uranij – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Aran
Úran – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: אורניום – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಯುರೇನಿಯಮ್ – Kannada

values: ურანი (ელემენტი) – Georgian

values: Уран (химиялық элемент) – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уран (элемент) – Komi

values: Уран (химиялык элемент) – Kyrgyz

values:
https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Ladino
lad
lad
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urannio
Urannio – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranio
Uranio – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur%C3%A1n
Urán – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: യുറേനിയം – Malayalam

values: युरेनियम – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уран (химийн элемент) – Mongolian

values: ယူရေနီယမ် – Burmese

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: युर्यानियम – Newari

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraan
Uraan – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values: ୟୁରାନିଅମ – Odia

values: ਯੂਰੇਨੀਅਮ – Punjabi

values: युर्यानियम – Pali

values: يورانيم – Pashto

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniu
Uraniu – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyu
Uranyu – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уран (элемент) – Russian

values: Ураниум – Sakha

values: यूरेनियम – Sanskrit

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Saterland Frisian
stq
stq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniu
Uraniu – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values: යුරේනියම් – Sinhala

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уранијум – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranijum
Uranijum – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Uranium – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraani
Uraani – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uran
Uran – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyo
Uranyo – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: யுரேனியம் – Tamil

values: Уран (химик элемент) – Tatar

values: యురేనియం – Telugu

values: ยูเรเนียม – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyum
Uranyum – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Уран (хімічний елемент) – Ukrainian

values: یورینیئم – Urdu

values: ئۇران – Uyghur

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urani
Urani – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyo
Uranyo – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values: אוראניום – Yiddish

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%88%BE
鈾 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Uranium rootpage-Uranium skin-vector action-view