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Propane
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Not to be confused with propene.
Propane
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
Propane[1]
Systematic IUPAC name
Tricarbane
Identifiers
CAS Number
74-98-6 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
Beilstein Reference
1730718
ChEBI
CHEBI:32879 Y
ChemSpider
6094 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.753
EC Number 200-827-9
E number E944 (glazing agents, ...)
Gmelin Reference
25044
KEGG
D05625 Y
PubChem CID
6334
RTECS number TX2275000
UNII
T75W9911L6 Y
UN number 1978
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C3H8/c1-3-2/h3H2,1-2H3 Y
Key: ATUOYWHBWRKTHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
SMILES[show]
CCC
Properties[2]
Chemical formula
C3H8
Molar mass 44.10 g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless gas
Odor Odorless
Density 2.0098 kg/m3 (at 0 °C, 101.3 kPa)
Melting point −187.7 °C; −305.8 °F; 85.5 K
Boiling point −42.25 to −42.04 °C; −44.05 to −43.67 °F; 230.90 to 231.11 K
Solubility in water
47
mg L−1 (at 0 °C)
log P 2.236
Vapor pressure 853.16 kPa (at 21.1 °C (70.0 °F))
Henry's law
constant (kH)
15 nmol Pa−1 kg−1
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
-40.5·10−6 cm3/mol
Thermochemistry
Specific
heat capacity (C)
73.60 J K−1 mol−1
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
−105.2–−104.2 kJ mol−1
Std enthalpy of
combustion (ΔcHo298)
−2.2197–−2.2187 MJ mol−1
Hazards
Safety data sheet See: data page
GHS pictograms
GHS signal word DANGER
GHS hazard statements
H220
GHS precautionary statements
P210
NFPA 704
4
2
0
Flash point −104 °C (−155 °F; 169 K)
Autoignition
temperature
470 °C (878 °F; 743 K)
Explosive limits 2.37–9.5%
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3)[3]
REL (Recommended)
TWA 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3)[3]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
2100 ppm[3]
Related compounds
Related alkanes
Ethane
Ethyl iodide
n-Propyl iodide
Isopropyl iodide
Butane
Butyl iodide
Related compounds
Diiodohydroxypropane
Supplementary data page
Structure and
properties
Refractive index (n),
Dielectric constant (εr), etc.
Thermodynamic
data
Phase behaviour
solid–liquid–gas
Spectral data
UV, IR, NMR, MS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Propane (/ˈproʊpeɪn/) is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel for barbecue grills. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Sources
3 Properties and reactions
3.1 Energy content
3.2 Density
4 Uses
4.1 Domestic and industrial fuel
4.2 Refrigeration
4.2.1 In motor vehicles
4.3 Motor fuel
4.4 Improvised explosive devices
4.5 Other uses
5 Hazards
6 Comparison with natural gas
7 Retail cost
7.1 United States
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Propane was discovered by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1857.[5] It was first identified as a volatile component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. Although the compound was known long before this, Snelling's work was the beginning of the propane industry in the United States. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as "wild" because of the high vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snelling's work with liquefied gas, saying "a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks".[6]
It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, and Arthur Kerr, created ways to liquefy the LP gases during the refining of natural gasoline. Together, they established American Gasol Co., the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25, 1913, his method of processing and producing LP gases was issued patent #1,056,845.[7] A separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2, 1912.[8]
The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons (840 m3) in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons (3,800 m3), and by 1935, the annual sales of LP gas had reached 56 million US gallons (210,000 m3). Major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons. By 1947, 62% of all U.S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking.[7]
In 1950, 1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, and by 1958, sales in the U.S. had reached 7 billion US gallons (26,000,000 m3) annually. In 2004, it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons (57,000,000 m3) of propane being used annually in the U.S.[9]
The "prop-" root found in "propane" and names of other compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from "propionic acid",[10] which in turn was named after the Greek words protos (meaning first) and pion (fat).
Sources[edit]
Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, and large amounts of ethane from the raw gas, in order to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil.
The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, because of the by-product nature of propane production. About 90% of U.S. propane is domestically produced.[citation needed] The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline and rail. The remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport.
After it is produced, North American propane is stored in huge salt caverns. Examples of these are Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta; Mont Belvieu, Texas; and Conway, Kansas. These salt caverns were hollowed out in the 1940s,[11] and they can store 80,000,000 barrels (13,000,000 m3) or more of propane. When the propane is needed, much of it is shipped by pipelines to other areas of the United States. Propane is also shipped by truck, ship, barge, and railway to many U.S. areas.[12]
Propane can also be produced as a biofuel.[13]
Properties and reactions[edit]
Pyrometry of a propane flame using thin-filament velocimetry. The hottest parts of the flame are in a hollow cone-shaped area near its base and pointing upward.
>1,750 K (1,480 °C)
1,700 K (1,430 °C)
1,600 K (1,330 °C)
1,350 K (1,080 °C)
1,100 K (830 °C)
875 K (602 °C)
750 K (477 °C)
Propane undergoes combustion reactions in a similar fashion to other alkanes. In the presence of excess oxygen, propane burns to form water and carbon dioxide.
C
3H
8propane + 5 O
2oxygen → 3 CO2carbon dioxide + 4 H2Owater + heat
When not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion, incomplete combustion occurs, allowing carbon monoxide and/or soot (carbon) to be formed as well:
2 C
3H
8propane + 9 O
2oxygen → 4 CO2carbon dioxide + 2
C

