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Indoor air pollution in developing nations
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Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a significant form of indoor air pollution (IAP) that is little known to those in the developed world.
Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass, in the form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop residue, as their domestic cooking fuel. Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks. Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa, 200,000 in the Eastern Mediterranean region, 99,000 in Europe and 81,000 in the Americas. The remaining 19,000 deaths occur in high income countries.[1]
Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is declining, this dwindling resource will not keep up with population growth which could ultimately put environments at even greater risk.
Over the past several decades, there have been numerous studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household solid fuel combustion for space heating, lighting, and cooking in developing countries. It is now well established that, throughout much of the developing world, indoor burning of solid fuels (biomass, coal, etc.) by inefficient, often insufficiently vented, combustion devices results in elevated exposures to household air pollutants. This is due to the poor combustion efficiency of the combustion devices and the elevated nature of the emissions. In addition, they are often released directly into living areas.[2] Smoke from traditional household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products, including both fine and coarse particulate matter (e.g., PM2.5, PM10), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and a variety of organic air pollutants (e.g., formaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, acetaldehyde, acrolein, phenols, pyrene, benzopyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzopyrenes, dibenzocarbazoles, and cresols).[2] In a typical solid fuel stove, about 6–20% of the solid fuel is converted into toxic emissions (by mass). The exact quantity and relative composition is determined by factors such as the fuel type and moisture content, stove type and operation influencing the amount.[2]
While many pollutants can evolve, most measurements have been focused on breathing-zone exposure levels of particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the main products of incomplete combustion and are considered to pose the greatest health risks. Indoor PM2.5 exposure levels have been consistently reported to be in the range of hundreds to thousands of micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3). Similarly, CO exposure levels have been measured to be as high as hundreds to greater than 1000 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). A recent study of 163 households in two rural Chinese counties reported geometric mean indoor PM2.5 concentrations of 276 μg/m3 (combinations of different plant materials, including wood, tobacco stems, and corncobs), 327 μg/m3 (wood), 144 μg/m3 (smoky coal), and 96 μg/m3 (smokeless coal) for homes using a variety of different fuel types and stove configurations (e.g., vented, unvented, portable, fire pit, mixed ventilation stove).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Implications
1.1 Health implications
1.2 Women and gender
2 Interventions
2.1 Early interventions
2.2 Improved success
2.3 Successful interventions
3 Environmental impacts
3.1 Sustainable options
4 Challenges
4.1 Supply
4.2 Demand
4.3 Government intervention
5 Developments
6 Education interventions and behaviour change techniques
7 Primary intervention for children
8 Kenya and modern energy
9 Further action
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Implications[edit]
Health implications[edit]
Rural Kenya has been the site of various applied research projects to determine the intensity of emissions that commonly occur from use of biomass fuels, particularly wood, dung, and crop residue. Smoke is the result of the incomplete combustion of solid fuel which women and children are exposed to up to seven hours each day in closed environments.[3] These emissions vary from day to day, season to season and with changes in the amount of airflow within the residence. Exposure in poor homes far exceeds accepted safety levels by as much as one hundred times over.[3] Because many Kenyan women utilize a three-stone fire, the worst offender, one kilogram of burning wood produces tiny particles of soot which can clog and irritate the bronchial pathways. The smoke also contains various poisonous gases such as aldehydes, benzene, and carbon monoxide. Exposure to IAP from combustion of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal agent of several diseases.[1] Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are the leading causes of disease and death from exposure to smoke. Cataracts and blindness, lung cancer, tuberculosis, premature births and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused by IAP.
Women and gender[edit]
Women and girls are largely responsible for collecting fuel-wood for cooking in most households, particularly in rural communities and in refugee camps. This increases their vulnerability to incidences of violence, including beating and bodily injury, assault, and rape. This time could be spent in more productive ways such as attending school or income production – improved cookstove interventions in refugee camps have shown significant decreases in fuelwood collection times reported by women. Moreover, removing the need for women to collect fuelwood also significantly reduces reported rapes during firewood collection.[4] The use of biomass coupled with inefficient cooking apparatus leads to a web of social and environmental concerns which directly links to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Women and girls also make up the majority of deaths from household air pollution (HAP), which has been shown to affect nearly three billion people worldwide.[5] Replacing traditional kerosene/firewood stoves with cleaner ethanol stoves in Nigeria has been shown to mitigate adverse pregnancy outcomes from HAP.[6]
Interventions[edit]
Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.
Early interventions[edit]
Unfortunately, finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of IAP – improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability – is complex and in need of continual improvement.[7] Efforts to improve cook stoves in the past, beginning in the 1950s, were primarily aimed at minimizing deforestation with no concern for IAP, though the effectiveness of these efforts to save firewood is debatable. Various attempts had various outcomes. For example, some improved stove designs in Kenya significantly reduced particulate emissions but produced higher CO2 and SO2 emissions. Flues to remove smoke were difficult to design and were fragile.
Improved success[edit]
Current improved interventions however, include smoke hoods which operate in much the same manner as flues, to extract smoke, but are found to reduce levels of IAP more effectively than homes that relied solely on windows for ventilation.[8] Some features of newly improved stoves include a chimney, enclosing the fire to retain heat, designing a pot holder to maximize heat transfer, dampers to control air flow, a ceramic insert to reduce heat loss, and multi-pot systems to allow for cooking multiple dishes.
Stoves are now known to be one of the least-cost means to achieve the combined objective of reducing the health burden of IAP and in some areas reducing environmental stress from biomass harvesting.[9] Some success in installation of interventions, including improved cook stoves, has been achieved primarily due to an interdisciplinary approach which includes multiple stakeholders. These projects have discovered that key socio-economic issues must be addressed to ensure the success of intervention programs. A multitude of complex issues indicate improved stoves are not merely a tool to save fuel.
