text:
Smallpox vaccine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Smallpox vaccine being administered. Note the bifurcated needle.[1]
Smallpox vaccine, the first successful vaccine to be developed, was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1796. He followed up his observation that milkmaids who had previously caught cowpox did not later catch smallpox by showing that inoculated cowpox protected against inoculated smallpox. The word "vaccine" is derived from Variolae vaccinae (i.e. smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox and used in the long title of his An enquiry into the causes and effects of Variolae vaccinae, known by the name of cow pox.[2] Vaccination, the term which soon replaced cowpox inoculation and vaccine inoculation, was first used in print by Jenner's friend, Richard Dunning in 1800.[3] Initially, the terms vaccine/vaccination referred only to smallpox, but in 1881 Louis Pasteur proposed that to honour Jenner the terms be widened to cover the new protective inoculations being introduced.
Contents
[hide]
1 Variolation
2 Early vaccination
3 Developments in vaccine production and inoculation
4 Eradication of smallpox
5 Post-eradication vaccination
6 Other protection
7 Vaccine stockpiles
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Variolation[edit]
The mortality of the severe form of smallpox—variola major—was very high without vaccination, up to 35% in some outbreaks.[4] A method of inducing immunity known as inoculation, insufflation or "variolation" was practiced before the development of a modern vaccine and likely occurred in Africa and China well before the practice arrived in Europe.[5] It may also have occurred in India, but this is disputed; other investigators contend the ancient Sanskrit medical texts of India do not describe these techniques.[5][6] The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan (1499–1582) in his Douzhen xinfa (痘疹心法) published in 1549.[7] Inoculation for smallpox does not appear to have been widespread in China until the reign era of the Longqing Emperor (r. 1567–1572) during the Ming Dynasty.[8] In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers.[9] According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation to neighbouring Circassia. Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years".[10]
Variolation was also practiced throughout the latter half of the 17th century by physicians in Turkey, Persia, and Africa. In 1714 and 1716, two reports of the Ottoman Empire Turkish method of inoculation were made to the Royal Society in England, by Emmanuel Timoni, a doctor affiliated with the British Embassy in Constantinople,[11] and Giacomo Pylarini. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, wife of the British ambassador to Ottoman Constantinople, is widely credited with introducing the process to Great Britain in 1721. Source material tells us on Montagu; "When Lady Mary was in the Ottoman Empire, she discovered the local practice of inoculation against smallpox called variolation."[12] In 1718 she had her son, aged five variolated. He recovered quickly. She returned to London and had her daughter variolated in 1721 by Charles Maitland, during an epidemic of smallpox. This encouraged the British Royal Family to take an interest and a trial of variolation was carried out on prisoners in Newgate Prison. This was successful and in 1722 Princess Augusta, the Princess of Wales, allowed Maitland to vaccinate her children.[13] The success of these variolations assured the British people that the procedure was safe.[11]
“ ...scarred the wrists, legs, and forehead of the patient, placed a fresh and kindly pock in each incision and bound it there for eight or ten days, after this time the patient was credibly informed. The patient would then develop a mild case [of smallpox], recover, and thereafter be immune.[14] ”
— Dr. Peter Kennedy
Stimulated by a severe epidemic, variolation was first employed in North America in 1721. The practice had been known in Boston since 1706, when Cotton Mather (of Salem witch trial fame) discovered his slave, Onesimus had been inoculated while still in Africa, and many slaves imported to Boston had also received inoculations.[15] The practice was, at first, widely criticized.[16] However, a limited trial showed six deaths occurred out of 244 who were variolated (2.5%), while 844 out of 5980 died of natural disease (14%), and the process was widely adopted throughout the colonies.[17]
The inoculation technique was documented as having a mortality rate of only one in a thousand. Two years after Kennedy's description appeared, March 1718, Dr. Charles Maitland successfully inoculated the five-year-old son of the British ambassador to the Turkish court under orders from the ambassador's wife Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who four years later introduced the practice to England.[18]
An account from letter by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu to Sarah Chiswell, dated 1 April 1717, from the Turkish Embassy describes this treatment:
The small-pox so fatal and so general amongst us is here entirely harmless by the invention of ingrafting (which is the term they give it). There is a set of old women who make it their business to perform the operation. Every autumn in the month of September, when the great heat is abated, people send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the small-pox. They make parties for this purpose, and when they are met (commonly fifteen or sixteen together) the old woman comes with a nutshell full of the matter of the best sort of small-pox and asks what veins you please to have opened. She immediately rips open that you offer to her with a large needle (which gives you no more pain than a common scratch) and puts into the vein as much venom as can lye upon the head of her needle, and after binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell, and in this manner opens four or five veins. . . . The children or young patients play together all the rest of the day and are in perfect health till the eighth. Then the fever begins to seize them and they keep their beds two days, very seldom three. They have very rarely above twenty or thirty in their faces, which never mark, and in eight days time they are as well as before the illness. . . . There is no example of any one that has died in it, and you may believe I am very well satisfied of the safety of the experiment since I intend to try it on my dear little son. I am patriot enough to take pains to bring this useful invention into fashion in England, and I should not fail to write to some of our doctors very particularly about it if I knew any one of them that I thought had virtue enough to destroy such a considerable branch of their revenue for the good of mankind, but that distemper is too beneficial to them not to expose to all their resentment the hardy wight that should undertake to put an end to it. Perhaps if I live to return I may, however, have courage to war with them.[19]
Early vaccination[edit]
Dr Edward Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8. May 14th, 1796. Painting by Ernest Board (early 20th century).
In the early empirical days of vaccination, before Pasteur's work on establishing the germ theory and Lister's on antisepsis and asepsis, there was considerable cross-infection. William Woodville, one of the early vaccinators and director of the London Smallpox Hospital is thought to have contaminated the cowpox matter—the vaccine—with smallpox matter and this essentially produced variolation. Other vaccine material was not reliably derived from cowpox, but from other skin eruptions of cattle.[20] In modern times, an effective scientific model and controlled production were important in reducing these causes of apparent failure or iatrogenic illness.
During the earlier days of empirical experimentation in 1758, American Calvinist Jonathan Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation. Some of the earliest statistical and epidemiological studies were performed by James Jurin in 1727 and Daniel Bernoulli in 1766.[21] In 1768 Dr John Fewster reported that variolation induced no reaction in persons who had had cowpox.[22] Fewster was a contemporary and friend of Jenner. Dr. Rolph, another Gloucestershire physician, stated that all experienced physicians of the time were aware of this.[citation needed]
An 1802 caricature by James Gillray depicting the early controversy surrounding Jenner's vaccination theory
Edward Jenner was born in Berkeley, England. At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to apothecary Daniel Ludlow and later surgeon George Hardwick in nearby Sodbury. He observed that people who caught cowpox while working with cattle were known not to catch smallpox. Jenner assumed a causal connection but the idea was not taken up at that time. From 1770 to 1772 Jenner received advanced training in London at St Georges Hospital and as the private pupil of John Hunter, then returned to set up practice in Berkeley.[3] When a smallpox epidemic occurred he advised the local cattle workers to be inoculated, but they told him that their previous cowpox infection would prevent smallpox. This confirmed his childhood suspicion, and he studied cowpox further, presenting a paper on it to his local medical society.
Perhaps there was already an informal public understanding of some connection between disease resistance and working with cattle. The "beautiful milkmaid" seems to have been a frequent image in the art and literature of this period. But it is known for certain that in the years following 1770, at least six people in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendall, Plett 1791) tested successfully the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans.[23] In 1796, Sarah Nelmes, a local milkmaid, contracted cowpox and went to Jenner for treatment. Jenner took the opportunity to test his theory. He inoculated James Phipps, the eight-year-old son of his gardener, with material taken from the cowpox lesions on Sarah's hand. After a mild fever and the expected local lesion James recovered after a few days. About two months later Jenner inoculated James on both arms with material from a case of smallpox, with no effect; the boy was immune to smallpox.
The process above shows the steps taken by Edward Jenner to create vaccination. Jenner did this by inoculating James Phipps with cowpox, a similar virus to smallpox, to create immunity, unlike variolation, which used smallpox to create an immunity to itself.
