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Article Four of the United States Constitution
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Article Four of the United States Constitution
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Article Four of the United States Constitution outlines the relationship between each state and the others, and the several States and the federal government.
Contents
[hide]
1 Section 1: Full faith and credit
2 Section 2: Rights of state citizens; rights of extradition
2.1 Clause 1: Privileges and Immunities
2.2 Clause 2: Extradition of fugitives
2.3 Clause 3: Fugitive Slave Clause
3 Section 3: New states and federal property
3.1 Clause 1: New states
3.2 Clause 2: Property Clause
4 Section 4: Obligations of the United States
4.1 Clause 1: Republican government
4.2 Clause 2: Protection from invasion and domestic violence
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Further reading
8 External links
Section 1: Full faith and credit[edit]
Main article: Full Faith and Credit Clause
Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.
The first section requires states to extend "full faith and credit" to the public acts, records and court proceedings of other states. Congress may regulate the manner in which proof of such acts, records or proceedings may be admitted.
In Mills v. Duryee, 1t1 U.S. (7 Cranch) 481 (1813), the United States Supreme Court ruled that the merits of a case, as settled by courts of one state, must be recognized by the courts of other states; state courts may not reopen cases which have been conclusively decided by the courts of another state. Later, Chief Justice John Marshall suggested that the judgment of one state court must be recognized by other states' courts as final. However, in McElmoyle v. Cohen, 38 U.S. (13 Pet.) 312 (1839), the court heard a case where one party obtained a judgment in South Carolina and sought to enforce it in Georgia, which had a statute of limitations that barred actions on judgments after a certain amount of time had passed since the judgment was entered. The court upheld Georgia's refusal to enforce the South Carolina judgment. The court found that out-of-state judgments are subject to the procedural law of the states where they are enforced, notwithstanding any priority accorded in the states in which they are issued.
Section 2: Rights of state citizens; rights of extradition[edit]
Clause 1: Privileges and Immunities[edit]
Main article: Privileges and Immunities Clause
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
Clause One of Section 2 requires interstate protection of "privileges and immunities". The seeming ambiguity of the clause has given rise to a number of different interpretations. Some contend that the clause requires Congress to treat all citizens equally. Others suggest that citizens of states carry the rights accorded by their home states while traveling in other states.
Neither of these theories has been endorsed by the Supreme Court, which has held that the clause means that a state may not discriminate against citizens of other states in favor of its own citizens. In Corfield v. Coryell, 6 F. Cas. 546 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1823), the federal circuit court held that privileges and immunities in respect of which discrimination is barred include
protection by the Government; the enjoyment of life and liberty ... the right of a citizen of one State to pass through, or to reside in any other State, for purposes of trade, agriculture, professional pursuits, or otherwise; to claim the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus; to institute and maintain actions of any kind in the courts of the State; to take, hold and dispose of property, either real or personal; and an exemption from higher taxes or impositions than are paid by the other citizens of the State.
Most other benefits were held not to be protected privileges and immunities. In Corfield the circuit court sustained a New Jersey law giving state residents the exclusive right to gather clams and oysters.
Clause 2: Extradition of fugitives[edit]
Main article: Extradition Clause
A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.
Clause Two requires that fugitives from justice may be extradited on the demand of executive authority of the state from which they flee. The Supreme Court has held that it is not compulsory for the fugitive to have fled after an indictment was issued, but only that the fugitive fled after having committed the crime. The Constitution provides for the extradition of fugitives who have committed "treason, felony or other crime." That phrase incorporates all acts prohibited by the laws of a state, including misdemeanors and small, or petty, offenses.
In Kentucky v. Dennison, 65 U.S. 66 (1860), the Supreme Court held that the federal courts may not compel state governors to surrender fugitives through the issue of writs of mandamus. The Dennison decision was overruled by Puerto Rico v. Branstad, 483 U.S. 219 (1987); now, the federal courts may require the extradition of fugitives.[1] Alleged fugitives generally may not challenge extradition proceedings.
The motives of the governor demanding the extradition may not be questioned. The accused cannot defend himself against the charges in the extraditing state; the fugitive must do so in the state receiving him. However, the accused may prevent extradition by offering clear evidence that he was not in the state he allegedly fled from at the time of the crime.[2] There is no constitutional requirement that extradited fugitives be tried only for the crimes named in the extradition proceedings.
Fugitives brought to states by means other than extradition may be tried, even though the means of the conveyance was unlawful; the Supreme Court so ruled in Mahon v. Justice, 127 U.S. 700 (1888). In Mahon a body of armed men from Kentucky forcibly took, without a warrant, a man in West Virginia to bring him back to Kentucky for formal arrest and trial.
Clause 3: Fugitive Slave Clause[edit]
Main article: Fugitive Slave Clause
No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.
Pierce Butler and Charles Pinckney, both from South Carolina, submitted this clause to the Constitutional Convention. James Wilson of Pennsylvania objected, stating it would require that state governments enforce slavery at taxpayers' expense. Butler withdrew the clause. However, on the next day the clause was quietly reinstated and adopted by the Convention without objection. This clause was added to the clause that provided extradition for fugitives from justice.[3]
When first adopted, this clause applied to fugitive slaves and required that they be extradited upon the claims of their masters, but it provided no means for doing so. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 created the mechanism for recovering a fugitive slave, overruled any state laws giving sanctuary, made it a federal crime to assist an escaped slave, and allowed slave-catchers into every U.S. state and territory. As free states sought to undermine the federal law, the even more severe Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enacted.
