text:
Pacific Plate
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Pacific Plate
Type
Major
Approximate area
103,300,000 km2 (39,900,000 sq mi)[1]
Movement1
north-west
Speed1
56–102 mm (2.2–4.0 in)/year
Features
Baja California, Hawaii, New Zealand, Pacific Ocean
1Relative to the African Plate
The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate.[2]
The Pacific Plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands.[3]
Hillis and Müller are reported to consider the Bird's Head Plate to be moving in unison with the Pacific Plate.[4] Bird considers them to be unconnected.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Boundaries
2 Paleo-geology of the Pacific Plate
3 References
4 External links
Boundaries[edit]
The north-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Explorer Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Gorda Plate forming respectively the Explorer Ridge, the Juan de Fuca Ridge and the Gorda Ridge. In the middle of the eastern side is a transform boundary with the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault, and a boundary with the Cocos Plate. The south-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Nazca Plate forming the East Pacific Rise.[citation needed]
The southern side is a divergent boundary with the Antarctic Plate forming the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge.[citation needed]
The western side, the plate is bounded by the Okhotsk Plate at the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench, forms a convergent boundary by subducting under the Philippine Sea Plate creating the Mariana Trench, has a transform boundary with the Caroline Plate, and has a collision boundary with the North Bismarck Plate.[citation needed]
In the south-west, the Pacific Plate has a complex but generally convergent boundary with the Indo-Australian Plate, subducting under it north of New Zealand forming the Tonga Trench and the Kermadec Trench. The Alpine Fault marks a transform boundary between the two plates, and further south the Indo-Australian Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate forming the Puysegur Trench. The southern part of Zealandia, which is to the east of this boundary, is the plate's largest block of continental crust.[citation needed]
The northern side is a convergent boundary subducting under the North American Plate forming the Aleutian Trench and the corresponding Aleutian Islands.[citation needed]
Paleo-geology of the Pacific Plate[edit]
The Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic crust, but it contains some continental crust in New Zealand, Baja California, and coastal California.[3]
The Pacific Plate has the distinction of showing one of the largest areal sections of the oldest members of seabed geology being entrenched into eastern Asian oceanic trenches. A geologic map of the Pacific Ocean seabed shows not only the geologic sequences, and associated Ring of Fire zones on the ocean's perimeters, but the various ages of the seafloor in a stairstep fashion, youngest to oldest, the oldest being consumed into the Asian oceanic trenches. The oldest member disappearing by way of the Plate Tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).[6]
All maps of the Earth's ocean floor geology show ages younger than 145 million years, only about 1/30 of the Earth's 4.55 billion year history.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blplate_size_table.htm
Jump up ^ "SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Frisch, Wolfgang; Meschede, Martin; Blakey, Ronald C. (2010), Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building, Springer, pp. 11–12, ISBN 9783540765042 .
Jump up ^ Hillis, R. R.; Müller, R. D. (2003). Evolution and Dynamics of the Australian Plate. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. p. 363. ISBN 0-8137-2372-8.
Jump up ^ Bird, P. (2003). "An updated digital model of plate boundaries". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 4 (3): 1027. doi:10.1029/2001GC000252. http://peterbird.name/publications/2003_PB2002/2003_PB2002.htm.
Jump up ^ Age of the Ocean Floor
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pacific tectonic plate.
Age of the Ocean Floor
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text:
Fish gill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gill arches bearing gills in a pike
Most fish exchange gases using gills on both sides of the pharynx (throat). Gills are tissues that are like short threads, protein structures called filaments. These filaments have many functions including the transfer of ions and water, as well as the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, acids and ammonia.[1][2] Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum.
Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Contents
[hide]
1 Breathing with gills
2 Bony fish
3 Cartilaginous fish
4 Lampreys and hagfish
5 Breathing without gills
6 Parasites on gills
7 See also
8 References
9 Further references
10 External links
Breathing with gills[edit]
Tuna gills inside of the head. The fish head is oriented snout-downwards, with the view looking towards the mouth.
The red gills detached from the tuna head above
Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, are obligated to breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus, only breathe air if they need to and can otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.[3]
All basal vertebrates breathe with gills. The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the esophagus to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch.[4] The gills of vertebrates typically develop in the walls of the pharynx, along a series of gill slits opening to the exterior. Most species employ a countercurrent exchange system to enhance the diffusion of substances in and out of the gill, with blood and water flowing in opposite directions to each other.
