text:
New York City Civil Court
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Civil Court of the City of New York
Court overview
Formed
September 1, 1962 (1962-09-01)
Jurisdiction
New York City
Court executives
Fern Fisher, deputy chief administrative judge
Carol Alt, chief clerk
Parent department
New York State Unified Court System
Key document
New York City Civil Court Act
Website
nycourts.gov/courts/nyc/civil
The Civil Court of the City of New York is a civil court of the New York State Unified Court System in New York City that decides lawsuits involving claims for damages up to $25,000 and includes a small claims part (small claims court) for cases involving amounts up to $5,000 as well as a housing part (housing court) for landlord-tenant matters, and also handles other civil matters referred by the New York Supreme Court.[1][2] It handles about 25% of all the New York state and local courts' total filings.[3] The court has divisions by county (borough), but it is a single citywide court.[4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Jurisdiction
2 Structure
3 Officers
3.1 Judges
3.2 Arbitrators
4 Tenant blacklist
5 History
5.1 Notable judges
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Jurisdiction[edit]
The Civil Court has monetary jurisdiction up to $25,000, including replevin when the value of the chattel does not exceed that amount, real property actions such as partitions, and foreclosures within the monetary limit, and also has equity jurisdiction limited to real property actions, ejectment actions, and actions to rescind or reform a contract not involving more than the $25,000 jurisdictional limit.[7]
Structure[edit]
New York State Unified Court System
Court of Appeals
Supreme Court, Appellate Division
Supreme Court
Court of Claims
Surrogate's Court
Family Court
County Court
District Court
New York City: Civil, Criminal
Justice courts
This box:
view
talk
edit
The court's divisions are by each county (borough).[6] In each division there are a number of court parts established by the Chief Administrative Judge:[8]
Housing part (housing court), for actions and proceedings involving the enforcement of state and local laws for the establishment and maintenance of housing standards, including but not limited to the Multiple Dwelling Law and the housing maintenance code, building code and health code of the New York City Administrative Code.[9]
Small claims parts (small claims court), for the hearing and disposition of all small claims proceedings.
Calendar part, for the maintaining and calling of a calendar of cases, and for the hearing and disposition of all motions and applications, including orders to show cause and applications for adjournments, in civil actions that have been placed on a reserve or ready calendar but not yet assigned to a trial part.
Trial part, for the trial of civil actions and for the hearing and determination of all motions and applications, including orders to show cause, made after an action is assigned to a trial part.
Motion part, for the hearing and determination of motions and applications that are not otherwise required to be made in a calendar part, trial part or conference part.
Conference part, for the precalendar or pretrial conference of actions.
Multipurpose part, for the performance of the functions of a calendar part, a trial part, a motion part, a conference part, as well as other special parts of court.
Officers[edit]
Judges[edit]
See also: Elections in New York
New York City Civil Court judges are elected countywide or from districts to 10-year terms, with vacancies filled by the mayor and service continuing until the last day of December after next election.[5][10][11][1][9][12][13] A candidate needs to file petitions to be considered a candidate for a political party's nomination in the general election; petitions containing 4,000 signatures are needed for a county-wide seat, and petitions containing 1,500 signatures are necessary for a district seat.[12]
Party leaders frequently designate candidates for the Civil Court judgeships, who then face an open primary against others who qualify for the ballot.[citation needed] The party machine usually manages to elect most of its judicial candidates.[citation needed]
Housing Part judges are appointed by the Chief Administrative Judge to five-year terms.[1][9][12][13] Civil Court or Family Court Judges may be assigned by the New York Chief Judge to the Supreme Court and are referred to as "Acting Supreme Court Judges".[14] The Chief Judge of New York, in consultation with the Chief Administrative Judge, Administrative Judges, Supervising Judges and the Presiding Justice of the relevant Appellate Division, assigns judges to sit in the county in which they were selected or another county, for example a judge elected to New York City Civil Court in Manhattan could be assigned to Family Court in the Bronx, although an acting Supreme Court judge is usually assigned to the county in which they were elected.[14]
Arbitrators[edit]
With the consent of the parties, a volunteer arbitrator hears and decides disputes in small claims parts.[15] Over 2800 arbitrators preside over 95% of the cases heard in small claims parts.[15] They are appointed by the administrative judge of the court.[16]
Tenant blacklist[edit]
Landlords in New York City may use a blacklist of persons who have appeared in housing court as a plaintiff or defendant.[17] Known among housing advocates and lawyers as the tenant blacklist, it is compiled by tenant-screening database companies from housing court records.
History[edit]
In 1759, so-called justices' courts held by the mayor, recorder or an alderman could try cases in controversy of not more than £5.[18] In 1781, they were replaced by assistant justices' courts held by associate justices appointed by the governor.[18] In 1787, these were replaced by assistant justices with the power of justices of the peace in other counties.[18] In 1797, these were replaced with justices of the peace for the city and county of New York and were constituted as one court.[18]
In 1807-1808 these were replaced by justices' courts and assistants justices' courts.[18] In 1819, the justices' courts were replaced by the marine court of the city of New York, and in 1883 was renamed as the City Court of the City of New York.[18][19] In 1852, the assistant justices' courts were renamed as the District Courts in the City of New York, and by the city charter in 1897 the district courts of New York City and justices' courts of Brooklyn and Long Island City were consolidated into the Municipal Court of the City of New York.[18][20] In 1962, the City Court of the City of New York and the Municipal Court of the City of New York were consolidated and replaced by the current Civil Court.[3]
Notable judges[edit]
Robin Garson, wife of Gerald Garson, former NY Supreme Court Justice
See also[edit]
New York City Criminal Court
Government of New York City
Law of New York
City court
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c The New York State Courts: An Introductory Guide (PDF). New York State Office of Court Administration. 2000. p. 4. OCLC 68710274.
