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Jury instructions
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Jury instructions are the set of legal rules that jurors ought follow when deciding a case. Jury instructions are given to the jury by the jury instructor, who usually reads them aloud to the jury. They are often the subject of discussion of the case, how they will decide who is guilty, and are given by the judge in order to make sure their interests are represented and nothing prejudicial is said.
Contents
1 United States
1.1 Incomprehensibility with jury instructions
1.2 Jury nullification instructions
2 References
3 External links
United States[edit]
Under the American judicial system, juries are often the trier of fact when they serve in a trial. In other words, it is their job to sort through disputed accounts presented in evidence. The judge decides questions of law, meaning he or she decides how the law applies to a given set of facts. The jury instructions provide something of a flow chart on what verdict jurors should deliver based on what they determine to be true. Put another way, "If you believe A (set of facts), you must find X (verdict). If you believe B (set of facts), you must find Y (verdict)." Jury instructions can also serve an important role in guiding the jury how to consider certain evidence.[1]
Forty-eight states (Texas and West Virginia are the exceptions) have a model set of instructions, usually called "pattern jury instructions", which provide the framework for the charge to the jury; sometimes, only names and circumstances have to be filled in for a particular case. Often they are much more complex, although certain elements frequently recur. For instance, if a criminal defendant chooses not to testify, the jury will often be instructed not to draw any negative conclusions from that decision. Many jurisdictions are now instructing jurors not to communicate about the case through social networking services like Facebook and Twitter.[2]
Incomprehensibility with jury instructions[edit]
Some jury instructions have been observed to be confusing and hard to understand by jurors due to how they are given the instructions. Several studies have discovered that subjects who received no jury instructions comprehended the law better than subjects who received pattern instructions. Jurors retain low comprehension of the most fundamental aspects of their roles. For instance, scholarly studies and anecdotal evidence suggest that jurors conflate reasonable doubt with the civil standard of preponderance of the evidence.[3]
In one study, citizens willing to impose the death penalty were presented in two experiments with four sets of instructions (i.e., baseline instructions, instructions used at trial, instructions revised according to Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution holdings, and model instructions written in nontechnical language). Results demonstrated high confusion with the trial instructions, little improvement with revised instructions, significant but case-specific improvements with model instructions, and a strong relationship between miscomprehension and willingness to impose death.[4]
In California, jury instructions were simplified to make them easier for jurors to understand. The courts moved cautiously because, although verdicts are rarely overturned due to jury instructions in civil court, this is not the case in criminal court. For example, the old instructions on burden of proof in civil cases read:[5]
Preponderance of the evidence means evidence that has more convincing force than that opposed to it. If the evidence is so evenly balanced that you are unable to say that the evidence on either side of an issue preponderates, your finding on that issue must be against the party who had the burden of proving it.
The new instructions read:
When I tell you that a party must prove something, I mean that the party must persuade you, by the evidence presented in court, that what he or she is trying to prove is more likely to be true than not true. This is sometimes referred to as 'the burden of proof.'
Jury nullification instructions[edit]
In one study, results gathered from 144 six-person juries indicated that when juries are in receipt of jury nullification information from the judge or defense attorney they are more likely to acquit a sympathetic defendant and judge a dangerous defendant more harshly than when such information is not present or when challenges are made to nullification arguments.[6] In another study, three nullification instructions varying in explicitness as to nullification were combined with three criminal cases to yield a 3×3 factorial design. Forty-five six-person juries (270 subjects) were randomly assigned to the nine experimental groups. The results showed that juries given explicit nullification instructions were more likely to vote guilty in a drunk driving case, but less likely to do so in a euthanasia case. The third case, which dealt with murder, did not show any differences due to instructions.[7]
It has been argued that by effectively and persistently offering juries instructions that cannot be understood, judges regularly nullify the law.[8]