The gills are composed of comb-like filaments, the gill lamellae, which help increase their surface area for oxygen exchange.[5] When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular intervals. Then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so that it passes over the gills to the outside. The bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills.[6]
Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, branches, or slender tufted processes that have a highly folded surface to increase surface area. The high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms as water contains only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does. A cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than air and it diffuses more slowly. In a litre of freshwater the oxygen content is 8 cm3 per litre compared to 210 in the same volume of air.[7] Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous.[7] Oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water.[7] The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life.[7] Rather than using lungs "Gaseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is what happens when a fish is taken out of water."[7]
Higher vertebrates do not develop gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and lay the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and in mammals the malleus and incus.[6] Fish gill slits may be the evolutionary ancestors of the tonsils, thymus gland, and Eustachian tubes, as well as many other structures derived from the embryonic branchial pouches.[citation needed]
Bony fish[edit]
In bony fish, the gills lie in a branchial chamber covered by a bony operculum (branchia is an Ancient Greek word for gills). The great majority of bony fish species have five pairs of gills, although a few have lost some over the course of evolution. The operculum can be important in adjusting the pressure of water inside of the pharynx to allow proper ventilation of the gills, so that bony fish do not have to rely on ram ventilation (and hence near constant motion) to breathe. Valves inside the mouth keep the water from escaping.[6]
The gill arches of bony fish typically have no septum, so that the gills alone project from the arch, supported by individual gill rays. Some species retain gill rakers. Though all but the most primitive bony fish lack a spiracle, the pseudobranch associated with it often remains, being located at the base of the operculum. This is, however, often greatly reduced, consisting of a small mass of cells without any remaining gill-like structure.[6]
Marine teleosts also use gills to excrete electrolytes. The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of seawater and excrete the salt. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water osmotically through their gills.[6]
In some primitive bony fishes and amphibians, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches.[8] These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods.[9]
Cartilaginous fish[edit]
Six gill slits in a bigeyed sixgill shark; most sharks have only five
Sharks and rays typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six or seven pairs. Adjacent slits are separated by a cartilaginous gill arch from which projects a long sheet-like septum, partly supported by a further piece of cartilage called the gill ray. The individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of the septum. The base of the arch may also support gill rakers, small projecting elements that help to filter food from the water.[6]
A smaller opening, the spiracle, lies in the back of the first gill slit. This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills.[6] The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.[10]
Most sharks rely on ram ventilation, forcing water into the mouth and over the gills by rapidly swimming forward. In slow-moving or bottom dwelling species, especially among skates and rays, the spiracle may be enlarged, and the fish breathes by sucking water through this opening, instead of through the mouth.[6]
Chimaeras differ from other cartilagenous fish, having lost both the spiracle and the fifth gill slit. The remaining slits are covered by an operculum, developed from the septum of the gill arch in front of the first gill.[6]
The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of symplesiomorphy. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.[11]
Lampreys and hagfish[edit]
Lampreys and hagfish do not have gill slits as such. Instead, the gills are contained in spherical pouches, with a circular opening to the outside. Like the gill slits of higher fish, each pouch contains two gills. In some cases, the openings may be fused together, effectively forming an operculum. Lampreys have seven pairs of pouches, while hagfishes may have six to fourteen, depending on the species. In the hagfish, the pouches connect with the pharynx internally. In adult lampreys, a separate respiratory tube develops beneath the pharynx proper, separating food and water from respiration by closing a valve at its anterior end.[6]
Breathing without gills[edit]
Although most fish respire primarily using gills, some fishes can at least partially respire using mechanisms that do not require gills. In some species cutaneous respiration accounts for 5 to 40 percent of the total respiration, depending on temperature. Cutaneous respiration is more important in species that breathe air, such as mudskippers and reedfish, and in such species can account for nearly half the total respiration.[12]
Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended time periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts.[3] Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family.
Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.
Parasites on gills[edit]
Monogenean parasite on the gill of a grouper
See also: Fish diseases and parasites
Fish gills are the preferred habitat of many ectoparasites (parasites attached to the gill but living out of it); the most commons are monogeneans and certain groups of parasitic copepods, which can be extremely numerous.[13] Other ectoparasites found on gills are leeches and, in seawater, larvae of gnathiid isopods.[14] Endoparasites (parasites living inside the gills) include encysted adult didymozoid trematodes,[15] a few trichosomoidid nematodes of the genus Huffmanela, including Huffmanela ossicola which lives within the gill bone,[16] and the encysted parasitic turbellarian Paravortex.[17] Various protists and Myxosporea are also parasitic on gills, where they form cysts.
See also[edit]
Aquatic respiration
Book lung
Gill raker
Gill slit
Lung
Artificial gills (human)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hoar WS and Randall DJ (1984) Fish Physiology: Gills: Part A – Anatomy, gas transfer and acid-base regulation Academic Press. ISBN 9780080585314.
Jump up ^ Hoar WS and Randall DJ (1984) Fish Physiology: Gills: Part B – Ion and water transfer Academic Press. ISBN 9780080585321.