Jump up ^ The New York State Courts: An Introductory Guide (PDF). New York State Office of Court Administration. 2010. p. 2. OCLC 668081412.
^ Jump up to: a b "Civil Court History". New York State Office of Court Administration. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
Jump up ^ New York City Civil Court Act § 102
^ Jump up to: a b Barr, Michael H. New York Civil Practice Before Trial. §6:180: James Publishing. ISBN 1-58012-062-8.
^ Jump up to: a b 22 NYCRR § 208.2
Jump up ^ "In General". New York State Office of Court Administration. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
Jump up ^ 22 NYCRR § 208.3
^ Jump up to: a b c New York City Civil Court Act § 110
Jump up ^ New York City Civil Court Act § 102-a
Jump up ^ Colby, Peter W. (1985). "The Government of New York State Today". In Colby, Peter W. New York State Today. SUNY Press. p. 105. ISBN 0-87395-960-4. LCCN 84-8737.
^ Jump up to: a b c New York City Bar Association Special Committee to Encourage Judicial Service (2012). How To Become a Judge (PDF). New York City Bar Association. pp. 6–8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Judges". New York State Office of Court Administration. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b New York City Bar Association Council on Judicial Administration (March 2014). Judicial Selection Methods in the State of New York: A Guide to Understanding and Getting Involved in the Selection Process (PDF). New York City Bar Association. pp. 9–13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Small Claims Court Arbitrator Volunteers". New York State Office of Court Administration. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ 22 NYCRR 208.41(n)(1)
Jump up ^ Kim Barker and Jessica Silver-Greenberg (August 16, 2016). "On Tenant Blacklist, Errors and Renters With Little Recourse". The New York Times. Retrieved August 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Langbein, George F.; Langbein, J.C. Julius (1872). The District Courts in the City of New York: Their Organization, Jurisdiction and Practice. Diossy & Company. pp. 4–.
Jump up ^ Laws of 1883, ch. 26
Jump up ^ Laws of 1897, ch. 378, §§ 1350-1351
External links[edit]
New York City Civil Court
Uniform Civil Rules for the New York City Civil Court in the NYCRR
New York City Courts
New York State Unified Court System
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text:
White Walker
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
White Walker
A Song of Ice and Fire character
A White Walker with an ice spear, from Game of Thrones
First appearance
Novel:
A Game of Thrones (1996)
Television:
"Winter Is Coming" (2011)
Created by
George R. R. Martin
Information
Aliases
The Others
Type
Non-human creature
A White Walker is a humanoid creature from the HBO television series Game of Thrones, and the George R. R. Martin novel series A Song of Ice and Fire on which it is based. Primarily referred to as the Others in the novels, White Walkers are a supernatural threat to mankind who dwell north of The Wall in Westeros.[1][2] The Verge named them among "the most visually iconic creatures on the show".[3] White Walkers are also featured in the show's merchandising.
Contents
1 Description
2 Novels
2.1 Backstory
2.2 A Game of Thrones
2.3 A Storm of Swords
2.4 The Winds of Winter
3 TV adaptation
3.1 Merchandising
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Description[edit]
Martin introduces the Others in the prologue of A Game of Thrones (1996), describing them as "Tall ... and gaunt and hard as old bones, with flesh pale as milk" with eyes "deeper and bluer than any human eyes, a blue that burned like ice". Accompanied by intense cold, they wear armor that "seemed to change color as it moved", and wield thin crystal swords capable of shattering steel. The Others move silently, and they speak their own language; Martin writes that their voices are "like the cracking of ice on a winter lake".[4] In A Storm of Swords (2000), they are shown to be vulnerable to weapons made of dragonglass (obsidian),[5] as Samwell Tarly kills one this way:
[T]he Other's armor was running down its legs in rivulets as pale blue blood hissed and steamed around the black dragonglass dagger in its throat ... where its fingers touched the obsidian they smoked ... the Other shrank and puddled, dissolving away. In twenty heartbeats its flesh was gone, swirling away in a fine white mist. Beneath were bones like milkglass, pale and shiny, and they were melting too. Finally only the dragonglass dagger remained, wreathed in steam ... Grenn bent to scoop it up and flung it down again at once. "Mother, that’s cold."[5]
In A Dance with Dragons (2011), Sam uncovers ancient record fragments which suggest that the Others are also vulnerable to something called "dragonsteel", which he and Jon Snow surmise is another term for Valyrian steel.[6]
Creatures killed by the Others soon reanimate as wights: undead with pallid skin, black hands and similarly glowing blue eyes.[4][7] Dragonglass has no effect on them.[8] Wights may be physically injured, but even dismembered parts remain animated, so they must be destroyed by fire.[7][8] The humans who live in the north beyond The Wall—called "wildlings" by the inhabitants of Westeros—burn their dead so that they do not become wights.[9]
Novels[edit]
In 2012, Chris Lackner wrote in Dose, "Fans of the novels are eagerly awaiting Martin's final two installments of the seven-part series. In particular, they are eager to learn more about the White Walkers—or The Others—a mysterious, undead race seemingly bent on humanity's destruction."[10]
Backstory[edit]
