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Italian Grand Prix
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This article is about the Formula One race. For other uses, see Italian Grand Prix (disambiguation).
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Italian Grand Prix
Autodromo Nazionale Monza
(2000-present)
Race information
Number of times held
87
First held
1921
Most wins (drivers)
Michael Schumacher (5)
Most wins (constructors)
Ferrari (19)
Circuit length
5.793 km (3.600 mi)
Race length
306.720 km (190.596 mi)
Laps
53
Last race (2017)
Pole position
Lewis Hamilton
Mercedes
1:35.554
Podium
1. L. Hamilton
Mercedes
1:15:32.310
2. V. Bottas
Mercedes
+4.471
3. S. Vettel
Ferrari
+36.317
Fastest lap
Daniel Ricciardo
Red Bull-TAG Heuer
1:23.361
The Italian Grand Prix (Italian: Gran Premio d'Italia) is one of the longest running events on the Formula One calendar. The Italian and British Grands Prix are the only Formula One World Championship Grands Prix staged continuously since the championship was introduced in 1950, as the Monaco and Belgian Grands Prix have missed a few seasons since hosting races in the 1950 inaugural season.
Every Formula One Italian Grand Prix since 1950 has been held at Monza except in 1980, when it was held at Imola. The Italian Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1938. It was designated the European Grand Prix seven times between 1923 and 1967, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origins
1.1.1 Autodromo Nazionale Monza
1.1.2 The Florio circuit and other locations
1.1.3 Monza's redevelopments (1949–1979)
1.1.4 Imola 1980 and Monza's further redevelopments
2 Sponsors
3 Winners of the Italian Grand Prix
3.1 Multiple winners (drivers)
3.2 Multiple winners (constructors)
3.3 Year by year
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
Motor racing has always been extremely popular in Italy, the first Italian Grand Prix motor racing championship took place on 4 September 1921 at a 10.7-mile (17.3 km) circuit near Brescia, which had been the site of the Gordon Bennett races in the early 1900s.[1] However, the race is more closely associated with the course at Monza, a racing facility just outside the northern city of Milan, which was built in 1922 in time for that year's race, and has been the location for most of the races over the years.
Autodromo Nazionale Monza[edit]
Further information: Autodromo Nazionale Monza
An aerial photograph of the Autodromo Nazionale Monza.
The Autodromo Nazionale Monza was completed in 1922 and was just the third permanent autodrome in the world at that time; Brooklands in England and Indianapolis in the United States were the two others. European motor racing pioneers Vincenzo Lancia and Felice Nazzaro laid the last two bricks at Monza. The circuit was 10 km (6.25 miles) long, with a flat banked section and a road circuit combined into one. It was fast, and always provided excitement. The 1923 race included one of Harry A. Miller's rare European appearances with his single seat "American Miller 122" driven by Count Louis Zborowski of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang fame.
The 1928 race was the first of many tragedies that befell this venue. Italians Emilio Materassi in a Talbot and Giulio Foresti in a Bugatti were battling around this fast circuit. As they came off the banking onto the left side of the pit straight, one of the front wheels of Materassi's overtaking Talbot touched one of the rear wheels of the Bugatti. Materassi lost control of the car, the car then swerved left, cleared a 10-foot wide ditch and ploughed into the unprotected grandstand opposite the pits, killing Materassi and 27 spectators, and injuring another 26.
It was the worst accident in motor racing history and would remain so until the 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans. The Italian Grand Prix went on a three-year hiatus (but the alternative non-championship Monza Grand Prix was run in 1929 and 1930) until the 1931 race, held in late May instead of the traditional early September, was won by Giuseppe Campari and Tazio Nuvolari, sharing an Alfa Romeo. The race was something of an endurance race in those days; it took ten hours to complete the race. The great Nuvolari won again in a shortened 1932 race, this time held in early June.
In 1933, with the race being held this time at the traditional timeframe of early September, disaster struck again. Three top drivers were killed during three heat races. There was a reported patch of oil on the south banking that had come from a Duesenberg, driven by Count Carlo Felice Trossi, and Giuseppe Campari in a Ferrari-entered Alfa Romeo and his protege Baconin Borzacchini in a Maserati were already battling ferociously; and Borzacchini and Campari went through the south banking on the first lap, wheel to wheel. Borzacchini went through the oily patch, lost control, spun wildly and the Maserati then overturned and violently flipped multiple times, and by the time the wrecked car came to a stop, Borzacchini was pinned underneath his car, not having been thrown out. While Borzacchini's Maserati was crashing all over the track, Campari swerved to avoid him, and by doing this, his car went up and flew off the banking and crashed into trees situated right next to the track. Campari broke his neck and was killed instantly, and Borzacchini died later that day in a Monza hospital.
1931 GP race start
Prior to the third heat, there was a drivers meeting to discuss the oil patch and it was cleaned up. on the eighth lap, Polish aristocrat Count Stanislas Czaykowski was on the south banking when his Bugatti's engine blew up, a fuel line broke, the fuel caught fire after touching the very hot front section of the Bugatti where the engine and gearbox were and the burning fuel sprayed onto Czaykowski. Blinded by the smoke and flames on him, he went up and flew off the banking- at the same spot where Campari and Borzacchini had crashed. The Polish driver, unable to put out the flames on his body which was fueled by the fuel from his wrecked Bugatti, then burned to death. Italian Luigi Fagioli was declared the winner of the event.
Enzo Ferrari, who had been close to Campari and Borzacchini; the former deciding to defect from Ferrari's team to Maserati, became hardened by this tragedy. Today, racing historians conclude that the events of this race marked a watershed, notably for Enzo Ferrari. It was the end to the joyful era of racing and the beginning of a harsher new age. Safety in those days was completely non-existent. The circuit's condition was virtually identical of that to an ordinary town and country road, except instead of the surface being made of dirt and/or tarmac, it was made of tarmac, concrete and/or bricks. Spectators often stood very close to or even next to the track and they had no protection of any kind other than common sense. What was particularly tragic about Campari's death was that he had announced his retirement at the French Grand Prix two months earlier, to focus on his opera singing exploits.[2]
The Florio circuit and other locations[edit]
After the disastrous 1933 race, something had to be done to Monza. There were chicanes added at certain points on the circuit and only most of the road circuit and part of the high speed oval was used. These races were at a time when Mercedes and Auto Union became involved in motor racing; the German Silver Arrows won all of these races; with superstar Rudolf Caracciola winning in 1934 and in 1937 when the Italian Grand Prix was held at a street circuit in Livorno. 1938 saw a return to Monza, which was won by Nuvolari driving a mid-engined Auto Union, and the banking had been dismantled after the race was held. In 1939 World War II broke out and the Italian Grand Prix did not return until 1947.