The inclusion of jury nullifications within jury instructions is a debated topic, where at least two sides on the issue have been identified. One side explains that instructions permitting jury nullification is to be criticized as promoting chaos, as it brings the decision between having a structured set of rules and having less of said rules for a more free set of choices that could also promote the likes of anarchy and tyranny. The other side explains that a jury instruction about jury nullification would do the opposite and could allow jury deliberation to possibly prevent decisions that are beyond the court's doing from being allowed. This would also imply that an anarchy already exists in the legal system.[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Overview - Federal Jury Instructions & Federal Evidence
Jump up ^ Ensuring An Impartial Jury In The Age Of Social Media, Duke Law and Technology Review (2012), http://dukedltr.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/stevefinal_31.pdf
Jump up ^ John P. Cronan (2002), Is Any of This Making Sense? Reflecting on Guilty Pleas to Aid Criminal Juror Comprehension, 39, American Criminal Law Review
Jump up ^ Wiener, Richard L.; Pritchard, Christine C.; Weston, Minda (August 1995), "Comprehensibility of approved jury instructions in capital murder cases", Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, 80 (4): 455–467, doi:10.1037/0021-9010.80.4.455
Jump up ^ Spelling It Out in Plain English
Jump up ^ Irwin A. Horowitz (December 1988), The impact of judicial instructions, arguments, and challenges on jury decision making, 12 (4), Law and Human Behavior, ISSN 0147-7307
Jump up ^ Irwin A. Horowitz (March 1985), The effect of jury nullification instruction on verdicts and jury functioning in criminal trials, 9 (1), Law and Human Behavior, ISSN 0147-7307
Jump up ^ Saks, Michael J. (1992–1993), Judicial Nullification, 68, Ind. L. J., p. 1281
Jump up ^ David N. Dorfman (1995), Fictions, Fault, and Forgiveness: Jury Nullification in a New Context
External links[edit]
Federal Jury Instruction Resource Page Collecting model or pattern federal civil and criminal jury instructions for trial courts by jurisdiction (where available) and subject matter.
Jury Instructions in Insurance-Coverage and Insurance Bad-Faith Cases
Sample Eighth Circuit Civil Jury Instructions
Criminal Pattern Jury Instructions, 10th Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals.[dead link]
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The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)
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The Last Supper
Il Cenacolo or L'Ultima Cena
Artist
Leonardo da Vinci
Year
1490s (Julian)
Medium
fresco-secco
Dimensions
460 cm (180 in) × 880 cm (350 in)
Location
Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan
Coordinates
45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333Coordinates: 45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333
Website
legraziemilano.it/il-cenacolo/
[edit on Wikidata]
The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo [il tʃeˈnaːkolo] or L'Ultima Cena [ˈlultima ˈtʃeːna]) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. It is one of the world's most recognizable paintings.[1]
The work is presumed to have been started around 1495–96 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with his apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13:21.[2] Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him.
Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.
Contents
[hide]
1 Painting
1.1 Important copies
2 Medium
3 Damage and restorations
3.1 Major restoration
4 The Last Supper in culture
4.1 Painting, mosaic, and photography
4.2 Modern art
4.3 Literature
4.4 Film and television
5 Other speculation
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Painting[edit]
Crucifixion, opposite Leonardo's Last Supper
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, by Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, called Giampietrino (active 1508–1549), after Leonardo da Vinci, oil on canvas, in the collection of The Royal Academy of Arts, London; full-scale copy that was the main source for the twenty-year restoration of the original (1978-1998). It includes several lost details such as Christ's feet and the salt cellar spilled by Judas. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with Leonardo when he was in Milan. The painting hung in the chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford from 1992.[3]
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, Andrea Solari, after Leonardo da Vinci, oil on canvas, in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum, Tongerlo Abbey.
The Last Supper measures 460 cm × 880 cm (180 in × 350 in) and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum.[4]
The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum.[5] The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms.
The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.)
Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498—he did not work on the painting continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date.[6]
One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained.[7][8]
A study for The Last Supper from Leonardo's notebooks showing nine apostles identified by names written above their heads

The Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript[9] (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:
Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew form a group of three; all are surprised.
Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group of three.
Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer.[10] He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near-Eastern expression to "betray the salt" meaning to betray one's Master. He is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting.
Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus' arrest.
The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon.
Jesus
Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are the next group of three.
Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection.
James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation.
Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are the final group of three.
Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions.
In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas.
Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose turned right cheek is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines; his hands are located at the golden ratio of half the height of the composition.[11]
The painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. The painting can also be interpreted using the Fibonacci series: 1 table, 1 central figure, 2 side walls, 3 windows and figures grouped in threes, 5 groups of figures, 8 panels on the walls and 8 table legs, and 13 individual figures.[11] There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated.
Important copies[edit]
Two early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact.[12] One copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is painted by Andrea Solari (ca. 1520) and is on display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo Abbey, Belgium.
Medium[edit]
For this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco.[13] He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco cannot be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster.[13] Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone.[14] These techniques were important for Leonardo's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.
Damage and restorations[edit]
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A protective structure was built in front of the da Vinci wall fresco. This photo shows the bombing damage in 1943, suggesting the magnitude of the greater damage that was averted.
Because the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate.[13] As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake, and in 1532 Gerolamo Cardano described it as "blurred and colorless compared with what I remember of it when I saw it as a boy".[15] By 1556—fewer than sixty years after it was finished—Leonardo's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already "ruined" and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that "the painting is all ruined".[13] In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.
A first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.
During World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and-stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.
Major restoration[edit]
The painting as it looked in the 1970s
The painting's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.
This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic.[16] Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls "muff-like drapery".[17]
The Last Supper in culture[edit]
The Last Supper made in salt in Wieliczka Salt Mine (Poland)
The Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:
Painting, mosaic, and photography[edit]
A 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original.[citation needed] The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche.[citation needed]
Modern art[edit]
In 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.[18]
Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.[19]
In 1988, Susan Dorothea White painted The First Supper showing 13 women from all regions of the world, with the woman in the position of Leonardo's Christ figure being an Australian aboriginal.[20][21]
In 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.[22]
In 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup.[23]
Literature[edit]
Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844:
First we visited the fading inimitable fresco of Leonardo da Vinci. How vain are copies! not in one, nor in any print, did i ever see the slightest approach to the expression in our Savior's face, such as it is in the original. Majesty and love—these are the words that would describe it—joined to an absence of all guile that expresses the divine nature more visibly than I ever saw it in any other picture.[24]
—  Mary Shelley, Travel Writing (1996), Pages 131–132
Film and television[edit]
In Luis Buñuel's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar 'photographs' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it "blasphemous."
The painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus. It is also parodied in the original movie MASH, in the scene where Hawkeye Pierce stages a "last supper" for Walt (Painless) Waldowski before his planned suicide. The various doctors, all in surgical scrubs, pose in imitation of the painting.
Many parodies of the painting appear on the small screen, including The Simpsons' Season 16 episode "Thank God, It's Doomsday," with Homer as Jesus and Moe and his other patrons as the disciples; That '70s Show's first-season episode "Streaking," with Eric flanked by his friends (and Jackie wondering why everyone is sitting on the same side of the table); and South Park's Season 13 episode "Margaritaville," with Kyle and his friends eating at a pizza parlor.
Other speculation[edit]
The Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003.
Dan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective), was not John the Apostle, but Mary Magdalene. This speculation originated in earlier books The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982). These claims have been contested by other writers, such as Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel in The Da Vinci Hoax, as well as by art historians. Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon commented "If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left, the one with the sort of Bette Midler look about him".[25]
Giovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo's writing, form a musical composition.[26][27][28]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Leonardo Da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' reveals more secrets". sciencedaily.com. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci –. "Santa Maria delle Grazie – Milan". Inexhibit. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chapel with return Renaissance painrefting". Oxford Times. 14 September 2017. p. 19.
Jump up ^ "Santa Maria delle Grazie & The Last Supper". Timeout.com. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Itinerary: Early maturity in Milan (1482-1499)". Museo Galileo. 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Clark.Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin Books 1939, 1993, p144.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". lairweb.org.nz. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "DaVinci". The Mark Steel Lectures. Series 2. Episode 2. The Open University. 7 October 2003. BBC. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci—Complete by Leonardo da Vinci". Gutenberg.org. 1 January 2004. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
Jump up ^ Cfr. Matthew 26:15; John 12:6 and 13:29.
^ Jump up to: a b White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like Da Vinci. London: Cassell Illustrated, p.132. ISBN 9781844034444.
Jump up ^ "Last Supper (copy after Leonardo)". University of the Arts, London. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smart history presented by the Khan Academy. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". The Last Supper. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Wykes, Alan (1969). Doctor Cardano, physician extraordinary. p. 26.
Jump up ^ Phillip William (24 May 1999). "The Last Supper or a dog's dinner?". The Guardian. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Dayla Alberge (14 March 2012). "Have art restorers ruined Leonardo's masterpiece?". The Independent. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Haden-Guest, Anthony (3 August 1999). "Warhol's Last Supper". Artnet. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Susan White - veelzijdig werk, Kunstbeeld (Amsterdam) Oct. 1990, vol. 14 (10) p.62 (translation)
Jump up ^ Allen, Christopher. 'Ludicrous Leonardo', The Sydney Morning Herald, 23 December 1988, p.10
Jump up ^ "Zeng's 'Last Supper' Sells for Record $23.3 Million at Sotheby's Auction". WSJ.com. October 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Vicki (25 September 1998). "ART REVIEW; It's a Leonardo? It's a Corot? Well, No, It's Chocolate Syrup". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Shelley, Mary (1996). Travel Writing. London: Pickering. pp. 131–132. ISBN 1-85196-084-8.
Jump up ^ Christopher Hodapp, Alice Von Kannon, The Templar Code For Dummies, page 257 (Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-12765-0).
Jump up ^ Rossella Lorenzi (9 November 2007). "Leonardo's 'Last Supper' Hides True Da Vinci Code". Discovery News. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Da Vinci's "Last Supper" has hidden music (includes link to recording)". Extra.beloblog.com. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
Jump up ^ mp3 file of the composition, hosted.ap.org
Further reading[edit]
Steinberg, Leo. Leonardo's Incessant 'Last Supper'". New York: Zone Books, 2001.
Detailed review of Steinberg's 'Incessant Last Supper' at 3 Pipe Problem
Bertelli, Carlo (November 1983). "Restoration Reveals The Last Supper". National Geographic. Vol. 164 no. 5. pp. 664–684. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci.
Official website
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Leonardo's Last Supper, video, Smarthistory[1]
Leonardo's Last Supper and the three layers
John the Apostle in Art
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on The Last Supper (see index)
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Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
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values: Die Laaste Avondmaal (Leonardo) – Afrikaans

