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Psycholinguistics
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Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical or educational schools of thought, due mainly to their location in departments other than applied sciences (e.g., cohesive data on how the human brain functioned). Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information science to study how the brain processes language, and less so the known processes of social sciences, human development, communication theories and infant development, among others. There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics has roots in education and philosophy, and covers the "cognitive processes" that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of term
2 Areas of study
3 Theories
3.1 Language acquisition
3.2 Language comprehension
3.3 Language production
4 Methodologies
4.1 Behavioral tasks
4.2 Eye-movements
4.3 Language production errors
4.4 Neuroimaging
4.5 Computational modeling
5 Issues and areas of research
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Origin of term[edit]
The term psycholinguistics was coined in 1936 by Jacob Robert Kantor in his book An Objective Psychology of Grammar and started being used among his team at Indiana University, but its use finally became frequent thanks to the 1946 article "Language and psycholinguistics: a review," by his student Nicholas Henry Pronko.[1] It was used for the first time to talk about an interdisciplinary science "that could be coherent"[2] as well as in the title of Psycholinguistics: A Survey of Theory and Research Problems, a 1954 book by Charles E. Osgood and Thomas A. Sebeok.[3]
Areas of study[edit]
Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, it is studied by researchers from a variety of different backgrounds, such as psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, and speech and language pathology. Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions: (1) how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?; (2) how do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?; (3) how do people produce language (language production)?; and (4) how do people acquire a new language (second language acquisition)?
Subdivisions in psycholinguistics are also made based on the different components that make up human language.
Linguistics-related areas:
Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.
Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).
Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined to form sentences.
Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.
Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.
A researcher interested in language comprehension may study word recognition during reading to examine the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text. A researcher interested in language production might study how words are prepared to be spoken starting from the conceptual or semantic level. Developmental psycholinguists study infants' and children's ability to learn and process language.[4]
Theories[edit]
In this section, some influential theories are discussed for each of the fundamental questions listed in the section above.
Language acquisition[edit]
Main article: Language acquisition
There are essentially two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language, and there is still much debate as to which theory is the correct one. The first theory states that all language must be learned by the child. The second view states that the abstract system of language cannot be learned, but that humans possess an innate language faculty, or an access to what has been called universal grammar. The view that language must be learned was especially popular before 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. Likewise, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is a behavior shaped by conditioned response, hence it is learned.
The innatist perspective began with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959.[5] This review helped to start what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology. Chomsky posited humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex syntactic features, such as recursion, are "hard-wired" in the brain. These abilities are thought to be beyond the grasp of the most intelligent and social non-humans. According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innateness hypothesis, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.
The field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use language (specifically the ability to use recursion) is qualitatively different from any sort of animal ability.[6] This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. The view that language can be learned has had a recent resurgence inspired by emergentism. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested. With the amount of computer power increasing since the 1980s, researchers have been able to simulate language acquisition using neural network models.[7] These models provide evidence that there may, in fact, be sufficient information contained in the input to learn language, even syntax. If this is true, then an innate mechanism is no longer necessary to explain language acquisition.
Language comprehension[edit]
Main article: Language comprehension
One question in the realm of language comprehension is how people understand sentences as they read (also known as sentence processing). Experimental research has spawned a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Typically these theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning, and at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Issues such as "modular" versus "interactive" processing have been theoretical divides in the field.
A modular view of sentence processing assumes that the stages involved in reading a sentence function independently in separate modules. These modulates have limited interaction with one another. For example, one influential theory of sentence processing, the garden-path theory,[8] states that syntactic analysis takes place first. Under this theory as the reader is reading a sentence, he or she creates the simplest structure possible in order to minimize effort and cognitive load. This is done without any input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information. Hence, in the sentence "The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable," by the time the reader gets to the word "examined" he or she has committed to a reading of the sentence in which the evidence is examining something because it is the simplest parse. This commitment is made despite the fact that it results in an implausible situation; we know from experience that evidence can rarely if ever examine something. Under this "syntax first" theory, semantic information is processed at a later stage. It is only later that the reader will recognize that he or she needs to revise the initial parse into one in which "the evidence" is being examined. In this example, readers typically recognize their misparse by the time they reach "by the lawyer" and must go back and re-parse the sentence.[9] This reanalysis is costly and contributes to slower reading times.
