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Martin Ashford (Home and Away)
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Martin "Ash" Ashford
Home and Away character
Portrayed by
George Mason
Duration
2014–
First appearance
27 October 2014
Introduced by
Lucy Addario
Spin-off
appearances
Home and Away: An Eye for an Eye (2015)
Home and Away: Revenge (2016)
Home and Away: All or Nothing (2017)
Classification
Present; regular
Profile
Occupation
Waiter
Mechanic
Garage co owner
Home
Beach House
[show]Family
Brothers
Luke Ashford
Sisters
Billie Ashford
Nieces
Luc Patterson
Martin "Ash" Ashford is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Home and Away, played by George Mason. The character made his first screen appearance on 27 October 2014. When Mason auditioned he believed Ash to be a "great character" and moved from Melbourne to accept the role. Ash is characterised as a tough, ex-prisoner who has a backstory of criminal activity. He was sent to prison after committing a robbery with Dean Sanderson (Kevin Kiernan-Molloy), but he framed Ash as the sole perpetrator and turned his sister Billie (Tessa de Josselin) against him. He is introduced into the show as an old prison friend of established character Darryl Braxton (Steve Peacocke) and they soon embark on a journey into the Australian Outback in search of Billie. His storyline continued to be centric to Brax's story. The show later developed a relationship storyline with Denny Miller (Jessica Grace Smith). Critics have stated that the character quickly assumed the role of the show's "hunk" and "bad boy".
Contents
[hide]
1 Casting
2 Development
2.1 Characterisation
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Denny Miller
3 Storylines
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Casting[edit]
New Zealand born George Mason had been residing in Melbourne when he secured an audition for the role. He recalled thinking that Ash was a "great character".[1] He was about to sign a long-term lease on a property in the city when he discovered he had been awarded the role.[2] Mason's casting was announced on 30 July 2014, after he was spotted filming with the cast and crew at Palm Beach in Sydney.[3] A Woman's Day reporter commented that Mason would "bring an explosive plot line" to the show.[4] Ash comes to Summer Bay looking for Darryl Braxton (Steve Peacocke).[5] Mason's agent later confirmed that he would be playing Martin Ashford who goes by the nickname "Ash".[6] The character was introduced on-screen during the episode broadcast on 27 October 2014.[7]
Development[edit]
Characterisation[edit]
“ Ash is tough and independent, resilient and focused. He’s had to watch his back, every minute of every day. Prison has hardened him, made him wary and often suspicious, but it hasn’t dampened his spirit or his resolve to clear his name. And it certainly hasn’t stopped him from having a wicked sense of humour and an almost hyperactive energy... he rarely sits still, and he’s hardly ever idle. ”
— An excerpt taken from The official Home and Away website.[8]
Ash is portrayed as a tough male character that has had to survive prison. Despite this he has a comical side to his personality and behaves in a hyperactive manner. Ash is "haunted" because his sister wrongly believes he tried to blame her boyfriend for a joint crime. But he is the type of person who would "never dodge responsibility at the expense of another".[8] Mason described his character as being "chilled" and said "He plays up like a second-hand lawnmower but it's all in good fun. I don't think he takes life too seriously but when it comes to family he definitely wants somewhere to belong."[5] He added that Ash had a good heart, but his upbringing meant that he was a bit of a bad guy.[5] Mason told a TV Week reporter that Ash behaves like a "mystery man". In reference to female attention Ash receives, he added that "it's certainly interesting when he hits the beach".[9] Ash is also described as "a pretty raw sort of bloke". He added that he wants fun while in Summer Bay to catch up the time he lost while in prison. The actor believed that certain aspects of Ash could annoy viewers but predicted that he would become be a liked character.[2]
Introduction[edit]
Ash arrives in Summer Bay to stay with his friend Brax who he had meant while in prison. Mason told Kerry Harvey writing for TV Guide that "he will definitely ruffle a few feathers when he comes into the Bay. He's a tough sort of a bloke with a few unresolved issues. He's come to the Bay looking for Brax so it will be interesting to see what happens there, whether it's good or bad."[10] Mason added that most of Ash's scenes are shared with Brax. He revealed an on-set "bromance" had formed with Peacocke, who acted as a mentor for Mason.[10] When Brax becomes aggressive with his brother Kyle Braxton (Nic Westaway) because of his bad experiences in prison; the Braxton family question whether Ash should be around Brax. Westaway told a TV Week reporter that "everyone is trying to figure out whether having Ash there is going to help Brax work out his problems, or whether Ash will be a constant reminder of what was one of the most painful times in his life."[11]
Ash's first storyline sees him heading into the Australian Outback with Brax in search of his sister Billie (Tessa de Josselin) and her violent boyfriend Dean Sanderson (Kevin Kiernan-Molloy). Mason told Sarah Ellis (Inside Soap) that "Billie is the only family Ash has left, and he feels they need to make amends now he's out of jail."[12] They travel to Broken Hill in search of her only to find she has moved on. The duo meet Sam Kennedy (Wade Briggs) who tells them where Dean lives. Mason explained that Dean does not know where Billie is and Ash decides to get drunk to forget about it. Brax then follows Dean to an abandoned mine where he retrieves the money that Dean and Ash stole before the latter went to prison for the crime. Brax is vague about his encounter and refuses to fully explain how he got the money from Dean. Mason added that "the trip will be life-changing for Ash, without Billie in his life he will struggle to find a new direction."[12] For the actor, filming in the outback was a welcome change because he felt like he was "shooting an action movie".[12]
Dean is found dead and Brax is accused of his murder. Ash recalls his time in the outback and realises that Sam must be the actual culprit. Ash warns local police constable Katarina Chapman (Pia Miller) about his suspicions. Miller told TV Week's Stephen Downie that her character will not listen to anything Ash has to say about Sam.[13] Ash and Brax decide to travel back to the outback to confront him directly. But they have to outsmart Katarina who is convinced that Brax plans to leave Summer Bay. Mason told Downie that Ash could have gone alone but Brax wants to confront Dean himself. He added that Ash feels obliged to help Brax because Dean's murder would not have implicated Brax had they not been searching for Billie.[14] Mason later told an Inside Soap reporter that there is no plan but they do find Sam and have their suspicions confirmed. But Sam refuses to change his police statement. Brax's impending legal issues make Ash feel guilty. Mason explained "Brax is like family, and Ash feels responsible for him being in this situation in the first place. Ash wouldn't be able to live with himself knowing an innocent man went to jail because of him." He added that Ash would be forever indebted to Brax and his girlfriend Ricky Sharpe (Bonnie Sveen).[15] Sveen added that with the evidence incriminating Brax, his lawyer advises him to accuse Ash of murdering Dean. But Brax's strong loyalty to Ash means betraying him is not an option.[16] The storyline continues to develop animosity between Ash and Ricky. Sveen told Erin Miller (TV Week) that Ricky is "deeply wary" of Ash's continued presence. She does not trust him because he has got Brax into trouble.[17]
Denny Miller[edit]
"She make's it her mission to persuade Ash they're meant to be together. Eventually he opens up and reveals he's never had a proper relationship. But with Denny still getting over the Casey-shaped hole in her heart, she says that neither of them is perfect... and that's what makes them right for each other."[18]
—an All About Soap columnist observes Ash and Denny's relationship.
