text:
Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac
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Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac
Compilation album by Various artists
Released
August 14, 2012 (2012-08-14)
Recorded
2012
Genre
Indie rock
Label
Hear Music
Producer
Randall Poster
Gelya Robb
Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac is a tribute album produced by Randall Poster and Gelya Robb, featuring various indie rock artists covering Fleetwood Mac songs. It was released on August 14, 2012.[1] The title refers to a lyric from the song "Tusk".
Contents
[hide]
1 Critical reception
2 Track listing
3 Charts
4 References
5 External links
Critical reception[edit]
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic [2]
Rolling Stone [3]
Rolling Stone compared the album favorably to Poster and Robb's 2011 tribute album, Rave On Buddy Holly.[3] NPR's Stephen Thompson also compared this album and the producers' prior Buddy Holly tribute, saying they both "possess both a sense of cohesion and a reasonably high hit rate", giving highest praise to The New Pornographers' "perfect power-pop throwback" cover of "Think About Me", and noting that first part of the album was more pop in spirit than the "hazier, more dance-driven musings in the second".[4]
Track listing[edit]
No.
Title
Performer
Length
1. "Albatross" Lee Ranaldo Band and J Mascis 4:15
2. "Landslide" Antony 3:33
3. "Before the Beginning" Trixie Whitley 4:46
4. "Oh Well" Billy Gibbons & Co. 4:45
5. "Rhiannon" Best Coast 3:07
6. "Think About Me" The New Pornographers 2:56
7. "Angel" Marianne Faithfull 2:55
8. "Silver Springs" Lykke Li 4:10
9. "Gold Dust Woman" Karen Elson 5:42
10. "Storms" Matt Sweeney and Bonnie 'Prince' Billy 5:42
11. "Straight Back" Washed Out 3:43
12. "That's All for Everyone" Tame Impala 3:43
13. "Sisters of the Moon" Craig Wedren and St. Vincent 3:45
14. "Dreams" The Kills 4:56
15. "Gypsy" Gardens & Villa 4:40
16. "Tusk" The Crystal Ark 5:30
17. "Future Games" MGMT 9:01
18. "Hold Me" Haim 3:40
19. "The Green Manalishi" The Entrance Band 6:12
Charts[edit]
Chart (2012)
Peak
position
US Billboard 200[5]
45
US Top Rock Albums[5]
15
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pelly, Jenn (June 18, 2012). "New Fleetwood Mac Tribute Includes St. Vincent, Best Coast, and More; Hear New Pornographers Do "Think About Me"". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved June 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac – Various Artists". AllMusic. All Media Network. Retrieved December 19, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Hermes, Will (August 14, 2012). "Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media. Retrieved December 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Stephen (July 29, 2012). "First Listen: 'Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute To Fleetwood Mac'". NPR. Retrieved December 19, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac – Various Artists | Awards". AllMusic. All Media Network. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
External links[edit]
Official website
[hide]
v
t
e
Fleetwood Mac
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Studio albums
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Mr. Wonderful
Then Play On
Kiln House
Future Games
Bare Trees
Penguin
Mystery to Me
Heroes Are Hard to Find
Fleetwood Mac
Rumours
Tusk
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Tango in the Night
Behind the Mask
Time
Say You Will
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Live albums
Live
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Tribute albums
Just Tell Me That You Want Me: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac
1960s songs
"I Believe My Time Ain't Long"
"Hellhound on My Trail"
"Shake Your Moneymaker"
"Stop Messin' Around"
"Need Your Love So Bad"
"Madison Blues"
"Great Balls of Fire"
"Black Magic Woman"
"Albatross"
"When You Say"
"Man of the World"
"Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked in Tonite"
"Rattlesnake Shake"
"Oh Well"
1970s songs
"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)"
"Dragonfly"
"Jewel-Eyed Judy"
"Sentimental Lady"
"For Your Love"
"Hypnotized"
"Angel"
"Monday Morning"
"Warm Ways"
"Blue Letter"
"Over My Head"
"Say You Love Me"
"Rhiannon"
"Landslide"
"World Turning"
"I'm So Afraid"
"Second Hand News"
"Dreams"
"Never Going Back Again"
"Don't Stop"
"Go Your Own Way"
"Songbird"
"The Chain"
"You Make Loving Fun"
"I Don't Want to Know"
"Oh Daddy"
"Gold Dust Woman"
"Silver Springs"
"Tusk"
"Sara"
"Think About Me"
"Not That Funny"
"Sisters of the Moon"
"Walk a Thin Line"
"Angel"
"I Know I'm Not Wrong"
"Brown Eyes"
1980s songs
"Hold Me"
"Gypsy"
"Oh Diane"
"Love in Store"
"Can't Go Back"
"Big Love"
"Seven Wonders"
"Little Lies"
"Everywhere"
"Family Man"
"Tango in the Night"
"Isn't It Midnight"
"As Long as You Follow"
"No Questions Asked"
1990s–2010s songs
"Skies the Limit"
"In the Back of My Mind"
"Love Is Dangerous"
"Save Me"
"Love Shines"
"Paper Doll"
"I Do"
"Temporary One"
"Murrow Turning Over in His Grave"
"Peacekeeper"
"Say You Will"
"Sad Angel"
Concert tours
Heroes Are Hard to Find tour
Fleetwood Mac tour
Rumours Tour
Tusk tour
Mirage tour
Shake the Cage Tour
Behind the Mask Tour
Say You Will tour
Unleashed
2013 tour
On with the Show
Related people
Ken Caillat
Richard Dashut
Clifford Davis
John Mayall
Keith Olsen
Related articles
Discography
List of Fleetwood Mac band members
Buckingham Nicks
Lindsey Buckingham/Christine McVie
Bekka & Billy
Stretch ("Bogus Fleetwood Mac")
"Rumours" (Glee episode)
Book
Category
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Aisling Franciosi
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Aisling Franciosi
Franciosi filming Ambition: Epilogue to promote the Rosetta mission for the European Space Agency
Born
Aisling Franciosi
Italy
Occupation
Actress
Years active
2012–present
Aisling Franciosi is an Irish-Italian actress. She is known for playing the part of Katie Benedetto in the BBC Two crime drama television series The Fall[1] and her role as Kate Crawford in the TNT series Legends.[2]
In 2016, Franciosi joined the cast of the HBO series Game of Thrones in the sixth and seventh seasons as Lyanna Stark.[3]
In 2017, she took the lead role in The Nightingale, a period film set in Tasmania and directed by Jennifer Kent.[4]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Filmography
2.1 Film
2.2 Television
3 Awards
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Franciosi was born in Italy and grew up in Dublin. She is the third child of an Italian father and an Irish mother. She is bilingual, fluent in both English and Italian. She studied French and Spanish at Trinity College, Dublin.[5]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2014 Jimmy's Hall Marie
2014 Ambition Apprentice Short film for the European Space Agency Rosetta mission
2016 Ambition – Epilogue Master Short film for the ESA Rosetta mission
2017 The Nightingale Clare In post-production
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2012 Trivia Trish Episode: Season 2, Episode 5
2013–16 The Fall Katie Benedetto 16 episodes
2014 Quirke Phoebe Griffin 3 episodes
2015 Vera Sigourney O'Brien Episode: "Muddy Waters"
2015 Legends Kate Crawford 10 episodes
2016–17 Game of Thrones Lyanna Stark 2 episodes
2017 Clique Georgia Cunningham Series regular
Awards[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
2015 Irish Film and Television Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role The Fall Won[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Morgan Jeffery (5 January 2016). "The Fall will wrap up with a third and final series". Digital Spy.