O
carbon monoxide + 8 H2O water + heat
C
3H
8propane + 2 O
2oxygen → 3
C
soot + 4 H2Owater + heat
Complete combustion of propane produces about 50 MJ/kg of heat.[14]
Propane combustion is much cleaner than gasoline combustion, though not as clean as natural gas combustion. The presence of C–C bonds, plus the multiple bonds of propylene and butylene, create organic exhausts besides carbon dioxide and water vapor during typical combustion. These bonds also cause propane to burn with a visible flame.
Energy content[edit]
The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where all products return to standard state, for example where water returns to its liquid state at standard temperature (known as higher heating value), is (2219.2 ± 0.5) kJ/mol, or (50.33 ± 0.01) MJ/kg.[14] The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where products do not return to standard state, for example where the hot gases including water vapor exit a chimney, (known as lower heating value) is −2043.455 kJ/mol.[15] The lower heat value is the amount of heat available from burning the substance where the combustion products are vented to the atmosphere. For example, the heat from a fireplace when the flue is open.
Density[edit]
The density of liquid propane at 25 °C (77 °F) is 0.493 g/cm3, which is equivalent to 4.11 pounds per U.S. liquid gallon or 493 g/L. Propane expands at 1.5% per 10 °F. Thus, liquid propane has a density of approximately 4.2 pounds per gallon (504 g/L) at 60 °F (15.6 °C).
Uses[edit]
Propane is a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because the low boiling point of −42 °C (−44 °F) makes it vaporize as soon as it is released from its pressurized container. Therefore, no carburetor or other vaporizing device is required; a simple metering nozzle suffices. Propane powers some locomotives, buses, forklifts, taxis, outboard boat motors, and ice resurfacing machines and is used for heat and cooking in recreational vehicles and campers. Since it can be transported easily, it is a popular fuel for home heat and backup electrical generation in sparsely populated areas that do not have natural gas pipelines.
A 20 lb (9.1 kg) steel propane cylinder. This cylinder is fitted with an overfill prevention device (OPD) valve, as evidenced by the trilobular handwheel.
Propane is generally stored and transported in steel cylinders as a liquid with a vapor space above the liquid. The vapor pressure in the cylinder is a function of temperature. When gaseous propane is drawn at a high rate, the latent heat of vaporisation required to create the gas will cause the bottle to cool. (This is why water often condenses on the sides of the bottle and then freezes). In addition, the lightweight, high-octane compounds vaporize before the heavier, low-octane ones. Thus, the ignition properties change as the cylinder empties. For these reasons, the liquid is often withdrawn using a dip tube. Propane is used as fuel in furnaces for heat, in cooking, as an energy source for water heaters, laundry dryers, barbecues, portable stoves, and motor vehicles.
Commercially available "propane" fuel, or LPG, is not pure. Typically in the United States and Canada, it is primarily propane (at least 90%), with the rest mostly ethane, propylene, butane, and odorants including ethyl mercaptan.[16][17] This is the HD-5 standard, (Heavy Duty-5% maximum allowable propylene content, and no more than 5% butanes and ethane) defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials by its Standard 1835 for internal combustion engines. Not all products labeled "LPG" conform to this standard however. In Mexico, for example, gas labeled "LPG" may consist of 60% propane and 40% butane. "The exact proportion of this combination varies by country, depending on international prices, on the availability of components and, especially, on the climatic conditions that favor LPG with higher butane content in warmer regions and propane in cold areas".[18]
Domestic and industrial fuel[edit]
Domestic spherical steel pressure vessel with pressure regulator for propane storage in the United States. This example was installed on this property in 1974.
A local delivery truck, behind the pickup truck
Retail sale of propane in the United States
Propane use is growing rapidly in non-industrialized areas of the world. Propane has replaced many older other traditional fuel sources. The "propane" sold outside North America is actually a mixture of propane and butane. The warmer the country, the higher the butane content, commonly 50/50 and sometimes reaching 75% butane. Usage is calibrated to the different-sized nozzles found in non-U.S. grills.[citation needed] Americans who take their grills overseas — such as military personnel — can find U.S.-specification propane at AAFES military post exchanges.
North American industries using propane include glass makers, brick kilns, poultry farms and other industries that need portable heat.
In rural areas of North America, as well as northern Australia, propane is used to heat livestock facilities, in grain dryers, and other heat-producing appliances. When used for heating or grain drying it is usually stored in a large, permanently-placed cylinder which is recharged by a propane-delivery truck. As of 2007[update], 9.7 million American households use propane as their primary heating fuel.[19]