In contrast to a modular account, an interactive theory of sentence processing, such as a constraint-based lexical approach[10] assumes that all available information contained within a sentence can be processed at any time. Under an interactive account, for example, the semantics of a sentence (such as plausibility) can come into play early on in order to help determine the structure of a sentence. Hence, in the sentence above, the reader would be able to make use of plausibility information in order to assume that "the evidence" is being examined instead of doing the examining. There are data to support both modular and interactive accounts; which account is the correct one is still up for debate.
Language production[edit]
Main article: Language production
Language production concerns how people produce language, either in written or spoken form, in a way that conveys meanings comprehensible to others. One of the most effective ways to explain the way people represent meanings using rule-governed languages is by observing and analyzing instances of speech errors. They include speech dysfluencies like false starts, repetition, reformulation and constant pauses in between words or sentences; also, slips of tongue, like blendings, substitutions, exchanges (e.g. Spoonerism), and various pronunciation errors. These speech errors yield significant implication on language production, in that they reflect that:
Speech is planned in advance: speech errors like substitution and exchanges show that one does not plan his/her entire sentence before s/he speaks. Rather, their language faculty is constantly tapped during the speech production process. This is accounted for by the limitation of the working memory. In particular, errors involving exchanges imply that one plans ahead in their sentence but only about significant ideas (e.g. the words that constitute the core meaning) and only to a certain extent of the sentence.
Lexicon is organized semantically and phonologically: substitution and pronunciation errors show that lexicon is organized not only by its meaning, but also its form.
Morphologically complex words are assembled: errors involving blending within a word reflect that there seems to be a rule governing the construction of words in production (and also likely in mental lexicon). In other words, speakers generate the morphologically complex words by merging morphemes rather than retrieving them as chunks.
For models of speech production, see Psycholinguistics/Models of Speech Production.
Methodologies[edit]
Behavioral tasks[edit]
Many of the experiments conducted in psycholinguistics, especially earlier on, are behavioral in nature. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud. Reaction times to respond to the stimuli (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance in behavioral tasks. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later.[11]
As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. He asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a "no" response. A subset of the licit words were related semantically (e.g., cat-dog) while others were unrelated (e.g., bread-stem). Fischler found that related word pairs were responded to faster when compared to unrelated word pairs. This facilitation suggests that semantic relatedness can facilitate word encoding.[12]
Eye-movements[edit]
Recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978)[13] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Later, Tanenhaus et al. (1995)[14] used the visual-world paradigm to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Assuming that eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented auditorily with linguistic input.
Language production errors[edit]
Main article: Speech error
The analysis of systematic errors in speech, writing and typing of language as it is produced can provide evidence of the process which has generated it. Errors of speech, in particular, grant insight into how the mind processes language production while a speaker is in the midst of an utterance. Speech errors tend to occur in the lexical, morpheme, and phoneme encoding steps of language production, as seen by the ways errors can manifest.[15] The types of speech errors, and some examples, are:[15][16][17]
Substitutions (phoneme and lexical) – replacing a sound with an unrelated sound, or a word with an antonym, and saying "verbal outfit" instead of "verbal output", or "He rode his bike tomorrow" instead of "...yesterday", respectively,
Blends – mixing two synonyms together and saying "my stummy hurts" in place of either "stomach" or "tummy",
Exchanges (phoneme [a.k.a. Spoonerisms] and morpheme) – swapping two onset sounds or two root words, and saying "You hissed my mystery lectures" instead of "You missed my history lectures", or "They're Turking talkish" instead of "They're talking Turkish", respectively,
Morpheme shifts – moving a function morpheme such as "-ly" or "-ed" to a different word and saying "easy enoughly" instead of "easily enough",
Perseveration – continuing to start a word with a sound that was in the utterance previously and saying "John gave the goy a ball" instead of "John gave the boy a ball", and
Anticipation – replacing a sound with one that is coming up later in the utterance and saying "She drank a cot cup of tea" instead of "She drank a hot cup of tea."
Speech errors will usually occur in the stages that involve lexical, morpheme, or phoneme encoding, and usually not the first step of semantic encoding.[18] This can be credited to how a speaker is still conjuring the idea of what to say, and unless he changes his mind, can not be mistaken in what he wanted to say.
