text:
Social support
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Old man at a nursing home in Norway.
Social support is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and most popularly, that one is part of a supportive social network. These supportive resources can be emotional (e.g., nurturance), tangible (e.g., financial assistance), informational (e.g., advice), or companionship (e.g., sense of belonging) and intangible (e.g., personal advice).
Social support can be measured as the perception that one has assistance available, the actual received assistance, or the degree to which a person is integrated in a social network. Support can come from many sources, such as family, friends, pets, neighbors, coworkers, organizations, etc. Government-provided social support is often referred to as public aid in foreign nations.
Social support is studied across a wide range of disciplines including psychology, medicine, sociology, nursing, public health, education, rehabilitation[disambiguation needed], and social work. Social support has been linked to many benefits for both physical and mental health, but "social support" (e.g., gossiping about friends) is not always beneficial.
Social support theories and models were prevalent as intensive academic studies in the 1980s and 1990s [1] [2], and are linked to the development of caregiving and payment models, and community delivery systems in the US and around the world. [3]
Two main models have been proposed to describe the link between social support and health: the buffering hypothesis and the direct effects hypothesis.[4] Gender and cultural differences in social support have also been found [5]in fields such as education "which may not control for age, disability, income and social status, ethnic and racial, or other significant factors".
Contents
[hide]
1 Categories and definitions
1.1 Distinctions in measurement
1.2 Sources
1.3 Online social support[35]
2 Links to mental and physical health
2.1 Benefits
2.1.1 Mental health
2.1.2 Physical health
2.2 Costs
2.3 Two dominant models
2.4 Theories to explain the links
2.5 Biological pathways
2.6 Support groups
2.7 Providing support
2.8 Social defence system
3 Gender and culture
3.1 Gender differences
3.2 Cultural differences
4 See also
5 References
Categories and definitions[edit]
Distinctions in measurement[edit]
Social support can be categorized and measured in several different ways.
There are four common functions of social support:[6][7][8]
Emotional support is the offering of empathy, concern, affection, love, trust, acceptance, intimacy, encouragement, or caring.[9][10] It is the warmth and nurturance provided by sources of social support.[11] Providing emotional support can let the individual know that he or she is valued.[10] It is also referred to as "esteem support" or "appraisal support."[6]
Tangible support is the provision of financial assistance, material goods, or services.[12][13] Also called instrumental support, this form of social support encompasses the concrete, direct ways people assist others.[9]
Informational support is the provision of advice, guidance, suggestions, or useful information to someone.[6][14] This type of information has the potential to help others problem-solve.[9][15]
Companionship support is the type of support that gives someone a sense of social belonging (and is also called belonging).[6] This can be seen as the presence of companions to engage in shared social activities.[16]
Researchers also commonly make a distinction between perceived and received support.[11][17] Perceived support refers to a recipient’s subjective judgment that providers will offer (or have offered) effective help during times of need. Received support (also called enacted support) refers to specific supportive actions (e.g., advice or reassurance) offered by providers during times of need.[18]
Furthermore, social support can be measured in terms of structural support or functional support.[19] Structural support (also called social integration) refers to the extent to which a recipient is connected within a social network, like the number of social ties or how integrated a person is within his or her social network.[17][6] Family relationships, friends, and membership in clubs and organizations contribute to social integration.[20] Functional support looks at the specific functions that members in this social network can provide, such as the emotional, instrumental, informational, and companionship support listed above.[21] Data suggests that emotional support may play a more significant role in protecting individuals from the deleterious effects of stress than structural means of support, such as social involvement or activity.[22]
These different types of social support have different patterns of correlations with health, personality, and personal relationships.[17][23] For example, perceived support is consistently linked to better mental health whereas received support and social integration are not.[17][23] In fact, research indicates that perceived social support that is untapped can be more effective and beneficial than utilized social support.[24] Some have suggested that invisible support, a form of support where the person has support without his or her awareness, may be the most beneficial.[25][26][27]
Sources[edit]
Social support can come from a variety of sources, including (but not limited to): family, friends, romantic partners, pets, community ties, and coworkers.[11] Sources of support can be natural (e.g., family and friends) or more formal (e.g., mental health specialists or community organizations).[28] The source of the social support is an important determinant of its effectiveness as a coping strategy. Support from a romantic partner is associated with health benefits, particularly for men.[29] However, one study has found that although support from spouses buffered the negative effects of work stress, it did not buffer the relationship between marital and parental stresses, because the spouses were implicated in these situations.However, work-family specific support worked more to alleviate work-family stress that feeds into marital and parental stress.[30] Interestingly, employee humor is negatively associated with burnout, and positively with, stress, health and stress coping effectiveness.[30] Additionally, social support from friends did provide a buffer in response to marital stress, because they were less implicated in the marital dynamic.[31]
Early familial social support has been shown to be important in children’s abilities to develop social competencies,[32] and supportive parental relationships have also had benefits for college-aged students.[33] Teacher and school personnel support have been shown to be stronger than other relationships of support. This is hypothesized to be a result of family and friend social relationships to be subject to conflicts whereas school relationships are more stable.[34]
Online social support[35][edit]
Social support is also available among social media sites. As technology advances, the availability for online support increases. Social support can be offered through social media websites such as blogs, Facebook groups, health forums, and online support groups. According to Hwang, the support is similar to face-to-face social support, but also offers the unique aspects of convenience, anonymity, and non-judgmental interactions.[36] Support sought through social media also provides users with emotional comfort that relates them to others while creating awareness about particular health issues.
Research conducted by Winzelberg et al. evaluated an online support group for women with breast cancer finding participants were able to form fulfilling supportive relationships in an asynchronous format and this form of support proved to be effective in reducing participants' scores on depression, perceived stress, and cancer-related trauma measures.[37] This type of online communication can increase the ability to cope with stress. Social support through social media is available to everyone with internet access and allows users to create relationships and receive encouragement for whatever issue they may be facing.
Coulson claims online support groups provide a unique opportunity for health professionals to learn about the experiences and views of individuals.[38] This type of social support can also benefit users by providing them with a variety of information. Seeking informational social support allows users to access suggestions, advice, and information regarding health concerns or recovery. Many need social support, and with its emergence on social media access can be obtained from a wider range of people in need. Wong and Ma (2016) have done research that shows online social support affects users' online subjective well-being. [39]
Links to mental and physical health[edit]
Benefits[edit]
Mental health[edit]
Social support profile is associated with increased psychological well-being in the workplace[40] and in response to important life events.[41] In stressful times, social support helps people reduce psychological distress (e.g., anxiety or depression).[11] Social support can simultaneously function as a problem-focused (e.g. receiving tangible information that helps resolve an issue) and emotion-focused coping strategy (e.g. used to regulate emotional responses that arise from the stressful event)[42] Social support ≤has been found to promote psychological adjustment in conditions with chronic high stress like HIV,[43] rheumatoid arthritis,[44] cancer,[45] stroke,[46] and coronary artery disease.[47] Additionally, social support has been associated with various acute and chronic pain variables (for more information, see Chronic pain).
People with low social support report more sub-clinical symptoms of depression and anxiety than do people with high social support.[17][48] In addition, people with low social support have higher rates of major mental disorder than those with high support. These include posttraumatic stress disorder,[49] panic disorder,[50] social phobia,[51] major depressive disorder,[52] dysthymic disorder,[53] and eating disorders.[54][55] Among people with schizophrenia, those with low social support have more symptoms of the disorder.[56] In addition, people with low support have more suicidal ideation,[57] and more alcohol and (illicit and prescription) drug problems.[58][59] Similar results have been found among children.[60] Religious coping has especially been shown to correlate positively with positive psychological adjustment to stressors with enhancement of faith-based social support hypothesized as the likely mechanism of effect.[61][62] However, more recent research reveals the role of religiosity/spirituality in enhancing social support may be overstated and in fact disappears when the personality traits of "agreeableness" and "conscientiousness" are also included as predictors.[63]