Ash becomes acquainted with Denny Miller (Jessica Grace Smith) and they flirt. Sophie Dainty of Digital Spy stated that "sparks fly" when they meet, adding that "the chemistry between the two is obvious."[19] But their encounters occur not long after Denny's ex-boyfriend Casey Braxton (Lincoln Younes) had died.[20] The show's producer Lucy Addario told TV Week's Downie that they had planned a romance storyline for Ash, "but in typical Summer Bay style, it won't be easy and things will get in the way."[21] Denny later acknowledges her attraction to Ash and John Palmer (Shane Withington) encourages her to move on. Smith told Downie that "Denny was confused about her feelings for Ash. She had a lot of guilt about moving on from Casey." Denny decides to arrange a meeting with Ash and surprises Ash with a kiss. Smith added that "Ash is really into it, but suddenly he runs away."[22] Smith later explained to an Inside Soap journalist that Denny is left confused by Ash's reaction. She added that Ash is Denny's type of love interest because she has never been attracted to the "typical clean-cut guy".[23] Denny realises that Ash is being loyal to Brax, who in turn was looking out her best interests. She decides to must convince Ash to begin a relationship and he later agrees.[18] They continue to date and Denny believes she has finished grieving for Casey. The pair decide to consummate their relationship but after Denny feel "odd". Mason told Downie (TV Week) that Ash is understanding of her situation and "he knows he's walking on shaky ground with her."[24]
Storylines[edit]
Ash goes to Angelo's to find Darryl Braxton, causing his girlfriend, Ricky to be wary of him. Ash later gets on the wrong side of Andy Barrett (Tai Hara). Brax reveals that Ash is his former cell mate, who helped him out while he was in prison. Brax gives Ash a job at his restaurant and lets him sleep on the couch. When Brax loses his temper with his brother, Ash realises that he is not coping and urges him to open up to his family about his time inside. Ash and Ricky join forces to help Brax. Ash announces that he wants to find his sister, Billie, and Brax joins him on a road trip to find her boyfriend Dean, who let Ash take the blame for an armed robbery they committed. They locate Dean and Brax manages to get Ash's share of the robbery money back. Ash gives the money to Phoebe Nicholson (Isabella Giovinazzo).
He meets Denny and flirts with her, causing Brax to warn him off as she was dating his younger brother Casey before his death. But he ignores Brax's advice and helps Denny fix her car and they bond. Ash sees that Denny is wearing her old engagement ring from Casey. Ash congratulates her assuming that she has a new fiancé. Ash and Andy Barrett (Tai Hara) travel to the city to accompany Phoebe at her concert. The duo are fooled and locked in a cellar by Neive Devlin (Jolene Anderson) who drugs Phoebe to create a career boosting scandal. Ash and Andy manage to escape and save Phoebe from her ordeal. Ash is shocked when Brax is arrested for murdering Dean and Ricky hits him believing he is to blame. Ash realises that Sam must have committed the crime but fails to convince Katarina. Ash and Brax head to the outback to confront Sam but he refuses to confess. When Brax faces his court hearing Sam exposes that they took stolen money from Dean's hiding place. When the money is found in Angelos, Ash is implicated in Dean's murder and arrested alongside Brax, but the latter takes the blame. Ash pledges to look after Ricky following Brax's imprisonment but she blames him and tells him to keep away. Ash decides to begin a relationship with Denny which annoys Ricky who believes he is betraying Brax. Brax is attacked in prison by Trevor Gunson (Diarmid Heidenreich) because he witnessed Ash visiting. Ash tells Ricky that Gunno wants revenge on him because he exposed his drug dealing. He visits Gunno who orders Ash to help him deal or he will kill Brax. Ash came to visit his late brother, Luke's grave and bumped into his sister, Billie Ashford (Tessa de Josselin), they talked for a while and Ash told Billie that Dean's dead and that he didn't punch the security guard during a robbery. Ash discovers that Kyle's been sleeping with Billie behind Phoebe's back after walking in on them. Ash thought Kyle had seduced her and attacks him, until Billie explained everything.
