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List of islands of India
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One of the islands in Lakshadweep
This is a partial list of islands of India. There are a total of 1,208 islands (including uninhabited ones) in India.
Contents
1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
1.1 Andaman Islands
1.2 Nicobar Islands
2 Andhra Pradesh
3 Assam
4 Bihar
5 Daman and Diu
6 Goa
7 Gujarat
8 Jammu and Kashmir
9 Karnataka
10 Kerala
11 Lakshadweep
11.1 Aminidivi Islands
11.2 Laccadive Islands
11.3 Minicoy Island
12 Madhya Pradesh
13 Maharashtra
13.1 Seven Islands of Bombay
14 Manipur
15 Odisha
16 Tamil Nadu
17 West Bengal
17.1 Sundarbans
18 References
Andaman and Nicobar Islands[edit]
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group of 572 islands of Bengal and Andaman Sea.
Andaman Islands[edit]
Great Andaman Islands
North Andaman Island
Cleugh Passage Group
Landfall Island
East Island
West Island
Aerial Bay Islands
Smith Island
Pocock Island
Tatle Island
Stewart Sound Group
Sound Island
Swamp Island
Stewart Island
Curlew Island
Aves Island
Karlo Island
Interview Group
Interview Island
Anderson Island
Murga Island
South Reef Island
Bennett Island
Middle Andaman Island
Baratang Island
East Baratang Group
Long Island
Strait Island
North Passage Island
Colebrooke Island
Porlob Island
West Baratang Group
Bluff Island
Spike Island
Talakaicha Island
Boning Island
Belle Island
South Andaman Island
Napier Bay Islands
James Island
Kyd Island
Port Meadows Isle
Defence Islands
Defence Island
Clyde Island
Port Blair Islands
Chatham Island
Garacharma Island
Ross Island
Snake Island
Viper Island
Rutland Archipelago
Rutland Island
Passage Island
Cinque Islands
North Cinque Island
South Cinque Island
Labyrinth Islands
Tarmugli Island
Twin Islands
The Sisters
East Sister Island
West Sister Island
Little Andaman Group
Little Andaman Island
The Brothers
North Brother Island
South Brother Island
Ritchie's Archipelago
Havelock Island
Henry Lawrence Island
John Lawrence Island
Sir William Peel Island
Wilson Island
Outram Island
Neill Island
Nicholson Island
Rose Island
Button Islands
North Button Island
Middle Button Island
South Button Island
East Volcano Islands
Barren Island
Narcondam Island
Sentinel Islands
North Sentinel Island
South Sentinel Island
Nicobar Islands[edit]
Northern Nicobar group
Car Nicobar
Battimalv Island
Central Nicobar group
Chowra, Chaura or Sanenyo
Teressa or Luroo
Bompuka or Poahat
Katchal
Camorta
Nancowry or Nancowrie
Trinket
Laouk or "Isle of Man"
Tillangchong
South Nicobar group (Sambelong)
Great Nicobar
Little Nicobar
Kondul Island
Pulo Milo or Pillomilo (Milo Island)
Meroe, Trak, Treis, Menchal, Kabra, Pigeon and Megapod
Andhra Pradesh[edit]
Bhavani Island
Diviseema
Konaseema
Hope
Irukkam
Sriharikota
Venadu
Assam[edit]
Dibru Saikhowa Island
Majuli Island
Umananda Island
Bihar[edit]
Raghopur Diyara Island
Daman and Diu[edit]
Diu Island
Goa[edit]
Ilha de Anjediva
Ilha de Chorão
Ilha de Cumbarjua
Divar Island
Ilha São Jacinto
St Estevam Island
Tiswadi Island
Vanxim Island
Ilha Pequeño
Gujarat[edit]
Bet Dwarka
Gangto Bet Island
Islands of the Gulf of Kutch