In North America, local delivery trucks with an average cylinder size of 3,000 US gallons (11,000 L), fill up large cylinders that are permanently installed on the property, or other service trucks exchange empty cylinders of propane with filled cylinders. Large tractor-trailer trucks, with an average cylinder size of 10,000 US gallons (38,000 L), transport the propane from the pipeline or refinery to the local bulk plant. The bobtail and transport are not unique to the North American market, though the practice is not as common elsewhere, and the vehicles are generally called tankers. In many countries, propane is delivered to consumers via small or medium-sized individual cylinders, while empty cylinders are removed for refilling at a central location.
Propene (also called propylene) can be a contaminant of commercial propane. Propane containing too much propene is not suited for most vehicle fuels. HD-5 is a specification that establishes a maximum concentration of 5% propene in propane. Propane and other LP gas specifications are established in ASTM D-1835.[20] All propane fuels include an odorant, almost always ethanethiol, so that people can easily smell the gas in case of a leak. Propane as HD-5 was originally intended for use as vehicle fuel. HD-5 is currently being used in all propane applications.
Refrigeration[edit]
Propane is also instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, as the energy source for a gas absorption refrigerator and is commonly used for camping and recreational vehicles. In addition, blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (R-290a) (isobutane/propane mixtures) and isobutane (R-600a) can be used as the circulating refrigerant in suitably constructed compressor-based refrigeration. Compared to fluorocarbons, propane has a negligible ozone depletion potential and very low Global Warming Potential (having a value of only 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.[21] Because its global warming effect is far less than current refrigerants, propane was chosen as one of five replacement refrigerants approved by the EPA in 2015, for use in systems specially designed to handle its flammability.[22]
In motor vehicles[edit]
Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]
Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.[31][32]
Motor fuel[edit]
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Main article: Autogas
Propane is also being used increasingly for vehicle fuels. In the U.S., over 190,000 on-road vehicles use propane, and over 450,000 forklifts use it for power. It is the third most popular vehicle fuel in the world,[33] behind gasoline and Diesel fuel. In other parts of the world, propane used in vehicles is known as autogas. In 2007, approximately 13 million vehicles worldwide use autogas.[33]
The advantage of propane in cars is its liquid state at a moderate pressure. This allows fast refill times, affordable fuel cylinder construction, and price ranges typically just over half that of gasoline. Meanwhile, it is noticeably cleaner (both in handling, and in combustion), results in less engine wear (due to carbon deposits) without diluting engine oil (often extending oil-change intervals), and until recently was a relative bargain in North America. The octane rating of propane is relatively high at 110. In the United States the propane fueling infrastructure is the most developed of all alternative vehicle fuels. Many converted vehicles have provisions for topping off from "barbecue bottles". Purpose-built vehicles are often in commercially owned fleets, and have private fueling facilities. A further saving for propane fuel vehicle operators, especially in fleets, is that pilferage is much more difficult than with gasoline or diesel fuels.
Propane is also used as fuel for small engines, especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or Diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn care products like string trimmers, lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution.[34]
Improvised explosive devices[edit]
Propane and propane cylinders have been used as improvised explosive devices in attacks and attempted attacks against schools and terrorist targets such as the Columbine High School massacre, 2012 Brindisi school bombing, the Discovery Communications headquarters hostage crisis and in car bombs.
Other uses[edit]
Propane is the primary flammable gas in blowtorches for soldering or brazing.
Propane is used as a feedstock for the production of base petrochemicals in steam cracking.
Propane is the primary fuel for hot air balloons.
It is used in semiconductor manufacture to deposit silicon carbide.
Propane is commonly used in theme parks and in the movie industry as an inexpensive, high-energy fuel for explosions and other special effects.
Propane is used as a propellant, relying on the expansion of the gas to fire the projectile. It does not ignite the gas. The use of a liquefied gas gives more shots per cylinder, compared to a compressed gas.
Propane is used as a propellant for many household aerosol sprays, including shaving creams and air fresheners.
Hazards[edit]