In a 2013 study, Akey et al. did a qualitative study of 34 men and women diagnosed with an eating disorder and used the Health Belief Model (HBM) to explain the reasons for which they forgo seeking social support. Many people with eating disorders have a low perceived susceptibility, which can be explained as a sense of denial about their illness. Their perceived severity of the illness is affected by those to whom they compare themselves to, often resulting in people believing their illness is not severe enough to seek support. Due to poor past experiences or educated speculation, the perception of benefits for seeking social support is relatively low. The number of perceived barriers towards seeking social support often prevents people with eating disorders from getting the support they need to better cope with their illness. Such barriers include fear of social stigma, financial resources, and availability and quality of support. Self-efficacy may also explain why people with eating disorders do not seek social support, because they may not know how to properly express their need for help. This research has helped to create a better understanding of why individuals with eating disorders do not seek social support, and may lead to increased efforts to make such support more available. Eating disorders are classified as mental illnesses but can also have physical health repercussions. Creating a strong social support system for those affected by eating disorders may help such individuals to have a higher quality of both mental and physical health.[64]
Various studies have been performed examining the effects of social support on psychological distress. Interest in the implications of social support were triggered by a series of articles published in the mid-1970s, each reviewing literature examining the association between psychiatric disorders and factors such as change in marital status, geographic mobility, and social disintegration.[65][66] Researchers realized that the theme present in each of these situations is the absence of adequate social support and the disruption of social networks. This observed relationship sparked numerous studies concerning the effects of social support on mental health.
One particular study documented the effects of social support as a coping strategy on psychological distress in response to stressful work and life events among police officers. Talking things over among coworkers was the most frequent form of coping utilized while on duty, whereas most police officers kept issues to themselves while off duty. The study found that the social support between co-workers significantly buffered the relationship between work-related events and distress.[67]
Other studies have examined the social support systems of single mothers. One study by D'Ercole demonstrated that the effects of social support vary in both form and function and will have drastically different effects depending upon the individual. The study found that supportive relationships with friends and co-workers, rather than task-related support from family, was positively related to the mother's psychological well-being. D'Ercole hypothesizes that friends of a single parent offer a chance to socialize, match experiences, and be part of a network of peers. These types of exchanges may be more spontaneous and less obligatory than those between relatives. Additionally, co-workers can provide a community away from domestic life, relief from family demands, a source of recognition, and feelings of competence. D'Ercole also found an interesting statistical interaction whereby social support from co-workers decreased the experience of stress only in lower income individuals. The author hypothesizes that single women who earn more money are more likely to hold more demanding jobs which require more formal and less dependent relationships. Additionally, those women who earn higher incomes are more likely to be in positions of power, where relationships are more competitive than supportive.[68]
Many studies have been dedicated specifically to understanding the effects of social support in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In a study by Haden et al., when victims of severe trauma perceived high levels of social support and engaged in interpersonal coping styles, they were less likely to develop severe PTSD when compared to those who perceived lower levels of social support. These results suggest that high levels of social support alleviate the strong positive association between level of injury and severity of PTSD, and thus serves as a powerful protective factor.[69] In general, data shows that the support of family and friends has a positive influence on an individual's ability to cope with trauma. In fact, a meta-analysis by Brewin et al. found that social support was the strongest predictor, accounting for 40%, of variance in PTSD severity.[70] However, perceived social support may be directly affected by the severity of the trauma. In some cases, support decreases with increases in trauma severity.[71]
College students have also been the target of various studies on the effects of social support on coping. Reports between 1990 and 2003 showed college stresses were increasing in severity.[72] Studies have also shown that college students' perceptions of social support have shifted from viewing support as stable to viewing them as variable and fluctuating.[73] In the face of such mounting stress, students naturally seek support from family and friends in order to alleviate psychological distress. A study by Chao found a significant two-way correlation between perceived stress and social support, as well as a significant three-way correlation between perceived stress, social support, and dysfunctional coping. The results indicated that high levels of dysfunctional coping deteriorated the association between stress and well-being at both high and low levels of social support, suggesting that dysfunctional coping can deteriorate the positive buffering action of social support on well-being.[74] Students who reported social support were found more likely to engage in less healthy activities, including sedentary behavior, drug and alcohol use, and too much or too little sleep.[75] Lack of social support in college students is also strongly related to life dissatisfaction and suicidal behavior.[76]
Physical health[edit]
Social support has a clearly demonstrated link to physical health outcomes in individuals, with numerous ties to physical health including mortality. People with low social support are at a much higher risk of death from a variety of diseases (e.g., cancer or cardiovascular disease).[21][23] Numerous studies have shown that people with higher social support have an increased likelihood for survival.[77]
Individuals with lower levels of social support have: more cardiovascular disease,[23] more inflammation and less effective immune system functioning,[78][79] more complications during pregnancy,[80] and more functional disability and pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis,[81] among many other findings. Conversely, higher rates of social support have been associated with numerous positive outcomes, including faster recovery from coronary artery surgery,[82] less susceptibility to herpes attacks,[83][84] a lowered likelihood to show age-related cognitive decline,[85] and better diabetes control.[86][87][88][89] People with higher social support are also less likely to develop colds and are able to recover faster if they are ill from a cold.[90] There is sufficient evidence linking cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune system function with higher levels of social support.[27] Social support predicts less atherosclerosis and can slow the progression of an already diagnosed cardiovascular disease.[91] There is also a clearly demonstrated link between social support and better immune function, especially in older adults.[91] While links have been shown between neuroendocrine functionality and social support, further understanding is required before specific significant claims can be made.[91] Social support is also hypothesized to be beneficial in the recovery from less severe cancers.[92] Research focuses on breast cancers, but in more serious cancers factors such as severity and spread are difficult to operationalize in the context of impacts of social support.[92] The field of physical health often struggles with the confoundment of variables by external factors that are difficult to control, such as the entangled impact of life events on social support and the buffering impact these events have.[93] There are serious ethical concerns involved with controlling too many factors of social support in individuals, leading to an interesting crossroads in the research.[93]
Costs[edit]
Social support is integrated into service delivery schemes and sometimes are a primary service provided by governmental contracted entities (e.g., companionship, peer services, family caregiving). Community services known by the nomenclature community support, and workers by a similar title, Direct Support Professional, have a base in social and community support "ideology". [94] [95] All supportive services from supported employment to supported housing, family support, supported education, and supportive living are based upon the relationship between "informal and formal" supports, and "paid and unpaid caregiving". [96]Inclusion studies, based upon affiliation and friendship, or the conversely, have a similar theoretical basis [97] [98] as do "person-centered support" strategies.
Social support theories are often found in "real life" in cultural, music and arts communities, and as might be expected within religious communities. Social support is integral in theories of aging, and the "social care systems" have often been challenged (e.g., creativity throughout the lifespan, extra retirement hours). [99] [100] Ed Skarnulis' (state director) adage, "Support, don't supplant the family" applies to other forms of social support networks.
Although there are many benefits to social support, it is not always beneficial. It has been proposed that in order for social support to be beneficial, the social support desired by the individual has to match the support given to him or her; this is known as the matching hypothesis.[48][101][102] Psychological stress may increase if a different type of support is provided than what the recipient wishes to receive (e.g., informational is given when emotional support is sought).[103][104] Additionally, elevated levels of perceived stress can impact the effect of social support on health-related outcomes.[105]
Other costs have been associated with social support. For example, received support has not been linked consistently to either physical or mental health;[17][23] perhaps surprisingly, received support has sometimes been linked to worse mental health.[26] Additionally, if social support is overly intrusive, it can increase stress.[106] It is important when discussing social support to always consider the possibility that the social support system is actually an antagonistic influence on an individual.[91]
Two dominant models[edit]
There are two dominant hypotheses addressing the link between social support and health: the buffering hypothesis and the direct effects hypothesis.[48] The main difference between these two hypotheses is that the direct effects hypothesis predicts that social support is beneficial all the time, while the buffering hypothesis predicts that social support is mostly beneficial during stressful times. Evidence has been found for both hypotheses.[11]