Successful interventions[edit]
The following information represents one successful intervention known as the Kenya Smoke and Health Project (1998–2001)[10] which involved fifty rural households in two separate regions, Kajiado and West Kenya. These areas were chosen due to different climate, geographic, and cultural implications. Community participation was the primary focus for this project and as a result, those involved indicated the results far exceeded their expectations. Local women's groups and, in the case of the project in West Kenya, men were actively involved. By involving the end-users the project resulted in more widespread acceptance and created the further benefit of providing local income.
Three key interventions were discussed and disseminated; ventilation by enlarging windows or opening eaves spaces, adding smoke hoods over the cooking area, or the option of installing an improved cook stove such as the Upesi stove. Smoke hoods are free-standing units that act like flues or chimneys in their effort to draw smoke out of the dwelling. They can be used over traditional open fires and this study showed they contribute to considerably lower levels of IAP. The smoke hood models were made with hard manila paper and then transferred to heavy-gauge galvanized sheet metal and manufactured locally. This resulted in further employment opportunities for the artisans who were trained by the project. The Upesi stove, made of clay and kiln-fired, was developed by Practical Action and East African partners to utilize wood and agricultural wastes. Because this stove was designed and adapted for local needs it produced several winning features. Not only does it cut the use of fuel-wood by approximately half, and reduce exposure to household smoke, it also empowers local women by creating employment as they are the ones who make and market the stoves. These women's groups gain access to technical training in production and marketing and enjoy higher wage earnings and improved social status as a result of the introduction of this improved stove.
Various benefits were realized including improved health; the most important aspect to each of the villagers involved. The people reported less internal heat allowing for better sleep, fewer headaches and less fatigue, less eye irritation and coughs and dizziness. Safety increased due to the smoke hoods preventing goats and children from falling into the fire and less soot contamination was observed, along with snakes and rodents not entering the home. Windows allowed for the ability to view cattle from indoors, and also reduced kerosene needs due to improved interior lighting. Overall, the indoor environment improved greatly from various simple things that are taken for granted in modern western homes. Greater indoor light also allows for more income generation for women as they can do beadwork by the window when weather doesn't allow for this work outdoors. Children also benefit from increased lighting for homework.
Interpersonal relationships developed among the women due to the project, and men better supported their wives initiative when the end result benefited them as well. While initial efforts to improve stoves were limited in success, current efforts are more successful due to the recognition that sustainable domestic energy resources are "central to reducing poverty and hunger, improving health…and improving the lives of women and children"[10] The optimal short-term goal in minimizing rural poverty is to provide inexpensive and acceptable solutions to the local people. Not only can stoves contribute to this intervention, but the use of cleaner fuels will also provide further benefits.
Similar improved-stove projects have proven successful in other regions of the world. Improved stoves installed as part of the Randomized Exposure Study of Pollution Indoors and Respiratory Effects (RESPIRE) study in Guatemala were found to be acceptable to the population and produce significant health benefits for both mothers and children.[11] Mothers in the intervention group had lower blood pressure and reductions in eye discomfort and back pain.[12][13] Intervention households were also found to have lower levels of small particles and carbon monoxide.[14] Children in these households also had lower rates of asthma.[15] This initial pilot program has evolved into CRECER (Chronic Respiratory Effects of Early Childhood Exposure to Respirable Particulate Matter), which will attempt to follow children in intervention households for a longer period of time to determine whether the improved stoves also contribute to greater health over the lifespan.[16]
The National Program on Improved Chulhas in India has also had some success in encouraging the use of improved stoves among at-risk populations. Begun in the mid-1980s, this program provides subsidies to encourage families to purchase the longer-lasting chulhas and have a chimney installed. A 2005 study showed that stoves with chimneys are associated with a lower incidence of cataracts in women.[17] Much of the available information from India is more of a characterization of the issue and there is less data available from intervention trials.
China has been particularly successful at encouraging the use of improved stoves, with hundreds of millions of stoves installed since the beginning of the project in the early 1980s. The government very intentionally targeted poorer, rural households, and by the late 1990s nearly 75% of such households contained "improved kitchens."[18] A 2007 review of 3500 households showed an improvement in indoor air quality in intervention households characterized by lower concentrations of small particles and carbon monoxide in household air.[19] The program in China involved intervention on a large scale, but the cost of stoves was heavily subsidized so it is not known if its success could be replicated.
Environmental impacts[edit]
Mortality and burden of disease are not the only detrimental effects from utilizing inefficient energy technology such as the combustion of biomass. Kenya's pre-dominant energy source is biomass, providing more than 90 per cent of rural household energy needs, about one-third in the form of charcoal and the rest from firewood.[20] Biomass energy sourced primarily from savannah woodlands includes firewood for inhabitants and charcoal for urban use. A small percentage is sourced by neighboring communities from closed and protected forests which are generally found in high population density areas.[20] While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to agricultural expansion and land conversion.[9] Approximately 38% of households 'in high agro-ecological zones' utilize agricultural waste due to frequent shortages of conventional fuel-wood.[20] Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on soil quality and agricultural and livestock productivity. These materials are ultimately not available as soil conditioners, organic fertilizer, and livestock fodder, not to mention the "cumulative effects on national food security".[20]
Most farmers are aware however, that when agricultural waste and dung are not used for energy, they are important elements to maintaining soil fertility. One of the most efficient ways to utilize crop waste and dung for domestic energy is to produce briquettes. The process of compacting the material into a donut shape creates more efficient combustion which contributes to reduced emission levels. A simple device allows for this process and it can be done locally.
Sustainable options[edit]
Large-scale combustion of biomass is only feasible if carried out in a sustainable manner. Concern is paramount for regeneration of renewable and sustainable fuel-wood sources if it is to continue to be available long-term. Attempts at sustainable solutions in Kenya could include developing energy crops (trees and shrubs) which would also provide additional income for farmers. This solution would benefit cropland or rangeland prone to erosion and flooding as the root systems and leaf litter would enhance soil stability.[20] Careful selection of regenerating varieties would be most sustainable because soil stability is not disrupted due to tilling and planting. Some people view this solution as a way to further exploit forests, but with proper management of forest resources this could be a viable solution.