Jump up ^ "Legends: Sean Bean Returns in Season Two of TNT Series". TVSeriesFinale. Retrieved November 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ White, James. "Game Of Thrones: the Jon Snow revelation and what it all means", Empire Online, 28 June 2016. Retrieved on 28 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Nordine, Michael (14 March 2017). "'The Nightingale': Jennifer Kent Begins Production on Her Follow-up to 'The Babadook'", IndieWire. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Greco, Patti. ""The Fall" Star Aisling Franciosi on Getting Tied Up by Jamie Dornan", Cosmopolitan, 26 January 2016. Retrieved on 28 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "IFTA 2015 Nominees". The Irish Film & Television Academy. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
External links[edit]
Aisling Franciosi on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aisling_Franciosi&oldid=853420756"
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1993 births
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Electrochemical gradient
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Jump to: navigation, search
Diagram of ion concentrations and charge across a semi-permeable cellular membrane.
An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane, and the electrical gradient, or difference in charge across a membrane. When there are unequal concentrations of an ion across a permeable membrane, the ion will move across the membrane from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration through simple diffusion. Ions also carry an electric charge that forms an electric potential across a membrane. If there is an unequal distribution of charges across the membrane, then the difference in electric potential generates a force that drives ion diffusion until the charges are balanced on both sides of the membrane.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Chemistry
3 Biological context
4 Ion gradients
5 Proton gradients
5.1 Bacteriorhodopsin
5.2 Photophosphorylation
5.3 Oxidative Phosphorylation
6 See also
7 References
Overview[edit]
Electrochemical potential is important in electroanalytical chemistry and industrial applications such as batteries and fuel cells. It represents one of the many interchangeable forms of potential energy through which energy may be conserved.
In biological processes, the direction an ion moves by diffusion or active transport across a membrane is determined by the electrochemical gradient. In mitochondria and chloroplasts, proton gradients are used to generate a chemiosmotic potential that is also known as a proton motive force. This potential energy is used for the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation or photophosphorylation, respectively.[2]
An electrochemical gradient has two components. First, the electrical component is caused by a charge difference across the lipid membrane. Second, a chemical component is caused by a differential concentration of ions across the membrane. The combination of these two factors determines the thermodynamically favourable direction for an ion's movement across a membrane.[1][3]
An electrochemical gradient is analogous to the water pressure across a hydroelectric dam. Membrane transport proteins such as the sodium-potassium pump within the membrane are equivalent to turbines that convert the water's potential energy to other forms of physical or chemical energy, and the ions that pass through the membrane are equivalent to water that ends up at the bottom of the dam. Also, energy can be used to pump water up into the lake above the dam. In similar manner, chemical energy in cells can be used to create electrochemical gradients.[4][5]
Chemistry[edit]
The term is typically applied in contexts wherein a chemical reaction is to take place, such as one involving the transfer of an electron at a battery electrode. In a battery, an electrochemical potential arising from the movement of ions balances the reaction energy of the electrodes. The maximum voltage that a battery reaction can produce is sometimes called the standard electrochemical potential of that reaction (see also Electrode potential and Table of standard electrode potentials). In instances pertaining specifically to the movement of electrically charged solutes, the potential is often expressed in units of volts. See: Concentration cell.
Biological context[edit]
The generation of a transmembrane electrical potential through ion movement across a cell membrane drives biological processes like nerve conduction, muscle contraction, hormone secretion, and sensory processes. By convention, a typical animal cell has a transmembrane electrical potential between -50 mV and -70 mV inside the cell.[6]
Electrochemical gradients also play a role in establishing proton gradients in oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria.The final step of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain. Four complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion make up the electron transport chain. However, only complexes I, III, and IV pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space (IMS). In total, there are ten protons translocated from the matrix to the IMS which generates an electrochemical potential of more than 200mV. This drives the flux of protons back into the matrix through ATP synthase which produces ATP by adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP.[7] Thus, generation of a proton electrochemical gradient is crucial for energy production in mitochondria.[8] The total equation for the electron transport chain is:
N A D H + 11 H + ( m a t r i x ) + 1 / 2 O 2 ⟶ N A D + + 10 H + ( I M S ) + H 2 O {\displaystyle NADH+11H^{+}(matrix)+1/2\ O_{2}\longrightarrow NAD^{+}+10H^{+}(IMS)+H_{2}O} [9]
Similar to the electron transport chain, the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis pump protons into the thylakoid lumen of chloroplasts to drive the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase. The proton gradient can be generated through either noncyclic or cyclic photophosphorylation. Of the proteins that participate in noncyclic photophosphorylation, photosystem II (PSII), plastiquinone, and cytochrome b6f complex directly contribute to generating the proton gradient. For each four photons absorbed by PSII, eight protons are pumped into the lumen.[10] The total equation for photophosphorylation is shown:
2 H 2 O + 6 H + ( s t r o m a ) + 2 N A D P + ⟶ O 2 + 8 H + ( l u m e n ) + 2 N A D P H {\displaystyle 2H_{2}O+6H^{+}(stroma)+2NADP^{+}\longrightarrow O_{2}+8H^{+}(lumen)+2NADPH} [11]
Several other transporters and ion channels play a role in generating a proton electrochemical gradient. One is TPK3, a potassium channel that is activated by Ca2+ and conducts K+ from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma which helps establish the pH gradient. On the other hand, the electro-neutral K+ efflux antiporter (KEA3) transports K+ into the thylakoid lumen and H+ into the stroma which helps establish the electric field.[12]
Ion gradients[edit]
Diagram of the Na+-K+-ATPase.