1947 saw the Italian Grand Prix being held at a fairgrounds park in the city of Milan (not far from Monza), and this race was won by Italian Carlo Felice Trossi driving an Alfa Romeo. Italian Giovanni Bracco went off the road in his Delage and crashed into a group of spectators, killing five. This venue was never used again for racing, and 1948 saw it being held in Valentino Park, a public park in Turin. The 1949 race returned to Monza where it stayed for the next 30 years.
Monza's redevelopments (1949–1979)[edit]
Monza's banking had been abandoned and only the road circuit was used, which had been modified slightly. The long, fluid final corner was now two 90-degree corners. 1949 saw Italian new-boy Alberto Ascari, son of the late 1924 Italian Grand Prix winner Antonio Ascari, win in his Ferrari; Enzo Ferrari was now building his own cars instead of running Alfa Romeos. 1950 saw the new Formula One Championship being established. The race and the first championship was won by Giuseppe "Nino" Farina, driving a supercharged Alfa Romeo 158. 1951 saw Ascari win again, after the competitive Alfas of Farina and Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio ran into engine problems. 1952 saw Ascari complete his domination of that season. 1953 Fangio won in a Maserati; although Ascari had already won the championship at the Swiss Grand Prix. 1954 turned out to be an interesting race; as up-and-comer Stirling Moss in a Maserati passed both Fangio's Mercedes and Ascari's Ferrari. The furious pace saw the retirement of Moss and Ascari and Fangio went on to win while Moss pushed his Maserati 250F over the line.
1953 GP race start
After the 1954 running, work began on entirely revamping the circuit. New facilities were built and a new corner, the Parabolica, was built in place of the double right-handed sequence right before the pits Extra track used for a short course was eliminated. The biggest change was the reconstruction of the new Monza banking. Built on top of where the almost flat, narrow original banking was, these huge concrete bankings, called the sopraelevata curves, were built in the same shape as the original banking had been. This course was combined with the road course for the 1955 event, which was won by Fangio and was the last race contested by a full-fledged Mercedes factory effort in Formula One until 2010. The 10 km Monza circuit was now so fast that F1 cars were averaging 135+ mph per lap- though rather unremarkable by today's standards, these average speeds were even faster than the Indianapolis Speedway oval in the United States. 1956 saw an exciting race, with championship contenders Fangio, Briton Peter Collins (both in Ferraris) and Frenchman Jean Behra in a Maserati fight over the win. Stirling Moss was already out of championship contention; and Fangio retired with a broken steering arm. The Ferrari team called for Italian Luigi Musso to hand his car over to Fangio. Musso ignored the order so Collins came in and handed his car and his championship chances to Fangio. Behra had retired early with a magneto problem in his own car and took over his teammate Umberto Maglioli's car; but he retired that car, too. Musso ended up leading after Moss ran out of fuel coming through Vialone. Moss was able to refuel his car and storm off after Musso and eventually the Italian retired with steering problems, and Moss, with Fangio catching him up fast, stormed round the track to take victory. Fangio took second and his fourth Drivers' Championship.
1957 saw the organizers choose to use the road circuit only, as the rough, poorly constructed banking had caused problems for the Ferrari and Maserati cars the year before. Moss won again in a Vanwall, and Briton Tony Brooks won next year's race, and Moss won the 1959 event in a Cooper-Climax. 1960, however was not so straightforward. Ferrari with their front-engined cars, had lost out to the advanced mid-engined British cars. Seeing an opportunity, the Italian organizers decided to re-include the banking with the road circuit, making Monza even faster and more in favor to the powerful Ferraris. The British teams were unhappy as they cited the fragility of the banking, which was extremely rough and was supported by stilts rather than earth surface; and that it was too dangerous for Formula One cars. The British teams boycotted the race, so Ferrari had no competition. American Phil Hill took victory, in what was the last victory for a front-engined Formula One car.
1961 saw a return to the combined circuit, but it was to see yet another tragedy. Two Ferrari drivers, Hill and German count Wolfgang von Trips, came into the race with a chance at winning the championship. Fighting for fourth place while Hill was leading and while von Trips approached the Parabolica, the German moved over into the path of Briton Jim Clark and the two collided. Von Trips crashed into an embankement next to the road and then went flying into a crowd of people standing on the embankment. Von Trips was thrown out of his car and was killed, as were 14 spectators. Clark survived but was hounded by Italian police for months after the incident. Hill won the race and the championship by one point. The race was not stopped, allegedly to assist rescue work for the injured.
The end of 1971 GP
1962 saw a return to the road circuit only and the banking was never used again for Formula One. It still stands, but in decrepit condition; the last time it was used was in 1969 for the 1000 kilometer sports car race that year. Briton Graham Hill won the race, and would go on to win the Drivers' Championship in South Africa soon after. 1963 saw an attempted use of the extremely fast full circuit again, and the drivers ran the course during Friday practice but the concrete banking was so rough and bumpy that cars were being mechanically torn apart. It was feared that there would be no finishers for the actual race itself. Briton Bob Anderson's Lola crashed after losing a wheel on the banking (he was not injured); the drivers then threatened to walk off unless they raced on the road circuit only, which is what happened. Jim Clark won the race in a Lotus. Ferrari driver John Surtees won in 1964, and Briton Jackie Stewart won his first of 27 Grand Prix victories in 1965, driving for BRM. Against team orders, he fought hard with his teammate Graham Hill, Hill made a mistake at the Parabolica and Stewart was in command; this was all to the chagrin of team boss Tony Rudd. 1966 saw Italian Ludovico Scarfiotti win, and no other Italian has won the race since. 1967 was to be a race of interest and was to produce the first of three close finishes on the fast Monza circuit over the next four years. Surtees, now driving for Honda, battled with Australian Jack Brabham, and Surtees won the race by two-tenths of a second; and Clark, who had problems at the beginning of the race and lost a whole lap, stormed around the circuit, equalled his pole position time and unlapped himself to take the lead- but his fuel pump broke and he coasted over the line to finish third. 1969 saw four drivers; Stewart, Austrian Jochen Rindt, Frenchman Jean-Pierre Beltoise and New Zealander Bruce McLaren battle right down to the line. Stewart came out on top and beat Rindt by eight-hundredths of a second. The four drivers were all within two-tenths of a second of each other. With this win, Stewart won his first of three championships.1970 saw Rindt's fatal crash during qualifying at the wheel of his rear wing-less Lotus. He would become the only posthuomous world champion, after Ferrari driver Jacky Ickx failed to overhaul Rindt. Ickx's teammate Clay Regazzoni won the race, which saw 28 lead changes. 1971 was to see the third close finish in four years. Briton Peter Gethin, Swede Ronnie Peterson, Frenchman François Cevert, Briton Mike Hailwood and New Zealander Howden Ganley battled for the lead all race. On the last lap, Peterson got the inside line for the Parabolica, but Gethin got in front going alongside Peterson through the long right-hand corner, and beat Peterson to the checkered flag by the slimmest of margins; one-one hundredth of a second. Cevert and Hailwood finished within two-tenths and Ganley was half a second behind.
