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Canine reproduction
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This article is about reproduction in domestic dogs. For reproduction in other canids, see Canidae § Reproduction.
Canine reproduction is the process of sexual reproduction in domestic dogs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Canine sexual anatomy and development
1.1 General
2 The reproductive cycle
2.1 Female cycle
3 Copulation
4 Gestation and litters
4.1 Inbreeding depression
4.2 Inbreeding avoidance
5 Clinical issues
6 Dog breeding
6.1 Semen collection
7 Cross breeding
8 Spaying and neutering
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Canine sexual anatomy and development[edit]
General[edit]
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity (puberty) occurs between the ages of 6 to 12 months for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds.[1] Pregnancy is possible as soon as the first estrus cycle, but breeding is not recommended prior to the second cycle.[2] As with other domesticated species, domestication has selectively bred for higher libido, and earlier and more frequent breeding cycles in dogs than in their ancestors.[3]
The reproductive cycle[edit]
Female cycle[edit]
The average length of the reproductive cycle for females is 2–4 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity (puberty) between 8 and 18 months of age. There is a tremendous variability in the maturation age between breeds, and even within a breed of dog.[4]
The first stage of the reproductive cycle is proestrus, in which eggs in the ovaries begin to mature and estrogen levels begin to rise. During this stage males are attracted to non-receptive females. Initially, the vulva lips will swell up and become pliable and there will be small amounts of bloody vaginal discharge along with signs of frequent urination and restlessness. Proestrus generally lasts 9 days.[4]
Estrus is the next stage, in which estrogen levels are high, mature eggs are released from ovaries, and the females mentally and physically become receptive to copulation. It is only during estrus that copulation will result in pregnancy.
During proestrus and estrus, females may have a clear to bloody discharge. This stage is also known as "heat." The length of these cycles varies greatly between individuals. Proestrus and estrus can last anywhere from 5 days to 21 days.[4]
Diestrus is the period following mating. Diestrus lasts approximately 56 to 58 days in a pregnant female, and 60 to 100 days in a non-pregnant female. During both of these periods, progesterone levels are high. Because the hormonal profile of a pregnant female and a female in diestrus are the same, sometimes a non-pregnant female will go through a period of pseudo-pregnancy. At that time she may gain weight, have mammary gland development, produce milk, and exhibit nesting behaviours.
Anestrus is the period of reproductive quiescence. The female has no attraction to or from the male. Anestrus generally lasts four to five months.[4]
Copulation[edit]
"Copulatory tie" redirects here. For copulatory tying in non-canine animals, see Fossa (animal)#Breeding, Black-footed ferret#Reproduction and development, and Vasa parrot#Unusual characteristics. Penis captivus is a similar human phenomenon.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dogs mating.
Wolves mating, Tama zoo
As with most tetrapods, canine copulation involves the male mounting the female from behind, a position that is referred to as "doggy style" but does not have a specifically known origin. When a male canine is interested in mounting a female, he will sniff the female's vulva.[5] If the female is unreceptive, she may sit, lie down, snap, retreat, or otherwise be uncooperative.[citation needed] If the female is receptive, she will stand still and hold her tail to the side, a stance referred to as "flagging".[6] The male will often continue examining the female's rear, before mounting her from behind while attempting penetration with his penis.[6]
At the time of penetration, the canine penis is not erect, and only able to penetrate the female because it includes a narrow bone called the "baculum", a feature of most placental mammals.[7] When the male achieves penetration, he will usually hold the female tighter and thrust deeply.[8] It is during this time that the male's penis expands and it is important that the bulbus gland is sufficiently far inside for the female to be able to trap it. Unlike human sexual intercourse, where the male penis commonly becomes erect before entering the female, canine copulation involves the male first penetrating the female, after which swelling of the penis to erection occurs, which usually happens rapidly.[6]
Male canines are the only animals that have a locking bulbus glandis or "bulb", a spherical area of erectile tissue at the base of the penis. During copulation, and only after the male's penis is fully inside the female's vagina, the bulbus glandis becomes engorged with blood.[9] When the female's vagina subsequently contracts, the penis becomes locked inside the female.[10] This is known as "tying" or "knotting". While characteristic of mating in most canids, the copulatory tie has been reported to be absent[11] or very brief (less than one minute)[12] in the African wild dog, possibly due to the abundance of large predators in its environment.[13]
When the penis is locked into the vagina by the bulbus glandis (when the stud is "tied"), thrusting behavior stops and the male will usually lift a leg and swing it over the female's back while turning around. The two stand with their hind ends touching and the penis locked inside the vagina while ejaculation occurs, decreasing leakage of semen from the vagina.[14][15][16] After some time, typically between 5 and 20 minutes[17] (but sometimes longer), the bulbus glandis disengorges, allowing the mates to separate. Virgin dogs can become quite distressed at finding themselves unable to separate during their first copulation, and may try to pull away or run. Dog breeders often suggest it is appropriate for handlers to attempt to calm the mating dogs if they show anxiety once this stage is reached.[citation needed] After mating, the male usually licks his penis and prepuce.[18]
Gestation and litters[edit]
A pregnant mongrel
A wild dog from Sri Lanka nursing her puppies
Gestation in a dog is 63 days in length, if measured from the day of ovulation. Since it is difficult to determine the exact date of ovulation, errors are often made in calculating gestation period.[19] Canine sperm can live for 10 to 11 days [20] in the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) so if a female is bred 10 days before the oocytes (eggs) can be fertilized, she will appear to have a gestation length of 70 days. If she is bred on the day the oocytes can be fertilized, her gestation length will appear to be 60 days long.