Fuels and cook stove technology can be assessed on two factors: energy efficiency and emissions in the household. High-performing efficient stoves can improve environmental outcomes to an extent even with unclean fuels (such as firewood and biomass). According to a study comparing environmental, social, and economic life cycle impacts of cooking fuels, with more efficient stoves “more of the heating value of the fuel is converted into useful cooking energy and therefore less fuel must be produced, transported, and burned to deliver the same amount of cooking.”[21]
Other sustainable options include liquid and gas fuels that are combusted in high-performing efficient stoves. For instance, ethanol produced from cellulosic/non-food feedstocks (wood, agricultural residue) has lower environmental life cycle impacts compared to ethanol produced from sugar and starch materials. LPG, though made from non-renewable fossil fuels, still has lower negative environmental impacts than traditional fuels – thus even though it is not a sustainable alternative, it creates far less emissions impacts than traditional fuels.[21]
Challenges[edit]
Supply[edit]
There exist trade-offs between efficiency and sustainability on the supply side of the cook stoves and fuels market. While developing cook stoves that use efficient and clean fuel sources is environmentally ideal, often this is not a viable solution due to barriers to scaling up production and consumption of these fuels. For instance, electric stoves are cited as emission-free ‘clean’ alternatives to biomass at the household level. [22] However, negative externalities still exist - ambient air pollution in areas near power plants still poses a health risk, while the generation of electricity in India and China (countries largely dependent on coal for electricity generation) still poses significant environmental risks. Moreover, only households that are connected to the electric grid in a country or region will have access to electricity for household energy consumption, thereby excluding a large swathe of rural communities.
Demand[edit]
On the demand side, challenges exist in terms of creating an enabling environment for cook stove acquisition. Incorporating culturally sensitive behavior change techniques (BCTs) into demand interventions is necessary to foster large-scale behavior change, as discussed below. The other prohibitive aspect of cook stove interventions that do not involve paternalistic good provision is the high up-front costs of improved stoves. Consumers at the bottom of the income pyramid are often the target end-users of these improved technologies, but due to a lack of collateral or isolation, they do not have access to traditional forms of consumer finance and credit. Innovations in business models and the increased proliferation of microfinance institutions (MFIs) are addressing these issues – however, MFIs face challenges of scaling up.
Government intervention[edit]
Given the negative externalities associated with unclean cook stove technology – the negative impact on women and girls; lack of environmental sustainability; and increased risk of diseases associated with HAP – there is a strong case for government intervention. For instance, one form of intervention could be direct subsidies linked to health and climate impacts – for example, targeted subsidies carbon markets. The provision of public goods such as consumer education, access to consumer finance would also be beneficial interventions. Subsidies towards investment in R&D for cleaner technologies and fuels, as well as for the implementation of a baseline standards and testing framework for cleanliness and efficiency (also provision of a public good), is necessary to create an effective and sustainable supply chain.
Positive consumption externalities from improved cook stove use, justifying external intervention
Developments[edit]
There have been significant developments in energy efficient cooking solutions, such as the Wonderbag, which can also significantly reduce fuel requirements for residential cooking. Improvements in technology have allowed for the use of more sustainable cooking solutions with traditional fuels, such as the BioLite Home Stove, a biomass stove which reduces fuel consumption by 50% and emissions by up to 95%.[23] Innovations in business models have also allowed for cook stove suppliers to “dramatically improve both manufacturer and end-user economics, while achieving high levels of health and environmental benefits.”[22] For instance, Inyeneri is a for-profit energy company in Rwanda that operates as more as a ‘cooking fuel utility company’. Its model successfully addresses a number of problems with stove adoption including prohibitively high upfront stove costs, consumer tendency to combine new and old cooking solutions, and lack of commercial viability of these enterprises. Additionally, innovations in mobile technology have allowed companies like PayGo Energy in Kenya and KopaGas in Tanzania to overcome the cost barrier that low-income consumers face, including the high up-front cost of stoves and the inaccessibility of purchasing fuels in small quantities (a form of the poverty penalty). MFIs have also begun to turn their attention to clean energy access, as seen with the success of the USAID-funded Renewable Energy Microfinance and Microenterprise Program (REMMP).[24]
Education interventions and behaviour change techniques[edit]
Educational intervention can contribute to reducing exposure to smoke by implementing behaviour change techniques that people to the dangers and encourage a willingness to alter living and cultural practices which could have a significant impact on mitigating exposure to IAP. Behavior change is one aspect of influencing demand that can be achieved through targeted social marketing campaigns, which are usually of two types: either mass market campaigns, or focused approaches at the local and household level that employ demonstrations and follow up visits. Studies show that mass marketing campaigns do in fact increase awareness of risks of household air pollution, but are often unsuccessful in raising purchases of improved stoves.
Design of these interventions must be undertaken with the knowledge that “consumer needs and preferences are complex and are influenced by many contextual and social factors that require a deep understanding of culture, going beyond technology and economics.” [25] These factors include intra-gender issues, felt needs, cultural significance of food, and religious and cultural beliefs. Evidence of one successful government intervention was revealed by China who, between 1980 and 1995, disseminated 172 million improved cookstoves. This effort proved more successful due to the inclusion of local users, particularly women, who were involved in the design and fieldwork process.