Propane is a simple asphyxiant.[35] Unlike natural gas, propane is denser than air. It may accumulate in low spaces and near the floor. When abused as an inhalant, it may cause hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or cardiac arrest.[36][37] Propane has low toxicity since it is not readily absorbed and is not biologically active. Commonly stored under pressure at room temperature, propane and its mixtures will flash evaporate at atmospheric pressure and cool well below the freezing point of water. The cold gas, which appears white due to moisture condensing from the air, may cause frostbite.
Propane is denser than air. If a leak in a propane fuel system occurs, the gas will have a tendency to sink into any enclosed area and thus poses a risk of explosion and fire. The typical scenario is a leaking cylinder stored in a basement; the propane leak drifts across the floor to the pilot light on the furnace or water heater, and results in an explosion or fire. This property makes propane generally unsuitable as a fuel for boats.
One hazard associated with propane storage and transport is known as a BLEVE or boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion. The Kingman Explosion involved a railroad tank car in Kingman, Arizona in 1973 during a propane transfer. The fire and subsequent explosions resulted in twelve fatalities and numerous injuries.[38]
Comparison with natural gas[edit]
Propane is bought and stored in a liquid form (LPG), and thus fuel energy can be stored in a relatively small space. Compressed natural gas (CNG), largely methane, is another gas used as fuel, but it cannot be liquefied by compression at normal temperatures, as these are well above its critical temperature. As a gas, very high pressure is required to store useful quantities. This poses the hazard that, in an accident, just as with any compressed gas cylinder (such as a CO2 cylinder used for a soda concession) a CNG cylinder may burst with great force, or leak rapidly enough to become a self-propelled missile. Therefore, CNG is much less efficient to store, due to the large cylinder volume required. An alternative means of storing natural gas is as a cryogenic liquid in an insulated container as liquefied natural gas (LNG). This form of storage is at low pressure and is around 3.5 times as efficient as storing it as CNG. Unlike propane, if a spill occurs, CNG will evaporate and dissipate harmlessly because it is lighter than air. Propane is much more commonly used to fuel vehicles than is natural gas, because the equipment required costs less. Propane requires just 1,220 kilopascals (177 psi) of pressure to keep it liquid at 37.8 °C (100 °F).[39]
Retail cost[edit]
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United States[edit]
As of October 2013[update], the retail cost of propane was approximately $2.37 per gallon, or roughly $25.95 per 1 million BTUs.[40] This means that filling a 500-gallon propane tank, which is what households that use propane as their main source of energy usually require, costs $948 (80% of 500 gallons or 400 gallons), a 7.5% increase on the 2012–2013 winter season average US price.[41] However, propane costs per gallon change significantly from one state to another: the Energy Information Administration (EIA) quotes a $2.995 per gallon average on the East Coast for October 2013,[42] while the figure for the Midwest was $1.860 for the same period.[43]
As of December 2015[update] the propane retail cost was approximately $1.97 per gallon.[44] This means that filling a 500-gallon propane tank to 80% capacity costs $788, a 16.9% decrease or $160 less from the November 2013 quote in this section. Similar regional differences in prices are present with the December 2015 EIA figure for the East Coast at $2.67 per gallon and the Midwest at $1.43 per gallon.[44]
See also[edit]
Blau gas
National Propane Gas Association
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4. doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001. Similarly, the retained names ‘ethane’, ‘propane’, and ‘butane’ were never replaced by systematic names ‘dicarbane’, ‘tricarbane’, and ‘tetracarbane’ as recommended for analogues of silane, ‘disilane’; phosphane, ‘triphosphane’; and sulfane, ‘tetrasulfane’.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0524". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Propane.
Canadian Propane Association
Direct synthesis of propane from synthesis gas (syngas)
International Chemical Safety Card 0319
National Propane Gas Association (U.S.)
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Propane Education & Research Council (U.S.)
Propane Properties Explained Descriptive Breakdown of Propane Characteristics
UKLPG: Propane and Butane in the UK
US Energy Information Administration
World LP Gas Association (WLPGA)
[show]
v
t
e
Alkanes
Methane (CH
4)
Ethane (C
2H
6)
Propane (C
3H
8)
Butane (C
4H
10)
Pentane (C
5H
12)
Hexane (C
6H
14)
Heptane (C
7H
16)
Octane (C
8H
18)
Nonane (C
9H
20)
Decane (C
10H
22)
Undecane (C
11H
24)
Dodecane (C
12H
26)
Tridecane (C
13H
28)
Tetradecane (C
14H
30)
Pentadecane (C
15H
32)
Hexadecane / Cetane (C
16H
34)
Heptadecane (C
17H
36)
Octadecane (C
18H
38)
Nonadecane (C
19H
40)
Icosane (C
20H
42)
Higher alkanes
List of alkanes
[show]
v
t
e
Binary compounds of hydrogen
Alkali metal hydrides
LiH
NaH
KH
RbH
CsH