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values: Тайная вячэра (Леанарда да Вінчы) – Belarusian

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values: El Sant Sopar (Leonardo da Vinci) – Catalan

values: Das Abendmahl (Leonardo da Vinci) – German

values: Püha õhtusöömaaeg (Leonardo da Vinci) – Estonian

values: Ο Μυστικός Δείπνος (Ντα Βίντσι) – Greek

values: La última cena (Leonardo da Vinci) – Spanish

values: La Lasta Vespermanĝo (Leonardo) – Esperanto

values: Azken Afaria (Leonardo da Vinci) – Basque

values: شام آخر (دا وینچی) – Persian

values: An Suipéar Déanach (Leonardo da Vinci) – Irish

values: 최후의 만찬 (레오나르도 다 빈치) – Korean

values: Խորհրդավոր ընթրիք (Լեոնարդո դա Վինչի) – Armenian

values: Ti Maudi a Pangrabii (Leonardo da Vinci) – Iloko

values: הסעודה האחרונה (ציור) – Hebrew

values: ಲಾಸ್ಟ್ ಸಪ್ಪರ್ – Kannada

values: საიდუმლო სერობა (ლეონარდო და ვინჩი) – Georgian

values: Жасырын кешкілік (Леонардо да Винчи) – Kazakh

values: Paskutinė vakarienė (Leonardas da Vinčis) – Lithuanian

values: Az utolsó vacsora (da Vinci-festmény) – Hungarian

values: Тајната вечера (слика) – Macedonian

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values: द लास्ट सपर – Marathi

values: Het Laatste Avondmaal (Leonardo da Vinci) – Dutch

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values: Ostatnia Wieczerza (obraz Leonarda da Vinci) – Polish

values: A Última Ceia (Leonardo da Vinci) – Portuguese

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values: Тајна вечера (фреска) – Serbian

