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Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India
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Vasco da Gama on his arrival in India, bearing the flag used during the first voyage by sea to this part of the world: the arms of Portugal and the Cross of the Order of Christ, sponsors of the expansion movement initiated by Henry the Navigator, are seen. Painting by Ernesto Casanova
The discovery of the sea route to India is the description sometimes used in Europe and among the Portuguese for the first recorded trip made directly from Europe to India via the Atlantic Ocean.[citation needed]It was undertaken under the command of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama during the reign of King Manuel I in 1497 -1499. Considered by Europe to be one of the most remarkable voyages of the Age of Discovery, it consolidated the Portuguese maritime presence over the Indian Ocean and that country's dominance of global trade routes.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Preparations of the trip
2 The context
3 The navy
4 The voyage
5 Arrival in Calicut
6 Back in Portugal
7 See also
8 References
Preparations of the trip[edit]
The plan for working on the Cape Route to India was charted by Portuguese King John II as a cost saving measure in the trade with Asia and also an attempt to monopolize the spice trade.[citation needed] Adding to the increasingly influential Portuguese maritime presence, John II craved for trade routes and for the expansion of the kingdom of Portugal which had already been transformed into an Empire. However, the project would not be realized during his reign. It would be his successor, King Manuel I, who would designate Vasco da Gama for this expedition, while maintaining the original plan.[citation needed]
However, this development was not viewed well by the upper classes. In the Cortes de Montemor-o-Novo of 1495 an opposite view was visible over the journey that John II had so painstakingly prepared. This point of view was contented with the trade with Guinea and North Africa and feared the challenges posed by the maintenance of any overseas territories, and the cost involved in the launching and maintenance of sea lanes. This position is embodied in the character of The Old Man of Restelo that appears in Os Lusíadas of the Portuguese epic poet Luís Vaz de Camões, who opposes the boarding of the armada.[citation needed] Os Lusíadas It is often regarded as the most important work of Portuguese literature. The work celebrates the discovery of a sea route to India by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama.[1]
King Manuel did not share that opinion. Keeping the D. João II plan, he went ahead to equip the ships and chose Vasco da Gama as the leader of this expedition and the captain of the armada.[citation needed] Interestingly, according to the original plan, John II had appointed his father, Stephen da Gama, to head the armada; but by the time of implementing the plan, both were deceased.
Portuguese were after spices, but they were very expensive because it was an inconvenience to trade. For example, it was dangerous and time consuming to travel by land from Europe to India. [2]As a result, King D. João II of Portugal established a plan for ships to explore the coast of Africa to see if India was navigable via around the cape, and through the Indian Ocean. King João II appointed Bartolomeu Dias, on October 10, 1486, to head an expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa in the hope of finding a trade route to India.[2] Dias helped in the construction of the São Gabriel and its sister ship, the São Rafael that were used by Vasco da Gama to sail past the Cape of Good Hope and continue to India.[2]
One of the sailors, Bartolomeu Dias passed the southernmost point of Africa known as the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. He declared it possible to travel to India by going around Africa. The Portuguese were then able to make an immense profit by using their own ships to retrieve the spices.
This global expedition was launched on 8 July 1497. It would conclude two years later with the entry of the ships back into the river Tagus, bringing with them the good news that bestowed on Portugal a prestigious maritime position.[citation needed]
The context[edit]
Preste João (Prester John)
by Diogo Homem, 1558, in the Biblioteca Britânica
Map of the supposed kingdom of Preste João (Prester John), shown as set in the region of Ethiopia.