Neuroimaging[edit]
Main article: Neurolinguistics
Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.
Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.
Computational modeling[edit]
Computational modeling, such as the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Max Coltheart and colleagues,[19] is another methodology and refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable. Another example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech perception.[20]
Issues and areas of research[edit]
Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input.[11][21]
Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain.
There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language.
Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily.[22] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.[23]
The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language.
See also[edit]
Psychology portal
Animal language
Educational psychology
Human brain
Language acquisition
Language processing
Linguistic relativity
Neurolinguistics
Psychological nativism
Second language acquisition
Speech perception
TRACE model
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pronko, N. H. (1946). Language and psycholinguistics: a review. Psychological Bulletin, 43, May, 189-239.
Jump up ^ Levelt, W. J. M. (2013). A History of Psycholinguistics: the pre-Chomskyan era. Part 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-965366-9.
Jump up ^ Murray, D. J. (2001). Language and psychology: 19th-century developments outside the Germany: A Survey (pp. 1679-1692). En S. Auroux (Ed.), Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften (vol. 2 History of the Language Sciences: An International Handbook on the Evolution of the Study of Language from the Beginnings to the Present. (Ill.) Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 911 pp. ISBN 3110167352)
Jump up ^ Houston, D.M.; Jusczyk, P.W. (2000). "The Role of Talker-Specific Information in Word Segmentation by Infants" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 26 (5): 1570–1582. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.26.5.1570. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Chomsky, N; Skinner, B. F. (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. Linguistic Society of America. 35 (1): 26–58. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 411334. doi:10.2307/411334.
Jump up ^ Hauser M.D.; Chomsky N.; Fitch W. (2002). "The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?". Science. 298 (5598): 1569–79. PMID 12446899. doi:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569.
Jump up ^ Elman, Jeffrey; Bates Elizabeth; Johnson Mark; Karmiloff-Smith Annette; Parisi Domenico; Plunkett Kim (1998). Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. The MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Frazier L.; Rayner, K. (1982). "Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences". Cognitive Psychology. 14 (2): 178–210. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(82)90008-1.
Jump up ^ Rayner K.; Carlson M.; Frazier L. (1983). "The interaction of syntax and semantics during sentence processing: Eye movements in the analysis of semantically biased sentences". Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior. 22 (3): 358–374. doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(83)90236-0.
Jump up ^ Trueswell J.; Tanenhaus M. (1994). "Toward a lexical framework of constraint-based syntactic ambiguity resolution". Perspectives on sentence processing: 155–179.
^ Jump up to: a b Packard, Jerome L (2000). "Chinese words and the lexicon." The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 284-309.
Jump up ^ Fischler I. (1977). "Semantic facilitation without association in a lexical decision task". Memory & Cognition. 5 (3): 335–339. doi:10.3758/bf03197580.
Jump up ^ Rayner K. (1978). "Eye movements in reading and information processing". Psychological Bulletin. 85 (3): 618–660. PMID 353867. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.618.
Jump up ^ Tanenhaus M. K.; Spivey-Knowlton M. J.; Eberhard K. M.; Sedivy J. E. (1995). "Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension". Science. 268 (5217): 1632–1634. PMID 7777863. doi:10.1126/science.7777863.
^ Jump up to: a b "Slips of the Tongue: Windows to the Mind | Linguistic Society of America". www.linguisticsociety.org. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Lecture No. 16 -- Speech Errors". www.departments.bucknell.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Speech Errors and What They Reveal About Language". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ Fromkin, Victoria A. (1973). Speech Errors as Linguistic Evidence. The Netherlands: Mouton & Co. N. V. pp. 157 – 163.
Jump up ^ Coltheart M.; Rastle K.; Perry C.; Langdon R.; Ziegler J. (2001). "DRC: "A dual route cascaded of visual word recognition and reading aloud". Psychological Review. 108 (1): 204–256. PMID 11212628. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.204.
Jump up ^ McClelland, J.L.; Elman, J.L. (1986). "The TRACE model of speech perception". Cognitive Psychology. 18: 1–86. PMID 3753912. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(86)90015-0.
Jump up ^ Altmann, Gerry T.M. (1997). "Words, and how we (eventually) find them." The Ascent of Babel: An Exploration of Language, Mind, and Understanding. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 65-83.
