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Biological life cycle
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Life cycle of a mosquito. An adult (imago) lays eggs which develop through several stages to adulthood. Reproduction completes and perpetuates the cycle.
Life cycle of the single-celled parasite Babesia.
In biology, a biological life cycle (or just life cycle when the biological context is clear) is a series of changes in form that an organism undergoes, returning to the starting state. "The concept is closely related to those of the life history, development and ontogeny, but differs from them in stressing renewal."[1] Transitions of form may involve growth, asexual reproduction, or sexual reproduction.
In some organisms, different "generations" of the species succeed each other during the life cycle. For plants and many algae, there are two multicellular stages, and the life cycle is referred to as alternation of generations. The term life history is often used, particularly for organisms such as the red algae which have three multicellular stages (or more), rather than two.[2]
Life cycles that include sexual reproduction involve alternating haploid (n) and diploid (2n) stages, i.e., a change of ploidy is involved. To return from a diploid stage to a haploid stage, meiosis must occur. In regard to changes of ploidy, there are 3 types of cycles:
haplontic life cycle — the haploid stage is multicellular and the diploid stage is a single cell, meiosis is "zygotic".
diplontic life cycle — the diploid stage is multicellular and haploid gametes are formed, meiosis is "gametic".
haplodiplontic life cycle (also referred to as diplohaplontic, diplobiontic, or dibiontic life cycle) — multicellular diploid and haploid stages occur, meiosis is "sporic".
The cycles differ in when mitosis (growth) occurs. Zygotic meiosis and gametic meiosis have one mitotic stage: mitosis occurs during the n phase in zygotic meiosis and during the 2n phase in gametic meiosis. Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively termed haplobiontic (single mitotic phase, not to be confused with haplontic). Sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has mitosis in two stages, both the diploid and haploid stages, termed diplobiontic (not to be confused with diplontic).
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Haplontic life cycle
3 Diplontic life cycle
4 Haplodiplontic life cycle
5 Vegetative meiosis
6 Evolution
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Discovery[edit]
The study of reproduction and development in organisms was carried out by many botanists and zoologists.
Wilhelm Hofmeister demonstrated that alternation of generations is a feature that unites plants, and published this result in 1851 (see plant sexuality).
Some terms (haplobiont and diplobiont) used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms.[3][4] Other terms (autogamy and gamontogamy) used in protist life cycles were introduced by Karl Gottlieb Grell.[5] The description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation in the 1840s and 1850s.[6]
Haplontic life cycle[edit]
Zygotic meiosis
A zygotic meiosis is a meiosis of a zygote immediately after karyogamy, which is the fusion of two cell nuclei. This way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces several haploid cells. These cells divide mitotically to form either larger, multicellular individuals, or more haploid cells. Two opposite types of gametes (e.g., male and female) from these individuals or cells fuse to become a zygote.
In the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell; mitosis occurs only in the haploid phase.
The individuals or cells as a result of mitosis are haplonts, hence this life cycle is also called haplontic life cycle. Haplonts are:
In archaeplastidans: some green algae (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Zygnema, Chara)[7]
In stramenopiles: some golden algae[7]
In alveolates: many dinoflagellates eg.Ceratium, Gymnodinium, some apicomplexans (e.g., Plasmodium)[8]
In rhizarians: some euglyphids,[9] ascetosporeans
In excavates: some parabasalids[10]
In amoebozoans: Dictyostelium[7]
In opisthokonts: most fungi (some chytrids, zygomycetes, some ascomycetes, basidiomycetes)[7][11]
Diplontic life cycle[edit]
Gametic meiosis
In gametic meiosis, instead of immediately dividing meiotically to produce haploid cells, the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid individual or a group of more unicellular diploid cells. Cells from the diploid individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells or gametes. Haploid cells may divide again (by mitosis) to form more haploid cells, as in many yeasts, but the haploid phase is not the predominant life cycle phase. In most diplonts, mitosis occurs only in the diploid phase, i.e. gametes usually form quickly and fuse to produce diploid zygotes.
In the whole cycle, gametes are usually the only haploid cells, and mitosis usually occurs only in the diploid phase.
The diploid multicellular individual is a diplont, hence a gametic meiosis is also called a diplontic life cycle. Diplonts are:
In archaeplastidans: some green algae (e.g., Cladophora glomerata,[12] Acetabularia[7])
In stramenopiles: some brown algae (the Fucales, however, their life cycle can also be interpreted as strongly heteromorphic-diplohaplontic, with a highly reduced gametophyte phase, as in the flowering plants),[13] some xanthophytes (e.g., Vaucheria),[14] most diatoms,[10] some oomycetes (e.g., Saprolegnia, Plasmopara viticola),[7] opalines,[10] some "heliozoans" (e.g., Actinophrys, Actinosphaerium)[10][15]
In alveolates: ciliates [10]
In excavates: some parabasalids [10]
In opisthokonts: animals, some fungi (e.g., some ascomycetes)[7]
Haplodiplontic life cycle[edit]
Sporic meiosis
Main article: Alternation of generations
In sporic meiosis (also commonly known as intermediary meiosis), the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte creates spores via meiosis which also then divide mitotically producing haploid individuals called gametophytes. The gametophytes produce gametes via mitosis. In some plants the gametophyte is not only small-sized but also short-lived; in other plants and many algae, the gametophyte is the "dominant" stage of the life cycle.
Haplodiplonts are:
In archaeplastidans: red algae (which have two sporophyte generations), some green algae (e.g., Ulva), land plants[7]
In stramenopiles: most brown algae[7]
In rhizarians: many foraminiferans,[10] plasmodiophoromycetes[7]
In amoebozoa: myxogastrids
In opisthokonts: some fungi (some chytrids, some ascomycetes like the brewer's yeast)[7]
Other eukaryotes: haptophytes[10]
Some animals have a sex-determination system called haplodiploid, but this is not related to the haplodiplontic life cycle.