Spices were always considered the gold of the Indies. Cinnamon, ginger, cloves, pepper and turmeric had long been products which were difficult to obtain in Europe and brought in by caravans and experienced merchants coming from the East.[citation needed]
A merchant of Lisbon describes the overland spice route as follows: Only the markets of Venice and Genoa then scattered these spices all over Europe, great in cost, and without guaranteed arrival.[3] In 1453, with the capture of the city of Constantinople by the Ottomans, the trade of Venice and Genoa reduced to a great degree.[dubious – discuss] The advantage of the Portuguese to establish a sea route therefore virtually free of assault - however, covered in perils in the sea - showed itself rewarding and outlined a large income to the Crown in the future. Portugal would directly link the spice producing regions to their markets in Europe.[citation needed]
Around the year 1481, João Afonso of Aveiro attempted to undertake an exploration of the kingdom of Benin, and gathered information about an almost legendary prince Ogané, whose kingdom was located far to the east of Benin. He was thought to be Christian and one who enjoyed great respect and power. It was said the Benin kingdom where Ogané had his headquarters was twenty moons away in distance, which, according to the account of João de Barros, corresponds to two hundred fifty leagues.[citation needed]
The important trade routes of the silk and spices, blocked by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 with the fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire, led to the search for a sea route across the Atlantic skirting Africa.
Excited with this news, John II sent, in 1487, Frei António de Lisboa and Pedro de Montarroio to locate in the East new information that could find Prester John, which seemed to correspond, after all, to the description that came about the prince Ogané. [4]But the mission of those sent was merely to Jerusalem, because these two Portuguese were unaware of the Arabic language and hence feared to continue, and instead returned to Portugal.[citation needed]
Very carefully and secretly two young men of trust were prepared. They were: Afonso de Paiva, of Castelo Branco, and Pêro da Covilhã. They began their journey and went through Valencia, Barcelona, Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria, Cairo and Aden. Here their paths separated: Afonso de Paiva headed to Ethiopia and Pêro da Covilhã to India. None of the men returned, but the information needed by D. John was brought back to the kingdom, and with this came the support to serve the possible epic maritime adventure that lay ahead.[citation needed]
The travel plan then would have predicted the safety of the route. For this, it would be necessary to install trading posts along the way, and build fortresses. The mission would be up to the captain of the armada who was provided with many gifts and equipment to brave the seas and diplomatic credentials and perseverance to create links with unknown monarchs who eventually were found along the way.
But it would no longer be in the reign of King John II of Portugal that this project, which was already facing a strong opposition from the court, would be initiated. It would only happen in the time of his successor, King Manuel I who incidentally did not share the general opinion about the sea routes being a good - if not the best - means to dominate trade with the East.
The navy[edit]
Vasco da Gama
By António Manuel da Fonseca, 1838, from the Museu Marítimo Nacional
Among the sailors, were two interpreters Fernão Martins and Martim Afonso de Sousa, and two brothers, João Figueira and Pêro da Covilhã. In all, the crews comprised 170 men.
The sailors had sailing charts marked with the positions of the African coast known until then, quadrants, astrolabes of various sizes, tables with calculations - such as astronomical tables of Abraham Zacuto -, needle and bobs. One of the ships was carrying groceries sufficient for three years: biscuits, beans, dried meats, wine, flour, olive oil, pickles and other items of pharmacy. Also planned were continuous replenishment along the coast of Africa. The trip to India was performed by three ships and another ship that carried supplies. These three ships had a captain and a pilot. The ship of groceries had only a captain. Two ships also had a scribe or writer. The first ship had a master.
The voyage[edit]
Path taken by the expedition (marked in black). In this figure you can also see, for comparison, the path taken by Pêro da Covilhã (in orange) separated from that of Afonso de Paiva (blue) after the long trip together (green).
Thus began the expedition on 8 July 1497. The Lisbon shipping line to Cabo Verde was the usual one and the Indian Ocean is described by Álvaro Velho thus: "The coastal route until Malindi and direct passage from this port to Calicut". During this expedition, the latitudes were determined by solar observation, as stated by João de Barros.
