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Culture
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This article is about culture as used in the social sciences and humanities. For uses in the natural sciences, see Cell culture and Tissue culture. For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation).
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
Celebrations, rituals and patterns of consumption are important aspects of folk culture.
Human symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached behavioral modernity.
Religion and expressive art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/, from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate,")[1] is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Some aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture[clarification needed], expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.[2]
In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness, and such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.
When used as a count noun, a "culture" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes "culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. "bro culture"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism holds that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Change
3 Early modern discourses
3.1 German Romanticism
3.2 English Romanticism
4 Anthropology
5 Sociology
5.1 Early researchers and development of cultural sociology
6 Cultural studies
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Additional sources
9.1 Books
9.2 Articles
10 External links
Etymology
The modern term "culture" is based on a term used by the Ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or "cultura animi,"[3] using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, "refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human."[4]
In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, "The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly."[5]
Culture described by Richard Velkley:[4]
... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of "modern liberalism and Enlightenment". Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.
In the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."[6] Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, "Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.[7]
The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."[8] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.[9][10]
The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago, and is often thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that is transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.
Change
The Beatles exemplified changing cultural dynamics, not only in music, but fashion and lifestyle. Over a half century after their emergence, they continue to have a worldwide cultural impact.
It has been estimated from archaeological data that the human capacity for cumulative culture emerged somewhere between 500 000 - 170 000 years ago.[11]
Raimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation.[12] In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.[13]
A 19th-century engraving showing Australian natives opposing the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1770
An Assyrian child wearing traditional clothing.
Cultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period," driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.[14]
Full-length profile portrait of Turkman woman, standing on a carpet at the entrance to a yurt, dressed in traditional clothing and jewelry
Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.[15] (See structuration.)
Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.[16]
Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, hamburgers, fast food in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China.[citation needed] "Stimulus diffusion" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. "Direct borrowing," on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.
Acculturation has different meanings, but in this context it refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different culture and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.
Early modern discourses
German Romanticism
Johann Herder called attention to national cultures.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung: "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity."[17] He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: Sapere aude, "Dare to be wise!" In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of bildung: "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."[18]
Adolf Bastian developed a universal model of culture.
In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview" (Weltanschauung).[19] According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.
In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind."[20] He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.[21] This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.[22]
English Romanticism
British poet and critic Matthew Arnold viewed "culture" as the cultivation of the humanist ideal.
In the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world."[23] This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of bildung: "...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world."[23]
In practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine.[24] As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from lat. civitas, city). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.[25]
British anthropologist Edward Tylor was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense.
Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature." According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature[citation needed]; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.
Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by "the folk," i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as "noble savages" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms.[26] In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture.
Anthropology
Petroglyphs in modern-day Gobustan, Azerbaijan, dating back to 10,000 BCE and indicating a thriving culture
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Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture,[27] in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.[citation needed] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States, archaeology.[28][29][30][31] The term Kulturbrille, or "culture glasses," coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the "lenses" through which we see our own countries. Martin Lindstrom asserts that Kulturbrille, which allow us to make sense of the culture we inhabit, also "can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately."[32]