Vegetative meiosis[edit]
Some red algae (such as Bonnemaisonia[16] and Lemanea) and green algae (such as Prasiola) have vegetative meiosis, also called somatic meiosis, which is a rare phenomenon.[17] Vegetative meiosis can occur in haplodiplontic and also in diplontic life cycles. The gametophytes remain attached to and part of the sporophyte. Vegetative (non-reproductive) diploid cells undergo meiosis, generating vegetative haploid cells. These undergo many mitosis, and produces gametes.
A different phenomenon, called vegetative diploidization, a type of apomixis, occurs in some brown algae (e.g., Elachista stellaris).[18] Cells in a haploid part of the plant spontaneously duplicate their chromosomes to produce diploid tissue.
Evolution[edit]
The primitive type of life cycle probably had haploid individuals with asexual reproduction.[10] Bacteria and archaea exhibit a life cycle like this, and some eukaryotes apparently do too (e.g., Cryptophyta, Choanoflagellata, many Euglenozoa, many Amoebozoa, some red algae, some green algae, the imperfect fungi, some rotifers and many other groups, not necessarily haploid).[19] However, these eukaryotes probably are not primitively asexual, but have lost their sexual reproduction, or it just was not observed yet.[20][21] Many eukaryotes (including animals and plants) exhibit asexual reproduction, which may be facultative or obligate in the life cycle, with sexual reproduction occurring more or less frequently.[22]
See also[edit]
Biology portal
Alternation of generations
Apomixis
Eel life history
Haplodiploidy
Monocarpic, plants bloom once and then die
Parasexual cycle
Parasitic life cycles
Parthenogenesis
Reproductive biology
Brachymeiosis
Mitotic recombination
Dikaryon
Heterokaryon
Fertilisation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Graham Bell & Vassiliki Koufopanou (1991). "The architecture of the life cycle in small organisms". Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 332 (1262): 81–89. doi:10.1098/rstb.1991.0035.
Jump up ^ Dixon, P.S. 1973. Biology of the Rhodophyta. Oliver & Boyd. ISBN 0 05 002485 X
Jump up ^ C. Skottsberg (1961), "Nils Eberhard Svedelius. 1873-1960", Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 7: 294–312, doi:10.1098/rsbm.1961.0023
Jump up ^ Svedelius, N. 1931. Nuclear Phases and Alternation in the Rhodophyceae. In: Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt. Band 48/1: 38-59.
Jump up ^ L. Margulis (1996), "Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life", PNAS, 93 (3): 1071–1076, doi:10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071
Jump up ^ Moselio Schaechter (2009). Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Academic Press. Volume 4, p. 85.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Díaz González, T.E., C. Fernandez-Carvajal Alvarez & J.A. Fernández Prieto. (2004). Curso de Botánica. Gijón: Trea. Online material: Botánica: Ciclos biológicos de vegetales (Vegetal life cycles, in Spanish). Departamento de Biología de Organismos y Sistemas, Universidad de Oviedo.
Jump up ^ Sinden, R. E.; Hartley, R. H. (1985). "Identification of the meiotic division of malarial parasites". The Journal of protozoology. 32 (4): 742–744. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1985.tb03113.x. PMID 3906103.
Jump up ^ Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E (July 2011). "The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms". Proc. Biol. Sci. 278 (1715): 2083–6. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289. PMC 3107637  . PMID 21429931.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Ruppert, E. E., Fox, R. S., & Barnes, R. D. (2004). Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach. Belmont, CA: Thomas-Brooks/Cole, p.26.
Jump up ^ van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). Algae: an introduction to phycology, p. 15, [1]. Cambridge University Press (623 pp).
Jump up ^ O. P. Sharma. Textbook of Algae, p. 189
Jump up ^ van den Hoek, C. et al. (1995), p. 207, [2].
Jump up ^ van den Hoek, C. et al. (1995), pp. 124, 129.
Jump up ^ Bell, G. (1989). Sex and Death in Protozoa. Cambridge University Press, p. 11, [3].
Jump up ^ Salvador Soler, Noemi; Gomez Garreta, Amelia; Antonia Ribera Siguan, M. (1 August 2009). "Somatic meiosis in the life history of Bonnemaisonia asparagoides and Bonnemaisonia clavata (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta) from the Iberian peninsula". European Journal of Phycology. 44 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1080/09670260902780782 – via IngentaConnect.
Jump up ^ van den Hoek, C. et al. (1995), pp. 82, 453.
Jump up ^ Lewis, R.J. (1996). "Chromosomes of the brown algae". Phycologia. 35 (1): 19–40. doi:10.2216/i0031-8884-35-1-19.1.
Jump up ^ Heywood, P.; Magee, P.T. (1976). "Meiosis in protists. Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa". Bacteriological Reviews. 40 (1): 190–240.
Jump up ^ Shehre-Banoo Malik; Arthur W. Pightling; Lauren M. Stefaniak; Andrew M. Schurko & John M. Logsdon, Jr (2008). "An Expanded Inventory of Conserved Meiotic Genes Provides Evidence for Sex in Trichomonas vaginalis". PLoS ONE. 3 (8): e2879. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002879. PMC 2488364  . PMID 18663385.
Jump up ^ Speijer, D.; Lukeš, J.; Eliáš, M. (2015). "Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life". PNAS. 112 (29): 8827–8834. doi:10.1073/pnas.1501725112.
Jump up ^ Schön, I.; Martens, K.; van Dijk, P. (2009). Lost Sex: The Evolutionary Biology of Parthenogenesis. Springer. ISBN 9789048127702.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Life cycles.
Silk worm Life cycle photos[permanent dead link]
Life Cycles: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist. John Tyler Bonner. Princeton University Press, Princeton (New Jersey).
Valero, M (1992). "Evolution of alternation of haploid and diploid phases in life cycles". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 7 (1): 25–29. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(92)90195-h.
