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Dielectric
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Not to be confused with Dielectric constant or Dialectic.
A polarized dielectric material
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself.[1] If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field.[1]
The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials.[2][3][4] Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, and cell biophysics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Electric susceptibility
2.1 Dispersion and causality
3 Dielectric polarization
3.1 Basic atomic model
3.2 Dipolar polarization
3.3 Ionic polarization
3.3.1 Ionic polarization of cells
4 Dielectric dispersion
5 Dielectric relaxation
5.1 Debye relaxation
5.2 Variants of the Debye equation
6 Paraelectricity
7 Tunability
8 Applications
8.1 Capacitors
8.2 Dielectric resonator
9 Some practical dielectrics
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Terminology[edit]
Although the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called the relative permittivity (also known as dielectric constant). The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material (by means of polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor's surface charge for the given electric field strength.[1]
The term "dielectric" was coined by William Whewell (from "dia-electric") in response to a request from Michael Faraday.[5][6] A perfect dielectric is a material with zero electrical conductivity (cf. perfect conductor),[7] thus exhibiting only a displacement current; therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor.
Electric susceptibility[edit]
Main articles: Electric susceptibility and Permittivity
The electric susceptibility χe of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of capacitors to the speed of light.
It is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be a tensor) relating an electric field E to the induced dielectric polarization density P such that
P = ε 0 χ e E , {\displaystyle {\mathbf {P} }=\varepsilon _{0}\chi _{e}{\mathbf {E} },}
where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free space.
The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity εr by
χ e = ε r − 1. {\displaystyle \chi _{e}\ =\varepsilon _{r}-1.}
So in the case of a vacuum,
χ e = 0. {\displaystyle \chi _{e}\ =0.}
The electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by
D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 ( 1 + χ e ) E = ε r ε 0 E . {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} \ =\ \varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {P} \ =\ \varepsilon _{0}(1+\chi _{e})\mathbf {E} \ =\ \varepsilon _{r}\varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} .}
Dispersion and causality[edit]
In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field. The more general formulation as a function of time is
P ( t ) = ε 0 ∫ − ∞ t χ e ( t − t ′ ) E ( t ′ ) d t ′ . {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} (t)=\varepsilon _{0}\int _{-\infty }^{t}\chi _{e}(t-t')\mathbf {E} (t')\,dt'.}
That is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given by χe(Δt). The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if one defines χe(Δt) = 0 for Δt < 0. An instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta function susceptibility χe(Δt) = χeδ(Δt).
It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier transform and write this relationship as a function of frequency. Due to the convolution theorem, the integral becomes a simple product,
P ( ω ) = ε 0 χ e ( ω ) E ( ω ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} (\omega )=\varepsilon _{0}\chi _{e}(\omega )\mathbf {E} (\omega ).}
Note the simple frequency dependence of the susceptibility, or equivalently the permittivity. The shape of the susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the dispersion properties of the material.
Moreover, the fact that the polarization can only depend on the electric field at previous times (i.e., χe(Δt) = 0 for Δt < 0, a consequence of causality, imposes Kramers–Kronig constraints on the real and imaginary parts of the susceptibility χe(ω).
Dielectric polarization[edit]
Basic atomic model[edit]
Electric field interaction with an atom under the classical dielectric model.
In the classical approach to the dielectric model, a material is made up of atoms. Each atom consists of a cloud of negative charge (electrons) bound to and surrounding a positive point charge at its center. In the presence of an electric field the charge cloud is distorted, as shown in the top right of the figure.
This can be reduced to a simple dipole using the superposition principle. A dipole is characterized by its dipole moment, a vector quantity shown in the figure as the blue arrow labeled M. It is the relationship between the electric field and the dipole moment that gives rise to the behavior of the dielectric. (Note that the dipole moment points in the same direction as the electric field in the figure. This isn't always the case, and is a major simplification, but is true for many materials.)
When the electric field is removed the atom returns to its original state. The time required to do so is the so-called relaxation time; an exponential decay.
This is the essence of the model in physics. The behavior of the dielectric now depends on the situation. The more complicated the situation, the richer the model must be to accurately describe the behavior. Important questions are:
Is the electric field constant or does it vary with time? At what rate?
Does the response depend on the direction of the applied field (isotropy of the material)?
Is the response the same everywhere (homogeneity of the material)?
Do any boundaries or interfaces have to be taken into account?
Is the response linear with respect to the field, or are there nonlinearities?
The relationship between the electric field E and the dipole moment M gives rise to the behavior of the dielectric, which, for a given material, can be characterized by the function F defined by the equation:
M = F ( E ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {F} (\mathbf {E} )} .