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text:
List of iPod models
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Apple iPod line has been upgraded many times, and each significant revision is called a "generation". Only the most recent generation and refurbished units of previous generations of the iPod line are available from Apple for each model (classic, nano, shuffle, touch). Each new generation usually has more features and refinements while typically being physically smaller and lighter than its predecessor, while usually (but not always) retaining the older model's price tag. Notable changes include the touch-sensitive click wheel replacing the mechanical scroll wheel, use of color displays, and flash memory replacing hard disks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Models
2 Timeline of iPod models and related products
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Models[edit]
Model
Generation
Image
Capacity
Connection
Original release date
Minimum OS to sync
Rated battery life (hours)
Classic
1st
5, 10 GB FireWire October 23, 2001 Mac: 9, 10.1 audio: 10
First model, with mechanical scroll wheel. 10 GB model released later.
2nd
10, 20 GB FireWire July 17, 2002 Mac: 10.1
Win: 2000 audio: 10
Touch-sensitive wheel. FireWire port had a cover. Hold switch revised. Windows compatibility through Musicmatch.
3rd
10, 15, 20, 30, 40 GB FireWire (USB for syncing only) April 28, 2003 Mac: 10.1
Win: 2000 audio: 8
First complete redesign with all-touch interface, dock connector, and slimmer case. Musicmatch support dropped with later release of iTunes 4.1 for Windows.
4th
(Photo)
(Color)
20, 40 GB FireWire or USB July 19, 2004 Mac: 10.2
Win: 2000 audio: 12
Adopted Click Wheel from iPod Mini, hold switch redesigned.
photo:
30, 40, 60 GB FireWire or USB October 26, 2004 Mac: 10.2
Win: 2000 audio: 15
slideshow: 5
color:
20, 60 GB June 28, 2005
Premium spin-off of 4th generation iPod With Color Screen, plus picture viewing. Later reintegrated into main iPod line.
5th
30, 60, 80 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) October 12, 2005 Mac: 10.3
Win: 2000 30 GB
audio: 14
video: 2
(later 3.5) 60/80 GB
audio: 20
video: 3/6.5
Second full redesign with a slimmer case, and larger screen with video playback. Offered in black or white. Hardware and firmware updated with 60 GB model replaced with 80 GB model on September 12, 2006.
6th
80, 120, 160 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) September 5, 2007 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP 80 GB
audio: 30
video: 5 120 GB
audio: 36
video: 6 160 GB
2007 model
audio: 40
video: 7
2009 model
audio: 36
video: 6
Introduced the "Classic" suffix. New interface and anodized aluminum front plate. Silver replaces white. In September 2008 the hardware and firmware was updated with a 120 GB model replacing the 80 GB model and the 160 GB model was discontinued. In September 2009, the 120 GB model was replaced with a 160 GB model. Discontinued on September 9, 2014.
Mini
1st
4 GB USB or FireWire January 6, 2004 Mac: 10.1
Win: 2000 audio: 8
New smaller model, available in 5 colors. Introduced the "Click Wheel".
2nd
4, 6 GB USB or FireWire February 22, 2005 Mac: 10.2
Win: 2000 audio: 18
Brighter color variants with longer battery life. Click Wheel lettering matched body color. Gold color discontinued. Later replaced by iPod Nano.
Nano
1st
1, 2, 4 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) September 7, 2005 Mac: 10.3
Win: 2000 audio: 14
slideshow: 4
Replaced Mini. Available in black or white and used flash memory. Color screen for picture viewing. 1 GB version released later.
2nd
2, 4, 8 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) September 12, 2006 Mac: 10.3
Win: 2000 audio: 24
slideshow: 5
Anodized aluminum casing and 6 colors available.
3rd
4, 8 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) September 5, 2007 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 24
video: 5
2" QVGA screen, colors refreshed with chrome back, new interface, video capability, smaller Click Wheel.
4th
4, 8, 16 GB USB September 9, 2008 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 24
video: 4
Revert to tall form and all-aluminum enclosure with nine color choices, added accelerometer for shake and horizontal viewing. 4 GB model limited release in selected markets.
5th
8, 16 GB USB September 9, 2009 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 24
video: 5
First iPod to include a video camera; also included a larger screen, FM radio, speaker, pedometer, and a polished exterior case while retaining the similar colors as the 4th generation model.