^ Jump up to: a b "Modifications of the Digestive Tract for Holding Air in Loricariid and Scoloplacid Catfishes" (PDF). Copeia. 1998 (3): 663–675. 1998. doi:10.2307/1447796. Retrieved 25 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Scott, Thomas (1996). Concise encyclopedia biology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 542. ISBN 978-3-11-010661-9.
Jump up ^ Andrews, Chris; Adrian Exell; Neville Carrington (2003). Manual Of Fish Health. Firefly Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 316–327. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e M. b. v. Roberts; Michael Reiss; Grace Monger (2000). Advanced Biology. London, UK: Nelson. pp. 164–165.
Jump up ^ "The Origin of the Larva and Metamorphosis in Amphibia". The American Naturalist. Essex Institute. 91: 287. 1957. JSTOR 2458911. doi:10.1086/281990.
Jump up ^ Clack, J. A. (2002): Gaining ground: the origin and evolution of tetrapods. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana. 369 pp
Jump up ^ Laurin M. (1998): The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution. Part I-systematics, middle ear evolution, and jaw suspension. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris, 13e Série 19: pp 1-42.
Jump up ^ Cracraft, Joel; Donoghue, Michael J. (2004), Assembling the Tree of Life, USA: Oxford University Press, p. 367, ISBN 0-19-517234-5
Jump up ^ Feder, Martin E.; Burggren, Warren W. (1985). "Cutaneous gas exchange in vertebrates: design, patterns, control and implications" (PDF). Biological Reviews. 60 (1): 1–45. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1985.tb00416.x.
Jump up ^ Kearn, G. C. (2004). Leeches, Lice and Lampreys. A natural history of skin and gill parasites of fishes. Dordrecht: Springer.
Jump up ^ Grutter, A. S. 1994: Spatial and temporal variations of the ectoparasites of seven reef fish species from Lizard Island and Heron Island, Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 115, 21-30.
Jump up ^ Pozdnyakov, S. E. & Gibson, D. I. (2008). Family Didymozoidae Monticelli, 1888. In R. A. Bray, D. I. Gibson & A. Jones (Eds.), Keys to the Trematoda, Vol. 3 (pp. 631-734). London: CAB International and The Natural History Museum.
Jump up ^ Justine, JL. (Sep 2004). "Three new species of Huffmanela Moravec, 1987 (Nematoda: Trichosomoididae) from the gills of marine fish off New Caledonia.". Systematic Parasitology. 59 (1): 29–37. PMID 15318018. doi:10.1023/B:SYPA.0000038442.25230.8b.
Jump up ^ Cannon, L. R. G. & Lester, R. J. G. 1988: Two turbellarians parasitic in fish. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 5, 15-22.
Further references[edit]
Evans, D H; Piermarini, P M; Choe, K P (2005). "The multifunctional fish gill: dominant site of gas exchange, osmoregulation, acid-base regulation, and excretion of nitrogenous waste". Physiological Reviews. 85 (1): 97–177. PMID 15618479. doi:10.1152/physrev.00050.2003.
External links[edit]
Fish Dissection - Gills exposed Australian Museum. Updated: 11 June 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
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History of rail transport in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is part of the History of rail transport series.
Rail transport in India began during the early nineteenth century.
Contents
[hide]
1 1832–1852: Industrial railways
2 1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion
3 1925–1950: Electrification and further expansion
4 1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments
5 1984–Present: Rapid Transit and Later Developments
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
1832–1852: Industrial railways[edit]
India's first railway proposals were made in Madras in 1832.[1] The Red Hill Railway, the country's first train, ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was hauled by a rotary steam-engine locomotive manufactured by William Avery. Built by Arthur Cotton, the railway was primarily used to transport granite stone for road-building work in Madras.[1] In 1845, the Godavari Dam Construction Railway was built at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry. Also built by Cotton, it supplied stone for the construction of a dam over the Godavari River.[1]
On 8 May 1845, the Madras Railway was incorporated, followed that year by the East India Railway. On 1 August 1849, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated by an act of parliament. The "guarantee system", providing free land and a guaranteed five-percent rate of return to private English companies willing to build railways, was finalized on 17 August 1849. In 1851, the Solani Aqueduct Railway was built in Roorkee. It was hauled by the Thomason steam locomotive, named after a British officer-in-charge of that name. The railway transported construction materials for an aqueduct over the Solani River.[1] In 1852, the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated. In 1852 the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated.
1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion[edit]
India's first passenger train, between Bombay and Thane, in 1853
The country's first passenger train, which ran between Bombay's Bori Bunder station and Thane on 16 April 1853, was dedicated by Lord Dalhousie. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: the Sahib, Sindh, and Sultan. Travelling 34 kilometres (21 mi), the train carried 400 people. The passenger line was built and operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR).[2][3] It was built in 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, which became the country's standard for railways.