Jenner sent a paper reporting his observations to the Royal Society in April 1797. Its contents are unknown. It was not submitted formally and there is no mention of it in the Society's records. Jenner had sent the paper informally to Sir Joseph Banks, the Society's president, who asked Everard Home for his views. His report, published for the first time in 1999, was sceptical and called for further vaccinations.[24] These were done and in 1798 Jenner published an analysis of 23 'cases' including several individuals who had resisted natural exposure after previous cowpox. It is not known how many Jenner vaccinated or challenged by inoculation with smallpox virus; e.g. Case 21 included 'several children and adults'. Crucially all of at least four who Jenner deliberately inoculated with smallpox virus resisted it. These included the first and last patients in a series of arm-to-arm transfers. He concluded that cowpox inoculation was a safe alternative to smallpox inoculation, but rashly claimed that the protective effect was lifelong. This last proved to be incorrect.[2] Jenner also tried to distinguish between 'True' cowpox which produced the desired result and 'Spurious' cowpox which was ineffective and/or produced severe reaction. Modern research suggests Jenner was trying to distinguish between effects caused by what would now be recognised as noninfectious vaccine, a different virus (e.g. paravaccinia/milker's nodes), or contaminating bacterial pathogens. This caused confusion at the time, but would become important criteria in vaccine development.[25] A further source of confusion was Jenner's belief that fully effective vaccine obtained from cows originated in an equine disease, which he mistakenly referred to as grease. This was criticised at the time but vaccines derived from horsepox were soon introduced and later contributed to the complicated problem of the origin of vaccinia virus, the virus in present-day vaccine.[26]:165–178
By 1800, Jenner's work had been published in all the major European languages and had reached Benjamin Waterhouse in the United States — an indication of rapid spread and deep interest.[27] The introduction of the vaccine to the New World took place in Trinity, Newfoundland, in 1798 by Dr. John Clinch, boyhood friend and medical colleague of Jenner.[28][29] Despite some concern about the safety of vaccination the mortality using carefully selected vaccine was close to zero, and it was soon in use all over Europe and the United States.[30][31]
The Balmis Expedition took the vaccine to Spanish America in 1804
In 1804 the Balmis Expedition, an official Spanish mission commanded by Francisco Javier de Balmis, sailed to spread the vaccine throughout the Spanish Empire, first to the Canary Islands and on to Spanish Central America. While his deputy, José Salvany, took vaccine to the west and east coasts of Spanish South America, Balmis sailed to Manila in the Philippines and on to Canton and Macao on the Chinese coast. He returned to Spain in 1806.[32]
The question of who first tried cowpox inoculation/vaccination cannot be answered with certainty. Most, but still limited, information is available for Benjamin Jesty, Peter Plett and John Fewster. In 1774 Jesty, a farmer of Yetminster in Dorset, observing that the two milkmaids living with his family were immune to smallpox, inoculated his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox. He attracted a certain amount of local criticism and ridicule at the time then interest waned. Attention was later drawn to Jesty, and he was brought to London in 1802 by critics jealous of Jenner's prominence at a time when he was applying to Parliament for financial reward.[33] During 1790–92 Peter Plett, a teacher from Holstein, reported limited results of cowpox inoculation to the Medical Faculty of the University of Kiel. However, the Faculty favoured variolation and took no action.[34] John Fewster, a surgeon friend of Jenner's from nearby Thornbury, discussed the possibility of cowpox inoculation at meetings as early as 1765. He may have done some cowpox inoculations in 1796 at about the same time that Jenner vaccinated Phipps. However Fewster, who had a flourishing variolation practice, may have considered this option but used smallpox instead. He thought vaccination offered no advantage over variolation, but maintained friendly contact with Jenner and certainly made no claim of priority for vaccination when critics attacked Jenner's reputation.[35] It seems clear that the idea of using cowpox instead of smallpox for inoculation was considered, and actually tried in the late 18th century, and not just by the medical profession. Therefore, Jenner was not the first to try cowpox inoculation. However, he was the first to publish his evidence and distribute vaccine freely, provide information on selection of suitable material, and maintain it by arm-to-arm transfer. The authors of the official World Health Organization (WHO) account Smallpox and its Eradication assessing Jenner's role wrote:[36]
Publication of the Inquiry and the subsequent energetic promulgation by Jenner of the idea of vaccination with a virus other than variola virus constituted a watershed in the control of smallpox for which he, more than anyone else deserves the credit.
As vaccination spread, some European countries made it compulsory. Concern about its safety led to opposition and then repeal of legislation in some instances.[37][38] Compulsory infant vaccination was introduced in England by the 1853 Vaccination Act. By 1871, parents could be fined for non-compliance, and then imprisoned for non-payment.[39] This intensified opposition, and the 1898 Vaccination Act introduced a conscience clause. This allowed exemption on production of a certificate of conscientious objection signed by two magistrates. Such certificates were not always easily obtained and a further Act in 1907 allowed exemption by a statutory declaration which could not be refused. Although theoretically still compulsory, the 1907 Act effectively marked the end of compulsory infant vaccination in England.[40]
In the United States vaccination was regulated by individual states, the first to impose compulsory vaccination being Massachusetts in 1809. There then followed sequences of compulsion, opposition and repeal in various states. By 1930 Arizona, Utah, North Dakota and Minnesota prohibited compulsory vaccination, 35 states allowed regulation by local authorities, or had no legislation affecting vaccination, whilst in ten states, including Washington D.C. and Massachusetts, infant vaccination was compulsory.[41] Compulsory infant vaccination was regulated by only allowing access to school for those who had been vaccinated.[42] Those seeking to enforce compulsory vaccination argued that the public good overrode personal freedom, a view supported by the U.S. Supreme Court in Jacobson v. Massachusetts in 1905, a landmark ruling which set a precedent for cases dealing with personal freedom and the public good.
Louis T. Wright,[43] an African American and Harvard Medical School graduate (1915), introduced intradermal vaccination for smallpox for the soldiers while serving in the Army during World War I.[44]
Developments in vaccine production and inoculation[edit]
Until the end of the 19th Century vaccination was done either directly with vaccine produced on the skin of calves or, particularly in England, with vaccine obtained from the calf but then maintained by arm-to-arm transfer;[45] initially in both cases vaccine could be dried on ivory points for short term storage or transport but increasing use was made of glass capillary tubes for this purpose towards the end of the century.[46] During this period there were no adequate methods for assessing the safety of the vaccine and there were instances of contaminated vaccine transmitting infections such as erysipelas, tetanus, septicaemia and tuberculosis.[25] In the case of arm-to-arm transfer there was also the risk of transmitting syphilis. Although this did occur occasionally, estimated as 750 cases in 100 million vaccinations,[47] some critics of vaccination e.g. Charles Creighton believed that uncontaminated vaccine itself was a cause of syphilis.[48] Smallpox vaccine was the only vaccine available during this period, and so the determined opposition to it initiated a number of vaccine controversies that spread to other vaccines and into the 21st century.
Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman, an English Government bacteriologist interested in smallpox vaccine investigated the effects on the bacteria in it of various treatments, including glycerine. Glycerine was sometimes used simply as a diluent by some continental vaccine producers. However, Copeman found that vaccine suspended in 50% chemically-pure glycerine and stored under controlled conditions contained very few "extraneous" bacteria and produced satisfactory vaccinations.[49] He later reported that glycerine killed the causative organisms of erysipelas and tuberculosis when they were added to the vaccine in "considerable quantity", and that his method was widely used on the continent.[45] In 1896, Copeman was asked to supply "extra good calf vaccine" to vaccinate the future Edward VIII.[50]
Vaccine produced by Copeman's method was the only type issued free to public vaccinators by the English Government Vaccine Establishment from 1899. At the same time the 1898 Vaccination Act banned arm-to-arm vaccination, thus preventing transmission of syphilis by this vaccine. However, private practitioners had to purchase vaccine from commercial producers.[51] Although proper use of glycerine reduced bacterial contamination considerably the crude starting material, scraped from the skin of infected calves, was always heavily contaminated and no vaccine was totally free from bacteria. A survey of vaccines in 1900 found wide variations in bacterial contamination. Vaccine issued by the Government Vaccine Establishment contained 5,000 bacteria per gram, while commercial vaccines contained up to 100,000 per gram.[52] The level of bacterial contamination remained unregulated until the Therapeutic Substances Act, 1925 set an upper limit of 5,000 per gram, and rejected any batch of vaccine found to contain the causative organisms of erysipelas or wound infections.[25] Unfortunately glycerolated vaccine soon lost its potency at ambient temperatures which restricted its use in tropical climates. However, it remained in use into the 1970s where a satisfactory cold chain was available. Animals continued to be widely used by vaccine producers during the Smallpox Eradication Campaign. A WHO survey of 59 producers, some of whom used more than one source of vaccine, found that 39 used calves, 12 used sheep and 6 used water buffalo, whilst only 3 made vaccine in cell culture and 3 in embryonated hens' eggs.[53] English vaccine was occasionally made in sheep during World War I but from 1946 only sheep were used.[46]
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Leslie Collier, an English microbiologist working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, developed a method for producing a heat-stable freeze-dried vaccine in powdered form.[54][55] Collier added 0.5% phenol to the vaccine to reduce the number of bacterial contaminants but the key stage was to add 5% peptone to the liquid vaccine before it was dispensed into ampoules. This protected the virus during the freeze drying process. After drying the ampoules were sealed under nitrogen. Like other vaccines, once reconstituted it became ineffective after 1–2 days at ambient temperatures. However, the dried vaccine was 100% effective when reconstituted after 6 months storage at 37 °C (99 °F) allowing it to be transported to, and stored in, remote tropical areas. Collier's method was increasingly used and, with minor modifications, became the standard for vaccine production adopted by the WHO Smallpox Eradication Unit when it initiated its global Smallpox Eradication Campaign in 1967, at which time 23 of 59 manufacturers were using the Lister strain.[56]
In a letter about landmarks in the history of smallpox vaccine, written to and quoted from by Derrick Baxby, Donald Henderson, chief of the Smallpox Eradication Unit from 1967–77 wrote; "Copeman and Collier made an enormous contribution for which neither, in my opinion ever received due credit".[57]