Ash found out that from Chris Harrington (Johnny Ruffo) that Dr Nate Cooper tried to rape Billie and attacks Nate at the police station. But Ash found out that Billie made up Nate's sexual assault and was mad at her for causing trouble. Billie told Ash that she likes Nate, but he was dating Kat and since Dean died, she wanted to move on, but Kyle and Nate both rejected her. Ash finds out that Billie has leg injuries and burns from a fire after rescuing Zac MacGuire, (Charlie Clausen) Matt Page (Alec Snow) and Oscar MacGuire (Jake Speer) from the fire, which lit their house and that Billie is the main suspect behind the fire. Billie was taken to a hospital in the city. Kyle takes Ash's place during a drug deal. Later after Brax manages to get himself transferred to another prison after reporting Gunno, Kyle and Ash come up with an escape plan so Brax and Ricky can have a life with baby Casey. The plan goes haywire after Gunno sends someone to kill Brax. The police car transferring Brax is run off the road and into a river. Brax survives and convinces Ash to let everyone think that he is dead so his friends and family will be safe from Gunno. Ash reluctantly agrees. Denny eventually breaks up with Ash because of his lies and the dangerous choices he has makes. Ash and Phoebe have a fling when she and Kyle temporarily break up. Ash and Phoebe eventually start a relationship. Ash discovered that Phoebe is pregnant and he assumes he's the father. But Ash found out that Kyle's the father, causing a strain in his relationship with Phoebe and he breaks up with her. But they got back together and Ash tells Phoebe that he'll support the baby and will love the baby like his own. However, Phoebe discovered she's pregnant with twins, and suffered a miscarriage. Billie returns to Summer Bay and reunite with Ash, after she rescued Oscar. Billie was a main suspect when police discovered Kat's missing handcuffs are in Billie's bag and Ash suspects that Zac's ex, Charlotte King (Erika Heynatz) was behind this. He came to her house and attacked her, almost strangled her to death, until Kat stops him. Ash attends to Zac and Leah Patterson-Baker's wedding. Ash became a suspect to Charlotte's murder and Kat's abusive ex-fiance, Detective Dylan Carter (Jeremy Lindsay Taylor) suspects that Ash killed Charlotte and arrested him for murder, but the police has no evidence to prove him guilty. During Billie's trial, Ash was shocked when Zac and Charlotte's son, Hunter King (Scott Lee) confessed that he started the fire at Leah's house.
Ash noticed that Kat's been seeing Dylan and warns her that Dylan is a bad influence, but she didn't listen to him or to Phoebe. Ash and Phoebe relationship ended when Ash was heavily drunk at a bar and to a barmaid and finds the barmaid in his house the next day and assumes he's cheating on Phoebe and told her the truth. The barmaid returns to collect her jewellery and Ash told her that he and Phoebe broke up because he cheated on her. But the barmaid said that they never slept together and she slept on couch during the night he was drunk. Ash tells Phoebe the truth but Phoebe told him that they can't be together anymore and they end things for good. Ash quickly moved on from Phoebe and starts to like Kat. Ash was held hostage by Dylan in his house and also held Kat and Billie too. But Dylan was arrested. Kat and Ash soon falls in love and start a relationship, making Phoebe jealous. Ash finds out that Billie is pregnant with Leah's son VJ Patterson (Matt Little). Ash was happy when Billie and VJ are engaged and Ash accepts VJ. On Billie and VJ's wedding, Billie runs off. Ash find out that VJ isn't the father of Billie's baby and that Irene Roberts' long lost son, Mick Jennings (Kristian Schmid) is the father, who raped Billie at the gym. In 2017, Ash meets his newborn niece, Luc Patterson. Ash discovered that Billie has lung cancer and has only a few moments to live. Ash was hurt and devastated when VJ told him that Billie has died on the beach in his arms, Ash has a break down and Justin Morgan (James Stewart) calms him down.
When VJ discovers that John Palmer (Shane Withington), is the arsonist behind the recent fires, he informs Ash who then heads to the hospital and openly blames John for Billie's death, lashing out at John and leading to the hospital's staff throwing Ash out. When Ash tries to assist Leah in helping to care for Luc, she constantly pushes him away and lectures him on how to care for Luc. Ash loses control and says that Leah is not Luc's real family. He then apologises and settles his differences with Leah, Irene and VJ. After he receives Billie's death certificate in the mail, Ash breaks down and Kat comforts him, leading to them having sex soon afterwards. Ash tries to make it so that his niece will receive her late mother's money but must prove his brother Luke is dead first. Kat calls Births, Deaths and Marriages so that they can get Luke's death certificate, but there isn't one. An unknown caller then calls Ash and the caller turns out to be a man named "Patrick Stanwood". Ash is shocked as Stanwood sounds exactly like his late brother and he and Kat agree to investigate further. Kat has Stanwood's number traced by one of her colleagues and they head to Stanwood's address. After getting no answer from the door, Ash goes around the back and kicks the door in. Kat protests that they are breaking and entering, but Ash continues searching the house, to no avail. Just as they are about to leave Stanwood's house, a man appears out of the bushes and is revealed to be Luke. Ash then punches him in the face and he and Kat leave the area and go back to The Farmhouse.
Reception[edit]
Mason won two awards at the 2015 TV Week and Soap Extra #OMGAwards for Best Shock Kiss between his character Ash and Phoebe, and Best Love Triangle between Ash, Phoebe and Kyle Braxton (Nic Westaway).[25] In August 2017, Mason was longlisted for Best Daytime Star at the Inside Soap Awards.[26] TV Guide's Harvey said Mason attracted international media interest even before he debuted on-screen. She added that Australian magazines were quick to brand him "Home And Away's newest hunk".[10] A What's on TV reporter branded Ash a "handsome stranger".[27] Bianca La Cioppa from TV Week did not approve of Ash's flirtation with Denny because it was too soon after Casey's death. But added "trust me, I get it. Ash is easy on the eye. Having him flirt with you would be mighty hard to resist." Her colleague Stephen Downie disagreed believing that Denny should be with "handsome Ash".[20] A writer from TV Magazine said that the chemistry between "hot newcomer Ash" and Denny was undeniable.[28]
A writer from New Idea branded Mason a "cute newcomer" and named his on-screen coutnerpart a "tough and resilient" character.[29] TV Week's Sharon Goldstein Hunt branded Ash "the Bay's newest bad boy and Brax's bestie".[30] While their colleague bemoaned Ash's lack of development writing "just who is Ash? By the end of last year's finale Brax's old prison buddy still seemed a bit of a mystery."[31] Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap opined that Ash is "obviously no angel" and "there's not really much hope of him ever going straight" because of his connections to the Braxton family. But she did believe the character has heart because of his caring nature towards Billie and Brax.[32] Ellis later observed, "Those luscious locks of his are obviously a magnet for the ladies of Summer Bay!"[33]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Meet Home and Away's new hottie". New Idea. (Pacific Magazines). 27 October 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Interview: George Mason plays Martin Ashford". Yahoo!7. (Yahoo! and Network 7). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Vrajlal, Alicia (30 July 2014). "Revealed: Home And Away's newest heartthrob George Mason shares striking resemblance to Sons Of Anarchy star Charlie Hunnam". Daily Mail. DMG Media. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Spoiler: George Mason to join Home And Away cast". Woman's Day. (Bauer Media Group). 31 July 2014. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Domjen, Briana (12 October 2014). "New soap hunk Kiwi George Mason has Home & Away fans all in a lather". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "George Mason" (PDF). Sue Barnett & Associates. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Soap Diary". TV Week (43). 25–31 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Martin Ashford". Yahoo!7. (Yahoo! and Network 7). October 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "'I was starstruck by Ray Meagher'". TV Week. (Bauer Media Group). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Harvey, Kerry (10 November 2014). "Home And Away's new heart-throb". Stuff.co.nz. (Fairfax New Zealand). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Dainty, Sophie (27 October 2014). "Home and Away: Brax's violent outburst leaves his family shocked". Digital Spy. (Hearst Magazines UK). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ellis, Sarah (7–13 February 2015). "Brax & Ash's outback adventure". Inside Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (5): 18–19.
