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Development of the Christian biblical canon
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The Christian biblical canons are the books Christians regard as divinely inspired and which constitute a Christian Bible. Which books constituted the Christian biblical canons of both the Old and New Testament was generally established by the 5th century, despite some scholarly disagreements,[1] for the ancient undivided Church (the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, before the East–West Schism).
In the wake of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic canon was reaffirmed by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent (1546), which provided "the first infallible and effectually promulgated pronouncement on the Canon" by the Roman Catholic Church.[2] The canons of the Church of England and English Calvinists were decided definitively by the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), respectively. The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) established additional canons that are widely accepted throughout the Orthodox Church.
The Old and New Testament canons did not develop independently of each other and most primary sources for the canon specify both Old and New Testament books. A comprehensive table of biblical scripture for both Testaments, with regard to canonical acceptance in Christendom's various major traditions, can be found here.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development of the Old Testament canon
2 Development of the New Testament canon
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Development of the Old Testament canon[edit]
Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon
The Old Testament (sometimes abbreviated OT) is the first section of the two-part Christian Biblical canon and is based on the Hebrew Bible but can include several Deuterocanonical books or Anagignoskomena depending on the particular Christian denomination. For a full discussion of these differences, see Books of the Bible.
Following Jerome's principle of Veritas Hebraica (Latin for "Hebrew truth"), the Protestant Old Testament consists of the same books as the Hebrew Bible, but the order and numbering of the books are different. Protestants number the Old Testament books at 39, while Jews number the same books as 24. This is because Jews consider Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles to form one book each, group the 12 minor prophets into one book, and also consider Ezra and Nehemiah a single book.
The traditional explanation of the development of the Old Testament canon describes two sets of Old Testament books, the protocanonical books and the deuterocanonical books (the latter considered non-canonical by Protestants). According to this theory, certain Church fathers accepted the inclusion of the deuterocanonical books based on their inclusion in the Septuagint (most notably Augustine), while others disputed their status and did not accept them as divinely inspired scripture (most notably Jerome).
~ Books of the Old Testament ~
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh.
Common to Judaism, Samaritanism and Christianity (excepting the minority of Protestant denominations sometimes called New Testament only Christians which reject the "Old Testament")
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Common to Judaism and Christianity but excluded by Samaritans
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1–2 Samuel
1–2 Kings
1–2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Solomon
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Minor prophets[3]
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Included by Catholics, Orthodox, but excluded by Jews, Samaritans and most Protestants:
Tobit
Judith
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
Wisdom (of Solomon)
Sirach
Baruch, includes Letter of Jeremiah (Additions to Jeremiah)
Additions to Daniel
Additions to Esther
Included by Orthodox (Synod of Jerusalem):
1 Esdras (see Esdras for other names)
3 Maccabees
4 Maccabees (listed but not canonical)
Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151
Included by Russian and Ethiopian Orthodox:
2 Esdras
Included by Ethiopian Orthodox:
Jubilees
Enoch
1–3 Meqabyan
Included by Syriac Peshitta Bible:
Psalms 152–155
2 Baruch
Development of the New Testament canon[edit]
Main articles: Canonical gospels and Development of the New Testament canon
The development of the New Testament canon was, like that of the Old Testament, a gradual process.
Irenaeus (died c. 202) quotes and cites 21 books that would end up as part of the New Testament, but does not use Philemon, Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 3 John and Jude.[4] By the early 3rd century Origen of Alexandria may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation[5] (see also Antilegomena). Likewise by 200 the Muratorian fragment shows that there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the New Testament, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.[6] Thus, while there was plenty of discussion in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the "major" writings were accepted by almost all Christian authorities by the middle of the second century.[7]
The next two hundred years followed a similar process of continual discussion throughout the entire Church, and localized refinements of acceptance. This process was not yet complete at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, though substantial progress had been made by then. Though a list was clearly necessary to fulfill Constantine's commission in 331 of fifty copies of the Bible for the Church at Constantinople, no concrete evidence exists to indicate that it was considered to be a formal canon. In the absence of a canonical list, the resolution of questions would normally have been directed through the see of Constantinople, in consultation with Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (who was given the commission), and perhaps other bishops who were available locally.
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books that would formally become the New Testament canon,[8] and he used the word "canonized" (kanonizomena) in regard to them.[9] The first council that accepted the present Catholic canon (the Canon of Trent) may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393). The acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419).[10] These councils took place under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.[11] Pope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above,[8] or if not the list is at least a 6th-century compilation[12] claiming a 4th-century imprimatur.[13] Likewise, Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.[14] In 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. When these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the church."[15] Thus, from the 5th century onward, the Western Church was unanimous concerning the New Testament canon.[16]
The last book to be accepted universally was the Book of Revelation, though with time all the Eastern Church also agreed. Thus, by the 5th century, both the Western and Eastern churches had come into agreement on the matter of the New Testament canon.[17] The Council of Trent of 1546 reaffirmed that finalization for Catholicism in the wake of the Protestant Reformation.[18] The Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England and the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for English Calvinism established the official finalizations for those new branches of Christianity in light of the break with Rome. The Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 made no changes to the New Testament canon for any Orthodox, but resolved some questions about some of the minor Old Testament books for the Greek Orthodox and most other Orthodox jurisdictions (who chose to accept it).
~ Books of the New Testament ~
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles George (1908). The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company,. pp. 272, 273. ISBN 978-1174601828. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Reid, George. "Canon of the Old Testament". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
Jump up ^ These are one book in the Jewish Bible, called "Trei Asar" or "Twelve".
Jump up ^ Bruce, F. F. The Books and the Parchments. (Fleming H. Revell Company, 1963) p. 109.
Jump up ^ Both points taken from Mark A. Noll's Turning Points, (Baker Academic, 1997) pp. 36–37.