Smallpox vaccine was inoculated by scratches into the superficial layers of the skin and a wide variety of instruments was used to achieve this. They ranged from simple needles to multi-pointed and multi-bladed spring-operated instruments specifically designed for the purpose.[58]
A major contribution to smallpox vaccination was made in the 1960s by Benjamin Rubin, an American microbiologist working for Wyeth Laboratories. Based on initial tests with textile needles with the eyes cut off transversely half-way he developed the bifurcated needle. This was a sharpened two-prong fork designed to hold one dose of reconstituted freeze-dried vaccine by capillarity.[1] Easy to use with minimum training, cheap to produce ($5 per 1000), using 4 times less vaccine than other methods, and repeatedly re-usable after flame sterilization, it was used globally in the WHO Smallpox Eradication Campaign from 1968.[59] Rubin estimated that it was used to do 200 million vaccinations per year during the last years of the campaign.[1] Those closely involved in the campaign were awarded the "Order of the Bifurcated Needle". This, a personal initiative by Donald Henderson, was a lapel badge, designed and made by his daughter, formed from the needle shaped to form an "O". This represented "Target Zero", the objective of the campaign.[60]
Eradication of smallpox[edit]
Smallpox eradication promotional poster
Main article: Smallpox § Eradication
Smallpox was eradicated by a massive international search for outbreaks, backed up with a vaccination program, starting in 1967. It was organised and co-ordinated by a World Health Organization (WHO) unit, set up and headed by Donald Henderson. The last case in the Americas occurred in 1971 (Brazil), south-east Asia (Indonesia) in 1972, and on the Indian subcontinent in 1975 (Bangladesh). After two years of intensive searches, what proved to be the last endemic case anywhere in the world occurred in Somalia, in October 1977.[61] A Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox Eradication chaired by Frank Fenner examined the evidence from, and visited where necessary, all countries where smallpox had been endemic. In December 1979 they concluded that smallpox had been eradicated; a conclusion endorsed by the WHO General Assembly in May 1980.[62] However, even as the disease was being eradicated there still remained stocks of smallpox virus in many laboratories. Accelerated by two cases of smallpox in 1978, one fatal (Janet Parker), caused by an accidental and unexplained containment breach at a laboratory at the University of Birmingham Medical School, the WHO ensured that known stocks of smallpox virus were either destroyed or moved to safer laboratories. By 1979 only four laboratories were known to have smallpox virus. All English stocks held at St Mary's Hospital, London were transferred to more secure facilities at Porton Down and then to the US at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia in 1982, and all South African stocks were destroyed in 1983. By 1984 the only known stocks were kept at the CDC in the US and the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (VECTOR) in Koltsovo, Russia.[63] These states report that their repositories are for possible antibioweaponry research and insurance if some obscure reservoir of natural smallpox is discovered in the future.
Post-eradication vaccination[edit]
Although Jenner used cowpox, the vaccine now contains a virus immunologically related to cowpox and smallpox viruses called vaccinia which causes a mild infection. The vaccine is infectious which improves its effectiveness, but causes serious complications for people with impaired immune systems (for example chemotherapy and AIDS patients, and people with eczema), and is not yet considered safe for pregnant women. A woman planning on conceiving within one month should not receive the smallpox immunization until after the pregnancy. In the event of an outbreak, the woman should delay pregnancy if possible. Vaccines that only contain attenuated vaccinia viruses (an attenuated virus is one in which the pathogenicity has been decreased through serial passage) have been proposed, but some researchers have questioned the possible effectiveness of such a vaccine. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "vaccination within 3 days of exposure will prevent or significantly lessen the severity of smallpox symptoms in the vast majority of people. Vaccination 4 to 7 days after exposure likely offers some protection from disease or may modify the severity of disease." This, along with vaccinations of so-called first-responders, is the current plan of action being devised by the United States Department of Homeland Security (including Federal Emergency Management Agency) in the United States.
Starting in early 2003, the United States government quietly started vaccinating 500,000 volunteer health care professionals, throughout the country. Vaccinees were healthcare workers in emergency departments, intensive care units, anesthesiologists, and health care workers in other settings who would be crucial first-line responders in the event of a bioterrorist attack using smallpox. Many healthcare workers refused, worried about vaccine side effects, but many others volunteered. It is unclear how many actually received the vaccine. In 2002, the Israeli army, in a similar attempt at mass vaccination, found many soldiers unwilling to volunteer.
In May 2007, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee of the FDA voted unanimously that a new live virus vaccine produced by Acambis, ACAM2000, is both safe and effective for use in persons at high risk of exposure to smallpox virus. However, due to the high rate of serious adverse effects, the vaccine will only be made available to the CDC (a part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services) for the Strategic National Stockpile.[64]
Other protection[edit]
Recent studies suggest the smallpox vaccine provides some level of defense against HIV. Both the smallpox vaccine and HIV exploit a receptor called CCR5, which is expressed on the surface of white blood cells. Researchers theorize that one factor in the sudden spread of HIV in the early 1980s was the result of successful eradication of smallpox in the late 1970s followed by an abrupt decline in smallpox vaccinations worldwide. The smallpox vaccine appeared to have been reducing HIV replication five-fold.[65]
Studies also show that smallpox vaccine is associated with a tendency for reduced risk of asthma,[66] and significantly reduced risk of malignant melanoma [67] and infectious disease hospitalizations.[68]
In low-income countries, having a smallpox vaccine scar has been associated with non-specific reductions of more than 40% in overall mortality among adults.[69][70] However no randomized trials testing the effect of smallpox vaccine on overall mortality and morbidity have been conducted.
Vaccine stockpiles[edit]
In late 2001, the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom considered stockpiling smallpox vaccines, even while assuring the public that there was no "specific or credible" threat of bioterrorism.[71] Later, the director of State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR warned that terrorists could easily lure underpaid former Soviet researchers to turn over samples to be used as a weapon, saying "All you need is a sick fanatic to get to a populated place. The world health system is completely unprepared for this."[72]
In the United Kingdom, controversy occurred regarding the company which had been contracted to supply the vaccine. This was because of the political connections of its owner, Paul Drayson, and questions over the choice of vaccine strain. The strain was different from that used in the United States.[73] Plans for mass vaccinations in the United States stalled as the necessity of the inoculation came into question.[74]
See also[edit]
Kinepox
John Clinch, first doctor to test the smallpox vaccine in North America
Eczema vaccinatum
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Rubin, Benjamin (1980). "A note on the development of the bifurcated needle for smallpox vaccination". WHO Chronicle. 34 (5): 180–1. PMID 7376638.
^ Jump up to: a b Baxby, Derrick (1999). "Edward Jenner's Inquiry; a bicentenary analysis". Vaccine. 17 (4): 301–7. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(98)00207-2. PMID 9987167.
^ Jump up to: a b Bailey, Ian (1996). "Edward Jenner (1749–1823); naturalist, scientist, country doctor, benefactor to mankind". Journal of Medical Biography. 4 (1): 63–70.
Jump up ^ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (eds) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 525–8. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Riedel, S (January 2005). "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center). 18 (1): 21–5. PMC 1200696  . PMID 16200144.
Jump up ^ J. Van Alphen; A. Aris (1995). "Medicine in India". Oriental Medicine: An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing. London: Serindia Publications. pp. 19–38. ISBN 0-906026-36-9.
Jump up ^ Needham J (1999). "Part 6, Medicine". Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 134.
Jump up ^ Temple R (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 0-671-62028-2.
Jump up ^ Silverstein, Arthur M. (2009). A History of Immunology (2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 293. .
Jump up ^ Voltaire (1742). "Letter XI". Letters on the English.
^ Jump up to: a b Behbehani AM (1983). "The smallpox story: life and death of an old disease". Microbiol Rev. 47 (4): 455–509. PMC 281588  . PMID 6319980.
Jump up ^ Aboul-Enein, Basil H.; Ross, Michael W.; Aboul-Enein, Faisal H. (2012). "Smallpox inoculation and the Ottoman contribution: A Brief Historiography". Texas Public Health Journal. 64 (1): 12.
Jump up ^ Livingstone, N. 2015. The Mistresses of Cliveden. Three centuries of scandal, power and intrigue (p. 229)
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Peter (1715). An Essay on External Remedies Wherein it is Considered, Whether all the curable Distempers incident to Human Bodies, may not be cured by Outward Means. London: A. Bell.
Jump up ^ Willoughby B (12 February 2004). "BLACK HISTORY MONTH II: Why Wasn't I Taught That?". Tolerance in the News. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Open Collections Program: Contagion, The Boston Smallpox Epidemic, 1721". Retrieved 27 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Fenner, F.; Henderson, D. A.; Arita, I.; Jezek, Z.; Ladnyi, I.D. (1988). Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156110-6. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Patrick (1974). The book of firsts. New York: C. N. Potter : distributed by Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-51577-6.
Jump up ^ "Montagu, Turkish Embassy Letters". Retrieved 4 December 2008.
Jump up ^ http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/london2001/august2001/18aug2001c/
Jump up ^ Blower S, Bernoulli D (2004). "An attempt at a new analysis of the mortality caused by smallpox and of the advantages of inoculation to prevent it. 1766" (PDF). Rev. Med. Virol. 14 (5): 275–88. doi:10.1002/rmv.443. PMID 15334536.
Jump up ^ See:
George Pearson, ed., An inquiry concerning the history of the cowpox, principally with a view to supersede and extinguish the smallpox (London, England: J. Johnson, 1798), pp. 102–104.
