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History of Turkey
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See History of the Republic of Turkey for the history of the modern state.
Part of a series on the
History of Turkey
Prehistory[show]
Prehistory of Anatolia
Palaeolithic Anatolia c. 500,000–
10,000 BC
Mesolithic Anatolia c. 11,000–
9,000 BC
Neolithic Anatolia c. 8,000–
5,500 BC
Bronze Age[show]
Troy 3000–700 BC
Hattians 2500–2000 BC
Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 BC
Luwians 2300–1400 BC
Assyria 1950–1750 BC
Achaeans (Homer) 1700–1300 BC
Kizzuwatna 1650–1450 BC
Hittites 1680–1220 BC
Arzawa 1500–1320 BC
Mitanni 1500–1300 BC
Hayasa-Azzi 1500–1290 BC
Lycia 1450–350 BC
Assuwa 1300–1250 BC
Diauehi 1200–800 BC
Neo-Hittites 1200–800 BC
Phrygia 1200–700 BC
Caria 1150–547 BC
Tuwanuwa 1000–700 BC
Ionia 1000–545 BC
Urartu 859–595/585 BC
Iron Age[show]
Diauehi 1200–800 BC
Neo-Hittites 1200–800 BC
Phrygia 1200–700 BC
Caria 1150–547 BC
Doris 1100–560 BC
Aeolis 1000–560 BC
Tuwanuwa 1000–700 BC
Ionia 1000–545 BC
Urartu 859–595/585 BC
Median Empire 678-549 BC
Lydia 685–547 BC
Classical Age[show]
Classical Anatolia
Classical Thrace
Achaemenid Empire 559–331 BC
Kingdom of Alexander the Great 334–301 BC
Kingdom of Cappadocia 322-130 BC
Antigonids 306–168 BC
Seleucid Empire 305–64 BC
Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 BC
Kingdom of Pontus 302–64 BC
Bithynia 297–74 BC
Kingdom of Pergamon 282–129 BC
Galatia 281–64 BC
Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD
Armenian Empire 190 BC–428 AD
Roman Republic 133–27 BC
Kingdom of Commagene 163 BC–72 AD
Roman Empire 27 BC–330 AD
Sassanian Empire 224–651 AD
Medieval Age[show]
Medieval Anatolia
Byzantine Empire (330–1453)
Rashidun Caliphate (637–656)
Great Seljuk State (1037–1194)
Danishmends (1071–1178)
Anatolian beyliks (1081-1423)
Sultanate of Rum (1077–1307)
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1078–1375)
County of Edessa (1098–1150)
Artuqids (1101–1409)
Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)
Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261)
Latin Empire (1204–1261)
Ilkhanate (1256–1335)
Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468)
Ak Koyunlu (1378–1501)
Ottoman Era[show]
Periods of Ottoman Empire
Rise (1299–1453)
Classical Age (1453–1566)
Transformation (1566–1703)
Old Regime (1703–1789)
Decline and modernization (1789–1908)
Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)
Republic of Turkey[show]
Periods of Turkey
War of Independence (1919–1922)
Provisional government (1920–1923)
One-party period (1923–1930)
(1930–1945)
Multi-party period (1945–present)
By topic[show]
Anatolian peoples
Migration of Turks into Anatolia
Constitutional history
Economic history
Military history
Cultural history
Timeline
Turkey portal
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The history of Turkey, understood as the history of the region now forming the territory of the Republic of Turkey, includes the history of both Anatolia (the Asian part of Turkey) and Eastern Thrace (the European part of Turkey).
For times predating the Ottoman period, a distinction must be made between the history of the Turkish peoples, and the history of the territories now forming the Republic of Turkey, essentially the histories of ancient Anatolia and Thrace.[1][2]
The name Turkey is derived from Middle Latin Turchia, i.e. the "land of the Turks", historically referring to an entirely different territory of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, which fell under the control of Turkic peoples in the early medieval period.