Jump up ^ H. J. De Jonge, "The New Testament Canon", in The Biblical Canons. eds. de Jonge & J. M. Auwers (Leuven University Press, 2003) p. 315.
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 308.
^ Jump up to: a b Lindberg, Carter (2006). A Brief History of Christianity. Blackwell Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 1-4051-1078-3.
Jump up ^ Brakke, David (October 1994). "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth-Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty-Ninth 'Festal Letter'". The Harvard Theological Review. 87 (4): 395–419. JSTOR 1509966.
Jump up ^ McDonald & Sanders' The Canon Debate, Appendix D-2, note 19: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."
Jump up ^ Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 22.8
Jump up ^ F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 234
Jump up ^ Burkitt, F. C. (1913). "The Decretum Gelasianum". Journal of Theological Studies. 14: 469–471. Retrieved 2015-08-12.
Jump up ^ F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 225
Jump up ^ Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320, which cites: Bruce Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987) pp. 237–238, and F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 97
Jump up ^ F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 215
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 305; cf. the Catholic Encyclopedia, "Canon of the New Testament"
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Canon of the New Testament"
Further reading[edit]
Armstrong, Karen (2007) The Bible: A Biography. Books that Changes the World Series. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-969-3
External links[edit]
WELS Topical Q&A: Canon - 66 Books in the Bible, by Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (Confessional Lutheran perspective)
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Death Wish (1974 film)
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Death Wish
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Michael Winner
Produced by
Dino De Laurentiis
Hal Landers
Bobby Roberts
Screenplay by
Wendell Mayes
Based on
Death Wish
by Brian Garfield
Starring
Charles Bronson
Hope Lange
Vincent Gardenia
William Redfield
Steven Keats
Music by
Herbie Hancock
Cinematography
Arthur J. Ornitz
Edited by
Bernard Gribble
Production
company
Dino De Laurentiis Corporation
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures (United States)
Columbia Pictures (International)
Release date
July 24, 1974 (1974-07-24)
Running time
94 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$3 million
Box office
$22 million[2][3]
Death Wish is a 1974 American vigilante action film, loosely based on the 1972 novel of the same title by Brian Garfield. The film was directed by Michael Winner and stars Charles Bronson as Paul Kersey, an architect who becomes a vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted during a home invasion. It was the first of the Death Wish film franchise.
At the time of release, the film was attacked by many film critics due to its support of vigilantism and advocating unlimited punishment of criminals.[4] The novel denounced vigilantism, whereas the film embraced the notion. The film was a commercial success and resonated with the public in the United States, which was facing increasing crime rates during the 1970s.[5]
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Soundtrack
5 Reception
6 Impact and influence
7 Home media
8 Remake
9 See also
10 References
10.1 Notes
10.2 Bibliography
11 External links
Plot[edit]
Paul Kersey is an architect living in Manhattan with his wife Joanna and grown daughter Carol. One day, Joanna and Carol are followed home from D'Agostino's by three thugs who invade the apartment, posing as deliverymen. Upon finding that Carol and Joanna only have $7 on them, the thugs proceed to rape Carol and brutally beat Joanna before fleeing. Upon arriving at the hospital, Paul is devastated to learn that Joanna has died from her injuries. After his wife's funeral during a snowstorm in Connecticut, Paul has an encounter with a mugger in a darkened street. Paul fights back with a homemade weapon - an improvised blackjack made from a sock with two rolls of quarters in it - causing the mugger to run away. Paul is shaken and energized by the encounter.
Paul's boss sends him to Tucson, Arizona to see Ames Jainchill, a client with a residential development project. A few days later Paul is invited to dinner by Ames at his gun club. Ames is impressed with Paul's accuracy at the target range. Paul reveals that he was a conscientious objector during the Korean War when he served as a combat medic. He had been taught to handle firearms by his father, a hunter, but after he was killed in a hunting accident Paul's mother made him swear never to use guns again. Ames drives Paul back to the Tucson airport, and presents Paul with a gift for his work on the development, which he places into Paul's checked luggage.
Back in Manhattan, Paul learns from his son-in-law, Jack, that his daughter is severely depressed from the trauma of the assault and is now catatonic. Paul and his son-in-law have his daughter committed to a mental hospital. Paul learns that Ames has given him a revolver. He loads it, then takes a late night walk during which he is mugged at gunpoint. Paul shoots the mugger, and in a state of shock, he runs home and vomits. The next night Paul walks through the city looking for violent criminals. Over the next few weeks, Paul kills several people, some of whom he provokes into attacking him and others whom he sees attacking others.
NYPD Lt. Frank Ochoa investigates the vigilante killings. His department narrows it down to a list of men who have had a family member recently killed by muggers and who are war veterans. Ochoa soon suspects Paul and is about to make an arrest when the District Attorney intervenes and tells Ochoa to "let him loose" in another city instead. The D.A. and the Police Commissioner do not want the fact to get out that street crime in New York City has dropped dramatically since Paul became a vigilante and fear that if he is not stopped the whole city will descend into chaos. But they don't want him to be arrested, because they don't want a martyr. Ochoa does not like the idea, but relents.
Paul shoots two muggers on the stairs before being wounded in the leg by a third mugger with a pistol, who Kersey then pursues to a warehouse. When Paul corners him, he challenges him to a fast draw, only to faint, with the mugger escaping. His gun is discovered by a young patrolman named Jackson Reilly, who hands it to Ochoa, and is told to forget he ever saw it. The press are informed that Paul is just another mugging victim. Hospitalized, Ochoa tells Paul to have his company transfer him to another city and, in exchange, Ochoa will dispose of Paul's revolver. In addition, Paul is ordered by Ochoa to leave New York, permanently.