Islands of Eastern Indus Delta
Kabirvad
Khadir Bet Island
Kutch Island
Nanda Bet Island
Piram Island
Pirotan Island
Shiyalbet Island
Jammu and Kashmir[edit]
Char Chinar(Ropa Lank)
Zainul Lank
Karnataka[edit]
Basavaraj Durga Island
Kurumgad Island
Netrani Island
Nisargadhama
Pavoor Uliya
Srirangapatna
St. Mary's Islands
Uppinakudru
Kerala[edit]
Chavara Thekkumbhagom
Dharmadam Island
Edayilakkad
Ezhumanthuruthu
Gundu Island
Kavvayi Islands
Kothad
Kuruvadweep
Moolampilly Island
Munroe Island
Nedungad
Panangad, Kochi
Parumala
Pathiramanal
Pizhala
Poochakkal
Pulinkunnoo
Ramanthuruth
Sathar Island
Vallarpadam
Venduruthy
Vypin
Willingdon Island
Lakshadweep[edit]
Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three reefs and five submerged banks, with a total of about thirty-nine islands and islets with a total of 39 Islands.
Aminidivi Islands[edit]
Amini Island
Bitrā Island
Byramgore
Chetlat Island
Cherbaniani
Kadmat Island
Kiltān Island
Perumal Par
Laccadive Islands[edit]
Agatti Island
Androth Island
Bangaram Island
Kalpeni Island
Kavaratti Island
Pitti Island
Suheli Par
Kalpatti Island
Minicoy Island[edit]
Minicoy Island
Viringili Island
Madhya Pradesh[edit]
Mandhata Island
Maharashtra[edit]
Ambu Island
Butcher Island
Cross Island
Elephanta Island
Gowalkot
Hog Island, Mumbai
Khanderi Island
Madh Island
Marve Island
Middle Ground Isle
Murud-Janjira
Oyster Rock
Panju Island
Salsette Island
Sinoy Hill Island
Suvarnadurg Island
Underi Island
Yeshwantgad Island
Seven Islands of Bombay[edit]
Isle of Bombay
Colaba Island
Old Woman's Island
Mahim Island
Mazagaon Island
Parel Island
Worli Island
Manipur[edit]
Keibul Lamjao Island
Floating Islands(Phumdi)
Odisha[edit]
Abdul Kalam Island(Wheeler Island)
Cattle Island
Hukitola
Kalijai Island
Kanika Sands
Nalbana Island
Parikud Island
Tamil Nadu[edit]
Pamban Island
Hare Island(Muyal Theevu)
Krusadai Island
Nallathanni Theevu
Pullivasal Island
Pullivasal Island
Srirangam Island
Upputanni Island
Vivekananda Rock
Quibble Island
Kattupalli Island
The Island, Chennai
West Bengal[edit]
Bhutni Island
Sundarbans[edit]
Bakkhali Island
Bhangduni(Bob) Island
Dalhousie Island
Ghoramara Island
Gosaba Island
Haliday Island
Henry Island
Jambudwip
Kakdwip
Lohachara Island
Lothian Island
Morichjapi
Mousuni Island
Namkhana Island
Nayachar Island
New Moore Island
Patharpratima Island
Sagar Island
Tin Kona Island
References[edit]
show
v
t
e
Geography of India
Climate
Climate
Climatic regions
Geology
Fossil Parks
Geology of India
Indian Plate
Stones
Landforms
Beaches
Canals
Desert
Extreme points
Glaciers
Islands
Lakes
Mountains
Rivers
Valleys
Volcanoes
Waterfalls
Plains
Indo-Gangetic
Eastern Coastal
Western Coastal
Regions
North India
Northeast India
East India
South India
West India
Central India
Subdivisions
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States and territories
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Cities
Towns
Municipalities
Environment
Biogeographic classification
Ecoregions
Fauna
Flora
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Issues
Protected Areas
Wildlife
show
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Tourism in India
By state
Andhra Pradesh