Primary intervention for children[edit]
Children up to five years of age spend 90% of their time at home.[26] Globally, 50% of pneumonia deaths among children under five years of age are due to particulate matter inhaled from indoor air pollution.[27] Many homes around the world used solid fuels for cooking. These fuels release large amounts of carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter.[28] These chemical irritants when inhaled may cause different pulmonary conditions ranging from pulmonary epithelial cancer or acute pulmonary tract infection.[29]
Kenya and modern energy[edit]
See also: Renewable energy in Africa
As of 2004, Kenya has shown a willingness to undertake biomass energy issues with the understanding that consumption is associated with indoor air pollution and environmental degradation.[20] Suggestions from the United Nations Development Programme include establishing an institution that will deal exclusively with biomass energy by developing policy guidelines on sustainable firewood, charcoal, and modern biomass such as cleaner fuels and wind, solar, and small scale hydropower. Short-term solutions rest in more efficient domestic energy use by way of improved cook stoves which provide more affordable options in the near future than a complete shift to nonsolid fuels. Long-term solutions rest on transition to modern cleaner fuels and alternative energy sources within a broad international and national policy and economic agenda. Government support for long-term solutions is feasible as witnessed by current efforts in Zambia to develop policy to promote biofuels.
Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita (but not the number of watts added). More than 30,000 small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. For an investment of as little as $100 for the panel and wiring, the PV system can be used to charge a car battery, which can then provide power to run a fluorescent lamp or a small television for a few hours a day. More Kenyans adopt solar power every year than make connections to the country's electric grid.[30]
Further action[edit]
National and international effort must be stepped up to advance short and long term solutions for the millions of women and children who suffer from poverty and disease as a result of indoor air pollution. Scientists predict the African continent will be the first to experience the effects of global warming where widespread poverty will put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable Africa with commitment from within and outside the region. Pneumonia is the number one killer of children in the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly significant risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be World Pneumonia Day in order to raise awareness about the disease and its causes.
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Africa portal
Envirofit
Guatemala Stove Project
Rocket stove
International Association of Certified Indoor Air Consultants (IAC2)
Rural electrification
Sick building syndrome
Renewable energy in China
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Burden of disease from Indoor Air Pollution for 2012" (PDF). WHO. 2014-03-24. Retrieved 2014-03-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d [1], Long, C., Valberg, P., 2014. Evolution of Cleaner Solid Fuel Combustion, Cornerstone, http://cornerstonemag.net/evolution-of-cleaner-solid-fuel-combustion/
^ Jump up to: a b Smoke's increasing cloud across the globe, Practical Action, accessed 5 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Evaluation of the Dadaab Firewood Project, Kenya". UNHCR. UNHCR. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
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^ Jump up to: a b Kenya Smoke and Health Project, ITDG. 1998-2001. Accessed 5 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. Randomized exposure study of pollution indoors and respiratory effects (RESPIRE). http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/guat/page.asp?id=15. Accessed 18 March 2008.
Jump up ^ McCracken JP, Smith KR, Diaz A, Mittleman MA, Schwartz J (July 2007). "Chimney stove intervention to reduce long-term wood smoke exposure lowers blood pressure among Guatemalan women". Environ. Health Perspect. 115 (7): 996–1001. doi:10.1289/ehp.9888. PMC 1913602  . PMID 17637912.
Jump up ^ Diaz E, Smith-Sivertsen T, Pope D, Lie RT, Diaz A, McCracken J, et al. (January 2007). "Eye discomfort, headache and back pain among Mayan Guatemalan women taking part in a randomised stove intervention trial". J Epidemiol Community Health. 61 (1): 74–9. doi:10.1136/jech.2006.043133. PMC 2465594  . PMID 17183019.
Jump up ^ Bruce N, McCracken J, Albalak R, Schei MA, Smith KR, Lopez V, et al. (2004). "Impact of improved stoves, house construction and child location on levels of indoor air pollution exposure in young Guatemalan children". J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 14 (Suppl 1): S26–33. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500355. PMID 15118742.
Jump up ^ Schei MA, Hessen JO, Smith KR, Bruce N, McCracken J, Lopez V (2004). "Childhood asthma and indoor woodsmoke from cooking in Guatemala". J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 14 (Suppl 1): S110–7. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500365. PMID 15118752.
Jump up ^ Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. Chronic respiratory effects of childhood exposure to respirable particulate matter (CRECER). http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/guat/page.asp?id=1. Accessed 18 March 2008.
Jump up ^ Pokhrel AK, Smith KR, Khalakdina A, Deuja A, Bates MN (2005). "Case-control study of indoor cooking smoke exposure and cataract in Nepal and India". Int J Epidemiol. 34 (3): 709–10. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi077. PMID 15833790.
Jump up ^ Smith, KR. Household monitoring project in China. Environmental Health Sciences Department website. http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/hem/page.asp?id=29. Accessed 18 March 2008.
Jump up ^ Edwards RD, Liu Y, He G, Yin Z, Sinton J, Peabody J, et al. (2007). "Household CO and PM measured as part of a review of China's National Improved Stove Program". Indoor Air. 17 (3): 189–203. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00465.x. PMID 17542832.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya Archived 13 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine., UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Comparative Analysis of Fuels for Cooking". Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves.
^ Jump up to: a b "Clean and Improved Cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa". Open Knowledge Repository, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Jump up ^ "BioLite Home Stove".
Jump up ^ "Renewable Energy Microfinance and Microenterprise Program (REMMP)".
Jump up ^ Bishop, S; Pursnani, P; Sumpter, C. "Social marketing in India: lessons learned from efforts to foster demand for cleaner cookstoves" (PDF). London: Shell Foundation; 2014.
Jump up ^ Mukesh Dherani; et al. (May 2008). "Indoor air pollution from unprocessed solid fuel use and pneumonia risk in children aged under five years: a systematic review and meta-analysis no.5 Genebra". Bull World Health Organ. 86 (1): 321–416.
Jump up ^ Zheng, Li (October 2011). "Evaluation of exposure reduction to indoor air pollution in stove intervention projects in Peru by urinary biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites". Environment International. 37 (7). doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.03.024.
