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Oceanic carbon cycle
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Oceanic Carbon Cycle, Credit: IPCC
The oceanic carbon cycle (or marine carbon cycle) is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. Carbon is an element that is essential to all living things; the human body is made up of approximately 18% carbon.[1] The carbon cycle is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both inorganic carbon (carbon not associated with a living thing, such as carbon dioxide) and organic carbon (carbon that is, or has been, incorporated into a living thing). Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter.
Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000 years is roughly 40,000 gigatons C (Gt C, a gigaton is one billion tons, or the weight of approximately 6 million blue whales), and about 95% (~38,000 Gt C) is stored in the ocean, mostly as dissolved inorganic carbon.[2][3] The speciation of dissolved inorganic carbon in the marine carbon cycle is a primary controller of acid-base chemistry in the oceans.
Earth’s plants and algae (primary producers) are responsible for the largest annual carbon fluxes. Although the amount of carbon stored in marine biota (~3 Gt C) is very small compared with terrestrial vegetation (~610 GtC), the amount of carbon exchanged (the flux) by these groups is nearly equal – about 50 GtC each.[2] Marine organisms link the carbon and oxygen cycles through processes such as photosynthesis.[2] The marine carbon cycle is also biologically tied to the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles by a near-constant stoichiometric ratio C:N:P of 106:16:1, also known as the Redfield Ketchum Richards (RKR) ratio,[4] which states that organisms tend to take up nitrogen and phosphorus incorporating new organic carbon. Likewise, organic matter decomposed by bacteria releases phosphorus and nitrogen.
Based on the publications of NASA, World Meteorological Association, IPCC, and International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, as well as scientists from NOAA, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, CSIRO, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the human impacts on the marine carbon cycle are significant.[5][6][7][8] Before the Industrial Revolution, the ocean was a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere whereas now the majority of the carbon that enters the ocean comes from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2).[9] The burning of fossil fuels and production of cement have changed the balance of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and oceans,[7] causing acidification of the oceans.[9][10] Climate change, a result of excess CO2 in the atmosphere, has increased the temperature of the ocean and atmosphere (global warming).[11] The slowed rate of global warming occurring from 2000–2010[12] may be attributed to an observed increase in upper ocean heat content.[13][14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Marine carbon
1.1 Inorganic carbon
1.2 Organic carbon
2 Marine carbon pumps
2.1 Solubility pump
2.2 Carbonate pump
2.3 Biological pump
3 Inputs
3.1 Atmosphere
3.1.1 Carbon dioxide exchange rates between ocean and atmosphere
3.1.2 Revelle factor
3.2 Rivers
4 Outputs
4.1 Organic matter preservation
4.1.1 Fate of sinking organic carbon
4.1.2 Degradation
4.1.3 Burial
4.2 Calcium carbonate preservation
5 Human impacts
5.1 Ocean acidification
5.2 Iron fertilization
5.3 Dams and reservoirs
6 References
Marine carbon[edit]
Carbon is separated into four distinct pools based on whether it is organic/inorganic and whether it is dissolved/particulate. The processes associated with each arrow describe the transformation associated with the transfer of carbon from one reservoir to another.
Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Inorganic carbon is found primarily in simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate (CO2, H2CO3, HCO3−, CO32− respectively).
Marine carbon is further separated into particulate and dissolved phases. These pools are operationally defined by physical separation – dissolved carbon passes through a 0.2 μm filter, and particulate carbon does not.
Inorganic carbon[edit]
There are two main types of inorganic carbon that are found in the oceans. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is made up of bicarbonate (HCO3−), carbonate (CO32−) and carbon dioxide (including both dissolved CO2 and carbonic acid H2CO3). DIC can be converted to particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) through precipitation of CaCO3 (biologically or abiotically). DIC can also be converted to particulate organic carbon (POC) through photosynthesis and chemoautotrophy (i.e. primary production). DIC increases with depth as organic carbon particles sink and are respired. Free oxygen decreases as DIC increases because oxygen is consumed during aerobic respiration.
Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) is the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. Most PIC is the CaCO3 that makes up shells of various marine organisms, but can also form in whiting events. Marine fish also excrete calcium carbonate during osmoregulation.[15]
Some of the inorganic carbon species in the ocean, such as bicarbonate and carbonate, are major contributors to alkalinity, a natural ocean buffer that prevents drastic changes in acidity (or pH). The marine carbon cycle also affects the reaction and dissolution rates of some chemical compounds, regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and Earth's temperature.[16]
Organic carbon[edit]
Like inorganic carbon, there are two main forms of organic carbon found in the ocean (dissolved and particulate). Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is defined operationally as any organic molecule that can pass through a 0.2 µm filter. DOC can be converted into particulate organic carbon through heterotrophy and it can also be converted back to dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) through respiration.
Those organic carbon molecules being captured on a filter are defined as particulate organic carbon (POC). POC is composed of organisms (dead or alive), their fecal matter, and detritus. POC can be converted to DOC through disaggregation of molecules and by exudation by phytoplankton, for example. POC is generally converted to DIC through heterotrophy and respiration.
Marine carbon pumps[edit]
Solubility pump[edit]
Full article: Solubility pump
Dissociation of carbon dioxide following Henry's Law
The oceans store the largest pool of reactive carbon on the planet as DIC, which is introduced as a result of the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide into seawater – the solubility pump.[16] Aqueous CO2, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ion, and carbonate ion concentrations comprise dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). DIC circulates throughout the whole ocean by Thermohaline circulation, which facilitates the tremendous DIC storage capacity of the ocean.[17] The below chemical equations show the reactions that CO2 undergoes after it enters the ocean and transforms into its aqueous form.
First, carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
Sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon concentration in the 1990s (from the GLODAP climatology)
CO 2 ( aq ) + H 2 O ⟶ H 2 CO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {CO2(aq) + H2O -> H2CO3}}}
(1)
Carbonic acid rapidly dissociates into free hydrogen ion (technically, hydronium) and bicarbonate.
H 2 CO 3 ⟶ H + + HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3^-}}}
(2)
The free hydrogen ion meets carbonate, already present in the water from the dissolution of CaCO3, and reacts to form more bicarbonate ion.
H + + CO 3 2 − ⟶ HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {H+ + CO3^2- -> HCO3^-}}}
(3)
The dissolved species in the equations above, mostly bicarbonate, make up the carbonate alkalinity system, the dominant contributor to seawater alkalinity.[10]
Carbonate pump[edit]
The carbonate pump, sometimes called the carbonate counter pump, starts with marine organisms at the ocean's surface producing particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) in the form of calcium carbonate (calcite or aragonite, CaCO3). This CaCO3 is what forms hard body parts like shells.[16] The formation of these shells increases atmospheric CO2 due to the production of CaCO3[10] in the following reaction with simplified stoichiometry:[18]
Ca 2 + + 2 HCO 3 − ↽ − − ⇀ CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {Ca^2+ + 2HCO3^- <=> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O}}} [19]
(4)
Coccolithophores, a nearly ubiquitous group of phytoplankton that produce shells of calcium carbonate, are the dominant contributors to the carbonate pump.[16] Due to their abundance, coccolithophores have significant implications on carbonate chemistry, in the surface waters they inhabit and in the ocean below: they provide a large mechanism for the downward transport of CaCO3.[20] The air-sea CO2 flux induced by a marine biological community can be determined by the rain ratio - the proportion of carbon from calcium carbonate compared to that from organic carbon in particulate matter sinking to the ocean floor, (PIC/POC).[19] The carbonate pump acts as a negative feedback on CO2 taken into the ocean by the solubility pump. It occurs with lesser magnitude than the solubility pump.