In the buffering hypothesis, social support protects (or "buffers") people from the bad effects of stressful life events (e.g., death of a spouse, job loss).[48] Evidence for stress buffering is found when the correlation between stressful events and poor health is weaker for people with high social support than for people with low social support. The weak correlation between stress and health for people with high social support is often interpreted to mean that social support has protected people from stress. Stress buffering is more likely to be observed for perceived support than for social integration[48] or received support.[17] The theoretical concept or construct of resiliency is associated with coping theories.
In the direct effects (also called main effects) hypothesis, people with high social support are in better health than people with low social support, regardless of stress.[48] In addition to showing buffering effects, perceived support also shows consistent direct effects for mental health outcomes.[52] Both perceived support and social integration show main effects for physical health outcomes.[23] However, received (enacted) support rarely shows main effects.[17][23]
Theories to explain the links[edit]
Several theories have been proposed to explain social support’s link to health. Stress and coping social support theory[17][48][101][104] dominates social support research[107] and is designed to explain the buffering hypothesis described above. According to this theory, social support protects people from the bad health effects of stressful events (i.e., stress buffering) by influencing how people think about and cope with the events. An example in 2018 are the effects of school shootings on the well being and future of children and children's health. According to stress and coping theory,[108] events are stressful insofar as people have negative thoughts about the event (appraisal) and cope ineffectively. Coping consists of deliberate, conscious actions such as problem solving or relaxation. As applied to social support, stress and coping theory suggests that social support promotes adaptive appraisal and coping.[48][104] Evidence for stress and coping social support theory is found in studies that observe stress buffering effects for perceived social support.[48] One problem with this theory is that, as described previously, stress buffering is not seen for social integration,[109] and that received support is typically not linked to better health outcomes.[17][23]
Relational regulation theory (RRT)[107] is another theory, which is designed to explain main effects (the direct effects hypothesis) between perceived support and mental health. As mentioned previously, perceived support has been found to have both buffering and direct effects on mental health.[110] RRT was proposed in order to explain perceived support’s main effects on mental health which cannot be explained by the stress and coping theory.[107] RRT hypothesizes that the link between perceived support and mental health comes from people regulating their emotions through ordinary conversations and shared activities rather than through conversations on how to cope with stress. This regulation is relational in that the support providers, conversation topics and activities that help regulate emotion are primarily a matter of personal taste. This is supported by previous work showing that the largest part of perceived support is relational in nature.[111]
Life-span theory[23] is another theory to explain the links of social support and health, which emphasizes the differences between perceived and received support. According to this theory, social support develops throughout the life span, but especially in childhood attachment with parents. Social support develops along with adaptive personality traits such as low hostility, low neuroticism, high optimism, as well as social and coping skills. Together, support and other aspects of personality ("psychological theories") influence health largely by promoting health practices (e.g., exercise and weight management) and by preventing health-related stressors (e.g., job loss, divorce). Evidence for life-span theory includes that a portion of perceived support is trait-like,[111] and that perceived support is linked to adaptive personality characteristics and attachment experiences.[23] Lifespan theories are popular from their origins in Schools of Human Ecology at the universities, aligned with family theories, and researched through federal centers over decades (e.g., University of Kansas, Beach Center for Families; Cornell University, School of Human Ecology).
Of the Big Five Personality Traits, agreeableness is associated with people receiving the most social support and having the least-strained relationships at work and home. Receiving support from a supervisor in the workplace is associated with alleviating tensions both at work and at home, as are interdependency and idiocentrism of an employee.[112]
Biological pathways[edit]
Many studies have tried to identify biopsychosocial pathways for the link between social support and health. Social support has been found to positively impact the immune, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular systems.[113] Although these systems are listed separately here, evidence has shown that these systems can interact and affect each other.[23]
Immune system: Social support is generally associated with better immune function.[78][114] For example, being more socially integrated is correlated with lower levels of inflammation (as measured by C-reactive protein, a marker of inflammation),[115] and people with more social support have a lower susceptibility to the common cold.[90]
Neuroendocrine system: Social support has been linked to lower cortisol ("stress hormone") levels in response to stress.[116] Neuroimaging work has found that social support decreases activation of regions in the brain associated with social distress, and that this diminished activity was also related to lowered cortisol levels.[117]
Cardiovascular system: Social support has been found to lower cardiovascular reactivity to stressors.[78] It has been found to lower blood pressure and heart rates,[118] which are known to benefit the cardiovascular system.
Though many benefits have been found, not all research indicates positive effects of social support on these systems.[11] For example, sometimes the presence of a support figure can lead to increased neuroendocrine and physiological activity.[29]
Support groups[edit]
Main article: Support group
Social support groups can be a source of informational support, by providing valuable educational information, and emotional support, including encouragement from people experiencing similar circumstances.[119][120] Studies have generally found beneficial effects for social support group interventions for various conditions,[121] including Internet support groups.[122] These groups may be termed "self help" groups in nation-states, may be offered by non-profit organizations, and in 2018, may be paid for as part of governmental reimbursement schemes.
Providing support[edit]
There are both costs and benefits to providing support to others. Providing long-term care or support for someone else is a chronic stressor that has been associated with anxiety, depression, alterations in the immune system, and increased mortality.[123][124] Thus, family caregivers and "university personnel" alike have advocated for both respite or relief, and higher payments related to ongoing, long-term caregiving. However, providing support has also been associated with health benefits. In fact, providing instrumental support to friends, relatives, and neighbors, or emotional support to spouses has been linked to a significant decrease in the risk for mortality.[125] Also, a recent neuroimaging study found that giving support to a significant other during a distressful experience increased activation in reward areas of the brain.[126]
Social defence system[edit]
In 1959 Isabel Menzies Lyth identified that threat to a person’s identity in a group where they share similar characteristics develops a defence system inside the group which stems from emotions experienced by members of the group, which are difficult to articulate, cope with and finds solutions to. Together with an external pressure on efficiency a collusive and injunctive system develops that is resistant to change, supports their activities and prohibit others from performing their major tasks.[127][128]
Gender and culture[edit]
Gender differences[edit]
Gender differences have been found in social support research.[18] Women provide more social support to others and are more engaged in their social networks.[109][129][130] Evidence has also supported the notion that women may be better providers of social support.[109] In addition to being more involved in the giving of support, women are also more likely to seek out social support to deal with stress, especially from their spouses. However, one study indicates that there are no differences in the extent to which men and women seek appraisal, informational, and instrumental types of support. Rather, the big difference lies in seeking emotional support.[131][132] Additionally, social support may be more beneficial to women.[133] Shelley Taylor and her colleagues have suggested that these gender differences in social support may stem from the biological difference between men and women in how they respond to stress (i.e., flight or fight versus tend and befriend).[130] Married men are less likely to be depressed compared to non-married men after the presence of a particular stressor because men are able to delegate their emotional burdens to their partner, and women have been shown to be influenced and act more in reaction to social context compared to men.[134] It has been found that men’s behaviors are overall more antisocial, with less regard to the impact their coping may have upon others, and women more prosocial-active with importance stressed on how their coping affects people around them.[135][136] This may explain why women are more likely to experience negative psychological problems such as depression and anxiety based on how women receive and process stressors.[134] In general, women are likely to find situations more stressful than males are. It is important to note that when the perceived stress level is the same, men and women have much fewer differences in how they seek and use social support.[131]
Cultural differences[edit]
Although social support is thought to be a universal resource, cultural differences exist in social support.[18] In many Asian cultures, the person is seen as more of a collective unit of society, whereas Western cultures are more individualistic and conceptualize social support as a transaction in which one person seeks help from another. In more interdependent Eastern cultures, people are less inclined to enlist the help of others.[24] For example, European Americans have been found to call upon their social relationships for social support more often than Asian Americans or Asians during stressful occasions,[137] and Asian Americans expect social support to be less helpful than European Americans.[138] These differences in social support may be rooted in different cultural ideas about social groups.[137][138] It is important to note that these differences are stronger in emotional support than instrumental support.[24] Additionally, ethnic differences in social support from family and friends have been found.[139]