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Jump up ^ The Rise of Renewable Energy
External links[edit]
World Health Organization Page on Indoor Air Pollution
Washington Post Article on Indoor Air Pollution in Asia
IPS story on the Cost of IAP to Women's Health
Practical Action
2 November is World Pneumonia Day
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Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Twenty-fifth Amendment (Amendment XXV) to the United States Constitution deals with succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President as well as responding to Presidential disabilities. It supersedes the ambiguous wording of Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution, which does not expressly state whether the Vice President becomes the President or Acting President if the President dies, resigns, is removed from office, or is otherwise unable to discharge the powers of the presidency.[1] The Twenty-fifth Amendment was adopted on February 10, 1967.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Background
2.1 Keating–Kefauver proposal
2.2 Kennedy assassination
2.3 Bayh–Celler proposal
3 Proposal and ratification
4 Effect
4.1 Section 1: Presidential succession
4.2 Section 2: Vice Presidential vacancy
4.3 Section 3: Presidential declaration
4.4 Section 4: Vice Presidential–Cabinet declaration
4.4.1 Proposed replacing of Cabinet
5 Invocations
5.1 Succession to presidency
5.2 Filling vice presidential vacancies
5.2.1 1973: Appointment of Gerald Ford as Vice President
5.2.2 1974: Appointment of Nelson Rockefeller as Vice President
5.3 Acting Presidents
5.3.1 1985: George H.W. Bush
5.3.2 2002: Dick Cheney
5.3.3 2007: Dick Cheney
6 Considered Section 4 invocations
6.1 1981: Reagan assassination attempt
6.2 1987: Reagan's alleged incapacity
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
Text[edit]
Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.
Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.
Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.
Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.[3]
Background[edit]
The Twenty-fifth Amendment in the National Archives
Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution states:
In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
That clause was unclear regarding Presidential succession and inability; it did not state who had the power to declare a President incapacitated.[1] Also, it did not provide a mechanism for filling a Vice Presidential vacancy before the next Presidential election. The vagueness of this clause caused difficulties many times before the Twenty-fifth Amendment's adoption:
In 1841, President William Henry Harrison became the first U.S. President to die in office. Representative John Williams had previously suggested that the Vice President should become Acting President upon the death of the President.[4] John Tyler asserted that he had succeeded to the presidency, as opposed to only obtaining its powers and duties. He also declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as "Acting President". Although he felt his vice presidential oath negated the need for the presidential oath, Tyler was persuaded that being formally sworn-in would clear up any doubts about his right to the office. Having done so, he then moved into the White House and assumed full presidential powers. Tyler's claim was not formally challenged, and both houses of Congress adopted a resolution confirming that Tyler was the tenth President of the United States, without any qualifiers. The precedent of full succession was thus established.[5] This became known as the "Tyler Precedent".
There had been occasions when a President was incapacitated. For example, following Woodrow Wilson's stroke no one officially assumed the Presidential powers and duties, in part because the First Lady, Edith Wilson, together with the White House Physician, Cary T. Grayson, covered up President Wilson's condition.[1][6]
The office of Vice President had been vacant sixteen times due to the death or resignation of the Vice President or his succession to the presidency.[1] For example, there was no Vice President for nearly four years after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. During the impeachment of Andrew Johnson there was no Vice President to succeed him. At that time, the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 provided that the President pro tempore of the Senate would succeed Johnson if he was removed from office.[7] Had the impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson resulted in Johnson being removed from office, Senator Benjamin Wade, then the President pro tempore of the Senate, would have become acting president pending a special presidential election.[8]
After having been temporarily incapacitated by several severe health problems, President Dwight D. Eisenhower attempted to clarify procedures through a signed agreement with Vice President Richard Nixon, drafted by Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr.. However, this agreement did not have legal authority.[9] Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in September 1955 and intestinal problems requiring emergency surgery in July 1956. Each time until Eisenhower was able to resume his duties, Nixon presided over Cabinet meetings and, along with Eisenhower aides, kept the executive branch functioning and assured the public that the situation was under control. However, Nixon never made any effort to formally assume the status of Acting President or President.
All of these incidents made it evident that clearer guidelines were needed.[1] There were two proposals for providing those guidelines.
Keating–Kefauver proposal[edit]
In 1963, Senator Kenneth Keating of New York proposed a Constitutional amendment which would have enabled Congress to enact legislation providing for how to determine when a President is "unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office", rather than, as the Twenty-fifth Amendment does, having the Constitution so provide.[10] This proposal was based upon a recommendation of the American Bar Association in 1960.[11]
The text of the proposal read:[12]
In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the said office shall devolve on the Vice President. In case of the inability of the President to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the said powers and duties shall devolve on the Vice President, until the inability be removed. The Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then be President, or, in case of inability, act as President, and such officer shall be or act as President accordingly, until a President shall be elected or, in case of inability, until the inability shall be earlier removed. The commencement and termination of any inability shall be determined by such method as Congress shall by law provide.