A rule of thumb is that a mammal will produce half as many offspring as the number of teats on the mother.[citation needed] This rule is altered in domesticated animals since larger litters are often favoured for economic reasons and in dogs, particularly, the great range of sizes and shapes plays a role in how many healthy puppies a female can carry.[citation needed] A female dog usually has 10 teats, though this does not mean she can necessarily provide sufficient nutrition for 10 puppies in one litter.[citation needed]
An average litter consists of about five to six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. Size of the breed is correlated with litter size. Miniature and small breeds average three to four puppies in each litter, with a maximum litter size of about 5-8. Large and giant breeds average 7 puppies per litter but can have a maximum litter size of about 15.[21] In one study, the Rhodesian Ridgeback had the highest average litter size with 8.9 pups per litter while the Pomeranian and Toy Poodle had the lowest with 2.4 pups per litter.[21]
The number of puppies also varies with the mother's age. In smaller breeds, both young and old age are associated with smaller litter size. In larger breeds, only old age is associated with smaller litter size.[21] Use of artificial insemination is also associated with smaller litter size, with frozen semen having a stronger effect than fresh semen.[21]
The largest litter size to date was set by a Neapolitan Mastiff in Manea, Cambridgeshire, UK on November 29, 2004; the litter was 24 puppies.[22]
Some breeds have been developed to emphasize certain physical traits beyond the point at which they can safely bear litters on their own.[citation needed]
A large scale study in Norway showed that across all breeds, about 4% of pups will be stillborn and a further 4% will die within the first week (early neonatal mortality). Between 8 days and 8 weeks, 1% will die. Litter size, breed size and age of the female is associated with increased risk. High risk breeds for stillborn includes the Dogue de Bordeaux (14.2%), St. Bernard (12.3%), Chow Chow (12.1%), Pembroke Welsh Corgis (11.7%) and Dalmatian (10.6%). The Basenji, Italian Greyhound, Australian Terrier, Irish Soft Coated Wheaten Terrier and the Bichon Havanaise had few to no stillborns (0-0.6%). High risk breeds for early neonatal mortality includes the Rhodesian Ridgeback (11.6%), Dogue de Bordeaux (10.4% ), Dalmatians (8.8%) and Icelandic Sheepdog (8.7%) while the Basenji and Tibetan Terrier had no early neonatal mortality and the Border Terrier and Danish-Swedish Farmdog had <1% early neonatal mortality.[23]
Common causes of early neonatal mortality are bacteria infection, fetal asphyxia and fading puppy syndrome. Other causes may include elective euthanasia because of congenital defects or failure to meet breed standards.[23]
Other multi-breed studies have put stillborn rates at 6.5-7% and early neonatal mortality at 11.5-19.8%.[23]
Inbreeding depression[edit]
On the basis of an analysis of data on 42,855 dachshund litters, it was found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.[24] Inbreeding depression is a reduction in progeny fitness due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive mutations.[25]
Inbreeding avoidance[edit]
Because the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) largely exists in fragmented small populations, its existence is endangered. Inbreeding avoidance via mate selection is characteristic of the species and has important potential consequences for population persistence.[26] Inbreeding is rare within natal packs. Computer-population simulations indicate that all populations continuing to avoid incestuous mating will become extinct within 100 years due to the unavailability of unrelated mates.[26] Thus the impact of reduced numbers of suitable unrelated mates will likely have a severe demographic impact on the future viability of small wild dog populations.
Red wolves primarily live in packs composed of a socially monogamous breeding pair and offspring of different ages. Using long-term data on red wolf individuals of known pedigree, it was found that inbreeding among first-degree relatives was rare.[27] A likely mechanism for avoidance of inbreeding is independent dispersal trajectories from the natal pack. Many of the young wolves spend time alone or in small non-breeding packs composed of unrelated individuals. The union of two unrelated individuals in a new home range is the predominant pattern of breeding pair formation.[27]
Among Ethiopian wolves, most females disperse from their natal pack at about two years of age, and some become "floaters" that may successfully immigrate into existing packs. Breeding pairs are most often unrelated to each other, suggesting that female-biased dispersal reduces inbreeding.[28]
Grey wolves and Arctic foxes also exhibit inbreeding avoidance.[29]
Inbreeding is ordinarily avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles.[25] Cross-fertilization between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny.[30][31]
Clinical issues[edit]
Female dogs are at risk for endometritis and pyometra in the postpartum period and after estrus or vaginitis. Signs and symptoms include fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, excessive thirst, restlessness, a foul smelling vaginal discharge which may or may not be bloody, infertility, or they may be asymptomatic. [32][33][34][35] Uterine infections should be treated expeditiously if suspected. Contrary to common belief, uterine infections can strike any intact female, whether she has been bred or not, and whether it is her first season or not although it is more common as dogs become older.
Dog breeding[edit]
Main article: Dog breeding
These littermates were born to an Australian Shepherd mother who had roamed free, suggesting different fathers.