Mable, B.; Otto, S. (1998). "The evolution of life cycles with haploid and diploid phase" (PDF). BioEssays. 20: 453–462. doi:10.1002/(sici)1521-1878(199806)20:6<453::aid-bies3>3.0.co;2-n.
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text:
TNT equivalent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Kiloton" redirects here. For the similarly named weight measurements, see Tonne.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Diagram of explosive yield vs mushroom cloud height, illustrating the difference between 22 kiloton Fat Man and 15 megaton Castle Bravo explosions[citation needed]
TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The "ton of TNT" is a unit of energy defined by that convention to be 4.184 gigajoules,[1] which is the approximate energy released in the detonation of a metric ton (1,000 kilograms or one megagram) of TNT. In other words, for each gram of TNT exploded, 4,184 joules of energy are released.
This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of traditional explosive materials, of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such as dynamite contain more energy.
Contents
[hide]
1 Kiloton and megaton
2 Historical derivation of the value
3 Conversion to other units
4 Examples
5 Relative effectiveness factor
5.1 RE factor examples
5.2 Nuclear examples
6 See also
7 References
Kiloton and megaton[edit]
The "kiloton (of TNT)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules.
The "megaton (of TNT)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules.
The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a nuclear weapon. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has been used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact.[2]
Historical derivation of the value[edit]
A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J (joules) upon explosion.[3] The energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J,[4] which is exactly one kilocalorie.
An explosive's energy is normally expressed as the thermodynamic work produced by its detonation, which for TNT has been accurately measured as 4686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4853 J/g.[5]
The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J,[6][clarification needed] but this is not the important value for explosive blast effect calculations.
Alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared.[7][8][9][10]
A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT 8.46 metres (27.8 ft) on a side.
Grams TNT
Symbol
Tons TNT
Symbol
Energy [Joules]
Energy [Wh]
Corresponding mass loss
gram of TNT g microton of TNT μt 4.184×103 J or 4.184 kilojoules 1.163 Wh 46.55 pg
kilogram of TNT kg milliton of TNT mt 4.184×106 J or 4.184 megajoules 1.163 kWh 46.55 ng
megagram of TNT Mg ton of TNT t 4.184×109 J or 4.184 gigajoules 1.163 MWh 46.55 μg
gigagram of TNT Gg kiloton of TNT kt 4.184×1012 J or 4.184 terajoules 1.163 GWh 46.55 mg
teragram of TNT Tg megaton of TNT Mt 4.184×1015 J or 4.184 petajoules 1.163 TWh 46.55 g
petagram of TNT Pg gigaton of TNT Gt 4.184×1018 J or 4.184 exajoules 1.163 PWh 46.55 kg
Conversion to other units[edit]
1 ton TNT equivalent is approximately:
1.0×109 calories
4.184×109 joules
3.96831×106 British thermal units
3.08802×109 foot pounds
1.162×103 kilowatt hours
Examples[edit]
Further information: Orders of magnitude (energy)
Megatons of TNT
Energy [Wh]
Description
6988100000000000000♠1×10−12 (i.e. 1 gram of TNT) 1.162 Wh ≈ 1 food Calorie (large calorie), which is the approximate amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere.
6991100000000000000♠1×10−9 (i.e. 1 kilogram of TNT) 1.162 kWh Under controlled conditions one kilogram of TNT can destroy (or even obliterate) a small vehicle.
6992100000000000000♠1×10−8 11.62 kWh The approximate radiant heat energy released during 3-phase, 600 V, 100 kA arcing fault in a 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m (20 in × 20 in × 20 in) compartment within a 1-second period.[11][further explanation needed]
6992120000000000000♠1.2×10−8 13.94 kWh Amount of TNT used (12 kg) in Coptic church explosion in Cairo, Egypt on December 11, 2016 that left 25 dead[12]
6994100000000000000♠1×10−6 (i.e. 1 ton of TNT) – 6995440000000000000♠44×10−6 1.16–51.14 MWh Conventional bombs yield from less than one ton to FOAB's 44 tons. The yield of a Tomahawk cruise missile is equivalent to 500 kg of TNT, or approximately 0.5 tons.[13]
6994189999999999999♠1.9×10−6 2.90 MWh The television show MythBusters used 2.5 tons of ANFO to make "homemade" diamonds.
6996500000000000000♠5×10−4 581 MWh A real 0.5-kilotonne-of-TNT (2.1 TJ) charge at Operation Sailor Hat. If the charge were a full sphere, it would be 1 kilotonne of TNT (4.2 TJ).
500 tons of TNT (5 by 10 m (17 by 34 ft)) awaiting detonation at Operation Sailor Hat.
6997100000000000000♠1×10−3 (1 kiloton of TNT) – 6997200000000000000♠2×10−3 1.16–2.32 GWh Estimated yield of the Oppau explosion that killed more than 500 at a German fertilizer factory in 1921.
6997230000000000000♠2.3×10−3 2.67 GWh Amount of solar energy falling on 4,000 m2 (1 acre) of land in a year is 9.5 TJ (2,650 MWh) (an average over the Earth's surface).
6997300000000000000♠3×10−3 3.49 GWh The Halifax Explosion in 1917 was the accidental detonation of 3,000 tons of TNT.
6997400000000000000♠4×10−3 9.3 GWh Minor Scale, a 1985 United States conventional explosion, using 4,744 tons of ANFO explosive to provide a scaled equivalent airblast of an eight kiloton (33.44 TJ) nuclear device,[14] is believed to be the largest planned detonation of conventional explosives in history.
6998150000000000000♠1.5×10−2 – 6998200000000000000♠2×10−2 17.4–23.2 GWh The Little Boy atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ), and the Fat Man atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ). The modern nuclear weapons in the United States arsenal range in yield from 0.3 kt (1.3 TJ) to 1.2 Mt (5.0 PJ) equivalent, for the B83 strategic bomb.