The first passenger train in eastern India ran from Howrah (near Calcutta) to Hoogly, a distance of 24 miles (39 km), on 15 August 1854. The line was built and operated by the East Indian Railway Company (EIR).[4] In May 1854, the Bombay-Thane line was extended to Kalyan with the Dapoorie viaduct over the Ulhas River[5] (India's first railway bridge). That year, the GIPR opened its first workshops in Byculla. In 1855, the BB&CI Railway was incorporated.[6] That August, the EIR Express and Fairy Queen steam locomotives were introduced.[7]
South India's first passenger train ran from Royapuram-Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road in Arcot, a distance of 60 miles (97 km), on 1 July 1856. It was built and operated by the Madras Railway.[8] The Madras Railway's first workshop opened in Perambur (near Madras) that year, and the Bombay-Thane line was extended to Khopoli. In 1858, the Eastern Bengal Railway was incorporated.[9]
India's first tramway (a horse-drawn tramway) opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street, a distance of 3.8 kilometres (2.4 mi), on 24 February 1873.[10] The following year, the Great South Indian and Carnatic Railways merged to form the South Indian Railway Company. On 9 May 1874, a horse-drawn tramway began operation in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. The Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated in 1880,[11] followed a decade later by the East Coast State Railway.
Lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies in 1897. In 1902, the Jodhpur Railway was the first to introduce electric lighting as standard fixtures. Electric signal lighting was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay in 1920.
Railway maps of India
1865
1871
1893
1909
1925–1950: Electrification and further expansion[edit]
The first railway budget was presented in 1925. On 3 February 1925, the first electric passenger train in India ran between Victoria Terminus (VT) and Kurla on 1,500 V DC overhead traction.[12] Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik manufactured the locomotives for this train. The VT-Bandra section was electrified (with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road),[12] the Oudh and Rohilkhund Railway was merged with the EIR, the first railway budget was presented in the same year.[13][14] In 1926, the Kurla-Kalyan section was electrified with 1,500 V DC. Electrification to Poona and Igatpuri (both 1,500 V DC) over the Bhore and Thal Ghats was also completed,[12] and the Charbagh railway station in Lucknow was built that year. The Bandra-Virar section was electrified with 1,500 V DC in January 1928.
The Frontier Mail made its inaugural run between Bombay VT and Peshawar in 1928.[15] The country's first automatic color-light signals became operational, on GIPR's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla.[16] In 1928, the Kanpur Central and Lucknow stations opened. The Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore,[17] the Punjab Limited Express began running between Mumbai and Lahore, and automatic color-light signaling was extended to the Byculla-Kurla section the following year. On 1 June 1930, the Deccan Queen began service (hauled by a WCP-1—No. 20024, old number EA/1 4006) with seven coaches on the GIPR's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona (Pune).[18] The Hyderabad Godavari Valley Railway was merged into Nizam's State Railway and the route of the Grand Trunk Express was changed to Delhi-Madras that year.
1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments[edit]
The re-organisation of railways in India into regional zones began in 1951.[19] On 14 April of that year, the Southern Railway zone was created. On 5 November, the Central and Western Railway zones were created.[20] That year, the post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making its senior-most member the chairman of the board.[20] The government of West Bengal also entered into an agreement with the Calcutta Tramways Company to take over its administrative functions that year. The Northern, Eastern and North Eastern Railway zones were created on 14 April 1952.[20]
Fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in all classes of passenger accommodations in 1952, and sleeping accommodations were introduced in coaches. On 1 August 1955, the South-Eastern zone was split off from the Eastern Railway zone. A divisional system of administration was established for the zones in 1956, and the first fully air-conditioned train was introduced (between Howrah and Delhi).[21]
In 1957, after successful trials in France, SNCF proposed 25 kV AC electrification for India's railways. Indian Railways decided to adopt 25 kV AC electrification, choosing SNCF as a technical consultant.[22] The Main Line Electrification Project (which later became the Railway Electrification Project and, still later, the Central Organisation for Railway Electrification) was established that year.[23] In 1958, the Northeast Frontier Railway zone split off from the North Eastern zone.[20] In 1959, Raj Kharswan to Dongoposi was the first section electrified with 25kV AC traction.[22] The first scheduled train using 25 kV AC traction ran on the Raj Kharswan-Dongoposi section on 11 August 1960.[22] The first containerized freight service began between Bombay and Ahmedabad in 1966, and 25 kV AC electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed. In 1979, the Main Line Electrification Project became the Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).