L. Thurston and G. Williams (2015) "An examination of John Fewster’s role in the discovery of smallpox vaccination," Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 45 : 173-179.
Jump up ^ Hammarsten, J. F.; Tattersall, W.; Hammarsten, J. E. (1979). "Who discovered smallpox vaccination? Edward Jenner or Benjamin Jesty?". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association. 90: 44–55. ISSN 0065-7778. PMC 2279376  . PMID 390826.
Jump up ^ Baxby, Derrick (1999). "Edward Jenner's unpublished cowpox Inquiry and the Royal Society: Everard Home's report to Sir Joseph Banks". Medical History. 43 (1): 108–110. doi:10.1017/S0025727300064747. PMC 1044113  . PMID 10885136.
^ Jump up to: a b c Baxby, Derrick (2001). Smallpox Vaccine, Ahead of Its Time – How the Late Development of Laboratory Methods and Other Vaccines Affected the Acceptance of Smallpox Vaccine. Berkeley, UK: Jenner Museum. pp. 12–16. ISBN 978-0-9528695-1-1.
Jump up ^ Baxby, Derrick (1981). Jenner's smallpox vaccine; the riddle of vaccinia virus and its origin. London: Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 0 435 54057 2.
Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002, p. 262–267
Jump up ^ Piercey, Terry (August 2002). "Plaque In Memory Of Rev. John Clinch". Retrieved 28 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Handcock, Gordon (1996). The Story of Trinity. Trinity: The Trinity Historical Society. p. 1. ISBN 098100170-X.
Jump up ^ Bazin, Hervé (2000). The Eradication of Smallpox. London: Academic Press. pp. 94–102. ISBN 0-12-083475-8.
Jump up ^ Rusnock, Andrea (2009). "Catching Cowpox: the early spread of smallpox vaccination". Bull. Hist. Med. 83 (1): 17–36. doi:10.1353/bhm.0.0160. PMID 19329840.
Jump up ^ Smith, Michael M (1970). "The 'Real Expedición Marítima de la Vacuna' in New Spain and Guatemala". Trans Amer. Phil. Soc. N.s. 64 (4): 1–74. doi:10.2307/1006158. JSTOR 1006158.
Jump up ^ Pead, Patrick P (2003). "Benjamin Jesty: new light in the dawn of vaccination". Lancet. 362 (9401): 2104–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15111-2. PMID 14697816.
Jump up ^ Plett, Peter C (2006). "Übrigen Entdecker der Kuhpockenimpfung vor Edward Jenner". Sudhoffs Arch. (in German). 90 (2): 219–32. JSTOR 20778029. PMID 17338405.
Jump up ^ Williams, Gareth (2010). Angel of Death; the story of smallpox. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 162–173. ISBN 978-0-230-27471-6.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988, p. 264.
Jump up ^ Williams p. 236–240.
Jump up ^ Williamson, Stanley (2007). The Vaccination Controversy; the rise, reign and decline of compulsory vaccination. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9781846310867.
Jump up ^ Williamson 2007, p. 202−213.
Jump up ^ Williamson 2007, p. 233–238.
Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002, p. 292–3.
Jump up ^ George, Newell A (1952). "Compulsory Smallpox Vaccination". Publ. Hlth. Rep. 67 (11): 1135–1138. doi:10.2307/4588305. JSTOR 4588305. PMC 2030845  . PMID 12993980.
Jump up ^ "A Brief Biography of Dr. Louis T. Wright". North by South: from Charleston to Harlem, the great migration. Retrieved 23 September 2006.
Jump up ^ "Spotlight on Black Inventors, Scientists, and Engineers". Department of Computer Science of Georgetown University. Archived from the original on 7 September 2006. Retrieved 23 September 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Copeman, S. Monckton (1898). "The Milroy Lectures on the Natural History of Vaccinia. Lecture III. Animal Vaccination". Br. Med. J. 1 (1951): 1312–18. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1951.1312. PMC 2411485  . PMID 20757828.
^ Jump up to: a b Dudgeon, J. A. (1963). "The Development of Smallpox Vaccine in England in the 18th and 19th Centuries". Br. Med. J. 1 (5342): 1367–72. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5342.1367. PMC 2124036  . PMID 20789814.
Jump up ^ Bazin 2000 p.122.
Jump up ^ Creighton, Charles (1887). The Natural History of Cowpox and Vaccinal Syphilis. London: Cassell.
Jump up ^ Copeman, S. Monckton. (1892). "The Bacteriology of Vaccine Lymph". In C. E. Shelley. Transactions of the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography. Eyre and Spottiswoode. pp. 319–326. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Copeman, P. W. M. (1998). "Extinction of the speckled monster celebrated in 1996". Journal of Medical Biography. 6 (1): 39–42. PMID 11619875.
Jump up ^ Dixon, C. W. (1962). Smallpox. London: J. & A. Churchill. pp. 280–81.
Jump up ^ (Special Commission) (1900). "Report of the Lancet Special Commission on Glycerinated Calf Lymph Vaccines". Lancet. 155 (4000): 1227–36. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)96895-3.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988, pp. 543–5.
Jump up ^ Collier, L H (1955). "The development of a stable smallpox vaccine". The Journal of hygiene. 53 (1): 76–101. doi:10.1017/S002217240000053X. ISSN 0022-1724. PMC 2217800  . PMID 14367805.
Jump up ^ "Professor Leslie Collier". The Telegraph. 22 March 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988, pp. 545, 550.
Jump up ^ Baxby, Derrick (2005). "Development of a heat stable smallpox vaccine. Collier, L. J Hyg 1955. 53; 76–101". Epidemiol. Infect. 133 (Suppl. 1): S25–S27. doi:10.1017/S0950268805004280.
Jump up ^ Kirkup, John R (2006). The Evolution of Surgical Instruments. Novato, California: Norman Publishing. pp. 419–37. ISBN 0-930405-86-2.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988, pp. 472–3, 568–72.
Jump up ^ Henderson, D. A. (2009). Smallpox; the death of a disease. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-1-59102-722-5.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988 pp. 526–37.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988 pp. 1261–2.
Jump up ^ Fenner et al 1988 pp. 1273–6.
Jump up ^ "Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee Meeting". Food and Drug Administration. 17 May 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Weinstein, RS; Weinstein, MM; Alibek, K; Bukrinsky, MI; Brichacek, B (2010). "Significantly reduced CCR5-tropic HIV-1 replication in vitro in cells from subjects previously immunized with Vaccinia Virus". BMC Immunology. 11: 23. doi:10.1186/1471-2172-11-23. PMC 2881106  . PMID 20482754. Lay summary (17 May 2010).
Jump up ^ Bager, P; Westergaard, T; Rostgaard, K; Nielsen, NM; Melbye, M; Aaby, P (June 2003). "Smallpox vaccination and risk of allergy and asthma". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 111 (6): 1227–31. doi:10.1067/mai.2003.1483. PMID 12789221.
Jump up ^ Pfahlberg, A; Kolmel, KF; Grange, JM; Mastrangelo, G; Krone, B; Botev, IN (September 2002). "Inverse association between melanoma and previous vaccinations against tuberculosis and smallpox: results of the FEBIM study". J Invest Dermatol. 119 (3): 570–5. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.00643.x. PMID 12230497.
Jump up ^ Sorup, S; Villumsen, M; Ravn, H; Benn, CS; Sorensen, TI; Aaby, P (August 2011). "Smallpox vaccination and all-cause infectious disease hospitalization: a Danish register-based cohort study". Int J Epidemiol. 40 (4): 955–63. doi:10.1093/ije/dyr063. PMID 21543446.
Jump up ^ Jensen, ML; Dave, S; Schim van der Loeff, M; da Costa, C; Vincent, T; Leligdowicz, A (2006). "Vaccinia scars associated with improved survival among adults in rural Guinea-Bissau". PLOS ONE. 1 (101): e101. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000101. PMC 1762358  . PMID 17183634.
Jump up ^ Aaby, P; Gustafson, P; Roth, A; Rodrigues, A; Fernandes, M; Sodemann, M (17 July 2006). "Vaccinia scars associated with better survival for adults. An observational study from Guinea-Bissau". Vaccine. 24 (29-30): 5718–25. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.04.045. PMID 16720061.
Jump up ^ Womack, Sara (22 October 2001). "Talks on medicines to fight bio-terrorism". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 23 November 2007.
Jump up ^ Aris B, Highfield R, Broughton PD (6 November 2001). "Warning of smallpox terror risk". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Elliott, Francis (14 April 2002). "Labour claims unravel over vaccine deal". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 4 December 2008.
Jump up ^ DeBoer, Kara (20 May 2002). "Study: Should America vaccinate?". The Michigan Daily. Retrieved 23 November 2007.
Further reading[edit]
Metzger W, Mordmueller BG (2007). Metzger, Wolfram, ed. "Vaccines for preventing smallpox". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD004913. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004913.pub2. PMID 17636779.
External links[edit]
Smallpox Vaccine: Contraindications, Administration, and Adverse Reactions
CDC Smallpox Home
Quick Guide to Preexposure Smallpox Vaccination
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article on Vaccination
Early smallpox Vaccination Certificate Norway 1821 Norwegian and English Text
[show]
v
t
e
Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, Infection, Inoculation (J07)
Development
Adjuvants
List of vaccine ingredients
Mathematical modelling
Timeline
Trials
Classes
Conjugate vaccine
DNA vaccination
Inactivated vaccine
Live vector vaccine
Attenuated vaccine
Heterologous vaccine
Subunit/component / Peptide / Virus-like particle
Toxoid
Administration
Global:
GAVI Alliance
Policy
Schedule
Vaccine injury
USA:
ACIP
Vaccine court
Vaccines for Children Program
VAERS
VSD
Vaccines
Bacterial
Anthrax
Brucellosis
Cholera#
Diphtheria#
Hib#
Leptospirosis
Lyme disease‡
Meningococcus#
MeNZB
NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
Pertussis#
Plague
Pneumococcal#
PCV
PPSV
Q fever
Tetanus#
Tuberculosis
BCG#
Typhoid#
Ty21a
ViCPS
Typhus
combination: DTwP/DTaP
Viral
Adenovirus
Flu#
H1N1 (Pandemrix)
LAIV
Hantavirus
Hepatitis A#
Hepatitis B#
Hepatitis E
HPV
Cervarix
Gardasil
Japanese encephalitis#
Measles#
Mumps#
Mumpsvax
Polio#
Sabin
Salk
Rabies#
Rotavirus#
Rubella#
Smallpox
Dryvax
Tick-borne encephalitis
Varicella zoster
chicken pox#
Zoster vaccine
Yellow fever#
combination:
MMR
MMRV
research:
Chikungunya
Cytomegalovirus
Dengue
Ebola
Epstein–Barr virus
Hepatitis C
HIV
Protozoan
Malaria
RTS,S
research:
Trypanosomiasis
Helminthiasis
research:
Hookworm
Schistosomiasis
Other
Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
Cancer vaccines
ALVAC-CEA
Hepatitis B#
HPV
Cervarix
Gardasil
NicVAX
Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
TA-CD
TA-NIC
Controversy
General
MMR
NCVIA
Pox party
Thiomersal
Andrew Wakefield
Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
Alternative vaccination schedule
Related
Epidemiology
Eradication of infectious diseases
Every Child by Two
List of vaccine topics
#WHO-EM
‡Withdrawn from market
Clinical trials:
†Phase III
§Never to phase III
Authority control
NDL: 00572464
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smallpox_vaccine&oldid=810441156"
Categories:
Smallpox vaccines
Smallpox
Vaccines
Vaccinia
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
CS1 German-language sources (de)
Articles needing additional references from May 2013
All articles needing additional references
Use dmy dates from May 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
অসমীয়া
Deutsch
Esperanto
فارسی
한국어
Italiano
മലയാളം
မြန်မာဘာသာ
日本語
Português
Suomi
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 November 2017, at 07:29.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: td