In 1864, during the Civil War, an effort to repeal this clause of the Constitution failed.[4] This clause was rendered mostly moot when the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery.
Section 3: New states and federal property[edit]
Clause 1: New states[edit]
Main article: Admission to the Union
See also: List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union
New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
The First Clause of Section Three, also known as the Admissions Clause,[5] grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of the affected states and Congress. This latter provision was designed to give Eastern states that still had claims to Western lands (e.g., Virginia and North Carolina) to have a veto over whether their western counties (which eventually became Kentucky and Tennessee) could become states.[6] It would later be applied with regard to the formation of Maine (from Massachusetts) and West Virginia (from Virginia).[7]
At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, a proposal to include the phrase, "new States shall be admitted on the same terms with the original States", was defeated. It was feared that the political power of future new western states would eventually overwhelm that of the established eastern states. Once the new Constitution went into effect, however, Congress admitted Vermont and Kentucky on equal terms and thereafter formalized the condition in its acts of admission for subsequent states, declaring that the new state enters "on an equal footing with the original States in all respects whatever." Thus the Congress, utilizing the discretion allowed by the framers, adopted a policy of equal status for all newly admitted states.[6] With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.[8]
Congressional restrictions on the equality of states, even when those limitations have been found in the acts of admission, have been held void by the Supreme Court. For instance the Supreme Court struck down a provision which limited the jurisdiction of the state of Alabama over navigable waters within the state. The Court held,
Alabama is, therefore, entitled to the sovereignty and jurisdiction over all the territory within her limits ... to maintain any other doctrine, is to deny that Alabama has been admitted into the union on an equal footing with the original states ... to Alabama belong the navigable waters and soils under them.
The doctrine, however, can also be applied to the detriment of states, as occurred with Texas. Before admission to the Union, Texas, as an independent nation, controlled water within three miles of the coast, the normal limit for nations. Under the equal footing doctrine, however, Texas was found not to have control over the three-mile belt after admission into the Union, because the original states did not at the time of joining the union control such waters. Instead, by entering the Union, Texas was found to have surrendered control over the water and the soil under it to Congress. Under the Submerged Lands Act of 1953, Congress returned maritime territory to some states, but not to others; the Act was sustained by the Supreme Court.
The constitution is silent on the question of whether or not a state may unilaterally leave, or secede from, the Union. However, the Supreme Court, in Texas v. White (1869), held that a state cannot unilaterally do so.[9]
When, therefore, Texas became one of the United States, she entered into an indissoluble relation. All the obligations of perpetual union, and all the guaranties of republican government in the Union, attached at once to the State. The act which consummated her admission into the Union was something more than a compact; it was the incorporation of a new member into the political body. And it was final. The union between Texas and the other States was as complete, as perpetual, and as indissoluble as the union between the original States. There was no place for reconsideration or revocation, except through revolution or through consent of the States.[10]
Clause 2: Property Clause[edit]
The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.[11]
This clause, commonly known as the Property or Territorial Clause, grants Congress the constitutional authority for the management and control of all territories or other property owned by United States. Additionally, the clause also proclaims that nothing contained within the Constitution may be interpreted to harm (prejudice) any claim of the United States, or of any particular State. The exact scope of this clause has long been a matter of debate.
The federal government owns about twenty-eight percent of the land in the United States.[12] These holdings include national parks, national forests, recreation areas, wildlife refuges, vast tracts of range and public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management, reservations held in trust for Native American tribes, military bases, and ordinary federal buildings and installations. Although federal property can be found in every state, the largest concentrations are in the west, where, for example, the federal government owns over eighty percent of the land within Nevada.[13]
Pursuant to a parallel clause in Article One, Section Eight, the Supreme Court has held that states may not tax such federal property. In another case, Kleppe v. New Mexico, the Court ruled that the federal Wild Horse and Burro Act was a constitutional exercise of congressional power under the Property Clause – at least insofar as it was applied to a finding of trespass. The case prohibited the entering upon the public lands of the United States and removing wild burros under the New Mexico Estray Law.[14]
A major issue early in the 20th century was whether the whole Constitution applied to the territories called insular areas by Congress. In a series of opinions by the Supreme Court of the United States, referred to as the Insular Cases, the Court ruled that territories belonged to, but were not part of the United States. Therefore, under the Territorial clause Congress had the power to determine which parts of the Constitution applied to the territories. These rulings have helped shape public opinion among Puerto Ricans during the ongoing debate over the commonwealth's political status.
Section 4: Obligations of the United States[edit]
Clause 1: Republican government[edit]
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, [...]
This clause, sometimes referred to as the Guarantee Clause, has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. The Guarantee Clause mandates that all U.S. states must be grounded in republican principles such as the consent of the governed.[15] By ensuring that all states must have the same basic republican philosophy, the Guarantee Clause is one of several portions of the Constitution which mandates symmetric federalism between the states.
The Constitution does not explain what exactly constitutes a republican form of government. There are, however, several places within it where the principles behind the concept are articulated. Article Seven, the last and shortest of the Constitution's original articles, stipulated that the Constitution, before it could become established as the "Law of the Land", must obtain the consent of the people by being ratified by popular conventions within the several states. Additionally, as it required the ratification of only nine states in order to become established, rather than the unanimous consent required by the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution was more republican, as it protected the majority from effectively being ruled or held captive by the minority.[16]
The Federalist Papers also give us some insight as to the intent of the Founders. A republican form of government is distinguished from a direct democracy, which the Founding Fathers had no intentions of entering. As James Madison wrote in Federalist No. 10, "Hence it is that such democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths."