Paul arrives in Chicago Union Station by train. Being greeted by a company representative, he notices a group of hoodlums harassing a young woman. He excuses himself and helps the woman. The hoodlums make obscene gestures, but Paul makes a finger gun at them and smiles.
Cast[edit]
Charles Bronson as Paul Kersey
Hope Lange as Joanna Kersey
Vincent Gardenia as NYPD Lt. Frank Ochoa
William Redfield as Samuel "Sam" Kreutzer
Steven Keats as Jack Toby
Stuart Margolin as Ames Jainchill
Stephen Elliott as Police Commissioner
Kathleen Tolan as Carol Toby
Jack Wallace as Hank
Robert Kya-Hill as Joe Charles
Jeff Goldblum as Freak #1
Christopher Guest as Jackson Reilly
Uncredited
Olympia Dukakis as Cop at precinct
Paul Dooley as Cop at hospital
Eric Laneuville as Subway mugger
Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs as Park mugger
Sonia Manzano as Grocery clerk
Tom Hayden as E.R. doctor
Ciro "Jerry" Palazzo as Moving man
Character actor Robert Miano had a minor role as a mugger in the film. John Herzfeld played the mugger who cuts Paul's newspaper on the subway. Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs, who later co-starred on the highly successful television show Welcome Back, Kotter, had an uncredited role as one of the Central Park muggers near the end of the film. It has been rumored that Denzel Washington made his screen debut as an uncredited alley mugger, because, in a long shot, the actor shown appears to resemble him, but according to Washington himself, that is not true.[6] Actress Helen Martin, who had a minor role, subsequently appeared in the television sitcoms Good Times and 227. Sonia Manzano (Maria from Sesame Street), has an uncredited role as a supermarket checkout clerk. Christopher Guest makes one of his earliest film appearances as a young police officer who finds Kersey's gun. The film also marked Jeff Goldblum's screen debut, playing one of the "freaks" who assaulted Kersey's family early in the film.
Production[edit]
The film was based on Brian Garfield's 1972 novel of the same name. Garfield was inspired to use the theme of vigilantism following incidents in his personal life. In one incident, his wife's purse was stolen; in another, his car was vandalized. His initial thought each time was that he could kill "the son of a bitch" responsible. He later considered that these were primitive thoughts, contemplated in an unguarded moment. He then thought of writing a novel about a man who entered this way of thinking in a moment of rage and then never emerged from it.[7] The original novel received favorable reviews but was not a best seller. Garfield sold screen rights to both Death Wish and Relentless to the only film producers who approached him, Hal Landers and Bobby Roberts. He was offered the chance to write a screenplay adapting one of the two novels, and chose Relentless. He simply considered it the easier of the two to turn into a film.[7]
Wendell Mayes was then hired to write the screenplay for Death Wish. He preserved the basic structure of the novel and much of the philosophical dialogue. It was his idea to turn police detective Frank Ochoa into a major character of the film.[7] His early drafts for the screenplay had different endings than the final one. In one, he followed an idea from Garfield. The vigilante confronts the three thugs who attacked his family and ends up dead at their hands. Ochoa discovers the dead man's weapon and considers following in his footsteps.[7] In another, the vigilante is wounded and rushed to a hospital. His fate is left ambiguous. Meanwhile, Ochoa has found the weapon and struggles with the decision to use it. His decision is left unclear.[7]
Originally, Sidney Lumet was to have directed Jack Lemmon as Paul and Henry Fonda as Ochoa.[8] Lumet bowed out of the project to direct Serpico (1973), requiring a search for another director.[7] Several were considered. United Artists eventually chose Michael Winner, due to his track record of gritty, violent action films. The examples of his work considered included The Mechanic (1972), Scorpio (1973), and The Stone Killer (1973).[7]
The film was rejected by other studios because of its controversial subject matter, and the perceived difficulty of casting someone in the vigilante role. Winner attempted to recruit Bronson, but there were two problems for the actor. First, his agent, Paul Kohner, considered that the film carried a dangerous message. Second, at this point the screenplay followed the original novel in describing the vigilante as a meek accountant—hardly a suitable role for Bronson.[7]
"I was really a miscast person," Bronson said later. "It was more a theme that would have been better for Dustin Hoffman or somebody who could play a weaker kind of man. I told them that at the time."[9]
The film project was dropped by United Artists after budget constraints forced producers Hal Landers and Bobby Roberts to liquidate their rights. The original producers were replaced by Italian film mogul Dino De Laurentiis.[8]
De Laurentiis convinced Charles Bluhdorn to bring the project to Paramount Pictures. Paramount purchased the distribution rights of the film in the United States market, while Columbia Pictures licensed the distribution rights for international markets. De Laurentiis raised the $3 million budget of the film by pre-selling the distribution rights.[8]
With funding secured, screenwriter Gerald Wilson was hired to revise the script. His first task was changing the identity of the vigilante to make the role more suitable for Bronson. "Paul Benjamin" was renamed to "Paul Kersey". His job was changed from accountant to architect. His background changed from a World War II veteran to a Korean War veteran. The reason for him not seeing combat duty changed from serving as an army accountant to being a conscientious objector.[7] Several vignettes from Mayes' script were deemed unnecessary and were therefore deleted.[7]