Senators raised concerns that the Congress could either abuse such authority[13] or neglect to enact any such legislation after the adoption of this proposal.[14] Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver, the Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments, a long-time advocate for addressing the disability question, spearheaded the effort until he died of a heart attack on August 10, 1963.[15][16] Senator Keating was defeated in the 1964 election, but Senator Roman Hruska of Nebraska took up Keating's cause as a new member of the Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments.[9]
Kennedy assassination[edit]
The assassination of John F. Kennedy showed the need for a clear way for determining presidential disability in the context of the Cold War.[17] The new President, Lyndon B. Johnson, had once suffered a heart attack[18] and – with the office of Vice President to remain vacant until the next term began on January 20, 1965 – the next two people in the line of succession were the 71-year-old Speaker of the House John McCormack[17][19] and the 86-year-old Senate President pro tempore Carl Hayden.[17][19] Senator Birch Bayh succeeded Kefauver as Chairman of the Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments and set about advocating for a detailed amendment dealing with presidential disability.[17]
Bayh–Celler proposal[edit]
On January 6, 1965, Senator Birch Bayh proposed S. J. Res. 1 in the Senate and Representative Emanuel Celler (Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee) proposed H. J. Res. 1 in the House of Representatives. Their proposal specified the process by which a President could be declared "unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office", thereby making the Vice President an Acting President, and how the President could regain the powers of his office. Also, their proposal provided a way to fill a vacancy in the office of Vice President before the next presidential election. This was as opposed to the Keating–Kefauver proposal, which neither provided for filling a vacancy in the office of Vice President prior to the next presidential election nor provided a process for determining presidential disability. In 1964, the American Bar Association endorsed the type of proposal which Bayh and Celler advocated.[20] On January 28, 1965, President Johnson endorsed S. J. Res. 1 in a statement to Congress.[9] Their proposal received bipartisan support.[21]
On February 19, the Senate passed the amendment, but the House passed a different version of the amendment on April 13. On April 22, it was returned to the Senate with revisions.[9] There were four areas of disagreement between the House and Senate versions:
the Senate official who was to receive any written declaration under the amendment
the period of time during which the Vice President and Cabinet must decide whether they disagree with the President's declaration that he is fit to resume his duties
the time before Congress meets to resolve the issue between the President, Vice President, and the Cabinet
the time limit for Congress to reach a decision[9]
On July 6, after a conference committee ironed out differences between the versions,[22] the final version of the amendment was passed by both Houses of the Congress and presented to the states for ratification.[23]
Proposal and ratification[edit]
The Congress proposed the Twenty-fifth Amendment on July 6, 1965, and the amendment was ratified by the following states:[2]
Nebraska (July 12, 1965)
Wisconsin (July 13, 1965)
Oklahoma (July 16, 1965)
Massachusetts (August 9, 1965)
Pennsylvania (August 18, 1965)
Kentucky (September 15, 1965)
Arizona (September 22, 1965)
Michigan (October 5, 1965)
Indiana (October 20, 1965)
California (October 21, 1965)
Arkansas (November 4, 1965)
New Jersey (November 29, 1965)
Delaware (December 7, 1965)
Utah (January 17, 1966)
West Virginia (January 20, 1966)
Maine (January 24, 1966)
Rhode Island (January 28, 1966)
Colorado (February 3, 1966)
New Mexico (February 3, 1966)
Kansas (February 8, 1966)
Vermont (February 10, 1966)
Alaska (February 18, 1966)
Idaho (March 2, 1966)
Hawaii (March 3, 1966)
Virginia (March 8, 1966)
Mississippi (March 10, 1966)
New York (March 14, 1966)
Maryland (March 23, 1966)
Missouri (March 30, 1966)
New Hampshire (June 13, 1966)
Louisiana (July 5, 1966)
Tennessee (January 12, 1967)
Wyoming (January 25, 1967)
Washington (January 26, 1967)
Iowa (January 26, 1967)
Oregon (February 2, 1967)
Minnesota (February 10, 1967)
Nevada (February 10, 1967)
Ratification was completed on February 10, 1967. The following states subsequently ratified the amendment:
Connecticut (February 14, 1967)
Montana (February 15, 1967)
South Dakota (March 6, 1967)
Ohio (March 7, 1967)
Alabama (March 14, 1967)
North Carolina (March 22, 1967)
Illinois (March 22, 1967)
Texas (April 25, 1967)
Florida (May 25, 1967)
The following states have not ratified the amendment:
Georgia
North Dakota[24]
South Carolina
Six days after its submission, Nebraska and Wisconsin were the first states to ratify the amendment. On February 10, 1967, Minnesota and Nevada were the 37th and 38th states to ratify, respectively. On February 23, 1967, in a ceremony in the East Room of the White House, General Services Administrator Lawson Knott certified the amendment's adoption.
Effect[edit]
Section 1: Presidential succession[edit]
John Tyler, first to succeed to the office of President. His succession was initially contested and it was unknown whether he should be considered to be president or acting president.
Section 1 codified the "Tyler Precedent" regarding when a President is removed from office, dies, or resigns. In any of these situations, the Vice President immediately becomes President.
Section 2: Vice Presidential vacancy[edit]
Further information: Vice President of the United States § Vacancies
Prior to the Twenty-fifth Amendment's adoption, a Vice Presidential vacancy remained until the start of the next presidential term. The Vice Presidency has been vacant several times due to death, resignation, or succession to the Presidency. Often these vacancies lasted for several years.
Under Section 2, whenever there is a vacancy in the office of Vice President, the President nominates a successor who becomes Vice President if confirmed by a majority vote of both Houses of the Congress.
Section 3: Presidential declaration[edit]
Section 3 provides that when the President transmits a written declaration to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, stating that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the Presidency, and until the President sends another written declaration to the aforementioned officers declaring himself able to resume discharging those powers and duties, the Vice President discharges those powers and duties as Acting President.
Section 4: Vice Presidential–Cabinet declaration[edit]
Section 4 is the only part of the amendment that has never been invoked.[25] It allows the Vice President, together with a "majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide", to declare the President "unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office" by submitting a written declaration to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. As with Section 3, the Vice President would become Acting President.
Section 4 is meant to be invoked should the President's incapacitation prevent him from discharging his duties, but he is unable or unwilling to provide the written declaration called for by Section 3. The President may resume exercising the Presidential duties by sending a written declaration to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House.