1972 saw changes to Monza. The 1971 race was the fastest Formula One race ever at that point in time. It was really just a bunch of straights and fast corners and F1 cars had become increasingly advanced and much faster, and the drivers were constantly slipstreaming each other around the circuit. Chicanes were put at the end of the pit straight and at the Vialone curve; Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi won that race and his first Drivers' Championship at only 25 years of age. His chief rival Jackie Stewart went out at the start with a broken gearbox. In 1973, Stewart punctured a tire early in the race and went into the pits to have it changed; he came out in 20th place and finished fourth in the race while Fittipaldi finished second; this was enough for Stewart to win his third and final Drivers' Championship. 1974 saw further changes with the Vialone chicane changed and renamed Variante Ascari, which was the place where Alberto Ascari was killed in 1955 testing a Ferrari sportscar. Like the year before, Peterson won and Fittipaldi finished second, now driving for McLaren. 1975, however, was an event to remember. Ferrari, which had regrouped completely under the leadership of Luca di Montezemolo, reached the high point of its resurgence.
1975 GP race start
The Ferrari camp was feeling relaxed while rising star and championship leader Niki Lauda was leading the Drivers' Championship, and the team was leading the Constructors' Championship. Fittipaldi and Argentine Carlos Reutemann had to win in order to have a chance at staying in the championship chase. When the race started, Lauda's teammate Clay Regazzoni took the lead, with Lauda following; and Fittipaldi stormed round the circuit in an effort to catch the two Ferraris. Fittipaldi passed Lauda for second but this did not matter as Lauda only needed fifth to secure the drivers' title. Regazzoni took victory, followed by Fittipaldi and Lauda, who won his first drivers' title and Ferrari also won the Constructors' Championship at the same event.1976 saw further changes to Monza's layout. Two chicanes, called Variante Rettifilo were installed just before the Curva Grande, and another chicane was installed just before the Lesmo bends. Lauda, who had come back to racing only six weeks after his horrendous crash at the Nürburgring; finished fourth while Peterson won. 1977 saw Italian-American Mario Andretti win in a Lotus; but the next year's race was to add another page of tragedy to Monza's history.
Peterson had re-joined Lotus at the beginning of the 1978 season and had challenged his teammate Andretti all the way. Peterson had crashed his car in practice, and had to use Andretti's spare car, not a comfortable fit for the tall Swede, in contrast to the diminutive American. As the race started, there was a huge, fiery multi-car pile-up on the approach to the first corner. One of the victims was Peterson; his car slammed head-on into the Armco barriers and had caught fire. Instead of the ill-equipped marshals, Briton James Hunt, with the help of Frenchman Patrick Depailler and Regazzoni ran towards Peterson's aid and pulled him out of the burning Lotus. Peterson suffered severe leg injuries, and he died from embolism complications a day later. With Peterson's retirement from the race, Andretti won the Drivers' Championship. The race itself was an interesting one; during the parade lap South African Jody Scheckter lost a wheel from his Wolf at the second Lesmo curve and hit an Armco barrier right next to the track. Andretti, Hunt, Lauda, Fittipaldi and Reutemann went to inspect the damage, and they refused to start until it had been repaired; and it was repaired in time; although the race started well after it was supposed to. The cars were shown the green light while the back half of the field was still in motion (this often happened at Monza and it had happened during the first start); and due to the visible excitement of the start official Andretti and Canadian Gilles Villeneuve jumped the start and were penalized a minute; Lauda went on to take victory in his Alfa-powered Brabham in a shortened race distance; it was getting dark by the time the checkered flag was shown to the Austrian driver. 1979 saw changes to Monza, run off areas were added to the Curva Grande and Lesmo corners and the track was upgraded. Scheckter, now driving for Ferrari, won the race and the Drivers' Championship.
Imola 1980 and Monza's further redevelopments[edit]
In 1979, it was announced that the Autodromo Dino Ferrari, also known as Imola, would host the Italian Grand Prix for 1980 while Monza underwent a major upgrade, including building a new pit complex. The Imola circuit had been used for a non-championship event in 1979, and this running of the Italian GP was won by Nelson Piquet.
The podium ceremony at the 1995 GP
The Italian Grand Prix returned to Monza for 1981, and it has stayed there ever since. The Imola circuit was not to leave Formula One, it hosted the San Marino Grand Prix from 1981 to 2006. The 1981 Italian Grand Prix was won by rising star Alain Prost, and that race saw Briton John Watson have a huge accident at the second Lesmo Curve which also took out Italian Michele Alboreto. Watson was uninjured in his carbon-fibre McLaren. 1982 was won by Prost's teammate Rene Arnoux; and Prost also won the exciting 1985 event, this time driving a McLaren.
Prost's championship rivals Alboreto (now driving a Ferrari) and Finn Keke Rosberg in a Williams both retired. 1988 saw a memorable win; as McLaren had won every race up to the Italian Grand Prix; Prost had gone out with engine problems and his teammate Ayrton Senna had crashed into a backmarker with two laps to go- and Austrian Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari took victory, followed by Alboreto to make it a Ferrari 1-2. This was particularly memorable because Enzo Ferrari had died a month before this event.
1989 saw Prost win after the Honda engine in Senna's McLaren expired; but Senna took victory the following year. 1991 saw a battle between Senna and the two Williams drivers of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese. Mansell won, Senna finished 2nd and Patrese went out with gearbox problems. Senna won again in 1992, and 1993 saw Williams drivers Alain Prost and Damon Hill battle hard, and while leading, Prost's engine failed and Hill went on to take victory.
In response to the Imola tragedies in 1994, the second Lesmo curve was slowed down. 1996 saw Michael Schumacher win for Ferrari, and 1999 saw championship leader Mika Hakkinen crash and the Finn, false to temperament, went behind a few bushes in the circuit and broke down crying. 2000 saw further changes to the circuit, which have stayed since. The Variante Rettifilo was made into a two corner sequence instead of a three corner sequence. The race that year started off tragically, as an accident during the start at the Variante della Roggia resulted in a marshal being struck in the head and chest by a loose wheel from German Heinz-Harald Frentzen's Jordan. 33-year-old Paolo Gislimberti was given a heart massage at the scene, but later died from his injuries. On a more positive note, the decade also started off with a romp of Ferrari victories, winning in 2000 and 2002-2004. The 2002 race saw the fastest ever qualifying lap, set by Juan Pablo Montoya in a Williams at 259.827 km/h.