1 1.16 TWh The energy contained in one megaton of TNT (4.2 PJ) is enough to power the average American household for 103,000 years.[15] The 30 Mt (130 PJ) estimated upper limit blast power of the Tunguska event could power the same average home for more than 3,100,000 years. The energy of that blast could power the entire United States for 3.27 days.[16]
3 3.5 TWh The total energy of all explosives used in World War II, including the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atom bombs, is estimated to have been three megatons of TNT.
8.6 10 TWh The energy released by a typical tropical cyclone in one minute, primarily from water condensation. Winds constitute 0.25% of that energy.[17]
21.5 25 TWh The complete conversion of 1 kg of matter into pure energy would yield the theoretical maximum (E = mc2) of 89.8 petajoules, which is equivalent to 21.5 megatons of TNT. No such method of total conversion as combining 500 grams of matter with 500 grams of antimatter has yet been achieved. In the event of proton–antiproton annihilation, approximately 50% of the released energy will escape in the form of neutrinos, which are almost undetectable.[18] Electron–positron annihilation events emit their energy entirely as gamma rays.
24 28 TWh Approximate total yield of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
25, 50, 100 29 TWh, 58 TWh, 116 TWh During the Cold War, the United States developed hydrogen bombs with maximum theoretical yields of 25 megatons of TNT (100 PJ). The Soviet Union developed a prototype weapon, nicknamed the Tsar Bomba, which was tested at 50 Mt (210 PJ), but had a maximum theoretical yield of 100 Mt (420 PJ).[19] The effective destructive potential of such a weapon varies greatly, depending on such conditions as the altitude at which it is detonated, the characteristics of the target, the terrain, and the physical landscape upon which it is detonated.
26.3 30.6 TWh Megathrust earthquakes 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake released record ME surface rupture energy, or potential for damage at 26.3 megatons of TNT (110 PJ).
200 232 TWh The total energy released by the eruption of Mt. Krakatoa in Indonesia in 1883.
540 628 TWh The total energy produced worldwide by all nuclear testing and combat combined, from the 1940s till now[when?] is about 540 megatons.
1,460 1.69 PWh The total global nuclear arsenal is about 15,000 nuclear warheads[20][21][22] with a destructive capacity of around 1460 megatons[23][24][25][26] or 1.460 gigatons (1,460 million tons) of TNT.
62,500 73 PWh The total solar energy received by Earth per minute is 440 exajoules.
875,000 1,000 PWh Approximate yield of the last eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano.
6,000,000 = 7006600000000000000♠6×106 6,973 PWh The estimated energy at impact when the largest fragment of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 struck Jupiter is equivalent to 6 million megatons (6 trillion tons) of TNT.
7006932000000000000♠9.32×106 10,831 PWh The energy released in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami was over 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at 7022390000000000000♠3.9×1022 joules,[27] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. This is equivalent to 9,320 gigatons of TNT, or approximately 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima bomb.
7006956000000000000♠9.56×106 11,110 PWh Megathrust earthquakes record huge MW values, or total energy released. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake released 9,560 gigatons TNT equivalent.
7008100000000000000♠1×108 116,222 PWh The approximate energy released when the Chicxulub impact caused the mass extinction 66 million years ago was estimated to be equal to 100 teratons (i.e. 100 exagrams or approximately 220.462 quadrillion pounds) of TNT. That is roughly 8 billion times stronger than each of the bombs that hit Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the most energetic event on the history of Earth for hundreds of millions of years, far more powerful than any volcanic eruption, earthquake or firestorm. Such an explosion annihilated everything within a thousand miles of the impact in a split second. Such energy is equivalent to that needed to power the whole Earth for several centuries.
7015597200000000000♠5.972×1015 6.94 × 1027 Wh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT the mass of Earth.
7015789000000000000♠7.89×1015 9.17 × 1027 Wh Total solar output in all directions per day.
7021198000000000000♠1.98×1021 2.3 × 1033 Wh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT the mass of the Sun.
7028239999999999999♠2.4×1028 – 7028479999999999999♠4.8×1028 2.8–5.6 × 1040 Wh A type 1a supernova explosion gives off 1–7044200000000000000♠2×1044 joules of energy, which is about 2.4 to 4.8 hundred billion yottatons (24 to 48 octillion (2.4–7028479999999999999♠4.8×1028) megatons) of TNT, equivalent to the explosive force of a quantity of TNT over a trillion (1012) times the mass of the planet Earth.
7030240000000000000♠2.4×1030 – 7030480000000000000♠4.8×1030 2.8–7042560000000000000♠5.6×1042 Wh The largest type of supernova observed, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) release more than 1046 joules of energy.[28]
7032130000000000000♠1.3×1032 7044150000000000000♠1.5×1044 Wh A merger of two black holes, first observation of gravitational waves, released 7047530000000000000♠5.3×1047 joules
Relative effectiveness factor[edit]
The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.
This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubane's RE factor of 2.38, it would take only 1.0/2.38 (or 0.42) kg of it to do the same job. Using PETN, engineers would need 1.0/1.66 (or 0.60) kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1.0/0.74 (or 1.35) kg or 1.0/0.42 (or 2.38) kg, respectively.
RE factor examples[edit]
Some RE factor examples
Explosive, grade
Density
(g/ml)
Detonation
vel. (m/s)
R.E.