When both the type of electric field and the type of material have been defined, one then chooses the simplest function F that correctly predicts the phenomena of interest. Examples of phenomena that can be so modeled include:
Refractive index
Group velocity dispersion
Birefringence
Self-focusing
Harmonic generation
Dipolar polarization[edit]
Dipolar polarization is a polarization that is either inherent to polar molecules (orientation polarization), or can be induced in any molecule in which the asymmetric distortion of the nuclei is possible (distortion polarization). Orientation polarization results from a permanent dipole, e.g., that arising from the 104.45° angle between the asymmetric bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, which retains polarization in the absence of an external electric field. The assembly of these dipoles forms a macroscopic polarization.
When an external electric field is applied, the distance between charges within each permanent dipole, which is related to chemical bonding, remains constant in orientation polarization; however, the direction of polarization itself rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that depends on the torque and surrounding local viscosity of the molecules. Because the rotation is not instantaneous, dipolar polarizations lose the response to electric fields at the highest frequencies. A molecule rotates about 1 radian per picosecond in a fluid, thus this loss occurs at about 1011 Hz (in the microwave region). The delay of the response to the change of the electric field causes friction and heat.
When an external electric field is applied at infrared frequencies or less, the molecules are bent and stretched by the field and the molecular dipole moment changes. The molecular vibration frequency is roughly the inverse of the time it takes for the molecules to bend, and this distortion polarization disappears above the infrared.
Ionic polarization[edit]
Ionic polarization is polarization caused by relative displacements between positive and negative ions in ionic crystals (for example, NaCl).
If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than one kind, the distribution of charges around an atom in the crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a result, when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations induce relative displacements of the atoms, the centers of positive and negative charges are also displaced. The locations of these centers are affected by the symmetry of the displacements. When the centers don't correspond, polarizations arise in molecules or crystals. This polarization is called ionic polarization.
Ionic polarization causes the ferroelectric effect as well as dipolar polarization. The ferroelectric transition, which is caused by the lining up of the orientations of permanent dipoles along a particular direction, is called an order-disorder phase transition. The transition caused by ionic polarizations in crystals is called a displacive phase transition.
Ionic polarization of cells[edit]
Ionic polarization enables the production of energy-rich compounds in cells (the proton pump in mitochondria) and, at the plasma membrane, the establishment of the resting potential, energetically unfavourable transport of ions, and cell-to-cell communication (the Na+/K+-ATPase).
All cells in animal body tissues are electrically polarized – in other words, they maintain a voltage difference across the cell's plasma membrane, known as the membrane potential. This electrical polarization results from a complex interplay between protein structures embedded in the membrane called ion pumps and ion channels.
In neurons, the types of ion channels in the membrane usually vary across different parts of the cell, giving the dendrites, axon, and cell body different electrical properties. As a result, some parts of the membrane of a neuron may be excitable (capable of generating action potentials), whereas others are not.
Dielectric dispersion[edit]
In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field. Because there is a lag between changes in polarization and changes in the electric field, the permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function of frequency of the electric field. Dielectric dispersion is very important for the applications of dielectric materials and for the analysis of polarization systems.
This is one instance of a general phenomenon known as material dispersion: a frequency-dependent response of a medium for wave propagation.
When the frequency becomes higher:
dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric field in the microwave region around 1010 Hz;
ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can no longer track the electric field past the infrared or far-infrared region around 1013 Hz, ;
electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet region around 1015 Hz.
In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity approaches the constant ε0 in every substance, where ε0 is the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field and polarization, if a polarization process loses its response, permittivity decreases.
Dielectric relaxation[edit]
Dielectric relaxation is the momentary delay (or lag) in the dielectric constant of a material. This is usually caused by the delay in molecular polarization with respect to a changing electric field in a dielectric medium (e.g., inside capacitors or between two large conducting surfaces). Dielectric relaxation in changing electric fields could be considered analogous to hysteresis in changing magnetic fields (for inductors or transformers). Relaxation in general is a delay or lag in the response of a linear system, and therefore dielectric relaxation is measured relative to the expected linear steady state (equilibrium) dielectric values. The time lag between electrical field and polarization implies an irreversible degradation of Gibbs free energy.
In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation response of a dielectric medium to an external, oscillating electric field. This relaxation is often described in terms of permittivity as a function of frequency, which can, for ideal systems, be described by the Debye equation. On the other hand, the distortion related to ionic and electronic polarization shows behavior of the resonance or oscillator type. The character of the distortion process depends on the structure, composition, and surroundings of the sample.