Biological pump[edit]
Full article: Biological pump
Particulate organic carbon, created through biological production, can be exported from the upper ocean in a flux commonly termed the biological pump, or respired (equation 6) back into inorganic carbon. In the former, dissolved inorganic carbon is biologically converted into organic matter by photosynthesis (equation 5) and other forms of autotrophy[16] that then sinks and is, in part or whole, digested by heterotrophs.[21] Particulate organic carbon can be classified, based on how easily organisms can break them down for food, as labile, semilabile, or refractory. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton is the primary source for labile and semilabile molecules, and is the indirect source for most refractory molecules.[22][23] Labile molecules are present at low concentrations outside of cells (in the picomolar range) and have half-lives of only minutes when free in the ocean.[24] They are consumed by microbes within hours or days of production and reside in the surface oceans,[23] where they contribute a majority of the labile carbon flux.[25] Semilabile molecules, much more difficult to consume, are able to reach depths of hundreds of meters below the surface before being metabolized.[26] Refractory DOM largely comprises highly conjugated molecules like Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or lignin.[22] Refractory DOM can reach depths greater than 1000 m and circulates through the oceans over thousands of years.[27][23][28] Over the course of a year, approximately 20 gigatons of photosynthetically-fixed labile and semilabile carbon is taken up by heterotrophs, whereas fewer than 0.2 gigatons of refractory carbon is consumed.[23] Marine dissolved organic matter (DOM) can store as much carbon as the current atmospheric CO2 supply,[28] but industrial processes are altering the balance of this cycle.[29]
6 CO 2 carbon dioxide + 6 H 2 O water → l i g h t e n e r g y C 6 H 12 O 6 carbohydrate + 6 O 2 oxygen {\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {carbon~dioxide}{6CO2}}+{\underset {water}{6H2O}}->[light~energy]{\underset {carbohydrate}{C6H12O6}}+{\underset {oxygen}{6O2}}}}}
(5)
C 6 H 12 O 6 carbohydrate + 6 O 2 oxygen ⟶ 6 CO 2 carbon dioxide + 6 H 2 O water + heat {\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {carbohydrate}{C6H12O6}}+{\underset {oxygen}{6O2}}->{\underset {carbon~dioxide}{6CO2}}+{\underset {water}{6H2O}}+heat}}}
(6)
Inputs[edit]
Inputs to the marine carbon cycle are numerous, but the primary contributions, on a net basis, come from the atmosphere and rivers.[2] Hydrothermal vents generally supply carbon equal to the amount they consume.[16]
Atmosphere[edit]
IPCC 2007 assessment: Average Ocean CO2 flux
Before the Industrial Revolution, the ocean was a source of CO2 to the atmosphere [9] balancing the impact of rock weathering and terrestrial particulate organic carbon; now it has become a sink for the excess atmospheric CO2.[30] Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere at the ocean's surface at an exchange rate which varies locally [31] but on average, the oceans have a net absorption of CO2 2.2 Pg C per year.[31] Because the solubility of carbon dioxide increases when temperature decreases, cold areas can contain more CO2 and still be in equilibrium with the atmosphere; In contrast, rising sea surface temperatures decrease the capacity of the oceans to take in carbon dioxide.[32][10] The North Atlantic and Nordic oceans have the highest carbon uptake per unit area in the world,[33] and in the North Atlantic deep convection transports approximately 197 Tg per year of non-refractory carbon to depth.[34]
Carbon dioxide exchange rates between ocean and atmosphere[edit]
Ocean-atmospheric exchanges rates of CO2 depend on the concentration of carbon dioxide already present in both the atmosphere and the ocean, temperature, salinity, and wind speed.[35] This exchange rate can be approximated by Henry's law and can be calculated as S = kP, where the solubility (S) of the carbon dioxide gas is proportional to the amount of gas in the atmosphere, or its partial pressure.[2]
Revelle factor[edit]
Since the oceanic intake of carbon dioxide is limited, CO2 influx can also be described by the Revelle factor.[32][10] The Revelle Factor is a ratio of the change of carbon dioxide to the change in dissolved inorganic carbon, which serves as an indicator of carbon dioxide dissolution in the mixed layer considering the solubility pump. The Revelle Factor is an expression to characterize the thermodynamic efficiency of the DIC pool to absorb CO2 into bicarbonate. The lower the Revelle factor, the higher the capacity for ocean water to take in carbon dioxide. While Revelle calculated a factor of around 10 in his day, in a 2004 study data showed a Revelle factor ranging from approximately 9 in low-latitude tropical regions to 15 in the southern ocean near Antarctica.[36]