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Assam
Bihar
Patna
Delhi
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Jammu and Kashmir
Ladakh
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka
Bangalore
Mysore
Kerala
Thiruvanathapuram
Kochi
Thrissur
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Mumbai
Marathwada
Aurangabad
Mizoram
North East India
Odisha
Kosal
Puducherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Jaipur
Telangana
Hyderabad
Tamil Nadu
Chennai
Coimbatore
Uttar Pradesh
Allahabad
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
Kolkata
Types
Beaches
Hill stations
Islands
Lakes
Medical tourism
Skiing
Tourist trains
Waterfalls
Wildlife
National parks
Protected areas
World Heritage Sites
Organisations
India TDC
Andhra Pradesh TDC
Assam TDC
Bihar STDC
Delhi TTDC
Haryana Tourism Corporation
J&K TDC
Karnataka TDC
Kerala TDC
Madhya Pradesh TDC
Maharashtra TDC
Odisha TDC
Rajasthan TDC
Tamil Nadu TDC
Telangana TDC
Uttar Pradesh Tourism
West Bengal TDCL
See also
Incredible India
NEITM
Visa policy of India
Category
Commons
show
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e
List of islands of Asia
Sovereign states
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Egypt
Georgia
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
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North Korea
South Korea
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Laos
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States with
limited recognition
Abkhazia
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other territories
British Indian Ocean Territory
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Hong Kong
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text:
Germination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Sunflower seedling, three days after germination
Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or similar structure. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. In addition, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination. Thus, in a general sense, germination can be thought of as anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ.
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Dormancy
1.2 Seedling establishment
2 Germination rate and germination capacity
2.1 Repair of DNA damage
2.2 Dicot germination
2.2.1 Epigeal
2.2.2 Hypogeal
2.3 Monocot germination
2.4 Precocious germination
3 Pollen germination
3.1 Self-incompatibility
4 Spore germination
4.1 Resting spores
4.2 Ferns and mosses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Most seeds do not need sunlight to germinate but some seeds such as sunflower seeds, mustard seeds and blosnian seeds need sunlight to successfully germinate. Experiments were carried out to prove this.[citation needed]
Introduction[edit]
A seed tray used in horticulture for sowing and taking plant cuttings and growing plugs
Germination glass (glass sprouter jar) with a plastic sieve-lid
Brassica campestris germinating seeds
Play media
Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos; these are called and never germinate. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling.