Cultural differences in coping strategies other than social support also exist. One study shows that Koreans are more likely to report substance abuse than European Americans are. Further, European Americans are more likely to exercise in order to cope than Koreans. Some cultural explanations are that Asians are less likely to seek it from fear of disrupting the harmony of their relationships and that they are more inclined to settle their problems independently and avoid criticism. However, these differences are not found among Asian Americans relative to their Europeans American counterparts.[24]
See also[edit]
Family support
Cultural support
Invisible support
Narcissistic supply
Peer support
Social undermining
Stress (psychological)
Supported employment
Supported housing
Welfare
Social Support Questionnaire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vaux, A. (1988). Social Support: Theory, Research and Interventions. My, NY: Praeger.
Jump up ^ Racino, J. (2006). Social support. In: G. Albrecht, Encyclopedia on Disability, 1470-1471. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, S. (1995). More than they bargained for: The meaning of support to families. In: S. J. Taylor, R. Bogdan, & Lutfiyya, Z.M. The Variety of Community Experience (pp.193-210). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Harry, B., Kaylanpur, M. and Day, M. (1999). Building Cultural Reciprocity with Families: Case Studies in Special Education. London, Toronto: Brookes.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wills, T.A. (1991). Margaret, Clark, ed. "Social support and interpersonal relationships". Prosocial Behavior, Review of Personality and Social Psychology. 12: 265–289.
Jump up ^ Wills, T.A. (1985). "Supportive functions of interpersonal relationships". In S. Cohen; L. Syme. Social support and health. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. pp. 61–82.
Jump up ^ Uchino, B. (2004). Social Support and Physical Health: Understanding the Health Consequences of Relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 16–17.
^ Jump up to: a b c Langford, C.P.H.; Bowsher, J.; Maloney, J.P.; Lillis, P.P. (1997). "Social support: a conceptual analysis". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 25: 95–100. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997025095.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Slevin, M.L.; Nichols, S.E.; Downer, S.M.; Wilson, P.; Lister, T.A.; Arnott, S.; Maher, J.; Souhami, R.L.; Tobias, J.S.; Goldstone, A.H.; Cody, M. (1996). "Emotional support for cancer patients: what do patients really want?". British Journal of Cancer. 74: 1275–1279. doi:10.1038/bjc.1996.529. PMC 2075927  .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Taylor, S.E. (2011). "Social support: A Review". In M.S. Friedman. The Handbook of Health Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 189–214.
Jump up ^ Heaney, C.A., & Israel, B.A. (2008). "Social networks and social support". In Glanz, K.; Rimer, B.K.; Viswanath, K. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ House, J.S. (1981). Work stress and social support. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Jump up ^ Krause, N. (1986). "Social support, stress, and well-being". Journal of Gerontology. 41 (4): 512–519. doi:10.1093/geronj/41.4.512.
Jump up ^ Tilden, V.P.; Weinert, S.C. (1987). "Social support and the chronically ill individual". Nursing Clinics of North America. 22 (3): 613–620.
Jump up ^ Uchino, B. (2004). Social Support and Physical Health: Understanding the Health Consequences of Relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Barrera, M (1986). "Distinctions between social support concepts, measures, and models". American Journal of Community Psychology. 14 (4): 413–445. doi:10.1007/bf00922627.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gurung, R.A.R. (2006). "Coping and Social Support". Health Psychology: A Cultural Approach. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 131–171.
Jump up ^ Wills, T.A. (1998). "Social support". In Blechman, E.A.; Brownell, K.D. Behavioral medicine and women: A comprehensive handbook. New York, NY: Guilford Press. pp. 118–128.
Jump up ^ Lakey, B. "Social support and social integration" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Uchino, B. (2004). Social Support and Physical Health: Understanding the Health Consequences of Relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Jump up ^ Kessler, R. C.; McLeod, J. D. (1984). "Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events". American Sociological Review. 49: 620–631. doi:10.2307/2095420.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Uchino, B. (2009). "Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4: 236–255. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Taylor, S.E.; Sherman, D.K.; Kim, H.S.; Jarcho, J.; Takagi, K.; Dunagan, M.S. (2004). "Culture and Social Support: Who Seeks It and Why?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 87 (3): 354–362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.354. PMID 15382985.
Jump up ^ Bolger, N.; Amarel, D. (2007). "Effects of social support visibility on adjustment to stress: Experimental evidence". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92: 458–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.458. PMID 17352603.
^ Jump up to: a b Bolger, N.; Zuckerman, A.; Kessler, R.C. (2000). "Invisible support and adjustment to stress". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 79: 953–961. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.953.
^ Jump up to: a b Uchino, B (2006). "Social support and health: A review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 29 (4): 377–387. doi:10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5.
Jump up ^ Hogan, B.; Linden, W.; Najarian, B. (2002). "Social support interventions: Do they work?". Clinical Psychology Review. 22 (3): 381–440. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00102-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; Newton, T.L. (2001). "Marriage and health: His and hers". Psychological Bulletin. 127 (4): 472–503. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.472. PMID 11439708.
^ Jump up to: a b Ernst Kossek, Ellen; Pichler, S. "WORKPLACE SOCIAL SUPPORT AND WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT: A META-ANALYSIS CLARIFYING THE INFLUENCE OF GENERAL AND WORK-FAMILY-SPECIFIC SUPERVISOR AND ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT". Personnel Psychology. 64: 289–313. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01211.x. PMC 3116443  .
Jump up ^ Jackson, P. B. "Specifying the buffering hypothesis: Support, strain, and depression". Social Psychology Quarterly. 55: 363–378. doi:10.2307/2786953.
Jump up ^ Repetti, R.L.; Taylor, S.E.; Seeman, T.E. (2002). "Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring". Psychological Bulletin. 128 (2): 330–336. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.230. PMID 11931522.
Jump up ^ Valentiner, D.P.; Holahan, C.J.; Moos, R.H. (1994). "Social support, appraisals of event controllability, and coping: An integrative model". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66: 1094–1102. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.1094.
Jump up ^ Chu, P. S.; Saucier, D. A.; Hafner, E. (2010). "Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and well-being in children and adolescents". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 29 (6): 624–645. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624.
Jump up ^ Wong, E. T. K., & Ma, W. W. K. Exploring Relationship between Online Social Support and individual.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Will_Ma/publication/303147877_Exploring_relationship_between_online_social_support_and_individual_online_subjective_well-being_among_young_adults/links/57380a5408aea45ee83dbc55.pdf
Jump up ^ Hwang, Kevin O.; Ottenbacher, Allison J.; Green, Angela P.; Cannon-Diehl, M. Roseann; Richardson, Oneka; Bernstam, Elmer V.; Thomas, Eric J. (2010-01-01). "Social support in an Internet weight loss community". International journal of medical informatics. 79 (1): 5–13. doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2009.10.003. ISSN 1386-5056. PMC 3060773  . PMID 19945338.
Jump up ^ Winzelberg, Andrew J.; Classen, Catherine; Alpers, Georg W.; Roberts, Heidi; Koopman, Cheryl; Adams, Robert E.; Ernst, Heidemarie; Dev, Parvati; Taylor, C. Barr (2003-03-01). "Evaluation of an internet support group for women with primary breast cancer". Cancer. 97 (5): 1164–1173. doi:10.1002/cncr.11174. ISSN 1097-0142.
Jump up ^ Coulson, Neil S.; Buchanan, Heather; Aubeeluck, Aimee (2007-10-01). "Social support in cyberspace: a content analysis of communication within a Huntington's disease online support group". Patient Education and Counseling. 68 (2): 173–178. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2007.06.002. ISSN 0738-3991. PMID 17629440.
Jump up ^ Wong, E. T. K., & Ma, W. W. K. Exploring Relationship between Online Social Support and Individual.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Will_Ma/publication/303147877_Exploring_relationship_between_online_social_support_and_individual_online_subjective_well-being_among_young_adults/links/57380a5408aea45ee83dbc55.pdf
Jump up ^ House, J. S. (1981). Work Stress and social support. Addison-Wesley.
Jump up ^ Cobb, S. "Social support as a moderator of life stress". Psychosomatic Medicine. 98: 300–314. doi:10.1097/00006842-197609000-00003.
Jump up ^ Folkman, S.; Lazarus, R. S. (1991). "coping and emotion". Stress and coping: An anthology. Columbia University Press.
Jump up ^ Turner-Cobb, J.M.; Gore-Felton, C.; Marouf, F.; Koopman, C.; Kim, P.; Israelski, D.; Spiegel, D. (2002). "Coping, social support, and attachment style as psychosocial correlates of adjustment in men and women with HIV/AIDS". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 25: 337–353.
Jump up ^ Goodenow, C.; Reisine, S.T.; Grady, K.E. (1990). "Quality of social support and associated social and psychological functioning in women with rheumatoid arthritis". Health Psychology. 9: 266–284. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.9.3.266.
Jump up ^ Penninx, B.W.J.H.; van Tilburg, T.; Boeke, A.J.P.; Deeg, D.J.H.; Kriegsman, D.M.W.; van Ejik, J.Th.M. (1998). "Effects of social support and personal coping resources on depressive symptoms: Different for various chronic diseases?". Health Psychology. 17: 551–558. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.17.6.551.
Jump up ^ Robertson, E.K.; Suinn, R.M. (1968). "The determination of rate of progress of stroke patients through empathy measures of patient and family". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 12: 189–191. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(68)90045-7.