A political crisis in 1840s Rhode Island, the Dorr Rebellion, forced the Supreme Court to rule on the meaning of this clause. At the time, the Rhode Island constitution was the old royal charter established in the 17th century. By the 1840s, only 40% of the state's free white males were enfranchised. An attempt to hold a popular convention to write a new constitution was declared insurrection by the charter government, and the convention leaders were arrested. One of them brought suit in federal court, arguing that Rhode Island's government was not "republican" in character, and that his arrest (along with all of the government's other acts) was invalid. In Luther v. Borden, 48 U.S. 1 (1849), the Court held that the determination of whether a state government is a legitimate republican form as guaranteed by the Constitution is a political question to be resolved by the Congress. In effect, the court held the clause to be non-justiciable.
The Luther v. Borden ruling left the responsibility to establish guidelines for the republican nature of state governments in the hands of the Congress. This power became an important part of Reconstruction after the American Civil War. The Radical Republican majority used this clause as the basis for taking control of the ex-Confederate states and for promoting civil rights for freedmen, plus the limiting of political and voting rights for ex-Confederates, abolishing the ex-Confederate state governments, setting guidelines for the readmission of the rebellious states into the Union.
While the Supreme Court's holding in Luther v. Borden still holds today, the Court, by looking to the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (adopted 19 years after Luther v. Borden was decided), has developed new criteria for determining which questions are political in nature and which are justiciable.
Clause 2: Protection from invasion and domestic violence[edit]
[...] and [the United States] shall protect each of them [the States] against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.
Section Four requires the United States to protect each state from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was invoked by Woodrow Wilson during the 1914 Colorado coal strike.[17]
See also[edit]
Devolution
List of states and territories of the United States
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ 483 U.S. 219 (1987) ("Kentucky v. Dennison is the product of another time. The conception of the relation between the States and the Federal Government there announced is fundamentally incompatible with more than a century of constitutional development.")
Jump up ^ Hyatt v. People ex rel. Corkran, 188 U.S. 691 (1903) ("We are of opinion that, as the relator showed…he was not within the state of Tennessee at the times stated in the indictments found in the Tennessee court, nor at any time when the acts were, if ever, committed, he was not a fugitive from justice within the meaning of the Federal statute upon that subject…")
Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman, Slavery and the founders: race and liberty in the age of Jefferson, pg 82, 2nd Edition, 2001.
Jump up ^ The vote in the House was 69 for repeal and 38 against, which was short of the two-to-one vote required to amend the Constitution. See the Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess., 1325 (1864)
Jump up ^ Biber, Eric; Colby, Thomas B. "Common Interpretation: The Admissions Clause". National Constitution Center. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Forte, David F. "Essays on Article IV: New States Clause". The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. The Heritage Foundation.
Jump up ^ Michael P. Riccards, "Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 online edition
Jump up ^ "Doctrine of the Equality of States". Justia.com.
Jump up ^ "Texas v. White 74 U.S. 700 (1868)". Justia.com.
Jump up ^ Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868) at Cornell University Law School Supreme Court collection.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
Jump up ^ Vincent, Carol Hardy; et al. "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 10 April 2017. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Merrill, Thomas W. "Essays on Article IV:Property Clause". The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. The Heritage Foundation.
Jump up ^ 426 U.S. 529 (1976); 96 S.Ct. 2285; 49 L.Ed.2d 34
Jump up ^ Ernest B. Abbott; Otto J. Hetzel (2010). Homeland Security and Emergency Management: A Legal Guide for State and Local Governments. American Bar Association. p. 52.
Jump up ^ Kesler, Charles R. "Essays on Article VII: Ratification Clause". The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Woodrow (1979). Link, Arthur, ed. The Papers of Woodrow Wilson. 29. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 525–528. ISBN 9780691046594.
Further reading[edit]
Adam H. Kurland, The Guarantee Clause as a Basis for Federal Prosecutions of State and Local Officials, 62 S. Cal. L. Rev. 369 (1989).
External links[edit]
Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.
CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 4
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Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter"
Single by Herman's Hermits
from the album Herman's Hermits
B-side
"I Gotta Dream On"
Released
April 1965
Format
7", 45rpm
Recorded
De Lane Lea Studios, London, 1 December 1964
Genre
Beat, pop
Length
2:45
Label
MGM
Songwriter(s)
Trevor Peacock
Producer(s)
Mickie Most
Herman's Hermits singles chronology
"Silhouettes"
(1965) "Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter"
(1965) "Wonderful World"
(1965)
"Silhouettes"
(1965) "Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter"
(1965) "Wonderful World"
(1965)
"Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter" is a popular song written by British actor, screenwriter and songwriter Trevor Peacock.[1] It was originally sung by actor Tom Courtenay in The Lads, a British TV play of 1963, and released as a single on UK Decca.[2]
The best-known version of the song is by Herman's Hermits, who took it to number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 in May 1965, and number one in Canada the month before. The single debuted on the Hot 100 at number 12 — the third highest debut of the decade (after the Beatles' "Hey Jude" and "Get Back").[3] The Hermits never released the track — or their other US 1965 number one, "I'm Henry VIII, I Am" — as a single in their native Britain. "Mrs Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter" was recorded as an afterthought in two takes and featured unique muted lead and rhythm guitar by Derek Leckenby and Keith Hopwood and heavily accented lead vocals by Peter Noone, with backing vocals from Karl Green and Keith Hopwood. The band never dreamed it would be a single let alone hit number one in the US. According to Noone the song was well known to British bands; it would often be performed at birthday parties, substituting the surname of the girl whose party was being celebrated, i.e., "Mrs. Smith" or "Mrs. Jones" instead of "Mrs. Brown".
Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1965 album Chipmunks à Go-Go.
The song was released in Japan on Odeon Records, a subsidiary of Toshiba, as OR-1272. It was backed by the song "Wonderful World".
It was recorded by Nellie McKay for her 2015 album My Weekly Reader.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Herman's Hermits: Mrs Brown You've Got a Lovely Daughter". AllMusic. Retrieved 2016-01-22.
Jump up ^ "Tom Courtenay – Mrs. Brown You've Got A Lovely Daughter". Discogs. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
Jump up ^ ”Billboard Hot 100 Charts – The Sixties/The Seventies”, Record Research Inc, 1990
Preceded by
"Game of Love" by Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders Billboard Hot 100 number one single
1 May 1965
(three weeks) Succeeded by
"Ticket to Ride" by The Beatles
[hide]
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Herman's Hermits
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There's a Kind of Hush All Over the World
Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter
US albums
Introducing Herman's Hermits
Herman's Hermits on Tour
Hold On!
Both Sides of Herman's Hermits
There's a Kind of Hush All Over the World
Blaze
Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter
Extended plays
Hermania
Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter
Herman's Hermits Hits
A Must to Avoid
Hold On!
Dandy
The London Look
Compilation albums
The Most of Herman's Hermits
The Most of Herman's Hermits Volume 2
The Very Best of Herman's Hermits
Singles
"I'm into Something Good"
"Show Me Girl"
"Can't You Hear My Heartbeat"
"Silhouettes"
"Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter"
"Wonderful World"
"I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am"
"Just a Little Bit Better"
"A Must to Avoid"
"Listen People"
"Leaning on the Lamp Post"
"You Won't Be Leaving"
"This Door Swings Both Ways"
"Dandy"
"No Milk Today"
"There's a Kind of Hush"
"Don't Go Out into the Rain (You're Going to Melt)"
"Museum"
"I Can Take or Leave Your Loving"
"Sleepy Joe"
"Sunshine Girl"
"Something's Happening"
"My Sentimental Friend"
"Years May Come, Years May Go"
Related articles
Discography
Hold On! (1966 film)
Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter (1968 film)
Book

This 1960s pop song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Religion in the Middle East
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Three major religious groups, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, originated in the Middle East.[1] Smaller minority religions, such as the Bahá'í Faith, Druze, Nusalrism ,Manichaeism, Sabianism, Bábism, Yazidism, Mandaeism, Gnosticism, Yarsanism, Samaritanism, Shabakism, Ishikism, Ali-Illahism, Alevi Yazdanism and Zoroastrianism are also present in the Middle East.
Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East More than nine-in-ten people in the Middle East and North Africa were Muslim as of 2010 (93%), and the share of the region’s population that is Muslim is expected to be slightly higher in 2050 (94%).
according to the survey Middle East and North Africa region’s Muslim population is expected to grow by 74% from 2010 to 2050, from 317 million to 552 million. 62 Christians and Jews are projected to remain the second- and third-largest religious groups in the region, respectively, with more modest population gains of 43% and 46%.
The smaller, religiously unaffiliated population is forecast to grow 56%, from about 2 million to more than 3 million. Hindus, adherents of folk religions and Buddhists are expected to experience the greatest growth as a percentage of their modest 2010 counts, with each group more than doubling in size by 2050.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bahá'í Faith
2 Christianity
2.1 Copts
2.2 Maronites
2.3 Syriacs and Assyrians
2.4 Armenians
2.5 Other Christian groups
3 Druze faith
4 Ishikism
5 Islam
5.1 Sunnism
5.2 Twelver Shia
5.3 Zaydi
5.4 Alawites
5.5 Alevism
6 Judaism
7 Mandaeism
8 Samaritanism
9 Shabakism
10 Yazīdī
11 Zoroastrianism
12 Unbelief
13 Other religions
14 Countries
14.1 Egypt
14.2 Iran
14.3 Iraq
14.4 Israel
14.5 Jordan
14.6 Lebanon
14.7 Saudi Arabia
14.8 Syria
14.9 Turkey
14.10 Yemen
15 References
Bahá'í Faith[edit]
The Bahá'í Faith has noteworthy representation in Iran, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Palestine, Israel and Turkey. Its international headquarters are located on the northern slope of Mount Carmel at Haifa, Israel. Founded in Iran in 1863,[2] the Bahá'í Faith is one of the youngest world major religions.[2] According to most encyclopedias, in the early 21st century there are an estimated 6 to 8 million Bahá'ís across the globe.
Christianity[edit]
See also: Christianity in the Middle East
Christianity originated in the region in the 1st century AD, and was one of the major religions of the region until the Muslim conquests of the mid-to-late 7th century AD. Christianity in the Middle East is characterized with its diverse beliefs and traditions compared to other parts of the old world.