6th
8, 16 GB USB September 1, 2010 Mac: 10.5
Win: XP audio: 24
First iPod Nano to include multi-touch screen; clip from iPod Shuffle added. Video playback, speakers and camera removed.
7th
16 GB USB September 12, 2012 Mac: 10.6
Win: XP audio: 30
video: 3.5
Revert to tall form factor with larger 2.5" multi-touch screen. Clip removed. Video playback restored and Bluetooth added. Discontinued July 27, 2017[1]
Shuffle
1st
512 MB, 1 GB USB
(no adaptor required) January 11, 2005 Mac: 10.2
Win: 2000 audio: 12
New entry-level model. Uses flash memory and has no screen.
2nd
1, 2 GB USB September 12, 2006 Mac: 10.3
Win: 2000 audio: 12
Smaller clip design with anodized aluminum casing. 4 color options added later. Colors were later refreshed twice.
3rd
2, 4 GB USB March 11, 2009 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 10
Smaller design with controls relocated to right earbud cable. Introduced with two colors, and features VoiceOver. More colors and 2 GB model added in September 2009.
4th
2 GB USB September 1, 2010 Mac: 10.5
Win: XP audio: 15
Controls returned to the body of the iPod. Introduced with five colors, and features VoiceOver. Discontinued July 27, 2017[1]
Touch
1st
8, 16, 32 GB USB (FireWire for charging only)[2] September 5, 2007 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 22
video: 5
First iPod with Wi-Fi and a Multi-touch interface. Features Safari browser and wireless access to the iTunes Store and YouTube. 32 GB model later added. iOS 2.0 and App Store access requires an upgrade fee.
2nd
8, 16, 32 GB USB September 9, 2008 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 36
video: 6
New tapered chrome back with Nike+ functionality, volume buttons, and built-in speaker added. iOS 2.0 and App Store access standard. Bluetooth support added but not made active until iOS 3.0, which requires an upgrade fee.
3rd
32, 64 GB USB September 9, 2009 Mac: 10.4
Win: XP audio: 30
video: 6
Updated to include the upgraded internals from the iPhone 3GS; includes Voice Control support and bundled remote earphones.
4th
8, 16, 32, 64 GB USB September 1, 2010 Mac: 10.5
Win: XP audio: 40
video: 7
New thinner design including two cameras for FaceTime and HD video recording, hold button moved to top right corner, Retina Display similar to iPhone 4, Apple A4 chip. White-colored version added on October 4, 2011.
5th
16, 32, 64 GB USB September 12, 2012 Mac: 10.6
Win: XP audio: 40
video: 8
New aluminum design with colored case options. Features improved cameras along with A5 processor, Siri, and longer 4" Retina Display. First 16 GB models released have no color choices and have no iSight camera, In early 2014 16 GB models were released that have iSight cameras and color choices.
6th
16, 32, 64, 128 GB USB July 15, 2015 Mac: 10.7
Win: 7 audio: 40
video: 8
Updated with a new lineup of six colors, a new 128 GB model, and improved internals. The improved internals feature new cameras and the A8 processor with M8 motion coprocessor, 1GB of RAM (2X more than the previous generation), and AC Wi-Fi.[3]
Sources: Apple Inc.[4], Mactracker[5]
Product Red 2nd generation iPod Nano.
The software bundled with the first generation iPod was Macintosh-only, so Windows users had to use third-party updates like ephPod or XPlay to manage their music. When Apple introduced the second generation of iPods in July 2002, they sold two versions, one that included iTunes for Macintosh users and another that included Musicmatch Jukebox for Windows users.[6] In October 2003, Apple released the Windows version of iTunes,[7] and started selling iPods that included both Macintosh and Windows versions of iTunes so that they could be used with either platform. Current iPods no longer ship with iTunes, which must be downloaded from Apple's website.
In December 2004, Apple unveiled its first limited edition iPods, with either Madonna’s, Tony Hawk’s, or Beck’s signature or No Doubt's band logo engraved on the back for an extra US$50.[8] On 26 October 2004, Apple introduced a special edition of its fourth generation monochrome iPod, designed in the color scheme of the album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb by Irish rock band U2. It had a black case with a red click wheel and the back had the engraved signatures of U2's band members. This iPod was updated alongside the iPod Photo and fifth generation iPod.[9]