Winner himself asked for several revisions in the script. Both the novel and the original script had no scenes showing the vigilante interacting with his wife. Winner decided to include a prologue depicting a happy relationship, so the prologue of the film depicts the couple vacationing in Hawaii.[7] The early draft of the script had the vigilante being inspired by seeing a fight scene in the Western film High Noon. Winner decided on a more elaborate scene, involving a fight scene in a recreation of the Wild West, taking place in Tucson, Arizona. The final script had the vigilante making an occasional reference to Westerns. While confronting an armed mugger, he challenges him to draw (Kersey tells him to "fill your hand"—the same challenge issued by Western movie icon John Wayne to his main opponent in the climactic shoot-out in 1969's True Grit). When Ochoa tells him to get out of town, he asks if he has until sundown to do so.[7] The killing in the subway station was supposed to remain off-screen in Mayes' script, but Winner himself decided to turn this into an actual, brutal scene.[7]
A minor argument occurred when it came to a shooting location for the film. Bronson asked for a California-based location so he could visit his family in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Winner insisted on New York City and De Laurentiis agreed. Ultimately, Bronson backed down.[7] Death Wish was shot on location in New York City, during the winter of 1973-1974.[7] Death Wish was first released to American audiences in July 1974. The world premiere took place on July 24 in the Loews Theater of New York City.[7]
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: Death Wish (soundtrack)
Multiple Grammy award-winning jazz musician Herbie Hancock produced and composed the original score for the soundtrack to the movie. This was his third film score, behind the 1966 movie Blow-Up and 1973's The Spook Who Sat By The Door. Michael Winner said, "[Dino] De Laurentiis said 'Get a cheap English band.' Because the English bands were very successful. But I had a girlfriend who was in Sesame Street, a Puerto Rican actress (Sonia Manzano), who played a checkout girl at the supermarket [in Death Wish], and she was a great jazz fan. She said, 'Well, you should have Herbie Hancock. He's got this record out called Head Hunters.' She gave me Head Hunters, which was staggering. And I said, 'Dino, never mind a cheap English band, we'll have Herbie Hancock.' Which we did."[citation needed]
Hancock's theme for the film was quoted in "Judge, Jury and Executioner," a 2013 single by Atoms for Peace.[citation needed]
Reception[edit]
Death Wish received mixed to extremely negative reviews upon its release, due to its support of vigilantism, but it affected U.S. audiences and began widespread debate over how to deal with rampant crime. The film's graphic violence, particularly the brutal rape scene of Kersey's daughter, as well as the explicit portrayal of Kersey's premeditated slayings, was considered exploitative, but realistic in the context of an urban U.S. atmosphere of rising crime rates.[10][11]
Many critics were displeased with the film, considering it an "immoral threat to society" and an encouragement of antisocial behavior. Vincent Canby of the New York Times was one of the most outspoken writers, condemning Death Wish in two extensive articles.[12][13][14] Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review, while not agreeing with its philosophy.[15]
Garfield was also unhappy with the final product, calling the film "incendiary", and stated that the film's sequels are all pointless and rancid, since they advocate vigilantism, unlike his two novels, which make the opposite argument. The film led him to write a follow-up titled Death Sentence, which was published a year after the film's release. In later years, the film would be liked for its disturbing, serious view of one man's violent war on crime. Bronson defended the film: he felt it was intended to be a commentary on violence and was meant to attack violence, not romanticize it. Many critics rate the original film higher than the sequels, which were more exploitative and contrived.[citation needed]
Death Wish currently maintains a 65% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated[16]
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Paul Kersey – Nominated Hero[17]
Impact and influence[edit]
Death Wish was a watershed for Bronson, who was 53 years old at the time, and who was then better known in Europe and Asia for his role in The Great Escape. Bronson became an American film icon, who experienced great popularity over the next twenty years.
In the series' later years, the Death Wish franchise became a subject of parody for its high level of violence and the advancing age of Bronson (a 1995 episode of The Simpsons named "A Star Is Burns" showed a fictional advertisement for Death Wish 9, consisting of a bed-ridden Bronson saying "I wish I was dead"). However, the Death Wish franchise remained lucrative, and drew support from fans of exploitation cinema. The series continues to have a widespread following on home video, and is occasionally broadcast on various television stations in the US and Europe.
In an episode of American Dad!, "The One That Got Away", Roger dresses similarly to the protagonist when he plans revenge on an alternate personality of himself. He tells an alternate character that Death Wish was a movie, when his reference via outfit is misconstrued.
Bronson is mentioned in the 1997 The Notorious B.I.G. classic "Kick in the Door". In the song, Biggie proclaims: "Sold more powder than Johnson and Johnson/Tote steel like Bronson, vigilante/You wanna get on son, you need to ask me."
In the 1985-1986 Spider-Man comic arc "The Death of Jean DeWolff", Bronson makes a small appearance in one panel, holding a newspaper with the headline "vigilante".
A clip from the film of Jeff Goldblum's hoodlum-rapist character yelling "Goddamn rich cunt!" was often played on The Opie and Anthony Show.
In the 2003 release Champion Sound by hiphop duo Jaylib, on the track "The Official", J Dilla says: "I keeps it bouncing when the P.I's wanna wish for death, Im C. Bronson".[18]
In 2011, Taki's Magazine profiled a white nationalist author and blogger who adopted the pseudonym "Paul Kersey" after the Bronson character.[19]
In Michael Chabon's 2012 novel Telegraph Avenue, Death Wish is Luther Stalling's favorite film.[citation needed]
Curtis Sliwa described Bernhard Goetz as "Charles Bronson in Death Wish."[20]
In the 2013 videogame PAYDAY 2, one of the difficulties is called Death Wish.
In the 2015 videogame Hotline Miami 2: Wrong Number, a level is called Death Wish.