value: b

attrs: class href

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: i

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Ming_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Ming Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Mary_Wortley_Montagu
mw-redirect
Mary Wortley Montagu

values:
/wiki/British_Royal_Family
mw-redirect
British Royal Family

values: color:#b2b7f2; font-size:3.3em; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:4px 2px 2px; width:0.5em; line-height: 1em;

values: color:#b2b7f2; font-size:3.3em; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:4px 2px 2px; text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom; width:0.5em; line-height: 1em;

values: padding-top:10px; font-size:smaller; line-height:1em; text-align:right;

values: border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; float:left; margin:0.5em 0.75em; width:33%;

values:
/wiki/Salem_witch_trial
mw-redirect
Salem witch trial

values:
/wiki/Germ_theory
mw-redirect
Germ theory

values:
/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister
mw-redirect
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Sir_Joseph_Banks
mw-redirect
Sir Joseph Banks

values:
/wiki/Vaccinia_virus
mw-redirect
Vaccinia virus

values: Edit section: Developments in vaccine production and inoculation

values:
/wiki/Sydney_Arthur_Monckton_Copeman
mw-redirect
Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman

values:
/wiki/Janet_Parker
mw-redirect
Janet Parker

values: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

values: State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology

values: Edit section: Post-eradication vaccination

values: United States Department of Homeland Security

values:
/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration
mw-redirect
U.S. Food and Drug Administration

values: United States Department of Health and Human Services

values:
/wiki/Malignant_melanoma
mw-redirect
Malignant melanoma

values:
/wiki/Paul_Drayson
mw-redirect
Paul Drayson

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7376638

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9987167

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16200144

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/11.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6319980

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Frmv.443

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15334536

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0065-7778

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/390826

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10885136

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1353%2Fbhm.0.0160

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19329840

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1006158

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1006158

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14697816

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/20778029

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17338405

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F4588305

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4588305

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12993980

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.1.1951.1312

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20757828

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.1.5342.1367

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20789814

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11619875

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1017%2FS002217240000053X

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1724

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14367805

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20482754

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1067%2Fmai.2003.1483

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12789221

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12230497

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyr063

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21543446

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17183634

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16720061

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17636779

values: Mathematical modelling of infectious disease

values:
/wiki/GAVI_Alliance
mw-redirect
GAVI Alliance

values: Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices

values:
/wiki/Leptospirosis_vaccine
mw-redirect
Leptospirosis vaccine

values:
/wiki/Lyme_disease_vaccine
mw-redirect
Lyme disease vaccine

values:
/wiki/Q_fever_vaccine
mw-redirect
Q fever vaccine

values:
/wiki/Hepatitis_E_vaccine
mw-redirect
Hepatitis E vaccine

values:
/wiki/Sabin_polio_vaccine
mw-redirect
Sabin polio vaccine

values:
/wiki/Salk_polio_vaccine
mw-redirect
Salk polio vaccine

values:
/wiki/Chikungunya_vaccine
mw-redirect
Chikungunya vaccine

values: Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services

values:
/wiki/Every_Child_by_Two
mw-redirect
Every Child by Two

values:
navbox-abovebelow
2
background: transparent; padding: 0px;