Since the ions are charged, they cannot pass through the membrane via simple diffusion. Two different mechanisms can transport the ions across the membrane: active or passive transport. An example of active transport of ions is the Na+-K+-ATPase (NKA). NKA catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and an inorganic phosphate and for every molecule of ATP hydrolized, three Na+ are transported outside and two K+ are transported inside the cell. This makes the inside of the cell more negative than the outside and more specifically generates a Vm of about -60mV.[5] An example of passive transport is ion fluxes through Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl− channels. These ions tend to move down their concentration gradient. For example, since there is a high concentration of Na+ outside the cell, Na+ will flow through the Na+ channel into the cell. Since the electric potential inside the cell is negative, the influx of a positive ion depolarizes the membrane which brings the transmembrane electric potential closer to zero. However, Na+ will continue moving down its concentration gradient as long as the effect of the chemical gradient is greater than the effect of the electrical gradient. Once the effect of both gradients are equal (for Na+ this at a Vm of about +70mV), the influx of Na+ stops because the driving force (ΔG) is zero. The equation for the driving force is:[13][14]
Δ G = R T l n ( C i n / C o u t ) + Z F V m {\displaystyle \Delta G=RTln(C_{in}/C_{out})+ZFV_{m}} [6]
In this equation, R represents the gas constant, T represents absolute temperature, Z is the ionic charge, and F represents the Faraday constant.[15]
Proton gradients[edit]
Proton gradients in particular are important in many different types of cells as a form of energy storage. The gradient is usually used to drive ATP synthase, flagellar rotation, or transport of metabolites.[16] This section will focus on three processes that help establish proton gradients in their respective cells: bacteriorhodopsin and noncyclic photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
Bacteriorhodopsin[edit]
Diagram of the conformational shift in retinal that initiates proton pumping in bacteriorhodopsin.
The way bacteriorhodopsin generates a proton gradient in Archaea is through a proton pump. The proton pump relies on proton carriers to drive protons from the side of the membrane with a low H+ concentration to the side of the membrane with a high H+ concentration. In bacteriorhodopsin, the proton pump is activated by absorption of photons of 568 nm wavelength which leads to isomerization of the Schiff base (SB) in retinal forming the K state. This moves SB away from Asp85 and Asp212, causing H+ transfer from the SB to Asp85 forming the M1 state. The protein then shifts to the M2 state by separating Glu204 from Glu194 which releases a proton from Glu204 into the external medium. The SB is reprotonated by Asp96 which forms the N state. It is important that the second proton comes from Asp96 since its deprotonated state is unstable and rapidly reprotonated with a proton from the cytosol. The protonation of Asp85 and Asp96 causing re-isomerization of the SB forming the O state. Finally, bacteriorhodopsin returns to its resting state when Asp85 releases its proton to Glu204.[16][17]
Photophosphorylation[edit]
Simplified diagram of photophosphorylation.
PSII also relies on light to drive the formation of proton gradients in chloroplasts, however PSII utilizes vectorial redox chemistry to achieve this goal. Rather than physically transporting protons through the protein, reactions requiring the binding of protons will occur on the extracellular side while reactions requiring the release of protons will occur on the intracellular side. Absorption of photons of 680 nm wavelength is used to excite two electrons in P680 to a higher energy level. These higher energy electrons are transferred to protein-bound plastoquinone (PQA) and then to unbound plastoquinone (PQB). This reduces plastoquinone (PQ) to plastoquinol (PQH2) which is released from PSII after gaining two protons from the stroma. The electrons in P680 are replenished by oxidizing water through the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC). This results in release of O2 and H+ into the lumen.[16] The total reaction is shown:
4 p h o t o n s ( 680 n m ) + 2 H 2 O + 2 P Q + 4 H + ( s t r o m a ) ⟶ O 2 + 2 P Q H 2 + 4 H + ( l u m e n ) {\displaystyle 4\ photons(680nm)\ +\ 2H_{2}O\ +\ 2PQ\ +\ 4H^{+}(stroma)\longrightarrow O_{2}\ +\ 2PQH_{2}\ +\ 4H^{+}(lumen)} [16]
After being released from PSII, PQH2 travels to the cytochrome b6f complex which then transfers two electrons from PQH2 to plastocyanin in two separate reactions. The process that occurs is similar to the Q-cycle in Complex III of the electron transport chain. In the first reaction, PQH2 binds to the complex on the lumen side and one electron is transferred to the iron-sulfur center which then transfers it to cytochrome f which then transfers it to plastocyanin. The second electron is transferred to heme bL which then transfers it to heme bH which then transfers it to PQ. In the second reaction, a second PQH2 gets oxidized, adding an electron to another plastocyanin and PQ. Both reactions together transfer four protons into the lumen.[18][19]
Oxidative Phosphorylation[edit]
Detailed diagram of the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
In the electron transport chain, Complex I (CI) catalyzes the reduction of ubiquinone (UQ) to ubiquinol (UQH2) by the transfer of two electrons from reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) which translocates four protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the IMS:[20]
N A D H + H + + U Q + 4 H + ( m a t r i x ) ⟶ N A D + + U Q H 2 + 4 H + ( I M S ) {\displaystyle NADH+H^{+}+UQ+4H^{+}(matrix)\longrightarrow NAD^{+}+UQH_{2}+4H^{+}(IMS)} [20]
Complex III (CIII) catalyzes the Q-cycle. The first step involving the transfer of two electrons from the UQH2 reduced by CI to two molecules of oxidized cytochrome c at the Qo site. In the second step, two more electrons reduce UQ to UQH2 at the Qi site.[20] The total reaction is shown:
2 c y t o c h r o m e c ( o x i d i z e d ) + U Q H 2 + 2 H + ( m a t r i x ) ⟶ 2 c y t o c h r o m e c ( r e d u c e d ) + U Q + 4 H + ( I M S ) {\displaystyle 2\ cytochrome\ c\ (oxidized)\ +\ UQH_{2}\ +\ 2H^{+}\ (matrix)\longrightarrow 2\ cytochrome\ c\ (reduced)\ +\ UQ\ +\ 4H^{+}\ (IMS)} [20]
Complex IV (CIV) catalyzes the transfer of two electrons from the cytochrome c reduced by CIII to one half of a full oxygen. Utilizing one full oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation requires the transfer of four electrons. The oxygen will then consume four protons from the matrix to form water while another four protons are pumped into the IMS.[20] The total reaction is shown:
2 c y t o c h r o m e c ( r e d u c e d ) + 4 H + ( m a t r i x ) + 1 / 2 O 2 ⟶ 2 c y t o c h r o m e c ( o x i d i z e d ) + 2 H + ( I M S ) + H 2 O {\displaystyle 2\ cytochrome\ c\ (reduced)\ +\ 4H^{+}\ (matrix)\ +\ 1/2\ O_{2}\longrightarrow 2\ cytochrome\ c\ (oxidized)\ +\ 2H^{+}\ (IMS)\ +\ H_{2}O} [20]
See also[edit]
Concentration cell
Transmembrane potential difference
Action potential
Cell potential
Electrodiffusion
Galvanic cell
Electrochemical cell
Proton exchange membrane
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Nath, Sunil; Villadsen, John (2015-03-01). "Oxidative phosphorylation revisited". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 112 (3): 429–437. doi:10.1002/bit.25492. ISSN 1097-0290.