Christians now make up 5% of the population, down from 20% in the early 20th century.[3] The number of Middle Eastern Christians is dropping due to such factors as forced acceptance of Islam, low birth rates compared with Muslims, extensive emigration (usually to escape religious persecution), and the religious persecution itself. In addition, political turmoil has been and continues to be a major contributor pressing indigenous Near Eastern Christians of various ethnicities towards seeking security and stability outside their homelands. Christian Palestinians face the same oppression as their Muslim compatriots.[4] Recent spread of Jihadist and Salafist ideology, foreign to the tolerant values of the local communities in Greater Syria and Egypt has also played a role in unsettling Christians' decades-long peaceful existence.[5] It is estimated that at the present rate, the Middle East's 12 million Christians will likely drop to 6 million by the year 2020.[6]
Copts[edit]
The largest Christian group in the Middle East is the originally Coptic-speaking, but now Arabic-speaking (due to a forced language change) Coptic Orthodox Christian population. This Egyptian ethnoreligious community of Copts, is cited by the census as consisting of 6–11 million people,[7] although Coptic sources cite the figure as being closer to 12–16 million.[8][9] Copts reside in mainly Egypt, but also in Sudan and Libya, with tiny communities in Israel, Cyprus and Jordan.
Maronites[edit]
Arabic-speaking Lebanese Maronites number some 1.1–1.2 million across the Middle East, and often avoid an Arabic identity in favour of a pre-Arab Phoenician-Canaanite heritage.
Syriacs and Assyrians[edit]
Syriac Christians of various non-Arab ethnoreligious heritages number roughly 2 to 3 million. The indigenous Eastern Aramaic speaking Assyrians of Iraq, south eastern Turkey, north western Iran and north eastern Syria have suffered both ethnic and religious persecution over the last few centuries such as the Assyrian Genocide, leading to many fleeing to the west or congregating in areas in the north of Iraq and Syria. In Iraq numbers of indigenous Assyrians has declined to somewhere between 500,000 and 800,000 (from 0.8–1.4 million before 2003 US invasion) or 6% of the population of 23 million.[10]
Currently, the largest community of Syriac Christians in the Middle East resides in Syria, numbering 877,000–1,139,000. These are a mix of Neo-Aramaic speaking Assyrians and largely Arabic-speaking Christians (originally speakers of the almost extinct Western Aramaic language) who ethnically identify as Syriacs.
Armenians[edit]
In the Middle Eastern states, there is a large community of Armenians. The Armenians in the Middle East number around 350,000-400,000[11] and are mostly concentrated in Iran, Lebanon, Cyprus, Syria, Jordan, and Palestine, although well-established communities exist in Iraq, Egypt, Turkey, and other countries of the area. Some other sources claim that the Armenians number around half a million, with their largest community in Iran with 200,000 - 300,000 members.[12] The number of Armenians in Turkey is disputed having a wide range of estimations. More Armenian communities reside in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and to lesser degree in other Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Israel. The Armenian Genocide during and after World War I drastically reduced the once sizeable Armenian population.
Other Christian groups[edit]
In the Persian Gulf states, Bahrain has 1,000 Christian citizens[13] and Kuwait has 400 native Christian citizens,[14] in addition to 450,000 Christian foreign residents in Kuwait.[15] Arab Christians, and those who tend to identify as Arabs, are mostly adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church. In 2010 they numbered 1.1 million in Syria, 250,000 in Lebanon, 250-300,000 in Jordan, 150,000 in Israel and Palestine and smaller numbers in Iraq. Protestant converts number around 400,000. Melkite Christians who are ethnically Arab Catholic Christians of the Greek Rite compose almost 600,000. Syrian Orthodox number about 1 million in Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon, with the great majority being in Syria.
The ethnic Greeks, who had once inhabited large parts of the western Middle East and Asia Minor, have declined since the Arab conquests and recently severely reduced in Turkey, as a result of the Asia Minor Catastrophe, which followed World War I. Today the biggest Middle Eastern Greek community resides in Cyprus numbering around 793,000 (2008).[16] Cypriot Greeks constitute the only Christian majority state in the Middle East, although Lebanon was founded with a Christian majority in the first half of the 20th century.
Smaller Christian groups include; Georgians, Messianic Jews, Russians and others, such as Kurdish, Turcoman, Iranian, Shabak, Azeri, Circassian and Arab converts exist in small numbers. There are currently several million Christian foreign workers in the Gulf area, mostly from the Philippines, India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. Middle Eastern Christians are relatively wealthy, well educated, and politically moderate,[17] as they have today an active role in various social, economical, sporting and political aspects in the Middle East.
Druze faith[edit]
Druze, or Druse, is a monotheistic religion found in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. Representation ranges from 100,000 in Israel, to 700,000 in Syria. Developing from Isma'ilite teachings, Druze incorporates Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic and Iranian elements.[18]
Ishikism[edit]
Ishikism (also known as Chinarism or Ishik Alevism), a religious movement within Alevism that rejects its Islamic roots, is found in Turkey. Ishikīs consider themselves to be esotericists, claiming that Alevism is esotericism itself, meaning that they identify themselves with every type of esotericism in history. They claim that Alevism is the oldest religion in the world, that has changed shapes throughout time. This "First and True Religion" of the world, is claimed by Ishikís to have been a main source for all other religions and beliefs in the world.
Islam[edit]
Islam is the most widely followed religion in the Middle East. About 20% of the world's Muslims live in the Middle East.[19] Islam is monotheistic believing in Allah and follows the teaching of the written sacred text, the Qur'an.[19] Islam is believed to be an extension of Judaism and Christianity with the belief that Muhammad is the final prophet of God, in a long chain of prophets, from Adam on down to John the Baptist, Jesus, and finally Muhammad. The majority of the Muslims are Sunni, followed by Shi'a. Smaller sects include the Ahmadiyya.[20]
A major source of conflict in the Muslim Middle East is the divisive nature between the two main sects of Islam: Sunni and Shi'a. Though these two sects agree on the fundamentals of Islam and the teachings of the Qur'an, they are in conflict about who would lead the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad's death.[21] The Battle of Siffin was a significant schism between the two sects. Throughout the years, other differences have arisen between practices, beliefs and culture. Many conflicts between the two communities have occurred.