The fans' invasion at the end of 2011 GP
After winning the 2006 Italian Grand Prix, Michael Schumacher announced his retirement from Formula 1 racing at the end of the 2006 season. Kimi Räikkönen replaced him at Ferrari from the start of the 2007 season. At the 2008 Italian Grand Prix, Sebastian Vettel became the youngest driver in history to win a Formula One Grand Prix. Aged 21 years and 74 days, Vettel broke the record set by Fernando Alonso at the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix by 317 days as he won in wet conditions at Monza.
Vettel led for the majority of the Grand Prix and crossed the finish line 12.5 seconds ahead of McLaren's Heikki Kovalainen. Earlier in the weekend, he had already become the youngest polesitter, after setting the fastest times in both Q2 and Q3 qualifying stages. His win also gave him the record of youngest podium-finisher. Vettel also won in 2011, after a spectacular pass at the Curva Grande, passing Fernando Alonso on the outside of the big, long curve.
Uncertainty grew over the fact that Monza would continue to host the race as Rome had signed a deal to host Formula One from 2012. On 18 March 2010 however, Bernie Ecclestone and the Monza track managers signed a deal which meant that the race will be held there until at least 2016.[3]
A total of twelve Italian drivers have won the Italian Grand Prix; ten before World War II and three when it was part of the Formula One world championship. Alberto Ascari won the race three times (once before Formula One and twice during the Formula One championship). Elio de Angelis and Riccardo Patrese both won the San Marino Grand Prix in 1985 and 1990, which was held not in the small principlaity, but at Imola near Bologna in Italy. Michael Schumacher has won it five times and both Nelson Piquet and Lewis Hamilton have won it four times. Ferrari have won their home Grand Prix 19 times.
Sponsors[edit]
1988–1991: Coca-Cola Gran Premio d'Italia
1992–1996: Pioneer Gran Premio d'Italia
1997–2001: Gran Premio Campari d'Italia
2002–2006: Gran Premio Vodafone d'Italia
2007–2012: Gran Premio Santander d'Italia
2016–2017: Gran Premio Heineken d'Italia[4]
Winners of the Italian Grand Prix[edit]
Multiple winners (drivers)[edit]
Embolded drivers are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.
Number of wins
Driver
Years
5
Michael Schumacher 1996, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006
4
Nelson Piquet 1980, 1983, 1986, 1987
Lewis Hamilton 2012, 2014, 2015, 2017
3
Tazio Nuvolari 1931, 1932, 1938
Alberto Ascari 1949, 1951, 1952
Juan Manuel Fangio 1953, 1954, 1955
Stirling Moss 1956, 1957, 1959
Ronnie Peterson 1973, 1974, 1976
Alain Prost 1981, 1985, 1989
Rubens Barrichello 2002, 2004, 2009
Sebastian Vettel 2008, 2011, 2013
2
Luigi Fagioli 1933, 1934
Rudolf Caracciola 1934, 1937
Phil Hill 1960, 1961
John Surtees 1964, 1967
Jackie Stewart 1965, 1969
Clay Regazzoni 1970, 1975
Niki Lauda 1978, 1984
Ayrton Senna 1990, 1992
Damon Hill 1993, 1994
Juan Pablo Montoya 2001, 2005
Fernando Alonso 2007, 2010
Multiple winners (constructors)[edit]
Embolded teams are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Grand Prix Championship.
# of wins
Constructor
Years won
19
Ferrari 1949, 1951, 1952, 1960, 1961, 1964, 1966, 1970, 1975, 1979, 1988,
1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010
10
McLaren 1968, 1984, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2005, 2007, 2012
8
Alfa Romeo 1924, 1925, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1947, 1948, 1950
Mercedes 1934, 1937, 1954, 1955, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
6
Williams 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993, 1994, 2001
5
Lotus 1963, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1977
3
Auto Union 1935, 1936, 1938
BRM 1962, 1965, 1971
Brabham 1978, 1980, 1983
2
Fiat 1922, 1923
Bugatti 1926, 1928
Maserati 1953, 1956
Vanwall 1957, 1958
Renault 1981, 1982
Red Bull 2011, 2013
Year by year[edit]
Imola used in 1980
Monza (albeit some changes) used in 1976–1999
Monza (with re-profiling of the Variante Ascari) used in 1972–1975
Monza used from 1957–1959 and 1962–1971
The combined Monza circuit, used in 1955–1956 and 1960–1961
Monza used in 1950–1954
Monza used in 1935–1937
Monza used in 1922–1933
A map of all the locations of the Italian Grand Prix.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.