On October 31, 2012, Apple released a special edition 4 GB red iPod nano as part of the Product Red campaign. An 8 GB version was released three weeks later and both of them sold for the same price as the standard models. US$10 from each sale is donated to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis & Malaria. On September 5, 2007, Apple also added a Product Red iPod Shuffle model. They did not disclose how much will be donated to charity from this model. Apple also released Special Edition Harry Potter iPods to accompany the iPod Photo. These were engraved with the Hogwarts Crest on the back and were only available to purchasers of the Harry Potter audiobooks. They were updated when the fifth generation iPods were released, but were only available for a limited time.
On July 27, 2017, Apple discontinued the iPod Shuffle and iPod Nano.[10] Apple plans to keep the iPod Touch, as it is the most popular iPod device.[citation needed]
Timeline of iPod models and related products
See also: Timeline of full-sized iPod models and Timeline of compact iPod models
Sources: Apple press release library,[11] Mactracker Apple Inc. model database[5]
See also[edit]
List of iOS devices
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Apple discontinues iPod nano and shuffle". 9to5Mac. 27 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "iPhone and iPod touch: Charging the battery". Apple Inc. October 15, 2009. Retrieved January 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Apple Introduces The Best iPod touch Yet" (Press release). Cupertino, California: Apple. July 15, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
Jump up ^ Apple Inc., Identifying iPod models, retrieved October 31, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Mactracker (mactracker.ca), Apple Inc. model database, version as of July 26, 2007.
Jump up ^ Apple Unveils New iPods Archived 2011-01-24 at the Wayback Machine., Apple Inc., 2002-07-17. Retrieved on 2007-02-19.
Jump up ^ Apple Launches iTunes for Windows, Apple Inc., 2003-10-16. Retrieved on 2006-11-26.
Jump up ^ Dalrymple, Jim. Limited Edition Kelsey, Lucas Samuel, Beck iPods. Macworld, 2002-09-10. Retrieved on 2007-01-07.
Jump up ^ "Tips About Your Apple iPod" (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 2017-04-18.
Jump up ^ Pierce, David (July 27, 2017). "Goodbye iPod, and Thanks for All the Tunes". Wired. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Apple Inc., Apple press release library, Retrieved September 19, 2007.
External links[edit]
Official website
[show]
v
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e
iPod
Models
Classic
Photo
iPod+HP
Mini
Shuffle
Nano
Touch
5th
6th
Accessories
Earbuds
iPod Hi-Fi
Nike+iPod
Software
Comparison of iPod managers
iOS
Store
iPod game
iTunes
Store
version history
Other
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Click wheel
Dock Connector
Italics indicate discontinued products.
[show]
v
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iOS and iOS-based products
History
Outline
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2017
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4
4S
5
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6 & 6 Plus
6S & 6S Plus
SE
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X
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Software
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8
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11
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Home
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Mail
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Music
News
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Photos
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TV
Videos
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Watch
Discontinued
Newsstand
Apple apps
AirPort Utility
Clips
iLife
GarageBand
iMovie
iWork
Keynote
Numbers
Pages
Logic Remote
Remote
Discontinued
Beats Music
Cards
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Services
Apple Pay
App Store
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iBookstore
iCloud
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Multitasking
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300-page bill
Apple mobile application processors
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Free and open-source iOS applications
Games
History of iPhone
iFund
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Metal
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WWDC
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4 GB silver iPod Nano

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