Jump up ^ Downie, Stephen (7–13 February 2015). "Shock exits!". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (6): 10–11.
Jump up ^ Downie, Stephen (14–20 February 2015). "Last chance". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (7): 14–15.
Jump up ^ "Can Brax clear his name?". Inside Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (10): 26. 14–20 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Brax pleads guilty?". Inside Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (11): 28. 21–27 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Miller, Erin (21–27 February 2015). "Love on the line". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (8): 10–11.
^ Jump up to: a b "Forbidden kiss!". All About Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (346): 23. 11–24 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Dainty, Sophie (7 February 2015). "Neighbours reunion, Home and Away cancer shock - spoiler pictures". Digital Spy. (Hearst Magazines UK). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b La Cioppa, Bianca; Downie, Stephen (November 2014). "Is it too soon for Denny and Ash to get together?". TV Week. (Bauer Media Group). Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Downie, Stephen (31 January – 6 February 2015). "Summer Bay Secrets". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (5): 16–17.
Jump up ^ Downie, Stephen (21–27 March 2015). "Let's get together". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (12): 14–15.
Jump up ^ "Ash & Denny's steamy snog!". Inside Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (14). 11–17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Downie, Stephen (4–10 April 2015). "Second thoughts". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (14): 11.
Jump up ^ "Drum Roll Please...". TV Week Soap Extra (22): 24–25. 15–28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Harp, Justin (22 August 2017). "Coronation Street, EastEnders, Emmerdale and Hollyoaks all make the Inside Soap Awards longlist". Digital Spy. Hearst Magazines UK. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Brax embraces Ash". What's on TV. (IPC Media). 6 January 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Things heat up for Denny and Ash". TV Magazine. News UK: 21. 11–17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Home and Away hotties!". New Idea. Pacific Magazines (4): 28. 26 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Goldstein Hunt, Sharon (10–16 January 2015). "Introducing". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (2): 33.
Jump up ^ "New talent of 2015". TV Week. Bauer Media Group (2): 19. 10–16 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Sarah (18–24 April 2015). "Soap's sexy new bad boys!". Inside Soap. Hearst Magazines UK (15): 46–47.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Sarah (5–11 September 2015). "Soap box". Inside Soap (35): 96.
External links[edit]
Martin Ashford at the Official AU Home and Away website
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Surrogacy laws by country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Legal regulation of surrogacy in the world:
Both gainful and altruistic forms are legal
No legal regulation
Only altruistic is legal
Allowed between relatives up to second degree of consanguinity
Banned
Unregulated/uncertain situation
The legal aspects of surrogacy in any particular jurisdiction tend to hinge on a few central questions:
Are surrogacy agreements enforceable, void, or prohibited? Does it make a difference whether the surrogate mother is paid (commercial) or simply reimbursed for expenses (altruistic)?
What, if any, difference does it make whether the surrogacy is traditional or gestational?
Is there an alternative to post-birth adoption for the recognition of the intended parents as the legal parents, either before or after the birth?
Laws differ widely from one jurisdiction to another.
Contents
[hide]
1 Australia
2 Belgium
3 Canada
3.1 Quebec
4 Colombia
5 Czech Republic
6 Denmark
7 Finland
8 France
9 Germany
10 Georgia
11 Greece
12 Hong Kong
13 Hungary
14 Iceland
15 India
16 Ireland
17 Israel
18 Iran
19 Italy
20 Japan
21 Netherlands
22 New Zealand
23 Nigeria
24 Pakistan
25 Portugal
26 Russia
27 Saudi Arabia
28 Serbia
29 South Africa
30 Spain
31 Sweden
32 Switzerland
33 Thailand
34 Ukraine
35 United Kingdom
36 United States
36.1 Arkansas
36.2 California
36.3 Michigan
36.4 New Hampshire
36.5 New York
36.6 Lawsuits
37 Vietnam
38 References
Australia[edit]
In Australia, all jurisdictions except the Northern Territory allow altruistic surrogacy; with commercial surrogacy being a criminal offense. The Northern Territory has no legislation governing surrogacy.[1] In New South Wales, Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory it is an offence to enter into international commercial surrogacy arrangements with potential penalties extending to imprisonment for up to one year in Australian Capital Territory, up to two years imprisonment in New South Wales and up to three years imprisonment in Queensland.