From the time when parts of what is now Turkey was conquered by Turks, the history of Turkey spans the medieval history of the Seljuk Empire, the medieval to modern history of the Ottoman Empire, and the history of the Republic of Turkey since the 1920s.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Anatolia and Thrace in antiquity
1.1 Anatolia
1.2 Thrace
2 Byzantine Period
3 Early history of the Turks
4 Seljuk Empire
5 Ottoman Empire
6 Republic of Turkey
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Anatolia and Thrace in antiquity[edit]
Anatolia[edit]
Main articles: Classical Anatolia and History of Anatolia
Further information: Prehistory of Anatolia, Ancient Anatolians, Hittite Empire, Syro-Hittite states, Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Macedonian Empire, Ancient Regions of Anatolia, Kingdom of Pontus, Seleucid Empire, Byzantine Anatolia, and Ancient Near East
The ancient history of Anatolia (Asia Minor) can be roughly subdivided into two prehistory, Ancient Near East (Bronze Age and Early Iron Age), Classical Anatolia, Hellenistic Anatolia, with Byzantine Anatolia spanning the early medieval period to the age of the Crusades and the eventual Turkish (Seljuk/Ottoman) conquest of Anatolia by the 15th century.[incomprehensible]
The earliest representations of culture in Anatolia were Stone Age artifacts. The remnants of Bronze Age civilizations such as the Hattian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Hittite peoples provide us with many examples of the daily lives of its citizens and their trade. After the fall of the Hittites, the new states of Phrygia and Lydia stood strong on the western coast as Greek civilization began to flourish. They, and all the rest of Anatolia were relatively soon after incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire.
As Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into various satrapies, ruled by satraps (governors) appointed by the central Persian rulers. The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC, which became the Satrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid rule. Some of the satraps revolted periodically but did not pose a serious threat. In the 5th century BC, Darius I built the Royal Road, which linked the principal city of Susa with the west Anatolian city of Sardis.[3] Anatolia played a pivotal role in Achaemenid history. In the earliest 5th century BC, some of the Ionian cities under Persian rule revolted, which culminated into the Ionian Revolt. This revolt, after being easily suppressed by the Persian authority, laid the direct uplead for the Greco-Persian Wars, which turned out to be one of the most crucial wars in European history. After Achaemenid Persian rule, the Greek Alexander the Great finally wrested control of the whole region from Persia in successive battles, proving victorious over the Persian Darius III. After Alexander's death, his conquests were split amongst several of his trusted generals, but were under constant threat of invasion from both the Gauls and other powerful rulers in Pergamon, Pontus, and Egypt. The Seleucid Empire, the largest of Alexander's territories, and which included Anatolia, became involved in a disastrous war with Rome culminating in the battles of Thermopylae and Magnesia. The resulting Treaty of Apamea in (188 BC) saw the Seleucids retreat from Anatolia. The Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes, Rome's allies in the war, were granted the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia.
Roman control of Anatolia was strengthened by a 'hands off' approach by Rome, allowing local control to govern effectively and providing military protection. In the early 4th century, Constantine the Great established a new administrative centre at Constantinople, and by the end of the 4th century the Roman empire split into two parts, the Eastern part (Romania) with Constantinople as its capital, referred to by historians as the Byzantine Empire from the original name, Byzantium.[4]
Thrace[edit]
See also: List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia, Odrysian state, Thracians § Archaic_period, Prehistory of the Balkans, Paleolithic Europe, and Neolithic Europe
The Thracians (Ancient Greek: Θρᾷκες, Latin: Thraci) were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting a large area in Central and Southeastern Europe.[5] They were bordered by the Scythians to the north, the Celts and the Illyrians to the west, the Ancient Greeks to the south and the Black Sea to the east. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family. The study of Thracians and Thracian culture is known as Thracology.
Thrace and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom in its maximum extent under Sitalces (431-424 BC)
Starting around 1200 BC, the western coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and Byzantium, the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. All of Thrace, and the native Thracian peoples were conquered by Darius the Great in the late 6th century BC, and were re-subjugated into the empire in 492 BC following Mardonius' campaign during the First Persian invasion of Greece.[6] The territory of Thrace later became unified by the Odrysian kingdom, founded by Teres I,[7] probably after the Persian defeat in Greece.[8]
By the 5th century BC, the Thracian presence was pervasive enough to have made Herodotus[9] call them the second-most numerous people in the part of the world known by him (after the Indians), and potentially the most powerful, if not for their lack of unity. The Thracians in classical times were broken up into a large number of groups and tribes, though a number of powerful Thracian states were organized, such as the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace and the Dacian kingdom of Burebista. A type of soldier of this period called the Peltast probably originated in Thrace.
Before the expansion of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thrace was divided into three camps (East, Central, and West) after the withdrawal of the Persians following their eventual defeat in mainland Greece. A notable ruler of the East Thracians was Cersobleptes, who attempted to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes. He was eventually defeated by the Macedonians.