Jump up ^ Seidner, Stanley S. (1982). Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme. pp. 4-7.
Jump up ^ Seidner, Stanley S. (1982). Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme. p. 11.
Further reading[edit]
A short list of books that deal with psycholinguistics, written in language accessible to the non-expert, includes:
Belyanin V.P. Foundations of Psycholinguistic Diagnostics (Models of the World). Moscow, 2000 (in Russian)
Chomsky, Noam. (2000) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harley, Trevor. (2008) The Psychology of Language: From data to theory (3rd. ed.) Hove: Psychology Press.
Harley, Trevor. (2009) Talking the talk: Language, psychology and science. Hove: Psychology Press.
Lakoff, George. (1987) Women, fire, and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Menn, Lise. (2016). Psycholinguistics: Introduction and Applications, 2nd ed. San Diego: Plural Publishing, Inc.
Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo. (ed.) (1980) Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Pinker, Steven. (1994) The Language Instinct. New York: William Morrow.
Rayner, K. and Pollatsek, A. (1989) The Psychology of Reading. New York:Prentice Hall.
Steinberg, Danny D., Hiroshi Nagata, and David P. Aline, ed. (2001) Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind and World, 2nd ed. Longman
Aitchison, Jean. (1998). The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. Routledge.
Scovel, Thomas. (1998). Psycholinguistics. Oxford University Press.
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Zoe (name)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Zoe
Pronunciation
/ˈzoʊ.i/ ZOH-ee; /ˈzoʊ/ ZOH
Gender
Female
Origin
Word/name
Greek
Meaning
"life"
Other names
Variant form(s)
Zoey, Zoí, Zoé, Zoie, Zoë, Zoee, Zoya, Zoi, Zöe
Related names
Zooey
Zoe (and its variants) is a female first name, originally from the Greek (ζωή). It is a calque of the Biblical Hebrew Hava/Eve (חַוָּה).
People[edit]
Zoe (empress) (Zoe Porphyrogenita) (ca. 978–1050), Byzantine empress
Zoë (Austrian singer) (Zoë Straub) (born 1996), Austrian singer, songwriter, and actress
Zoë (British singer) (Zoë Pollock), English pop star
Zoey (Yuko), J-Pop singer (born 1984)
Exuperius and Zoe, saints, martyrs (died 127)
Zoe of Rome (died ca. 286), martyred saint
Zoë Avril, French singer
Zoë Baird, American lawyer, Attorney General nominee in 1993
Zoë Ball (born 1970), English television and radio personality
Zoë Bell (born 1978), New Zealand stuntwoman and actress
Zoe Beloff (born 1958), New York-based artist
Zoe Birkett (born 1985), British singer
Zoe Boyle, English actress
Zoe Caldwell (born 1933), Australian-born, US-based theatre/stage actress
Zoe Cassavetes (born 1970), Greek director, screenwriter and actress
Zooey Deschanel (born 1980), American actress and musician (pronounces her name like "Zoë", though she is said to be named after Zooey Glass.)