-Step 1- Water imbibition, the uptake of water, results in rupture of seed coat.
-Step 2-The imbibition of the seed coat results in emergence of the radicle (1) and the plumule(2), the cotyledons get unfolded(3).
-Step 3-This marks the final step in the germination of the seed where the cotyledons are expanded which are the true leaves/peasNote- Temperature must be kept at an optimum level.
Seed germination depends on both internal and external condition
6etr386t835t347t\
s. The most important external factors include right temperature, water, oxygen or air and sometimes light or darkness.[1] Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the individual seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plant's natural habitat. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of seed dormancy.
Water is required for germination. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called imbibition, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as starch, proteins, or oils. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the seed imbibes water, hydrolytic enzymes are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful chemicals.[1] After the seedling emerges from the seed coat and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at this point photosynthesis provides the energy needed for continued growth and the seedling now requires a continuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
Oxygen is required by the germinating seed for metabolism.[2] Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, the main source of the seedling's energy until it grows leaves.[1] Oxygen is an atmospheric gas that is found in soil pore spaces; if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged, the seed can be oxygen starved. Some seeds have impermeable seed coats that prevent oxygen from entering the seed, causing a type of physical dormancy which is broken when the seed coat is worn away enough to allow gas exchange and water uptake from the environment.
Temperature affects cellular metabolic and growth rates. Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a temperature range within which they will germinate, and they will not do so above or below this range. Many seeds germinate at temperatures slightly above 60-75 F (16-24 C) [room-temperature if you live in a centrally heated house], while others germinate just above freezing and others germinate only in response to alternations in temperature between warm and cool. Some seeds germinate when the soil is cool 28-40 F (-2 - 4 C), and some when the soil is warm 76-90 F (24-32 C). Some seeds require exposure to cold temperatures (vernalization) to break dormancy. Some seeds in a dormant state will not germinate even if conditions are favorable. Seeds that are dependent on temperature to end dormancy have a type of physiological dormancy. For example, seeds requiring the cold of winter are inhibited from germinating until they take in water in the fall and experience cooler temperatures. Cold stratification is a process that induces the dormancy breaking prior to light emission that promotes germination .[3] Four degrees Celsius is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but some groups, especially within the family Ranunculaceae and others, need conditions cooler than -5 C. Some seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a forest fire which cracks their seed coats; this is a type of physical dormancy.
Most common annual vegetables have optimal germination temperatures between 75-90 F (24-32 C), though many species (e.g. radishes or spinach) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods.
Light or darkness can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many seeds, including species found in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for growth of the seedling.[1]
Scarification mimics natural processes that weaken the seed coat before germination. In nature, some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time. Others need to be passed through an animal's digestive tract to weaken the seed coat enough to allow the seedling to emerge.[1]
Malted (germinated) barley grains
Dormancy[edit]
Some live seeds are dormant and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate. Seed dormancy can originate in different parts of the seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds.[4] Factors affecting seed dormancy include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably abscisic acid, which inhibits germination, and gibberellin, which ends seed dormancy. In brewing, barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for the production of barley malt.[1]
Seedling establishment[edit]
In some definitions, the appearance of the radicle marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress.[1] The germination index can be used as an indicator of phytotoxicity in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce large numbers of seeds.
Germination rate and germination capacity[edit]
Germination of seedlings raised from seeds of eucalyptus after 3 days of sowing.
In agriculture and gardening, the germination rate describes how many seeds of a particular plant species, variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over the germination period given. The germination rate is useful for calculating the seed requirements for a given area or desired number of plants. In seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of sowing. On the other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred as germination capacity.
Repair of DNA damage[edit]
Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage.[5] During germination, repair processes are activated to deal with accumulated DNA damage.[6] In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired.[7] The DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed.[8]
Dicot germination[edit]