The Thracians were typically not city-builders, the largest Thracian cities were in fact large villages.[10][11] and their only polis was Seuthopolis.[12][13]
Byzantine Period[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Anatolia
See also: Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, Sassanid Empire, and Byzantine-Sassanid Wars
Originally a church, later a mosque, and now a museum, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul was built by the Byzantines in the 6th century.
The Persian Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC,[14] which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.[15] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[16] The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries AD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.[17][18]
In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of what is today Turkey until the Late Middle Ages,[19] while the other remaining territory remained in Sassanid Persian hands.
Between the 3rd and 7th century AD, the Byzantines and the neighboring Sassanids frequently clashed over possession of Anatolia, which significantly exhausted both empires, thus laying the way open for the eventual Muslim conquests from both empires' respective south.
Early history of the Turks[edit]
History of the Turkic peoples
Pre-14th century
Turkic Khaganate 552–744
Western Turkic
Eastern Turkic
Khazar Khaganate 618–1048
Xueyantuo 628–646
Great Bulgaria 632–668
Danube Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria
Kangar union 659–750
Turk Shahi 665–850
Turgesh Khaganate 699–766
Uyghur Khaganate 744–840
Karluk Yabgu State 756–940
Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212
Western Kara-Khanid
Eastern Kara-Khanid
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036
Qocho 856–1335
Pecheneg Khanates
860–1091 Kimek confederation
743–1035
Cumania
1067–1239 Oghuz Yabgu State
750–1055
Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Sultanate of Rum
Kerait khanate 11th century–13th century
Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231
Naiman Khanate –1204
Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266
Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
Mamluk dynasty
Khalji dynasty
Tughlaq dynasty
Golden Horde | [20][21][22] 1240s–1502
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517
Bahri dynasty
Ottoman Empire 1299–1923
Other Turkic dynasties [show]
in Anatolia
Artuqid dynasty
Saltuqid dynasty
in Azerbaijan
Ahmadili dynasty
Ildenizid dynasty
in Egypt
Tulunid dynasty
Ikhshidid dynasty
in Fars
Salghurid dynasty
in The Levant
Burid dynasty
Zengid dynasty
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Main articles: Göktürks and Turkic migrations
Historians generally agree that the first Turkic people lived in a region extending from Central Asia to Siberia. Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE.[23] The earliest separate Turkic peoples appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 B.C [23] (contemporaneous with the Chinese Han Dynasty).[24] The first mention of Turks was in a Chinese text that mentioned trade of Turk tribes with the Sogdians along the Silk Road.[25]
It has often been suggested that the Xiongnu, mentioned in Han Dynasty records, were Proto-Turkic speakers.[26][27][28][29][30]
The Hun hordes of Attila, who invaded and conquered much of Europe in the 5th century, may have been Turkic and descendants of the Xiongnu.[24][31][32] Some scholars argue that the Huns were one of the earlier Turkic tribes, while others argue that they were of Mongolic origin.[33]
In the 6th century, 400 years after the collapse of northern Xiongnu power in Inner Asia, leadership of the Turkic peoples was taken over by the Göktürks. Formerly in the Xiongnu nomadic confederation, the Göktürks inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From 552 to 745, Göktürk leadership united the nomadic Turkic tribes into the Göktürk Empire. The name derives from gok, "blue" or "celestial". Unlike its Xiongnu predecessor, the Göktürk Khanate had its temporary khans from the Ashina clan that were subordinate to a sovereign authority controlled by a council of tribal chiefs. The Khanate retained elements of its original shamanistic religion, Tengriism, although it received missionaries of Buddhist monks and practiced a syncretic religion. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people to write Old Turkic in a runic script, the Orkhon script. The Khanate was also the first state known as "Turk". It eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts, but the name "Turk" was later taken by many states and peoples.[citation needed]
Turkic peoples and related groups migrated west from Turkestan and what is now Mongolia towards Eastern Europe, Iranian plateau and Anatolia and modern Turkey in many waves. The date of the initial expansion remains unknown. After many battles, they established their own state and later created the Ottoman Empire. The main migration occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the Middle East.[34] They also participated in the Crusades.