In the novels and the 2014 companion book The World of Ice & Fire, Martin establishes that, millennia before the events of A Song of Ice and Fire series, a pact existed between the Children of the Forest (elf-like creatures) and the First Men (mankind). This was weakened by the emergence of the Others, an enigmatic and malevolent nonhuman species who inflicted a night that lasted a generation and a winter that lasted decades.[11] After the Others were pushed back, the Children and the First Men raised The Wall, a vast barrier of stone, ice and magic from one coast of northern Westeros to the other, to bar the passage of the Others south.[12]
A Game of Thrones[edit]
As A Game of Thrones (1996) begins, the general belief across Westeros is that the Others are a legend to scare children, or else "gone eight thousand years".[7][13] But the Others have reemerged, and are gaining power–and wights–beyond the Wall.[4] In the Prologue, a ranging party from the Night's Watch come face to face with a group of the Others, who kill Ser Waymar Royce.[4] Reanimated as a wight, he then kills the ranger Will.[4] Out ranging beyond the Wall, Jon Snow and the Night's Watch find the corpses of two of their fallen brothers. Brought home to Castle Black, the dead men rise and kill several of their living fellows before they are destroyed.[7][14]
A Storm of Swords[edit]
Sam Tarly kills an Other with a dragonglass dagger in A Storm of Swords (2000).[5] His former comrade Small Paul is killed and reanimated as a wight. The undead Paul is unfazed by the dragonglass but Sam is able to put him down with fire.[8] Bran Stark recalls the story of the Night's King, a Stark and the 13th Commander of the Night's Watch who had been seduced by a female White Walker.[12] The Night's King and his queen enslaved the brothers of the Watch until the Starks and the wildlings joined to defeat him.[12]
The Winds of Winter[edit]
Martin said in 2012 that readers will see more of the Others in his forthcoming novel The Winds of Winter.[15] He noted in another 2012 interview, "[We'll learn more about their] history, certainly, but I don't know about culture ... I don't know if they have a culture".[10]
TV adaptation[edit]
The White Walkers portrayed on HBO's Game of Thrones differ slightly in appearance from their literary counterparts, but Aaron Souppouris of The Verge named them among "the most visually iconic creatures on the show".[3] In the TV series, the primary White Walker has been portrayed by Ross Mullan.[3][16] Their apparent leader is the Night King, portrayed by Richard Brake and Vladimir Furdik, who first appeared in the episode "Oathkeeper".[17][18][19] In "Hardhome", the effectiveness of Valyrian steel against the White Walkers is proven as Jon shatters one to pieces with a single stroke of his ancient sword Longclaw.[20][21] Unlike in the novels, the TV series has established that wights can be destroyed by dragonglass.[22]
In the season 6 episode "The Door" (May 2016), Bran Stark experiences a vision of the creation of the Night King by Leaf, one of the Children of the Forest, by stabbing a human prisoner in the chest with a dragonglass dagger. Leaf explains to an incredulous Bran that the Children were at war with the First Men.[23][24]
Merchandising[edit]
In 2012, Funko released a White Walker figure as part of their POP! Television line, which are 4.5 inch vinyl figures in the Japanese super deformed style.[25] The company later produced a Mystery Mini Blind Box figurine of a stylized White Walker.[26] Dark Horse released a 9-inch White Walker bust statue in 2013,[27][28] and later a 9-inch full figure statue.[29] In 2014, Funko released a 6.5 inch articulated White Walker action figure (with spear accessory) as part of their HBO-licensed Legacy Collection line, which features "some of the series’ most popular characters".[30][31] Dark Horse produced a Night King bust in March 2016,[32] which was followed by an 8-inch Night King figure by Dark Horse Deluxe in late 2016.[33] Funko also released a "Night King" POP! figure that same year.[34]
See also[edit]
Themes in A Song of Ice and Fire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Egner, Jeremy (May 11, 2015). "On Game of Thrones, an Awkward Dinner and a Stony Encounter". The New York Times. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Egner, Jeremy (June 1, 2015). "Game of Thrones Q. and A.: Birgitte Hjort Sorensen on Playing a Wildling Mother". The New York Times. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Souppouris, Aaron (June 17, 2014). "Becoming a White Walker: how one man turns into a terrifying Game of Thrones villain". The Verge. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin, George R. R. (1996). "Prologue". A Game of Thrones. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-0-553-89784-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 18: Samwell". A Storm of Swords. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2011). "Chapter 7: Jon". A Dance with Dragons. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-553-90565-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin. "Chapter 52: Jon". A Game of Thrones. pp. 533–536, 545–548.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin. "Chapter 46: Samwell". A Storm of Swords. pp. 534–535.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (1998). "Chapter 13: Jon". A Clash of Kings. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-553-89785-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Lackner, Chris (March 23, 2012). "Interview: Author George R.R. Martin eager to see his world again on Game of Thrones". Dose. Archived from the original on March 3, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Martin. "Chapter 24: Bran". A Game of Thrones. pp. 232–234.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin. "Chapter 56: Bran". A Storm of Swords. pp. 761, 770–771.