In 2004, the Australian Capital Territory made only altruistic surrogacy legal.[2]
In 2006, Australian senator Stephen Conroy and his wife Paula Benson announced that they had arranged for a child to be born through egg donation and gestational surrogacy. Unusually, Conroy was put on the birth certificate as the father of the child. Previously, couples who used to make surrogacy arrangements in Australia had to adopt the child after it was registered as born to the natural mother; rather than being recognized as birth parents, however now that surrogacy is more regular practice for childless parents; most states have switched to such arrangements to give the intended parents proper rights.[3][4] After the announcement, Victoria passed the Assisted Reproductive Treatment Act 2008, effective since 1 January 2010 to make only altruistic surrogacy legal.[5]
In 2009, Western Australia[6] passed a law to allow only altruistic surrogacy for couples of the opposite-sex only, and to prohibit it for single people and same-sex couples. In 2010, Queensland made only altruistic surrogacy legal,[7] as did New South Wales,[8] and Tasmania did the same in 2013 with the Surrogacy Act No 34 and the Surrogacy (Consequential Amendments) Act No 31[9][10][11][12]
In 2017, South Australia passed a bill to allow gay couples equal access to both surrogacy and IVF. The bill received royal assent on 15 March 2017 and went into effect on 21 March 2017.[13][14][15][16][17]
A Medicare rebate is not available for IVF treatment for surrogacy.
Belgium[edit]
Altrustic surrogacy is legal in Belgium.[18]
Canada[edit]
The Assisted Human Reproduction Act (AHRC) permits only altruistic surrogacy: surrogate mothers may be reimbursed for approved expenses but payment of any other consideration or fee is illegal.[19] Quebec law, however, does not recognize surrogacy arrangements, whether commercial or altruistic.
Quebec[edit]
The Quebec Civil Code renders all surrogacy contracts, whether commercial or altruistic, unenforceable.[20]
Colombia[edit]
There are no clear rules in Colombia as of today regarding surrogacy and a loophole persists. The current laws applied are those from a natural childbirth. This means the child must be registered with the surnames of the surrogate mother and her partner or spouse, if she has any. Only through a challenging paternity lawsuit before a judge may the commissioning parents be recognized as legal parents, and it may include genetic tests.[21]
In July 2016, a right wing political party, Democratic Center, has introduced for the second time a bill in order to determine the concept of surrogacy and to forbid any types of it.[22][23]
Czech Republic[edit]
Surrogacy is not legally regulated in the Czech Republic and so is generally considered legal.[24] The only mention of the phrase "surrogate motherhood" can be found in § 804 of the law n. 89/2012, where the law designates an exception to the ban of adoption by siblings for siblings carried by a surrogate mother.[25]
Denmark[edit]
Altruistic surrogacy is legal in Denmark.
Finland[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) have been illegal since 2007. Commercial surrogacy arrangements were illegal even before 2007.
France[edit]
In France, since 1994, any surrogacy arrangement that is commercial or altruistic, is illegal or unlawful and is not sanctioned by the law (art 16-7 of the Code Civil).[26] The French Court of Cassation already took this point of view in 1991. It held that if any couple makes an agreement or arranges with another person that she is to bear the husband's child and surrender it on birth to the couple, and that she is choosing that she will not keep the child, the couple making such an agreement or arrangement is not allowed to adopt the child. In its judgement the court held that such an agreement is illegal on the basis of articles 6, 353 and 1128 of the Code Civil.[27] In 2018, France government plans to allow surrogacy in France.
Germany[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal. German party FDP wants to allow altruistic surrogacy.[28]
Georgia[edit]
Surrogacy, along with ovum and sperm donation, has been legal in the country of Georgia since 1992. A donor or surrogate mother has no parental rights over such a child.[citation needed]
Greece[edit]
Law 3305/2005 (“Enforcement of Medically Assisted Reproduction”) Surrogacy in Greece is fully legal and is only one of a handful of countries in the world to give legal protection to intended parents. Intended parents must meet certain qualifications, and will go before a family judge before starting their journey. As long as they meet the qualifications, the court appearance is procedural and will be granted their application. At present, intended parents must be in a heterosexual partnership or be a single female. Females must be able to prove there is a medical indication they cannot carry and be no older than 50 at the time of the contract. As in all jurisdictions, surrogates must pass medical and psychological tests so they can prove to the court that they are medically and mentally fit. What is unique about Greece is that it is the only country in Europe, and one of only countries in the world where the surrogate then has no rights over the child. The intended parents become the legal parents from conception and there is no mention of the surrogate mother anywhere on hospital or birth documents. The intended parent(s) are listed as the parents. This even applies if an egg or sperm donor is used by one of the partners. An added advantage for Europeans is that, due to the Schengen Treaty, they can freely travel home as soon as the baby is born and deal with citizenship issues at that time, as opposed to applying at their own embassy in Greece. The old regime (pursuant to art. 8 of Law 3089/2002), one of the prerequisites for granting the judicial permission for surrogacy was also the fact that the surrogate mother and the commissioning parents should be Greek citizens or permanent residents. However, the law has recently (in July 2014) changed and the new provisions of L. 4272/2014 foresee now that the surrogacy is allowed to applicants or surrogate mothers who have their permanent or temporary residence in Greece. With this new law Greece becomes the only EU country with a comprehensive framework to regulate, facilitate and enforce surrogacy, as according to the explanatory statement of the art. 17 of the L. 4272/2014: “The possibility is now extending also to applicants or surrogate mothers who have their permanent residence outside Greece”.
Hong Kong[edit]
Commercial surrogacy is criminal under the Human Reproductive Technology Ordinance 2000. The law is phrased in a manner that no one can pay a surrogate, no surrogate can receive money, and no one can arrange a commercial surrogacy (the same applies to the supply of gametes), no matter within or outside Hong Kong. Normally only the gametes of the intended parents can be used.
In October 2010, Peter Lee, the eldest son and one of the presumed heirs of billionnaire Lee Shau Kee obtained three sons through a surrogate mother, reportedly from California. Since the junior Lee is single, the news attracted criticism on both moral and legal grounds. A vicar general of the territory's Roman Catholic diocese was critical. In December the case was reportedly referred to police after questions were asked in Legco.[29]
Hungary[edit]
Commercial surrogacy is illegal in Hungary.
Iceland[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal.