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2013

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: বৰআই ছিটা – Assamese

values: واکسن آبله – Persian

values: വസൂരി വാക്‌സിൻ – Malayalam

values: ကျောက်ဆေးထိုးခြင်း – Burmese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Smallpox_vaccine rootpage-Smallpox_vaccine vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Gabelli School of Business
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gabelli School of Business
Motto
Sapientia et Doctrina
(Latin for Wisdom and Learning)
Type
Private, Independent, Catholic, Jesuit
Established
1920
Parent institution
Fordham University
President
Joseph M. McShane, S.J.
Dean
Donna M. Rapaccioli, Ph.D.
Academic staff
254 full-time[1][2]
Undergraduates
2,024[3]
Postgraduates
1,828[4]
Location
New York City and West Harrison, New York, USA
Campus
Lincoln Center (Manhattan):
Urban, 8 acres (32,000 m2)
Westchester (West Harrison):
Suburban, 32 acres, Rose Hill (Bronx)
Colors
Maroon and White
Mascot
Ram
Website
www.fordham.edu/business
The Gabelli School of Business is the undergraduate and graduate business schools of Fordham University, the Jesuit University of New York. Fordham University's involvement in business started early in the 20th century with the founding of the School of Business in 1920. The Gabelli School of Business has been an AACSB-accredited business school for over 50 years, is a partner with the CFA Institute. As of March 2015, it incorporated the former Fordham Graduate School of Business.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Campus
3 Academics
4 Research centers
5 Rankings
6 Admissions
7 Student life
8 Notable alumni
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
The Gabelli School of Business was established in 1920 in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, and is now located on Fordham's Rose Hill campus in the Bronx as well as on the Lincoln Center campus in Manhattan.[5] Fordham established itself as a provider of graduate business education in 1969, with the launch of its first master's degree programs at the Lincoln Center campus. For more than 40 years, the undergraduate and graduate business schools were separate entities, until the University administration made the decision in 2014 to begin a yearlong process of unifying them with a single identity and one dean.[6]
The Graduate School of Business opened in 1969 as part of the redevelopment of Lincoln Center.[7] The Graduate School of Business was part of a consortium offering an MBA at Peking University in Beijing China from 1998-2008 and was replaced by Vlerick University. This program, known as BiMBA (Beijing international MBA), was listed by Forbes Magazine as one of the most valuable Chinese programs.[8]
Campus[edit]
Former Fordham Law School building on Lincoln Center campus, now home to Gabelli School of Business
Former College Board headquarters on Lincoln Center campus, now home to professor and administrator offices
Hughes Hall on the Rose Hill campus, home to Gabelli School of Business
The school is housed across two campuses: in Hughes Hall on the Rose Hill campus, and at Lincoln Center, in the former Law School building and at 45 Columbus Avenue (former College Board headquarters in Manhattan bought by Fordham in 2014,[9][10] that is located right across the street from the former Law School building).[11] The former Law School building reopened as the "140 W. 62nd St." building of the Lincoln Center campus in Summer 2016. It is primarily the building for the Gabelli School of Business at Lincoln Center, but it is shared with the Quinn Library, student clubs offices, Argo Tea, Health Services, Student Leadership, Multicultural Affairs and Counseling.[12]
Academics[edit]
The Gabelli School of Business offers undergraduate day and evening programs that lead to Bachelor of Science degrees in Finance, Public Accounting, Marketing, Applied Accounting and Finance, Accounting Information Systems, and Management of Information and Communications Systems (MICS).
Within the Master of Business Administration (MBA) program, concentrations are offered in Accounting, Communications and Media Management, Finance and Business Economics, Information Systems, Management Systems, Marketing, Public Accounting and Taxation/Accounting (MTA Program). Within the Master of Science (MS) programs, degrees are awarded in Accounting, Business Enterprise (MBE), Information Technology (MSIS), Accounting, Investor Relations (IR), Media Management, Taxation, Quantitative Finance, Global Finance, and 3 Continent Master of Science in Global Management (3CMGM), Business Analytics (MSBA), Marketing Intelligence (MSMI), and MS in Media Entrepreneurship (MSME).
Special Programs include:
Executive MBA
Deming Scholars MBA
Global Professional MBA
Joint JD/MBA
ESADE Business School in Barcelona
Ph.D in Business Administration
The Gabelli School's first cohort of Ph.D. students will begin the school's first doctoral program in the Fall of 2016.[13]
Research centers[edit]
Research centers at Fordham Business School include:[14]
Center for Communications
Center for Digital Transformation
Center for Humanistic Management
Center for Positive Marketing
Center for Research in Contemporary Finance
Consortium for Trustworthy Organizations
Frank J. Petrilli Center for Research in International Finance
Fordham University Pricing Center
Gabelli Center for Global Security Analysis
Global Healthcare Innovation Management Center
Rankings[edit]
Bloomberg Best Undergraduate Business Schools ranking (2016): #27 Undergraduate Business Program.
Bloomberg Best Business Schools ranking (2015): #72 MBA Full-Time Program,[15] and #64 MBA Part-time Program.[16]
Businessweek undergraduate ranking (2014): #38[17] Businessweek undergraduate subject area rankings (2013): International business #7, Marketing #11, Corporate strategy #16, Finance #17, Sustainability #22 and Entrepreneurship #25.[18]
In the 2012 Financial Times EMBA Rankings, the Fordham EMBA program was ranked 72nd in the world.[19] The program saw significant gains in the percentage of women in the faculty and cohort, the professional experience and objectives achieved by the cohort and the average alumni salary after graduation.[20]
In the 2012 Bloomberg Businessweek EMBA Rankings, the Fordham EMBA Program was ranked 39th in the US.[21]
In the 2011 Financial Times EMBA Rankings, the Fordham EMBA program was ranked equal 67th in the world.[22]
In 2010, CEO Magazine has ranked Fordham in the Top Tier (Top 25) for the Executive MBA (EMBA) program in the North America. In 2008, The Wall Street Journal ranked Fordham Executive MBA in Top 30.[23]
In 2009, BusinessWeek ranks Fordham MBA 5th in the Northeast & 55th nationally.[24]
The school was ranked 27th in both the 2006 and 2007 rankings of regional schools conducted by The Wall Street Journal / Harris Interactive, based on its annual survey of corporate recruiters.[25]
Admissions[edit]
Admissions decisions are made on a holistic basis that considers academic record, standardized test scores, accomplishments outside of the classroom, recommendations, and essays. The average SAT score (math + verbal only) is 1302.[26] The average GMAT score is 603.[27]
According to BusinessWeek's MBA Profile, between the New York City and Westchester campuses, the school has 349 full-time students and 1,202 part-time students.[28]
Student life[edit]
Gabelli School of Business has over 50 active student clubs.[29][30] Gabelli School of Business also organizes many business conferences each year.
Notable alumni[edit]
Main article: List of Fordham University alumni
There are more than 35,000 Fordham School of Business alumni.[31]
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
Mario Gabelli, CBA '65, Founder, Chairman, CEO and Chief Investment Officer, GAMCO Investors.
Stephen J. Hemsley, CBA '74, CEO of UnitedHealth Group
Maria Elena Lagomasino, GBA '77, CEO (2001–2005) of JP Morgan Private Bank; Board of Directors, Coca-Cola
Lorenzo Mendoza, CEO of Empresas Polar.
Angelo R. Mozilo, CBA '60, Co-Founder, Chairman and CEO, Countrywide Financial Corporation[32]
Eugene Shvidler, GBA (MBA and MS in International Taxation).
Robert Campbell, Retired Vice Chairman, Board of Trustees, Johnson & Johnson.[33]
Jack Keane, Co-Founder and Senior Managing Director, Keane Advisors; Retired 4-star General and Former Vice Chief of Staff-US Army
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20456/about/2954/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20481/about/3369/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20456/about/2954/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20481/about/3369/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/academics/colleges__graduate_s/undergraduate_colleg/college_of_business_/index.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20449/about/3540/past_and_future
Jump up ^ As I Remember Fordham, 1991. Pg 1-3.
Jump up ^ BizDeans Talk web article
Jump up ^ http://therealdeal.com/blog/2014/08/05/fordham-university-closes-on-49-6m-property/
Jump up ^ http://commercialobserver.com/2014/08/fordham-closes-on-new-space-near-lincoln-center/
Jump up ^ http://news.fordham.edu/business-and-economics/donna-rapaccioli-named-dean-of-fordhams-unified-gabelli-school-of-business/
Jump up ^ http://www.fordhamobserver.com/fordham-purchases-new-space-on-columbus-ave/
Jump up ^ http://fordhamram.com/2015/11/11/gabelli-introduces-doctorate-program/
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20449/about/3539/research_centers
Jump up ^ https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2015-best-business-schools
Jump up ^ https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2015-best-business-schools/
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20456/about/2954/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20456/about/2954/fast_facts
Jump up ^ "Business school rankings from the Financial Times - FT.com". rankings.ft.com. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
Jump up ^ http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/emba-ranking-2012
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2015-11-02.
Jump up ^ http://rankings.ft.com/exportranking/emba-rankings-2011/pdf
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-07-17. Retrieved 2009-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2015-11-02.
Jump up ^ Where the Schools Rank, Wall Street Journal. Accessed January 3, 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20456/about/2954/fast_facts
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20481/about/3369/fast_facts
Jump up ^ BusinessWeek profile
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20479/undergraduate_student_organizations
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/20494/graduate_student_organizations
Jump up ^ http://www.fordham.edu/info/21535/business_analytics/3317/careers
Jump up ^ Biography
Jump up ^ http://legacy.fordham.edu/campus_resources/enewsroom/inside_fordham/january_28_2008/news/cba_alumnus_makes_$1_29104.asp
External links[edit]
Official website
[hide]
v
t
e
Fordham University
Schools
Business
Law
Graduate
Arts and Sciences
Business
Social Service
Education
Religion and Religious Education
Liberal Studies
Marymount (defunct)
Preparatory School
Campuses
Rose Hill
Lincoln Center
Westchester
Research
Walsh Library
Louis Calder Center
William Spain Seismic Observatory
Buildings
Rose Hill Gymnasium
Duane Library
Keating Hall
Blue Chapel
Tierney Hall
University Church
Culture
History
Alumni
Notable faculty
Presidents
Commencement speakers
Athletics
Fordham Rams
Patriot League
A-10
Baseball
Men's basketball
Women's basketball
football
Rugby Football
Men's Soccer
The Liberty Cup
Ram–Crusader Cup
Seven Blocks of Granite
Media
WFUV
University Press
The Fordham Ram
Law Review
Urban Law Journal
Environmental Law Review
International Law Journal
Journal of Corporate & Financial Law
Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal
Fordham University portal
New York City portal
University portal
Catholicism portal
Coordinates: 40°51′36″N 73°53′28″W / 40.860°N 73.891°W / 40.860; -73.891
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gabelli_School_of_Business&oldid=835208753"
Categories:
Business schools in New York (state)
Educational institutions established in 1920
Fordham University schools
1920 establishments in New York (state)
Hidden categories:
Dynamic lists
Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia
Coordinates on Wikidata
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 7 April 2018, at 07:24.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: caption

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: th

attrs: scope style

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Latin_language
mw-redirect
Latin language

attrs: href title

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

values:
/wiki/University_president
mw-redirect
University president

values:
/wiki/Joseph_M._McShane,_S.J.
mw-redirect
Joseph M. McShane, S.J.

values:
/wiki/Maroon_(color)
mw-redirect
Maroon (color)

values: background-color:#800000; color:white; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;

values: background-color:#FFFFFF; color:black; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.fordham.edu/business

values:
/wiki/Bronx,_New_York
mw-redirect
Bronx, New York

values:
/wiki/Lincoln_Center
mw-redirect
Lincoln Center

values:
/wiki/Harris_Interactive
mw-redirect
Harris Interactive

values:
/wiki/Board_of_Directors
mw-redirect
Board of Directors

values:
/wiki/Countrywide_Financial_Corporation
mw-redirect
Countrywide Financial Corporation

values:
/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal
mw-redirect
Wall Street Journal