Jump up ^ Yang, Huanghe; Zhang, Guohui; Cui, Jianmin (2015-01-01). "BK channels: multiple sensors, one activation gate". Membrane Physiology and Membrane Biophysics. 6: 29. doi:10.3389/fphys.2015.00029. PMC 4319557  . PMID 25705194.
Jump up ^ Shattock, Michael J.; Ottolia, Michela; Bers, Donald M.; Blaustein, Mordecai P.; Boguslavskyi, Andrii; Bossuyt, Julie; Bridge, John H. B.; Chen-Izu, Ye; Clancy, Colleen E. (2015-03-15). "Na+/Ca2+ exchange and Na+/K+-ATPase in the heart". The Journal of Physiology. 593 (6): 1361–1382. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.282319. ISSN 1469-7793. PMC 4376416  . PMID 25772291.
^ Jump up to: a b Aperia, Anita; Akkuratov, Evgeny E.; Fontana, Jacopo Maria; Brismar, Hjalmar (2016-04-01). "Na+-K+-ATPase, a new class of plasma membrane receptors". American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology. 310 (7): C491–C495. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00359.2015. ISSN 0363-6143. PMID 26791490.
^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 464. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Poburko, Damon; Demaurex, Nicolas (2012-04-24). "Regulation of the mitochondrial proton gradient by cytosolic Ca2+ signals". Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology. 464 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1007/s00424-012-1106-y. ISSN 0031-6768.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 743–745. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 744. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 769–770. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 770. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Höhner, Ricarda; Aboukila, Ali; Kunz, Hans-Henning; Venema, Kees (2016-01-01). "Proton Gradients and Proton-Dependent Transport Processes in the Chloroplast". Plant Physiology. 7: 218. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00218. PMC 4770017  . PMID 26973667.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 464–465. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Eisenberg, Bob (2013-05-07). "Interacting Ions in Biophysics: Real is not Ideal". Biophysical Journal. 104 (9): 1849–1866. arXiv:1305.2086  . Bibcode:2013BpJ...104.1849E. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2013.03.049. PMC 3647150  . PMID 23663828.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gunner, M. R.; Amin, Muhamed; Zhu, Xuyu; Lu, Jianxun (2013-08-01). "Molecular mechanisms for generating transmembrane proton gradients". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics. Metals in Bioenergetics and Biomimetics Systems. 1827 (8–9): 892–913. doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2013.03.001. PMC 3714358  . PMID 23507617.
Jump up ^ Wickstrand, Cecilia; Dods, Robert; Royant, Antoine; Neutze, Richard (2015-03-01). "Bacteriorhodopsin: Would the real structural intermediates please stand up?". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. Structural biochemistry and biophysics of membrane proteins. 1850 (3): 536–553. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.05.021.
Jump up ^ Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2013). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 782–783. ISBN 978-1-4292-3414-6.
Jump up ^ Schöttler, Mark Aurel; Tóth, Szilvia Z.; Boulouis, Alix; Kahlau, Sabine (2015-05-01). "Photosynthetic complex stoichiometry dynamics in higher plants: biogenesis, function, and turnover of ATP synthase and the cytochrome b 6 f complex". Journal of Experimental Botany. 66 (9): 2373–2400. doi:10.1093/jxb/eru495. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 25540437.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Sun, Fei; Zhou, Qiangjun; Pang, Xiaoyun; Xu, Yingzhi; Rao, Zihe (2013-08-01). "Revealing various coupling of electron transfer and proton pumping in mitochondrial respiratory chain". Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 23 (4): 526–538. doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2013.06.013.
Campbell & Reece (2005). Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-7146-X.