Sunnism[edit]
Sunni is the largest branch of Islam and dominates most countries in the Middle East.
Twelver Shia[edit]
Further information: Shia
Although there are many Shia subsects, modern Shia Islam has been divided into three main groupings: Twelvers, Ismailis and Zaidis, with Twelver Shia being the largest and most influential group among Shia, making up perhaps 88 percent of Shias.[22][23][24][25] Twelver Shia have their largest populations in the Middle East in Iraq (55–65%), Iran (85–90%) and Bahrain (60-70%).
Zaydi[edit]
Further information: Zaidiyyah
Zaydi make up about 35-40% of the population of Yemen.[26] They emerged in the eighth century out of Shi'a Islam.[27] Zaidis are named after Zayd ibn ʻAlī, the grandson of Husayn ibn ʻAlī who they recognize as the fifth Imam.[27] Followers of the Zaydi Islamic jurisprudence are called Zaydi Shi'a and make up about 35-40% of Muslims in Yemen.[26] Unlike many other Shia, Zaidis dismiss religious dissimulation (taqiyya).[27]
Alawites[edit]
Further information: Alawites
Alawis, also rendered as Alawites, Alawīyyah or Nusạyriyya, are a syncretic sect of the Twelver branch of Shia Islam, primarily centered in Syria. The eponymously named Alawites revere Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib), considered the 1st Imam of the Twelver school. However, they are generally considered to be Ghulat by most other sects of Shia Islam. The sect is believed to have been founded by Ibn Nusayr during the 9th century, and fully established as a religion For this reason, Alawites are sometimes called Nusayris (Arabic: نصيرية Nuṣayrīyyah), though the term has come to be used as a pejorative in the modern era. Another name, "Ansari" (Arabic: انصارية Anṣāriyyah), is believed to be a mistransliteration of "Nusayri". Today, Alawites represent 11 percent of the Syrian population and are a significant minority in Turkey and northern Lebanon. There is also a population living in the village of Ghajar in the Golan Heights. They are often confused with the Alevis of Turkey. Alawites form the dominant religious group on the Syrian coast and towns near the coast which are also inhabited by Sunnis, Christians, and Ismailis.
Alawites have historically kept their beliefs secret from outsiders and non-initiated Alawites.[28][29] At the core of Alawite belief is a divine triad, comprising three aspects of the one God.
Alawites have traditionally lived in the An-Nusayriyah Mountains along the Mediterranean coast of Syria. Latakia and Tartus are the region's principal cities. They are also concentrated in the plains around Hama and Homs. Alawites also live in Syria's major cities, and are estimated at about 12 percent of the country's population[30][31][32] (2.6 million, out of a total population of 22 million).[33]
Alevism[edit]
Further information: Alevism
Alevism is a small syncretic,[34] heterodox[35] form of Islam, following Shia, Sufi, Sunni and local traditions,[36] whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī)[37][37] teachings of Ali, the Twelve Imams, and a descendant—the 13th century Alevi saint Haji Bektash Veli. There are between 10-25 million Alevi and they are found primarily in Turkey among ethnic Turks and Kurds,[38] and make up between 10-25% of Turkey's population, the largest branches of Islam there after the majority Sunni.[36][39]
Some of the differences that mark Alevis from mainstream Muslims are the use of cemevi halls rather than mosques; worship ceremonies that feature wine, music and dancing, and where both women and men participate;[40] non-observance of the five daily salat prayers and prostrations (they only bow twice in the presence of their spiritual leader), Ramadan, and the Hajj (considering true pilgrimage to be internal one).[36] Alevis have some links with Twelver Shia Islam (such as importance of the Ahl al-Bayt, the day of Ashura, the Mourning of Muharram, commemorating Karbala), but do not follow taqlid towards a Marja' "source of emulation". Some practices of the Alevis are based on Sufi elements of the Bektashi[35] tariqa.[41][42]
Judaism[edit]
For over 2,000 years a large portion of world Jewry lived the Muslim world. They are colloquially knows as Mizrahi Jews. They include descendants of Babylonian Jews and Mountain Jews from modern Iraq, Morocco, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Syria, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Uzbekistan, the Caucasus, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and Yemen. Since the 1950s because of growing antisemitism most of these Jews fled to Israel where they make up the majority of Israel's Jewish population and roughly a third of total world Jewry. While they no longer live among a Muslim majority, they continue to follow many customs with strong Muslim and Middle Eastern influences making them distinct from European Jewry. Today Judaism in the Middle East is mostly practiced in Israel. Israel’s population is 75.3% Jewish, with the remainder made up of Muslims (20.6%), Christians, Druze, Bahá'í and various other minorities (4.1%).[43] There are few other countries in the Middle East with significant Jewish populations, but the communities are small and scattered.
Mandaeism[edit]
There are between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide[44] and in the Middle East they are found in Iraq and Iran.[45] They revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh and Noah. Mandaeans are an ethnoreligious community, which doesn't allow conversion.
Samaritanism[edit]
Samaritanism is a closely affiliated religion with Judaism, practiced by the ethnoreligious Samaritan community, largely residing in Israel. In the past, Samaritans used to populate also Egypt and Syria, but their community had almost collapsed by the late 19th century due to religious persecution by radical Islamists. Today the Samaritan community has grown to about 800 persons from as few as 150 in the early 20th century.