Debye relaxation[edit]
Debye relaxation is the dielectric relaxation response of an ideal, noninteracting population of dipoles to an alternating external electric field. It is usually expressed in the complex permittivity ε of a medium as a function of the field's frequency ω:
ε ^ ( ω ) = ε ∞ + Δ ε 1 + i ω τ , {\displaystyle {\hat {\varepsilon }}(\omega )=\varepsilon _{\infty }+{\frac {\Delta \varepsilon }{1+i\omega \tau }},}
where ε∞ is the permittivity at the high frequency limit, Δε = εs − ε∞ where εs is the static, low frequency permittivity, and τ is the characteristic relaxation time of the medium. Separating the real and imaginary parts of the complex dielectric permittivity yields:[8]
ε ′ = ε ∞ + ( ε s − ε ∞ ) ( 1 + ω 2 τ 2 ) {\displaystyle \varepsilon '=\varepsilon _{\infty }+{\frac {(\varepsilon _{s}-\varepsilon _{\infty })}{(1+\omega ^{2}\tau ^{2})}}}
ε ″ = ( ε s − ε ∞ ) ω τ 1 + ω 2 τ 2 {\displaystyle \varepsilon ''={\frac {(\varepsilon _{s}-\varepsilon _{\infty })\omega \tau }{1+\omega ^{2}\tau ^{2}}}}
The dielectric loss is also represented by:
tan  δ = ε ″ ε ′ = ( ε s − ε ∞ ) ω τ ε s + ε ∞ ω 2 τ 2 {\displaystyle \tan \delta ={\frac {\varepsilon ''}{\varepsilon '}}={\frac {(\varepsilon _{s}-\varepsilon _{\infty })\omega \tau }{\varepsilon _{s}+\varepsilon _{\infty }\omega ^{2}\tau ^{2}}}}
This relaxation model was introduced by and named after the physicist Peter Debye (1913).[9] It is characteristic for dynamic polarization with only one relaxation time.
Variants of the Debye equation[edit]
Cole–Cole equation
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows symmetric broadening
Cole–Davidson equation
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows asymmetric broadening
Havriliak–Negami relaxation
This equation considers both symmetric and asymmetric broadening
Kohlrausch–Williams–Watts function (Fourier transform of stretched exponential function)
Curie-von Schweidler law
This shows the response of dielectrics to an applied DC field to behave according to a power law, which can be expressed as an integral over weighted exponential functions.
Paraelectricity[edit]
See also: Ferroelectricity
Paraelectricity is the ability of many materials (specifically ceramics) to become polarized under an applied electric field. Unlike ferroelectricity, this can happen even if there is no permanent electric dipole that exists in the material, and removal of the fields results in the polarization in the material returning to zero.[10] The mechanisms that cause paraelectric behaviour are the distortion of individual ions (displacement of the electron cloud from the nucleus) and polarization of molecules or combinations of ions or defects.
Paraelectricity can occur in crystal phases where electric dipoles are unaligned and thus have the potential to align in an external electric field and weaken it.
An example of a paraelectric material of high dielectric constant is strontium titanate.
The LiNbO3 crystal is ferroelectric below 1430 K, and above this temperature it transforms into a disordered paraelectric phase. Similarly, other perovskites also exhibit paraelectricity at high temperatures.
Paraelectricity has been explored as a possible refrigeration mechanism; polarizing a paraelectric by applying an electric field under adiabatic process conditions raises the temperature, while removing the field lowers the temperature.[11] A heat pump that operates by polarizing the paraelectric, allowing it to return to ambient temperature (by dissipating the extra heat), bringing it into contact with the object to be cooled, and finally depolarizing it, would result in refrigeration.
Tunability[edit]
Tunable dielectrics are insulators whose ability to store electrical charge changes when a voltage is applied.[12][13]
Generally, strontium titanate (SrTiO
3) is used for devices operating at low temperatures, while barium strontium titanate (Ba
1−xSr
xTiO
3) substitutes for room temperature devices. Other potential materials include microwave dielectrics and carbon nanotube (CNT) composites.[12][14][15]
In 2013 multi-sheet layers of strontium titanate interleaved with single layers of strontium oxide produced a dielectric capable of operating at up to 125 GHz. The material was created via molecular beam epitaxy. The two have mismatched crystal spacing that produces strain within the strontium titanate layer that makes it less stable and tunable.[12]
Systems such as Ba
1−xSr
xTiO
3 have a paraelectric–ferroelectric transition just below ambient temperature, providing high tunability. Such films suffer significant losses arising from defects.