Stephen T. Abedon, "Important words and concepts from Chapter 8, Campbell & Reece, 2002 (1/14/2005)", for Biology 113 at the Ohio State University
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Associate degree
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
An associate degree (or associate's degree) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study intended to usually last two years. It is considered to be greater level of education than a high school diploma or GED. The first associate degrees were awarded in the U.K. (where they are[when?] no longer awarded) in 1873 before spreading to the U.S. in 1898. They have since been introduced in a small number of other countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Australia
2 Canada
3 Europe
3.1 The Netherlands
3.2 United Kingdom
3.3 Norway
4 Hong Kong
5 United States
5.1 California
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Australia[edit]
In 2004, Australia added "associate degree" to the Australian Qualifications Framework.[1] This title was given to courses more academically focused than advanced diploma courses, and typically designed to articulate to bachelor's degree courses.[2]
Canada[edit]
Associate degrees in Arts and Science are offered as provincial qualifications in British Columbia. They are similar to the U.S. associate degree, consisting of a two-year course and allowing articulation onto the third year of bachelor's degree courses.[3][4]
Other provinces of Canada do not offer associate degrees as such, but do offer sub-bachelor's higher education qualifications, e.g. the one year certificate, two year diploma and three year advanced diploma in Ontario.[5] In Quebec, the Diplôme d'études collégiales (diploma of college studies), taught at post-secondary collèges d'enseignement général et professionnel (colleges of general and professional education; cégeps) can be a two-year pre-university qualification that is a pre-requisite for entry onto (three year) bachelor's degree courses, or a three-year technical programme preparing students for employment.[6]
Europe[edit]
Qualifications on the short cycle of the Bologna Process/level 5 on the European Qualifications Framework sit between secondary education and bachelor's degree level and are thus approximately equivalent to an associate degree. Such qualifications include the Foundation degree (FdA, FdSc, FdEng), Certificate of Higher Education (CertHE) and Diploma of Higher Education (DipHE) in the United Kingdom,[7] the Higher Certificate in the Republic of Ireland,[8] and the French Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie (DUT) and Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS).[9]
The Netherlands[edit]
In the Netherlands, there were four pilots between 2005 and 2011 to assess the added value of the associate degree.[10] In 2007 the associate degree was added to the Dutch system of higher education within the Higher Professional Education (HBO) stream taught at universities of applied sciences (hogeschool). Associate degree courses form part of HBO bachelor's degree courses, and advising requirements are the same for the two year associate degree and the related four year bachelor's degree. Those gaining the associate degree may proceed to an HBO bachelor's degree in only two years, but it does not articulate to bachelor's degrees in the research oriented (WO) stream.[11]
United Kingdom[edit]
The title of Associate in Physical Science (Associate in Science from 1879) was used by the University of Durham College of Physical Sciences (now Newcastle University) from the 1870s.[12] It required (in 1884) passes in three of mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology, and allowed students to go on to take the examination for the Bachelor of Science.[13] As a university-level qualification lying below the bachelor's degree, this is considered to be the world's first associate degree in the modern sense, having been first awarded in 1873, 25 years prior to the introduction of associate degrees into the U.S. by the University of Chicago.[14] Durham also introduced an Associate in Theology in 1901. Both of these have since been discontinued, although the date of their withdrawal is unknown.[15] There were thirteen different types of associate degrees offered in British universities in 1927.[16]
The title of Associate in Arts, introduced by the University of Oxford in 1857 and sometimes referred to as the degree of Associate in Arts, predates the Durham degree. However, it was an examination for "those who are not members of the university" and who were under the age of 18; as such it was at the level of a high school qualification rather than a modern associate degree. Examinations were held in English, languages, mathematics, science, drawing and music, with the title being conferred on those who students who passed any two (as long as the two were not drawing and music).[17]
British equivalents to associate degrees vary depending on the national system which issued them. Based on assessment by the UK NARIC, American and Canadian associate degrees are considered equivalent to one year higher education courses such as the Higher National Certificate at level 4 of the British Framework for Higher Education Qualifications. Australian associate degrees, however, are considered equivalent to two year higher education courses such as the Higher National Diploma at level 5 on the framework.[18]
Norway[edit]
A two year education on BA-level is called Høgskolekandidat, translated "university college graduate".[19] Only a few professions require 120 ETSC, e.g. piano tuner, driving instructor.
Hong Kong[edit]
In Hong Kong, associate degrees were first introduced into the territory in 2000 with the aim of increasing the number of students with post-secondary qualifications.[20] As originally introduced, the qualification took two or three years, but this was reformed in 2012 to a two-year course. The associate degree is designed as a general academic education qualification, compared to the more vocational Higher Diploma, and allows articulation onto the third year of a four-year (US-style) bachelor's degree or the second year of a three-year (British-style) bachelor's degree.[21] A survey in 2016 showed that most students believe associate degrees will help them to get onto bachelor's degree courses, but not (by themselves) in gaining a career; however only 30% of associate degree graduates gained places for further study, leading to accusations that the degree is "a waste of time and money" and calls for the government to address this by making more bachelor's degree places available.[22] This has been criticized, with others saying that education had benefits beyond income, which is only a short-term measure.[23]
United States[edit]
In the United States, associate degrees are usually earned in two years or more and can be attained at community colleges, technical colleges, vocational schools, and some colleges. A student who completes a two-year program can earn an Associate of Arts/Associate in Arts (A.A.)[24] or an Associate of Science/Associate in Science (A.S.) degree.[24] A.A. degrees are usually earned in the Liberal Arts and Sciences such as humanities and social science fields; A.S. degrees are awarded to those studying in applied scientific and technical fields and professional fields of study. Generally, one year of study is focused on College level General Education and the second year is focused on the area of discipline.
Students who complete a two-year technical or vocational program can earn an Associate of Applied Science/Associate in Applied Science[24] This type of program is designed for persons seeking direct employment upon completion.
Transfer admissions in the United States allows courses taken and credits earned on an A.A., A.S., or A.A.S. course can sometimes be counted toward a bachelor's degree via articulation agreements or recognition of prior learning, depending on the courses taken, applicable state laws/regulations, and the transfer requirements of the university.[25]
California[edit]
The Student Transfer Achievement Reform Act was signed into legislation on September 29, 2010 which is a legislation that grants any California Community College student who has earned the Associates in Arts degree for Transfer (AA-T) or the Associate in Science degree for Transfer (AS-T) will be granted priority admission to the CSU (California State University) into a similar baccalaureate (BA) degree program with a guarantee of junior standing. [26]
See also[edit]
University portal
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Introduction of Associate Degree in 2004". Australian Qualifications Framework Advisory Board. Archived from the original on August 5, 2004. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Main features of the Associate Degree". Australian Qualifications Framework Advisory Board. Archived from the original on August 5, 2004. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Associate Degrees". British Columbia Commission on Admissions and Transfer. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Associate Degrees". Douglas College. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Diploma Programs at Ontario Colleges". ontariocolleges.ca. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Postsecondary education in Quebec". Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Documents/FHEQ08.pdf
Jump up ^ "Recognition Ireland Statement on US associate degree". Qualificationsrecognition.ie. Archived from the original on May 27, 2013. Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "EQUIVALENCE DE DIPLOME (Degree equivalence)". voilanewyork.com. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived March 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Dutch education system described" (PDF). EP-Nuffic. January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ William Crookes (1877). The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science. XXXVI. p. 128.