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.fordham.edu/business

values: background-color:#95003A;color:white;-moz-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;

values: background-color:#95003A;color:white;-moz-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #BBBBBB, inset -2px -2px 0 #BBBBBB;;width:1%

values: Fordham Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

values: Fordham Graduate School of Social Service

values: Fordham College of Liberal Studies, Fordham University

values:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: William Spain Seismic Observatory, Fordham University

values: List of Fordham University commencement speakers

values:
/wiki/The_Fordham_Ram
mw-redirect
The Fordham Ram

values: Fordham Journal of Corporate & Financial Law

values: Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values: Category:Business schools in New York (state)

values: Category:Educational institutions established in 1920

values: Category:1920 establishments in New York (state)

values: Category:Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Gabelli_School_of_Business
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Gabelli_School_of_Business rootpage-Gabelli_School_of_Business skin-vector action-view


text:
The Ninth Gate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Ninth Gate
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Roman Polanski
Produced by
Roman Polanski
Screenplay by
John Brownjohn
Roman Polanski
Enrique Urbizu
Based on
The Club Dumas
by Arturo Pérez-Reverte
Starring
Johnny Depp
Lena Olin
Frank Langella
James Russo
Jack Taylor
Emmanuelle Seigner
Music by
Wojciech Kilar
Cinematography
Darius Khondji
Edited by
Hervé de Luze
Production
company
Canal+
Distributed by
Bac Films (France)
Araba Films (Spain)
Artisan Entertainment (US)
Release date
25 August 1999 (1999-08-25) (France)
27 August 1999 (1999-08-27) (Spain)
10 March 2000 (2000-03-10) (United States)
Running time
133 minutes[1]
Country
Portugal
France
Spain
United States
Language
English
French
Latin
Portuguese
Spanish
Budget
$38 million
Box office
$58.4 million
The Ninth Gate is a 1999 mystery thriller film directed, produced, and co-written by Roman Polanski. An international co-production between the United States, Portugal, France, and Spain, the film is loosely based upon Arturo Pérez-Reverte's 1993 novel The Club Dumas. The plot involves the search for a rare and ancient book that purportedly contains a magical secret for summoning the Devil. The premiere showing was at San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999, a month before the 47th San Sebastian International Film Festival. Though critically and commercially unsuccessful in North America, where reviewers compared it unfavorably with Polanski's celebrated supernatural film Rosemary's Baby (1968), The Ninth Gate earned a worldwide gross of $58.4 million against a $38 million budget.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Soundtrack
5 Release
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Balkan shows his 17th-century copy of The Nine Gates to Corso.
Dean Corso (Johnny Depp), a New York City rare book dealer, makes his living conning people into selling him valuable antique books for a low price, and then re-selling them to private collectors. Corso meets with wealthy book collector Boris Balkan (Frank Langella), who has recently acquired a copy of the (fictional) book The Nine Gates of the Kingdom of Shadows by 17th-century author Aristide Torchia, one of only three extant copies. The book is an adaptation of one written by the Devil himself and purportedly contains the means to summon the Devil and acquire invincibility and immortality. Balkan believes two of the copies are forgeries. He hires Corso to check all three and acquire the legitimate one by any means necessary.
Balkan's copy was acquired from Andrew Telfer (Willy Holt), who killed himself soon after. Telfer's widow Liana (Lena Olin) seduces Corso, in a failed attempt to get the book back. Meanwhile, Corso leaves the book for safekeeping with bookseller Bernie Rothstein (James Russo), who is then murdered; his corpse is found posed like an engraving in The Nine Gates.
Corso travels to Toledo, Spain. The Ceniza brothers, book restorers, show him that three of the engravings are signed "LCF". Corso deduces that Lucifer himself designed and cut them. Corso travels to Sintra, Portugal, to compare Victor Fargas' (Jack Taylor) copy of the book to Balkan's. To Corso's surprise, he discovers that the signature "LCF" is found in three different engravings, which vary in small but significant details from the images in the Balkan copy. The next morning, a mysterious young woman (identified only as "the Girl") (Emmanuelle Seigner) who appears to have been shadowing Corso since Balkan hired him, awakens Corso and leads him to Fargas' house. He finds the old man murdered and the "LCF"-signed engravings ripped out of that copy.
In Paris, Corso visits the Baroness Kessler (Barbara Jefford), who owns the third copy. At first, the Baroness refuses to cooperate, but Corso intrigues her with evidence that the engravings differ among the three copies. He explains his idea: each copy contains three different "LCF"-signed engravings, therefore all three copies are required for the ritual. Corso finds "LCF" on three different engravings in the Baroness's book, confirming his theory.
Kessler is killed, and the Girl rescues Corso from Liana's bodyguard. When Liana steals Balkan's copy from Corso's hotel room, he follows her, and witnesses her using the book in a Satanist ceremony. Balkan suddenly interrupts the ceremony, kills Liana, and leaves with the engraved pages and his own intact copy.
Corso pursues Balkan to a remote castle, depicted in one of the engravings, and finds Balkan preparing the final ritual. After a struggle, Balkan traps Corso in a hole in the floor. Balkan performs his summoning ritual: he arranges the engravings on a makeshift altar, and recites a series of phrases related to each of the nine engravings. Balkan then douses the floor and himself with gasoline and sets it alight, believing himself to be immune to suffering. Balkan's invocation fails, and he screams in pain as the flames engulf him. Corso frees himself, shoots Balkan, takes the engravings, and escapes.
Outside, the Girl appears and has sex with him by the light of the burning castle, her eyes and face seeming to change as she writhes on top of Corso. She tells him that Balkan failed because the ninth engraving he had used was a forgery. On her suggestion before she disappears, Corso returns to the Ceniza brothers' now vacant shop. By chance, he finds there the authentic ninth engraving. On it, there is a likeness of the Girl. With the last engraving in hand, Corso returns to the castle. He completes the ritual and crosses through the Ninth Gate into the light.
Cast[edit]
Johnny Depp as Dean Corso
Lena Olin as Liana Telfer
Frank Langella as Boris Balkan
Emmanuelle Seigner as The Girl
James Russo as Bernie Rothstein
Jack Taylor as Victor Fargas
José López Rodero as Pablo & Pedro Ceniza/1st & 2nd Workmen
Allen Garfield as Witkin
Barbara Jefford as Baroness Frida Kessler
Willy Holt as Andrew Telfer
Catherine Benguigui as The concierge
Tony Amoni as Liana's bodyguard
Maria Ducceshi as The secretary
Production[edit]
Roman Polanski read the screenplay by Enrique Urbizu, an adaptation of the Spanish novel El Club Dumas (The Club Dumas, 1993), by Arturo Pérez-Reverte. Impressed with the script, Polanski read the novel, liking it because he "saw so many elements that seemed good for a movie. It was suspenseful, funny, and there were a great number of secondary characters that are tremendously cinematic".[2] Pérez-Reverte's novel, El Club Dumas features intertwined plots, so Polanski wrote his own adaptation with his usual partner, John Brownjohn (Tess, Pirates and Bitter Moon). They deleted the novel's literary references and a sub-plot about Corso's investigation of an original manuscript of a chapter of The Three Musketeers and concentrated upon Dean Corso's pursuing the authentic copy of The Nine Gates.[2]
Polanski approached the subject skeptically, saying, "I don't believe in the occult. I don't believe. Period."[3] Yet he enjoyed the genre. "There [are] a great number of clichés of this type in The Ninth Gate, which I tried to turn around a bit. You can make them appear serious on the surface, but you cannot help but laugh at them."[3] The appeal of the film was that it featured "a mystery in which a book is the leading character" and its engravings "are also essential clues".[4]
In reading El Club Dumas, Polanski pictured Johnny Depp as "Dean Corso", who joined the production as early as 1997, when he met Polanski at the Cannes Film Festival, while promoting The Brave, his directorial debut, then in festival competition.[5] Initially, he did not think Depp right as "Corso", because the character was forty years old (Depp at the time was only 34). He considered an older actor, but Depp persisted; he wanted to work with Roman Polanski.[6]
The film press reported, around the time of the North American release of The Ninth Gate, creative friction between Depp and Polanski. Depp said, "It's the director's job to push, to provoke things out of an actor".[6] Polanski said of Depp, "He decided to play it rather flat, which wasn't how I envisioned it; and I didn't tell him it wasn't how I saw it". Visually, in the neo-noir genre style, rare-book dealer Dean Corso's disheveled grooming derives from Philip Marlowe, Raymond Chandler's quintessential literary private investigator.[3]
Polanski cast Frank Langella as Boris Balkan based upon his performance as Clare Quilty in Lolita (1997), directed by Adrian Lyne. Barbara Jefford was a last-minute replacement for the German actress originally cast as the Baroness Frida Kessler, who fell sick with pneumonia, and after a second actress proved unable to learn the character's dialogue; with only days' notice, Barbara Jefford learned her part, spoken with a German accent.[2] Depp met his long-time partner Vanessa Paradis during the shooting.
Filming[edit]
Château de Ferrières, Ferrières-en-Brie, Seine-et-Marne, France
The Ninth Gate was filmed in France, Portugal, and Spain in the summer of 1998. Selected prominent buildings in the film are:
Chalet Biester, Sintra, Portugal (as mansion of book collector Victor Fargas)
Château de Ferrières, Seine-et-Marne, France (as mansion owned by Liana Telfer)
Château de Puivert, Aude, France (castle seen in the closing scenes of the film)
Château des Cathares, Ariège, France
Calle Buzones in Toledo, Spain (street with Ceniza Brothers' bookshop)[7]
Soundtrack[edit]
The Ninth Gate (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)
Soundtrack album by Wojciech Kilar
Released
November 16, 1999
Recorded
March 1999
Studio
"Smecky" Studios, Prague
Genre
Soundtrack
Length
53:58
Label
Silva Screen SSD 1103
Producer
Reynold da Silva, Gwen Bethel
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [8]
Filmtracks [9]
The musical score for The Ninth Gate was composed by Wojciech Kilar, who previously collaborated with Polanski on Death and the Maiden (1994). The film's main theme is loosely based upon Havanaise, for violin and orchestra, by Camille Saint-Saëns;[10] some of the score is a vocalise by Korean soprano Sumi Jo.[11] A soundtrack album was released on November 16, 1999 via Silva Screen label.
Vocalise: "Theme from the Ninth Gate" – 3:56
"Opening Titles" – 3:31
"Corso" – 3:24
"Bernie is Dead" – 4:31
"Liana" – 3:03
"Plane to Spain" – 4:48
"The Motorbike" – 1:18
"Missing Books" - 4:41
"Blood on His Face" – 1:13
"Chateau Saint Martin" – 4:05
"Liana's Death" – 2:38
"Boo! / The Chase" – 4:29
"Balkan's Death" – 3:52
"The Ninth Gate" – 1:13
"Corso and the Girl" – 3:20
Vocalise: Theme from the Ninth Gate (Reprise) – 3:56
Release[edit]
Box office[edit]
The premiere screening of The Ninth Gate was in San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999; in North America, it appeared in 1,586 cinemas during the March 10th, 2000 weekend, earning a gross income of $6.6 million, and $18.6 million in total. Worldwide, it earned $58.4 million against a $38 million production budget.[12]
Critical response[edit]
The film received mixed reviews. The Ninth Gate holds a 41% rating at Rotten Tomatoes and a metascore of 44 on Metacritic. Most movie reviewers said that the suspense in The Ninth Gate was less than that of Rosemary's Baby (1968), director Polanski's famous supernatural-themed film. Roger Ebert said the ending was lackluster, "while at the end, I didn't yearn for spectacular special effects, I did wish for spectacular information — something awesome, not just a fade-to-white".[13] In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell said the movie was "about as scary as a sock-puppet re-enactment of The Blair Witch Project, and not nearly as funny".[14] Entertainment Weekly rated the film "D+", and Lisa Schwarzbaum said it had an "aroma of middle-brow, art-house Euro-rot, a whiff of decay and hauteur in a film not even a star as foxed, and foxy, as Johnny Depp, himself, could save".[15] In the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan said the film was "too laid-back, and unconcerned about the pacing of its story to be satisfying", because "a thriller that's not high-powered, is an intriguing concept, in reality it can hold our attention for only so long".[16] In the Village Voice, J. Hoberman said the film was "barely releasable hokum, stuffed with cheesy blah-blah".[17] European reviews were generally more attentive and praised the film's fine pace and irony.[18][19]
In Sight and Sound magazine, Phillip Strick said it was "not particularly liked at first outing — partly because Johnny Depp, in fake grey temples, personifies the odious Corso of the book a little too accurately — the film is intricately well-made, deserves a second chance, despite its disintegrations, and, in time, will undoubtedly acquire its own coven of heretical fans".[20]
In Time magazine, Richard Corliss said that The Ninth Gate was Polanski's most accessible effort "since fleeing the U.S. soon after Chinatown".[21]
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Bob Graham said that "Depp is the best reason to see Polanski's satanic thriller" and "Polanski's sly sense of film-noir conventions pokes fun at the genre, while, at the same time, honoring it".[22]
On his website Groucho Reviews, web critic Peter Canavese called the film "an insinuating trip into devilish darkness" and a "sorely underrated occult mystery".[23]
After the release of The Ninth Gate, Artisan sued Polanski for taking more than $1 million from the budget, refunds of France's value-added tax that he did not give to the completion bond company guaranteeing Artisan Entertainment a completed film.[24]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "THE NINTH GATE (15)". British Board of Film Classification. 17 January 2000. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hartl, John (March 5, 2000). "The Ninth Gate Marks Return for Polanski". Seattle Times.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howell, Peter (March 3, 2000). "Polanski's Demons". Toronto Star.
Jump up ^ Arnold, Gary (March 11, 2000). "Polanski's Dark Side". Washington Times.
Jump up ^ Archerd, Army (February 10, 1998). "Polanski opens Gate". Variety.
^ Jump up to: a b Schaefer, Stephen (March 10, 2000). "The Devil and Roman Polanski". Boston Herald.
Jump up ^ www.imdb.com Filming locations for The Ninth Gate. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
Jump up ^ Phares, Heather. The Ninth Gate at AllMusic
Jump up ^ Filmtracks review
Jump up ^ "The Ninth Gate (1999) - Soundtracks". Retrieved May 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Phares, Heather. "The Ninth Gate". allmusic.com. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ "The Ninth Gate". Box Office Mojo. May 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (March 10, 2000). "The Ninth Gate". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Elvis (March 10, 2000). "Off to Hell in a Handbasket, Trusty Book in Hand". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
Jump up ^ Schwarzbaum, Lisa (March 17, 2000). "The Ninth Gate". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ Turan, Kenneth (March 10, 2000). "The Ninth Gate". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 29 September 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ Hoberman, J (March 14, 2000). "Missions Impossible". Village Voice. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ cinema.de
Jump up ^ kino.de
Jump up ^ Strick, Philip (September 2000). "The Ninth Gate". Sight and Sound. Archived from the original on 14 February 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (March 27, 2000). "The Ninth Gate". Time. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ Graham, Bob (March 10, 2000). "Summoning Silliness". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ http://www.grouchoreviews.com/reviews/3537
Jump up ^ Shprintz, Janet (July 18, 2000). "Artisan Sues Polanski, Alleges He Took Money". Variety. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
External links[edit]
The Ninth Gate on IMDb
The Ninth Gate at Box Office Mojo
The Ninth Gate at Rotten Tomatoes
The Ninth Gate at Metacritic
Texts, engravings and formatting of the book at the Wayback Machine (archived 5 September 2004)
"Satanic Verses" article from American Cinematographer magazine
[hide]
v
t
e
Roman Polanski
Feature films
Knife in the Water (1962)
Repulsion (1965)
Cul-de-Sac (1966)
The Fearless Vampire Killers (1967)
Rosemary's Baby (1968)
Macbeth (1971)
What? (1972)
Chinatown (1974)
The Tenant (1976)
Tess (1979)
Pirates (1986)
Frantic (1988)
Bitter Moon (1992)
Death and the Maiden (1994)
The Ninth Gate (1999)
The Pianist (2002)
Oliver Twist (2005)
The Ghost Writer (2010)
Carnage (2011)
Venus in Fur (2013)
Based on a True Story (2017)
Short films
A Toothy Smile (1957)
Rozbijemy zabawę (1957)
Morderstwo (1957)
Two Men and a Wardrobe (1958)
Lampa (1959)
When Angels Fall (1959)
Le Gros et le maigre (1961)
Ssaki (1962)
"La rivière de diamants" in Les plus belles escroqueries du monde (1964)
"Cinema Erotique" in To Each His Own Cinema (2007)
A Therapy (2012)
Related
Sharon Tate (wife)
Roman Polanski sexual abuse case
Mia and Roman
Roman Polanski: Wanted and Desired
The Girl: A Life in the Shadow of Roman Polanski
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 208725295
GND: 7638270-9
SUDOC: 171676890
BNF: cb167261459 (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Ninth_Gate&oldid=812323666"
Categories:
1999 films
1990s mystery films
1990s psychological thriller films
1990s supernatural films
American films
American mystery films
American psychological thriller films
American supernatural thriller films
French films
French mystery films
French thriller films
Spanish films
Spanish mystery films
Spanish thriller films
Artisan Entertainment films
English-language films
French-language films
Latin-language films
Portuguese-language films
Spanish-language films
Fictional gates
Films scored by Wojciech Kilar
Films about bibliophilia
Films based on Spanish novels
Films based on thriller novels
Films based on works by Arturo Pérez-Reverte
Films directed by Roman Polanski
Films set in France
Films set in New York City
Films set in Paris
Films set in Portugal
Films set in Spain
Films shot in France
Films shot in Portugal
Films shot in Spain
Films about books
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: dates
Use dmy dates from June 2015
Articles with hAudio microformats
Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters
Webarchive template wayback links
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Emiliàn e rumagnòl
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Svenska
Türkçe
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 November 2017, at 06:41.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: colspan class style