Year
Driver
Constructor
Location
Report
2017
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes Monza Road Circuit Report
2016
Nico Rosberg Mercedes Report
2015
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes Report
2014
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes Report
2013
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault Report
2012
Lewis Hamilton McLaren-Mercedes Report
2011
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault Report
2010
Fernando Alonso Ferrari Report
2009
Rubens Barrichello Brawn-Mercedes Report
2008
Sebastian Vettel Toro Rosso-Ferrari Report
2007
Fernando Alonso McLaren-Mercedes Report
2006
Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report
2005
Juan Pablo Montoya McLaren-Mercedes Report
2004
Rubens Barrichello Ferrari Report
2003
Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report
2002
Rubens Barrichello Ferrari Report
2001
Juan Pablo Montoya Williams-BMW Report
2000
Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report
1999
Heinz-Harald Frentzen Jordan-Mugen-Honda Report
1998
Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report
1997
David Coulthard McLaren-Mercedes Report
1996
Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report
1995
Johnny Herbert Benetton-Renault Report
1994
Damon Hill Williams-Renault Report
1993
Damon Hill Williams-Renault Report
1992
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report
1991
Nigel Mansell Williams-Renault Report
1990
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report
1989
Alain Prost McLaren-Honda Report
1988
Gerhard Berger Ferrari Report
1987
Nelson Piquet Williams-Honda Report
1986
Nelson Piquet Williams-Honda Report
1985
Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report
1984
Niki Lauda McLaren-TAG Report
1983
Nelson Piquet Brabham-BMW Report
1982
René Arnoux Renault Report
1981
Alain Prost Renault Report
1980
Nelson Piquet Brabham-Ford Imola Report
1979
Jody Scheckter Ferrari Monza Road Circuit Report
1978
Niki Lauda Brabham-Alfa Romeo Report
1977
Mario Andretti Lotus-Ford Report
1976
Ronnie Peterson March-Ford Report
1975
Clay Regazzoni Ferrari Report
1974
Ronnie Peterson Lotus-Ford Report
1973
Ronnie Peterson Lotus-Ford Report
1972
Emerson Fittipaldi Lotus-Ford Report
1971
Peter Gethin BRM Report
1970
Clay Regazzoni Ferrari Report
1969
Jackie Stewart Matra-Ford Report
1968
Denny Hulme McLaren-Ford Report
1967
John Surtees Honda Report
1966
Ludovico Scarfiotti Ferrari Report
1965
Jackie Stewart BRM Report
1964
John Surtees Ferrari Report
1963
Jim Clark Lotus-Climax Report
1962
Graham Hill BRM Report
1961
Phil Hill Ferrari Monza Full Circuit Report
1960
Phil Hill Ferrari Report
1959
Stirling Moss Cooper-Climax Monza Road Circuit Report
1958
Tony Brooks Vanwall Report
1957
Stirling Moss Vanwall Report
1956
Stirling Moss Maserati Monza Full Circuit Report
1955
Juan Manuel Fangio Mercedes Report
1954
Juan Manuel Fangio Mercedes Monza Road Circuit Report
1953
Juan Manuel Fangio Maserati Report
1952
Alberto Ascari Ferrari Report
1951
Alberto Ascari Ferrari Report
1950
Giuseppe Farina Alfa Romeo Report
1949
Alberto Ascari Ferrari Monza Road Circuit Report
1948
Jean-Pierre Wimille Alfa Romeo Valentino Park Report
1947
Carlo Felice Trossi Alfa Romeo Milan Report
1946
–
1939
Not held
1938
Tazio Nuvolari Auto Union Monza Florio Circuit Report
1937
Rudolf Caracciola Mercedes-Benz Livorno Report
1936
Bernd Rosemeyer Auto Union Monza Florio Circuit Report
1935
Hans Stuck Auto Union Report
1934
Luigi Fagioli
Rudolf Caracciola Mercedes-Benz Monza Florio Circuit Report
1933
Luigi Fagioli Alfa Romeo Monza Full Circuit Report
1932
Tazio Nuvolari Alfa Romeo Monza Full Circuit Report
1931
Giuseppe Campari
Tazio Nuvolari Alfa Romeo Report
1930
–
1929
Not held
1928
Louis Chiron Bugatti Monza Full Circuit Report
1927
Robert Benoist Delage Report
1926
Louis Charavel Bugatti Report
1925
Gastone Brilli-Peri Alfa Romeo Report
1924
Antonio Ascari Alfa Romeo Report
1923
Carlo Salamano Fiat Report
1922
Pietro Bordino Fiat Report
1921
Jules Goux Ballot Brescia Report
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Colin Goodwin. The Racing Driver's Pocket–Book. p. 9. ISBN 9781844861347.
Jump up ^ "The 1933 Monza Grand Prix". grandprix.com. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Monza to keep Formula 1's Italian Grand Prix". BBC Sport. BBC. 18 March 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Heineken announces global partnership with Formula One Management". Formula1.com. Formula One World Championship Ltd. 9 June 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Italian Grand Prix.
Official Website of the Italian Formula One Grand Prix
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The Possibility of Evil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"The Possibility of Evil" is a 1965 short story by Shirley Jackson. Published on December 18, 1965, in the Saturday Evening Post,[1] a few months after her death, it won the 1966 Edgar Allan Poe Award for best mystery short story.[2] It has since been reprinted in the 1996 collection Just an Ordinary Day as well as "Elements of English 10" for high school students.[3]
While not as well-known or read as her later classic, "The Lottery", it later became a set work in high school English classes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Title
2 Plot
3 Characters
4 Style
5 Themes
6 Critical reception
7 Similarities to other Short Stories by Jackson
8 References
9 External links
Title[edit]
The title of this story bears reference to the malicious and cold-hearted letters that are being circulated around the village in which there is 'no possibility of evil.' This means that the novel is a contrast and that the village, in fact, represents Strangeworth herself, a poor old lady in which there is no trace of cruelty. This is not only a display of dramatic irony, but also a reference of the contrast between us as humans on the inside, and the people we choose to show others.
Plot[edit]
Miss Adela Strangeworth lives on Pleasant Street in her ancestral home. She is described prominently as a harmless old lady in the beginning of the story. Through conversations with the people in her town, it is evident that Miss Strangeworth often believes that she owns the town, and has great interest in the townspeople. She also takes great pride in the orderliness of her house, as well as her family roses. However, Miss Strangeworth is not such a quiet figure in her town; she often writes anonymous letters to her neighbors, which are rarely based on fact and more on what gossip she has heard during her walks down the streets. When she is mailing some of them, one is dropped on the ground and one of her neighbors (whom she had once made a subject of her uncouth letters) notices, and, feeling kind, delivers it to the intended recipient (unaware the letter is meant to be anonymous). The next morning, Miss Strangeworth receives a similarly written letter, informing her that her roses, a source of her familial pride, have been destroyed. The story examines many themes, such as a person being two-faced, as well as how a single person can make a mark on a community.
Characters[edit]
Miss Strangeworth: Miss Adela Strangeworth is a pensioner living on Pleasant Street, who is pleased with her lifestyle, the rest of the village's respect for her, and, above all, her roses. She often goes into town, is sociable and is liked. However, behind this, she also sends poison pen letters to other members of the village. Many literary critics believe that a great deal of symbolism is in her name. Strangeworth seems to come from stranger, which tells the reader that she is, deep down, a stranger to all of the rest of the village, despite their belief that they know her.
Mr Lewis: A friendly and likable character that Miss Strangeworth sees on her visit around the village. Receives a poison pen letter.
Mrs Harper: Another character who receives a letter from Miss Strangeworth. She is deeply affected and doesn't even desire to talk after the receival.
Dave: A likable boy who accidentally exposes Miss Strangeworth. Critics have commented Dave to be an anti-villain, that is to say, hated in the eyes of the protagonist, yet truly a good person. He has also been commented to be both Miss Strangeworth's savior and her destruction.
Style[edit]
This book often demonstrates many points that are noticeable in other Jackson works: teasing the reader with what the reader knows in comparison to the narrator is shown in We Have Always Lived in the Castle, for example. It is also written with casual style, odd owing to the seriousness of many of the situations. As with The Lottery, many believed this to be non-fiction for precisely this reason. It also deals with the "casual cruelty in the everyday" that Jackson explores in almost all of her short stories.
Themes[edit]
This short story explores many themes, usually mentioned in Analysis, such as a person having two sides to them, the dents that people make upon a community, and how they restore them, and the revenge of the fallen.