Jump up ^ The Durham College of Science Calendar. University of Durham. 1884. pp. 13, 24.
Jump up ^ Arthur Levine (1978). Handbook on undergraduate curriculum. Jossey-Bass Publishers. The world's first associate's degree, the associate in science, was awarded by England's University of Durham in 1873. The University of Chicago awarded the first American associate's degree in 1898. It offered associate in arts, associate in literature, and associate in science degrees.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Groves (1 February 2012). Shaw's Academical Dress of Great Britain and Ireland (3rd ed.). Lulu.com. pp. 160–161, 369.
Jump up ^ Robert S. Palinchak (1973). The evolution of the community college. Scarecrow Press. pp. 64–65. By 1927, Eells (1963) reported that thirteen types of associate degrees, including the Associate in Theology and Associate in Music, were in use in British universities.
Jump up ^ Sir Thomas Dyke ACLAND (1858). Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New Oxford Examinations for the title of Associate in Arts, and Certificates. For the year 1858 ... Also Letters from J. Hullah ... W. Dyce ... J. Ruskin ... and G. Richmond ... on the connexion of the arts with general education; and selected papers relating to the West of England examination; with Mr. Temple's report. J. Ridgway.
Jump up ^ "Summary guide to HNC and HND qualifications" (PDF). Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ nokut.no The Norwegian table of qualifications
Jump up ^ "Get An Associate Degree in Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. 1 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Q & A on Sub-degree Programmes". Information Portal for Accredited Post-secondary Programmes. Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Associate degree not career booster: Survey". China Daily Asia. 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Victor Fung Keung (6 September 2016). "Don’t see Hong Kong’s associate degrees as substandard".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Degree Programs". College of DuPage. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Student Zone – College – Finding/Applying". College Zone. Archived from the original on July 18, 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Cal State University". California State University Transfer Requirements.
References[edit]
Bragg, A. K. Fall 1979 Transfer Study. Report 3: Second Year Persistence And Achievement. Springfield: Illinois Community College Board, 1982. ED 230 228.
Koltai, L. Redefining The Associate Degree. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, 1984. ED 242 378.
Wittstruck, J. R. Requirements For Certificates, Diplomas And Associate Degrees: A Survey Of The States. Denver, CO: State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, 1985.
I. Elaine Allen and Jeff Seaman. Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006. The Sloan Consortium, 2006.
External links[edit]
Associate degree: Two years to a career or a jump start to a bachelor’s degree (PDF) – More information on associate degrees provided by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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United States military seniority
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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United States military seniority is the method by which the United States Armed Forces determine precedence among commissioned officers, in particular those who hold the same rank. Seniority is used to determine assignments, tactical commands, promotions and general courtesy. To a lesser extent, historical seniority is used to recognize status of honor given to early United States military leaders such as inaugural holders of certain ranks or those officers who served as leadership during major wars and armed conflicts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Modern-day seniority
2 Tactical and operational seniority
3 Historical seniority
3.1 Historical seniority list
4 See also
5 References
Modern-day seniority[edit]
The modern-day seniority system of the United States commissioned officer corps operates on two different levels. For officers of different ranks, seniority is simply determined by who holds the highest rank. For instance, Army colonel is senior to captain and captain senior to lieutenant. Seniority extends across services as for instance major in the Army is senior to captain in the Air Force while commander in the United States Navy is senior to both. For officers in the same rank or paygrade, seniority is determined by the date of whom assumed their rank earlier.[1] If officers of the same grade have the same date of rank, then seniority is determined in order by the officer's previous rank's date and so forth.[1] If all promotion dates of ranks are the same, seniority is then determined on order of: previous active duty grade relative seniority (if applicable),[1] total active commissioned service,[1] and finally, total federal commissioned service or date of appointment as a commissioned officer.[1] The secretaries of each service may establish further seniority rules if applicable.[1]
A type of "positional seniority" exists for military officers who hold top leadership positions of the armed forces. For instance, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is considered the senior most officer of the entire United States military, even though it is possible that contemporaries of the same rank may have earlier dates of rank or time in service. Likewise, heads of various armed service branches are considered senior most within their service; unified commanders are also considered senior most in their respective regions yet not necessarily to each other.
The regular United States military hierarchy is as follows:
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
When compared to each other, seniority is determined among the service heads by lineal number and commissioning date. Externally, the standing of each service head is determined by the date of the creation of the position as follows.
Chief of Staff of the United States Army
Chief of Naval Operations
Commandant of the Marine Corps
Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
Commandant of the Coast Guard
Chief of the National Guard Bureau
The officers in charge of the Unified Combatant Commands are considered "operational officers" while the standard military hierarchy is administrative. For instance, the Chief of Naval Operations, who would most likely be senior to a naval admiral in command of the United States Pacific Command, would not be able to issue direct orders to said commander since operational chain of command is separate from regular administrative military hierarchy.[2] Military seniority, within itself, would not be affected.
[show]
Unified Combatant Commands of the United States Department of Defense
Regional responsibilities
Africa Command
Central Command
European Command
Northern Command
Pacific Command
Southern Command
Functional responsibilities
Special Operations Command
Strategic Command
Transportation Command
Inactivated
Atlantic Command
Joint Forces Command
Space Command
Strike Command
Tactical and operational seniority[edit]
Tactical seniority, also known as "battlefield seniority", is the manner in which a senior officer in command of a given tactical situation is determined. For instance, within the United States Navy, groups of ships performing exercises together will have one ship designated as the tactical senior unit. The commander of said ship is the senior tactical officer and may in fact be junior in rank to the other officers of the tactical group. For multi-national exercises, such as the Sharem event in South Korea, ships of foreign nations are sometimes given tactical seniority and thus may issue routine movement orders to United States vessels. Actual combat would fall under the Task Force system, in which a United States admiral, with clear seniority, would take command over all vessels.