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-style: italic; background-color: gainsboro

values: float:right;clear:right;width:24.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:center;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;padding:0;border-spacing:0

values:
/wiki/Sight_and_Sound
mw-redirect
Sight and Sound

values:
nofollow
external text
http://bbfc.co.uk/releases/ninth-gate-1

values:
/wiki/Seattle_Times
mw-redirect
Seattle Times

values:
/wiki/Washington_Times
mw-redirect
Washington Times

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.allmusic.com/album/r443717

values:
/wiki/Village_Voice
mw-redirect
Village Voice

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0142688/
external text

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/208725295

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/7638270-9

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.idref.fr/171676890

values: Category:1990s psychological thriller films

values: Category:American psychological thriller films

values: Category:American supernatural thriller films

values: Category:Films based on works by Arturo Pérez-Reverte

values: Category:Films directed by Roman Polanski

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/The_Ninth_Gate
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: البوابة التاسعة (فيلم) – Arabic

values: Деветата порта – Bulgarian

values: Η Ένατη Πύλη – Greek

values: دروازه نهم – Persian

values: השער התשיעי – Hebrew

values: მეცხრე კარიბჭე – Georgian

values: Деветтата порта (филм) – Macedonian

values: ナインスゲート – Japanese

values: Девятые врата – Russian

values: Девета капија – Serbian

values: Дев'ята брама – Ukrainian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Ninth_Gate rootpage-The_Ninth_Gate skin-vector action-view