1984–Present: Rapid Transit and Later Developments[edit]
Gatimaan Express, introduced in 2016 and India's fastest train
India's first metro train ran from Esplanade to Bhowanipur (now the Netaji Bhawan station) in Calcutta on 24 October 1984,[24] and the Calcutta Metro was the country's first rapid-transit line.[25]
In 1986, computerized ticketing and reservations were introduced in New Delhi.[26] The Shatabdi Express, India's fastest train, was introduced between New Delhi and Jhansi in 1988; the line was later extended to Bhopal.[27] In 1990, the first self-printing ticket machine (SPTM) was introduced in New Delhi. Air-conditioned, three-tier coaches and a sleeper class (separate from Second Class) were introduced in 1993.
On 16 January 1995, the first regularly-scheduled service with 2 x 25 kV traction began on the Bina-Katni line. In September 1996, the CONCERT system of computerized reservations began in New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. In 1998, coupon-validating machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. The CONCERT system became operational nationwide on 18 April 1999; the South East Central Railway zone was established and credit cards were accepted for tickets and reservations at some stations that year. In February 2000, the Indian Railways website went online.[28] On 6 July 2002, the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central and West Central Railway zones were created.[29] Indian Railways (IR) began online train reservations and ticketing on 3 August of that year, with Internet ticketing extended to many cities on 1 December.[30] On 5 February 2012, The Western Railway zone (WR) ended its use of 1,500 V DC traction, switching to 25 kV AC traction.[31] The Tatkal system of ticketing was extended to all trains on 26 September 2013.
Gatimaan Express, India's fastest train with a maximum speed of 160 km/h, made its maiden journey from Delhi to Agra on 5 April 2016.[32] The Central Railway zone (CR) ended its use of DC traction in the Mumbai area and on the country's main-line rail network, switching to 25 kV AC traction on 11 April of that year.[33] On 31 March 2017, IR announced that India's entire rail network would be electrified by 2022.[34]
See also[edit]
Trains portal
India portal
Rail transport in India
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "[IRFCA] India's First Railways". www.irfca.org.
Jump up ^ "164 Years Ago On This Day, India's First Train Ran From Mumbai To Thane".
Jump up ^ "India's 1st train: When Sahib, Sindh & Sultan blew steam - Times of India".
Jump up ^ "[IRFCA] Indian Railways FAQ: IR History: Early Days - 1". www.irfca.org.
Jump up ^ "Facts about the Indian Railways that will surprise you!". 11 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Western Railway". www.wr.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Queen". www.irctctourism.com.
Jump up ^ "Legacy of First Railway Station of South India". RailNews Media India Ltd.
Jump up ^ "Eastern Bengal Railway - Graces Guide". www.gracesguide.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Kolkata's trams – A ride through history". 2 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "History - The Calcutta Tramways Company [1978] Ltd". calcuttatramways.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Welcome to Official Website of CORE". www.core.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ indiainfoline.com. "History of Indian Railway Budget".
Jump up ^ http://www.nair.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1430369423822-operating.pdf
Jump up ^ "Frontier Mail". iaslic1955.org.
Jump up ^ "Signalling in India - Past and Present". signalbox.org.
Jump up ^ "The Grand Trunk Express". iaslic1955.org.
Jump up ^ "Deccan Queen Facts - General Knowledge for Kids - Mocomi". 26 January 2012.
Jump up ^ User, Super. "History of Railways". www.kportal.indianrailways.gov.in.
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://www.indianrail.gov.in/ir_zones.pdf
Jump up ^ "160 years of Indian Railways: Here's how AC trains were kept cool". 2 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Welcome to Official Website of CORE". www.core.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Official Website of CORE". www.core.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ "History of Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation - KMRC". 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Metro Railway Kolkata / Indian Railways Portal". www.mtp.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ http://icisa.cag.gov.in/audit_report/2/15db5cf8539e7f66e05214564e6b5d01.pdf
Jump up ^ "Shatabdi Express - Shatabdi Express Train, Shatabadi Express Timetable, Shatabadi Express Schedule Booking India". www.iloveindia.com.
Jump up ^ "Indian Railway". www.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ "North Central Railways / Indian Railways Portal". www.ncr.indianrailways.gov.in.
Jump up ^ "IRCTC Next Generation eTicketing System". www.irctc.co.in.
Jump up ^ UK, DVV Media. "Mumbai switches from DC to AC".
Jump up ^ http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/gatimaan-express-reaches-agra-in-targeted-99-minutes/1/635554.html
Jump up ^ "End of an era: Mumbai bids goodbye to last DC local". 11 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "48 per cent rail tracks electrified, aim to double it in 5 years: Govt". 31 March 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Andrew, W. P. (1884). Indian Railways. London: W H Allen.
Awasthi, A. (1994). History and Development of Railways in India. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications.
Bhandari, R.R. (2006). Indian railways : Glorious 150 Years (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 8123012543.
Ghosh, S. (2002). Railways in India – A Legend. Kolkata: Jogemaya Prokashani.
Government of India Railway Board (1919). History of Indian Railways Constructed and In Progress corrected up to 31st March 1918. India: Government Central Press.