Jump up ^ Martin. "Chapter 2: Catelyn". A Game of Thrones. pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Martin. "Chapter 60: Jon". A Game of Thrones. p. 635.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Josh (April 1, 2012). "Game of Thrones Exclusive! George R.R. Martin Talks Season Two, The Winds of Winter, and Real-World Influences for A Song of Ice and Fire". SmarterTravel.com. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Finestone, Nathaniel (August 12, 2014). "Manchester Comicon–How to catch a White Walker in his Natural Habitat". The Prince Arthur Herald. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr, Mike (June 27, 2016). "Game Of Thrones David Benioff & D.B. Weiss On Shocking Season 6 Finale". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Shanley, Patrick (June 1, 2015). "Game of Thrones ventures beyond books in a big way". CNN. Retrieved June 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Poladian, Charles (June 1, 2015). "Game Of Thrones Season 5 Spoilers: Night's King, White Walker Meaning And Jon Snow's Fate After 'Hardhome'". International Business Times. Retrieved June 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Robinson, Joanna (May 31, 2015). "Why Does the Night's King Matter on Game of Thrones?". Vanity Fair. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Trumbore, Dave (June 11, 2015). "GAME OF THRONES Decoded: Valyrian Steel, White Walkers, and the Night's King". Collider. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Prokop, Andrew (August 21, 2017). "Game of Thrones season 7: the White Walker twists of 'Beyond the Wall', explained". Vox. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ VanDerWerff, Todd (May 22, 2016). "Game of Thrones season 6, episode 5: 5 winners and 7 losers behind "The Door"". Vox.com. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Egner, Jeremy (May 22, 2016). "Game of Thrones Season 6, Episode 5: Hold the Door". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lenihan, Nick (September 5, 2012). "Game of Thrones Funko Pop". ActionFigureFury.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "2014 Funko Game of Thrones Mystery Minis Vinyl Figures". CardboardConnection.com. 2014. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Dark Horse Officially Unveils the Game of Thrones White Walker Statue!". Dark Horse Comics. June 19, 2013. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Dark Horse Comics Reveals Game of Thrones White Walker Statue". Cosmic Book News. June 17, 2013. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Review of White Walker - Game of Thrones figure". MWC Toys. November 7, 2014. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pickett, Daniel (February 11, 2014). "Funko To Launch Game of Thrones Legacy Collection". ActionFigureInsider.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lenihan, Nick (February 11, 2014). "Game of Thrones Legacy Collection 6-inch Figures Announced by Funko". ActionFigureFury.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dark Horse Unleases Game of Thrones® Night's King Limited Edition Bust". ActionFigureInsider.com. December 3, 2015. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Toy Fair 2016: Dark Horse Reveals New Character in Line of Game of Thrones® Figures!". Dark Horse. February 12, 2016. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lovett, Jamie (February 11, 2016). "New Game Of Thrones Pop Vinyl Wave Includes Night King, Daenerys Riding Drogon, & More". Comicbook.com. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
External links[edit]
Landau, Neil (December 4, 2013). "Establish the Mythology". The TV Showrunner's Roadmap: 21 Navigational Tips for Screenwriters to Create and Sustain a Hit TV Series. CRC Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-134-62132-3.
show
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George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire
A Game of Thrones (1996)
A Clash of Kings (1998)
A Storm of Swords (2000)
A Feast for Crows (2005)
A Dance with Dragons (2011)
The Winds of Winter (TBA)
Franchise media
Novellas
Tales of Dunk and Egg (1998–2010)
The Princess and the Queen (2013)
The Rogue Prince (2014)
The Sons of the Dragon (2017)
TV series
Episodes
Season 1
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Republic of Florence
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Republic of Florence
Repubblica Fiorentina
1115–1532
Flag
Coat of arms
The Republic of Florence in 1494
Capital Florence
43°47′N 11°15′E / 43.783°N 11.250°E / 43.783; 11.250Coordinates: 43°47′N 11°15′E / 43.783°N 11.250°E / 43.783; 11.250
Languages Tuscan, Italian and Latin
Religion Roman Catholicism
Government Oligarchic republic
Gonfaloniere of Justice
• 1293–1295 Giano della Bella (first)
• 1530–1532 Alessandro de' Medici (last)
Podestà
• 1193–1194 Gerardo Caponsacchi (first)
• 1502 Vincenzo Nobili (last)
Legislature Priorato delle Arti
• Upper house Council of Ancients
• Lower house Council of Consuls
History
• First established 1115
• Marquisate restored
by Imperial force.
1185–97
• Ciompi Revolt 1378
• Founding of the
House of Medici.
1434
• Piero the Unfortunate
deposed.
1494
• Declared hereditary
duchy by the Pope. 1532
Currency Florin (1252–1533)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Margravate of Tuscany
Duchy of Florence
Today part of Italy
The Republic of Florence, also known as the Florentine Republic (Italian: Repubblica Fiorentina; Romanian pronunciation: [re'pubblika fjoren'tina]), was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany.[1][2] The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda, a woman who controlled vast territories including Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in her successors' place.[3] The republic was ruled by a council, known as the signoria. The signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere (titular ruler of the city), who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members.
The republic had a checkered history of coups and counter-coups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434, upon Cosimo de' Medici's counter-coup against the faction that had sent him into exile the previous year. The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de' Medici (later Pope Leo X) re-conquered the republic in 1512.
Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531, after an 11-month siege of the city. The republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de' Medici "Duke of the Florentine Republic", making the "republic" a hereditary monarchy.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Background
1.2 12th century
1.3 13th century
1.4 14th century
1.5 15th century
1.5.1 The Medicis
1.5.2 Savonarola
1.6 16th century
1.6.1 Destruction
2 Administration
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of Florence
Background[edit]
Italy in 1084, showing the Marquisate of Tuscany.