Should the Vice President and a majority of the Cabinet believe the President is still "unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office", they may within four days of the President's declaration submit another declaration that the President is incapacitated. If not already in session, the Congress must then assemble within 48 hours. The Congress has 21 days to decide the issue. If within the 21 days two-thirds of each house of Congress vote that the President is incapacitated, the Vice President would "continue" to be Acting President. Should the Congress resolve the issue in favor of the President, or make no decision within the 21 days allotted, then the President would "resume" discharging the powers and duties of his office. The use of the words "continue" and "resume" imply that the Vice President remains Acting President while Congress deliberates.
However, the President may again submit a written declaration of recovery to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House. That declaration could be responded to by the Vice President and a majority of the Cabinet in the same way as stated earlier. The specified 21-day Congressional procedure would start again.
Proposed replacing of Cabinet[edit]
On April 14, 2017, Representative Earl Blumenauer introduced the Oversight Commission on Presidential Capacity Act.[26] This bill would replace the Cabinet as the body that, together with the Vice President, determines whether Section 4 should be invoked. Under the bill, an eleven-member commission would conduct an examination of the President when directed to do so by a concurrent resolution of the Congress.[27]
According to Blumenauer:
It is hard to imagine a better group to work with the vice president to examine whether the president is able to discharge the duties of the office. When there are questions about the president’s ability to fulfill his or her constitutional responsibilities, it is in the country’s best interest to have a mechanism in place that works effectively.[27]
Invocations[edit]
(L–R): President Richard Nixon, First Lady Pat Nixon, Betty Ford and Gerald Ford, after President Nixon nominated Gerald Ford to be Vice President
(The White House, October 13, 1973)
Further information: Acting President of the United States § Invocations of Twenty-fifth Amendment
The Twenty-fifth Amendment has been invoked six times since its ratification. The first three times were applications of Sections 1 and 2 in the context of scandals surrounding the Nixon Administration. The latter three were applications of Section 3 regarding Presidents undergoing a medical procedure requiring general anesthesia.
Succession to presidency[edit]
Nixon's resignation letter, August 9, 1974.
President Richard Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, resulting in Vice President Gerald Ford succeeding to the office of President.[28] Gerald Ford is the only person ever to be Vice President, and later President, without being elected to either office.[29]
Filling vice presidential vacancies[edit]
1973: Appointment of Gerald Ford as Vice President[edit]
On October 12, 1973, following Vice President Spiro Agnew's resignation two days earlier, President Richard Nixon nominated Representative Gerald Ford of Michigan to succeed Agnew as Vice President.
The United States Senate voted 92–3 to confirm Ford on November 27 and, on December 6, the House of Representatives did the same by a vote of 387–35. Ford was sworn in later that day before a joint session of the United States Congress.[30]
1974: Appointment of Nelson Rockefeller as Vice President[edit]
When Gerald Ford became President, the office of Vice President became vacant. On August 20, 1974, after considering Melvin Laird and George H. W. Bush, President Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to be the new vice president.
On December 10, 1974, Rockefeller was confirmed 90–7 by the Senate. On December 19, 1974, Rockefeller was confirmed 287–128 by the House and sworn into office later that day in the Senate chamber.[30]
Acting Presidents[edit]
1985: George H.W. Bush[edit]
On July 12, 1985, President Ronald Reagan underwent a colonoscopy, during which a villous adenoma (a pre-cancerous lesion) was discovered. When told by his physician (Dr. Edward Cattau) that he could undergo surgery immediately or in two to three weeks, Reagan elected to have it removed immediately.[31]
That afternoon, Reagan consulted with White House counsel Fred Fielding by telephone, debating whether to invoke the amendment and, if so, whether such a transfer would set an undesirable precedent. Fielding and White House Chief of Staff Donald Regan recommended that Reagan transfer power and two letters doing so were drafted: the first letter specifically invoked Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment; the second only mentioned that Reagan was mindful of this provision. At 10:32 a.m. on July 13, Reagan signed the second letter and ordered its delivery to the appropriate officers as required under the amendment.[32] Vice President George H. W. Bush was Acting President from 11:28 a.m. until 7:22 p.m., when Reagan transmitted a second letter to resume the powers and duties of the office.
Books such as The President Has Been Shot: Confusion, Disability and the 25th Amendment, by Herbert Abrams, and Reagan's autobiography, An American Life, argue President Reagan's intent to transfer power to Vice President Bush was clear. Fielding himself adds:
I personally know he did intend to invoke the amendment, and he conveyed that to all of his staff and it was conveyed to the VP as well as the President of the Senate. He was also very firm in his wish not to create a precedent binding his successor.
2002: Dick Cheney[edit]
On June 29, 2002, President George W. Bush underwent a colonoscopy and chose to invoke Section 3 of the amendment, temporarily transferring his powers to Vice President Dick Cheney. The medical procedure began at 7:09 a.m. EDT and ended at 7:29 a.m. EDT. Bush woke up twenty minutes later, but did not resume his presidential powers and duties until 9:24 a.m. EDT after the president's physician, Richard Tubb, conducted an overall examination. Tubb said he recommended the additional time to make sure the sedative had no aftereffects. Unlike Reagan's 1985 letter, Bush's 2002 letter specifically cited Section 3 as the authority for the transfer of power.[32]
2007: Dick Cheney[edit]
On July 21, 2007, President Bush again invoked Section 3 in response to having to undergo a colonoscopy, temporarily transferring his powers to Vice President Cheney. President Bush invoked Section 3 at 7:16 a.m. EDT. He reclaimed his powers at 9:21 a.m. EDT. As happened in 2002, Bush specifically cited Section 3 when he transferred the Presidential powers to the Vice President and when he reclaimed those powers.[32]
Considered Section 4 invocations[edit]
There have been two instances in which invoking Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment was considered. Both involved the 40th President of the United States, Ronald Reagan.