There is also a frequently commented upon debate on the symbolism of the roses. The most common metaphor is that the roses represent Strangeworth's impression on the rest of the community, how they all respect her. However, upon her discovery, her roses are tarnished. However, some argue that the roses represent the guilt that Strangeworth hides behind a much polished and examined display of non-knowing.
Critical reception[edit]
Joyce Carol Oates described the story as 'terrifying' and it is generally regarded as one of Jackson's finest works.
It was commented in an unrelated Daily Telegraph article that this was the point in which Shirley Jackson had reached maturity as an author, a process that began and continued long after the early & famous publication of Jackson's controversial short story, The Lottery. This is a common opinion that has also been voiced by many other admirers of Jackson such as Paul Theroux and Neil Gaiman.
It has even been commented by some critics to be Shirley Jackson's masterpiece, and superior to The Lottery, We Have Always Lived in the Castle and The Haunting of Hill House.
"The Possibility of Evil" was once put into an attempt for a movie adaptation, as has happened for The Haunting of Hill House and The Lottery, in which Miss Strangeworth uses her letters to murder those in the community that she believed were preventing it from brilliance. However, it has since been given up on, and many of the intended team for the movie have proceeded to follow other pursuits instead.
However, though the majority of reviews have been indisputably positive, in an article in The Spectator on Jackson, the columnist referred to this being, though above average for her usual work, undeserving of the acclaim that it has gathered, that it gained success only through it being published soon after Jackson's death.
Similarities to other Short Stories by Jackson[edit]
The examples of somebody being two faced can be seen in numerous Jacksons, such as Trial by Combat, The Villager, The Witch, Charles, The Dummy, Of Course, and Got A Letter From Jimmy. The examples of dramatic irony can be found in Charles, Afternoon in Linen and Colloquy.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Boucher, Anthony (1966-05-01). "Criminals At Large". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. p. 335. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
Jump up ^ Batts, Grover; McElderry, Michael; McLemee, Scott (1993). "Shirley Jackson: A Register of Her Papers in the Library of Congress" (PDF). American Memory from the Library of Congress. Library of Congress. p. 4. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
Jump up ^ Oates, Joyce Carol (1996-12-29). "Distress Signals". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
External links[edit]
Copy to complete story
[hide]
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Shirley Jackson
Novels
The Road Through the Wall (1948)
Hangsaman (1951)
The Bird's Nest (1954)
The Sundial (1958)
The Haunting of Hill House (1959)
We Have Always Lived in the Castle (1962)
Short fiction
"The Lottery" (1948)
"Charles" (1948)
"The Lovely House" (1950)
"The Possibility of Evil" (1965)
Collections
The Lottery and Other Stories (1949)
Come Along With Me (1968)
Memoirs
Life Among the Savages (1952)
Raising Demons (1957)
Adaptations
Lizzie (1957 film)
The Haunting (1963 film)
The Haunting (1999 film)
We Have Always Lived in the Castle (film)
The Haunting of Hill House (2018 TV series)
Related
Shirley Jackson Award
Stanley Edgar Hyman
Mary Katherine "Merricat" Blackwood (Character)
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Geomagnetic reversal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Reversal of direction of Earth's magnetic field
"Magnetic reversal" redirects here. For switching of a magnet, see Magnetization reversal.
"Polarity reversal" redirects here. For a seismic anomaly, see Polarity reversal (seismology).
Geomagnetic polarity during the last 5 million years (Pliocene and Quaternary, late Cenozoic Era). Dark areas denote periods where the polarity matches today's normal polarity; light areas denote periods where that polarity is reversed.
A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet's magnetic field such that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged (not to be confused with geographic north and geographic south). The Earth's field has alternated between periods of normal polarity, in which the predominant direction of the field was the same as the present direction, and reverse polarity, in which it was the opposite. These periods are called chrons.
There have been 183 reversals over the last 83 million years. The latest, the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred 780,000 years ago, and may have happened very quickly, within a human lifetime.[1] In August 2018, researchers reported a reversal lasting only 200 years.[2]
A brief complete reversal, known as the Laschamp event, occurred only 41,000 years ago during the last glacial period. That reversal lasted only about 440 years with the actual change of polarity lasting around 250 years. During this change the strength of the magnetic field weakened to 5% of its present strength.[3] Brief disruptions that do not result in reversal are called geomagnetic excursions.
Contents
1 History
2 Observing past fields
3 Geomagnetic polarity time scale
3.1 Changing frequency over time
3.2 Superchrons
3.3 Statistical properties of reversals
4 Character of transitions
4.1 Duration
4.2 Magnetic field
5 Causes
5.1 Hypothesized triggers
6 Effects on biosphere
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
In the early 20th century, geologists first noticed that some volcanic rocks were magnetized opposite to the direction of the local Earth's field. The first estimate of the timing of magnetic reversals was made by Motonori Matuyama in the 1920s; he observed that rocks with reversed fields were all of early Pleistocene age or older. At the time, the Earth's polarity was poorly understood, and the possibility of reversal aroused little interest.[4][5]
Three decades later, when Earth's magnetic field was better understood, theories were advanced suggesting that the Earth's field might have reversed in the remote past. Most paleomagnetic research in the late 1950s included an examination of the wandering of the poles and continental drift. Although it was discovered that some rocks would reverse their magnetic field while cooling, it became apparent that most magnetized volcanic rocks preserved traces of the Earth's magnetic field at the time the rocks had cooled. In the absence of reliable methods for obtaining absolute ages for rocks, it was thought that reversals occurred approximately every million years.[4][5]
The next major advance in understanding reversals came when techniques for radiometric dating were developed in the 1950s. Allan Cox and Richard Doell, at the United States Geological Survey, wanted to know whether reversals occurred at regular intervals, and invited the geochronologist Brent Dalrymple to join their group. They produced the first magnetic-polarity time scale in 1959. As they accumulated data, they continued to refine this scale in competition with Don Tarling and Ian McDougall at the Australian National University. A group led by Neil Opdyke at the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory showed that the same pattern of reversals was recorded in sediments from deep-sea cores.[5]
During the 1950s and 1960s information about variations in the Earth's magnetic field was gathered largely by means of research vessels. But the complex routes of ocean cruises rendered the association of navigational data with magnetometer readings difficult. Only when data were plotted on a map did it become apparent that remarkably regular and continuous magnetic stripes appeared on the ocean floors.[4][5]
In 1963, Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided a simple explanation by combining the seafloor spreading theory of Harry Hess with the known time scale of reversals: new sea floor is magnetized in the direction of the then-current field. Thus, sea floor spreading from a central ridge will produce pairs of magnetic stripes parallel to the ridge.[6] Canadian L. W. Morley independently proposed a similar explanation in January 1963, but his work was rejected by the scientific journals Nature and Journal of Geophysical Research, and remained unpublished until 1967, when it appeared in the literary magazine Saturday Review.[4] The Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis was the first key scientific test of the seafloor spreading theory of continental drift.[5]
Beginning in 1966, Lamont–Doherty Geological Observatory scientists found that the magnetic profiles across the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge were symmetrical and matched the pattern in the north Atlantic's Reykjanes ridge. The same magnetic anomalies were found over most of the world's oceans, which permitted estimates for when most of the oceanic crust had developed.[4][5]
Observing past fields[edit]
Geomagnetic polarity since the middle Jurassic. Dark areas denote periods where the polarity matches today's polarity, while light areas denote periods where that polarity is reversed. The Cretaceous Normal superchron is visible as the broad, uninterrupted black band near the middle of the image.