Main article: Marquisate of Tuscany
The city of Florence was established in 59 B.C. by Julius Caesar. The city had been part of the Marquisate of Tuscany before the death of Margravine Matilda in 1115. The city did not submit readily to her successor, Rabodo, who was killed in a dispute with the city. The first official mention of the republic was in 1138 when several cities around Tuscany formed a league against Henry X of Bavaria. The country was nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire.[3]
12th century[edit]
Florence prospered in the 12th century, trading extensively with foreign countries. This, in turn, provided a platform for demographic growth of the city. The growth of Florence's population mirrored the rate of construction, many churches and palazzi were built. This prosperity was shattered when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa invaded the Italian peninsula in 1185. The Margraves of Tuscany re-acquired Florence and its townlands. The Florentines re-asserted their independence when Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI died in 1197.[3]
According to a study carried out by Enrico Faini of the University of Florence,[5] there were about ten old aristocratic families who moved to Florence from 1000 and 1100: Amidei; Ardinghi; Brunelleschi; Buondelmonti; Caponsacchi; Donati; Fifanti; Gherardini of Montagliari; Guidi; Nerli; Porcelli; Scolari; Uberti; Visdomini.
13th century[edit]
Florence's population continued to grow into the 13th century, reaching 30,000 inhabitants. As has been said, the extra inhabitants supported the city's trade and vice versa. Several new bridges and churches were built, most prominently the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, in 1294. The buildings from the era serve as Florence's best example of Gothic Architecture. Politically, Florence was barely able to maintain peace between factions. The precarious peace that existed at the beginning of the century was destroyed in 1216 when two factions known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines began to war. The Ghibellines were the noble rulers of Florence. The Guelphs were populists.
The Ghibellines, who under Frederick of Antioch had ruled the city since 1244, were deposed in 1250 by the Guelphs. The Guelphs led Florence to prosper further. Their primarily mercantile orientation soon became evident in one of their earliest achievements: the introduction of a new coin, the Florin, in 1252. It was widely used beyond Florence's borders due to its reliable, fixed gold content and soon became one of the common currencies of Europe and the Near East. The same year saw the creation of the Palazzo del Popolo. The Guelphs lost the reins of power after Florence suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Montaperti in 1260. The Ghibellines resumed power and undid all the advances of the Guelphs. They demolished hundreds of towers, homes, and palaces. The fragility of their rule caused the Ghibellines to seek out an arbitrator in the form of Pope Clement IV. Fortunately for Florence, the Pope openly favoured the Guelphs. They were duly restored to power.
The Florentine economy reached its zenith in the latter half of the 13th century. The famed Palazzo della Signoria was built, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio. The Florentine townlands were divided into administrative districts in 1292. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance.[6] The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class.[3] In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking center of Europe to Florence.[7]
14th century[edit]
Front and back of a Florentine florin
The golden florin of the Republic of Florence was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities to play a significant commercial role since the 7th century. As many Florentine banks were international companies with branches across Europe, the florin quickly became the dominant trade coin of Western Europe for large scale transactions, replacing silver bars in multiples of the mark (a weight unit equal to eight ounces).
In fact, with the collapse of the Bonsignori family, several new banking families sprang up in Florence: the Bardis, Peruzzis and the Acciaioli.[7] The friction between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines did not cease, authority still passed between the two frequently. Florence's reign as the foremost banking city of Europe did not last long; the aforesaid families were bankrupt in 1340, not because of Edward III of England's refusal to pay his debts, as is often stated (the debt was just £13,000) but because of a Europe-wide economic recession. While the banks perished, Florentine literature flourished, and Florence was home to some of the greatest writers in Italian history: Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. They were Europe's first vernacular writers, choosing the Tuscan dialect of Italian (which, as a result, evolved into the standard Italian language) over Latin.[8]
Florence was hit hard by the Black Death. Having originated in the Orient, the plague arrived in Messina in 1347. The plague devastated Europe, robbing it of an estimated 1/3 of its population.[9] This, combined with the economic downturn, took its toll on the city-state. The ensuing collapse of the feudal system changed the social composition of Europe forever; it was one of the first steps out of the Middle Ages.
The growth of Florence from 1300 to 1500
The war with Avignon papacy strained the regime. In 1378 discontented wool workers revolted. The Ciompi revolt, as it is known, established a revolutionary commune. In 1382 the wealthier classes crushed the seeds of rebellion.[10] The famous Medici bank was established by Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici in October 1397.[11] The bank continued to exist (albeit in an extremely diminished form) until the time of Ferdinando II de'Medici in the 17th century.[12] But, for now, Giovanni's bank flourished.
Beginning in 1389, Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan expanded his dominion into the Veneto, Piedmont, Emily and Tuscany. During this period Florence, under the leadership of Maso degli Albizzi and Niccolò da Uzzano was involved in three wars with Milan (1390–92, 1397–98, 1400–02). The Florentine army, commanded by John Hawkwood, contained the Milanese during the first war.[13] The second war started in March 1397. Milanese troops devastated the Florentine contado, but were checked in August of that year. The war expenses exceeded one million florins and necessitated tax raises and forced loans. A peace agreement in May 1398 was brokered by Venice, but left the struggle unresolved.[14] Over the next two years Florentine control of Tuscany and Umbria collapsed. Pisa and Siena as well as a number of smaller cities submitted to Gian Galeazzo, while Lucca withdrew from the anti-Visconti league, with Bologna remaining the only major ally.