Zoi Dimoschaki, Greek freestyle swimmer
Zoe Dumitrescu-Bușulenga (1920-2006), Romanian literary historian
Zoe Goss (born 1968), Australian cricket player
Zoe Karbonopsina (died ca. 920), Byzantine empress
Zoe Kazan (born 1983), American actress
Zoë Keating (born 1972), Canadian-American cellist and composer
Zoe Konstantopoulou (born 1976), Greek politician
Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya (1923–1941), Russian martyr
Zoë Kravitz (born 1988), American actress, singer and model
Zoe Labouré (a.k.a.Catherine Labouré). Zoe was the birth name of the visionary French Saint of the Miraculous Medal 1806–1876
Zoe Laskari (born 1945), Greek actress
Zoë Lister (born 1982), British actress
Zöe Lucker (born 1974), English actress best known for playing the role of Tanya Turner on ITV's Footballers' Wives
Zoe Lyons (born 1971), British comedian
Zoe McLellan (born 1974), American actress
Zoe Palaiologina (c. 1455–1503), wife of Tsar Ivan III of Russia
Zoie Palmer (born October 28, 1977), Canadian actress
Zoi Paraskevopoulou, Greek archer
Zoë Poledouris (born 1973), American actress & film composer
Zoe Saldana (born June 19, 1978), American actress
Zoë Salmon (born 1980), Northern Irish television presenter
Zoë Straub (born 1996), Austrian singer, songwriter, and actress
Zoe Strauss (born 1970), American photographer
Zoe Sugg (born 1990), English beauty blogger & vlogger
Zoé Valdés (born 1959), Cuban writer
Zoe Ventoura (born 1981), Australian actress
Zoe Verbiceanu (1893-1975), Romanian playwright and translator
Zoe Viccaji, Pakistani singer
Zoë Wanamaker (born 1949), British-based American actress
Zoe Wiseman (born 1970), American Photographer and Model
Zoey Zane (aka Emily Sander; 1989–2007), murder victim
Fictional characters[edit]
Zoé (Little Big Adventure)
Zoe (Sesame Street), Muppet character on Sesame Street
Zoë (Sluggy Freelance)
Zoey (Pokémon), Dawn's pal
Zoe (Lee Soo-yeon), from Missing You
Zoë, character in the series Monarch of the Glen
Zoey, Rudolph's love interest in Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer: The Movie
Zoe, main character played by Jennifer Lopez in The Back-up Plan
Zoe, character in, and the subject of, the play The Octoroon
Zoe Belmont, A character from Castlevania
Zoey, one of the four Survivors in Left 4 Dead
Zoey, a character in Total Drama: Revenge of the Island, the fourth season of the Total Drama series
Zoe Aves, A character from El Tigre:The Adventures of Manny Rivera
Zoe Barnes, newspaper reporter/blogger, House of Cards (U.S. TV series)
Zoey Bartlet, youngest daughter of President Barlet on the TV series The West Wing
Zoe Benson (American Horror Story), a young witch enrolled in Miss Robichaux's Academy for Exceptional Young Ladies American Horror Story: Coven
Zoë Boutin Perry, protagonist and narrator of John Scalzi's novel Zoe's Tale
Zoe Busiek, protagonist to the drama Wild Card (TV series)
Zoey Brooks, main character on Zoey 101
Zoe Carpenter from British soap opera Hollyoaks
Zoe Carter from Eureka
Zoë Castillo (Seeker, Nomad, Dreamer), the primary protagonist of a computer game Dreamfall: The Longest Journey
Zoe Franklin, A character from the Dork Diaries book series
Zoe Graystone, from Caprica
Zoey Hanson, Ichigo Momomiya's English dub name in Tokyo Mew Mew (Mew Mew Power)
Zoe Hange, or Hange Zoe, a character from the anime series Attack on Titan
Zoe Hart in the U.S. TV series Hart of Dixie and is played by Rachel Bilson
Zoe Heriot, from Doctor Who
Zoe Landau, ex-wife of lead character Cal Lightman on television series Lie to Me
Zoe Luper, from All My Children
Zoe MacPherson, character from the Baby Blues comic strip and TV adaption
Zoe Newton, character from EastEnders
Zoë Nightshade, character from the Percy Jackson & the Olympians book series
Zoe Orimoto (Izumi Orimoto in Japanese version), from Digimon Frontier
Zoe Payne, from the game SSX
Zoey Pierson, Ted's environmentalist girlfriend in How I Met Your Mother
Zoey Redbird, the protagonist of the House of Night novels
Zoe Reynolds, from Spooks (MI-5 in the USA)
Zoe Rivas, from Degrassi
Zoe Slater, main character from EastEnders
Zoe Trent, from Littlest Pet Shop (2012 TV series)
Zoe Washburne, from Firefly
Zoey Woodbine, from the sitcom Cybill
Zoe Young, from the animated series Fantastic Max
Zoe, from Chernobyl Diaries
Zoe, from Zombeavers
This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zoe_(name)&oldid=827901885"
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Greek feminine given names
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Zoe (empress)

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text:
List of largest oil and gas companies by revenue
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Global largest Oil and Gas companies[edit]
Country
Company name
Revenue 2015
(US$ billion)
Saudi Aramco 455.49
Sinopec 448.00
China National Petroleum Corporation 428.62
PetroChina 367.982
Exxon Mobil 268.9
Royal Dutch Shell 265
Kuwait Petroleum Corporation 251.94
BP 222.8
Total SA 212
Lukoil 144.17
Eni 131.82
Valero Energy 130.84
Petrobras 130.00*
Chevron Corporation 129.9