Applications[edit]
Capacitors[edit]
Main article: Capacitor
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a solid dielectric material with high permittivity as the intervening medium between the stored positive and negative charges. This material is often referred to in technical contexts as the capacitor dielectric.[16]
The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric material is that it prevents the conducting plates, on which the charges are stored, from coming into direct electrical contact. More significantly, however, a high permittivity allows a greater stored charge at a given voltage. This can be seen by treating the case of a linear dielectric with permittivity ε and thickness d between two conducting plates with uniform charge density σε. In this case the charge density is given by
σ ε = ε V d {\displaystyle \sigma _{\varepsilon }=\varepsilon {\frac {V}{d}}}
and the capacitance per unit area by
c = σ ε V = ε d {\displaystyle c={\frac {\sigma _{\varepsilon }}{V}}={\frac {\varepsilon }{d}}}
From this, it can easily be seen that a larger ε leads to greater charge stored and thus greater capacitance.
Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen such that they are resistant to ionization. This allows the capacitor to operate at higher voltages before the insulating dielectric ionizes and begins to allow undesirable current.
Dielectric resonator[edit]
Main article: Dielectric resonator
A dielectric resonator oscillator (DRO) is an electronic component that exhibits resonance of the polarization response for a narrow range of frequencies, generally in the microwave band. It consists of a "puck" of ceramic that has a large dielectric constant and a low dissipation factor. Such resonators are often used to provide a frequency reference in an oscillator circuit. An unshielded dielectric resonator can be used as a dielectric resonator antenna (DRA).
Some practical dielectrics[edit]
Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases. In addition, a high vacuum can also be a useful,[17] nearly lossless dielectric even though its relative dielectric constant is only unity.
Solid dielectrics are perhaps the most commonly used dielectrics in electrical engineering, and many solids are very good insulators. Some examples include porcelain, glass, and most plastics. Air, nitrogen and sulfur hexafluoride are the three most commonly used gaseous dielectrics.
Industrial coatings such as parylene provide a dielectric barrier between the substrate and its environment.
Mineral oil is used extensively inside electrical transformers as a fluid dielectric and to assist in cooling. Dielectric fluids with higher dielectric constants, such as electrical grade castor oil, are often used in high voltage capacitors to help prevent corona discharge and increase capacitance.
Because dielectrics resist the flow of electricity, the surface of a dielectric may retain stranded excess electrical charges. This may occur accidentally when the dielectric is rubbed (the triboelectric effect). This can be useful, as in a Van de Graaff generator or electrophorus, or it can be potentially destructive as in the case of electrostatic discharge.
Specially processed dielectrics, called electrets (which should not be confused with ferroelectrics), may retain excess internal charge or "frozen in" polarization. Electrets have a semipermanent electric field, and are the electrostatic equivalent to magnets. Electrets have numerous practical applications in the home and industry.
Some dielectrics can generate a potential difference when subjected to mechanical stress, or (equivalently) change physical shape if an external voltage is applied across the material. This property is called piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials are another class of very useful dielectrics.
Some ionic crystals and polymer dielectrics exhibit a spontaneous dipole moment, which can be reversed by an externally applied electric field. This behavior is called the ferroelectric effect. These materials are analogous to the way ferromagnetic materials behave within an externally applied magnetic field. Ferroelectric materials often have very high dielectric constants, making them quite useful for capacitors.
See also[edit]
Classification of materials based on permittivity
Paramagnetism
Clausius-Mossotti relation
Dielectric losses
Dielectric strength
Dielectric spectroscopy
EIA Class 1 dielectric
EIA Class 2 dielectric
High-k dielectric
Low-k dielectric
leakage
Linear response function
Metamaterial
RC delay
Rotational Brownian motion
Paschen's law – variation of Dielectric strength of gas related to pressure
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Dielectric. Encyclopædia Britannica: "Dielectric, insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. When dielectrics are placed in an electric field, practically no current flows in them because, unlike metals, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material."
Jump up ^ Arthur R. von Hippel, in his seminal work, Dielectric Materials and Applications, stated: "Dielectrics... are not a narrow class of so-called insulators, but the broad expanse of nonmetals considered from the standpoint of their interaction with electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic fields. Thus we are concerned with gases as well as with liquids and solids, and with the storage of electric and magnetic energy as well as its dissipation." (Technology Press of MIT and John Wiley, NY, 1954).
Jump up ^ Thoms, E.; Sippel, P.; et., al. (2017). "Dielectric study on mixtures of ionic liquids". Sci. Rep.
Jump up ^ Belkin, A.; Bezryadin, A.; Hendren, L.; Hubler, A. (2017). "Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown". Sci. Rep. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7..932B. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9.
Jump up ^ Daintith, J. (1994). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists. CRC Press. p. 943. ISBN 0-7503-0287-9.