Ammonium nitrate (AN + <0.5% H2O) 0.88 2700[29] 0.42
Black powder (75% KNO3 + 19% C + 6% S, ancient explosives) 1.65 600 0.50
Mercury(II) fulminate 4.42 4250 0.51[30]
Tanerit Simply (93% granulated AN + 6% red P + 1% C) 0.90 2750 0.55
Hexamine dinitrate (HDN) 1.30 5070 0.60
Dinitrobenzene (DNB) 1.50 6025 0.60
HMTD (hexamine peroxide) 0.88 4520 0.74
ANFO (94% AN + 6% fuel oil) 0.92 5270 0.74
TATP (acetone peroxide) 1.18 5300 0.80
Tovex Extra (AN water gel) commercial product 1.33 5690 0.80
Hydromite 600 (AN water emulsion) commercial product 1.24 5550 0.80
ANNMAL (66% AN + 25% NM + 5% Al + 3% C + 1% TETA) 1.16 5360 0.87
Amatol (50% TNT + 50% AN) 1.50 6290 0.91
Nitroguanidine 1.32 6750 0.95
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) 1.60 6900 1.00
Hexanitrostilbene (HNS) 1.70 7080 1.05
Nitrourea 1.45 6860 1.05
Tritonal (80% TNT + 20% aluminium)* 1.70 6650 1.05
Amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN) 1.55 6570 1.10
Nitrocellulose (13.5% N, NC; AKA guncotton) 1.40 6400 1.10
Nitromethane (NM) 1.13 6360 1.10
PBXW-126 (22% NTO, 20% RDX, 20% AP, 26% Al, 12% PU's system)* 1.80 6450 1.10
Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN) 1.38 6610 1.17
PBXIH-135 EB (42% HMX, 33% Al, 25% PCP-TMETN's system)* 1.81 7060 1.17
PBXN-109 (64% RDX, 20% Al, 16% HTPB's system)* 1.68 7450 1.17
Triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB) 1.80 7550 1.17
Picric acid (TNP) 1.71 7350 1.17
Trinitrobenzene (TNB) 1.60 7300 1.20
Tetrytol (70% tetryl + 30% TNT) 1.60 7370 1.20
Dynamite, Nobel's (75% NG + 23% diatomite) 1.48 7200 1.25
Tetryl 1.71 7770 1.25
Torpex (aka HBX, 41% RDX + 40% TNT + 18% Al + 1% wax)* 1.80 7440 1.30
Composition B (63% RDX + 36% TNT + 1% wax) 1.72 7840 1.33
Composition C-3 (78% RDX) 1.60 7630 1.33
Composition C-4 (91% RDX) 1.59 8040 1.34
Pentolite (56% PETN + 44% TNT) 1.66 7520 1.33
Semtex 1A (76% PETN + 6% RDX) 1.55 7670 1.35
Hexal (76% RDX + 20% Al + 4% wax)* 1.79 7640 1.35
RISAL P (50% IPN + 28% RDX + 15% Al + 4% Mg + 1% Zr + 2% NC)* 1.39 5980 1.40
Hydrazine mononitrate 1.59 8500 1.42
Mixture: 24% nitrobenzene + 76% TNM 1.48 8060 1.50
Mixture: 30% nitrobenzene + 70% nitrogen tetroxide 1.39 8290 1.50
Nitroglycerin (NG) 1.59 8100 1.54
Octol (80% HMX + 19% TNT + 1% DNT) 1.83 8690 1.54
Nitrotriazolon (NTO) 1.87 8120 1.60
DADNE (1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene, FOX-7) 1.77 8330 1.60
Gelignite (92% NG + 7% nitrocellulose) 1.60 7970 1.60
Plastics Gel® (in toothpaste tube: 45% PETN + 45% NG + 5% DEGDN + 4% NC) 1.51 7940 1.60
Composition A-5 (98% RDX + 2% stearic acid) 1.65 8470 1.60
Erythritol tetranitrate (ETN) 1.72 8100 1.60
Hexogen (RDX) 1.78 8700 1.60
PBXW-11 (96% HMX, 1% HyTemp, 3% DOA) 1.81 8720 1.60
Penthrite (PETN) 1.71 8400 1.66
Ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN) 1.49 8300 1.66
TNAZ (trinitroazetidine) 1.85 8640 1.70
Octogen (HMX grade B) 1.86 9100 1.70
HNIW (CL-20) 1.97 9380 1.80
Hexanitrobenzene (HNB) 1.97 9400 1.85
MEDINA (Methylene dinitroamine) 1.65 8700 1.93
DDF (4,4’-Dinitro-3,3’-diazenofuroxan) 1.98 10000 1.95
Heptanitrocubane (HNC) 1.92 9200 N/A
Octanitrocubane (ONC) 1.95 10600 2.38
*: TBX (thermobaric explosives) or EBX (enhanced blast explosives), in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions.
Nuclear examples[edit]
Nuclear weapons and the most powerful non-nuclear weapon examples
Weapon
Total yield
(kilotons of TNT)
Weight
(kg)
R.E. ~
Davy Crockett (nuclear device) 0.022 23 1,000
Fat Man (dropped on Nagasaki) A-bomb 20 4600 4,500
Classic (one-stage) fission A-bomb 22 420 50,000
Hypothetical suitcase nuke 2.5 31 80,000
Typical (two-stage) nuclear bomb 500–1000 650–1120 900,000
W56 thermonuclear warhead 1,200 272–308 4,960,000
W88 modern thermonuclear warhead (MIRV) 470 355 1,300,000
B53 nuclear bomb (two-stage) 9,000 4050 2,200,000
B41 nuclear bomb (three-stage) 25,000 4850 5,100,000
Tsar nuclear bomb (three-stage) 50,000–56,000 26,500 2,100,000
GBU-57 bomb (Massive Ordnance Penetrator, MOP) 0.0035 13,600 0.26
Grand Slam (Earthquake bomb, M110) 0.0065 9,900 0.66
Bomb used in Oklahoma City (ANFO based on racing fuel) 0.0018 2,300 0.78
BLU-82 (Daisy Cutter) 0.0075 6,800 1.10
MOAB (non-nuclear bomb, GBU-43) 0.011 9,800 1.13
FOAB (advanced thermobaric bomb, ATBIP) 0.044 9,100 4.83
See also[edit]
Brisance
Net explosive quantity
Nuclear weapon yield
Orders of magnitude (energy)
Relative effectiveness factor
Table of explosive detonation velocities
Ton
Tonne
Tonne of oil equivalent, a unit of energy almost exactly 10 tonnes of TNT
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ See Currently deployed U.S. nuclear weapon yields Archived September 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons Archived December 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Tsar Bomba Archived June 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., all from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive.