Hurd, John; Kerr, Ian J. (2012). India's Railway History: A Research Handbook. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 2, South Asia, 27. Leiden; Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004230033.
Huddleston, George (1906). History of the East Indian Railway. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co.
Kerr, Ian J. (1995). Building the Railways of the Raj. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Kerr, Ian J. (2001). Railways in Modern India. Oxford in India Readings. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195648285.
Kerr, Ian J. (2007). Engines of Change: the railroads that made India. Engines of Change series. Westport, Conn, USA: Praeger. ISBN 0275985644.
Khosala, Guradiala Si?gha (1988). A History of Indian Railways. New Delhi: Ministry of Railways, Railway Board, Government of India. OCLC 311273060.
Law Commission (England and Wales) (2007) "Consultation Paper: Indian Railways Repeal Proposals" (PDF). (1.62 MiB)
Rao, M.A. (1999). Indian Railways (3rd ed.). New Delhi: National Book Trust, India. ISBN 8123725892.
Sahni, Jogendra Nath (1953). Indian Railways: One Hundred Years, 1853 to 1953. New Delhi: Ministry of Railways (Railway Board). OCLC 3153177.
Satow, M. & Desmond R. (1980). Railways of the Raj. London: Scolar Press.
South Indian Railway Co. (1900). Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway Company, Including the Mayavaram-Mutupet and Peralam-Karaikkal Railways. Madras: Higginbotham.
— (1910). Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway Company. London.
— (2004) [1926]. Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway Company. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1889-0.
Vaidyanathan, K.R. (2003). 150 Glorious Years of Indian Railways. Mumbai: English Edition Publishers and Distributors (India). ISBN 8187853492.
Westwood, J.N. (1974). Railways of India. Newton Abbot, Devon, UK; North Pomfret, Vt, USA: David & Charles. ISBN 071536295X.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of rail transport in India.
"History of the Indian railways in chronological order". IRFC server. Indian Railways Fan Club. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
Roychoudhury, S. (2004). "A chronological history of India's railways". Retrieved 2007-10-21.
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Linda Cardellini
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Linda Cardellini
Cardellini at the 2011 Deauville American Film Festival
Born
Linda Edna Cardellini
June 25, 1975 (age 42)
Redwood City, California, United States
Education
Loyola Marymount University
Occupation
Actress
Years active
1994–present
Partner(s)
Steven Rodriguez (2009–present; engaged since 2013)
Linda Edna Cardellini (born June 25, 1975) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Lindsay Weir on Freaks and Geeks, Samantha Taggart on ER, Velma Dinkley in the live-action Scooby-Doo feature films, Sylvia Rosen, a neighbor of Don Draper's on the AMC drama series Mad Men, Meg Rayburn on the Netflix original series Bloodline, Cassie in Brokeback Mountain, and Laura Barton in Avengers: Age of Ultron. She is also known for voicing roles in animated projects such as CJ in Regular Show, Marcy "Hot Dog Water" Fleach in Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, Wendy Corduroy in Gravity Falls, and Megan in Sanjay and Craig.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Music videos
4.4 Video games
5 Awards and nominations
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Cardellini was born in Redwood City, California, the daughter of Lorraine (née Hernan), a homemaker, and Wayne David Cardellini, a businessman.[1] She is the youngest of four children.[1] Cardellini was raised Catholic.[2] She made her first public appearance at age 10, when she sang in a school play. Subsequently, she acted in several school productions and started attending drama lessons.[3] She graduated from nearby Mountain View's Catholic St. Francis High School in 1993,[4] then moved to Los Angeles to seek roles in television and film.[3] Cardellini was a contestant in a 1994 episode of The Price Is Right, winning a fireplace.[5]
Career[edit]
Cardellini received her first big break role in 1996 when she landed a starring role as Sarah on ABC's Saturday morning live-action children's series, Bone Chillers. Following this, she made guest appearances on prime-time programs such as Step by Step, Clueless, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Boy Meets World as Lauren, a girl that came between the show's star couple. Cardellini co-starred in the AMC mini-series The Lot in 1999,[3] and spent the summer in Europe as part of a touring production of Lancelot, a fourteenth-century Dutch tragedy.[4]
Cardellini as part of "Dr. God", 2010
Cardellini had her first major success when she landed one of the starring roles in the NBC series Freaks and Geeks, which debuted during the 1999–2000 season. As Lindsay Weir, an honor student in the midst of an identity crisis, Cardellini earned positive response that subsequently catapulted her to fame. Cardellini starred in the live-action adaptation of Scooby-Doo in 2002, in which she played the cartoon character Velma Dinkley. She later reprised the role of Velma in 2004's Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed alongside Freddie Prinze Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar and Matthew Lillard. She joined the cast of the hospital drama ER in 2003 as Samantha Taggart, a free-spirited nurse. Cardellini acted for six seasons on ER, until the series finale, "And in the End...", and with the cast won the TV Land ensemble Icon Award in 2009.[6]
Her other film work includes roles in Dead Man on Campus, Strangeland, Good Burger, Legally Blonde, Brokeback Mountain (for which she was nominated for the ensemble Gotham[7] and Screen Actors Guild awards),[8] and a starring role in the Happy Madison film Grandma's Boy as Samantha. She was the voice of Ursula in the role-playing video game, Gladius, and played the voice of Bliss Goode on the ABC animated series The Goode Family. In 2007, Cardellini was chosen to play lovelorn Clara in the CBS miniseries Comanche Moon, a prequel to 1989's Lonesome Dove.[9]
In 2010 and 2011, Cardellini returned to the stage with the Dr. God comedy group in Los Angeles and San Francisco,[10][11] appeared in Kill the Irishman and Super, and starred in the independent film Return. She appeared with cast members and producers of Freaks and Geeks and Undeclared at the Paley Center for Media PaleyFest on March 12, 2011.[12][13] From June 15, 2012 to February 15, 2016, she was the voice of Wendy on the Disney Channel show Gravity Falls.