Jump up ^ Holahan, C.J.; Moos, R.H.; Holahan, C.K.; Brennan, P.I. (1997). "Social context, coping strategies, and depressive symptoms: An expanded model with cardiac patients". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 72: 918–28. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.4.918.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Cohen, S; Wills, T.A. (1985). "Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis". Psychological Bulletin. 98 (2): 310–357. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310. PMID 3901065.
Jump up ^ Brewin, C.R.; Andrews, B.; Valentine, J.D. (2000). "Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 68: 748–766. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.5.748. PMID 11068961.
Jump up ^ Huang, M; Yen, C.; Lung, F. (2010). "Moderators and mediators among panic, agoraphobia symptoms, and suicidal ideation in patients with panic disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 51: 243–249. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.07.005.
Jump up ^ Torgrud, L.; Walker, J.; Murray, L.; Cox, B.; Chartier, M.; Kjernisted, K. (2004). "Deficits in perceived social support associated with generalized social phobia". Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy. 33: 87–96. doi:10.1080/16506070410029577.
^ Jump up to: a b Lakey, B., & Cronin, A. (2008). "Low social support and major depression: Research, theory, and methodological issues". In Dobson, K.S.; D. Dozois. Risk factors for depression. Academic Press. pp. 385–408. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Klein, D.N.; Taylor, E.B.; Dickstein, S.; Harding, K. (1988). "Primary early-onset dysthymia: comparison with primary nonbipolar nonchronic major depression on demographic, clinical, familial, personality, and socioenvironmental characteristics and short-term outcome". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 97: 387–398. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.97.4.387.
Jump up ^ Stice, E; Presnell, K.; Spangler, D. (2002). "Risk factors for binge eating onset in adolescent girls: A 2-year prospective investigation". Health Psychology. 21: 131–138. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.21.2.131.
Jump up ^ Grisset, N.I.; Norvell, N.K. (1992). "Perceived social support, social skills, and quality of relationships in bulimic women". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 60: 293–299. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.293.
Jump up ^ Norman, R.M.G.; Malla, A.K.; Manchanda, R.; Harricharan, R.; Takhar, J.; Northcott, S. (2005). "Social support and three-year symptom and admission outcomes for first year psychosis". Schizophrenia Research. 80: 227–234. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.05.006. PMID 15964175.
Jump up ^ Casey, P.R.; Dunn, G.; Kelly, B.D.; Birkbeck, G.; Dalgard, O.S.; Lehtinen, V.; Britta, S.; Ayuso-Mateos, J.L.; Dowrick, C. (2006). "Factors associated with suicidal ideation in the general population". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 189: 410–415. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.017368.
Jump up ^ Stice, E.; Barrera, M. Jr; Chassin, L. "Prospective differential prediction of adolescent alcohol use and problem use: Examining mechanisms of effect". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 107: 616–628. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.4.616.
Jump up ^ Wiegel, C.; Sattler, S.; Göritz, A. S. (2015). "Work-related stress and cognitive enhancement among university teachers". Anxiety, Stress, & Coping: 1–18. doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1025764.
Jump up ^ Chu, P.S.; Saucier, D.A.; Hafner, E. (2010). "Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and well-being in children and adolescents". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 29: 624–645. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624.
Jump up ^ Ano, G.G.; Vasconcelles, EB (Apr 2005). "Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 61: 461–480. doi:10.1002/jclp.20049. PMID 15503316.
Jump up ^ Salsman, J. M.; Brown, T. L.; Bretching, E. H.; Carlson, C. R. (2005). "The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: The mediating role of optimism and social support". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 31 (4): 522–535. doi:10.1177/0146167204271563.
Jump up ^ Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2014). "Spirit or fleeting apparition? Why spirituality's link with social support might be incrementally invalid". Journal of Religion and Health. 31 (4): 522–535. doi:10.1007/s10943-013-9801-3.
Jump up ^ Akey, J. E., Rintamaki, L. S., & Kane, T. L. (2013). "Health Belief Model to deterrents of social support seeking among people coping with eating disorders". Journal of Affective Disorders, 145, 246-252. 145: 246–252. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.04.045.
Jump up ^ Cobb, S. (1976). "Social support as a moderator of life stress". Psychosomatic Medicine. 98: 300–314. doi:10.1097/00006842-197609000-00003.
Jump up ^ Cassel, J. (1974). "Psychosocial processes and "stress":theoretical formulation". International Journal of Health Services. 4 (3): 471–482. doi:10.2190/wf7x-y1l0-bfkh-9qu2.
Jump up ^ Patterson, George T. (2003). "Examining the effects of coping and social support on work and life stress among police officers". Journal of Criminal Justice. 31: 215–226. doi:10.1016/s0047-2352(03)00003-5.
Jump up ^ D'Ercole, Ann (1988). "Single Mothers: Stress, Coping, and Social Support". Journal of Community Psychology. 16: 41–54. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198801)16:1<41::aid-jcop2290160107>3.0.co;2-9.
Jump up ^ Haden, Sara C.; Scarpa, Angela; Jones, Russell T.; Ollendick, Thomas H. (2007). "Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and injury: the moderating role of perceived social support and coping for young adults". Personality and Individual Differences. 42: 1187–1198. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.030.
Jump up ^ Brewin, C. R.; Andrews B.; Valentine, J. D. (2000). "Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 68 (5): 748–766. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.5.748. PMID 11068961.
Jump up ^ Norris, F. H.; Kaniasty, K. (1996). "Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the support deterioration deterrence model". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71 (3): 498–511. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.498.
Jump up ^ Benton, S. A.; Robertson, J. M.; Tseng, W. C.; Newton F. B.; Benton, S. L. (2003). "Changes in counseling client problems over 13 years". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 34: 66–72. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.34.1.66.
Jump up ^ Daniel, B. V.; Evans, S. G.; Scott, B. R. (2001). "Understanding family involvement in the college experience today". New Directions for Student Services. 94: 3–13.
Jump up ^ Chao, Ruth Chu-Lien (2012). "Managing Perceived Stress Among College Students: The Roles of Social Support and Dysfunctional Coping". Journal of College Counseling. 15 (1): 5–21. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2012.00002.x.
Jump up ^ Thorsteinsson, E. B.; Brown, R. F. (2008). "Mediators and moderators of the stressor-fatigue relationship in nonclinical samples". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 66: 21–29. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.06.010.
Jump up ^ Allgower, A.; Wardle, J.; Steptoe, A. (2001). "Depressive symptoms, social support, and personal health behaviors in young men and women". Health Psychology. 20: 223–227. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.3.223.
Jump up ^ Holt-Lunstad, J.; Smith, T.B.; Layton, J.B. (2010). "Social relationships and mortality ris: A meta-analytic review". PLoS Med. 7 (7): e1000316. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316. PMC 2910600  . PMID 20668659.
^ Jump up to: a b c Uchino, B. (2006). "Social support and health: A review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 29: 377–387. doi:10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5.
Jump up ^ Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; McGuire, L.; Robles, T.F.; Glaser, R. (2002). "Emotions, morbidity, and mortality: New perspectives from psychoneuroimmunology". Annual Review of Psychology. 53: 83–107. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135217. PMID 11752480.
Jump up ^ Elsenbruch, S.; Benson, S.; Rucke, M.; Rose, M.; Dudenhausen, J.; Pincus-Knackstedt, M.K.; Klapp, B.F.; Arck, P.C. (2007). "Social support during pregnancy: effects on maternal depressive symptoms, smoking, and pregnancy outcome". Human Reproduction. 22 (3): 869–877. doi:10.1093/humrep/del432.
Jump up ^ Evers, A.W.M.; Kraaimaat, F.W.; Geenen, R.; Jacobs, J.W.G.; Bijlsma, J.W.J. (2003). "Pain coping and social support as predictors of long-term functional disability and pain in early rheumatoid arthritis". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 41: 1295–1310. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00036-6.
Jump up ^ Kulik, J.A.; Mahler, H.I.M. (1993). "Emotional support as a moderator of adjustment and compliance after coronary artery bypass surgery: A longitudinal study". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 16: 45–64. doi:10.1007/bf00844754.
Jump up ^ VanderPlate, C.; Aral, S.O.; Magder, L. (1988). "The relationship among genital herpes simplex virus, stress, and social support". Health Psychology. 7: 159–168. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.7.2.159.
Jump up ^ Davis, Alissa; Roth, Alexis; Brand, Juanita Ebert; Zimet, Gregory D.; Van Der Pol, Barbara (2016-03-01). "Coping strategies and behavioural changes following a genital herpes diagnosis among an urban sample of underserved Midwestern women". International journal of STD & AIDS. 27 (3): 207–212. doi:10.1177/0956462415578955. ISSN 1758-1052. PMC 5008844  . PMID 25792549.
Jump up ^ Seeman, T.E.; Lusignolo, T.M.; Albert, M.; Berkman, L. (2001). "Social relationships, social support, and patterns of cognitive aging in healthy, high-functioning older adults: MacArthur studies of successful aging". Health Psychology. 20: 243–255. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.4.243.
Jump up ^ Marteau, T.M.; Bloc, S.; Baum, J.D. (1987). "Family life and diabetic control". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 28: 823–833. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb00671.x.
Jump up ^ Johari, Nuruljannah; Manaf, Zahara Abdul; Ibrahim, Norhayati; Shahar, Suzana; Mustafa, Norlaila (2016-01-01). "Predictors of quality of life among hospitalized geriatric patients with diabetes mellitus upon discharge". Clinical Interventions in Aging. 11: 1455–1461. doi:10.2147/CIA.S105652. ISSN 1178-1998. PMC 5074738  . PMID 27799751.
Jump up ^ Gomez-Galvez, Pedro; Suarez Mejias, Cristina; Fernandez-Luque, Luis (2015-01-01). "Social media for empowering people with diabetes: Current status and future trends". Conference proceedings: ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference. 2015: 2135–2138. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2015.7318811. ISSN 1557-170X. PMID 26736711.
Jump up ^ Fernandez-Luque, Luis; Mejova, Yelena; Mayer, Miguel-Angel; Hasvold, Per Erlend; Joshi, Surabhi (2016-01-01). "Panel: Big Data & Social Media for Empowering Patients with Diabetes". Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. 225: 607–609. ISSN 0926-9630. PMID 27332274.