Reports of the Daily Board (Diários de Bordo) of the ships note many unique experiences. Also found were a rich flora and fauna. Contact was made near the bay of St. Helena with tribes who ate sea lions, whales, gazelle meat and herbal roots; They walked covered with fur and their weapons were simple wooden spears of Zambujo and animal horns; They saw tribes who played rustic flutes in a coordinated manner, which was a surprising sight for the Europeans. Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) affected the crew. They crossed into Mozambique with palm trees yielding coconuts.
Despite the adversities of a trip of this scale, the crew retained their curiosity and courage to achieve the feat and get along with people they encountered. To gather pace, they raided ships in search of pilots. With the prisoners, the Captain-General could trade, or put them to work.
It is known, thanks to the Portuguese humanist philosopher Damião de Góis, that during the trip five monuments were set in place. San Rafael, in the Bons Sinais river; São Jorge, in Mozambique; the Holy Spirit in Malindi; Santa Maria, in Ilhéus, and San Gabriel, in Calicut. These monuments were meant to affirm the Portuguese sovereignty in these places so that other explorers who arrived later did not take the land for themselves as discoveries.
Arrival in Calicut[edit]
On May 17, 1498, the fleet reached Kappakadavu, near Calicut, in the current Indian state of Kerala, thus having established the route via the Indian Ocean and managing to open the sea route from Europe to India.[5]
Negotiations with the local governor, Samutiri Manavikraman Raja, Zamorin of Calicut, were difficult. Vasco da Gama's efforts to obtain favorable commercial terms have been hampered by the different cultures and the low value of their gifts—in the West it was customary for kings to offer presents to the foreign envoys; in the East the kings were expected to be impressed with rich offerings.[citation needed] Goods presented by the Portuguese proved insufficient to impress the Zamorin and representatives of the Zamorin mocked their offers, while the Arab merchants established there resisted the possibility of unwanted competition.
Vasco da Gama's perseverance made him nevertheless initiate negotiations between him and the Zamorin, who was pleased with the letters of King Manuel I. Finally, Vasco da Gama managed to get an ambiguous letter of concession rights to trade.
The Portuguese eventually were able to sell their goods at a low price in order to acquire small amounts of spices and jewels to take to their kingdom. However the fleet eventually departed without warning after the Zamorin and his naval chief Kunjali Marakkar insisted that they left all their assets as collateral. Vasco da Gama kept his goods, but left a few Portuguese with orders to start a trading post.[citation needed]
Back in Portugal[edit]
Vasco da Gama presents to Dom Manuel the first fruits of India. National Library of Portugal, c.1900
On July 12, 1499, after more than two years since the beginning of this expedition, the caravel Berrio entered into the river Tagus, commanded by Nicolau Coelho, with the news that would thrill Lisbon: the Portuguese had finally reached India by sea. Vasco da Gama had fallen behind on Terceira Island, preferring to stay on with his brother who was seriously ill, thus foreclosing the celebrations and congratulations by the news.[citation needed]
Of the ships involved, only the São Rafael (St. Raphael) did not return. It was burnt due to its inability to maneuver, as a result of the reduced number of the crew as a result of diseases which killed about half the crew, such as scurvy (vitamin C deficiency), which was felt acutely while crossing the Indian Ocean. Only 55 of the 148 men who were part of the armada survived the trip[6].
Vasco da Gama returned home on 31 August and was received by King Manuel I with contentment. He assigned him the title of Don and great rewards.[6]
Manuel I hastened to break the news to the kings of Spain, both as a display of pride as also to warn that both the routes would now explored by the Portuguese Crown.[6]
There is news of an Italian merchant who spread the good news in Florence.
The merchant refers to Melinde.
With the opening of the sea route to the East Indies, the Venetians, who controlled the trade of the Mediterranean, would buy pepper from the Portuguese, at half the price they paid to the Arabs in Egypt.[citation needed] The fall of the Venetian monopoly on the spice trade in Europe and the resulting drop in prices of spices contributed to the commercial development of the continent.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Portuguese India
Vasco da Gama
Portuguese India Armadas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Os Lusíadas". Wikipedia. 2018-03-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c Luís de Carvalho, Sérgio (2017). A Children's History of Portugal. Dartmouth, MA: Tagus Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781933227795.