India[edit]
Main article: Commercial surrogacy in India
As of November 4, 2015 commercial surrogacy is not legal in India. Those commissioned before 11/4/2015 are reviewed on case by case situation; however, no new surrogacies will be started.[30]
Before 2015, commercial surrogacy was legal in India.[31] India was a desitination for surrogacy-related fertility tourism because of the relatively low cost. Including the costs of flight tickets, medical procedures, and hotels, it was roughly a third of the price compared with going through the procedure in the UK.[32] In the case of Balaz v. Union of India the Honorable Supreme Court of India has given the verdict that the citizenship of the child born through this process will have the citizenship of its surrogate mother. Surrogacy was regulated by the Indian Council of Medical Research guidelines, 2005.
Ireland[edit]
There is no law in Ireland governing surrogacy. In 2005 a Government appointed Commission published a very comprehensive report on Assisted Human Reproduction, which made many recommendations on the broader area of assisted human reproduction. In relation to surrogacy it recommended that the commissioning couple would under Irish law be regarded as the parents of the child. Despite the publication there has been no legislation published and the area essentially remains unregulated. Due to mounting pressure from Irish citizens going abroad to have children through surrogacy, the Minister for Justice, Equality and Defence published guidelines for them on 21 February 2012.[33]
Israel[edit]
In March 1996, the Israeli government legalized gestational surrogacy under the "Embryo Carrying Agreements Law." This law made Israel the first country in the world to implement a form of state-controlled surrogacy in which each and every contract must be approved directly by the state.[34] A state-appointed committee permits surrogacy arrangements to be filed only by Israeli citizens who share the same religion.[35] The numerous restrictions on surrogacy under Israeli law have prompted some intended parents to turn to surrogates outside of the country. Same-sex couples can enter a surrogacy arrangement outside of Israel and have their legal parenthood recognized within Israel.
Iran[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are legal and popular. Many couples from middle east do the surrogacy in Iran due to the legal easiness.
Italy[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal.
Japan[edit]
In March 2008, the Science Council of Japan proposed a ban on surrogacy and said that doctors, agents and their clients should be punished for commercial surrogacy arrangements.
Netherlands[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Altruistic surrogacy is legal in the Netherlands.[36] Only commercial surrogacy is illegal in Belgium and the Netherlands. Although altrustic surrogacy is legal, there is only one hospital taking in couples and there are extremely strict rules to get in. This makes a lot of couples seek their treatment outside the Netherlands or Belgium.[37]
New Zealand[edit]
Altruistic surrogacy is legal.
Nigeria[edit]
Gestational surrogacy is currently practiced in Nigeria by a few IVF clinics. The guidelines are as approved by the practice guidelines of the Association of Fertility and Reproductive Health (AFRH) of Nigeria. The ART regulation that is currently being considered by the Senate permits surrogacy and allows some inducement to be paid for transport and other expenses.[38]
Pakistan[edit]
Surrogacy is illegal in Pakistan.[39]
Portugal[edit]
In 2016, Gestational surrogacy was legalized in Portugal. Discussions on the adoption of this law lasted more than 3 years. The first version of the law was adopted May 13, 2016, but the president vetoed it. He demanded that the law contained rights and obligations of all participants in the process of surrogacy. As a result, the text of the law has been updated, and now surrogacy is legalized and regulated by law in Portugal.
The basic rules of the law on surrogacy in Portugal Use the surrogacy services can only those couples, where the woman can not carry and give birth to a child for medical reasons. This should be documentally confirmed. Surrogate motherhood should be altruistic, the woman who agrees to carry and give birth to a child, shouldn’t pay for services. The written agreement must be necessarily issued between the surrogate mother and the genetic parents. The rights and obligations of the parties as well as their actions in cases of force majeure should be included in it. After the birth, parental rights over the child belong to the genetic parents. According to the law, the surrogate mother is a woman of child-bearing age who agrees to carry and give birth to a child for the genetic parents, and she doesn’t lay claim to be his mother.
Traditional surrogacy is illegal in Portugal except for some situations that give the right for a surrogate mother to be genetic (for example, if the future adoptive mother is completely barren).
Adoption of the law caused some debate within several Portuguese Christian Churches, though not among the once dominant Roman Catholic Church. Representatives of Brazilian and US based evangelical and Pentecostal churches condemn surrogacy and suggest that infertile couples can/must (depending on the Church) pursue conventional adoption (national or transnational even though the later is banned by law).
Heterosexual and Lesbian Couples can become parents via surrogacy in Portugal as by 2016 all the risks of the program are provided and regulated by law (for example, the occurrence of developmental defects of the baby, miscarriage or abortion). Male Homosexual couples and single men and women of any sexual orientation have not yet been included, but they are not addressed specifically by the law which leaves an opening for a future revision in a more encompassing way. One such revision is on the current manifestos of several parties: the [Left Bloc (B.E)], [People–Animals–Nature (PAN)-and [(Ecologist Party "The Greens" (Os Verdes - The Greens)]. They can count on the repeated opposition of the populist right party CDS – People's Party (PP-CDS) and the Social Democratic Party (PPD-PSD), the most socially conservative parties in parliament. The Communist Party (P.C.P) voted against the first proposal, because it was against the recommendations of the National Ethics Counsil, this was also President's argument to decline its approval. Most of the Socialist Party voted favourably, as well. By now, this means that gay couples are banned from altruistic surrogacy within Portugal and since the Constitution of Portugal explicitly bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, this could be unconstitutional, which is being discussed by the Portuguese Constitucional Court. [40] [41] [42][43]
Russia[edit]
Gestational surrogacy, even commercial, is legal in Russia,[44] being available to practically all adults willing to be parents.[45] There must be one of several medical indications for surrogacy: absence of uterus, deformity of the uterine cavity or cervix, uterine cavity synechia, somatic diseases contraindicating child bearing, or repeated failure of IVF despite high-quality embryos.[44]
The first surrogacy program in Russia was successfully implemented in 1995 at the IVF centre of the Obstetrics and Gynecology Institute in St. Petersburg.[46] Public opinion in general is surrogacy-friendly; recent cases of a famous singer and a well-known businesswoman who openly used services of gestational surrogates received positive news coverage. Meanwhile, the Russian Orthodox Church has officially condemned surrogacy. As regards the baptism of the children born through surrogacy, the Russian Orthodox Church holds that a "child born with the assistance of “surrogate motherhood” can be Baptized according to the wishes of the party that will be raising it, if such are either its “biological parents” or its “surrogate mother,” only after they have recognized that, from the Christian point of view, such reproductive technology is morally reprehensible and have borne ecclesial repentance – regardless of whither they ignored the Church’s position consciously or unconsciously".[47]
A few Russian women, such as Ekaterina Zakharova,[48] Natalija Klimova,[49] and Lamara Kelesheva,[50] became grandmothers through post-mortem gestational surrogacy programs, their surrogate grandsons being conceived posthumously after the deaths of their sons.