Shabakism[edit]
There are about 60,000 Shabak people living today all in northern Iraq.[46] They are an ethnic group with a religion similar to orthodox Islam and Christianity. The Shabak have much in common with the Yazidis.
Yazīdī[edit]
Yazidis ( Yezīdī, Azīdī, Zedī, or Izdī ) are found in Iraq, Syria, and Iran.[47] It is a fusion of Zoroastrian, Manichaean, Jewish, Nestorian Christian and Islamic elements.[47] They do not see themselves as descendent from Adam and maintain complete segregation from the rest of the population (5). They number between 200,000 to one million world-wide and worship a main divinity called Yazīdī is Malak Ṭāʾūs (“Peacock Angel”).[47] Most live in Iraq but also 70,000 in Syria.
Zoroastrianism[edit]
In the Middle East, Zoroastrianism is found in central Iran.[48] Today, there are estimated to be under 20,000 Zoroastrians in Iran.[49] It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions as it was founded 3500 years ago.[48] It was also one of the most powerful religions in the world for about 1000 years.[48] Now, however, it is considered one of the smallest religions with only 190,000 followers worldwide.[48] There are two deities: Azhura Mazda, who fights for a person’s goodness, and Ahriman, who fights for a person’s evil.[50] It is ultimately up to the individual to decide which deity they will follow. Zoroastreans follow the Avesta which is their primary sacred text.[50]
Unbelief[edit]
According to a 2012 WIN-Gallup International ‘Religiosity and Atheism Index’, atheists are a small minority in the Middle East with only 2% of those surveyed in the Arab World identifying themselves as "committed atheists".[51] Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah, the branch of the Egyptian government that issues fatawa (religious edicts), gives lower (if less reliable) numbers, stating that there are 866 atheists in Egypt – "roughly 0.001% of the population"—325 in Morocco, and 32 in Yemen (defined as not only unbelievers, but secularists and "Muslims who convert to other religions").[52]
Some countries (Iraq, Tunisia) surveyed had 0% of respondents identifying as atheists.[53] Other countries indicated low percentages (Palestinian Territories 4%, Turkey, Uzbekistan 2%). However 18% of those surveyed in the Arab world identified themselves as "not a religious person" (Iraq 9%, Saudi Arabia 19%, West Bank and Gaza 29%, Tunisia 22%),[54] a higher percentage than in Africa, Latin America, or South Asia.[51]
According to unbelievers in the Arab world their numbers are growing but they suffer from persecution.[55][56] Author and historian Faisal Devji notes that despite the fact that Saudi Arabia punishes unbelief with death, 5% of those surveyed identified themselves as atheists (a slightly higher percent than did in the United States) and 19 percent did not consider themselves religious.[55] Devji states there is "a new movement of atheists in countries such as Saudi Arabia ... which takes the form of secret societies", meeting "in internet chat rooms and unnamed physical locations, like the mystics of old".[55]
In Egypt, Al Jazeera reported a clandestine atheist group of over 100 in Alexandria in 2013.[56] The group complained of mistreatment of atheists by society and government. A Pew survey found 63% of Egyptian Muslims favored the death penalty for those who leave the religion of Islam. The Egyptian penal code punishes "contempt of heavenly religions", and as of 2013 Egyptians had been arrested and/or imprisoned for activities such as setting up a Facebook page calling for atheism, writing a book entitled Where is God?, and "defamation of religion".[56]
Other religions[edit]
Main articles: Hinduism in Arab states and Buddhism in the Middle East
There are many Hindus in Arab states, many due to the migration of Indians to the oil-rich states around the Persian Gulf. Hindu temples have been built in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Yemen and Oman.
Though Buddhism has had a presence in the Middle East for over 1000 years, it has recently[when?] experienced a revival with an estimated 900,000 people (perhaps more) who profess Buddhism as their religion. Buddhist adherents make up just over 0.3% of the total population of the Middle East. Many of these Buddhists are workers who have migrated from other parts of Asia to the Middle East in the last 20 years,[when?] many from countries and regions that have large Buddhist populations, such as China, Vietnam, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. A small number of engineers, company directors, and managers from Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea have also moved to the Middle East.
Sikhism, the fifth-largest organized religion in the world after Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, having over 25 million Sikhs worldwide, has a small presence in the Middle East too, mainly in the U.A.E, Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iran. Most of them are Punjabi-speaking Indian expatriates.[57]
Countries[edit]
Egypt[edit]
Religion in Egypt consists of Islam (mostly Sunni Muslim) 90%, Coptic Christians 9% and Other Christians 1%.[58] As Egypt has modernized with new forms of media and the Egyptian press was liberalized in the 2000s, Coptic Christianity has become a main topic of religious controversy.[59] There is much tension between the Muslims and Copts of Egypt as Copts argue for more representation in government and less legal and administrative discrimination; they also feel underprotected from religious hate-crimes . With this greater freedom of press, the Coptic issue has just begun to break into public awareness, but also due to rises in extremism in both communities, media may also be exacerbating the sectarian tension by only publicizing examples of prejudice.[59]
Another current religious tension in Egypt is the role of the Muslim Brotherhood, founded by Hassan al-Banna in Egypt. Many countries have now developed their own branches. Many are violent and most Arab governments actively try to restrain the group by arresting and killing members. Currently, as the new government of Egypt is trying to establish itself, many are concerned that a member of the Muslim Brotherhood will again step in and claim leadership. For the current candidates for presidency, more than one is likely to be affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood.
The Brotherhood is however unpopular among the majority of Egyptians on account of its fundamentalist views, its clampdown on tourism and its desire to impose Sharia law on the nation.