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen, S.; Doyle, W.J.; Skoner, D.P.; Rabin, B.S.; Gwaltney, J.M. Jr (1997). "Social ties and susceptibility to the common cold". Journal of the American Medical Association. 277 (24): 1940–1944. doi:10.1001/jama.277.24.1940. PMID 9200634.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Uchino, B (2006). "Social support and health: A review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 29 (4): 377–387. doi:10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Nausheen, B.; Gidron, Y.; Peveler, R.; Moss-Morris, R. (2009). "Social support and cancer progression: A systematic review". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 67 (5): 403–415. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.12.012.
^ Jump up to: a b Callaghan, P.; Morrissey, J. (1993). "Social support and health: A review". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 18: 203–210. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1993.18020203.x.
Jump up ^ Racino, J. (2000). Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
Jump up ^ Wehman, P. and Kregel, J. (1998). More than a Job: Securing Satisfying Careers for People with Disabilities. London, Toronto: Paul H. Brookes.
Jump up ^ Nisbet, J. and Hagner, D. (1988). Natural supports in the workplace: A reexamination of supported employment. JASH, 13(4): 260-267.
Jump up ^ Sapon-Shevin, M. (1992). Including all children and their gifts within regular classrooms. In: S. Stainback & W. Stainback, Controversial Issues Confronting Special Education (pp. 69-81). London: Allyn and Bacon.
Jump up ^ Strully, J. and Strully, C. (1985). Friendship and our children. JASH, 10(4): 224-227.
Jump up ^ Maduro, R. (1991, Spring). The old man as a creative artist in India. Generations, XV (2):17-20.
Jump up ^ Kunkel, S. (1989, Spring). An extra eight hours a day. Generations, XIII(2): 57-60.
^ Jump up to: a b Cutrona, C.E (1990). "Types of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching". In Sarason, B.R.; Sarason, I.G.; Pierce, G.R. Russell, D.W. New York: Wiley & Sons. pp. 319–366.
Jump up ^ Cohen, S., & McKay, G. (1984). "Social support, stress, and the buffering hypothesis: A theoretical analysis". In Baum, A.; Taylor, S.E.; Singer, J. Handbook of psychology and health. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 253–268. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Horowitz, L.M.; Krasnoperova, E.N.; Tatar, D.G.; Hansen, M.B.; Person, E.A.; Galvin, K.L.; Nelson, K.L. (2001). "The way to console may depend on the goal: Experimental studies of social support". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 37: 49–61. doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1435.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thoits, P.A. (1986). "Social support as coping assistance". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 54: 416–423. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.54.4.416.
Jump up ^ Zhou, Eric S.; Penedo, Frank J.; Lewis, John E. (December 2010). "Perceived stress mediates the effects of social support on health-related quality of life among men treated for localized prostate cancer". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 69 (6): 587–590. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.04.019. PMC 2994072  . PMID 21109047.
Jump up ^ Shumaker, S.A.; Hill, D.R. (1991). "Gender differences in social support and physical health". Health Psychology. 10: 102–111. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.10.2.102.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lakey, B.; Orehek, E. (2011). "Relational Regulation Theory: A new approach to explain the link between perceived support and mental health". Psychological Review. 118: 482–495. doi:10.1037/a0023477. PMID 21534704.
Jump up ^ Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Thoits, P.A. (1995). "Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next?". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 35: 53–79. doi:10.2307/2626957.
Jump up ^ Wethington, E.; Kessler, R.C. (1986). "Perceived support, received support, and adjustment to stressful life events". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 27: 78–89. doi:10.2307/2136504.
^ Jump up to: a b Lakey, B. (2010). "Social support: Basic research and new strategies for intervention". In Maddux, J.E.; Tangney, J.P. Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology. New York: Guildford. pp. 177–194.
Jump up ^ Shafiro, M. (2011). "The effects of allocentrism, idiocentrism, social support, and big five personality dimensions on work-family conflict". Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. 66 (3): 191–203. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.010.
Jump up ^ Taylor, S.E. (2007). "Social support". In Friedman, H.S.; Silver, R.C. Foundations of health psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–171.
Jump up ^ Herbert, T.B.; Cohen, S. (1993). "Stress and immunity in humans: A meta-analytic review". Psychosomatic Medicine. 55: 364–379. doi:10.1097/00006842-199307000-00004.
Jump up ^ Loucks, E.B.; Berkman, L.F.; Gruenewald, T.L.; Seeman, T.E. (2006). "Relation of social integration to inflammatory marker concentrations in men and women 70-79 years". American Journal of Cardiology. 97: 1010–1016. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.10.043.
Jump up ^ Turner-Cobb, J.M.; Sephton, S.E.; Koopman, C.; Blake-Mortimer, J.; Spiegel, D. (2000). "Social support and salivary cortisol in women with metastatic breast cancer". Psychosomatic Medicine. 62: 337–345.
Jump up ^ Eisenberger, N.I.; Taylor, S.E.; Gable, S.L.; Hilmert, C.J.; Lieberman, M.D. (2007). "Neural pathways link social support to attenuated neuroendocrine stress response". NeuroImage. 35: 1601–1612. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.038. PMC 2710966  . PMID 17395493.
Jump up ^ Unden, A.L.; Orth-Gomer, K.; Elofsson, S. (1991). "Cardiovascular effects of social support in the work place: twenty-four hour ECG monitoring of men and women". Psychosomatic Medicine. 53 (1): 50–60.
Jump up ^ Helgeson, V.S.; Cohen, S. (1996). "Social support and adjustment to cancer: Reconciling descriptive, correlational, and intervention research". Health Psychology. 15: 135–148. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.15.2.135.
Jump up ^ Gottlieb, B.H. (1988). Marshalling social support: Formats, processes, and effects. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jump up ^ Hogan, B.E.; Najarian, B. (2002). "Social support interventions: Do they work?". Clinical Psychology Review. 22: 381–440. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00102-7.
Jump up ^ Hazzard, A.; Celano, M.; Collins, M.; Markov, Y. (2002). "Effects of STARBRIGHT World on knowledge, social support, and coping in hospitalized children with sickle cell disease and asthma". Children's Health Care. 31: 69–86. doi:10.1207/s15326888chc3101_5.
Jump up ^ Schulz, R.; O'Brien, A.T.; Bookwala, J.; Fleissner, K. (1995). "Psychiatric and physical morbidity effects of dementia caregiving: Prevalence, correlates, and causes". The Gerontologist. 35 (6): 771–791. doi:10.1093/geront/35.6.771. PMID 8557205.
Jump up ^ Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; Marucha, P.T.; Malarkey, W.B.; Mercado, A.M.; Glaser, R. (1995). "Slowing of wound healing by psychological stress". Lancet. 346: 1194–1196. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(95)92899-5. PMID 7475659.
Jump up ^ Brown, S.L.; Nesse, R.M.; Vinokur, A.D.; Smith, D.M. (2003). "Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it: Results from a prospective study of mortality". Psychological Science. 14: 320–327. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.14461.
Jump up ^ Inagaki, T.K.; Eisenberger, N.I. (2011). "Neural correlates of giving support to a loved one". Psychosomatic Medicine. epub ahead of print: 3–7. doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3182359335.
Jump up ^ http://www.moderntimesworkplace.com/archives/ericsess/sessvol1/Lythp439.opd.pdf
Jump up ^ "Key Concepts in Interpersonal Psychology". www.businesscoachinstitute.com. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Belle, D. (1987). "Gender differences in the social moderators of stress". In Barnett, R.C.; Biener, L.; Baruch, G.K. Gender and stress. New York: The Free Press. pp. 257–277.
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor, S.E.; Klein, L.C.; Lewis, B.P; Gruenewald, T.L.; Gurung, R.A.R.; Updegraff, J.A. (2000). "Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight". Psychological Review. 107 (3): 411–429. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411. PMID 10941275.
^ Jump up to: a b Day, A.; Livingtone1, H. (2003). "Gender Differences In Perceptions Of Stressors And Utilization Of Social Support Among University Students". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 35 (2): 73–83. doi:10.1037/h0087190.
Jump up ^ Tamres, L.; Janicki, D.; Helgeson, V.S. (2002). "Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 6: 2–30. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0601_1.
Jump up ^ Schwarzer, R.; Leppin, A. (1989). "Social support and health: A meta-analysis". Psychology and Health. 3: 1–15. doi:10.1080/08870448908400361.
^ Jump up to: a b Hobfoll, S.E.; Cameron, R.P.; Chapman, H.A.; Gallagher, R.W. (1996). "Social support and social coping in couples". Handbook of Social Support and The Family. 1: 413–433. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1388-3_17.
Jump up ^ Malek, M.J. (2000). Coping profiles within the strategic approach to coping ccale and their relationship to physical and psychological well-being. Kent State University, 1-151.
Jump up ^ Roussi, P.; Vassilaki, E. (2000). "The applicability of the multiaxial model of coping to a greek population". Anxiety, Stress, & Coping. 14: 125–147. doi:10.1080/10615800108248351.
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor, S.E.; Sherman, D.K.; Kim, H.S.; Jarcho, J.; Takagi, K.; Dunagan, M.S. (2004). "Culture and social support: Who seeks it and why?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 87: 354–62. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.354. PMID 15382985.
^ Jump up to: a b Kim, H.S.; Sherman, D.K.; Ko, D.; Taylor, S.E (2006). "Pursuit of Comfort and Pursuit of Harmony: Culture, Relationships, and Social Support Seeking". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 32: 1596–1607. doi:10.1177/0146167206291991.
Jump up ^ Sagrestano, L.M.; Feldman, P.; Killingsworth-Rini, C.; Woo, G.; Dunkel-Schetter, C (1999). "Ethnicity and social support during pregnancy". American Journal of Community Psychology. 27 (6): 873–902. doi:10.1023/a:1022266726892.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_support&oldid=844824430"
Categories:
Social networks
Clinical psychology
Communication theory
Economic sociology
Mental health
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
All articles with links needing disambiguation
Articles with links needing disambiguation from June 2018
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Deutsch
Esperanto
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Tiếng Việt
中文
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 7 June 2018, at 12:10.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href class