Groups of Army units, especially in active combat, may be placed under tactical command of any officer, regardless of rank seniority, for completion of a single mission. During World War II, the term "mixed unit" was commonly used to denote military formations created from several other smaller units, most often "on the spot", due to operational confusion and the need for a single battlefield commander to take authority over all units physically present. Army Air Force bomber groups operated on a similar principal, in that tactical command could pass to officers who were not necessarily the senior most present, given the specific needs of the mission or casualties during the mission itself.
Operational seniority refers to the ability to issue long range orders to U.S. forces, such as deployments, general orders, and other administrative matters. Operational seniority is never granted to non-U.S. officers and usually stems from such major offices as the Bureau of Naval Personnel or the Army Personnel Branch.
Historical seniority[edit]
Historical seniority loosely indicates the general significance of various generals and flag officers within the scope of the history of the United States. Historical seniority is typically only bestowed to those officers who were the inaugural holders of ranks or for those who served as the senior most military officer during a major armed conflict.
The only case where historical seniority has been legally established by the United States Congress are for the two "super ranks" of the armed forces of the United States, these being the ranks General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy. By clear precedent, the holders of these two ranks (three persons in all) are senior to all other officers of the United States military, past and present. By special Congressional edict, George Washington is considered the senior most officer of all time meaning he may never be lesser in seniority to any other military officer, although Washington technically shares the same rank with John Pershing.
The office of general was discontinued after the Civil War, but revived in 1919 by the title of "General of the Armies of the United States" when General John J. Pershing was appointed to that office on 3 September 1919; accepted the appointment on 8 September 1919, was retired with that rank on 13 September 1924, and held it until his death on 15 July 1948. No other officer has occupied this office on active duty. General Pershing held the grade of General of the Armies of the United States under the provisions of the Act of U.S. Congress of 3 September 1919 (Public Law 45). Washington was posthumously appointed General of the Armies of the United States under s:Public Law 94-479. Under s:Order 31-3, the effective promotion date was on 4 July 1976. Congress specified that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list. While promoted to a lieutenant general only a year before his death, he was the most senior officer and the only lieutenant general in the army. The same is true of Ulysses S. Grant, who was the second person to permanently hold this rank. (Winfield Scott was a brevet lieutenant general for his service in the Mexican–American War.) Washington was referred to as "commander in chief" of the Continental Army, a title that since the adoption of the Constitution has been reserved for the (civilian) President.
The five star officers of World War II are technically considered the most senior officers in U.S. history (with the exception of the two "super ranks" previously mentioned), yet are often considered historically junior to the military leaders of the 19th century, especially the inaugural holders of senior military ranks. Most historical seniority lists also omit three star officers, with some rare exceptions (such as Winfield Scott), and typically avoid comparing two star ranks and below, which are permanent ranks held by hundreds of officers over the past two centuries. In these cases, standard methods of seniority are utilized. Since 1981, the highest rank held by any officer in the U.S. armed forces is four stars, or a pay grade of "O-10". Modern-day admirals and generals are typically not considered in lists of historical seniority, except for extreme cases such as leaders of wars or other wide scale armed conflicts.
Historical seniority list[edit]
The officers listed below are generally accepted in military history circles as the top twenty five officers of all time in United States military history[3][4]
Seniority Order
Rank Order
Officer
Service
Highest rank
Date of rank
Historical significance
1 1 Washington, George !George Washington U.S. Army General of the Armies 4 Jul 1976 Declared by a Congressional Act in 1976 to be the senior most United States officer of all time. Held the rank of lieutenant general in the United States Army during his lifetime, as well as a special rank of "General and Commander-in-Chief" in of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.
2 1 Pershing, John !John Pershing U.S. Army General of the Armies 3 Sep 1919 Only person to hold the rank of General of the Armies on active duty. Recognized unofficially as a six star general during World War II after a press conference by Henry L. Stimson.
3 1 Dewey, George !George Dewey U.S. Navy Admiral of the Navy 2 Mar 1899 Inaugural and sole holder of rank.
4 4 Scott, Winfield !Winfield Scott U.S. Army Lieutenant general 29 Mar 1847 Second person in American history to hold the rank of lieutenant general after George Washington. Senior officer of the U.S. military during the Mexican-American War as well as the opening months of the American Civil War
5 3 Grant, Ulysses !Ulysses S. Grant U.S. Army General of the Army 25 Jul 1866 Inaugural holder of the rank, which was a 19th century equivalent to a modern-day four star general (this differed from the 20th century rank of the same name which was clearly a five star position).
6 3 Farragut, David !David G. Farragut U.S. Navy Admiral 25 Jul 1866 Inaugural holder of the rank, granted by Congress due to services rendered as senior officer of the Navy during the American Civil War.
7 3 Sherman, William !William T. Sherman U.S. Army General of the Army 4 Mar 1869 Second holder of the rank "General of the Army". Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan wore four stars and held ranks equivalent to current four-star (O-10) generals and admirals, one step higher than the Civil War era rank of lieutenant general. This special version of the title General of the Army of the United States, Act of US Congress July 25, 1866, indicated that Congress intended only one person to have it at a time.
8 3 Porter, David !David D. Porter U.S. Navy Admiral 25 Jul 1866 Second person in the history of the United States Navy to hold the rank of Admiral.
9 4 Rowan, Stephen !Stephen C. Rowan U.S. Navy Vice admiral 1 Aug 1870 Longest serving officer in the history of the United States Navy with 63 years of service and retirement at the age of 80.
10 3 Sheridan, Philip !Philip H. Sheridan U.S. Army General of the Army 1 Jun 1888 Final person in U.S. Army history to hold the Civil War era rank "General of the Army". The rank was discontinued upon Sheridan's death and was not reactivated until World War II, then as a five star position.
11 4 Schofield, John !John Schofield U.S. Army Lieutenant general 5 Feb 1895 First Commanding General of the United States Army following the disestablishment of the rank General of the Army and first peacetime promotion to the permanent rank of lieutenant general.
12 4 Miles, Nelson !Nelson A. Miles U.S. Army Lieutenant general 6 Jun 1900 Last Commanding General of the United States Army. Succeeded by Samuel Baldwin Marks Young who became the first Chief of Staff. From this point on the Chief of Staff was by default considered the most senior officer of the United States Army.