1981: Reagan assassination attempt[edit]
Following the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan on March 30, 1981, Vice President George H. W. Bush did not assume the presidential powers and duties as Acting President. Reagan was unable to invoke Section 3, because he was in surgery. Bush did not invoke Section 4, because he was on a plane returning from Texas. Reagan was out of surgery by the time Bush arrived in Washington.[33] In 1995, Birch Bayh, the primary sponsor of the amendment in the Senate, wrote that Section 4 should have been invoked.[34]
1987: Reagan's alleged incapacity[edit]
Upon becoming the White House Chief of Staff in 1987, Howard Baker was advised by his predecessor's staff to be prepared for a possible invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment[35] due to Reagan's perceived laziness and ineptitude.[36][37]
According to the PBS program American Experience,
What Baker's transition team was told by Donald Regan's staff that weekend shocked them. Reagan was "inattentive, inept", and "lazy", and Baker should be prepared to invoke the 25th Amendment to relieve him of his duties.
Reagan biographer Edmund Morris stated in an interview aired on the program,
The incoming Baker people all decided to have a meeting with him on Monday, their first official meeting with the President, and to cluster around the table in the Cabinet room and watch him very, very closely to see how he behaved, to see if he was indeed losing his mental grip.
Morris went on to explain,
Reagan who was, of course, completely unaware that they were launching a death watch on him, came in stimulated by the press of all these new people and performed splendidly. At the end of the meeting, they figuratively threw up their hands realizing he was in perfect command of himself.[36][37]
See also[edit]
Acting President of the United States
Presidential Succession Act
United States presidential line of succession
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The Convention". amendment25.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Mount, Steve (January 2007). "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments". ussconstitution.net. Retrieved February 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ United States Government Printing Office. "Presidential Vacancy and Disability Twenty-Fifth Amendment" (PDF). gpo.gov.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Oliver. John Tyler: Champion of the Old South. American Political Biography Press, 1990, p. 206
Jump up ^ "John Tyler, Tenth Vice President (1841)". Senate.gov. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
Jump up ^ Schlimgen, Joan (January 23, 2012). "Woodrow Wilson – Strokes and Denial". Arizona Health Sciences Library. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Act of March 1, 1792, ch. 8, § 9, 1 Stat. 239
Jump up ^ Act of March 1, 1792, ch. 8, § 10, 1 Stat. 239
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "25th Constitutional Amendment". The Great Society Congress. Association of Centers for the Study of Congress. Retrieved April 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), p. 345
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), p. 27
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), p. 350
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), p. 30
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), pp. 34–35
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), p. 28
Jump up ^ "101.9 WKRP".
^ Jump up to: a b c d How JFK’s assassination led to a constitutional amendment, National Constitution Center, Accessed January 6, 2013
Jump up ^ What is the 25th Amendment and When Has It Been Invoked? History News Network, Accessed January 6, 2013
^ Jump up to: a b Presidential Succession During the Johnson Administration Archived 2014-01-03 at the Wayback Machine. LBJ Library, Accessed January 6, 2014
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), pp. 348–50
Jump up ^ "Presidential Disability: An Overview" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. July 12, 1999. p. 6. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amendment 25".
Jump up ^ One Heartbeat Away by Birch Bayh (1968), pp. 354–58
Jump up ^ "With Ratification of Amendment Two Gaps in Constitution Plugged". The Florence Times. 11 February 1967. p. 5. Retrieved 2016-10-26 – via Google News.
Jump up ^ "Amendment 25".
Jump up ^ H.R. 1987
^ Jump up to: a b Marcos, Cristina (April 17, 2017). "House Democrat introduces bill to amend presidential removal procedures". The Hill. Retrieved July 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Twenty-Fifth Amendment – U.S. Constitution". FindLaw.
Jump up ^ Memorial Services in the Congress of the United States and Tributes in Eulogy of Gerald R. Ford, Late a President of the United States. Government Printing Office. 2007. p. 35. ISBN 9780160797620.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum".
Jump up ^ Altman, Lawrence (July 18, 1985). "Report that Early Test was Urged Stirs Debate on Reagan Treatment". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c Historical Invocations of the 25th Amendment Archived July 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Baker, James (speaker). "Remembering the Assassination Attempt on Ronald Reagan". Larry King Live, March 30, 2001.
Jump up ^ Birch Bayh, "The White House Safety Net", The New York Times, April 8, 1995
Jump up ^ The White House Chief of Staff has no formal role in the Twenty-fifth Amendment being invoked.
^ Jump up to: a b "WGBH American Experience – Reagan".
^ Jump up to: a b Linkins, Jason (February 10, 2017). "Happy 50th Birthday To The 25th Amendment To The Constitution". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 18, 2017.
Sources[edit]
Constitution of the United States of America
Bayh, Birch (1968). One Heartbeat Away. ASIN 0672511606. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Gant, Scott (1999). "Presidential Inability and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment's Unexplored Removal Provisions". Michigan State Law Review: 791.
Kilman, Johnny & Costello, George Costello (Eds) (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation'. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
"Transcript of White House press briefing re G.W. Bush temporary transfer of power to VP Cheney". CNN. June 29, 2002. Retrieved June 4, 2006.
CNN Story of White House statement regarding G.W. Bush temporary transfer of power to VP Cheney July 21, 2007.
Presidential Inability and Subjective Meaning by Adam R. F. Gustafson, Yale Law & Policy Review, Vol. 27 (2009), p. 459.
Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment by John Feerick, Fordham Law Review, Vol. 79 (2011), p. 908.
The Twenty-Fifth Amendment: Its Complete History and Applications, Third Edition by John Feerick (Fordham University Press, 2013).
25th Constitutional Amendment The Great Society Congress, Association of Centers for the Study of Congress (URL accessed April 6, 2016).
Twenty-Fifth Amendment Archive Fordham Law Archive of Scholarship and History (URL accessed February 22, 2017).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
CRS Annotated Constitution: Twenty-fifth Amendment
Amendment25.com
The Great Society Congress
Twenty-Fifth Amendment Archive
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