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Nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3
Rhodes, Richard (2012). The Making of the Atomic Bomb (25th Anniversary ed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-7761-4.
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HQ Department of the Army (2004) [1967], Field Manual 5-25: Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D.C.: Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1
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3. Thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials, 2004., The National Academies Press, nap.edu, 2004
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Belvedere, Vienna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coordinates: 48°11′29″N 16°22′51″E / 48.191439°N 16.380787°E / 48.191439; 16.380787
Upper Belvedere
The Belvedere is a historic building complex in Vienna, Austria, consisting of two Baroque palaces (the Upper and Lower Belvedere), the Orangery, and the Palace Stables. The buildings are set in a Baroque park landscape in the third district of the city, on the south-eastern edge of its centre. It houses the Belvedere museum. The grounds are set on a gentle gradient and include decorative tiered fountains and cascades, Baroque sculptures, and majestic wrought iron gates. The Baroque palace complex was built as a summer residence for Prince Eugene of Savoy.
The Belvedere was built during a period of extensive construction in Vienna, which at the time was both the imperial capital and home to the ruling Habsburg dynasty. This period of prosperity followed on from the commander-in-chief Prince Eugene of Savoy's successful conclusion of a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire.
Contents
[hide]
1 Lower Belvedere
2 Gardens
3 Upper Belvedere
4 After the death of Prince Eugene
5 Belvedere and Franz Ferdinand
6 Belvedere in the First and Second Republic
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 External links
Lower Belvedere[edit]
View of the gardens seen from the Upper Belvedere, painted by Bernardo Bellotto in 1758
On 30 November 1697, one year after commencing with the construction of the Stadtpalais, Prince Eugene purchased a sizable plot of land south of the Rennweg, the main road to Hungary. Plans for the Belvedere garden complex were drawn up immediately. The prince chose Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt as the chief architect for this project rather than Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, the creator of his Stadtpalais. Hildebrandt (1668–1745), whom the general had met whilst engaged in a military campaign in Piedmont, had already built Ráckeve Palace for him in 1702 on Csepel, an island in the Danube south of Budapest. He later went on to build numerous other edifices in his service. The architect had studied civil engineering in Rome under Carlo Fontana and had gone into imperial service in 1695–96 in order to learn how to build fortifications. From 1696 onwards, records show that he was employed as a court architect in Vienna. As well as the Belvedere, Hildebrandt’s most outstanding achievements include the Schloss Hof Palace, which was also commissioned by Prince Eugene, the Schwarzenberg Palace (formerly known as the Mansfeld–Fondi Palace), the Kinsky Palace, as well as the entire Göttweig Monastery estate in the Wachau Valley.
At the time that the prince was planning to buy the land on the outskirts of Vienna for his Belvedere project, the area was completely undeveloped – an ideal place to construct a landscaped garden and summer palace. However, a month before the prince made his acquisition, the imperial Grand Marshal Count Heinrich Franz Mansfeld, Prince of Fondi, purchased the neighboring plot and commissioned Hildebrandt to build a garden palace on the land. To buy the plot, Prince Eugene was forced to take out a large loan secured against his Stadtpalais, which was still in the process of being built. He bought additional neighboring areas of land in 1708, 1716, and again in 1717–18 to allow him to expand the garden in stages.
Records indicate that the construction of the Lower Belvedere had started by 1712, as Prince Eugene submitted the request for a building inspection on 5 July 1713. Work proceeded swiftly, and Marcantonio Chiarini from Bologna started painting the quadratura in the central hall in 1715. The ambassador from the Spanish Flanders visited the Lower Belvedere, as well as the Stadtpalais, in April 1716. Extensive work was carried out on the grounds at the same time as construction went ahead on the Lustschloss, as the Lower Belvedere was described on an early cityscape. Dominique Girard changed the plans for the garden significantly between January and May 1717, so that it could be completed by the following summer. Girard, who was employed as fontainier du roi, or the king’s water engineer, in Versailles from 1707–15, had started working as a garden inspector for the Bavarian elector Maximilian Emanuel from 1715 onwards. It was on the latter’s recommendation that he entered Prince Eugene’s employ. The statuary for the balustrade is the best known work of Giovanni Stanetti.
Gardens[edit]
The garden had a scenery enclosed by clipped hedging, even as the Belvedere was building, in the formal French manner with gravelled walks and jeux d'eau by Dominique Girard, who had trained in the gardens of Versailles as a pupil of André Le Nôtre. Its great water basin in the upper parterre and the stairs and cascades peopled by nymphs and goddesses that links upper and lower parterres survive, but the patterned bedding has long been grassed over; it is currently being restored.
Upper Belvedere[edit]
Upper Belvedere at night
The construction of the Upper Belvedere began as early as 1717, as testified by two letters that Prince Eugene sent from Belgrade to his servant Benedetti in summer 1718, describing the progress of work on the palace. Construction was so far advanced by 2 October 1719 that the prince was able to receive the Turkish ambassador Ibrahim Pasha there. The decoration of the interior started as early as 1718. In 1719 he commissioned the Italian painter Francesco Solimena to execute both the altarpiece for the Palace Chapel and the ceiling fresco in the Golden Room. In the same year Gaetano Fanti was commissioned to execute the illusionistic quadratura painting in the Marble Hall. In 1720 Carlo Carlone was entrusted with the task of painting the ceiling fresco in the Marble Hall, which he executed from 1721–23.