Seljuk Empire[edit]
Main article: Seljuk Empire
The Seljuq Turkmens created a medieval empire that controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia. [35]
The Seljuq/Seljuk empire was founded by Tughril Beg (1016-1063) in 1037. Tughril was raised by his grandfather, Seljuk-Beg Seljuk gave his name to both the Seljuk empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia.[36]
Ottoman Empire[edit]
Mehmed II enters Constantinople by Fausto Zonaro
Main article: Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman beylik's first capital was located in Bursa in 1326. Edirne which was conquered in 1361[37] was the next capital city. After largely expanding to Europe and Anatolia, in 1453, the Ottomans nearly completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople during the reign of Mehmed II. Constantinople was made the capital city of the Empire following Edirne. The Ottoman Empire would continue to expand into the Eastern Anatolia, Central Europe, the Caucasus, North and East Africa, the islands in the Mediterranean, Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian peninsula in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
The sultan of the golden age, Suleiman the Magnificent.
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[38] In addition, the Ottomans were often at war with Persia over territorial disputes. At sea, the empire contended with the Holy Leagues, composed of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Venice and the Knights of St. John, for control of the Mediterranean. In the Indian Ocean, the Ottoman navy frequently confronted Portuguese fleets in order to defend its traditional monopoly over the maritime trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe; these routes faced new competition with the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.
The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the beginning of Ottoman territorial retreat; some territories were lost by the treaty: Austria received all of Hungary and Transylvania except the Banat; Venice obtained most of Dalmatia along with the Morea (the Peloponnesus peninsula in southern Greece); Poland recovered Podolia.[39] Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire continued losing its territories, including Greece, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the Balkans in the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars. Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). Its inhabitants were of varied ethnicities, including Turks, Armenians, Assyrians, Kurds, Greeks, Frenchs, and Italians (particularly from Genoa and Venice). Faced with territorial losses on all sides the Ottoman Empire under the rule of the Three Pashas forged an alliance with Germany who supported it with troops and equipment. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, major atrocities were committed such as Genocide, mass murder and death marches intentionally denying food and water to the deportees by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks causing millions of deaths and resulting in the Armenian Genocide of 1915.[40] Following World War I, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states.[41]
On October 30, 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, followed by the imposition of Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920 by Allied Powers, which was never ratified. The Treaty of Sèvres would break up the Ottoman Empire and force large concessions on territories of the Empire in favour of Greece, Italy, Britain and France.
Republic of Turkey[edit]
Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938)
The occupation of some parts of the country by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish national movement.[38] Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.[42] By September 18, 1922, the occupying armies were expelled. On November 1, the newly founded parliament formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of July 24, 1923, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923, in the new capital of Ankara.[38] Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President of Turkey and subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of founding a new secular republic from the remnants of its Ottoman past.[38] The Ottoman fez was abolished, full rights for women politically were established, and new writing system for Turkish based upon the Latin alphabet was created.[43] According to the Law on Family Names, the Turkish parliament presented Mustafa Kemal with the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks) in 1934.[42]
Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference which was held between 4–6 December 1943.
Turkey was neutral in World War II (1939–45) but signed a treaty with Britain in October 1939 that said Britain would defend Turkey if Germany attacked it. An invasion was threatened in 1941 but did not happen and Ankara refused German requests to allow troops to cross its borders into Syria or the USSR. Germany had been its largest trading partner before the war, and Turkey continued to do business with both sides. It purchased arms from both sides. The Allies tried to stop German purchases of chrome (used in making better steel). Starting in 1942 the Allies provided military aid. The Turkish leaders conferred with Roosevelt and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in November, 1943, and promised to enter the war. By August 1944, with Germany nearing defeat, Turkey broke off relations. In February 1945, it declared war on Germany and Japan, a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the nascent United Nations.[44][45]
Meanwhile, relations with Moscow worsened, setting stage for the start of the Cold War. The demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support.[46]
After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade of intercommunal violence on the island of Cyprus and the Greek military coup of July 1974, overthrowing President Makarios and installing Nikos Sampson as a dictator, Turkey invaded the Republic of Cyprus in 1974. Nine years later the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was established. Turkey is the only country that recognises the TRNC[47]
The single-party period was followed by multiparty democracy after 1945. The Turkish democracy was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971 and 1980.[48] In 1984, the PKK began an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed over 40,000 lives, continues today.[49] Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.[50]
See also[edit]
Turkey portal
Ancient Near East portal
History of Anatolia
History of the Ottoman Empire
History of Greece
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Jay Shaw, Stanford; Kural Shaw, Ezel (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29163-1.