Home media[edit]
The film was first released on VHS and LaserDisc in 1980. It was later released on DVD in 2001 and 2006. A 40th Anniversary Edition was released on Blu-ray in 2014.The DVD was rereleased in 2017.[21]
Remake[edit]
Main article: Death Wish (2018 film)
In March 2016, Paramount and MGM announced that Aharon Keshales and Navot Papushado would direct a remake starring Bruce Willis.[22] In May, Keshales and Papushado quit the project, after the studio failed to allow their script rewrites. In June, Eli Roth signed on to direct. The film was released on March 2, 2018.[23][24]
See also[edit]
1970s portal
Film portal
United States portal
Death Wish film series
List of American films of 1974
List of films featuring home invasions
Il giustiziere di mezzogiorno, a Death Wish parody film
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "DEATH WISH (X)". British Board of Film Classification. October 23, 1974. Retrieved September 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Death Wish, Box Office Information". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Death Wish, Box Office Information". The Numbers. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Death Wish Movie Reviews". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 13. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
Jump up ^ Shager, Nick (22 December 2016). "Denzel Washington Shoots Down Rumor He's in 1974 'Death Wish': 'I Wasn't Even an Actor Yet'". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Talbot (2006), p. 1-31
^ Jump up to: a b c Nikki Tranter. "Historian: Interview with Brian Garfield".
Jump up ^ For Bronson, Piecework Is a Virtue: Movies Piecework a Virtue for Charles Bronson Piecework a Virtue for Bronson Warga, Wayne. Los Angeles Times 2 Nov 1975: o1
Jump up ^ "Death Wish". Chicago Sun Times. Retrieved 2010-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Review: 'Death Wish'". Variety. December 31, 1973. Archived from the original on April 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Canby, Vincent (1974-08-04). "Screen: 'Death Wish' Exploits Fear Irresponsibly; 'Death Wish' Exploits Our Fear". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
Jump up ^ Canby, Vincent (1974-07-25). "Screen: 'Death Wish' Hunts Muggers:The Cast Story of Gunman Takes Dim View of City". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
Jump up ^ Severo, Richard (2003-09-01). "Charles Bronson, 81, Movie Tough Guy, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-05.
Jump up ^ Death Wish, Roger Ebert's Movie Reviews. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved November 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills Nominees" (PDF). Retrieved August 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains Nominees" (PDF). Retrieved August 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Jaylib – The Official, retrieved 2016-07-08
Jump up ^ Shaidle, Kathy (August 22, 2011). "The Charles Bronson of Race". Taki's Magazine.
Jump up ^ Siegle, Harry (July 12, 2013). "Bernhard Goetz on George Zimmerman: 'The Same Thing Is Happening'". The Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ Webmaster (October 23, 2013). "Death Wish: 40th Anniversary Edition Blu-ray". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Jr, Mike (March 4, 2016). "'Death Wish' Revamp With Bruce Willis To Be Helmed By 'Big Bad Wolves' Directors Aharon Keshales & Navot Papushado". Deadline Hollywood.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr., Mike (June 20, 2016). "Eli Roth To Direct Bruce Willis In 'Death Wish' Remake". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (2017-06-08). "Bruce Willis' 'Death Wish' remake lands November launch with Annapurna". Variety. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bibliography[edit]
Talbot, Paul (2006), "Death Wish: Vigilante, City Style - Judge, Jury, and Executioner", Bronson's Loose!: The Making of the Death Wish Films, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595379828
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Death Wish (1974 film).
Death Wish on IMDb
Death Wish at the TCM Movie Database
Death Wish at Box Office Mojo
Death Wish at Rotten Tomatoes
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Shoot to Kill (1960)
Climb Up the Wall (1960)
Old Mac (1961)
Out of the Shadow (1961)
Some Like It Cool (1961)
Behave Yourself (1962)
Play It Cool (1962)
The Cool Mikado (1963)
West 11 (1963)
The System (1964)
You Must Be Joking! (1965)
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I'll Never Forget What's'isname (1967)
Hannibal Brooks (1969)
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Lawman (1971)
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Chato's Land (1972)
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Scorpio (1973)
The Stone Killer (1973)
Death Wish (1974)
Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood (1976)
The Sentinel (1977)
The Big Sleep (1978)
Firepower (1979)
Death Wish II (1982)
The Wicked Lady (1983)
Scream for Help (1984)
Death Wish 3 (1985)
Appointment with Death (1988)
A Chorus of Disapproval (1989)
Bullseye! (1990)
Dirty Weekend (1993)
Parting Shots (1999)
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White blood cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the cells of the immune system also known as white blood cells. For the album by the band The White Stripes, see White Blood Cells (album).
White blood cell (WBC)
A scanning electron microscope image of normal circulating human blood. In addition to the irregularly shaped leukocytes, both red blood cells and many small disc-shaped platelets are visible.
Identifiers
MeSH
D007962
TH
H2.00.04.1.02001
FMA
62852
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.[1]
All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets. Types of white blood cells can be classified in standard ways. Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes or agranulocytes) or by cell division lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells). These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.[2] These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics. Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic. Further subtypes can be classified; for example, among lymphocytes, there are B cells, T cells, and NK cells.
The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease, and thus the WBC count is an important subset of the complete blood count. The normal white cell count is usually between 4 × 109/L and 11 × 109/L. In the US this is usually expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood.[3] They make up approximately 1% of the total blood volume in a healthy adult,[4] making them substantially less numerous than the RBCs at 40% to 45%. However, this 1% of the blood makes a large difference to health, because immunity depends on it. An increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limits is called leukocytosis. It is normal when it is part of healthy immune responses, which happen frequently. It is occasionally abnormal, when it is neoplastic or autoimmune in origin. A decrease below the lower limit is called leukopenia. It weakens the immune system.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Types
2.1 Overview
2.2 Neutrophil
2.3 Eosinophil
2.4 Basophil
2.5 Lymphocyte
2.6 Monocyte
3 Fixed leucocytes
4 Disorders
4.1 Leucopenias
4.1.1 Neutropenia
4.1.2 Lymphocytopenia
4.2 Proliferative disorders
4.2.1 Neutrophilia
4.2.2 Eosinophilia
5 Counting and reference ranges
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The name "white blood cell" derives from the physical appearance of a blood sample after centrifugation. White cells are found in the buff, a thin, typically white layer of nucleated cells between the sedimented red blood cells and the blood plasma. The scientific term leukocyte directly reflects its description. It is derived from the Greek roots leuk- meaning "white" and cyt- meaning "cell". The buffy coat may sometimes be green if there are large amounts of neutrophils in the sample, due to the heme-containing enzyme myeloperoxidase that they produce.