Cardellini voice acts periodically on the podcast and live show The Thrilling Adventure Hour, on the Sparks Nevada: Marshal on Mars segments.[14][15] In 2013, she was chosen to play Sylvia Rosen, a love interest of Don Draper on Mad Men. For her performance on Mad Men, she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. Starting in 2015, she joined Kyle Chandler on a new Netflix series Bloodline from the creators of Damages.[16] The show was cancelled in 2016, and ended after its third season.[17]
Personal life[edit]
Cardellini attended Loyola Marymount University's[18] College of Communication and Fine Arts, graduating in 2000 with a degree in theatre arts. In 2007, she was recognized as a "Distinguished Alumnus" by the university.[19] She dated her Freaks and Geeks co-star Jason Segel for five years following the show's cancellation.[20] In October 2011, Cardellini and her boyfriend Steven Rodriguez announced her pregnancy.[21] Cardellini gave birth to their daughter Lilah-Rose in February 2012.[22] Cardellini and Rodriguez became engaged in June 2013.[23]
Filmography[edit]
Cardellini at the 2011 PaleyFest
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1997 Good Burger Heather
1998 Dead Man on Campus Kelly
Strangeland Genevieve Gage
1999 Prince and the Surfer, TheThe Prince and the Surfer Melissa
2001 Legally Blonde Chutney Wyndham
Unsaid, TheThe Unsaid Shelly Hunter
2002 Scooby-Doo Velma Dinkley
Certainly Not a Fairytale[24] Adelle/Writer Short film
2004 Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed Velma Dinkley
Jiminy Glick in Lalawood Natalie Coolidge
LolliLove Linda
2005 Brokeback Mountain Cassie Cartwright
American Gun Mary Ann Wilk
2006 Grandma's Boy Samantha
2008 Lazarus Project, TheThe Lazarus Project Julie Ingram
2010 Gleeclipse Coach Short film
2011 Kill the Irishman Joan Madigan
Super Pet Store Employee
All-Star Superman Nasthalthia (voice) Direct-to-DVD
Return Kelli
2014 Welcome to Me Gina
2015 Avengers: Age of Ultron Laura Barton
Daddy's Home Sara Whitaker
2016 The Founder Joan Smith
2017 Austin Found Leanne Wilson
Daddy's Home 2 Sara Whitaker
2018 A Simple Favor Post-production
Hunter Killer Jane Norquist Post-production
La Llorona Post-production
2019 Green Book Dolores Post-production
Fonzo Mae Capone Filming
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1996 Bone Chillers Sarah 8 episodes
1997 3rd Rock from the Sun Lorna Episode: "Dickmalion"
1997 Pacific Palisades Sara 2 episodes
1997 Clueless Oddrey Episode: "Chick Fight Tonight"
1997 Step by Step Cassie Evans Episode: "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun"
1998 Promised Land Amber Episode: "Chasin' the Blues"
1998 Kenan & Kel Becky Episode: "Chicago Witch Trials"
1998–1999 Guys Like Us Jude 6 episodes
1998–1999 Boy Meets World Lauren 4 episodes
1999 Dying to Live Leslie Dugger Television film
1999 The Lot June Parker 4 episodes
1999–2000 Freaks and Geeks Lindsay Weir 18 episodes
2003 The Twilight Zone Ali Warner Episode: "The Path"
2003–2009 ER Samantha Taggart 125 episodes
2005–2018 Robot Chicken Velma Dinkley / various voices 4 episodes
2007 Human Giant Melody Richards Episode: "Mind Explosion"
2008 Comanche Moon Clara Forsythe 3 episodes
2009 Cupid Masseuse Uncredited[citation needed]
Episode: "My Fair Masseuse"
2009 The Goode Family Bliss Goode (voice) 13 episodes
2011 Person of Interest Dr. Megan Tillman Episode: "Cura Te Ipsum"
2011–2013 Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated Marcy 'Hot Dog Water' Fleach (voice) 8 episodes
2012–2015 Regular Show CJ (voice) 24 episodes
2012–2016 Gravity Falls Wendy Corduroy (voice) 31 episodes
2013 Out There Sharla Lemoyne (voice) 5 episodes
2013–2015 Mad Men Sylvia Rosen 9 episodes
2013–2016 Sanjay and Craig Megan Sparkles (voice) 40 episodes
2014 New Girl Abby Day 3 episodes
2015–2017 Bloodline Meg Rayburn 33 episodes
Music videos[edit]
Year
Title
Artist
2002 "Land of a Million Drums" Outkast
2008 "Sing Along" Virginia Coalition
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Voice role
2003 Gladius Ursula
2004 Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed Velma Dinkley
2012 Lollipop Chainsaw Cordelia Starling
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result
2005 Gotham Awards Best Ensemble Cast[citation needed] Brokeback Mountain Nominated