Jump up ^ James, Frank A.J.L., editor. The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, Volume 3, 1841–1848, "Letter 1798, William Whewell to Faraday, p. 442". The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom, 1996. ISBN 0-86341-250-5
Jump up ^ Microwave Engineering – R. S. Rao (Prof.). Retrieved 2013-11-08.
Jump up ^ Kao, Kwan Chi (2004). Dielectric Phenomena in Solids. London: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 92–93. ISBN 0-12-396561-6.
Jump up ^ Debye, P. (1913), Ver. Deut. Phys. Gesell. 15, 777; reprinted 1954 in collected papers of Peter J.W. Debye. Interscience, New York
Jump up ^ Chiang, Y. et al. (1997) Physical Ceramics, John Wiley & Sons, New York
Jump up ^ Kuhn, U.; Lüty, F. (1965). "Paraelectric heating and cooling with OH—dipoles in alkali halides". Solid State Communications. 3 (2): 31. Bibcode:1965SSCom...3...31K. doi:10.1016/0038-1098(65)90060-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lee, Che-Hui; Orloff, Nathan D.; Birol, Turan; Zhu, Ye; Goian, Veronica; Rocas, Eduard; Haislmaier, Ryan; Vlahos, Eftihia; Mundy, Julia A.; Kourkoutis, Lena F.; Nie, Yuefeng; Biegalski, Michael D.; Zhang, Jingshu; Bernhagen, Margitta; Benedek, Nicole A.; Kim, Yongsam; Brock, Joel D.; Uecker, Reinhard; Xi, X. X.; Gopalan, Venkatraman; Nuzhnyy, Dmitry; Kamba, Stanislav; Muller, David A.; Takeuchi, Ichiro; Booth, James C.; Fennie, Craig J.; Schlom, Darrell G. (2013). "Self-correcting crystal may lead to the next generation of advanced communications". Nature. 502 (7472): 532. Bibcode:2013Natur.502..532L. doi:10.1038/nature12582. PMID 24132232.
Jump up ^ Lee, C. H.; Orloff, N. D.; Birol, T.; Zhu, Y.; Goian, V.; Rocas, E.; Haislmaier, R.; Vlahos, E.; Mundy, J. A.; Kourkoutis, L. F.; Nie, Y.; Biegalski, M. D.; Zhang, J.; Bernhagen, M.; Benedek, N. A.; Kim, Y.; Brock, J. D.; Uecker, R.; Xi, X. X.; Gopalan, V.; Nuzhnyy, D.; Kamba, S.; Muller, D. A.; Takeuchi, I.; Booth, J. C.; Fennie, C. J.; Schlom, D. G. (2013). "Exploiting dimensionality and defect mitigation to create tunable microwave dielectrics". Nature. 502 (7472): 532–536. Bibcode:2013Natur.502..532L. doi:10.1038/nature12582. PMID 24132232.
Jump up ^ Kong, L.B.; Li, S.; Zhang, T.S.; Zhai, J.W.; Boey, F.Y.C.; Ma, J. (2010-11-30). "Electrically tunable dielectric materials and strategies to improve their performances". Progress in Materials Science. 55 (8): 840–893. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.04.004.
Jump up ^ Giere, A.; Zheng, Y.; Maune, H.; Sazegar, M.; Paul, F.; Zhou, X.; Binder, J. R.; Muller, S.; Jakoby, R. (2008). "Tunable dielectrics for microwave applications". 2008 17th IEEE International Symposium on the Applications of Ferroelectrics. p. 1. doi:10.1109/ISAF.2008.4693753. ISBN 978-1-4244-2744-4.
Jump up ^ Müssig, Hans-Joachim. Semiconductor capacitor with praseodymium oxide as dielectric, U.S. Patent 7,113,388 published 2003-11-06, issued 2004-10-18, assigned to IHP GmbH- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics/Institute Fur Innovative Mikroelektronik
Jump up ^ Lyon, David (2013). "Gap size dependence of the dielectric strength in nano vacuum gaps". IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation. 20 (4). doi:10.1109/TDEI.2013.6571470.
Further reading[edit]
Jackson, John David (August 10, 1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3 rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1. 808 or 832 pages.
Scaife, Brendan (September 3, 1998). Principles of Dielectrics (Monographs on the Physics & Chemistry of Materials) (2 nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198565574.