Types[edit]
Overview[edit]
3D rendering of various types of white blood cells[5]
All white blood cells are nucleated, which distinguishes them from the anucleated red blood cells and platelets. Types of leukocytes can be classified in standard ways. Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes or agranulocytes) or by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells). These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.[2] These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics. Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic. Further subtypes can be classified.
Granulocytes are distinguished from agranulocytes by their nucleus shape (lobed versus round, that is, polymorphonuclear versus mononuclear) and by their cytoplasm granules (present or absent, or more precisely, visible on light microscopy or not thus visible). The other dichotomy is by lineage: Myeloid cells (neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils) are distinguished from lymphoid cells (lymphocytes) by hematopoietic lineage (cellular differentiation lineage).[6] Lymphocytes can be further classified as T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells.
Type
Microscopic appearance
Diagram
Approx. %
in adults
See also:
Blood values
Diameter (μm)[7]
Main targets[4]
Nucleus[4]
Granules[4]
Lifetime[7]
Neutrophil 62% 10–12
Bacteria
Fungi
Multilobed Fine, faintly pink (H&E stain) 6 hours–few days
(days in spleen and other tissue)
Eosinophil 2.3% 10–12
Larger parasites
Modulate allergic inflammatory responses
Bi-lobed Full of pink-orange (H&E stain) 8–12 days (circulate for 4–5 hours)
Basophil 0.4% 12–15
Release histamine for inflammatory responses
Bi-lobed or tri-lobed Large blue A few hours to a few days
Lymphocyte 30% Small lymphocytes 7–8 Large lymphocytes 12–15
B cells: releases antibodies and assists activation of T cells
T cells:
CD4+ Th (T helper) cells: activate and regulate T and B cells
CD8+ cytotoxic T cells: virus-infected and tumor cells.
γδ T cells: bridge between innate and adaptive immune responses; phagocytosis
Regulatory (suppressor) T cells: Returns the functioning of the immune system to normal operation after infection; prevents autoimmunity
Natural killer cells: virus-infected and tumor cells.
Deeply staining, eccentric NK-cells and cytotoxic (CD8+) T-cells Years for memory cells, weeks for all else.
Monocyte 5.3% 15–30[8] Monocytes migrate from the bloodstream to other tissues and differentiate into tissue resident macrophages, Kupffer cells in the liver. Kidney shaped None Hours to days
Neutrophil[edit]
Main article: Neutrophil granulocyte
Neutrophil engulfing anthrax bacteria
Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cell, constituting 60-70% of the circulating leukocytes.[4] They defend against bacterial or fungal infection. They are usually first responders to microbial infection; their activity and death in large numbers form pus. They are commonly referred to as polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes, although, in the technical sense, PMN refers to all granulocytes. They have a multi-lobed nucleus, which consists of three to five lobes connected by slender strands.[9] This gives the neutrophils the appearance of having multiple nuclei, hence the name polymorphonuclear leukocyte. The cytoplasm may look transparent because of fine granules that are pale lilac when stained. Neutrophils are active in phagocytosing bacteria and are present in large amount in the pus of wounds. These cells are not able to renew their lysosomes (used in digesting microbes) and die after having phagocytosed a few pathogens.[10] Neutrophils are the most common cell type seen in the early stages of acute inflammation. The life span of a circulating human neutrophil is about 5.4 days.[11]
Eosinophil[edit]
Main article: Eosinophil granulocyte
Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. This count fluctuates throughout the day, seasonally, and during menstruation. It rises in response to allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and disease of the spleen and central nervous system. They are rare in the blood, but numerous in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.[9]
They primarily deal with parasitic infections. Eosinophils are also the predominant inflammatory cells in allergic reactions. The most important causes of eosinophilia include allergies such as asthma, hay fever, and hives; and also parasitic infections. They secrete chemicals that destroy these large parasites, such as hook worms and tapeworms, that are too big for any one WBC to phagocytize. In general, their nucleus is bi-lobed. The lobes are connected by a thin strand.[9] The cytoplasm is full of granules that assume a characteristic pink-orange color with eosin staining.
Basophil[edit]
Main article: Basophil granulocyte
Basophils are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the chemical histamine causing the dilation of blood vessels. Because they are the rarest of the white blood cells (less than 0.5% of the total count) and share physicochemical properties with other blood cells, they are difficult to study.[12] They can be recognized by several coarse, dark violet granules, giving them a blue hue. The nucleus is bi- or tri-lobed, but it is hard to see because of the number of coarse granules that hide it.
They excrete two chemicals that aid in the body's defenses: histamine and heparin. Histamine is responsible for widening blood vessels and increasing the flow of blood to injured tissue. It also makes blood vessels more permeable so neutrophils and clotting proteins can get into connective tissue more easily. Heparin is an anticoagulant that inhibits blood clotting and promotes the movement of white blood cells into an area. Basophils can also release chemical signals that attract eosinophils and neutrophils to an infection site.[9]
Lymphocyte[edit]
Main article: Lymphocyte
Lymphocytes are much more common in the lymphatic system than in blood. Lymphocytes are distinguished by having a deeply staining nucleus that may be eccentric in location, and a relatively small amount of cytoplasm. Lymphocytes include:
B cells make antibodies that can bind to pathogens, block pathogen invasion, activate the complement system, and enhance pathogen destruction.