Jump up ^ Robert Bideleux, Ian Jeffries, A History of Eastern Europe, 1998, p. 86.
Jump up ^ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820
Jump up ^ Roderic H. Davison; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920" by Paul C. Helmreich in Slavic Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Mar. 1975), pp. 186–187
^ Jump up to: a b Mango, Andrew (2000). Ataturk. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-011-1.
Jump up ^ Kinross, John (2001). Atatürk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1842125990.
Jump up ^ Erik J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History (3rd ed. 2004) pp 203-5
Jump up ^ A. C. Edwards, "The Impact of the War on Turkey," International Affairs (1946) 22#3 pp. 389-400 in JSTOR Archived 2016-12-22 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Huston, James A. (1988). Outposts and Allies: U.S. Army Logistics in the Cold War, 1945–1953. Susquehanna University Press. ISBN 0-941664-84-8.
Jump up ^ "Timeline: Cyprus". British Broadcasting Corporation. 2006-12-12. Archived from the original on 2006-12-16. Retrieved 2006-12-25.
Jump up ^ Hale, William Mathew (1994). Turkish Politics and the Military. Routledge, UK. ISBN 0-415-02455-2.
Jump up ^ "Turkey's PKK peace plan delayed". BBC. 2009-11-10. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2010-02-06.
Jump up ^ Nas, Tevfik F. (1992). Economics and Politics of Turkish Liberalization. Lehigh University Press. ISBN 0-934223-19-X.
Bibliography[edit]
Ahmad, Feroz. The Making of Modern Turkey (Routledge, 1993),
Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) 357pp excerpt and text search
Findley, Carter V. The Turks in World History (2004) ISBN 0-19-517726-6
Findley, Carter V. Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History (2011)
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (2006), standard scholarly survey excerpt and text search
Freeman, Charles (1999). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198721943.
Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (2002) online edition
Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire (2003) excerpt and text search
Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000. (2000). 375 pp.
Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. 1995. 1026 pp.
Kedourie, Sylvia, ed. Seventy-Five Years of the Turkish Republic (1999). 237 pp.
Kedourie, Sylvia. Turkey Before and After Ataturk: Internal and External Affairs (1989) 282pp
E. Khusnutdinova, et al. Mitochondrial DNA variety in Turkic and Uralic-speaking people. POSTER NO: 548, Human Genome Organisation 2002
Kinross, Patrick). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (1977) ISBN 0-688-03093-9.
Kosebalaban, Hasan. Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 240 pages; examines tensions among secularist nationalism, Islamic nationalism, secular liberalism, and Islamic liberalism in shaping foreign policy since the 1920s; concentrates on era since 2003
Kunt, Metin and Woodhead, Christine, ed. Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. 1995. 218 pp.
Lloyd, Seton. Turkey: A Traveller’s History of Anatolia (1989) covers the ancient period.
Mango, Andrew. Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (2000) ISBN 1-58567-011-1
Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium (2002). ISBN 0-19-814098-3
Marek, Christian (2010), Geschichte Kleinasiens in der Antike C. H. Beck, Munich, ISBN 9783406598531 (review: M. Weiskopf, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.08.13).
Ostrogorsky, George. History of the Byzantine State (1969). excerpt and text search
Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 (2005), standard scholarly survey excerpt and text search
Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. (1977). excerpt and text search ISBN 0-521-29163-1
Thackeray, Frank W., John E. Findling, Douglas A. Howard. The History of Turkey (2001) 267 pages online
Vryonis, Jr., Speros. The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (1971).
Zurcher, Erik J. Turkey: A Modern History (3rd ed. 2004) excerpt and text search
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Mint julep
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This article is about the cocktail. For the film, see Mint Julep (film). For the song, see One Mint Julep.
Mint julep
IBA official cocktail
A mint julep served in the traditional silver cup.
Type
Cocktail
Primary alcohol by volume
Bourbon whiskey
Served
On the rocks; poured over ice
Standard garnish
Mint sprig
Standard drinkware
Highball glass
IBA specified
ingredients
6 cL Bourbon whiskey
4 mint leaves
1 teaspoon powdered sugar
2 teaspoons water
Preparation
In a highball glass gently muddle the mint, sugar and water. Fill the glass with cracked ice, add Bourbon and stir well until the glass is well frosted. Garnish with a mint sprig.