Semen collection[edit]
An artificial vagina is prepared, which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated. The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation.[36] Generally the male will mount the female, and the collector quickly directs the male's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette.[9]
Cross breeding[edit]
Designer breed dogs are Mixed-breed dogs that are intentionally bred from parents of two established breeds.[citation needed] Studies have shown that cross-bred dogs have a number of desirable reproductive traits. Scott and Fuller[37] found that cross-bred dogs were superior mothers compared to purebred mothers, producing more milk and giving better care. These advantages led to a decreased mortality in the offspring of cross-bred dogs; however, the qualities of cross bred dogs are not predictable.[citation needed] For example, Labrador x Poodle ("Labradoodle") can inherit the coat of either a Labrador, a poodle, or a remix.[citation needed]
Spaying and neutering[edit]
Main article: Neutering
Spaying (females) and castrating (males) refers to the sterilization of animals—usually by removal of the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus—to eliminate the ability to procreate, and reduce sex drive.[citation needed] Castration has also been known to reduce aggression in male dogs(in some cases), but spaying has been shown to occasionally increase aggression in female dogs.[38]
Animal control agencies in the United States and the ASPCA advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be spayed or neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies.[39] Spaying and castrating can decrease the risk of hormone-driven diseases such as mammary cancer, as well as undesired hormone-driven behaviors.[citation needed] However, certain medical problems are more likely after neutering, such as urinary incontinence in females[40] and prostate cancer in males.[41]
Dogs shown in the conformation ring are not allowed to be either neutered or spayed.[citation needed] It disqualifies them from being shown as they must be intact and unaltered.[citation needed]
Female cats and dogs are seven times more likely to develop mammary tumors if they are not spayed before their first heat cycle.[42]
Studies[43][44][45][46] have shown that spaying or neutering may be associated with serious health and behavioural consequences:
Altered Females:
Increased aggression can be shown in altered females if they have previously displayed aggression prior to surgical alteration. In a study by O'Farrell and Peachy, female dogs less than 11 months of age that had previously shown signs of aggression are more likely to have an increase in aggression after being spayed.[47] These increases in aggression may be due to the sudden change in hormone concentrations that are the result of alteration. While spaying female dogs does not "induce" aggression, it can increase aggression and facilitate indiscriminate appetite in young altered females and can include them rapidly eating meals or eating food-associated items such as trash.[47][48]
Altered males:
In nearly 2/3 of the cases that involve inter-dog aggression, castration can help decrease aggression. Castration also decreases other male-typical behavioral traits such as mounting, roaming, and urine marking. But a few studies have shown that male behavioral issues of mounting, roaming and urine marking still exist in altered males. Some people have reported after altering their male dogs that behavior such as roaming, mounting and urine marking has not changed the behavior. Aggression may increase, as the decrease in testosterone may lead to emotional issues and become more likely to react aggressively when feeling under threat.[49] Male puppies that are neutered between 7 and 10 weeks are three times less likely to display behavioral problems, compared to canines neutered at 6 months or older.[50] Most dominantly aggressive dogs are male, which causes many people to neuter their male canine companions. Removing testosterone can decrease the intensity of a canine's reaction to stimulus. Testosterone does not cause a behavior to occur, but its absence may decrease the occurrence of a "bad" behavior.[50]
See also[edit]
Canine reproductive behavior
Canine transmissible venereal tumor
Semen collection#Dogs
Gray wolf#Reproduction
Dingo#Reproduction
Animal husbandry
Puppy mill
Reproductive behavior of other canid species
Sexual behavior of coyotes
Sexual behavior of golden jackals
Sexual behavior of red foxes
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Heide Schatten; Gheorghe M. Constantinescu (21 March 2008). Comparative Reproductive Biology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39025-2.
External links[edit]
Canine Gestation Calculator
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Death of a Salesman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the play. For other uses, see Death of a Salesman (disambiguation).
Death of a Salesman
First edition cover (Viking Press)
Written by
Arthur Miller
Characters
Willy Loman
Linda Loman
Biff Loman
Happy Loman
Ben Loman
Bernard
Charley
The Woman
Howard
Date premiered
February 10, 1949
Place premiered
Morosco Theatre
New York City
Original language
English
Subject
The waning days of a failing salesman
Genre
Tragedy
Setting
Late 1940s; Willy Loman's house; New York City and Barnaby River; Boston
Death of a Salesman is a 1949 play written by American playwright Arthur Miller. It was the recipient of the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and Tony Award for Best Play. The play premiered on Broadway in February 1949, running for 742 performances, and has been revived on Broadway four times,[1] winning three Tony Awards for Best Revival. It is widely considered to be one of the greatest plays of the 20th century.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characters
2 Summary
3 Themes
3.1 Reality and Illusion
3.2 The American Dream
3.2.1 Willy Loman
3.2.2 Uncle Ben
3.2.3 Biff
3.2.4 Bernard and Charley
4 Reception
4.1 In the United States
4.2 In the United Kingdom
4.3 In Germany
4.4 In India
4.5 In China
5 Productions
6 Adaptations in other media
7 Awards and nominations
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Editions
10.2 Criticism
11 External links
11.1 At Playbill Vault
Characters[edit]
William "Willy" Loman: The salesman. He is 63 years old and unstable, insecure, and self-deluded. Willy tends to re-imagine events from the past as if they were real. He vacillates between different eras of his life. Willy seems childlike and relies on others for support, coupled with his recurring flashbacks to various moments throughout his career. His first name, Willy, reflects this childlike aspect as well as sounding like the question "Will he?" His last name gives the feel of Willy's being a "low man", someone who won't succeed; however, this popular interpretation of his last name was dismissed by Miller, who stated his name is this due to his relation to the English queen.[3]
Linda Loman: Willy's loyal and loving wife. Linda is passively supportive and docile when Willy talks unrealistically about hopes for the future, although she seems to have a good knowledge of what is really going on. She chides her sons, particularly Biff, for not helping Willy more, and supports Willy lovingly even though Willy sometimes treats her poorly, ignoring her opinions over those of others. She is the first to realize that Willy is contemplating suicide at the beginning of the play, and urges Biff to make something of himself, while expecting Willy to help Biff do so.