External links[edit]
Electromagnetism – A chapter from an online textbook
Dielectric Sphere in an Electric Field
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package "Dielectric Materials"
Texts on Wikisource:
"Dielectric". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Dielectric". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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The Honda Classic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Honda Classic
Tournament information
Location
Palm Beach Gardens, Florida
Established
1972, 46 years ago
Course(s)
PGA National Golf Club,
Champion Course
Par
70
Length
7,140 yards (6,529 m)
Organized by
IMG
Tour(s)
PGA Tour
Format
Stroke play
Prize fund
$6.6 million
Month played
February
Tournament record score
Aggregate
264 Justin Leonard (2003)
To par
−24 Justin Leonard (2003)
Current champion
Justin Thomas
PGA National
Location in the United States
PGA
National
Location in Florida
The Honda Classic is a professional golf tournament on the PGA Tour in south Florida. It was founded 45 years ago in 1972 as Jackie Gleason's Inverrary Classic,[1] and is usually the first of the Florida events in late winter following the "West Coast Swing."
National Airlines was the sponsor in 1973 with Gleason and American Motors Corporation (AMC) backed it in 1981. Since 1982, American Honda Motor Company (Honda) has been the title sponsor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Tournament history
1.1 Player participation
2 Tournament hosts
3 Winners
3.1 Multiple winners
4 Tournament highlights
5 References
6 External links
Tournament history[edit]
Its predecessor, the National Airlines Open Invitational, ran for just three seasons (1969–71); all at the Country Club of Miami in Hialeah in late March. The Gleason tournament replaced it on the schedule a month earlier in 1972 at the Inverrary Country Club (East course) in Lauderhill, it was among the richest events on tour with an inaugural purse of $260,000 and a $52,000 winner's share.[2] The regular event was not played in 1976, as Inverrary hosted the Tournament Players Championship in late February, won by Jack Nicklaus. Gleason's nine-year affiliation ended after 1980, but the event continued at Inverrary through 1983.[1] It moved to the TPC Eagle Trace in Coral Springs in 1984 for eight editions.
From 1992 to 1995, the event was held at the Weston Hills Golf & Country Club in Weston. It then returned to Coral Springs, first at the TPC at Eagle Trace in 1996 and then at the TPC at Heron Bay from 1997 to 2002. In 2003, the event moved to Palm Beach Gardens, first at the Country Club at Mirasol through 2006, then began its current run at PGA National Golf Club's Champion Course in 2007.
Since 2007, the tournament's main beneficiary is the Nicklaus Children's Health Care Foundation, chaired by Barbara Nicklaus, wife of golf legend Jack Nicklaus.
IMG bought the tournament's management company in 2013.[3]
Player participation[edit]
Some celebrated players have won this tournament, including Nicklaus in 1977 and 1978, the only consecutive winner in its history. However, the tournament had acquired a reputation for struggling to attract the top players as it moved from course to course in South Florida. Since 2007, The Honda Classic has seen a vastly improved player field, largely due to the decision to make PGA National the tournament's permanent home.
The prize money is comparable to other PGA Tour events outside of the "big nine" (the majors, the World Golf Championships individual events, The Players Championship, and The Tour Championship). The total purse was $6.4 million in 2017, with a top prize of $1.152 million (this can be contrasted to the total purse in 1981 of $300,000 (the equivalent of only $807,540 in 2017 dollars[4]). The original winner's share of $52,000 in 1972 made it one of the richest stops on tour, greater than for any of the four majors; it was more than double that of the Masters, which had a first prize of $25,000 in 1972.
Tournament hosts[edit]
Years
No.
Venue
City
State
2007–18 12 PGA National Golf Club
(Champion Course) Palm Beach Gardens Florida
2003–06 4 Country Club at Mirasol
1997–2002 6 TPC at Heron Bay Coral Springs
1996 1 TPC Eagle Trace
1992–95 4 Weston Hills Golf and C.C. Weston
1984–91 8 TPC Eagle Trace Coral Springs
1972–83 11 Inverrary Country Club
(East Course) Lauderhill
No event in 1976, Inverrary hosted TPC.