Lithium hydride, LiH
ionic metal hydride

Beryllium hydride
Left (gas phase): BeH2
covalent metal hydride
Right: (BeH2)n (solid phase)
polymeric metal hydride

Borane and diborane
Left: BH3 (special conditions), covalent metalloid hydride
Right: B2H6 (standard conditions), dimeric metalloid hydride

Methane, CH4
covalent nonmetal hydride

Ammonia, NH3
covalent nonmetal hydride

Water, H2O
covalent nonmetal hydride

Hydrogen fluoride, HF
covalent nonmetal hydride
Alkaline earth hydrides
Monohydrides
BeH
MgH
CaH
SrH
BaH
BeH2
MgH2
CaH2
SrH2
BaH2
Group 13 hydrides
Boranes
BH3
B2H6
B2H2
B2H4
Alanes
AlH3
Al2H6
Gallanes
GaH3
Ga2H6
Indiganes
InH3
In2H6
Thallanes
TlH3
Tl2H6
B2H2
B2H4
B4H10
B5H9
B5H11
B6H10
B6H12
B10H14
B18H22
Group 14 hydrides
Linear alkanes
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
more...
Linear alkenes
C2H4
C3H6
C4H8
C5H10
C6H12
C7H14
C8H16
C9H18
C10H20
more...
Linear alkynes
C2H2
C3H4
C4H6
C5H8
C6H10
C7H12
C8H14
C9H16
C10H18
more...
Silanes
SiH4
Si2H6
Si3H8
Si4H10
Si5H12
Si6H14
Si7H16
Si8H18
Si9H20
Si10H22
more...
Silenes
Si2H4
Silynes
Si2H2
Germanes
GeH4
Ge2H6
Ge3H8
Ge4H10
Ge5H12
Stannanes
SnH4
Sn2H6
Plumbanes
PbH4
CH
CH2
CH3
C2H
Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkenes
Annulenes
Many more
Pnictogen hydrides
Azanes
NH3
N2H4
N3H5
N4H6
N5H7
N6H8
N7H9
N8H10
N9H11
N10H12
more...
Azenes
N2H2
N3H3
N4H4
Phosphanes
PH3
P2H4
P3H5
P4H6
P5H7
P6H8
P7H9
P8H10
P9H11
P10H12
more...
Phosphenes
P2H2
P3H3
P4H4
Arsanes
AsH3
As2H4
Stibanes
SbH3
Bismuthanes
BiH3
HN3
NH
radical
Hydrogen chalcogenides
Polyoxidanes
H2O
H2O2
H2O3
H2O4
H2O5
H2O6
H2O7
H2O8
H2O9
H2O10
more...
Polysulfanes
H2S
H2S2
H2S3
H2S4
H2S5
H2S6
H2S7
H2S8
H2S9
H2S10
more...
Selanes
H2Se
H2Se2
Tellanes
H2Te
H2Te2
Polanes
PoH2
HO
HO2
HO3
H2O+–O–
H2S=S
(HS)2S+–S–
HS
HDO
D2O
T2O
Hydrogen halides
HF
HCl
HBr
HI
HAt
Transition metal hydrides
ScH2
YH2
YH3
TiH2
ZrH2
HfH2
VH
VH2
NbH
NbH2
TaH
CrH
CrH2
CrHx
NiH
PdHx (x < 1)
FeH
FeH2
FeH5
CuH
ZnH2
CdH2
HgH2
Lanthanide hydrides
LaH2
LaH3
CeH2
CeH3
PrH2
PrH3
NdH2
NdH3
SmH2
SmH3
EuH2
GdH2
GdH3
TbH2
TbH3
DyH2
DyH3
HoH2
HoH3
ErH2
ErH3
TmH2
TmH3
YbH2
YbH2.5
LuH2
LuH3
Actinide hydrides
AcH2
ThH2
Th4H15
PaH3
UH3
NpH2
NpH3
PuH2
PuH3
AmH2
AmH3
CmH2
[show]
v
t
e
Fuel gas
Types
Manufactured fuel gas
(History)
Coal gas
Coal gasification
Underground coal gasification
Biogas
Blast furnace gas
Blau gas
Gasification
Landfill gas
Mond gas
Pintsch gas
Producer gas
Regasification
Syngas
Water gas
Wood gas
Natural gas
APG
CBM
CNG
HCNG
LNG
NGC
SNG
Bio-SNG
LPG
Autogas
Butane
Propane
Infrastructure
Compressor station
Gas carrier
Gas holder
Gas meter
Gasworks
Natural-gas processing
Natural gas storage
Odorizer
Pipeline transport
Uses
Bunsen burner
Gas burner
Gas engine
Gas heater
Gas lighting
Gas mantle
Gas stove
Gas turbine
Pilot light
[show]
v
t
e
E numbers
Colors (E100–199)
Preservatives (E200–299)
Antioxidants & acidity regulators (E300–399)
Thickeners, stabilisers & emulsifiers (E400–499)
pH regulators & anticaking agents (E500–599)
Flavour enhancers (E600–699)
Miscellaneous (E900–999)
Additional chemicals (E1100–1599)
Waxes (E900–909)
Synthetic glazes (E910–919)
Improving agents (E920–929)
Packaging gases (E930–949)
Sweeteners (E950–969)
Foaming agents (E990–999)
Calcium peroxide (E930)
Argon (E938)
Helium (E939)