Sociology
Main article: Sociology of culture
The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."[33] As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be any of two types, non-material culture or material culture.[2] Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.
Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie (cultural sociology). Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols.[34] "Culture" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.[citation needed]
Early researchers and development of cultural sociology
The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx,[35] Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.
Cultural studies
In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified "culture" with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.[36][37]
In the United States, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS.[38] It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall,[39] who succeeded Hoggart as Director.[40] Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as "Western civilization" or "globalism."
From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender.[41] Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television, or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television in order to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture, unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends in order to "fit in" certainly qualifies, since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.
In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.[42] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of "culture." "Culture" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups)[43] and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.[44]
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.
In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "Cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition."[45] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.[citation needed] The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.[citation needed] Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, those who control the means of production (the economic base) essentially control a culture.[citation needed] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.),[46] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.[citation needed]
Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:[47]
The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance and uncertainty avoidance.
The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and human orientation.
In 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud,[13] who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of meanings), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.
See also
Culture portal
Animal culture
Anthropology
Cultural area
Honour § Cultures of honour and cultures of law
Outline of culture
Semiotics of culture
Culture – Wikipedia book
Cultural studies
Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action
Notes
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^ Jump up to: a b Macionis, John J; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN 978-0137001613. OCLC 652430995.
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^ Jump up to: a b Velkley, Richard L (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: philosophy and culture in question. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30. ISBN 0226852563. OCLC 47930775.
Jump up ^ Sorrells, Kathryn (2015). Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Los Angeles: Sage. ASIN B00DG8M7EU. ISBN 978-1412927444. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Tylor 1974, 1.
Jump up ^ James, Paul; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1138025721. OCLC 942553107.
Jump up ^ "Meaning of "culture"". Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved July 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pyszczynski, Tom; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff. Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory. pp. 1–70. doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001.
Jump up ^ Greenberg, Jeff; Koole, Sander L.; Pyszczynski, Tom (2013). Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1462514793.
Jump up ^ Lind, J.; Lindenfors, P.; Ghirlanda, S.; Lidén, K.; Enquist, M. (2013-05-07). "Dating human cultural capacity using phylogenetic principles". Scientific Reports. 3 (1). doi:10.1038/srep01785. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 3646280  . PMID 23648831.
Jump up ^ Panikkar, Raimon (1991). Pathil, Kuncheria, ed. Religious Pluralism: An Indian Christian Perspective. ISPCK. pp. 252–99. ISBN 978-8172140052. OCLC 25410539.
^ Jump up to: a b Rein, Raud. Meaning in Action: Outline of an Integral Theory of Culture. Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 978-1509511242. OCLC 944339574.
Jump up ^ Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (2015-07-03). "Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community". Community, Work & Family. 18 (3): 334–50. doi:10.1080/13668803.2014.981506. ISSN 1366-8803.
Jump up ^ O'Neil, Dennis (2006). "Culture Change: Processes of Change". Culture Change. Palomar College. Retrieved October 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Pringle, Heather (November 20, 1998). "The Slow Birth of Agriculture". Science. 282 (5393): 1446. doi:10.1126/science.282.5393.1446. ISSN 0036-8075.
Jump up ^ Kant, Immanuel. 1784. "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (German: "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?") Berlinische Monatsschrift, December (Berlin Monthly)
Jump up ^ Eldridge, Michael. "The German Bildung Tradition". UNC Charlotte. Retrieved 2017-05-29.
Jump up ^ Underhill, James W. (2009). Humboldt, Worldview, and Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Jump up ^ Köpping, Klaus-Peter (2005). Adolf Bastian and the psychic unity of mankind. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3825839895. OCLC 977343058.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Ian. "Biography of Adolf Bastian, ethnologist". Today in Science History. Retrieved May 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Liron, Tal (2003). Franz Boas and the discovery of culture (PDF) (Thesis). OCLC 52888196. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 2, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Williams (1983), p. 90. Cited in Roy, Shuker (1997). Understanding popular music. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0415107237. OCLC 245910934. argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three:
"a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development"
"a particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group"
"the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity".
Jump up ^ Bakhtin 1981, p. 4
Jump up ^ McClenon, pp. 528–29
Jump up ^ Angioni, Giulio (1973). Tre saggi sull'antropologia dell'età coloniale. OCLC 641869481.
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Jump up ^ Lindström, Martin (2016). Small data : the tiny clues that uncover huge trends. London: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250080684. OCLC 921994909.
Jump up ^ Simmel, Georg (1971). Levine, Donald N, ed. Georg Simmel on individuality and social forms: selected writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xix. ISBN 978-0226757766.
Jump up ^ Sokal, Alan D. (June 5, 1996). "A Physicist Experiments with Cultural Studies". Lingua Franca. Retrieved October 28, 2016. Physicist Alan Sokal published a paper in a journal of cultural sociology stating that gravity was a social construct that should be examined hermeneutically. See Sokal affair for further details.
Jump up ^ Berlin, Isaiah; Ryan, Alan (2002). Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0195103262. OCLC 611127754.
Jump up ^ Williams, Raymond (1983). "Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society". New York: Oxford University Press: 87–93, 236–38.
Jump up ^ Berger, John (1972). Ways of seeing. Peter Smithn. ISBN 0563122447. OCLC 780459348.
Jump up ^ "Studying Culture – Reflections and Assessment: An Interview with Richard Hoggart". Media, Culture, and Society. 13.
Jump up ^ Adams, Tim (September 23, 2007). "Cultural hallmark". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ James, Procter (2004). Stuart Hall. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415262675. OCLC 318376213.
Jump up ^ Sardar, Ziauddin; Van Loon,, Borin; Appignanesi, Richard (1994). Introducing Cultural Studies. New York: Totem Books. ISBN 978-1840465877. OCLC 937991291.
Jump up ^ Fiske, John; Turner, Graeme; Hodge, Robert Ian Vere (1987). Myths of Oz: reading Australian popular culture. London: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 0043303919. OCLC 883364628.
Jump up ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich; Holquist, Michael (1981). The dialogic imagination four essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 4. OCLC 872436352.
Jump up ^ "Comparative Cultural Studies". Purdue University Press. 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lindlof, Thomas R; Taylor, Bryan C (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods (2nd ed.). Sage. p. 60. ISBN 978-0761924937. OCLC 780825710.
Jump up ^ du Gay, Paul, ed. (1997). Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. Sage. ISBN 978-0761954026. OCLC 949857570.
Jump up ^ Petrakis, Panagiotis; Kostis, Pantelis (2013-12-01). "Economic growth and cultural change". The Journal of Socio-Economics. 47: 147–57. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.011.
Additional sources
Books
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Ralph L. Holloway Jr. (1969). "Culture: A Human domain". Current Anthropology. 10 (4): 395–412. doi:10.1086/201036.
Dell Hymes (1969). Reinventing Anthropology.
James, Paul; Szeman, Imre (2010). Globalization and Culture, Vol. 3: Global-Local Consumption. London: Sage Publications.
Michael Tomasello (1999). "The Human Adaptation for Culture". Annual Review of Anthropology. 28: 509–29. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509.
Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1941). "The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language". Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Honor of Edward Sapir. Menasha, WI: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund.
Walter Taylor (1948). A Study of Archeology. Memoir 69, American Anthropological Association. Carbondale IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
"Adolf Bastian", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, January 27, 2009
Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization, vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU societal research. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2881550045.
Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. ISBN 978-0252064456.
Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472113151
Benedict, Ruth (1934). "Patterns of Culture". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521291644
Michael C. Carhart, The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press, 2007.
Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York,
Dawkins, R. 1982. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0192880512
Findley & Rothney. Twentieth-Century World (Houghton Mifflin, 1986)
Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. ISBN 978-0465097197.
Geertz, Clifford 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example", American Anthropologist, Vol. 59, No. 1. doi:10.1525/aa.1957.59.1.02a00040
Goodall, J. 1986. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674116498
Hoult, T. F., ed. 1969. Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams & Co.
Jary, D. and J. Jary. 1991. The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062715437
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Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum
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McClenon, James. "Tylor, Edward B(urnett)". Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, 1998. 528–29.
Middleton, R. 1990. Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0335152759.
O'Neil, D. 2006. Cultural Anthropology Tutorials, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.
Reagan, Ronald. "Final Radio Address to the Nation", January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.
Reese, W.L. 1980. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press.
Tylor, E.B. (1974) [1871]. Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press. ISBN 978-0879680916.
UNESCO. 2002. Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, February 21, 2002. Retrieved: 2006-06-23.
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Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1579550080
Articles
The Meaning of "Culture" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker
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external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/883364628