Winners[edit]
Year
Player
Country
Score
To par
Margin
of victory
Runner(s)-up
Winner's
share ($)
Purse ($)
The Honda Classic
2018 Justin Thomas United States 272 −8 Playoff Luke List 1,188,000 6,600,000
2017 Rickie Fowler United States 268 −12 4 strokes Morgan Hoffmann
Gary Woodland 1,152,000 6,400,000
2016 Adam Scott Australia 271 −9 1 stroke Sergio García 1,098,000 6,100,000
2015 Pádraig Harrington (2) Ireland 274 −6 Playoff Daniel Berger 1,098,000 6,100,000
2014 Russell Henley United States 272 −8 Playoff Russell Knox
Rory McIlroy
Ryan Palmer 1,080,000 6,000,000
2013 Michael Thompson United States 271 −9 2 strokes Geoff Ogilvy 1,080,000 6,000,000
2012 Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland 268 −12 2 strokes Tom Gillis
Tiger Woods 1,026,000 5,700,000
2011 Rory Sabbatini South Africa 271 −9 1 stroke Yang Yong-eun 1,026,000 5,700,000
2010 Camilo Villegas Colombia 267 −13 5 strokes Anthony Kim 1,008,000 5,600,000
2009 Yang Yong-eun South Korea 271 −9 1 stroke John Rollins 1,008,000 5,600,000
2008 Ernie Els South Africa 274 −6 1 stroke Luke Donald 990,000 5,500,000
2007 Mark Wilson United States 275 −5 Playoff José Cóceres
Camilo Villegas
Boo Weekley 990,000 5,500,000
2006 Luke Donald England 276 −12 2 strokes Geoff Ogilvy 990,000 5,500,000
2005 Pádraig Harrington Ireland 274 −14 Playoff Joe Ogilvie
Vijay Singh 990,000 5,500,000
2004 Todd Hamilton United States 276 −12 1 stroke Davis Love III 900,000 5,000,000
2003 Justin Leonard United States 264 −24 1 stroke Chad Campbell
Davis Love III 900,000 5,000,000
2002 Matt Kuchar United States 269 −19 2 strokes Brad Faxon
Joey Sindelar 630,000 3,500,000
Honda Classic
2001 Jesper Parnevik Sweden 270 −18 1 stroke Mark Calcavecchia
Geoff Ogilvy
Craig Perks 576,000 3,200,000
2000 Dudley Hart United States 269 −19 1 stroke J. P. Hayes
Kevin Wentworth 522,000 2,900,000
1999 Vijay Singh Fiji 277 −11 2 strokes Payne Stewart 468,000 2,600,000
1998 Mark Calcavecchia (2) United States 270 −18 3 strokes Vijay Singh 324,000 1,800,000
1997 Stuart Appleby Australia 274 −14 1 stroke Michael Bradley
Payne Stewart 270,000 1,500,000
1996 Tim Herron United States 271 −17 4 strokes Mark McCumber 234,000 1,300,000
1995 Mark O'Meara United States 275 −9 1 stroke Nick Faldo 216,000 1,200,000
1994 Nick Price Zimbabwe 276 −8 1 stroke Craig Parry 198,000 1,100,000
1993 Fred Couples United States 207* −9 Playoff Robert Gamez 198,000 1,100,000
1992 Corey Pavin United States 273 −15 Playoff Fred Couples 198,000 1,100,000
1991 Steve Pate United States 279 −9 3 strokes Paul Azinger
Dan Halldorson 180,000 1,000,000
1990 John Huston United States 282 −6 2 strokes Mark Calcavecchia 180,000 1,000,000
1989 Blaine McCallister United States 266 −22 4 strokes Payne Stewart 144,000 800,000
1988 Joey Sindelar United States 276 −12 2 strokes Ed Fiori
Sandy Lyle
Payne Stewart 126,000 700,000
1987 Mark Calcavecchia United States 279 −9 3 strokes Bernhard Langer
Payne Stewart 108,000 600,000
1986 Kenny Knox United States 287 −1 1 stroke Andy Bean
John Mahaffey
Jodie Mudd
Clarence Rose 90,000 500,000
1985 Curtis Strange United States 275 −13 Playoff Peter Jacobsen 90,000 500,000
1984 Bruce Lietzke United States 280 −8 Playoff Andy Bean 90,000 500,000
Honda Inverrary Classic
1983 Johnny Miller (2) United States 278 −10 2 strokes Jack Nicklaus 72,000 400,000
1982 Hale Irwin United States 269 −19 1 stroke George Burns
Tom Kite 72,000 400,000
American Motors Inverrary Classic
1981 Tom Kite United States 274 −14 1 stroke Jack Nicklaus 54,000 300,000
Jackie Gleason-Inverrary Classic
1980 Johnny Miller United States 274 −14 2 strokes Charles Coody
Bruce Lietzke 54,000 300,000
1979 Larry Nelson United States 274 −14 3 strokes Grier Jones 54,000 300,000
1978 Jack Nicklaus (2) United States 276 −12 1 stroke Grier Jones 50,000 250,000
1977 Jack Nicklaus United States 275 −13 5 strokes Gary Player 50,000 250,000
1976: Inverrary hosted the Tournament Players Championship
1975 Bob Murphy United States 273 −15 1 stroke Eddie Pearce 52,000 260,000
1974 Leonard Thompson United States 278 −10 1 stroke Hale Irwin 52,000 260,000
Jackie Gleason Inverrary-National Airlines Classic
1973 Lee Trevino United States 279 −9 1 stroke Forrest Fezler 52,000 260,000
Jackie Gleason's Inverrary Classic
1972 Tom Weiskopf United States 278 −10 1 stroke Jack Nicklaus 52,000 260,000
*Weather-shortened to 54 holes
Note: Green highlight indicates scoring records.