Biff Loman: Willy's elder son. Biff was a football star with a lot of potential in high school, but failed math his senior year and dropped out of summer school when he saw Willy with another woman while visiting him in Boston. He wavers between going home to try to fulfill Willy's dream for him as a businessman or ignoring his father by going out West to be a farmhand where he feels happy. He likes being outdoors and working with his hands, yet wants to do something worthwhile so Willy will be proud of him. Biff steals because he wants evidence of success, even if it is false evidence, but overall Biff remains a realist and informs Willy that he is just a normal guy and will not be a great man.
Harold "Happy" Loman: Willy's younger son. He's lived in the shadow of his older brother Biff most of his life and seems to be almost ignored, but he still tries to be supportive towards his family. He has a restless lifestyle as a womanizer and dreams of moving beyond his current job as an assistant to the assistant buyer at the local store, but he is willing to cheat a little in order to do so, by taking bribes. He is always looking for approval from his parents, but he rarely gets any, and he even goes as far as to make things up just for attention, such as telling his parents he is going to get married. He tries often to keep his family's perceptions of each other positive or "happy" by defending each of them during their many arguments, but still has the most turbulent relationship with Linda, who looks down on him for his lifestyle and apparent cheapness, despite his giving them money.
Charley: Willy's somewhat wise-cracking yet kind and understanding neighbor. He pities Willy and frequently lends him money and comes over to play cards with him, although Willy often treats him poorly. Willy is jealous of him because his son is more successful than Willy's. Charley offers Willy a job many times during visits to his office, yet Willy declines every time, even after he loses his job as a salesman.
Bernard: Charley's son. In Willy's flashbacks, he is a nerd, and Willy forces him to give Biff test answers. He worships Biff and does anything for him. Later, he is a very successful lawyer, married, and expecting a second son – the same successes that Willy wants for his sons, in particular Biff. Bernard makes Willy contemplate where he has gone wrong as a father.
Uncle Ben: Willy's older brother who became a diamond tycoon after a detour to Africa. He is dead, but Willy frequently speaks to him in his hallucinations of the past. He is Willy's role model, although he is much older and has no real relationship with Willy, preferring to assert his superiority over his younger brother. He represents Willy's idea of the American Dream success story, and is shown coming by the Lomans' house while on business trips to share stories.
The Woman: A woman, whom Willy calls "Miss Harvey", with whom Willy cheated on Linda.
Howard Wagner: Willy's boss. Willy worked originally for Howard's father and claims to have suggested the name Howard for the newborn son. He however sees Willy as a liability for the company and fires him, ignoring all the years that Willy has given to the company. Howard is extremely proud of his wealth, which is manifested in his new wire recorder, and of his family.
Jenny: Charley's secretary.
Stanley: A waiter at the restaurant who seems to be friends or acquainted with Happy.
Miss Forsythe: A girl whom Happy picks up at the restaurant. She is very pretty and claims she was on several magazine covers. Happy lies to her, making himself and Biff look like they are important and successful. (Happy claims that he attended West Point and that Biff is a star football player.)
Letta: Miss Forsythe's friend.
Summary[edit]
Willy Loman returns home exhausted after a business trip he has cancelled. Worried over Willy's state of mind and recent car accident, his wife Linda suggests that he ask his boss Howard Wagner to allow him to work in his home city so he will not have to travel. Willy complains to Linda that their son, Biff, has yet to make good on his life. Despite Biff's promising showing as an athlete in high school, he failed in mathematics and was unable to enter a university.
Biff and his brother Happy, who is temporarily staying with Willy and Linda after Biff's unexpected return from the West, reminisce about their childhood together. They discuss their father's mental degeneration, which they have witnessed in the form of his constant indecisiveness and daydreaming about the boys' high school years. Willy walks in, angry that the two boys have never amounted to anything. In an effort to pacify their father, Biff and Happy tell their father that Biff plans to make a business proposition the next day.
The next day, Willy goes to ask his boss, Howard, for a job in town while Biff goes to make a business proposition, but both fail. Willy gets angry and ends up getting fired when the boss tells him he needs a rest and can no longer represent the company. Biff waits hours to see a former employer who does not remember him and turns him down. Biff impulsively steals a fountain pen. Willy then goes to the office of his neighbor Charley, where he runs into Charley's son Bernard (now a successful lawyer); Bernard tells him that Biff originally wanted to do well in summer school, but something happened in Boston when Biff went to visit his father that changed his mind. Charley gives the now-unemployed Willy money to pay his life-insurance premium; Willy shocks Charley by remarking that ultimately, a man is "worth more dead than alive."
Happy, Biff, and Willy meet for dinner at a restaurant, but Willy refuses to hear bad news from Biff. Happy tries to get Biff to lie to their father. Biff tries to tell him what happened as Willy gets angry and slips into a flashback of what happened in Boston the day Biff came to see him. Willy had been having an affair with a receptionist on one of his sales trips when Biff unexpectedly arrived at Willy's hotel room. A shocked Biff angrily confronted his father, calling him a liar and a fraud. From that moment, Biff's views of his father changed and set Biff adrift.