Jump up ^ "HISTORY OF PORTUGAL". www.historyworld.net. Retrieved 2018-03-04.
Jump up ^ CCBB Rio (2007). Lusa: A Matriz Portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ISBN 9788560169016.
Jump up ^ Society, National Geographic (2014-04-29). "Da Gama Discovers a Sea Route to India". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2018-03-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Vasco da Gama - Exploration - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2018-03-04.
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Russia in the European energy sector
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Russian Federation supplies a significant volume of fossil fuels and is the largest exporter of oil and natural gas to the European Union. In 2007, the European Union imported from Russia 185 million tonnes of crude oil, which accounted for 32.6% of total oil import, and 100.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent of natural gas, which accounted 38.7% of total gas import.[1]
The Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod pipeline was constructed in 1982–1984 with Western financing to provide Soviet gas to the Western European market.[citation needed]
The Russian state-owned company Gazprom exports natural gas to Europe. It also controls a large number of subsidiaries, including various infrastructure assets. According to the study published by the Research Centre for East European Studies, the liberalization of the EU gas market has driven Gazprom's expansion in Europe by increasing its share in the European downstream market. It has established sale subsidiaries in many of its export markets, and has also invested in access to industrial and power generation sectors in Western and Central Europe. In addition, Gazprom has established joint ventures to build natural gas pipelines and storage depots in a number of European countries.[2] Transneft, a Russian state-owned company responsible for the national oil pipelines, is another Russian company supplying energy to Europe.[citation needed]
In September 2012 the European Commission has opened formal proceedings to investigate whether Gazprom is hindering competition in Central and Eastern European gas markets, in breach of EU competition law. In particular, the Commission is looking into Gazprom's usage of ‘no resale’ clauses in supply contracts, alleged prevention of diversification of gas supplies, and imposition of unfair pricing by linking oil and gas prices in long-term contracts.[3] The Russian Federation responded by issuing a blocking legislation, which introduced a default rule prohibiting Russian strategic firms, including Gazprom, to comply with any foreign measures or requests.[4] Compliance is made subject to a prior permission granted by the Russian government.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Natural gas deliveries
3 Disputes and diversification efforts
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
In the early 1980s there were American efforts, led by the Reagan administration, to convince European countries through which a proposed Soviet gas pipeline was to be built to deny firms responsible for construction the ability to purchase supplies and parts for the pipeline and associated facilities. The pipeline was built despite these protests and the rise of large Russian gas firms such as Gazprom as well as increased Russian fossil fuel production has facilitated a large expansion in the quantity of gas supplied to the European market since the 1990s.
Natural gas deliveries[edit]
Major existing and planned natural gas pipelines supplying Russian gas to Europe
In 2007, 38.7% of the European Union's natural gas total imports and 24.3% of consumed natural gas originated from Russia.[1][5] As of 2009, Russian natural gas was delivered to Europe through 12 pipelines, of which three were direct pipelines (to Finland, Estonia and Latvia), four through Belarus (to Lithuania and Poland) and five through Ukraine (to Slovakia, Romania, Hungary and Poland).[5] In 2011, an additional pipeline, Nord Stream (directly to Germany through the Baltic Sea), opened.[6]
The largest importers of Russian gas in the European Union are Germany and Italy, accounting together for almost half of the EU gas imports from Russia. Other larger Russian gas importers (over 5 billion cubic meter per year) in the European Union are France, Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland, Austria and Slovakia.[7][8] The largest non-EU importers of Russian natural gas are Ukraine, Turkey and Belarus.[7]
According to the European Commission, the share of Russian natural gas in the member states' domestic gas consumption in 2007 was the following:[5]