The building was completed in 1723. The Sala Terrena, however, was at risk of collapsing due to structural problems, and in the winter of 1732–33 Hildebrandt was forced to install a vaulted ceiling supported by four Atlas pillars, giving the room its current appearance. Salomon Kleiner, an engineer from the Mainz elector's court, produced a ten-part publication between 1731 and 1740 containing a total of ninety plates, entitled Wunder würdiges Kriegs- und Siegs-Lager deß Unvergleichlichen Heldens Unserer Zeiten Eugenii Francisci Hertzogen zu Savoyen und Piemont ("Wondrous war and victory encampment of the supreme hero of our age Eugene Francis Duke of Savoy and Piedmont"), which documented in precise detail the state of the Belvedere complex.
After the death of Prince Eugene[edit]
Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen
When Prince Eugene died in his City Palace in Vienna on 21 April 1736, he did not leave a legally binding will. A commission set up by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI named the prince's niece Victoria as his heir. She was the daughter of his eldest brother Thomas and the only surviving member of the house of Savoy-Soissons. Princess Victoria moved into the Belvedere, known at that point as the Gartenpalais, on 6 July 1736, but immediately made clear that she was not interested in her inheritance and aimed to auction off the palace complex as soon as possible. On 15 April 1738, she married Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1702–87), who was several years her junior, in the presence of the royal family in the Schlosshof in the Marchfeld region, Lower Austria. Her choice of husband proved an unfortunate one, however, and the poorly-matched couple divorced in 1744. Yet it was only when Princess Victoria finally decided to leave Vienna and return to her home city of Turin, Italy, eight years later that Maria Theresa, the daughter of Charles VI, was able to purchase the estate.
The imperial couple never moved into the Gartenpalais, which was first described as the Belvedere in their sales contract of November 1752. The complex was somewhat eclipsed by the other imperial palaces, and at first the buildings were left unused. Maria Theresa later created an ancestors' gallery of the Habsburg dynasty in the Lower Belvedere, as was the custom in all other palaces belonging to the imperial family. The palace was only once awakened from its slumbers in 1770 when a masked ball was staged there on 17 April to mark the occasion of the Imperial Princess Maria Antonia's marriage with the French Dauphin, who was later to become Louis XVI. The Lord High Chamberlain Prince Johann Joseph Khevenhüller-Metsch and the court architect Nicolaus Pacassi were charged with taking care of the extensive preparations for the ball to which 16,000 guests were invited.
Belvedere Castle, engraving c. 1753
In 1776 Maria Theresa and her son, Emperor Joseph II decided to transfer the k.u.k. Gemäldegalerie ("Imperial Picture Gallery") from the Imperial Stables — a part of the city's Hofburg Imperial Palace — to the Upper Belvedere. Inspired by the idea of enlightened absolutism, the intention was to make the imperial collection accessible to the general public. The gallery opened five years later, making it one of the first public museums in the world. A series of eminent painters served as directors in charge of the imperial collection in the Upper Belvedere up to 1891 when it was transferred to the newly built Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Fine Arts) on Vienna's splendid Ringstrasse.
While the Upper Belvedere was transformed into a picture gallery at the end of the eighteenth century, the Lower Belvedere served chiefly to royal family members fleeing from the French Revolution. Most notably these included Princess Marie Thérèse Charlotte, the sole surviving child of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, and Archduke Ferdinand. Marie Thérèse Charlotte resided in the palace until her marriage with Prince Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, in 1799. Archduke Ferdinand, the former Governor of the Duchy of Milan up to 1796, went to live there after the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.
Lower Belvedere
After the Habsburg Monarchy was forced to cede Tyrol to Bavaria in the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805, a new home had to be found for the imperial collection from Ambras Castle, near Innsbruck. At first, the collection was taken to Petrovaradin (now in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia) to protect it from looting by French troops. In 1811 Emperor Francis II decreed that it should be installed in the Lower Belvedere, which was, in fact, far too small for the collection. This part of the Belvedere thus also took on the function of a museum and had already started to draw considerable numbers of visitors by the time of the Congress of Vienna (1814–15).
Under the directorship of the Prefect of the Imperial Court Library, Moritz, Count of Dietrichstein-Proskau-Leslie, the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities and the Antiquities Room were added to the Ambras Collection in the Lower Belvedere collection from 1833 onwards. In 1844, the Roman milestones, which had been stored in the catacombs of the Theseus Temple up to that point, were relocated to an open-air location in the Privy Garden. Watercolors by Carl Goebel the Younger pay testimony to the Lower Belvedere's beginnings as a museum, as does Joseph Bergmann's descriptive guide to the collection that dates from 1846. This situation remained almost unchanged until the move to the newly built Kunsthistorisches Museum in the Ringstrasse in 1888–89.
Belvedere and Franz Ferdinand[edit]
Following the relocation of the imperial collections, both of the Belvedere Palaces ceased to be public museums for a while at least. In 1896 Emperor Franz Joseph I decided that the Upper Belvedere should serve as a residence for the heir to the throne, his nephew Franz Ferdinand. The heir presumptive had the palace remodeled under the supervision of the architect Emil von Förster, who was also imperial undersecretary, and it served from that point onwards as Franz Ferdinand's residence. By contrast, the Moderne Galerie was opened a few years later, on 2 May 1903, in the Lower Belvedere. This museum was the first state collection in Austria that was exclusively dedicated to modern art and came about upon the instigation of the Union of Austrian Artists, known as the Vienna Secession. The aim was to juxtapose Austrian art with international modernism. From the outset, major works by Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet, and Giovanni Segantini were bought for the Moderne Galerie. The museum was then renamed the k.u.k. Staatsgalerie ("Imperial and Royal Gallery") in 1911 after it was decided to expand the focus beyond modern art to include works from earlier eras. The assassination of heir-apparent Franz Ferdinand and his wife, the outbreak of World War I, and the ensuing collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1918 marked the start of a new era for the Belvedere.