Dichlorodifluoromethane (E940)
Nitrogen (E941)
Nitrous oxide (E942)
Butane (E943a)
Isobutane (E943b)
Propane (E944)
Oxygen (E948)
Hydrogen (E949)
[show]
v
t
e
Alternative fuel vehicles
Compressed-air engine
Compressed air car
Compressed-air vehicle
Tesla turbine
Electric motor
Battery-electric locomotive
Battery electric vehicle
Cater MetroTrolley
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Biofuel ICE
Alcohol fuel
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Biogas
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Common ethanol fuel mixtures
E85
Ethanol fuel
Flexible-fuel vehicle
Methanol economy
Methanol fuel
Wood gas
Hydrogen
Fuel cell vehicle
Hydrogen economy
Hydrogen vehicle
Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
Others
Autogas
Hybrid electric vehicle
Liquid nitrogen vehicle
Natural gas vehicle
Propane
Steam car
Multiple-fuel
Bi-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
Hybrid vehicle
Multifuel
Plug-in hybrid
Documentaries
Who Killed the Electric Car?
What Is the Electric Car?
Revenge of the Electric Car
See also
Wind-powered vehicle
Zero-emissions vehicle
[show]
v
t
e
GABAA receptor positive modulators
Alcohols
Brometone
Butanol
Chloralodol
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Ethchlorvynol
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Methylpentynol
Pentanol
Petrichloral
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tert-Butanol (2M2P)
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(-)-DMBB
Allobarbital
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Carbubarb
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Difebarbamate
Enallylpropymal
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Febarbamate
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Methitural
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Primidone
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MRK-409 (MK-0343)
TCS-1105
TCS-1205
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • GABA receptor modulators • GABA metabolism/transport modulators
Authority control
GND: 4047472-0
NDL: 00569226
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Propane&oldid=802419812"
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Skeletal formula of propane

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Ball and stick model of propane

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Spacefill model of propane

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ECHA InfoCard

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http://www.kegg.jp/entry/D05625

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Specific heat capacity

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/wiki/GHS_hazard_statement
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GHS hazard statement

values: Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces – No smoking

values: Flammability code 4: Will rapidly or completely vaporize at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, or is readily dispersed in air and will burn readily. Flash point below 23 °C (73 °F). E.g., propane

values: Health code 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g., chloroform

values: Reactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g., liquid nitrogen