Past field reversals can be and have been recorded in the "frozen" ferromagnetic (or, more accurately, ferrimagnetic) minerals of consolidated sedimentary deposits or cooled volcanic flows on land.
The past record of geomagnetic reversals was first noticed by observing the magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor. Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews made the connection to seafloor spreading in the Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis[6][7] which soon led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics. The relatively constant rate at which the sea floor spreads results in substrate "stripes" from which past magnetic field polarity can be inferred from data gathered from towing a magnetometer along the sea floor.
Because no existing unsubducted sea floor (or sea floor thrust onto continental plates) is more than about 180 million years (Ma) old, other methods are necessary for detecting older reversals. Most sedimentary rocks incorporate tiny amounts of iron rich minerals, whose orientation is influenced by the ambient magnetic field at the time at which they formed. These rocks can preserve a record of the field if it is not later erased by chemical, physical or biological change.
Because the magnetic field is global, similar patterns of magnetic variations at different sites may be used to correlate age in different locations. In the past four decades much paleomagnetic data about seafloor ages (up to ~250 Ma) has been collected and is useful in estimating the age of geologic sections. Not an independent dating method, it depends on "absolute" age dating methods like radioisotopic systems to derive numeric ages. It has become especially useful to metamorphic and igneous geologists where index fossils are seldom available.
Geomagnetic polarity time scale[edit]
Further information: Magnetostratigraphy
Through analysis of seafloor magnetic anomalies and dating of reversal sequences on land, paleomagnetists have been developing a Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale (GPTS). The current time scale contains 184 polarity intervals in the last 83 million years (and therefore 183 reversals).[8][9]
Changing frequency over time[edit]
The rate of reversals in the Earth's magnetic field has varied widely over time. 72 million years ago (Ma), the field reversed 5 times in a million years. In a 4-million-year period centered on 54 Ma, there were 10 reversals; at around 42 Ma, 17 reversals took place in the span of 3 million years. In a period of 3 million years centering on 24 Ma, 13 reversals occurred. No fewer than 51 reversals occurred in a 12-million-year period, centering on 15 million years ago. Two reversals occurred during a span of 50,000 years. These eras of frequent reversals have been counterbalanced by a few "superchrons" – long periods when no reversals took place.[10]
Superchrons[edit]
A superchron is a polarity interval lasting at least 10 million years. There are two well-established superchrons, the Cretaceous Normal and the Kiaman. A third candidate, the Moyero, is more controversial. The Jurassic Quiet Zone in ocean magnetic anomalies was once thought to represent a superchron, but is now attributed to other causes.
The Cretaceous Normal (also called the Cretaceous Superchron or C34) lasted for almost 40 million years, from about 120 to 83 million years ago, including stages of the Cretaceous period from the Aptian through the Santonian. The frequency of magnetic reversals steadily decreased prior to the period, reaching its low point (no reversals) during the period. Between the Cretaceous Normal and the present, the frequency has generally increased slowly.[11]
The Kiaman Reverse Superchron lasted from approximately the late Carboniferous to the late Permian, or for more than 50 million years, from around 312 to 262 million years ago.[11] The magnetic field had reversed polarity. The name "Kiaman" derives from the Australian village of Kiama, where some of the first geological evidence of the superchron was found in 1925.[12]
The Ordovician is suspected to have hosted another superchron, called the Moyero Reverse Superchron, lasting more than 20 million years (485 to 463 million years ago). Thus far, this possible superchron has only been found in the Moyero river section north of the polar circle in Siberia.[13] Moreover, the best data from elsewhere in the world do not show evidence for this superchron.[14]
Certain regions of ocean floor, older than 160 Ma, have low-amplitude magnetic anomalies that are hard to interpret. They are found off the east coast of North America, the northwest coast of Africa, and the western Pacific. They were once thought to represent a superchron called the Jurassic Quiet Zone, but magnetic anomalies are found on land during this period. The geomagnetic field is known to have low intensity between about 130 Ma and 170 Ma, and these sections of ocean floor are especially deep, causing the geomagnetic signal to be attenuated between the seabed and the surface.[14]
Statistical properties of reversals[edit]
Several studies have analyzed the statistical properties of reversals in the hope of learning something about their underlying mechanism. The discriminating power of statistical tests is limited by the small number of polarity intervals. Nevertheless, some general features are well established. In particular, the pattern of reversals is random. There is no correlation between the lengths of polarity intervals.[15] There is no preference for either normal or reversed polarity, and no statistical difference between the distributions of these polarities. This lack of bias is also a robust prediction of dynamo theory.[11]
There is no rate of reversals, as they are statistically random. The randomness of the reversals is inconsistent with periodicity, but several authors have claimed to find periodicity.[16] However, these results are probably artifacts of an analysis using sliding windows to attempt to determine reversal rates.[17]
Most statistical models of reversals have analyzed them in terms of a Poisson process or other kinds of renewal process. A Poisson process would have, on average, a constant reversal rate, so it is common to use a non-stationary Poisson process. However, compared to a Poisson process, there is a reduced probability of reversal for tens of thousands of years after a reversal. This could be due to an inhibition in the underlying mechanism, or it could just mean that some shorter polarity intervals have been missed.[11] A random reversal pattern with inhibition can be represented by a gamma process. In 2006, a team of physicists at the University of Calabria found that the reversals also conform to a Lévy distribution, which describes stochastic processes with long-ranging correlations between events in time.[18][19] The data are also consistent with a deterministic, but chaotic, process.[20]
Character of transitions[edit]
Duration[edit]
Most estimates for the duration of a polarity transition are between 1,000 and 10,000 years,[11] but some estimates are as quick as a human lifetime.[1] Studies of 15-million-year-old lava flows on Steens Mountain, Oregon, indicate that the Earth's magnetic field is capable of shifting at a rate of up to 6 degrees per day.[21] This was initially met with skepticism from paleomagnetists. Even if changes occur that quickly in the core, the mantle, which is a semiconductor, is thought to remove variations with periods less than a few months. A variety of possible rock magnetic mechanisms were proposed that would lead to a false signal.[22] However, paleomagnetic studies of other sections from the same region (the Oregon Plateau flood basalts) give consistent results.[23][24] It appears that the reversed-to-normal polarity transition that marks the end of Chron C5Cr (16.7 million years ago) contains a series of reversals and excursions.[25] In addition, geologists Scott Bogue of Occidental College and Jonathan Glen of the US Geological Survey, sampling lava flows in Battle Mountain, Nevada, found evidence for a brief, several-year-long interval during a reversal when the field direction changed by over 50 degrees. The reversal was dated to approximately 15 million years ago.[26][27] In August 2018, researchers reported a reversal lasting only 200 years.[2]