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external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/883364628

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external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/872436352

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external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/780825710

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external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/780825710

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external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/949857570

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external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.011

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external text
//doi.org/10.1086/201036

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external text
http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline

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mw-redirect
Sound culture

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mw-redirect
Constructed culture

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High- and low-context cultures

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mw-redirect
Cultural racism

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mw-redirect
Security culture

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mw-redirect
Cultural Mormon

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mw-redirect
Cultural competence

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mw-redirect
Cultural evolutionism

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Transformation of culture

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values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur
Kultuur – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values: ثقافة – Arabic

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values: ܡܪܕܘܬܐ – Aramaic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arc
display: none;

values: সংস্কৃতি – Assamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupy
Arandupy – Guarani
gn
gn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

values:
https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yati
Yati – Aymara
ay
ay
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ay
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: সংস্কৃতি – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms
display: none;

values: Мәҙәниәт – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Культура – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: संस्कृति – Bhojpuri

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuitua
Kuitua – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values: རིག་གནས། – Tibetan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bo
display: none;

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevenadur
Sevenadur – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Культура – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuttura
Kuttura – Chamorro
ch
ch
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ch
display: none;

values:
https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsika
Tsika – Shona
sn
sn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: ސަގާފަތު – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur
Kultuur – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Κουλτούρα – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eml
display: none;

values: Культуранть мазычись – Erzya

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-myv
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturo
Kulturo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltura
Coltura – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture
Culture – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuer
Kultuer – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture
Culture – Friulian
fur
fur
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fur
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultoor
Cultoor – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hak
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Մշակույթ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: संस्कृति – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturo
Kulturo – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya
Budaya – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-id
display: none;

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Interlingue
ie
ie
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ie
display: none;

values: Культурæ – Ossetic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menning
Menning – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: תרבות – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya
Budaya – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values:
https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturi
Kulturi – Kalaallisut
kl
kl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kl
display: none;

values: ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-krc
display: none;

values: კულტურა – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: تَہزیٖب – Kashmiri

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ks
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-csb
display: none;

values: Мәдениет – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utamaduni
Utamaduni – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilti
Kilti – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87and
Çand – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Маданият – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Ladino
lad
lad
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lad
display: none;

values: ວັດທະນະທຳ – Lao

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lo
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur
Cultuur – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-olo
display: none;

values:
https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/kulnu
kulnu – Lojban
jbo
jbo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values: സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Maltese
mt
mt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mt
display: none;

values: संस्कृती – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya
Budaya – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values:
https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Mirandese
mwl
mwl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: ယဉ်ကျေးမှု – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur
Cultuur – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: संस्कृति – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values: तजिलजि – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur
Kultuur – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulture
Kulture – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nov
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madaniyat
Madaniyat – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuldur
Kuldur – Palatine German
pfl
pfl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Papiamento
pap
pap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pap
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolcha
Kolcha – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values: វប្បធម៌ – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Култура – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Культура – Russian

values: Култуура – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur
Cultur – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur
Kultuur – Saterland Frisian
stq
stq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-stq
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values: සංස්කෘතිය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: ثقافت – Sindhi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ss
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaqan
Dhaqan – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Култура – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya
Budaya – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulttuuri
Kulttuuri – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur
Kultur – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: பண்பாடு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Мәдәният – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: సంస్కృతి – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: วัฒนธรรม – Thai

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: Фарҳанг – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Культура – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ثقافت – Urdu

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura
Cultura – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura
Kultura – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndzhavuko
Ndzhavuko – Tsonga
ts
ts
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ts
display: none;

values: קולטור – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur
Cultuur – Zeelandic
zea
zea
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zea
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values:
https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur
Cultur – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Culture rootpage-Culture skin-vector action-view