Mint julep recipe at International Bartenders Association
The mint julep is a mixed alcoholic drink, or cocktail, consisting primarily of bourbon (or some other spirit), sugar, water, crushed or shaved ice, and fresh mint. As a bourbon-based cocktail, it is associated with the American South and the cuisine of the Southern United States in general, and the Kentucky Derby in particular.
Contents
1 Preparation
2 History
3 The Kentucky Derby
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Preparation[edit]
A mint julep is traditionally made with four ingredients: mint leaf, bourbon, simple syrup, and crushed ice. Traditionally, spearmint is the mint of choice used in Southern states, and in Kentucky in particular. Proper preparation of the cocktail is commonly debated, as methods may vary considerably from one bartender to another. The mint julep may be considered a member of a loosely associated family of drinks called "smashes" (the brandy smash is another example, as well as the mojito), in which fresh mint and other ingredients are muddled or crushed in preparation for flavoring the finished drink. The step further releases essential oils and juices into the mixture, intensifying the flavor from the added ingredient or ingredients.
Traditionally, mint juleps were often served in silver or pewter cups, and held only by the bottom and top edges of the cup. This allows frost to form on the outside of the cup.[1] Traditional hand placement may have arisen as a way to reduce the heat transferred from the hand to the silver or pewter cup. Today, mint juleps are most commonly served in a tall old-fashioned glass, Collins glass, or highball glass with a straw.
History[edit]
A mint julep
The mint julep originated in the southern United States, probably during the eighteenth century.
U.S. Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky introduced the drink to Washington, D.C., at the Round Robin Bar in the famous Willard Hotel during his residence in the city.[2] The term "julep" is generally defined as a sweet drink, particularly one used as a vehicle for medicine. The word itself is derived from the Spanish "julepe", from Spanish Arabic, and this from the Persian word گلاب (Golâb), meaning rosewater.
The mint julep was originally prescribed and appears in literature as early as 1784 "sickness at the stomach, with frequent retching, and, at times, a difficulty of swallowing. I then prescribed her an emetic, some opening powders, and a mint julep."[3] An appearance of a mint julep in print came in a book by John Davis published in London in 1803, where it was described as "a dram of spirituous liquor that has mint steeped in it, taken by Virginians of a morning."[4] Davis’ interviewee mentions his love for whiskey came from his daily preparation of the drink
Americans enjoyed not only bourbon-based juleps during the nineteenth century, but also gin-based juleps made with genever, an aged gin.
British Captain Frederick Marryat's 1840 book Second Series of A Diary in America describes on page 41 the "real mint julep" thus:
There are many varieties [of Mint Julep], such as those composed of Claret, Madeira, &c.; but the ingredients of the real mint-julep are as follows. I learnt how to make them, and succeeded pretty well. Put into a tumbler about a dozen sprigs of the tender shoots of mint, upon them put a spoonful of white sugar, and equal proportions of peach and common brandy, so as to fill it up one-third, or perhaps a little less. Then take rasped or pounded ice, and fill up the tumbler. Epicures rub the lips of the tumbler with a piece of fresh pine-apple, and the tumbler itself is very often incrusted outside with stalactites of ice. As the ice melts, you drink.[5]
The 1862 edition of Bar-Tenders Guide: How to Mix Drinks or The Bon-Vivant's Companion by Jerry Thomas includes five recipes for the mint julep (as well as an illustration of how it is to be served) allowing for either Cognac, brandy, gin, whiskey or sparkling Moselle.[6] Thomas states of the mint julep, "...a peculiarly American beverage...It was introduced [later] into England by Captain Maryatt."