Registration of children born through surrogacy is regulated by the Family Code of Russia (art. 51-52) and the Law on Acts on Civil Status (art. 16). A surrogate’s consent is needed for that. Apart from that consent, no adoption nor court decision is required. The surrogate’s name is never listed on the birth certificate. There is no requirement for the child to be genetically related to at least one of the commissioning parents.[51]
Children born to heterosexual couples who are not officially married or single intended parents through gestational surrogacy are registered in accordance to analogy of jus (art. 5 of the Family Code). A court decision may be needed in that case. On 5 August 2009 a St. Petersburg court definitely resolved a dispute as to whether single women could apply for surrogacy and obliged the State Registration Authority to register a 35-year=old single intended mother, Nataliya Gorskaya, as the mother of her surrogate son.[52]
On 4 August 2010 a Moscow court ruled that a single man who applied for gestational surrogacy (using donor eggs) could be registered as the only parent of his son, becoming the first man in Russia to defend his right to become a father through court proceedings.[53] The surrogate mother’s name was not listed on the birth certificate; the father was listed as the only parent. After that a few more identical decisions concerning single men who became fathers through surrogacy were issued by different courts in Russia, listing men as the only parents of their surrogate children and confirming that prospective single parents, regardless of their sex or sexual orientation, can exercise their right to parenthood through surrogacy in Russia.
Liberal legislation makes Russia attractive for "reproductive tourists" looking for techniques not available in their countries. Intended parents go there for oocyte donation because of advanced age or marital status (single women and single men) and when surrogacy is considered. Foreigners have the same rights for assisted reproduction as Russian citizens. Within 3 days after the birth, the commissioning parents obtain a Russian birth certificate with both their names on it. Genetic relation to the child (in case of donation) does not matter.[54]
Saudi Arabia[edit]
Religious authorities in Saudi Arabia do not allow the use of surrogate mothers, instead suggesting medical procedures to restore fertility and ability to deliver.[55]
Serbia[edit]
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal. A draft of the new civil law is said to allow surogacy mother, but Serbian Assembly still did not adopt this law yet. On April 21, 2017, the Serbian Assembly started a discussion a legislation on assisted reproductive technology that bans all forms of surrogacy. (The legislation is being discussed.)
South Africa[edit]
The South Africa Children's Act of 2005 (which came fully into force in 2010) enabled the "commissioning parents" and the surrogate to have their surrogacy agreement validated by the High Court even before fertilization. This allows the commissioning parents to be recognized as legal parents from the outset of the process and helps prevent uncertainty - although if the surrogate mother is the genetic mother she has until 60 days after the birth of the child to change her mind. The law permits single people and gay couples to be commissioning parents.[56] However, only those domiciled in South Africa benefit from the protection of the law, no non-validated agreements will be enforced, and agreements must be altruistic rather than commercial. If there is only one commissioning parent, s/he must be genetically related to the child. If there are two, they must both be genetically related to the child unless that is physically impossible due to infertility or sex (as in the case of a same sex couple). The Commissioning parent or parents must be physically unable to birth a child independently. The surrogate mother must have had at least one pregnancy and viable delivery and have at least one living child. The surrogate mother has the right to unilaterally terminate the pregnancy, but she must consult with and inform the commissioning parents, and if she is terminating for a non-medical reason, may be obliged to refund any medical reimbursements she had received.[57]
Spain[edit]
Whereas surrogacy is not legal in Spain (the biological mother's renouncement contract is not legally valid), it is legal to perform the surrogacy in a country where it is legal, having the mother the nationality from that same country.[58]
Sweden[edit]
Surrogacy is not clearly regulated in Swedish law.[59] The legal procedure most equivalent to it is making an adoption of the child from the surrogate mother. However, the surrogate mother has the right to keep the child if she changes her mind before the adoption. The biological father may nevertheless claim the right to the child.
It is illegal for Swedish fertility clinics to make surrogate arrangements. As an alternative, Sweden sanctioned the world's first uterus transplant in an infertile woman. The woman was 36 years old.
Switzerland[edit]
Surrogacy is regulated in the "Bundesgesetz über die medizinisch unterstützte Fortpflanzung (Fortpflanzungsmedizingesetz, FMedG) vom 18. Dezember 1998" and illegal in Switzerland. Art. 4 forbids surrogacy, Art. 31 regulates the punishment of clinicians who apply in vitro fertilisation for surrogacy or persons who arrange surrogacy. The surrogate mother is not punished by law. She will be the legal mother of the child.
On 24 August 2014, the Administrative Court of the Canton of St. Gallen granted parentship to two men of a child born in the USA.[60]
Thailand[edit]
In response to the controversial Baby Gammy incident in 2014, Thailand since July 30, 2015, has banned foreign people travelling to Thailand, to have commercial surrogacy contract arrangement, under the Protection of Children Born from Assisted Reproductive Technologies Act. Only opposite-sex married couples as Thailand residents are allowed to have a commercial surrogacy contract arrangement. In the past Thailand was a popular destination for couples seeking surrogate mothers.[61][62][63]
Ukraine[edit]
Since 2002, surrogacy and surrogacy in combination with egg/sperm donation has been absolutely legal in Ukraine. According to the law a donor or a surrogate mother has no parental rights over the child born and the child born is legally the child of the prospective parents.
In Ukraine the start of introduction of methods of supporting reproductive medicine was given in eighties of the preceding century. It was Kharkov where the extracorporeal fertilization method was for the first time successfully applied in Ukraine, and in 1991 a girl named Katy was born. Kharkiv was also the first city in CIS countries to realize surrogacy. Many clinics dealing with surrogacy have been opened in Kiev[64] and Lviv.