values:
/wiki/Nursing_home
mw-redirect
Nursing home

attrs: class style

value: b

value: p

values: Edit section: Categories and definitions

values: Edit section: Distinctions in measurement

values: Edit section: Links to mental and physical health

values:
/wiki/Clinical_depression
mw-redirect
Clinical depression

values:
/wiki/Social_phobia
mw-redirect
Social phobia

values:
/wiki/Eating_disorders
mw-redirect
Eating disorders

values:
/wiki/Health_Belief_Model
mw-redirect
Health Belief Model

values:
/wiki/Supported_housing
mw-redirect
Supported housing

values: Supported education (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Stress_(psychological)
mw-redirect
Stress (psychological)

values: Edit section: Theories to explain the links

values:
/wiki/The_Big_Five_personality_traits
mw-redirect
The Big Five personality traits

values:
/wiki/Neuroendocrine_system
mw-redirect
Neuroendocrine system

values:
/wiki/Cardiovascular_system
mw-redirect
Cardiovascular system

values:
/wiki/Shelley_Taylor
mw-redirect
Shelley Taylor

values:
/wiki/Flight_or_fight_response
mw-redirect
Flight or fight response

values:
/wiki/Social_groups
mw-redirect
Social groups

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fbjc.1996.529

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeronj%2F41.4.512

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00922627

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2095420

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15382985

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17352603

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11439708

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2786953

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11931522

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1521%2Fjscp.2010.29.6.624

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1386-5056

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19945338

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fcncr.11174

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1097-0142

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pec.2007.06.002

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0738-3991

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17629440

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3901065

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11068961

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15964175

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.bp.105.017368

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.20049

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15503316

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jad.2012.04.045

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2190%2Fwf7x-y1l0-bfkh-9qu2

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2006.09.030

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20668659

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11752480

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumrep%2Fdel432

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00844754

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-1052

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25792549

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2147%2FCIA.S105652

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1178-1998

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27799751

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109%2FEMBC.2015.7318811

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1557-170X

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26736711

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0926-9630

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27332274

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.277.24.1940

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9200634

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1006%2Fjesp.2000.1435

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21109047

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0023477

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21534704

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2626957

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2136504

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvb.2010.12.010

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17395493

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15326888chc3101_5

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeront%2F35.6.771

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8557205

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475659

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10941275

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0087190

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327957pspr0601_1

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1023%2Fa%3A1022266726892

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:All articles with links needing disambiguation

values: Category:Articles with links needing disambiguation from June 2018

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Social_support
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: دعم اجتماعي – Arabic

values: Социална подкрепа – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values: ソーシャルサポート – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Социјална подршка – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Social_support rootpage-Social_support skin-vector action-view


text:
Garay (surname)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Garay or de Garay is a surname. Notable people with the name include:
Antonio Garay (born 1979), American football player
Blasco de Garay (1500–1552), Spanish navy captain and inventor
Carlos Garay (born 1972), American football player
Ezequiel Garay (born 1986), Argentine football player
Fernanda Garay (born 1986), Brazilian volleyball player
Francisco de Garay (died 1523), Spanish conquistador, governor of Jamaica and explorer
Hugo Garay (born 1980), Argentine light heavyweight boxer
János Garay (1812–1853), Hungarian writer and poet
János Garay (fencer) (1889-1945), Hungarian saber fencer
Jesús Garay (1930–1995), Spanish football defender
Jesús Garay (director) (born 1949), Spanish film director and screenwriter
Joaquin Garay III (born 1968), American actor
José Marcos Garay (born 1977), Mexican football player
Juan Carlos Garay (born 1968), Ecuadorian football player
Juan de Garay (1528–1583), Spanish conquistador
Kenneth Garay, American sports journalist
Leslie Andrew Garay (born 1924), American botanist
Máximo Garay (1898–1960), Hungarian naturalized Chilean football manager
Melker Garay (born 1966), Swedish author
Nicole Garay (1873–1928), Panamanian poet
Ramón Garay (1896–1956), Spanish film actor
Ridl Garay (born 1997), Mexican volleyball player
Sebastián Garay (born 1983), Argentine singer, musician and composer of Argentine
Sindo Garay (1867–1968), Cuban singer and composer
Soo Garay, Canadian actress
Tibor Garay (born 1923), Hungarian football player
Val Garay (born 1942), American record producer
Yaniel Garay (born 1980), Cuban volleyball player
Garay Asadov (1923–1944), Azerbaijani Red Army sergeant
This page lists people with the surname Garay. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garay_(surname)&oldid=799978903"
Categories:
Surnames
Hidden categories:
All set index articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Español
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 September 2017, at 23:23.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

value: li

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: padding: 0.25em 0.4em; font-style: italic;