PDVSA 128.44
Pemex 117.50
National Iranian Oil Company 110.00**
Gazprom 106.3
Petronas 100.74
China National Offshore Oil 98.53
Marathon Petroleum 97.81
PTT 93.55
Rosneft 91.72
JX Holdings 90.67
Engie 89.64
Statoil 82.48
Indian Oil Corporation 81.55
Sonatrach 76.10**
Reliance Industries 73.10
Pertamina 70.65
Conoco Phillips 55.52
GS Caltex 50.26
Enterprise Products 47.95
Repsol 47.29
Centrica 45.29
Bharat Petroleum 43.46
OMV Group 43.09
SOCAR 39.70
Idemitsu Kosan 38.58
Hindustan Petroleum 37.85
PKN Orlen 36.1
Schlumberger 35.47
Suncor Energy 34.66
Hellenic Petroleum 31.28
Motor Oil Hellas 28.98
Ecopetrol 26.99
CEPSA 26.90
ONGC 24.00
* Revenue in 2013 ** Revenue in 2012

See also[edit]
List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue
List of largest financial services companies by revenue
List of largest companies by revenue
List of public corporations by market capitalization
List of companies by profit and loss
List of corporations by market capitalization
Fortune Global 500
Forbes Global 2000
References[edit]
CNN Money - Fortune Global 500
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_largest_oil_and_gas_companies_by_revenue&oldid=823599189"
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Value (ethics)
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"Values" redirects here. For other uses, see Values (disambiguation).
In ethics, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining what actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. It may be described as treating actions as abstract objects, putting value to them. It deals with right conduct and living a good life, in the sense that a highly, or at least relatively high valuable action may be regarded as ethically "good" (adjective sense), and that an action of low value, or relatively low in value, may be regarded as "bad".[citation needed] What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethic values of the objects it increases, decreases or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).
Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be classified as vices or virtues.
Contents
[hide]
1 Study
1.1 Similar concepts
2 Personal versus cultural perspectives
2.1 Personal values
2.2 Cultural values
3 Transmission
4 Properties and forms
4.1 Relative or absolute
4.2 Intrinsic or extrinsic
4.2.1 Summation
4.3 Intensity
4.3.1 Homology in physics
4.4 Positive and negative value
4.5 Protected value
5 Value system
5.1 Consistency
5.2 Value exceptions
5.3 Conflict
6 Economic and philosophic value
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Study[edit]
Ethical value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similarly, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of the more broad (and vague) philosophic value. Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions.
The study of ethical value is also included in value theory. In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology, behavioral economics, business ethics, corporate governance, moral philosophy, political sciences, social psychology, sociology and theology.
Similar concepts[edit]
Ethical value is sometimes used synonymously with goodness. However, goodness has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous.
Personal versus cultural perspectives[edit]
Personal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate.
Personal values[edit]
Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values generate behaviour[1] and influence the choices made by an individual.
Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them.[clarification needed] Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views.[2]
Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the implicit nature of value communication.[3]
Cultural values[edit]
The Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world, constructed by sociopolitical scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel based on the World Values Survey.
Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas. In the United States of America, for example, top-level professional athletes receive more honor (measured in terms of monetary payment) than university professors. Another example is that certain voters (taken from surveys)[citation needed] in the United States would not willingly elect an atheist as president, suggesting that believing in a God is a generally shared value.
Values clarification differs from cognitive moral education:
Value clarification consists of "helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. It encourages students to define their own values and to understand others' values."[4]
Cognitive moral education builds on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.[4]
Values relate to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest respect at a funeral. Different cultures reflect values differently and to different levels of emphasis. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others."[4] Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students.
Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.