In November 1400 a conspiracy involving both exiles and internal opponents was uncovered. Two Ricci were implicated as leaders of a plot to eliminate the regime’s inner circle and open the gates to the Milanese. Confessions indicated that the plan had wide support among the elites, including a Medici and several of the Alberti.[14]
The republic bankrolled the emperor-elect Rupert. However, he was defeated by the Milanese in the fall of 1401. Visconti then turned to Bologna. On June 26, 1402, combined Bolognese-Florentine forces were routed at Casalecchio, near Bologna, which was taken on the 30th. The road to Tuscany was open. However, Florence was saved after an outbreak of plague had spread from Tuscany to Emilia and Lombardy: Gian Galeazzo died from it on 3 September 1402.[13][14]
15th century[edit]
The Visconti domains were divided between three heirs. Gabriele Maria Visconti sold Pisa to the Republic of Florence for 200,000 florins. Since the Pisans did not intend to voluntarily submit to their long-time rivals, the army under Maso degli Albizzi took Pisa on 9 October 1406 after a long siege, that was accompanied by numerous atrocities.[13]
The state authorities had been approached by the Duchy of Milan in 1422, with a treaty, that prohibited Florence's interference with Milan's impending war with the Republic of Genoa.[15] Florence obliged, but Milan disregarded its own treaty and occupied a Florentine border town. The conservative government wanted war, while the people bemoaned such a stance as they would be subject to enormous tax increases. The republic went to war with Milan, and won, upon the Republic of Venice's entry on their side. The war was concluded in 1427, and the Visconti of Milan were forced to sign an unfavourable treaty.
The debt incurred during the war was gargantuan, approximately 4,200,000 florins.[16] To pay, the state had to change the tax system. The current estimo system was replaced with the catasto. The castato was based on a citizen's entire wealth, while the estimo was simply a form of income tax. Apart from war, Filippo Brunelleschi created the renowned dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore, which astounded contemporaries and modern observers alike.
The Medicis[edit]
Main article: Medici
The son of Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, Cosimo de' Medici succeeded his father as the head of the Medici Bank. He played a prominent role in the government of Florence until his exile in 1433, after a disastrous war with Tuscany's neighbour, the Republic of Lucca.[16] Cosimo's exile in Venice lasted for less than a year, when the people of Florence overturned Cosimo's exile in a democratic vote. Cosimo returned to the acclaim of his people and the banishment of the Albizzi family, who had exiled him.
Cosimo de' Medici, founder of the House of Medici
Main article: Cosimo de' Medici
The Renaissance began during Cosimo's de facto rule of Florence, the seeds of which had arguably been laid before the Black Death tore through Europe. Niccolò Niccoli was the leading Florence humanist scholar of the time. He appointed the first Professor of Greek, Manuel Chrysoloras (the founder of Hellenic studies in Italy), at the University of Florence in 1397.[17] Niccoli was a keen collector of ancient manuscripts, which he bequeathed to Cosimo upon his death in 1437.[18] Poggio Bracciolini succeeded Niccoli as the principal humanist of Florence. Bracciolini was born Arezzo in 1380. He toured Europe, searching for more ancient Greco-Roman manuscripts for Niccoli. Unlike his employer, Bracciolini also authored his own works. He was made the Chancellor of Florence shortly before his death, by Cosimo, who was his best friend.[19]
Florence hosted the Great Ecumenical Council in 1439; this council was launched in an attempt to reconcile the Byzantine Orthodox Church with Roman Catholicism. Pope Eugenius IV convened it in reply to a cry for assistance from the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) John VIII Palaiologos. John VIII's empire was slowly being devoured by the Ottoman Turks.[20] The council was a huge boost to Florence's international prestige. The council deliberated until July 1439. Both parties had reached a compromise, and the Pope agreed to militarily aid the Byzantine Emperor. Unfortunately, upon John VIII's homecoming to Constantinople, the Greeks rejected the compromise, leading to riots throughout what remained of the Byzantine Empire. John VIII was forced to repudiate the agreement with the Roman church to appease the rioters. As a result, no Western aid was forthcoming and the Byzantine Empire's fate was sealed. Fourteen years later in 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.[21]
Cosimo's fervent patronage transformed Florence into the epitome of a Renaissance city. He employed Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Michelozzo. All these artistic commissions cost Cosimo over 600,000 florins.[22]
Foreign relations, both as a backdrop to Cosimo's rise to power and during first twenty years of his rule, were dominated by the Wars in Lombardy. This series of conflicts between the Republic of Venice and the Duchy of Milan for hegemony in Northern Italy lasted from 1423 to 1454 and involved a number of Italian states, that occasionally switched sides according to their changing interests. Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan invaded Florence twice in the 1430s, and again in 1440, but his army was finally defeated in the battle of Anghiari. The Milanese invasions were largely instigated by the exiled Albizzi family.[23] Death of Filippo Maria in 1447 led to a major change in the alliances. In 1450 Cosimo's current ally Francesco Sforza established himself as the Duke of Milan. Florentine trade interests made her support Sforza's Milan in the war against Venice, while the fall of Constantinople in 1453 dealt a blow to Venetian finances. Eventually, the Peace of Lodi recognized Venetian and Florentine territorial gains and the legitimacy of the Sforza rule in Milan.[24] The Milan-Florence alliance played a major role in stabilizing the peninsula for the next 40 years.
The political crisis of 1458 was the first serious challenge to the Medici rule. The cost of wars had been borne by the great families of Florence, and disproportionately so by Medici's opponents. A number of them (Serragli, Baroncelli, Mancini, Vespucci, Gianni) were practically ruined and had to sell their properties, and those were acquired by Medici's partisans at bargain prices. The opposition used partial relaxation of Medici control of the republic institutions[25] to demand political reforms, freedom of speech in the councils and a greater share in the decision-making. Medici's party response was to use threats of force from private armies and Milanese troops and arranging a popular assembly dominated by Cosimo's supporters. It exiled the opponents of the regime and introduced the open vote in councils, ``in order to unmask the anti-Medician rebels".[24][26]
From 1458 Cosimo withdrew from any official public role, but his control of Florence was greater than ever. In the spring of 1459 he entertained the new pope Pius II, who stopped in Florence on his way to the Council of Mantua to declare a crusade against the Ottomans, and Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Francesco's son, who was to escort the pope from Florence to Mantua. In his memoirs, Pius said that Cosimo “was considered the arbiter of war and peace, the regulator of law; less a citizen than master of his city. Political councils were held in his home; the magistrates he chose were elected; he was king in all but name and legal status. . . . Some asserted that his tyranny was intolerable."[27]
Main article: Piero di Cosimo de' Medici
Map of the Florentine Republic and surrounding states c. 1494.