values: metadata plainlinks dmbox dmbox-setindex

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Garay_(surname)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Garay_surname rootpage-Garay_surname vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Dying declaration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
hideThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
(Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Evidence
Part of the common law series
Types of evidence
Testimony
Documentary
Real (physical)
Digital
Exculpatory
Inculpatory
Demonstrative
Eyewitness identification
Genetic (DNA)
Lies
Relevance
Burden of proof
Laying a foundation
Materiality
Public policy exclusions
Spoliation
Character
Habit
Similar fact
Authentication
Chain of custody
Judicial notice
Best evidence rule
Self-authenticating document
Ancient document
Hague Evidence Convention
Witnesses
Competence
Privilege
Direct examination
Cross-examination
Redirect
Impeachment
Recorded recollection
Expert witness
Dead Man's Statute
Hearsay and exceptions
in English law
in United States law
Confessions
Business records
Excited utterance
Dying declaration
Party admission
Ancient document
Declaration against interest
Present sense impression
Res gestae
Learned treatise
Implied assertion
Other common law areas
Contract
Tort
Property
Wills, trusts and estates
Criminal law
v
t
e
In the law of evidence, a dying declaration is testimony that would normally be barred as hearsay but may in common law nonetheless be admitted as evidence in criminal law trials because it constituted the last words of a dying person. The rationale, accurate or not, is that someone who is dying or believes death to be imminent would have less incentive to fabricate testimony, and as such, the hearsay statement carries with it some reliability.
Contents
1 History
2 Tests for admissibility of a "dying declaration"
3 In England and Wales
4 In the United States
4.1 Criticism of Dying Declaration Doctrine
5 In India
6 See also
7 References
History[edit]
In medieval English courts, the principle originated of Nemo moriturus praesumitur mentiri — "no-one on the point of death should be presumed to be lying".[1] An incident in which a dying declaration was admitted as evidence has been found in a 1202 case.[2]
Tests for admissibility of a "dying declaration"[edit]
In common law, a "dying declaration" must have been a statement made by a deceased person who would otherwise have been a credible witness to their own death by murder or manslaughter, and was of "settled hopeless expectation of death".[3]
In England and Wales[edit]
Main article: Hearsay in English law
The admissibility of hearsay evidence in criminal proceedings has been governed by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 which effectively replaced the common law regime and abolished all common law hearsay exceptions (except those preserved by s.118) including the dying declaration exception. An original statement made by a dead person may now be admissible under the statutory "unavailability" exception (ss.114 & 116) subject to the courts' judicial discretion (preserved by s.126) to exclude unrealiable evidence (i.e. the prejudicial value outweighs the probative value).
In the United States[edit]
Under the Federal Rules of Evidence,[4] a dying declaration is admissible if the proponent of the statement can establish all of the following:
The declarant’s statement is being offered in a criminal prosecution for homicide, or in a civil action. Some states also permit the admission of dying declarations in other types of case.[citation needed]
The declarant is unavailable – this can be established using FRE 804(a)(1)-(5).
The declarant's statement was made while under the genuine belief that his or her death was imminent. The declarant does not have to actually die.
The declarant's statement relates to the cause or circumstances of what he or she believed to be his or her impending death.
Other general rules of admissibility also apply, such as the requirement that the declaration is based on the declarant's actual knowledge.
The statement must relate to the circumstances or the cause of the declarant's own impending death. For example, in the dying declaration of Clifton Chambers in 1988, he stated that ten years earlier, he had helped his son bury a man whom the son had killed by accident. The statement was sufficient cause to justify a warrant for a search on the son's property, and the man's body was indeed found. However, there was no physical evidence of a crime, and since Chambers was not the victim, his dying declaration was not admissible as evidence, and the son was never brought to trial.[1]
The first use of the dying declaration exception in American law was in the 1770 murder trial of the British soldiers responsible for the Boston Massacre. One of the victims, Patrick Carr, told his doctor before he died that the soldiers had been provoked. The doctor's testimony helped defense attorney John Adams to secure acquittals for some of the defendants and reduced charges for the rest.
If the defendant is convicted of homicide but the reliability of the dying declaration is in question, there is grounds for an appeal.[5]
The future of the dying declaration doctrine in light of Supreme Court opinions such as Crawford v. Washington (2004) is unclear (Crawford was decided under the constitution's Confrontation Clause, not the common law). Opinions such as Giles v. California (2008) discuss the matter (although the statements in Giles were not a dying declaration), but Justice Ginsburg notes in her dissent to Michigan v. Bryant (2011) that the court has not addressed whether the dying declaration exception is valid after the confrontation clause cases.
Criticism of Dying Declaration Doctrine[edit]
As early as the 1800s, critics questioned the credibility of dying declarations. In a state court case, the Wisconsin Supreme Court considered the issue of a dying declaration. The defense pointed out that “[t]his kind of evidence is not regarded with favor.” [6] The defense argued that several factors could undermine the reliability of dying declarations.
Physical or mental weakness consequent upon the approach of death, a desire of self-vindication, or a disposition to impute the responsibility for a wrong to another, as well as the fact that the declarations are made in the absence of the accused, and often in response to leading questions and direct suggestions, and with no opportunity for cross-examination: all these considerations conspire to render such declarations a dangerous kind of evidence.
—  Aviva Orenstein, Her Last Words: Dying Declarations and Modern Confrontation Jurisprudence, 2010 U. Ill. L. Rev. 1411, 1460 (2010)[7]
In India[edit]
Dying declarations are allowed as evidence in Indian courts if the dying person is conscious of his or her danger, he or she has given up hopes of recovery, the death of the dying person is the subject of the charge and of the dying declaration, and if the dying person was capable of a religious sense of accountability to his or her Maker.[2]
See also[edit]
Deathbed confession
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Last Words", Brendan I. Koerner, Legal Affairs, November/December 2002. Fetched from URL on 9 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dying Declaration - A Man Will Not Meet His Maker with a Lie in His Mouth", Raghvendra Singh Raghuvanshi, SSRN, 25 February 2010. In turn, this paper's reference to the 1202 date cites "M.N. Howard, "Phipson on Evidence", 15th edn., Sweet & Maxwell, 2000 at Pg. 886." Note: A number of sentences in this SSRN paper seem to be identical to the "Legal Affairs" article by Koerner, without citing Koerner. I do not know how much this impugns this source.
Jump up ^ Adrian Zuckerman; Paul Roberts (26 August 2010). Criminal Evidence. Oxford University Press. p. 430. ISBN 9780199231645. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dying Declaration". Legal Information Institute. Cornell Law School. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Dying declaration unreliable: SC acquits two
Jump up ^ State v. Dickinson, 41 Wis. 299, 303 (1877)
Jump up ^ Orenstein, Aviva (2010). "Her Last Words: Dying Declarations and Modern Confrontation Jurisprudence". University of Illinois Law Review. 2010 (5): 1411.
show
v
t
e
Death
Outline
In medicine
Cell death
Necrosis
Avascular necrosis
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Gangrenous necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Fat necrosis
Fibrinoid necrosis
Temporal lobe necrosis
Programmed cell death
AICD
Anoikis
Apoptosis
Autophagy
Intrinsic apoptosis
Necroptosis
Paraptosis
Parthanatos
Phenoptosis
Pseudoapoptosis
Pyroptosis
Autolysis
Autoschizis
Eschar
Immunogenic cell death
Ischemic cell death
Pyknosis
Karyorrhexis
Karyolysis
Mitotic catastrophe
Suicide gene
Abortion
Accidental death
Autopsy
Brain death
Brainstem death
Clinical death
DOA
Death by natural causes
Death rattle
Dysthanasia
End-of-life care
Euthanasia
Lazarus sign
Lazarus syndrome
Medical definition of death
Organ donation
Terminal illness
Unnatural death
Lists
Causes of death by rate
Expressions related to death
Natural disasters
People by cause of death
Premature obituaries
Preventable causes of death
Notable deaths by year
Unusual deaths
TV actors who died during production
Mortality
Birthday effect
Child mortality
Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality
Holiday effect
Immortality
Biological
Digital
Infant mortality
Karōshi
Maternal death
Maternal mortality in fiction
Memento mori
Micromort
Mortality displacement
Mortality rate
RAMR
Mortality salience
Perinatal mortality
After death
Body
Stages
Pallor mortis
Algor mortis
Rigor mortis
Livor mortis
Putrefaction
Decomposition
Skeletonization
Fossilization
Preservation
Cryopreservation
Cryonics
Neuropreservation
Embalming
Maceration
Mummification
Plastination
Prosection
Taxidermy
Disposal
Burial
Bed burial
Burial at sea
Chariot burial
Jar burial
Natural burial
Premature burial
Secondary burial
Ship burial
Sky burial
Space burial
Cannibalism
Cremation
Dismemberment
Excarnation
Promession
Resomation
Beating heart cadaver
Body donation
Cadaveric spasm
Coffin birth
Death erection
Dissection
Gibbeting
Postmortem caloricity
Post-mortem interval
Other aspects
Afterlife
Cemetery
Consciousness
Customs
Death mask
Eternal oblivion
Examination
Funeral
Grief
Intermediate state
Internet
Mourning
Obituary
Resurrection
Taboo on the dead
Vigil
Paranormal
Ghosts
Near-death experience
Near-death studies
Necromancy
Out-of-body experience
Reincarnation research
Séance
Legal
Abortion law
Administration
Capital punishment
Cause of death
Civil death
Coroner
Death-qualified jury
Death certificate
Declared death in absentia
Death row
Dying declaration
Faked death
Inquest
Legal death
Murder
Prohibition of death
Right to die
Suspicious death
Trust law
Will
Fields
Forensic pathology
Funeral director
Mortuary science
Necrobiology
Post-mortem chemistry
Post-mortem photography
Taphonomy
Biostratinomy
Thanatology
Other
Apparent death
Dark tourism
Darwin Awards
Dead pool
Death and culture
Death anniversary
Death anxiety
Death deity
Personification of death
Dying-and-rising god
Psychopomp
Death camp
Death drive
Death education
Death from laughter
Death hoax
Death knell
Death march
Death messenger
Death notification
Death panel
Death poem
Death pose
Death-positive movement
Death squad
Death threat
Death trajectory
Dignified death
Extinction
Fan death
Festival of the Dead
Fascination with death
Homicide
Information-theoretic death
Last rites
Martyr
Megadeath
Museum of Death
Necronym
Necrophilia
Necrophobia
The Order of the Good Death
Predation
Sacrifice
human
animal
Spiritual death
Suicide
Assisted suicide
Thanatosensitivity
Undead
Voodoo death
Category
Portal
WikiProject
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dying_declaration&oldid=830784586"
Categories:
Evidence law
Hearsay
Legal aspects of death
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from February 2008
All articles needing additional references
Articles with limited geographic scope from October 2012
USA-centric
Articles with multiple maintenance issues
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015
Use dmy dates from March 2018
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
বাংলা
한국어
हिन्दी
Norsk
தமிழ்
Edit links
This page was last edited on 16 March 2018, at 22:39 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

value: td

value: span

attrs: class role tabindex

value: i

value: small

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize

values:
mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible
width:95%; margin: 0.2em 0;

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox

values:
/wiki/Genetic_fingerprinting
mw-redirect
Genetic fingerprinting

values:
/wiki/Legal_burden_of_proof
mw-redirect
Legal burden of proof

values: Public policy doctrines for the exclusion of relevant evidence

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Edit section: Tests for admissibility of a "dying declaration"

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Patrick_Carr
mw-redirect
Patrick Carr

values: Edit section: Criticism of Dying Declaration Doctrine

values: Paul Roberts (legal scholar) (page does not exist)

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Medical_definition_of_death
mw-redirect
Medical definition of death

values: List of television actors who died during production

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from February 2008

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from October 2012

values: Category:Articles with multiple maintenance issues

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Dying_declaration
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: মৃত্যুকালীন জবানবন্দী – Bangla

values: 임종시의 진술 – Korean

values: मृत्युकालिक कथन – Hindi

values: மரண வாக்குமூலம் – Tamil

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Dying_declaration rootpage-Dying_declaration skin-vector action-view