13 3 Bliss, Tasker !Tasker Bliss U.S. Army General 6 Oct 1917 Second person promoted to the four star rank of General in the 20th century (the other was John Pershing) for service in the National Army during the First World War.
14 2 Leahy, William !William D. Leahy U.S. Navy Fleet Admiral 15 Dec 1944 First five star officer appointed during the Second World War
15 2 Marshall, George !George C. Marshall U.S. Army General of the Army 16 Dec 1944 Second officer promoted to five stars. The initial promotion of these officers was spaced over a period of one week so as to match the original seniority held by the officers at the four star level.
16 2 King, Ernest !Ernest J. King U.S. Navy Fleet Admiral 17 Dec 1944 Third officer promoted to five star rank
17 2 MacArthur, Douglas !Douglas MacArthur U.S. Army General of the Army 18 Dec 1944 Fourth officer to hold five star rank and second within the United States Army (after George Marshall). MacArthur was further considered for promotion to the "six star" position of General of the Armies, both during and following the Second World War.
18 2 Nimitz, Chester !Chester W. Nimitz U.S. Navy Fleet Admiral 19 Dec 1944 Fifth officer to hold five star rank and the third within the United States Navy. Served as the first post-World War II Chief of Naval Operations
19 2 Eisenhower, Dwight !Dwight D. Eisenhower U.S. Army General of the Army 20 Dec 1944 Later served as President of the United States. Required to resign his commission as a five star officer during his term; five star rank was reinstated after leaving office by president John F. Kennedy
20 2 Arnold, Henry !Henry H. Arnold U.S. Army General of the Army 21 Dec 1944 Last of the initial five star appointments during the Second World War.
U.S. Air Force General of the Air Force 7 May 1949 Five star rank was converted to that of General of the Air Force in 1949. No other officer has held the Air Force five star version since Arnold.
21 2 Halsey, William !William F. Halsey U.S. Navy Fleet Admiral 11 Dec 1945 First of two post World War II promotions to five star rank (the other being Omar Bradley)
22 2 Bradley, Omar !Omar Bradley U.S. Army General of the Army 20 Sep 1950 Last officer in U.S. history to be promoted to five star rank
23 3 Spruance, Raymond !Raymond Spruance U.S. Navy Admiral 4 Feb 1944 A close contender for the rank of Fleet Admiral, his promotion was consistently blocked by Congressman Carl Vinson, but he was granted the full pay of an Admiral on the retirement list in July 1948. The Spruance-class destroyer is named in his honor.
24 3 Patton, George !George Patton U.S. Army General 14 Apr 1945 Generally regarded as the most successful combat commander of the European theatre of World War II. A possible contender for the rank of General of the Army, he was killed in an automotive accident in 1945 before any such consideration[5]
25 3 Ridgeway, Matthew !Matthew Ridgway U.S. Army General 11 May 1951 Replaced Douglas MacArthur as senior officer during the Korean War, after MacArthur was relieved by Harry S. Truman. Later served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army.
Alexander Vandegrift is also frequently included in historical seniority lists due to his status as the first Commandant of the Marine Corps to hold a four-star rank, as is Anna Mae Hays who was the first woman to be promoted to brigadier general in the history of the United States. Historical seniority is rarely referred to after the Korean War since modern military seniority systems had been well-established after the mid 20th century. Expanded seniority lists such as the one listed below do exist mostly in recognition of major military leaders of modern wars and conflicts.
Officer
Service
Highest rank
Date of rank
Historical significance
Westmoreland, William !William Westmoreland U.S. Army General 1 Aug 1965 Senior most operational officer of the Vietnam War. Omitted from some historical lists, since Westmoreland served in the later 20th century when the regular military seniority system had already been well established.
Rickover,, Hyman !Hyman G. Rickover U.S. Navy Admiral 3 Dec 1973 Head of the nuclear program of the United States Navy and one of the longest serving officers in United States military history.
Powell, Colin !Colin Powell U.S. Army General 4 Apr 1989 Served as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Gulf War. Later considered for five star promotion; however, a Congressional bill was never passed. Later served as Secretary of State.
Schwarzkopf, Norman !Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. U.S. Army General 1 Nov 1988 Senior commander of Operation Desert Storm. As with Colin Powell, was considered for five star rank but without result.
Petraeus, David !David Petraeus U.S. Army General 30 Jan 2007 Considered for five star rank due to his status as the leader of the military during the War on Terror, however due to later scandals after retirement no further effort was made on this proposal.
Mattis, James !James Mattis U.S. Marine Corps General 7 Nov 2007 Leader of United States Central Command during the Iraq War. Led both the first and second Battles of Fallujah. Secretary of Defense under Donald Trump as of January 20, 2017.
Dunwoody, Ann !Ann E. Dunwoody U.S. Army General 14 Nov 2008 First female four star officer in the history of the United States Armed Forces.
Wolfenbarger, Janet !Janet C. Wolfenbarger U.S. Air Force General 5 Jun 2012 First female four star general in the history of the United States Air Force.
Howard, Michelle !Michelle Howard U.S. Navy Admiral 1 Jul 2014 First female four star admiral in the history of the United States Navy.
See also[edit]
List of United States Presidents by military rank
List of active duty United States four-star officers
List of United States Army four-star generals
List of United States Navy four-star admirals
List of United States Air Force four-star generals
List of United States Marine Corps four-star generals
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f DoD Instruction 1310.01 - Rank and Seniority of Commissioned Officers
Jump up ^ http://www.jcs.mil/About/
Jump up ^ Dept of the Army, "U.S. Army Leadership Handbook: Skills, Tactics, and Techniques for Leading in Any Situation", Skyhorse Publishing; 1st edition (March 1, 2012)
Jump up ^ Hearn, Chester, "Navy: An Illustrated History: The U.S. Navy from 1775 to the 21st Century", Zenith Press; 1st edition (May 15, 2007)
Jump up ^ Showalter, Dennis E., Patton And Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century, New York City: Berkley Books (2006), ISBN 978-0-425-20663-8
[show]
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vehicles
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All watercraft
Ships:
A
N (active)
AF
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Weapons:
N
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Aircraft:
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NOAA
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active
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A = Army
MC = Marine Corps
N = Navy
AF = Air Force
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[show]
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