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text:
Plasmolysis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Before plasmolysis (top) and after (bottom)
Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse process, cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell. Through observation of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis, it is possible to determine the tonicity of the cell's environment as well as the rate solute molecules cross the cellular membrane.
Contents
[hide]
1 Turgidity
2 Plasmolysis
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Turgidity[edit]
Main article: Turgor pressure
A plant cell in hypotonic solution will absorb water by endosmosis, so that the increased volume of water in the cell will increase pressure, making the protoplasm push against the cell wall, a condition known as turgor. Turgor makes plant cells push against each other in the same way and is the main line method of support in non-woody plant tissue. Plant cell walls resist further water entry after a certain point, known as full turgor, which stops plant cells from bursting as animal cells do in the same conditions. This is also the reason that plants stand upright. Without the stiffness of the plant cells the plant would fall under its own weight. Turgor pressure allows plants to stay firm and erect, and plants without turgor pressure (known as flaccid) wilt. A cell begins to decline in turgor pressure only when there is no air spaces surrounding it and eventually leads to a greater osmotic pressure than that of the cell.[1] Vacuoles play a role in turgor pressure when water leaves the cell due to hyperosmotic solutions containing solutes such as mannitol, sorbitol, and sucrose.[2]
Plasmolysis[edit]
Plant cell under different environments
If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plant cell loses water and hence turgor pressure by plasmolysis: pressure decreases to the point where the protoplasm of the cell peels away from the cell wall, leaving gaps between the cell wall and the membrane and making the plant cell shrink and crumple. A continued decrease in pressure eventually leads to cytorrhysis – the complete collapse of the cell wall. Plants with cells in this condition wilt. After plasmolysis the gap between the cell wall and the cell membrane in a plant cell is filled with hypertonic solution. This is because as the solution surrounding the cell is hypertonic, exosmosis takes place and the space between the cell wall and cytoplasm is filled with solutes, as most of the water drains away and hence the concentration inside the cell becomes more hypertonic. There are some mechanisms in plants to prevent excess water loss in the same way as excess water gain. Plasmolysis can be reversed if the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution. Stomata help keep water in the plant so it does not dry out. Wax also keeps water in the plant. The equivalent process in animal cells is called crenation.
The liquid content of the cell leaks out due to exosmosis. The cell collapses, and the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall (in plants). Most animal cells consist of only a phospholipid bilayer (plasma membrane) and not a cell wall, therefore shrinking up under such conditions.
Plasmolysis only occurs in extreme conditions and rarely happens in nature. It is induced in the laboratory by immersing cells in strong saline or sugar (sucrose) solutions to cause exosmosis, often using Elodea plants or onion epidermal cells, which have colored cell sap so that the process is clearly visible. Methylene blue can be used to stain plant cells.
Plasmolysis is mainly known as shrinking of cell membrane in hypertonic solution and great pressure.
Plasmolysis can be of two types, either concave plasmolysis or convex plasmolysis. Convex plasmolysis is always irreversible while concave plasmolysis is usually reversible.[3] During concave plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast partially shrinks from the cell wall due to half-spherical, inwarding curving pockets forming between the plasma membrane and the cell wall. During convex plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast shrinks completely from the cell wall, with the plasma membrane's ends in a symmetrically, spherically curved pattern.[4]
See also[edit]
Crenation
Cytolysis, where the cell bursts rather than shrinks.
Osmosis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Munns, Rana (2010). Plants in Action. Australian Society of Plant Scientists.
Jump up ^ Lang, Ingeborg (10 September 2014). "Plasmolysis: Loss of Turgor and Beyond". Plants.
Jump up ^ Lang, Ingeborg; Sassmann, Stefan; Schmidt, Brigitte; Komis, George (2014-11-26). "Plasmolysis: Loss of Turgor and Beyond". Plants. 3 (4): 583–593. doi:10.3390/plants3040583. PMC 4844282  . PMID 27135521.
Jump up ^ Lang, Ingeborg; Sassmann, Stefan; Schmidt, Brigitte; Komis, George. "Plasmolysis: Loss of Turgor and Beyond". Plants. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
External links[edit]
Pictures of plasmolysis in Elodea and onion skin. Archived April 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Wilting and plasymolysis. Archived October 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plasmolysis&oldid=833839561"
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Race and ethnicity in the NHL
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (August 2016)
The National Hockey League evolved from a mono-ethnic and primarily Canadian professional athletic league to span North America.[1][2][3][4][5] The distribution of ethnic groups has been gradually changing since the inception of the NHL.[6] The league consists of a variety of players from varying nationalities and diverse backgrounds. Once known as a league riddled with racism and exclusiveness, the NHL has made positive steps toward a more diverse and inclusive institution.[7]