2006 Screen Actors Guild Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Brokeback Mountain Nominated
2009 TV Land Awards Icon ER Won
2013 Independent Spirit Awards Best Female Lead Return Nominated
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series Mad Men Nominated
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Knockout Nerd – Scooby-Doo, Linda Cardellini". People. July 1, 2002. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Watkins, Gwynne (June 12, 2013). "The Mad Men GQ+A: Linda Cardellini on Sylvia Rosen's Extramarital Bombshell: The Q". GQ. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Petrozzello, Donna (August 19, 1999). "Young Actress Takes Shine To Playing A Movie Starlet". New York Daily News.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Cardellini. AskMen.com.
Jump up ^ "Linda Cardellini Made Her First Television Appearance As A Contestant On 'The Price Is Right' (VIDEO)".
Jump up ^ MacIntyre, April (April 9, 2009). "TV Land Awards gives Icon award to 'ER'". Monsters and Critics. Archived from the original on August 13, 2010.
Jump up ^ Gotham Awards Nominations Announced Archived September 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.. FilmMakerMagazine.com, October 25, 2005.
Jump up ^ "12th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards and Nominees". Screen Actors Guild. 2006.
Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (August 17, 2007). "Where are the 'Freaks and Geeks' now?". Entertainment Weekly.
Jump up ^ "Angels & Prophets: Linda Cardellini". drgodcomedy.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Performers 2011 Line Up : Linda Cardellini". SFSketchFest.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Freaks and Geeks / Undeclared Reunion". PaleyCenter.org. March 12, 2011. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Freaks and Geeks Still Rocks". IGN. March 14, 2011. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "About the Show and the Segments Within – Sparks Nevada, Marshal on Mars". The Thrilling Adventure Hour. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ Campos, Nicole (June 8, 2010). "Martians and Superheroes and Nazis, Oh My!: 'Adventure Hour' Thrills Sell-Out Largo Crowd". Public Spectacle art blog (We Recommend). LA Weekly. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Norbert Leo Butz Joins Netflix's Drama Series From 'Damages' Creators Todd A. Kessler, Glenn Kessler & Daniel Zelman". TVWise. Retrieved 2015-09-19.
Jump up ^ Prudom, Laura. "'Bloodline' Ending After Season 3 on Netflix". Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "LA Leaders, LMU Distinguished Alumni Reception 2007" Archived January 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.. Loyola Marymount University. February 22, 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Distinguished Alumni Awardees 1970–present" Archived January 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.. Loyola Marymount University. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "This breakup really broke up Jason Segel". Los Angeles Times. April 13, 2008. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Linda Cardellini Expecting First Child – Moms & Babies – Moms & Babies - People.com". Celebritybabies.people.com. June 22, 2011. Retrieved February 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Linda Cardellini Welcomes Daughter Lilah-Rose". People. March 6, 2012. Retrieved March 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Linda Cardellini Engaged: 'Freaks And Geeks' Actress And Boyfriend Steven Rodriguez Set To Wed". The Huffington Post. June 7, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "SEARCHLAB/Shorts: Certainly Not A Fairy Tale". Fox Searchlight SearchLab. January 4, 2007. Archived from the original on October 25, 2010.
External links[edit]
United States portal
Biography portal
Film portal
Media related to Linda Cardellini at Wikimedia Commons
Linda Cardellini on IMDb
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb145141094 (data)
GND: 138401705
ISNI: 0000 0001 1494 9311
LCCN: nr2002000980
VIAF: 87572295
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linda_Cardellini&oldid=845492838"
Categories:
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Living people
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