Biff leaves the restaurant in frustration, followed by Happy and two girls that Happy has picked up. They leave a confused and upset Willy behind in the restaurant. When they later return home, their mother angrily confronts them for abandoning their father while Willy remains outside, talking to himself. Biff tries unsuccessfully to reconcile with Willy, but the discussion quickly escalates into another argument. Biff conveys plainly to his father that he is not meant for anything great, insisting that both of them are simply ordinary men meant to lead ordinary lives. The feud reaches an apparent climax with Biff hugging Willy and crying as he tries to get Willy to let go of the unrealistic expectations. Rather than listen to what Biff actually says, Willy appears to believe his son has forgiven him and will follow in his footsteps, and after Linda goes upstairs to bed (despite her urging him to follow her), lapses one final time into a hallucination, thinking he sees his long-dead brother Ben, whom Willy idolized. In Willy's mind, Ben approves of the scheme Willy has dreamed up to kill himself in order to give Biff his insurance policy money. Willy exits the house. Biff and Linda cry out in despair as the sound of Willy's car blares up and fades out.
The final scene takes place at Willy's funeral, which is attended only by his family, Bernard, and Charley. The ambiguities of mixed and unaddressed emotions persist, particularly over whether Willy's choices or circumstances were obsolete. At the funeral Biff retains his belief that he does not want to become a businessman like his father. Happy, on the other hand, chooses to follow in his father's footsteps, while Linda laments her husband's decision just before her final payment on the house.
Themes[edit]
Reality and Illusion[edit]
Death of a Salesman uses flashbacks to present Willy’s memory during the reality. The illusion not only “suggests the past, but also presents the lost pastoral life.” Willy has dreamed of success his whole life and makes up lies about his and Biff’s success. The more he indulges in the illusion, the harder it is for him to face reality. Biff is the only one who realizes that the whole family lived in the lies and tries to face the truth.[4]
The American Dream[edit]
The American Dream is the theme of the play, but everyone in the play has their own way to describe their American Dreams.
Willy Loman[edit]
Willy Loman dreams of being a successful salesman like Dave Singleman, somebody who has both wealth and freedom. Willy believes that the key to success is being well-liked, and his frequent flashbacks show that he measures happiness in terms of wealth and popularity.[5] One analyst of the play writes: “Society tries to teach that, if people are rich and well-liked, they will be happy. Because of this, Willy thought that money would make him happy. He never bothered to try to be happy with what he had …”.[6] Willy also believes that to attain success, one must have a suitable personality. According to another analyst, “He believes that salesmanship is based on ‘sterling traits of character’ and ‘a pleasing personality.’ But Willy does not have the requisite sterling traits of character; people simply do not like him as much as he thinks is necessary for success.”[7]
Uncle Ben[edit]
Ben symbolizes another kind of successful American Dream for Willy: to catch opportunity, to conquer nature, and to gain a fortune. His mantra goes: “Why, boys, when I was seventeen I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty-one I walked out. (He laughs.) And by God I was rich.” [5]
Biff[edit]
After seeing his father’s real identity, Biff does not follow his father’s “dream” because he knows that, as two analysts put it, “Willy does see his future but in a blind way. Meaning that he can and cannot see at the same time, since his way of seeing or visualizing the future is completely wrong.”[8][5]
Bernard and Charley[edit]
One thing that is apparent from the Death of a Salesman is the hard work and dedication of Charley and Bernard. Willy criticizes Charley and Bernard throughout the play, but it is not because he hates them. Rather, it's argued that he is jealous of the successes they have enjoyed, which is outside his standards.[7]
The models of business success provided in the play all argue against Willy’s "personality theory." One is Charley, Willy’s neighbor and apparently only friend. Charley has no time for Willy’s theories of business, but he provides for his family and is in a position to offer Willy a do-nothing job to keep him bringing home a salary. (Bloom 51)[7]
Reception[edit]
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (June 2015)
In the United States[edit]
Death of a Salesman first opened on February 10, 1949, to great success. Drama critic John Gassner wrote that “the ecstatic reception accorded Death of Salesman has been reverberating for some time wherever there is an ear for theatre, and it is undoubtedly the best American play since A Streetcar Named Desire.” [9]
In the United Kingdom[edit]
The play reached London on July 28, 1949. London responses were mixed, but mostly favorable. The Times criticized it, saying that “the strongest play of New York theatrical season should be transferred to London in the deadest week of the year.” However, the public understanding of the ideology of the play was different from that in America. Some people, such as Eric Keown, think of Death of a Salesman as "a potential tragedy deflected from its true course by Marxist sympathies."[9]
In Germany[edit]
The play was hailed as “the most important and successful night” in Hebbel-Theater in Berlin. It was said that “it was impossible to get the audience to leave the theatre”[by whom?] at the end of the performance. The Berlin production was more successful than New York, possibly due to better interpretation.[9]
In India[edit]
Compared to Tennessee Williams and Beckett, Arthur Miller and his Death of Salesman were less influential. Rajinder Paul said that “Death of a Salesman has only an indirect influence on Indian theatre practitions.”[9] However, it was translated and produced in Bengali as 'Pheriwalar Mrityu' by the theater group Nandikar. Director Feroz Khan adapted the play in Hindi and English by the name "Salesman Ramlal" played brilliantly by Satish Kaushik and with the role of his son portrayed by Kishore Kadam.