In 1916, the traditional Virginia recipe as served at the "Old White" is described
...the famous old barroom, which was approached by a spiral staircase. Here in this dark, cool room, scented with great masses of fragrant mint that lay upon mountains of crushed ice, in the olden days were created the White Sulphur mint julep and the Virginia toddy, for which this place was famous the world over. The mint juleps were not the composite compounds of the present day. They were made of the purest French brandy, limestone water, old-fashioned cut loaf sugar, crushed ice, and young mint the foliage of which touched your ears... [7]
Recently, however, bourbon-based juleps have decisively eclipsed gin-based juleps.[8]
The Kentucky Derby[edit]
The mint julep has been promoted by Churchill Downs in association with the Kentucky Derby since 1938. Each year almost 120,000 juleps are served at Churchill Downs over the two-day period of the Kentucky Oaks and the Kentucky Derby, virtually all of them in specially made Kentucky Derby collectible glasses.[9]
In a contract arrangement between the Brown-Forman Corporation and Churchill Downs that has lasted more than 18 years, the Early Times Mint Julep Cocktail has been the designated "official mint julep of the Kentucky Derby", although the Early Times sold within the United States is a Kentucky whiskey, not a bourbon, due to its being aged in used, rather than new, oak barrels.[10] However beginning in 2015, Old Forester, which is also produced by the Brown-Forman Corporation, is now "the official drink of the Kentucky Derby," when sold as Old Forester Mint Julep Ready-to-Serve Cocktail.[11][12]
Since 2006, Churchill Downs has also served extra-premium custom-made mint juleps at a cost of $1000 each at the Kentucky Derby. These mint juleps were served in gold-plated cups with silver straws, and were made from Woodford Reserve bourbon, mint imported from Ireland, spring water ice cubes from the Bavarian Alps, and sugar from Australia. The proceeds were used to support charitable causes dedicated to retired race horses. Woodford Reserve, Early Times, and Old Forester are sister brands produced by Brown-Forman, and under the terms of its current marketing agreement with Churchill Downs, Woodford Reserve is called the "official bourbon" of the derby.
In May 2008, Churchill Downs unveiled the world's largest mint julep glass. Churchill Downs, in conjunction with Brown-Forman, commissioned the Weber Group to fabricate the 6-foot (1.8 m) tall glass (7.5-foot (2.3 m) if the mint sprig is included). The glass was constructed from FDA food-grade acrylic, heated and molded into the shape of an official 2008 Derby glass. It had a capacity of 206 US gallons (780 l; 172 imp gal), and distributed the Early Times mint juleps at the Derby with an elaborate pumping system concealed within the "stir straw".
See also[edit]
Liquor portal
United States portal
List of cocktails
Old Fashioned
"One Mint Julep"
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mint Julep Ritual". Bencaudill.com. 1937-03-30. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
Jump up ^ See Nickell, p. 31, for Clay's recipe, taken from his diary.
Jump up ^ Medical communications: Volume 1 - Page 242 by Society for Promoting Medical Knowledge in 1784
Jump up ^ Davis, John (1803). Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America. p. 379. Retrieved 2009-05-04.
Jump up ^ Marryat, C.B., Frederick. Second Series of A Diary in America: with remarks on its institutions, T.K. & P.G. Collins Publishing, Philadelphia, 1840, p. 41
Jump up ^ Thomas, Jerry (1862). Bar-Tender's Guide: How to Mix Drinks or The Bon Vivant's Companion. New York: Dick & Fitzgerald, Publishers. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-1440453267.
Jump up ^ MacCorkle, William A., The White Sulphur Springs, the Traditions, History, and Social Life of the Greenbrier White Sulphur Springs, Neale Publishing Co., NY, 1916, p. 66
Jump up ^ Summer Drinks Issue - A Guide to Bartending When the Frost is on the Glass - NY Times
Jump up ^ "Derby Experience-Mint Julep". Churchill Downs Inc. Archived from the original on 2008-01-09. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Early Times Whiskey Review - The Whiskey Reviewer". whiskeyreviewer.com.
Jump up ^ "Kentucky Derby® – Old Forester".
Jump up ^ "Mint Julep - 2018 Kentucky Derby & Oaks - May 4 and 5, 2018 - Tickets, Events, News". www.kentuckyderby.com.
References[edit]
Domine, David. Adventures in New Kentucky Cooking with the Bluegrass Peasant (Kuttawa, KY: McClanahan Publishing House), 2007. ISBN 0-913383-97-X.
The Mint Julep: The Very Dream of Drinks, from the Old Receipt of Soule Smith, Down in Lexington, Kentucky (Lexington, KY: The Gravesend Press), 1949. [reprinted in 1964]
Nickell, Joe. The Kentucky Mint Julep (Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky), 2003. ISBN 0-8131-2275-9.
Thompson, Hunter S., "The Kentucky Derby".
External links[edit]
History of the mint julep
The Greenbrier and the Mint Julep
The Buckner Mint Julep Ceremony
"Vicksburg Convention and Visitors Bureau - Fun Facts". Archived from the original on 2008-01-22. Includes claim that the Mint Julep originated at Mint Springs in the Vicksburg National Military Park.
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