Iran[edit]
Religion in Iran is made up of 98% Islam (Shi'a 89%, Sunni 9%) and 2% Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, and Baha'i.[58] There was much religious oppression and executions of members of the Bah’ai faith. Religious minorities are now beginning to hold a larger presence and significance in Iran and are being acknowledged as such.
The Islamic Revolution replaced an old world monarchy with a theocracy based on the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist (Velayat-e Faqih) where a Shia cleric (faqih) is the ruler, though there are also competitive elections of candidates approved by another clerical body.[60] This is a mix of republicanism and religion where that would use religion to rule for elective and democratic institutions; it was to be a blend of liberalism and religious injunctions (abs). Islam would be protected under this Islamic Republic and unelected positions like the Supreme Leader and the Guardian Council would have unlimited power over the nation. With the nuclear program developing in Iran and much conflict after September 22, 2001, Iran and the Islamic Republic are at a crossroads.[60]
Iraq[edit]
Religion in Iraq is represented by 97% Islam (Shiite 60%–65%, Sunni 32%–37%), and 3% Christian or other.[58] Because of this large majority of Shia over Sunni Muslim, there is much tension between the two groups.
Israel[edit]
Religion in Israel is represented by the following religious make-up: Judaism 77%, Islam 16%, Christian 2%, Druze 2% (2003).[58] As of 2013, the Israeli "Government - Christians Forum" was formed under the umbrella of the Ministry of Public Security, by Dr. Mordehcai Zaken, head of the Minorities Affairs Desk, to address and promote the concerns of Christian leaders and representative in their interactions with the State. Israel represents the religious Holy Land for Jews, Christians, Muslims and Baha'is. All religions are present in Israel and lay personal claim to the land. Due to the significant Israeli/Palestinian conflict, tensions are high in the religious community. The majority of displaced and upset Palestinians are Muslim and the majority of current Israeli citizens are Jewish so establishing the state borders is highly influenced by religion.
One of the main difficulties in establishing peace between the two countries is because of Jerusalem. Each of the three main religions is incredibly attached to this city and claim it as their own. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether Palestinian Territories or Israel will encompass this region. Maps produced within the territories actually represent Jerusalem differently. Palestinian maps draw Jerusalem as divided and Israeli maps show it as a part of Israeli territory.[61]
Jordan[edit]
Religion in Jordan is represented by 92% Muslim (Sunni), 6% Christian (mostly Greek Orthodox), and 2% other.[58]
Lebanon[edit]
Saint George Maronite Cathedral and the Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque, Beirut. 41% in Lebanon are Christians representing the mosaic of the Middle East, and contributing heavily in the Media, Politics, Entertainment, Banking... sectors in Lebanon and the World.
Religion in Lebanon is the most unique[clarification needed] in the Middle East, and a mix of religions make up Lebanon, represented by 59% Muslim (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite/Nusayri), 41% Christian (Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Melkite, Protestant, and Christian churches non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Apostolic Church, Armenian Catholic Church, Armenian Evangelical Church, Roman Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria).Lebanon has a confessional political system in which, regardless of political parties, the President is always Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’ite Muslim, and the Deputy Prime Minister Greek Orthodox Christian. Also, the Army General has to be Christian and the Bank Governor has to be always Christian as well.[citation needed] In addition, 50% of the Parliament is represented by Christian Members, according to the law in Lebanon since the end of the war until today. This is the foundation of uniqueness of Lebanon and the source of much of its conflicts; and while changes have been made to attempt to make parliamentary representation more even, many are still urging for reform and change.[62] Some would like the confessionalist government to be abolished.[62]
Saudi Arabia[edit]
Religion in Saudi Arabia is allegedly 100% Muslim.[58] It is illegal to practice any other religion than Islam in Saudi Arabia. There is still tension, however, between the Sunnis and the Shiias. Shiite Islamist revolution has never been a huge threat to the Saudi Arabian government, though, because it is such a small population.[63] Sunni Islamists, though, present a larger threat to the government because of their large Saudi Arabian population. These Sunni groups often dissent through violence targeted at government, Western or non-Muslims that threat the Muslim nation, Shiites, and sometimes generally directed against moral corruption.[63]
Syria[edit]
Religion in Syria is represented by 70% Islam (Sunni), 12% Alawite, 5% Druze, and other Islamic sects, 10% Christian (various sects), and there is some Jewish representation (tiny communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo).[58]
Turkey[edit]
Religion in Turkey is represented by 99.8% Muslim (mostly Sunni and approximately 20% are Alevi), and 0.2% other (mostly Christians and Jews).[58] Originally a militarily secularized government, under the relatively new president Erdogan, religious freedom for Muslims has become much more accessible in Turkey. There has been a growing religious resurgence in Turkey and more and more citizens find significance in their religious identities. The previous laws disallowing the Hijab, religious headscarf, in schools and public places has been a huge source of contention. Now, it is a matter of civil rights in courts. The case of Sahin 2004 was one that really exemplified the tension between religious secularism, civil rights and the government’s power in Turkey.[64] The case revolved around a student at university being allowed to wear the Hijab in class.[64] Religious education is also a topic of debate in Turkey. Before 1980, private religious education was banned and then it was changed to be required. As it is currently being reevaluted, the question is whether religious education should be banned again, optional or if it should be obligatory and plural.
Yemen[edit]
Religion in Yemen is represented by a majority Islam (including Sunni and Shiite), small numbers of Jewish, Baha'i, Christian, and Hindu.[58]
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