Estonia 100%
Finland 100%
Latvia 100%
Lithuania 100%
Slovakia 98%
Bulgaria 92%
Czech Republic 77.6%
Greece 76%
Hungary 60%
Slovenia 52%
Austria 49%
Poland 48.15%
Croatia 37%
Germany 36%
Italy 27%
Romania 27%
France 14%
Belgium 5%
The shares of Russian natural gas in the domestic gas consumption in non-EU countries in Europe were in 2006:[7]
Republic of Macedonia 100%
Belarus 98%
Montenegro 87%
Serbia 87%
Ukraine 66%
Turkey 64%
Switzerland 12%
Disputes and diversification efforts[edit]
At the same time, the variety of national policies and stances of larger exporters versus larger dependents of Russian gas, together with the segmentation of the European gas market, has become a prominent issue in European politics toward Russia, with significant geopolitical implications for economic and political ties between the EU and Russia. These ties have occasionally led to calls for greater European energy diversity, although such efforts are complicated by the fact that many European customers have long term legal contracts for gas deliveries despite the disputes, most of which stretch beyond 2025–2030.[9]
A number of disputes in which Russia was using pipeline shutdowns in what was described as "tool for intimidation and blackmail"[10] caused European Union to significantly increase efforts to diversify its energy sources.[11]
Part of the aim of the Energy Union is to diversify the EU’s gas supplies away from Russia, which has already proved to be an unreliable partner, first in 2006 and then in 2009, and which threatened to become one again at the outbreak of the conflict in Ukraine in 2013-2014.
—  European Council of Foreign Relations, 2015
See also: 2004 Russia–Belarus gas dispute, Russia–Ukraine gas disputes, and ORLEN Lietuva
During an anti-trust investigation initiated in 2011 against Gazprom a number of internal company documents were seized that documented a number of "abusive practices" in an attempt to "segment the internal [EU] market along national borders" and impose "unfair pricing".[12]
See also[edit]
Russia portal
Energy portal
Energy policy of Russia
Energy policy of the European Union
Foreign relations of Russia
Russian influence operations
European countries by fossil fuel use (% of total energy)
European countries by electricity consumption per person
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Energy Dialogue EU–Russia. The Tenth Progress Report" (PDF). European Commission. November 2009: 4–6. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Koszalin, Andreas Heinrich (5 February 2008). "Gazprom's Expansion Strategy in Europe and the Liberalization of EU Energy Markets" (PDF). Russian Analytical Digest. Research Centre for East European Studies (34 Russian Business Expansion). Retrieved 23 February 2008.
Jump up ^ European Commission, Antitrust: Commission Opens Proceedings Against Gazprom, IP/12/937
Jump up ^ Marek Martyniszyn, Legislation Blocking Antitrust Investigations and the September 2012 Russian Executive Order, 37(1) World Competition 103 (2014)
^ Jump up to: a b c "Commission staff working document–Accompanying document to the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning measures to safeguard security of gas supply and repealing Directive 2004/67/EC. Assessment report of directive 2004/67/EC on security of gas supply {COM(2009) 363}" (PDF). European Commission. 16 July 2009: 33; 56; 63–76. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Juergen Baetz (8 November 2011). "Merkel, Medvedev inaugurate new gas pipeline". Associated Press. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Country analysis briefs: Russia" (PDF). Energy Information Administration. May 2008: 11. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Noël, Pierre (May 2009). "A Market Between Us: Reducing the Political Cost of Europe's Dependence on Russian Gas" (PDF). EPRG Working Paper Series. University of Cambridge Electricity Policy Research Group: 2; 38. EPRG0916. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Simon Pirani; Jonathan Stern; Katja Yafimava (February 2009). The Russo-Ukrainian gas dispute of January 2009: a comprehensive assessment (PDF). NG 27. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-901795-85-1. Retrieved 13 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Lithuania suspects Russian oil grab". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Europe's alternatives to Russian gas". European Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "EU documents lay bare Russian energy abuse". Retrieved 2018-04-16.
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This page was last edited on 16 April 2018, at 12:12.
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