In China[edit]
Death of a Salesman was welcomed in China. There, Arthur Miller directed the play himself. As Miller stated, “It depends on the father and the mother and the children. That’s what it’s about. The salesman part is what he does to stay alive. But he could be a peasant, he could be, whatever.” Here, the play focuses on the family relationship. It is easier for the Chinese public to understand the relationship between father and son because “One thing about the play that is very Chinese is the way Willy tries to make his sons successful." The Chinese father always wants his sons to be ‘dragons.’[10]
Productions[edit]
The original Broadway production was produced by Kermit Bloomgarden and Walter Fried. The play opened at the Morosco Theatre on February 10, 1949, closing on November 18, 1950, after 742 performances. The play starred Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, Howard Smith as Charley and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. Albert Dekker and Gene Lockhart later played Willy Loman during the original Broadway run. It won the Tony Award for Best Play, Best Supporting or Featured Actor (Arthur Kennedy), Best Scenic Design (Jo Mielziner), Producer (Dramatic), Author (Arthur Miller), and Director (Elia Kazan), as well as the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Play. Jayne Mansfield performed in a production of the play in Dallas, Texas, in October 1953. Her performance in the play attracted Paramount Pictures to hire her for the studio's film productions.[11]
The play has been revived on Broadway four times:
June 26, 1975, at the Circle in the Square Theatre, running for 71 performances. George C. Scott starred as Willy.
March 29, 1984, at the Broadhurst Theatre, running for 97 performances. Dustin Hoffman played Willy. In a return engagement, this production re-opened on September 14, 1984, and ran for 88 performances. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival.
February 10, 1999, at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre, running for 274 performances, with Brian Dennehy as Willy. The production won the Tony Award for: Best Revival of a Play; Best Actor in Play; Best Featured Actress in a Play (Elizabeth Franz); Best Direction of a Play (Robert Falls). This production was filmed.
February 13, 2012, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, in a limited run of 16 weeks. Directed by Mike Nichols, Philip Seymour Hoffman played Willy, Andrew Garfield played Biff, Linda Emond played Linda, and Finn Wittrock played Happy.[12]
It was also part of the inaugural season of the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1963.
Christopher Lloyd portrayed Willy Loman in a 2010 production by the Weston Playhouse in Weston, Vermont, which toured several New England venues.[13]
Antony Sher played Willy Loman in the first Royal Shakespeare Company production of the play directed by Gregory Doran in Stratford-upon-Avon in the spring of 2015, with Harriet Walter as Linda Loman. This production transferred to London's West End, at the Noel Coward Theatre for ten weeks in the summer of 2015. This production was part of the centenary celebrations for playwright Arthur Miller.[14]
Adaptations in other media[edit]
1951: Adapted by Stanley Roberts and directed by László Benedek who won the Golden Globe Award for Best Director. The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Fredric March), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Kevin McCarthy), Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Mildred Dunnock), Best Cinematography, Black-and-White and Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture.
1960: In USSR (1960) directed by Theodore Wolfovitch as "You can't cross the bridge".
1961: En Handelsresandes död starring Kolbjörn Knudsen and directed by Hans Abramson (in Swedish)
1968: Der Tod eines Handlungsreisenden starring Heinz Rühmann and directed by Gerhard Klingenberg
1966 (CBS): Starring Lee J. Cobb, Gene Wilder, Mildred Dunnock, James Farentino, Karen Steele and George Segal and directed by Alex Segal.
1966 (BBC): Starring Rod Steiger, Betsy Blair, Tony Bill, Brian Davies and Joss Ackland and directed by Alan Cooke.
1985: Starring Dustin Hoffman, Kate Reid, John Malkovich, Stephen Lang and Charles Durning and directed by Volker Schlöndorff.
1996: Starring Warren Mitchell, Rosemary Harris, Iain Glen and Owen Teale and directed by David Thacker.
2000: Starring Brian Dennehy, Elizabeth Franz, Ron Eldard, Ted Koch, Howard Witt and Richard Thompson and directed by Kirk Browning.
2008: Play within the film in Synecdoche, New York, starring Philip Seymour Hoffman.
2015: Radio drama, starring David Suchet and Zoë Wanamaker, directed by Howard Davies, and broadcast on BBC Radio 3.[15]
2016: Play within the film, The Salesman (Forushande), acts as counterpoint to the main plot. Starring Shahab Hosseini, Taraneh Alidoosti, Babak Karimi, and directed by Asghar Farhadi.
Awards and nominations[edit]
1949 Broadway
New York Drama Critics' Circle Best Play (win)
Pulitzer Prize for Drama (win)
Tony Award for Best Play (win)
Tony Award, Best Supporting or Featured Actor (Dramatic)- Arthur Kennedy (win)
Tony Award, Best Scenic Design — Jo Mielziner (win)
Tony Award Author — Arthur Miller (win)
Tony Award Best Director — Elia Kazan (win)
1975 Broadway revival
Tony Award Best Actor in Play — George C. Scott (nominee)
1979 West End revival
Olivier Award Director of the Year — Michael Rudman (nominee)
Olivier Award Actor of the Year in a Revival — Warren Mitchell (win)
Olivier Award Actor of the Year in a Supporting Role — Stephen Greif (nominee)
Olivier Award Actress of the Year in a Supporting Role — Doreen Mantle (win)
Evening Standard Theatre Awards Best Actor — Warren Mitchell (win)
1984 Broadway revival
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival (win)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actor in a Play — Dustin Hoffman (win)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play — John Malkovich (win); David Huddleston (nominee)
Tony Award for Best Reproduction (win)
1999 Broadway revival
Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play (win)
Tony Award Best Actor in Play — Brian Dennehy (win)
Tony Award Best Featured Actor in a Play — Kevin Anderson (nominee); Howard Witt (nominee)
Tony Award Best Featured Actress in a Play — Elizabeth Franz (win)
Tony Award Best Direction of a Play — Robert Falls (win)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival of a Play (win)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actor in a Play — Brian Dennehy (win)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actress in a Play — Elizabeth Franz (nominee)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play — Kevin Anderson (win); Howard Witt (nominee)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Director of a Play — Robert Falls (nominee)
Drama Desk Award Outstanding Music in a Play — Incidental music by Richard Woodbury (nominee)
2012 Broadway revival
Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play (win)
Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play — Mike Nichols (win)
Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play — Philip Seymour Hoffman (nominee)
Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play — Andrew Garfield (nominee)
Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play — Linda Emond (nominee)
Tony Award for Best Lighting Design of a Play — Brian MacDevitt (nominee)
Tony Award for Best Sound Design of a Play — Scott Lehrer (nominee)
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play — Philip Seymour Hoffman (nominee)
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play (nominee)
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Play — Mike Nichols (win)
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lighting Design — Brian MacDevitt (win)
See also[edit]
Happy Lowman
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Death of a Salesman". Retrieved 6 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Death of a Salesman". www.therep.org. Archived from the original on 2017-02-05.