Piero the Gouty was the eldest son of Cosimo. Piero, as his sobriquet the gouty implies, suffered from gout and did not enjoy good health. Lorenzo the Magnificent was Piero's eldest son by his wife Lucrezia Tornabuoni.[28] Piero's reign furthered the always fractious political divisions of Florence when he had called up huge debts owed to the Medici Bank. These debts were owed primarily by a Florentine nobleman, Luca Pitti.[29] Lucca called for an armed insurrection against Piero, but a co-conspirator rebutted this.[30] Duke Francesco Sforza of Milan died in 1466, and his son Galeazzo Maria Sforza became the new Milanese duke. With the death of Francesco Sforza, Florence lost a valuable ally among the other Italian states.
In August 1466, the conspirators acted. They received support from the Duke of Ferrara, who marched troops into the Florentine countryside with the intent of deposing Piero. The coup failed. The Florentines were not willing to support it, and soon after their arrival, Ferrara's troops left the city.[31] The conspirators were exiled for life.[32] While the internal problems were fixed, Venice took the opportunity to invade Florentine territory in 1467. Piero appointed Federigo da Montefeltro, Lord of Urbino, to command his mercenaries. An inconclusive battle ensued, with the Venetians forces retreating.[33] In the winter of 1469 Piero died.
Lorenzo de' Medici
Main article: Lorenzo de' Medici
Lorenzo succeeded his father, Piero. Lorenzo, as heir, was accordingly groomed by his father to rule over Florence. Lorenzo was the greatest artistic patron of the Renaissance.[34] He patronised Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Botticelli, among others. During Lorenzo's reign, the Renaissance truly descended on Florence. Lorenzo commissioned a multitude of amazing pieces of art and also enjoyed collecting fine gems. Lorenzo had many children with his wife Clarice Orsini, including the future Pope Leo X and his eventual successor in Florence, Piero the Unfortunate.
Lorenzo's brother Giuliano was killed before his own eyes in the Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478. This plot was instigated by the Pazzi family. The coup was unsuccessful, and the conspirators were executed in a very violent manner. The scheme was supported by the Archbishop of Pisa, Francesco Salviati, who was also executed in his ceremonial robes. News of this sacrilege reached Pope Sixtus IV (who had also supported the conspiracy against the Medicis). Sixtus IV was "outraged" and excommunicated everyone in Florence. Sixtus sent a papal delegation to Florence to arrest Lorenzo.[35] The people of Florence were obviously enraged by the Pope's actions, and the local clergy too. The populace refused to resign Lorenzo to the papal delegation. A war followed, which lasted for two years until Lorenzo tactfully went about diplomatically securing a peace.[36] Lorenzo died in 1492 and was succeeded by his son Piero.
Main article: Piero the Unfortunate
Piero ruled Florence for a mere two years.[37] Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in September 1494. He demanded passage through Florence to Naples, where he intended to secure the throne for himself. Piero met Charles at the fringes of Florence to try and negotiate. Piero capitulated to all Charles' demands, and upon arriving back in the city in November, he was branded as a traitor. He was forced to flee the republic with his family.
Savonarola[edit]
Girolamo Savonarola
Main article: Girolamo Savonarola
After the fall of the Medici, Girolamo Savonarola ruled the state.[38] Savonarola was a priest from Ferrara. He came to Florence in the 1480s. By proclaiming predictions and through vigorous preaching, he won the people to his cause. Savonarola's new government ushered in democratic reforms. It allowed many exiles back into Florence, who were banished by the Medici. Savonarola's ulterior goal, however, was to transform Florence into a "city of god".[38] Florentines stopped wearing garish colours, and many women took oaths to become nuns.[39] Savonarola became most famous for his "Bonfire of the Vanities", where he ordered all "vanities" to be gathered and burned. These included wigs, perfume, paintings, and ancient manuscripts.[40] Savonarola's Florence collapsed a year later. He was excommunicated by Pope Alexander VI in late 1497. In the same year, Florence embarked on a war with Pisa, which had been de facto independent since Charles VIII's invasion. The endeavour failed miserably, and this led to food shortages. That, in turn, led to a few isolated cases of the plague. The people blamed him for their woes, and he was tortured and executed in the Piazza della Signoria by being burned at the stake by Florentine authorities, in May 1498.[41]
16th century[edit]
The city was in tatters by the time Savonarola was deposed. The state was now presided over by Piero Soderini, who was elected ruler for life.[42] This period saw a democracy in Florence, which had very little corruption. The republican government succeeded where Savonarola failed, when the Secretary of War, Niccolò Machiavelli, captured Pisa. It was at this time that Machiavelli introduced a standing army in Florence, replacing the traditional use of hired mercenaries.[43]
Soderini was repudiated in September 1512, when Cardinal Giovanni de Medici captured Florence with Papal troops during the War of the League of Cambrai. The Medici rule of Florence was thus restored.[44]
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
Soon after arriving back in Florence, Cardinal Giovanni de Medici was called to Rome. Pope Julius II had just died, and he needed to be present for the ensuing Papal conclave. Giovanni was elected Pope, taking the name Leo X. This effectively brought the Papal States and Florence into a personal union.[45] Leo X ruled Florence by proxy, appointing his brother Giuliano de Medici, to rule in his place.