The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the radicle or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic shoot emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts: the cotyledons (seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons (hypocotyl), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons (epicotyl). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups.[1]
Epigeal[edit]
In epigeal germination (or epigeous germination), the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. Beans, tamarind and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.[1]
Hypogeal[edit]
Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas, gram and mango, for example, germinate this way.[9]
Monocot germination[edit]
In monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge.[1]
Precocious germination[edit]
When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination.
Pollen germination[edit]
Another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination. Like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of a protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2-3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a tube cell. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower (or a female cone in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style.[1] Pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro (in a petri dish or test tube).[10][11]
During germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male microgametophyte of these plants.[1]
Self-incompatibility[edit]
Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus inbreeding. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In self-incompatibility in plants, the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating.[12]
Spore germination[edit]
Germination can also refer to the emergence of cells from resting spores and the growth of sporeling hyphae or thalli from spores in fungi, algae and some plants.
Conidia are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows fusion between conidia.[13][14]
Resting spores[edit]
In resting spores, germination involves cracking the thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in zygomycetes the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the zygospore inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In slime molds, germination refers to the emergence of amoeboid cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in the free-living amoebas of slime molds).[1]
Ferns and mosses[edit]
In plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and a few others, spores germinate into independent gametophytes. In the bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts), spores germinate into protonemata, similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In ferns, the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped prothalli that can often be found underneath a spore-shedding adult plant.[1]
See also[edit]
Lily seed germination types
Oldest viable seed
Pot farm
Seed testing
Seedling
Seed tray
Sprouting
Urban horticulture
Pyrophyte for germination after fire.
Vivipary when seeds or embryos begin to develop inside or before they detach from the parent.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Raven, Peter H.; Ray F. Evert; Susan E. Eichhorn (2005). Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp. 504–508. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
Jump up ^ Siegel, S. M.; Rosen, L. A. (1962). "Effects of Reduced Oxygen Tension on Germination and Seedling Growth". Physiologia Plantarum. 15 (3): 437–444. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1962.tb08047.x.
Jump up ^ Baskin and Baskin, Carol C. and Jerry M. (2014). Variation in Seed Dormancy and Germination within and between Individuals and Populations of a Species. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and, Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Burlington: Elsevier Science. pp. Pages 5–35. ISBN 9780124166837.
Jump up ^ Derek Bewley, J.; Black, Michael; Halmer, Peter (2006). The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses Cabi Series. CABI. p. 203. ISBN 0-85199-723-6. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Bray CM, West CE (2015). "The importance of safeguarding genome integrity in germination and seed longevity". J. Exp. Bot. 66 (12): 3549–58. doi:10.1093/jxb/erv080. PMID 25750428.
Jump up ^ Koppen G, Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating Vicia faba". Folia Biol. (Praha). 47 (2): 50–4. PMID 11321247.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Masnavi G, Bhardwaj RM, Jiang Q, Bray CM, West CE (2010). "A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity". Plant J. 63 (5): 848–60. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x. PMID 20584150.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Footitt S, Bray CM, Finch-Savage WE, West CE (2016). "DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM regulates germination and maintains genome stability in seeds". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 (34): 9647–52. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608829113. PMC 5003248. PMID 27503884.
Jump up ^ Sadhu, M.K. (1989). Plant propagation. New Age International. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-224-0065-6.
Jump up ^ Martin FW (1972). "In Vitro Measurement of Pollen Tube Growth Inhibition". Plant Physiol. 49 (6): 924–925. doi:10.1104/pp.49.6.924. PMC 366081. PMID 16658085.
Jump up ^ Pfahler PL (1981). "In vitro germination characteristics of maize pollen to detect biological activity of environmental pollutants". Environ. Health Perspect. 37: 125–32. doi:10.2307/3429260. JSTOR 3429260. PMC 1568653. PMID 7460877.
Jump up ^ Takayama S, Isogai A (2005). "Self-incompatibility in plants". Annu Rev Plant Biol. 56 (1): 467–89. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144249. PMID 15862104.