Source:[5][6]
Multiple winners[edit]
Four men have won the tournament more than once.
2 wins
Jack Nicklaus: 1977, 1978 (consecutive)^
Johnny Miller: 1980, 1983
Mark Calcavecchia: 1987, 1998
Pádraig Harrington: 2005, 2015
^ Nicklaus also won the 1976 Tournament Players Championship at Inverrary, which displaced the event.
Tournament highlights[edit]
1972: Tom Weiskopf outduels Jack Nicklaus to win by one shot in the first edition of the tournament.[7]
1974: Leonard Thompson wins his first ever PGA Tour title by one shot over Hale Irwin. After his victory, Thompson donated $10,000 of his winnings to the Boys Clubs of America.[8]
1978: Jack Nicklaus birdies the last five holes to defeat Grier Jones by one shot,[9] for his third consecutive win at Inverrary.
1980: Johnny Miller wins his first tournament since his 1976 Open Championship triumph. He finishes two shots ahead of Bruce Lietzke and Charles Coody.[10]
1986: Kenny Knox wins by one-shot over Clarence Rose, Jodie Mudd, Andy Bean, and John Mahaffey in spite of shooting a third round 80.[11]
1987: Mark Calcavecchia wins his first Honda Classic title.[12] Only the year before he worked as a caddy at the tournament.
1991: Steve Pate shoots the worst last-round score by a PGA Tour tournament winner in ten years, a 75, but still holds on to win by three shots over Paul Azinger and Dan Halldorson.[13]
1992: Corey Pavin defeats Fred Couples in a sudden-death playoff only after holing a 136-yard 8-iron shot for eagle on the 72nd hole to tie for the lead.[14]
1996: Tim Herron becomes the first PGA Tour rookie in 13 years to win a tournament wire-to-wire. He defeats Mark McCumber by four shots.[15]
2000: Dudley Hart birdies the last four holes to defeat J. P. Hayes and Kevin Wentworth by one shot.[16]
2004: Thirty-eight-year-old PGA Tour rookie Todd Hamilton wins by one shot over Davis Love III.[17] Hamilton would go on to win The Open Championship later that same year.
2007: Mark Wilson wins the biggest playoff in the history of the tournament.[18] His birdie on the third hole of sudden death defeats José Cóceres. Camilo Villegas and Boo Weekley, the other participants in the four-man playoff, had been eliminated on the second playoff hole.
2012: Rory McIlroy wins and claims the No. 1 spot in the Official World Golf Ranking.[19] Brian Harman shot a second round 61 to set a new course record.[20]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Treglown, Dick (February 28, 1972). "Weiskopf wins Gleason crown". Palm Beach Post. p. D1.
Jump up ^ "Weiskopf no longer the brat". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). Associated Press. February 28, 1972. p. 3B.
Jump up ^ Global firm IMG buys company that runs Honda Classic in Palm Beach Gardens
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ The Honda Classic – Winners – at golfobserver.com
Jump up ^ The Honda Classic – Winners – at PGATour.com
Jump up ^ "Weiskopf captures Inverrary golf title". Telegraph-Herald. Dubuque, Iowa. Associated Press. February 28, 1972. p. 10.
Jump up ^ Leonard Thompson Wins Inverrary Classic
Jump up ^ Nicklaus rally tops Jones
Jump up ^ Miller snaps slump with Inverrary golf win
Jump up ^ Longshot Knox Takes Honda Classic
Jump up ^ Former Caddy, Calcaveccia wins Honda Golf Classic
Jump up ^ Pate Fights Winds, Wins Honda Classic
Jump up ^ Eagle helps Pavin eventually win Honda Classic in playoff
Jump up ^ Herron shakes off rookie status in Honda Classic win
Jump up ^ Hart right at home
Jump up ^ Hamilton captures Honda Classic
Jump up ^ Wilson wins Honda Classic in playoff
Jump up ^ Rory McIlroy takes No. 1 spot
Jump up ^ Brian Harman flirts with golf history
External links[edit]
Official website
Coverage on the PGA Tour's official site
PGA National Resort & Spa – Champion course
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Coordinates: 26°49′44″N 80°08′28″W / 26.829°N 80.141°W / 26.829; -80.141
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