According to statistics,[8] gathered by www.quanthockey.com, the NHL began its expansion of player nationalities in the 1970s, where players hailed from the United States, Sweden, and Finland. The share of Canadians in the league dropped to 75% by the 1980s and is now slightly less than 50%.[8] In 2011, the NHL was composed of 93 percent of players who identified as white, with the remaining 7 percent identifying as varying ethnicities.[9][needs update]
History[edit]
A number of ice hockey leagues for players of African descent formed in Canada as early as the late-19th century. The Coloured Hockey League was an all-black ice hockey league established in 1895. Operating across the Maritime provinces of Canada, the league operated for several decades until 1930.
Although other ice hockey leagues saw integration in the early 20th century (including the Quebec Senior Hockey League), the NHL did not see its first non-white player until March 13, 1948, when Larry Kwong broke the NHL's colour barrier playing with the New York Rangers.[10] Born in Vernon, British Columbia, Kwong was a Chinese Canadian of Cantonese descent.[11] In 1953, Fred Sasakamoose was the first Cree NHL player, and the first Canadian indigenous player in the NHL, debuting with the Chicago Black Hawks. On January 18, 1958, Willie O'Ree became the first Black Canadian to play in the NHL. Playing with the Boston Bruins, he was also the first NHL player of African-descent.[12]
Val James was the first African American player to play in the NHL. James signed his contract with the Buffalo Sabres in 1982.[13] His stint with the Buffalo Sabres and Toronto Maple Leafs were short lived and he eventually retired in 1987 due to injury.[13] He experienced racism as the first player throughout his skating career. He never spoke of racism on the ice until 30 years after his career ended. In his account, he reported he could not watch hockey games for 10 years after leaving the ice without being haunted by the memories of his treatment as a man of color in the NHL.[14] His hostile experiences were and continue to be representative of how institutional racism permeates the culture and socialization of men (and women) sports. An biography of his life in the sport was published under the title Black Ice: The Val James Story written by John Gallagher.[15] The number of black NHL players moved to 26 by the end of the 20th century and sat at 32 in 2016. This is a seemingly minor yet significant change in the racial demographic of the NHL in its hundred-year history.[9]
In addition to black and white players, other races and ethnicities represented in the NHL (in the 2017–18 season) include players of Arab-descent (including Brandon Saad, Justin Abdelkader, Mika Zibanejad, and Nazem Kadri), players of Latino-descent (including Al Montoya, Auston Matthews, Max Pacioretty, and Raffi Torres), and players of Asian-descent (including Kailer Yamamoto, and Matthew Dumba).
See also[edit]
Baseball color line
Black players in ice hockey
List of black NHL players
Black players in professional American football
History of African Americans in the Canadian Football League
Race and ethnicity in the NBA
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Farber, Michael. "Soul On Ice: Black players in the NHL". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "NBC's Portrayal of U.S. and Canadian Hockey Players on the Olympic Stage: A Textual Analysis of Gender, Race, and Nationality Issues in the Commentary". ProQuest. 1 January 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Shephard, Roy J. (27 November 2014). "An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World". Springer. Retrieved 8 December 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Drake, Matt (28 March 2014). "Being black in the NHL". SB Nation. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Group, Vibe Media (1 March 1994). "Vibe". Vibe Media Group. Retrieved 6 December 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Masaryk University Faculty of Arts : Department of English and American Studies" (PDF). Is.muni.cz. Retrieved 2016-11-28.
Jump up ^ SELL, DAVE (1 April 1990). "Blacks and Hockey Maintain a Tenuous Relationship". Retrieved 7 December 2016 – via LA Times.
^ Jump up to: a b "NHL Nationality Breakdown". QuantHockey.com. Retrieved 2016-10-21.
^ Jump up to: a b "Thrashers Top NHL With Highest Percentage Of Black Players". WSB-TV. Retrieved 2016-10-21.
Jump up ^ Ward, Rachel (19 March 2018). "NHL trailblazer Larry Kwong dies at 94". CBC News. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
Jump up ^ NHL, "CBC targets Chinese hockey fans with Mandarin broadcasts of NHL playoffs", Canadian Press, 2008 April 20
Jump up ^ Harris, Cecil (2003). Breaking the Ice: The Black Experience in Professional Hockey. Toronto: Insomniac Press. p. 20. ISBN 1897415052. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "IAs First Black American NHL Player, Enforcer Was Defenseless Vs. Racism." All Things Considered 26 Feb. 2015. General OneFile. Web. 10 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "NHL - Pioneer Val James not bitter about his tortured playing days". Espn.com. 2015-02-14. Retrieved 2016-10-21.
Jump up ^ "Val James First US Born Black Player in NHL Publishes Autobiography". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_NHL&oldid=834558296"
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National Hockey League
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