Jump up ^ Roca, M.; Davide, L.C.; Davide, L.M.; Mendes-Costa, M.C.; Schwan, R.F.; Wheals, A. (2004). "Conidial anastomoses fusions between Colletotrichum species". Mycological Research. 108 (11): 1320–1326. doi:10.1017/S0953756204000838.
Jump up ^ Roca, M.G.; Arlt, J.; Jeffree, C.E.; Read, N.D. (2005). "Cell biology of conidial anastomosis tubes in Neurospora crassa". Eukaryotic Cell. 4 (5): 911–919. doi:10.1128/EC.4.5.911-919.2005. PMC 1140100. PMID 15879525.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Germination.
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Germination
Wikisource has the text of the 1906 New International Encyclopedia article Germination.
Sowing Seeds A survey of seed sowing techniques.
Seed Germination: Theory and Practice, Norman C. Deno, 139 Lenor Dr., State College PA 16801, USA. An extensive study of the germination rates of a huge variety of seeds under different experimental conditions, including temperature variation and chemical environment.
Rajjou, L; Duval, M; Gallardo, K; Catusse, J; Bally, J; Job, C; Job, D (2012). "Seed germination and vigor". Annu Rev Plant Biol. 63: 507–33. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105550. PMID 22136565.
Germination time-lapse ≈1 minute HD video of mung bean seeds germinating over 10 days. Hosted on YouTube.
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Cultural heritage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Roman ruins with a prophet, by Giovanni Pannini, 1751. The artistic cultural heritage of the Roman Empire served as a foundation for later Western culture, particularly via the Renaissance and Neoclassicism (as exemplified here).
Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical science artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).
The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), though these terms may have more specific or technical meaning in the same contexts in the other dialect.
Contents
[hide]
1 The ethics and rationale of cultural preservation
2 Types of heritage
2.1 Cultural property
2.2 Intangible culture
2.3 Natural heritage
3 World heritage movement
4 National and regional heritage movements
5 Issues in cultural heritage
6 Management of cultural heritage
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
The ethics and rationale of cultural preservation[edit]
Objects are a part of the study of human history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas, and can validate them. Their preservation demonstrates a recognition of the necessity of the past and of the things that tell its story.[1] In The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. While digital acquisition techniques can provide a technological solution that is able to acquire the shape and the appearance of artifacts with an unprecedented precision[2] in human history, the actuality of the object, as opposed to a reproduction, draws people in and gives them a literal way of touching the past. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by the hands of tourists, the light required to display them, and other risks of making an object known and available. The reality of this risk reinforces the fact that all artifacts are in a constant state of chemical transformation, so that what is considered to be preserved is actually changing – it is never as it once was.[3] Similarly changing is the value each generation may place on the past and on the artifacts that link it to the past.
Play media
Kautilya Society in Varanasi - When heritage protection becomes a fight for legality and participation → "They harass me because I demand civil society participation to public policies and I contrast the misuse of privileges"
Classical civilizations, and especially the Indian, have attributed supreme importance to the preservation of tradition. Its central idea was that social institutions, scientific knowledge and technological applications need to use a "heritage" as a "resource".[4] Using contemporary language, we could say that ancient Indians considered, as social resources, both economic assets (like natural resources and their exploitation structure) and factors promoting social integration (like institutions for the preservation of knowledge and for the maintenance of civil order).[5] Ethics considered that what had been inherited should not be consumed, but should be handed over, possibly enriched, to successive generations. This was a moral imperative for all, except in the final life stage of sannyasa.
What one generation considers "cultural heritage" may be rejected by the next generation, only to be revived by a subsequent generation.
Types of heritage[edit]
Cultural property[edit]
See also: Material culture
Cultural property includes the physical, or "tangible" cultural heritage, such as artworks. These are generally split into two groups of movable and immovable heritage. Immovable heritage includes buildings (which themselves may include installed art such as organs, stained glass windows, and frescos), large industrial installations or other historic places and monuments. Moveable heritage includes books, documents, moveable artworks, machines, clothing, and other artifacts, that are considered worthy of preservation for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specified culture.
Aspects and disciplines of the preservation and conservation of tangible culture include:
Museology
Archival science
Conservation (cultural heritage)
Art conservation
Archaeological conservation
Architectural conservation
Film preservation
Phonograph record preservation
Digital preservation
Intangible culture[edit]
The Grandfather tells a story, by Albert Anker, ca. 1884.
Main article: Intangible cultural heritage