Jump up ^ Martin Gottfried (2004). Arthur Miller: His Life and Work. Perseus Books Group. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-306-81377-1.
Jump up ^ Koon, Helene. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Death of Salesman. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bradford, Wade. "The American Dream in "Death of a Salesman"". About.com.
Jump up ^ Sarkar, Saurav. The American Dream in Context of Death of A Salesman. Academia.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bloom, Harold (2009). The American Dream. Infobase Publishing.
Jump up ^ Ziaul Haque, Md. & Kabir Chowdhury, Fahmida. "The Concept of Blindness in Sophocles' King Oedipus and Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman" Archived 2014-05-25 at the Wayback Machine., International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, vol. 2, no. 3; 2013, p. 118, Retrieved on April 02, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Meserve, Walter. Studies in Death of Salesman. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-675-09259-0.
Jump up ^ Arthur, Miller. Salesman in Beijing. New York: Viking Press.
Jump up ^ Sullivan, Steve. Va Va Voom, General Publishing Group, Los Angeles, California, p.50.
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew."Starry Revival of Arthur Miller's 'Death of a Salesman' Opens on Broadway" Archived 2012-03-17 at the Wayback Machine. playbill.com, March 15, 2012
Jump up ^ Itzkoff, Dave (25 August 2010). "Christopher Lloyd stars in 'Death of a Salesman'". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-08.
Jump up ^ Itzkoff (8 April 2015). "Arthur Miller Classic Death Of A Salesman To Make West End Transfer]". LondonTheatreDirect.com. Retrieved 2015-04-22.
Jump up ^ "BBC Radio 3 — Drama on 3, Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller". BBC. Retrieved 2017-11-27.
Further reading[edit]
Editions[edit]
Miller, Arthur Death of a Salesman (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1996) ISBN 9780140247732. Edited with an introduction by Gerald Weales. Contains the full text and various critical essays.
Criticism[edit]
Hurell, John D. (1961). Two Modern American Tragedies: Reviews and Criticism of Death of a Salesman and A Streetcar Named Desire. New York: Scribner. pp. 82–8. OCLC 249094.
Sandage, Scott A. (2005). Born Losers: A History of Failure in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01510-X.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Death of a Salesman.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Death of a Salesman
Death of a Salesman at the Internet Broadway Database
Character Analysis of Willy Loman
Character Analysis of Linda Loman
Death of a Salesman: A Celebration at the Wayback Machine (archived September 4, 2006), by Joyce Carol Oates
Death of a Salesman Reviews
At Playbill Vault[edit]
First Revival −1975
Second Revival – 1984
Third Revival – 1999
Fourth Revival – 2012
[show]
v
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Works by Arthur Miller
Plays
No Villain
They Too Arise
Honors at Dawn
The Golden Years (radio play)
That They May Win (one-act)
The Man Who Had All the Luck
All My Sons
Death of a Salesman
An Enemy of the People (adapted)
The Crucible
A View from the Bridge
A Memory of Two Mondays
The Misfits
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Incident At Vichy
The Price
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The Archbishop's Ceiling
The American Clock
Up from Paradise
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Some Kind of Love Story
Everybody Wins
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Broken Glass
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Resurrection Blues
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Novels
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Screenplays
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[show]
v
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Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman
Characters
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Film and TV
Death of a Salesman (1951)
Death of a Salesman (1966, CBS)
Death of a Salesman (1966, BBC)
Death of a Salesman (1985)
Death of a Salesman (1996)
Death of a Salesman (2000)
Related
The Salesman (2016)
[show]
v
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Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival
The Royal Family (1976)
No award (1977-1981)
Entertaining Mr Sloane (1982)
On Your Toes (1983)
Death of a Salesman (1984)
Joe Egg (1985)
The House of Blue Leaves (1986)
no award (1987)
Anything Goes (1988)
Our Town (1989)
Gypsy (1990)
A Little Night Music (1991)
Guys and Dolls (1992)
[show]
v
t
e
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play
Anna Christie (1993)
An Inspector Calls (1994)
The Heiress (1995)
A Delicate Balance (1996)
A Doll's House (1997)
A View from the Bridge (1998)
Death of a Salesman / The Iceman Cometh (1999)
The Real Thing (2000)
The Best Man (2001)
Private Lives (2002)
Long Day's Journey into Night (2003)
Henry IV (2004)
Twelve Angry Men (2005)
Awake and Sing! (2006)
Journey's End (2007)
Boeing-Boeing (2008)
The Norman Conquests (2009)
A View from the Bridge / Fences (2010)
The Normal Heart (2011)
Death of a Salesman (2012)
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (2013)
Twelfth Night (2014)
The Elephant Man (2015)
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Jitney (2017)
[show]
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1918–1950