If a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law.[clarification needed]
Furthermore, institutions in the global economy can genuinely respect values which are of three kinds based on a "triangle of coherence".[5] In the first instance, a value may come to expression within the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as (in the second instance) within the United Nations – particularly in the Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) – providing a framework for global legitimacy through accountability. In the third instance, the expertise of member-driven international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of identity in a globalized world.[6]
Nonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in the field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. EU policies based on the notion of "cultural exception" can become juxtaposed with the policy of "cultural specificity" on the liberal Anglo-Saxon side. Indeed, international law traditionally treats films as property and the content of television programs as a service.[citation needed] Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations.[7]
Transmission[edit]
Values are generally received through cultural means, especially transmission from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values.[8] For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays.[9] Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament.[8] Spanish parents want their children to be sociable.[8] Swedish parents value security and happiness.[8] Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules.[8] American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense.[8] The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call ng'om. Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call "nyadhi".[8]
The reception of values can be regarded as a part of socialization.
Properties and forms[edit]
Relative or absolute[edit]
Relative values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On the other hand, there are theories of the existence of absolute values,[10] which can also be termed noumenal values (and not to be confused with mathematical absolute value). An absolute value can be described as philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. Ludwig Wittgenstein was pessimistic towards the idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; "we can speak as much as we want about "life" and "its meaning," and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will".[11]
Intrinsic or extrinsic[edit]
Philosophic value may be split into instrumental value and intrinsic values. An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties.
An ethic good with instrumental value may be termed an ethic mean, and an ethic good with intrinsic value may be termed an end-in-itself. An object may be both a mean and end-in-itself.
Summation[edit]
Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories.[12] Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the sum of instrumental (specifically the all instrumental value) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in value systems, which is a set of consistent values and measures.
Intensity[edit]
The intensity of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value.[12]
It should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of instrumental value conditionality. For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being the end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity.
Instrumental value conditionality in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible.
In many life stances it is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. Maximizing lifestances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative.
Homology in physics[edit]
When comparing to the homologous measure in physics, then intensity in physics may not be the best example, but may better be described as its area. In this sense, power in physics may be compared to the amount of value per object, and physical intensity the product of value per object and ethic intensity. If there is no physical area, then no energy is generated, regardless of physical power. In the same way, if there is no ethic intensity, then no total value is generated, regardless of value per object.
Positive and negative value[edit]
There may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that is avoided or minimized.
Negative value may be both intrinsic negative value and/or instrumental negative value.
Protected value[edit]
A protected value (also sacred value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many others individuals. Protected values tend to be "intrinsically good", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary.[13] If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing a person and defending your family they are called tragic trade-offs.[14]
Protected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the Israeli-Palestinian conflict) because they can hinder businesslike (''utilitarian'') negotiations.[15] A series of experimental studies directed by Scott Atran and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the ISIS frontline in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe [16] suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate the most "devoted actors" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary.[17] From the perspective of utilitarianism, protected values are biases when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals.[18]
According to Jonathan Baron and Mark Spranca,[19] protected values arise from norms as described in theories of deontological ethics (the latter often being referred to in context with Immanuel Kant). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just the consequences of it.
Value system[edit]
A value system is a set of consistent values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity.
Consistency[edit]
As a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.
A value system in its own right is internally consistent when
its values do not contradict each other and
its exceptions are or could be
abstract enough to be used in all situations and
consistently applied.
Conversely, a value system by itself is internally inconsistent if:
its values contradict each other and
its exceptions are
highly situational and
inconsistently applied.
Value exceptions[edit]
Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems:
An idealized value system is a listing of values that lacks exceptions. It is, therefore, absolute and can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior. Those who hold to their idealized value system and claim no exceptions (other than the default) are called absolutists.
A realized value system contains exceptions to resolve contradictions between values in practical circumstances. This type is what people tend to use in daily life.
The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.
Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value is violated". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone’s life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions.
Conflict[edit]
Although sharing a set of common values, like hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions are right or wrong, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an ideological or physical conflict. Ethonomics, the discipline of rigorously examining and comparing value systems[citation needed], enables us to understand politics and motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts.
An example conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a value system based on collectivism. A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below. Note that added exceptions can become recursive and often convoluted.
Individuals may act freely unless their actions harm others or interfere with others' freedom or with functions of society that individuals need, provided those functions do not themselves interfere with these proscribed individual rights and were agreed to by a majority of the individuals.
A society (or more specifically the system of order that enables the workings of a society) exists for the purpose of benefiting the lives of the individuals who are members of that society. The functions of a society in providing such benefits would be those agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society.