Giuliano ruled Florence until his death in 1516, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino.[46][47]
He fathered Catherine de' Medici. Lorenzo died from syphilis in 1519, just after the birth of his only child. The Medici channelled all their energy on the Papacy, which Leo X held from 1513–1521. Upon Leo's death, the Papacy passed to Adrian VI, who ruled until 1523. Then Cardinal Giulio de' Medici was elected Pope Clement VII.[48] Florence at the time was being ruled by Ippolito de' Medici and Alessandro de' Medici, under the guardianship of Cardinal Passerini. Ippolito was the son of Giuliano de Medici, while Alessandro was the alleged son of Clement VII.
Leo X and Cardinal Giulio de Medici
In May 1527, Rome was laid siege by the Holy Roman Empire, during in the War of the League of Cognac. The city was pillaged and destroyed. The Medici were once again deposed in Florence, by the anti-Medici faction, upon learning of the Papal States' defeat. A new wave of Puritanism swept over Florence. Jesus Christ was appointed "King of Florence". Many new restricting fundamentalist laws were passed.[49] Clement VII signed the Treaty of Barcelona with Charles V. Charles would, in exchange for the Pope's blessing, invade Florence and restore the Medici. They were restored after a protracted siege.[50]
Destruction[edit]
Main article: Duchy of Florence
In 1533, Alessandro de'Medici was created Duke of Florence by his uncle Pope Clement VII. This single act brought an end to the republic. The population were infuriated at this. There was some civil insurrection.[51] The Medici were ennobled further in 1569, when Alessandro's successor was made Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Medici ruled as grand dukes until their extinction in 1737.
Administration[edit]
Florence was governed by a council called the signoria, which consisted of nine men. The head of the signoria was the gonfaloniere, who was chosen every two months in a lottery, as was his signoria. To be eligible, one had to have sound finances, no arrears or bankruptcies, he had to be older than thirty, had to be a member of Florence's seven main guilds (merchant traders, bankers, two clothe guilds, and judges). The lottery was often pre-determined, and the results were usually favourable to influential families.[52] The roster of names in the lottery were replaced every five years.[53]
The main organs of government were known as the tre maggiori. They were: the twelve good men, the standard bearers of the gonfaloniere, and the signoria. The first two debated and ratified proposed legislation, but could not introduce it. The gonfaloniere's initial two month-term in office was expanded upon the fall of Savonarola in 1498, to life, much like that of the Venetian doge.[54] The signoria held meetings each day in the Palazzo della Signoria. Various committees controlled particular aspects of government, e.g. the Committee of War. For administrative purposes, Florence was divided into four districts, which were divided into four sub-districts. The main purpose of these counties was to ease the gathering of local militias.[55]
To hold an elective office, one had to be of a family that had previously held office.[42] The Medici family effectively ruled Florence on a hereditary basis, from 1434–1494, 1512–1527, 1531, until 1533, when Alessandro de Medici was created Duke of Florence, thereby turning Florence into a hereditary monarchy.
See also[edit]
Duchy of Florence
Grand Duchy of Tuscany
History of Florence
House of Medici
Florence
References[edit]
Jump up ^ G. Brucker, Florence:The Golden Age, 1138-1737 (University of California Press, Berkeley CA, 1998) ISBN 0-520-21522-2
Jump up ^ J. M. Najemy, A History of Florence:1200-1575, (Blakwell, Malden, MA, 2006) ISBN 978-1-4051-1954-2
^ Jump up to: a b c d "History of Florence". Aboutflorence.com. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
Jump up ^ Strathern, Paul: Medici: "Godfathers of the Renaissance" (Vintage Publishers) ISBN 978-0-099-52297-3 p 321
Jump up ^ See: Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur and Andrea Zorzi (“Il gruppo dirigente fiorentino nell'età consolare” n "Archivio Storico", CLXII (2004), p. 210)
Jump up ^ Kenneth Bartlett, The Italian Renaissance, Chapter 7, p.37, Volume II, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Strathern, p 18
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 19
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 20
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 20–21
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 26
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 301
^ Jump up to: a b c Brucker, p. 252
^ Jump up to: a b c Najemi, pp. 193-194
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 41
^ Jump up to: a b Strathern, p 42
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 83
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 84
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 88-89
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 90
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 94
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 106
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 117
^ Jump up to: a b Brucker, p. 253
Jump up ^ Najemi, p. 293
Jump up ^ Najemi, p. 293-296
Jump up ^ Najemi, p. 296-298
Jump up ^ Strathern, p127
Jump up ^ Strathen, p 130
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 131
Jump up ^ Starthern, p 133
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 134
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 134–135
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 145
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 161–165
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 166–168
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 213
^ Jump up to: a b Strathern, p 220
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 223
Jump up ^ http://www.covenantseminary.edu/worldwide/en/CH310/CH310_T_33.html
Jump up ^ Strathern p 226–269
^ Jump up to: a b Strathern, p 249
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 257
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 261
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 266–268
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 280
Jump up ^ Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo: Mysteries of Medici Chapel, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006. ISBN 5-85050-825-2
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 292
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 308–309
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 311–315
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 321
Jump up ^ Strathen, p 15
Jump up ^ Hale, pp. 17–18
Jump up ^ Strathern, p 235
Jump up ^ Hale, J.R.: Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London, ISBN 1-84212-456-0 pp. 15–16
External links[edit]
Pbs.org: Medicis and the Republic of Florence
The Florentine school of the Renaissance
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Republic of Florence.
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