Ukrainian surrogacy laws are very favorable and fully support the individual's reproductive rights. Surrogacy is officially regulated by Clause 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine and the order of the Ministry of health of Ukraine "On approval of the application of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine" from 09.09.2013 № 787. You can choose between Gestational Surrogacy, Egg/sperm Donation, special Embryo adoption programs and their combinations. No specific permission from any regulatory body is required for that. A written informed consent of all parties (intended parents and surrogate) participating in the surrogacy program is mandatory.
Ukrainian legislation allows intended parents to carry on a surrogacy program and their names will be on Birth certificate of the child born as a result of the surrogacy program from the very beginning. The child is considered to be legally "belonging" to the prospective parents from the very moment of conception. The surrogate’s name is never listed on the birth certificate. The surrogate can't keep the child after the birth. Even if a donation program took place and there is no biological relation between the child and the intended mother, their names will be on Birth certificate (Clause 3 of article 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine).
Embryo research is also allowed, gamete and embryo donation permitted on a commercial level. Single women can be treated by known or anonymous donor insemination. Gestational surrogacy is an option for officially married couples and single women. There is no such concept as gay/lesbian marriage in Ukraine, meanwhile such patients can be treated as single women/men.
United Kingdom[edit]
Commercial surrogacy arrangements are not legal in the United Kingdom. Such arrangements were prohibited by the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985.[65] Whilst it is illegal in the UK to pay more than expenses for a surrogacy, the relationship is recognised under section 30 of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990. Regardless of contractual or financial consideration for expenses, surrogacy arrangements are not legally enforceable so a surrogate mother maintains the legal right of determination for the child, even if they are genetically unrelated. Unless a parental order or adoption order is made, the surrogate mother remains the legal mother of the child.
United States[edit]
Surrogacy and its attendant legal issues fall under state jurisdiction and the legal situation for surrogacy varies greatly from state to state. Some states have written legislation, while others have developed common law regimes for dealing with surrogacy issues. Some states facilitate surrogacy and surrogacy contracts, others simply refuse to enforce them, and some penalize commercial surrogacy. Surrogacy friendly states tend to enforce both commercial and altruistic surrogacy contracts and facilitate straightforward ways for the intended parents to be recognized as the child's legal parents. Some relatively surrogacy friendly states only offer support for married heterosexual couples. Generally, only gestational surrogacy is supported and traditional surrogacy finds little to no legal support.
States generally considered to be surrogacy friendly include California,[66] Illinois,[67] Arkansas,[68] Maryland,[69] and New Hampshire[70] among others.
For legal purposes, key factors are where the contract is completed, where the surrogate mother resides, and where the birth takes place. Therefore, individuals living in a non-friendly state can still benefit from the policies of surrogacy friendly states by working with a surrogate who lives and will give birth in a friendly state.
Arkansas[edit]
Arkansas was one of the first states to enact surrogacy friendly laws. In 1989, under then Governor Bill Clinton, it passed Act 647, which states that in a surrogacy arrangement, the biological father and his wife will be recognized as the child's legal parents from birth, even if his wife is not genetically related to the child (i.e., in a traditional surrogacy arrangement). If he is unmarried, he alone will be recognized as the legal parent. A woman may also be recognized as the legal mother of the surrogate birth mother's genetic child as long as that child was conceived with anonymous donor sperm.[71] On the other hand, it is unclear how or whether same sex couples could benefit these laws, since the 2008 ballot measure that made it illegal for unmarried, cohabiting individuals to adopt or provide foster care to minors.[72] On June 26, 2015, the 2008 ballot issue is moot because of Obergefell v. Hodges.
California[edit]
California is known to be a surrogacy-friendly state. It permits commercial surrogacy, regularly enforces gestational surrogacy contracts, and makes it possible for all intended parents, regardless of marital status or sexual orientation, to establish their legal parentage prior to the birth and without adoption proceedings (pre-birth orders).[73][74]
Michigan[edit]
Michigan forbids absolutely all surrogacy agreements. It is a felony to enter into such an agreement, punishable by a fine of up to $50,000 and up to five years in prison. The law makes surrogacy agreements unenforceable.[75]
New Hampshire[edit]
Since 2014, New Hampshire is recognized as a surrogacy friendly state, with laws in place to protect all parties to a surrogacy arrangement. All intended parents, irrespective of marital status, sexual orientation, or a genetic connection to the child, are able to establish their legal parental rights through pre-birth orders placing their names directly on the child's initial birth certificate. Reasonable compensation to the surrogate is permitted by statute.[76]
New York[edit]
New York law holds that commercial surrogacy contracts contravene public policy and provides for civil penalties for those who participate in or facilitate a commercial surrogacy contract in New York.[77] Altruistic surrogacy contracts are not penalized, but neither are they enforced. New York does recognize pre-birth orders from other states, and has provided a post-birth adoption alternative for altruistic surrogate parents via orders of maternal and paternal filiation.[78]
Lawsuits[edit]
Baby M: New Jersey 1988. The surrogate mother in a gestational surrogacy arrangement decided to keep the resulting child. The intended parents sued to have themselves recognized as the legal parents. The New Jersey Supreme Court found that the surrogacy contract was invalid as a matter of New Jersey public policy. However, the intended parents were given custody of the child because the courts thought they would provide a better home for the baby than the surrogate mother, who was instead given visitation rights.
Vietnam[edit]
Surrogacy for humanitarian purposes have been allowed in Vietnam from 2015 after The amended Family and Marriage Law passed with nearly 60 percent of votes from the National Assembly.
Under the new law, surrogacy will only be allowed among married couples, who do not have any common child, after doctors confirm the wife can not give birth even with technical support. The surrogate must be a relative of either the husband or wife, and have already given birth successfully. A woman is only allowed to be a surrogate once in her life and must produce her husband’s approval if she’s married. The embryo must be created by the intended parents' sperm and ovum.[79] The process must be voluntary and follow in-vitro fertilization regulations.
References[edit]
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