"Intangible cultural heritage" consists of non-physical aspects of a particular culture, more often maintained by social customs during a specific period in history. The concept includes the ways and means of behavior in a society, and the often formal rules for operating in a particular cultural climate. These include social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity. The significance of physical artifacts can be interpreted[by whom?] against the backdrop of socioeconomic, political, ethnic, religious and philosophical values of a particular group of people. Naturally, intangible cultural heritage is more difficult to preserve than physical objects.[citation needed]
Aspects of the preservation and conservation of cultural intangibles include:
folklore
oral history
language preservation
Natural heritage[edit]
See also: Conservation movement
"Natural heritage" is also an important part of a society's heritage, encompassing the countryside and natural environment, including flora and fauna, scientifically known as biodiversity, as well as geological elements (including mineralogical, geomorphological, paleontological, etc.), scientifically known as geodiversity. These kind of heritage sites often serve as an important component in a country's tourist industry, attracting many visitors from abroad as well as locally. Heritage can also include cultural landscapes (natural features that may have cultural attributes).
Aspects of the preservation and conservation of natural heritage include:
Rare breeds conservation
Heirloom plants
World heritage movement[edit]
Plaque stating the designation of Carthage as a World Heritage Site.
Significant was the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage that was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. As of 2011, there are 936 World Heritage Sites: 725 cultural, 183 natural, and 28 mixed properties, in 153 countries. Each of these sites is considered important to the international community.
The underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This convention is a legal instrument helping states parties to improve the protection of their underwater cultural heritage.[6]
In additional, UNESCO has begun designating masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights sitting as part of the United Nations Economic and Social Council with article 15 of its Covenant had sought to instill the principles under which cultural heritage is protected as part of a basic human right.
Key international documents and bodies include:
Athens Charter, 1931
Roerich Pact, 1935
Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 1954, (with a definition of cultural heritage item adopted by some national law)
Venice Charter, 1964
Barcelona Charter, 2002 (regarding maritime vessel preservation)
ICOMOS
International Committee of the Blue Shield Managing natural and manmade disasters.
International Institute for Conservation
National and regional heritage movements[edit]
Play media
Rediscovery of the Muisca Indigenous Heritage
El redescubrimiento de la tradición indígena
Play media
Youth and Heritage in Syria
Passing on traditional values
Much of heritage preservation work is done at the national, regional, or local levels of society. Various national and regional regimes include:
Australia:
Burra Charter
Heritage Overlay in Victoria, Australia
Canada
Heritage conservation in Canada
Chile
National Monuments Council (Chile)
China
State Administration of Cultural Heritage
Egypt
Supreme Council of Antiquities
Ghana
Ghana’s material cultural heritage
Honduras
Secretary of State for Culture, Arts and Sports
Hong Kong
Heritage conservation in Hong Kong
India
Ministry of Culture (India)
National Archives of India
Archaeological Survey of India
Anthropological Survey of India
Culture of India
National Museum Institute of the History of Art, Conservation and Museology
List of World Heritage Sites in India
Indian Heritage Cities Network, Mysore
Heritage structures in Hyderabad
Iran
Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization
Japan
Cultural Properties of Japan
Kenya
Monuments
Macedonia
Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments
Malaysia
The National Heritage Act
Namibia
National Heritage Council of Namibia
National Monuments Council
New Zealand
New Zealand Historic Places Trust
Pakistan
Pakistan Pakistan Monument
Philippines
National Historical Commission of the Philippines
South Africa
South African Heritage Resources Agency
Provincial heritage resources authorities
Amafa aKwaZulu-Natali
Heritage Western Cape
Northern Cape Heritage Resources Authority
National Monuments Council
Historical Monuments Commission
United Kingdom
Conservation in the United Kingdom
English Heritage
English Heritage Archive
National Trust
United States of America
National Register of Historic Places
Zimbabwe
National Monuments of Zimbabwe
Issues in cultural heritage[edit]
Emblem used to clearly identify cultural property under protection of the Hague Convention of 1954, regarding cultural property during armed conflicts.
Broad philosophical, technical, and political issues and dimensions of cultural heritage include:
Cultural heritage repatriation
Cultural heritage management
Cultural property law
Heritage tourism
Virtual heritage
Management of cultural heritage[edit]
Issues in cultural heritage management include:
Exhibition of cultural heritage objects
Objects conservator
Radiography of cultural objects
Storage of cultural heritage objects
See also[edit]
Values (heritage)
Antiquarian
Collecting
Heritage film
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Digital methods in preservation
DigiCULT
ERPANET
Intellectual property issues in cultural heritage (IPinCH)
MICHAEL (webportal) (de; fr; it; nl)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tanselle, G. Thomas (1998), Literature and Artifacts, Charlottesville, VA: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, ISBN 1-883631-06-8, OCLC 39223648
Jump up ^ Paolo Cignoni; Roberto Scopigno (June 2008), "Sampled 3D models for CH applications: A viable and enabling new medium or just a technological exercise?" (PDF), ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 1 (1): 1, doi:10.1145/1367080.1367082.