T cells:
CD4+ helper T cells: T cells displaying co-receptor CD4 are known as CD4+ T cells. These cells have T-cell receptors and CD4 molecules that, in combination, bind antigenic peptides presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells. Helper T cells make cytokines and perform other functions that help coordinate the immune response. In HIV infection, these T cells are the main index to identify the individual's immune system integrity.
CD8+ cytotoxic T cells: T cells displaying co-receptor CD8 are known as CD8+ T cells. These cells bind antigens presented on MHC I complex of virus-infected or tumour cells and kill them. Nearly all nucleated cells display MHC I.
γδ T cells possess an alternative T cell receptor (different from the αβ TCR found on conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells). Found in tissue more commonly than in blood, γδ T cells share characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and natural killer cells.
Natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body that do not display MHC class I molecules, or display stress markers such as MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence A (MIC-A). Decreased expression of MHC class I and up-regulation of MIC-A can happen when cells are infected by a virus or become cancerous.
Monocyte[edit]
Main article: Monocyte
Monocytes, the largest type of WBCs, share the "vacuum cleaner" (phagocytosis) function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived as they have an extra role: they present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed. This causes an antibody response to be mounted. Monocytes eventually leave the bloodstream and become tissue macrophages, which remove dead cell debris as well as attack microorganisms. Neither dead cell debris nor attacking microorganisms can be dealt with effectively by the neutrophils. Unlike neutrophils, monocytes are able to replace their lysosomal contents and are thought to have a much longer active life. They have the kidney shaped nucleus and are typically agranulated. They also possess abundant cytoplasm.
Fixed leucocytes[edit]
HSC=Hematopoietic stem cell, Progenitor=Progenitor cell, L-blast=Lymphoblast, Lymphocyte, Mo-blast=Monoblast, Monocyte, Myeloblast, Pro-M=Promyelocyte, Myelocyte, Meta-M=Metamyelocyte, Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Pro-E=Proerythroblast, Baso-E=Basophilic erythroblast, poly-E=Polychromatic erythroblast, Ortho-E=Orthochromatic erythroblast, Erythrocyte, Promegakaryocyte, Megakaryocyte, Platelet
Some leucocytes migrate into the tissues of the body to take up a permanent residence at that location rather than remaining in the blood. Often these cells have specific names depending upon which tissue they settle in, such as fixed macrophages in the liver, which become known as Kupffer cells. These cells still serve a role in the immune system.
Histiocytes
Dendritic cells (Although these will often migrate to local lymph nodes upon ingesting antigens)
Mast cells
Microglia
Disorders[edit]
The two commonly used categories of white blood cell disorders divide them quantitatively into those causing excessive numbers (proliferative disorders) and those causing insufficient numbers (leukopenias).[13] Leukocytosis is usually healthy (e.g., fighting an infection), but it also may be dysfunctionally proliferative. WBC proliferative disorders can be classed as myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative. Some are autoimmune, but many are neoplastic.
Another way to categorize disorders of white blood cells is qualitatively. There are various disorders in which the number of white blood cells is normal but the cells do not function normally.[14]
Neoplasia of WBCs can be benign but is often malignant. Of the various tumors of the blood and lymph, cancers of WBCs can be broadly classified as leukemias and lymphomas, although those categories overlap and are often grouped as a pair.
Leucopenias[edit]
Main article: Leucopenia
A range of disorders can cause decreases in white blood cells. This type of white blood cell decreased is usually the neutrophil. In this case the decrease may be called neutropenia or granulocytopenia. Less commonly, a decrease in lymphocytes (called lymphocytopenia or lymphopenia) may be seen.[13]
Neutropenia[edit]
Main article: Neutropenia
Neutropenia can be acquired or intrinsic.[15] A decrease in levels of neutrophils on lab tests is due to either decreased production of neutrophils or increased removal from the blood.[13] The following list of causes is not complete.
Medications - chemotherapy, sulfas or other antibiotics, phenothiazenes, benzodiazepines, antithyroids, anticonvulsants, quinine, quinidine, indomethacin, procainamide, thiazides
Radiation
Toxins - alcohol, benzenes
Intrinsic disorders - Fanconi's, Kostmann's, cyclic neutropenia, Chédiak–Higashi
Immune dysfunction - disorders of collagen, AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis
Blood cell dysfunction - megaloblastic anemia, myelodysplasia, marrow failure, marrow replacement, acute leukemia
Any major infection
Miscellaneous - starvation, hypersplenism
Symptoms of neutropenia are associated with the underlying cause of the decrease in neutrophils. For example, the most common cause of acquired neutropenia is drug-induced, so an individual may have symptoms of medication overdose or toxicity. Treatment is also aimed at the underlying cause of the neutropenia.[16] One severe consequence of neutropenia is that it can increase the risk of infection.[14]
Lymphocytopenia[edit]
Main article: Lymphocytopenia
Defined as total lymphocyte count below 1.0x109/L, the cells most commonly affected are CD4+ T cells. Like neutropenia, lymphocytopenia may be acquired or intrinsic and there are many causes.[14] This is not a complete list.
Inherited immune deficiency - severe combined immunodeficiency, common variable immune deficiency, ataxia-telangiectasia, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, immunodeficiency with short-limbed dwarfism, immunodeficiency with thymoma, purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency, genetic polymorphism
Blood cell dysfunction - aplastic anemia
Infectious diseases - viral (AIDS, SARS, West Nile encephalitis, hepatitis, herpes, measles, others), bacterial (TB, typhoid, pneumonia, rickettsiosis, ehrlichiosis, sepsis), parasitic (acute phase of malaria)
Medications - chemotherapy (antilymphocyte globulin therapy, alemtuzumab, glucocorticoids)
Radiation
Major surgery
Miscellaneous - ECMO, kidney or bone marrow transplant, hemodialysis, kidney failure, severe burn, celiac disease, severe acute pancreatitis, sarcoidosis, protein-losing enteropathy, strenuous exercise, carcinoma
Immune dysfunction - arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren syndrome, myasthenia gravis, systemic vasculitis, Behcet-like syndrome, dermatomyositis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Nutritional/Dietary - alcohol abuse, zinc deficiency
Like neutropenia, symptoms and treatment of lymphocytopenia are directed at the underlying cause of the change in cell counts.