A society may require contributions from its members in order for them to benefit from the services provided by the society. The failure of individuals to make such required contributions could be considered a reason to deny those benefits to them, although a society could elect to consider hardship situations in determining how much should be contributed.
A society may restrict behavior of individuals who are members of the society only for the purpose of performing its designated functions agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society, only insofar as they violate the aforementioned values. This means that a society may abrogate the rights of any of its members who fails to uphold the aforementioned values.
Economic and philosophic value[edit]
Further information: Value (economics)
Philosophical value is distinguished from economic value, since it is independent on some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low.
Nevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In the subjective theory of value, the personal philosophic value a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the personal philosophic value of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have a "personal economic value" in contrast to its "societal economic value."
See also[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Value (ethics)
Attitude (psychology)
Clyde Kluckhohn and his value orientation theory
Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture
Instrumental and intrinsic value
Intercultural communication
Meaning of life
Paideia
Rokeach Value Survey
Spiral Dynamics
Value judgment
World Values Survey
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rokeach, Milton (1973). The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free Press.
Jump up ^ Maiese, Michelle. "Causes of Disputes and Conflicts." Beyond Intractability. Ed. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. October 2003. Downloaded 13 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Common values? Fifty-Two Cases of Value Semantics Copying on Corporate Websites by Steffen Roth. Human Systems Management 32(4) (2013): 249–65. doi:10.3233/HSM-130801
^ Jump up to: a b c Santrock, J.W. (2007). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Jump up ^ Lamy, Pascal, WTO Director-General, Speech to the European University Institute in Florence on 19 February 2011 (http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/sppl187_e.htm)
Jump up ^ Lynn R. Kahle, Pierre Valette-Florence (2012). Marketplace Lifestyles in an Age of Social Media. New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7656-2561-8.
Jump up ^ Hacker, Violaine (2011a), "Building Medias Industry while promoting a community of values in the globalization: from quixotic choices to pragmatic boon for EU Citizens", Politické Védy-Journal of Political Science, Slovakia, pp. 64–74.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Day, Nicholas (10 April 2013). "Parental ethnotheories and how parents in America differ from parents everywhere else". Slate. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Day, Nicholas (9 April 2013). "Give Your Baby a Machete". Slate. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ On Wittgenstein's Claim That Ethical Value Judgments Are Nonsense by Arto Tukiainen. Minerva – An Internet Journal of Philosophy 15 (2011): 102–11. ISSN 1393-614X
Jump up ^ Yaniv Iczkovits (2012). Wittgenstein's Ethical Thought. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 46. ISBN 9781137026354.
^ Jump up to: a b Inherent and Instrumental Values in Ethics by Stanley Riukas
Jump up ^ Ritov, and Baron, Ilana, and Jonathan. Protected Values and Omission Bias (PDF). University of Jerusalem, University of Pennsilvanya. pp. 89, 90.
Jump up ^ Tetlock, Philip E. "Thinking the unthinkable: sacred values and taboo cognitions". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (7): 320–24. doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00135-9.
Jump up ^ Atran, Scott; Ginges, Jeremy (2012-05-18). "Religious and Sacred Imperatives in Human Conflict". Science. 336 (6083): 855–57. doi:10.1126/science.1216902. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22605762.
Jump up ^ "The devoted actor's will to fight and the spiritual dimension of human conflict". Nature Human Behaviour. 1. 2017. doi:10.1038/s41562-017-0193-3.
Jump up ^ Hutson, Mathew (September 5, 2017). "Why do people die fighting for a cause?". Science. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baron, Jonathan, Ilana, Ritov (2009). Protected Values and omissions Bias as Deontological Judgements (PDF). Elsevier Inc. pp. 134–35.
Jump up ^ Baron, Jonathan and Spranca, Mark (1997). "Protected values". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 70(1), 1–16.
Further reading[edit]
The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. Arno Tausch; Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui. Hauppauge, New York; Nova Science Publishers, 2015
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interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilai
Nilai – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: ערך (סוציולוגיה) – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Құндылық – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Valoare (personal și cultural) – Romanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Ценность – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrednota
Vrednota – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Вредност (етика) – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvo
Arvo – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prinsipyo
Prinsipyo – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: விழுமியம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Кыйммәт – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: Цінність – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: اقدار (اخلاقیات) – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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