Belvedere in the First and Second Republic[edit]
Ceiling painting of the Marble Hall in the Upper Belvedere by Carlo Carlone
Shortly after the end of the war in November 1918, the art historian Franz Haberditzl submitted a request to the Ministry of Education, asking for the palaces to be left to the Staatsgalerie. This application was granted the very next year. The nationalization of the Belvedere palace complex was also laid down in the draft document to reorganize the former imperial collections drawn up by Hans Tietze in 1920–21. In addition to the museums that still exist today, it also included plans to set up an Österreichische Galerie (Austrian Gallery) and a Moderne Galerie. During the 1921–23 reorganization the Baroque Museum in the Lower Belvedere was added to the existing museum ensemble. The Moderne Galerie was opened in the Orangery in 1929.
The palaces suffered considerable damage during World War II. Parts of the Marble Hall in the Upper Belvedere and the Hall of Grotesques in the Lower Belvedere were destroyed by bombs. After reconstruction work was completed, the Österreichische Galerie reopened in the upper palace on 4 February 1953. The Baroque Museum opened in the lower palace and the Museum mittelalterlicher österreichischer Kunst ("Museum of Medieval Austrian Art") opened in the Orangery on 5 December 1953.
Upper Belvedere Entrance, 2015
The Lower Belvedere and the Orangery have been specially adapted to stage special exhibitions. After winning an invitation-only competition, architect Susanne Zottl turned the Orangery into a modern exhibition hall whilst still preserving the building’s original Baroque fabric. This venue opened in March 2007 with the exhibition Gartenlust: Der Garten in der Kunst (Garden Pleasures: The Garden in Art). A few months later the Lower Belvedere reopened with the show Vienna – Paris. The redesign of the building was carried out by the Berlin architect Wilfried Kuehn, who moved the entrance back to its place in the cour d’honneur, thereby once more freeing up the original line of vision from the main gate of the Lower Belvedere via the Marble Hall to the garden facade of the Upper Belvedere. The various sections of the original orangeries annexed to the Marble Hall were returned to their original condition and now provide space for the new exhibition rooms. The magnificent Baroque state rooms – the Marble Gallery, the Golden Room, and the Hall of Grotesques – remain unchanged and are open to the public.
Gallery[edit]
Upper Belvedere
Lower Belvedere
Gates of Belvedere
Upper Belvedere
Upper Belvedere interior
Belvedere Gardens
Sphinx sculptures, Belvedere Gardens
Belvedere Gardens
Lower Belvedere
Lower Belvedere Orangery
See also[edit]
List of Baroque residences
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Belvedere.
Official website (in German) (in English)
Belvedere at Google Cultural Institute
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GND: 4194500-1
ISNI: 0000 0001 2259 9294
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Triple sec
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Triple sec
Type
Liqueur
Manufacturer
(various)
Country of origin
Saumur, France
Introduced
1849
Alcohol by volume
15% to 40% [1]
Color
Clear, golden, blue
Flavor
Orange
Triple sec, (meaning "Triple distilled") originally Curaçao triple sec, is a strong, sweet and colorless orange flavored liqueur. It is a variety of Curaçao liqueur, an orange-flavoured liqueur made from the dried peels of bitter and sweet orange.
'Triple sec' is so named because of the triple-copper-still-distillation process through which the oranges or fruits that go into it are subjected.[citation needed] The 'sec' part of 'triple sec' means "dry" and is borrowed directly from French, sec, which, in turn, received it from the Classical Latin word, siccus and the cognate Classical Latin verbal infinitive, siccare, which means "to dry; to dry up; to make dry; to remove moisture."[2] This sense of 'dry' is not dry in the sense of 'lack of sweetness' of the liquor or spirit, as is in the case with wine-speak; it is a semantic derivative of it. It is the fact that the oranges and fruits that go into triple sec are dried prior to the distillation process.[3][not in citation given][better source needed]
Triple sec may be consumed neat as a digestif or on the rocks, but is more typically used as an ingredient in a variety of cocktails such as sangria, margarita, Kamikaze, White Lady, Long Island Iced Tea, Sidecar, Skittle Bomb, Corpse Reviver #2 and Cosmopolitan.
History[edit]
The Combier distillery claims that triple sec was invented some time between 1834 and 1848 by Jean-Baptiste Combier in Saumur, France.[4] However, Combier was more famous for its élixir Combier, which contained orange but also many other flavorings.[5]
According to Cointreau, its orange liqueur was created in 1849.[6]
Triple sec was certainly widely known by 1878; at the Exposition Universelle of 1878 in Paris, several distillers were offering "Curaço [sic] triple sec" as well as "Curaço doux".[7]
See also[edit]
Curaçao liqueur
Grand Marnier
List of liqueurs
Cointreau
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bar None Drinks" [www.barnonedrinks.com/tips/dictionary/t/triple-sec-922.html]
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "sec". Online Etymological Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Austin, Robin Alix. "A Brief History of Triple Sec". The Amateur Gastronomer. Robin Alix Austin. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
Jump up ^ The Combier web site says that Combier's confectionery store opened in 1834, but says only that Triple Sec was invented "à cette époque" as a filling for his candies and chocolates; it also does not mention when Combier's Triple Sec was actually commercialized.
Jump up ^ "Les liquoristes saumurois" in Saumur jadis, anonymous Web publication at [1] cites Richard Gasnier, Les liquoristes saumurois de 1830 à 1910, mém. de maîtrise, Angers, 2000, B. U. de l'U.C.O., 15 747 ; François Bouyssi et Isabelle Emeriau, "James Combier (1842–1917 ). Essai biographique...", S.L.S.A.S.,, 1992, pp. 46–89 ; Alain Mariez, "Un zeste d'orange, deux doigts d'ambition", L'Anjou, décembre 1995, pp. 70–77 ; Christelle Couvreux, Marie Bardisa, La Distillerie Combier. Saumur, Itinéraires du Patrimoine, 1999.
Jump up ^ [2].
Jump up ^ The Lancet Analytical Commission, "Report on the Food Products exhibited in the French and English Departments of the Universal Exhibition of Paris", The Lancet, September 21, 1878, p. 417f.
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