Proliferative disorders[edit]
Main article: Leukocytosis
An increase in the number of white blood cells in circulation is called leukocytosis.[13] This increase is most commonly caused by inflammation.[13] There are four major causes: increase of production in bone marrow, increased release from storage in bone marrow, decreased attachment to veins and arteries, decreased uptake by tissues.[13] Leukocytosis may affect one or more cell lines and can be neutrophilic, eosinophilic, basophilic, monocytosis, or lymphocytosis.
Neutrophilia[edit]
Main article: Neutrophilia
Neutrophilia is an increase in the absolute neutrophil count in the peripheral circulation. Normal blood values vary by age.[14] Neutrophilia can be caused by a direct problem with blood cells (primary disease). It can also occur as a consequence of an underlying disease (secondary). Most cases of neutrophilia are secondary to inflammation.[16]
Primary causes[16]
Conditions with normally functioning neutrophils – hereditary neutrophilia, chronic idiopathic neutrophilia
Pelger–Huet anomaly
Down syndrome
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency
Familial cold urticaria
Leukemia (chronic myelogenous (CML)) and other myeloproliferative disorders
Surgical removal of spleen[17]
Secondary causes[16]
Infection
Chronic inflammation – especially juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, Still's disease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, granulomatous infections (for example, tuberculosis), and chronic hepatitis
Cigarette smoking – occurs in 25–50% of chronic smokers and can last up to 5 years after quitting
Stress – exercise, surgery, general stress
Medication induced – corticosteroids (for example, prednisone, β-agonists, lithium)
Cancer – either by growth factors secreted by the tumor or invasion of bone marrow by the cancer
Increased destruction of cells in peripheral circulation can stimulate bone marrow. This can occur in hemolytic anemia and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
Eosinophilia[edit]
Main article: Eosinophilia
A normal eosinophil count is considered to be less than 0.65×109/L.[14] Eosinophil counts are higher in newborns and vary with age, time (lower in the morning and higher at night), exercise, environment, and exposure to allergens.[14] Eosinophilia is never a normal lab finding. Efforts should always be made to discover the underlying cause, though the cause may not always be found.[14]
Counting and reference ranges[edit]
The complete blood cell count is a blood panel that includes the overall WBC count and various subsets such as the absolute neutrophil count. Reference ranges for blood tests specify the typical counts in healthy people.
See also[edit]
Leukocyte-promoting factor
Biology portal
Medicine portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Maton, D., Hopkins, J., McLaughlin, Ch. W., Johnson, S., Warner, M. Q., LaHart, D., & Wright, J. D., Deep V. Kulkarni (1997). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, US: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b LaFleur-Brooks, M. (2008). Exploring Medical Language: A Student-Directed Approach (7th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri, US: Mosby Elsevier. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-323-04950-4.
Jump up ^ "Vital and Health Statistics Series 11, No. 247 (03/2005)" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bruce Alberts; Alexander Johnson; Julian Lewis; Martin Raff; Keith Roberts; Peter Walter (2002). "Leukocyte also known as macrophagesfunctions and percentage breakdown". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
Jump up ^ "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine. 1 (2). doi:10.15347/wjm/2014.010.
Jump up ^ Orkin, SH; Zon, LI (Feb 22, 2008). "SnapShot: hematopoiesis". Cell. 132 (4): 712. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.02.013. PMID 18295585.
^ Jump up to: a b Daniels, V. G., Wheater, P. R., & Burkitt, H.G. (1979). Functional histology: A text and colour atlas. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-01657-7. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Handin, Robert I.; Samuel E. Lux; Thomas P. Stossel (2003). Blood: Principles and Practice of Hematology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. p. 471. ISBN 9780781719933. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Saladin, Kenneth (2012). Anatomy and Physiology: the Unit of Form and Function (6 ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-337825-1.
Jump up ^ Wheater, Paul R.; Stevens, Alan (2002). Wheater's basic histopathology: a colour atlas and text (PDF). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07001-6.
Jump up ^ Pillay, J.; Den Braber, I.; Vrisekoop, N.; Kwast, L. M.; De Boer, R. J.; Borghans, J. A. M.; Tesselaar, K.; Koenderman, L. (2010). "In vivo labeling with 2H2O reveals a human neutrophil lifespan of 5.4 days". Blood. 116 (4): 625–7. doi:10.1182/blood-2010-01-259028. PMID 20410504.
Jump up ^ Falcone, Franco; Haas, Helmut; Gibbs, Bernard (15 December 2000). "The human basophil: a new appreciation of its role in immune responses". Blood. 96 (13): 4028–38. PMID 11110670.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Vinay Kumar; et al. (2010). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 1416031219.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kenneth Kaushansky et al., eds. (2010). Williams hematology (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 0071621512. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Richard A. McPherson; Matthew R. Pincus; Naif Z. Abraham Jr.; et al. (eds.). Henry's clinical diagnosis and management by laboratory methods (22nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1437709745.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lee Goldman; Andrew I. Schafer (eds.). Goldman's Cecil medicine (24th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1437716040.
Jump up ^ McBride, JA; Dacie, JV; Shapley, R (Feb 1968). "The effect of splenectomy on the leucocyte count". British journal of haematology. 14 (2): 225–31. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1968.tb01489.x. PMID 5635603.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to White blood cell.
Atlas of Hematology
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