Jump up ^ Lowenthal, David (1985), The Past is a Foreign Country, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22415-2, OCLC 12052097
Jump up ^ Proposing Varanasi for the World Heritage List of UNESCO (PDF), Varanasi Development Authority .
Jump up ^ Singh, Rana P.B., Vrinda Dar and S. Pravin, Rationales for including Varanasi as heritage city in the UNESCO World Heritage List, National Geographic Journal of India (varanasi) 2001, 47:177-200 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link).
Jump up ^ [This convention is a legal instrument helping states parties to improve the protection of their underwater cultural heritage]
Further reading[edit]
Michael Falser. Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission. From Decay to Recovery. Heidelberg, New York: Springer (2015), ISBN 978-3-319-13638-7.
Michael Falser, Monica Juneja (eds.). 'Archaeologizing' Heritage? Transcultural Entanglements between Local Social Practices and Global Virtual Realities. Heidelberg, New York: Springer (2013), ISBN 978-3-642-35870-8.
Barbara T. Hoffman, Art and cultural heritage: law, policy, and practice, Cambridge University Press, 2006
Leila A. Amineddoleh, "Protecting Cultural Heritage by Strictly Scrutinizing Museum Acquisitions," Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal, Vol. 24, No. 3. Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2467100
Paolo Davide Farah, Riccardo Tremolada, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues “The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes”, Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, ISSN 1875-4120 Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472339
Paolo Davide Farah, Riccardo Tremolada, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, ISSN 0035-614X, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472388
Nora Lafi, Building and Destroying Authenticity in Aleppo: Heritage between Conservation, Transformation, Destruction, and Re-Invention in Christoph Bernhardt, Martin Sabrow, Achim Saupe. Gebaute Geschichte. Historische Authentizität im Stadtraum, Wallstein, pp.206-228, 2017
Dallen J. Timothy and Gyan P. Nyaupane, Cultural heritage and tourism in the developing world : a regional perspective, Taylor & Francis, 2009
Peter Probst, "Osogbo and the Art of Heritage: Monuments, Deities, and Money", Indiana University Press, 2011
Constantine Sandis (ed.), Cultural Heritage Ethics: Between Theory and Practice, Open Book Publishers, 2014
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad et al., ENGAGING - A Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property, Australian Government: Indigenous Culture Support, 2015
Walters, Diana; Laven, Daniel; Davis, Peter (2017). Heritage & Peacebuilding. Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781783272167.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage policy - history and resources Getty Museum - list of major international cultural heritage documents, charters, and treaties
UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Official website of the United Nations cultural heritage body
International Council on Monuments and Sites
International Council of Museums
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property
Inventory of Heritage Organisations in Europe (English, French, German and Dutch language)
International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Cultural routes and landscapes, a common heritage of Europe (English and French language)
EPOCH – European Research Network on Excellence in Processing Open Cultural Heritage
Cultural heritage search engine
Peace Palace Library - Research Guide
National Council for Preservation Education
Cultural heritage travel guide from Wikivoyage

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Giovanni Pannini

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Conservation (cultural heritage)

values: Edit section: The ethics and rationale of cultural preservation

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Art conservation

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Archaeological conservation

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Phonograph record

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values: International Committee of the Blue Shield

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values: wikibooks:Development Cooperation Handbook/Stories/Youth & Heritage

values: State Administration of Cultural Heritage

values: Secretary of State for Culture, Arts and Sports

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Heritage structures in Hyderabad

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/wiki/Cultural_Properties_of_Japan
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Cultural Properties of Japan

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/wiki/New_Zealand_Historic_Places_Trust
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New Zealand Historic Places Trust

values: National Historical Commission of the Philippines

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English Heritage Archive

values: National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty

values: Edit section: Issues in cultural heritage

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Hague Convention of 1954

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Art repatriation

values: Edit section: Management of cultural heritage

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Folk culture

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High- and low-context cultures

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Cultural racism

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Security culture

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Cultural competence

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Cultural evolutionism

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