Magnetic field[edit]
The magnetic field will not vanish completely, but many poles might form chaotically in different places during reversal, until it stabilizes again.[28][29]
Causes[edit]
NASA computer simulation using the model of Glatzmaier and Roberts.[30] The tubes represent magnetic field lines, blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away. The rotation axis of the Earth is centered and vertical. The dense clusters of lines are within the Earth's core.[29]
The magnetic field of the Earth, and of other planets that have magnetic fields, is generated by dynamo action in which convection of molten iron in the planetary core generates electric currents which in turn give rise to magnetic fields.[11] In simulations of planetary dynamos, reversals often emerge spontaneously from the underlying dynamics. For example, Gary Glatzmaier and collaborator Paul Roberts of UCLA ran a numerical model of the coupling between electromagnetism and fluid dynamics in the Earth's interior. Their simulation reproduced key features of the magnetic field over more than 40,000 years of simulated time and the computer-generated field reversed itself.[30][31] Global field reversals at irregular intervals have also been observed in the laboratory liquid metal experiment "VKS2".[32]
In some simulations, this leads to an instability in which the magnetic field spontaneously flips over into the opposite orientation. This scenario is supported by observations of the solar magnetic field, which undergoes spontaneous reversals every 9–12 years. However, with the Sun it is observed that the solar magnetic intensity greatly increases during a reversal, whereas reversals on Earth seem to occur during periods of low field strength.[33]
Hypothesized triggers[edit]
Some scientists, such as Richard A. Muller, think that geomagnetic reversals are not spontaneous processes but rather are triggered by external events that directly disrupt the flow in the Earth's core. Proposals include impact events[34][35] or internal events such as the arrival of continental slabs carried down into the mantle by the action of plate tectonics at subduction zones or the initiation of new mantle plumes from the core-mantle boundary.[36] Supporters of this hypothesis hold that any of these events could lead to a large scale disruption of the dynamo, effectively turning off the geomagnetic field. Because the magnetic field is stable in either the present North-South orientation or a reversed orientation, they propose that when the field recovers from such a disruption it spontaneously chooses one state or the other, such that half the recoveries become reversals. However, the proposed mechanism does not appear to work in a quantitative model, and the evidence from stratigraphy for a correlation between reversals and impact events is weak. There is no evidence for a reversal connected with the impact event that caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.[37]
Effects on biosphere[edit]
Shortly after the first geomagnetic polarity time scales were produced, scientists began exploring the possibility that reversals could be linked to extinctions. Most such proposals rest on the assumption that the Earth's magnetic field would be much weaker during reversals. Possibly the first such hypothesis was that high energy particles trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt could be liberated and bombard the Earth.[38][39] Detailed calculations confirm that if the Earth's dipole field disappeared entirely (leaving the quadrupole and higher components), most of the atmosphere would become accessible to high energy particles, but would act as a barrier to them, and cosmic ray collisions would produce secondary radiation of beryllium-10 or chlorine-36. An increase of beryllium-10 was noted in a 2012 German study showing a peak of beryllium-10 in Greenland ice cores during a brief complete reversal 41,000 years ago which led to the magnetic field strength dropping to an estimated 5% of normal during the reversal.[3] There is evidence that this occurs both during secular variation[40][41] and during reversals.[42][43]
Another hypothesis by McCormac and Evans assumes that the Earth's field disappears entirely during reversals.[44] They argue that the atmosphere of Mars may have been eroded away by the solar wind because it had no magnetic field to protect it. They predict that ions would be stripped away from Earth's atmosphere above 100 km. However, paleointensity measurements show that the magnetic field has not disappeared during reversals. Based on paleointensity data for the last 800,000 years,[45] the magnetopause is still estimated to have been at about 3 Earth radii during the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal.[38] Even if the internal magnetic field did disappear, the solar wind can induce a magnetic field in the Earth's ionosphere sufficient to shield the surface from energetic particles.[46]
Hypotheses have also advanced toward linking reversals to mass extinctions.[47] Many such arguments were based on an apparent periodicity in the rate of reversals, but more careful analyses show that the reversal record is not periodic.[17] It may be, however, that the ends of superchrons have caused vigorous convection leading to widespread volcanism, and that the subsequent airborne ash caused extinctions.[48]
Tests of correlations between extinctions and reversals are difficult for a number of reasons. Larger animals are too scarce in the fossil record for good statistics, so paleontologists have analyzed microfossil extinctions. Even microfossil data can be unreliable if there are hiatuses in the fossil record. It can appear that the extinction occurs at the end of a polarity interval when the rest of that polarity interval was simply eroded away.[22] Statistical analysis shows no evidence for a correlation between reversals and extinctions.[49][38]
See also[edit]
Geomagnetism – Wikipedia book
List of geomagnetic reversals, including ages.
Magnetic anomaly
South Atlantic Anomaly
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Behrendt, J.C., Finn, C., Morse, L., Blankenship, D.D. "One hundred negative magnetic anomalies over the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS), in particular Mt. Resnik, a subaerially erupted volcanic peak, indicate eruption through at least one field reversal" University of Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey, University of Texas. (U.S. Geological Survey and The National Academies); USGS OF-2007-1047, Extended Abstract 030. 2007.
Okada, M., Niitsuma, N., "Detailed paleomagnetic records during the Brunhes-Matuyama geomagnetic reversal, and a direct determination of depth lag for magnetization in marine sediments" Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, Volume 56, Issue 1-2, p. 133-150. 1989.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Geomagnetic reversals
How geomagnetic reversals are related to intensity
"Look down, look up, look out!", The Economist, May 10 2007
"Ships' logs give clues to Earth's magnetic decline", New Scientist, May 11 2006
Simple explanation of geomagnetic reversal, physics.org, accessed Nov 2 2012
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