Why Marry? (1918)
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Icebound (1923)
Hell-Bent Fer Heaven (1924)
They Knew What They Wanted (1925)
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In Abraham's Bosom (1927)
Strange Interlude (1928)
Street Scene (1929)
The Green Pastures (1930)
Alison's House (1931)
Of Thee I Sing (1932)
Both Your Houses (1933)
Men in White (1934)
The Old Maid (1935)
Idiot's Delight (1936)
You Can't Take It with You (1937)
Our Town (1938)
Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1939)
The Time of Your Life (1940)
There Shall Be No Night (1941)
The Skin of Our Teeth (1943)
Harvey (1945)
State of the Union (1946)
A Streetcar Named Desire (1948)
Death of a Salesman (1949)
South Pacific (1950)
1951–1975
The Shrike (1952)
Picnic (1953)
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Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955)
The Diary of Anne Frank (1956)
Long Day's Journey into Night (1957)
Look Homeward, Angel (1958)
J.B. (1959)
Fiorello! (1960)
All the Way Home (1961)
How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962)
The Subject Was Roses (1965)
A Delicate Balance (1967)
The Great White Hope (1969)
No Place to be Somebody (1970)
The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds (1971)
That Championship Season (1973)
Seascape (1975)
1976–2000
A Chorus Line (1976)
The Shadow Box (1977)
The Gin Game (1978)
Buried Child (1979)
Talley's Folly (1980)
Crimes of the Heart (1981)
A Soldier's Play (1982)
'night, Mother (1983)
Glengarry Glen Ross (1984)
Sunday in the Park with George (1985)
Fences (1987)
Driving Miss Daisy (1988)
The Heidi Chronicles (1989)
The Piano Lesson (1990)
Lost in Yonkers (1991)
The Kentucky Cycle (1992)
Angels in America: Millennium Approaches (1993)
Three Tall Women (1994)
The Young Man from Atlanta (1995)
Rent (1996)
How I Learned to Drive (1998)
Wit (1999)
Dinner with Friends (2000)
2001–present
Proof (2001)
Topdog/Underdog (2002)
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Doubt: A Parable (2005)
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Ruined (2009)
Next to Normal (2010)
Clybourne Park (2011)
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The Flick (2014)
Between Riverside and Crazy (2015)
Hamilton (2016)
Sweat (2017)
[show]
v
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1948-1975
Mister Roberts (1948)
Death of a Salesman (1949)
The Cocktail Party (1950)
The Rose Tattoo (1951)
The Fourposter (1952)
The Crucible (1953)
The Teahouse of the August Moon (1954)
The Desperate Hours (1955)
The Diary of Anne Frank (1956)
Long Day's Journey into Night (1957)
Sunrise at Campobello (1958)
J.B. (1959)
The Miracle Worker (1960)
Becket (1961)
A Man for All Seasons (1962)
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1963)
Luther (1964)
The Subject Was Roses (1965)
Marat/Sade (1966)
The Homecoming (1967)
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1968)
The Great White Hope (1969)
Borstal Boy (1970)
Sleuth (1971)
Sticks and Bones (1972)
That Championship Season (1973)
The River Niger (1974)
Equus (1975)
1976-2000
Travesties (1976)
The Shadow Box (1977)
Da (1978)
The Elephant Man (1979)
Children of a Lesser God (1980)
Amadeus (1981)
The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby (1982)
Torch Song Trilogy (1983)
The Real Thing (1984)
Biloxi Blues (1985)
I'm Not Rappaport (1986)
Fences (1987)
M. Butterfly (1988)
The Heidi Chronicles (1989)
The Grapes of Wrath (1990)
Lost in Yonkers (1991)
Dancing at Lughnasa (1992)
Angels in America: Millennium Approaches (1993)
Angels in America: Perestroika (1994)
Love! Valour! Compassion! (1995)
Master Class (1996)
The Last Night of Ballyhoo (1997)
'Art' (1998)
Side Man (1999)
Copenhagen (2000)
2001-present
Proof (2001)
The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia? (2002)
Take Me Out (2003)
I Am My Own Wife (2004)
Doubt: A Parable (2005)
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The Coast of Utopia (2007)
August: Osage County (2008)
God of Carnage (2009)
Red (2010)
War Horse (2011)
Clybourne Park (2012)
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike (2013)
All the Way (2014)
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time (2015)
The Humans (2016)
Oslo (2017)
[show]
v
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1970s
Porgy and Bess (1977)
Dracula (1978)
No Award (1979)
1980s
Morning's at Seven (1980)
The Pirates of Penzance (1981)
Othello (1982)
On Your Toes (1983)
Death of a Salesman (1984)
Joe Egg (1985)
Sweet Charity (1986)
All My Sons (1987)
Anything Goes (1988)
Our Town (1989)
1990s
Gypsy (1990)
Fiddler on the Roof (1991)
Guys and Dolls (1992)
Anna Christie (1993)
[show]
v
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Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play
1990s
An Inspector Calls (1994)
The Heiress (1995)
A Delicate Balance (1996)
A Doll's House (1997)
A View from the Bridge (1998)
Death of a Salesman (1999)
2000s
The Real Thing (2000)
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (2001)
Private Lives (2002)
Long Day's Journey into Night (2003)
Henry IV (a combination of Part 1 and Part 2) (2004)
Glengarry Glen Ross (2005)
Awake and Sing! (2006)
Journey's End (2007)
Boeing-Boeing (2008)
The Norman Conquests (2009)
2010s
Fences (2010)
The Normal Heart (2011)
Death of a Salesman (2012)
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (2013)
A Raisin in the Sun (2014)
Skylight (2015)
A View from the Bridge (2016)
Jitney (2017)
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