Rivers[edit]
Rivers can also transport organic carbon to the ocean through weathering or erosion of aluminosilicate (equation 7) and carbonate rocks (equation 8) on land,
2 NaAlSi 3 O 8 + 2 H 2 CO 3 + 9 H 2 O ⟶ 2 Na + + 2 HCO 3 − + 4 H 4 SiO 4 + Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 {\displaystyle {\ce {2 NaAlSi3O8 + 2 H2CO3 + 9 H2O -> 2 Na+ + 2 HCO3^- + 4 H4SiO4 + Al2Si2O5(OH)4}}}
(7)
CaCO 3 + H 2 CO 3 ⟶ Ca 2 + + 2 HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + H2CO3 -> Ca^2+ + 2 HCO3^-}}}
(8)
or by the decomposition of life (equation 5, e.g. plant and soil material).[2] Rivers contribute roughly equal amounts (~0.4 GtC/yr) of DIC and DOC to the oceans.[2] It is estimated that approximately 0.8 GtC (DIC + DOC) is transported annually from the rivers to the ocean.[2] The rivers that flow into Chesapeake Bay (Susquehanna, Potomac, and James rivers) input approximately 0.004 Gt (6.5 x 1010 moles) DIC per year.[37] The total carbon transport of rivers represents approximately 0.02% of the total carbon in the atmosphere.[38] Though it seems small, over long time scales (1000 to 10,000 years) the carbon that enters rivers (and therefore does not enter the atmosphere) serves as a stabilizing feedback for greenhouse warming.[39]
Outputs[edit]
Fate of buried organic matter
The key outputs of the marine carbon system are particulate organic matter (POC) and calcium carbonate (PIC) preservation as well as reverse weathering.[2] While there are regions with local loss of CO2 to the atmosphere and hydrothermal processes, a net loss in the cycle does not occur.[16]
Organic matter preservation[edit]
Sedimentation is a long-term sink for carbon in the ocean, as well as the largest loss of carbon from the oceanic system.[40] Deep marine sediments and geologic formations are important since they provide a thorough record of life on Earth and an important source of fossil fuel.[40] Oceanic carbon can exit the system in the form of detritus that sinks and is buried in the seafloor without being fully decomposed or dissolved. Ocean floor surface sediments account for 1.75x1015 kg of carbon in the global carbon cycle [41] At most, 4% of the particulate organic carbon from the euphotic zone in the Pacific Ocean, where light-powered primary production occurs, is buried in marine sediments.[40] It is then implied that since there is a higher input of organic matter to the ocean than what is being buried, a large portion of it is used up or consumed within.
Fate of sinking organic carbon[edit]
Historically, sediments with the highest organic carbon contents were frequently found in areas with high surface water productivity or those with low bottom-water oxygen concentrations.[42] 90% of organic carbon burial occurs in deposits of deltas and continental shelves and upper slopes;[43] this is due partly to short exposure time because of a shorter distance to the seafloor and the composition of the organic matter that is already deposited in those environments.[44] Organic carbon burial is also sensitive to climate patterns: the accumulation rate of organic carbon was 50% larger during the glacial maximum compared to interglacials.[45]
Degradation[edit]
POC is decomposed by a series of microbe-driven processes, such as methanogenesis and sulfate reduction, before burial in the seafloor.[46][47] Degradation of POC also results in microbial methane production which is the main gas hydrate on the continental margins.[48] Lignin and pollen are inherently resistant to degradation, and some studies show that inorganic matrices may also protect organic matter.[49] Preservation rates of organic matter depend on other interdependent variables that vary nonlinearly in time and space.[50] Although organic matter breakdown occurs rapidly in the presence of oxygen, microbes utilizing a variety of chemical species (via redox gradients) can degrade organic matter in anoxic sediments.[50] The burial depth at which degradation halts depends upon the sedimentation rate, the relative abundance of organic matter in the sediment, the type of organic matter being buried, and innumerable other variables.[50] While decomposition of organic matter can occur in anoxic sediments when bacteria use oxidants other than oxygen (nitrate, sulfate, Fe3+), decomposition tends to end short of complete mineralization.[51] This occurs because of preferential decomposition of labile molecules over refractile molecules.[51]
Burial[edit]
Organic carbon burial is an input of energy for underground biological environments and can regulate oxygen in the atmosphere at long time-scales (> 10,000 years).[45] Burial can only take place if organic carbon arrives to the sea floor, making continental shelves and coastal margins the main storage of organic carbon from terrestrial and oceanic primary production. Fjords, or cliffs created by glacial erosion, have also been identified as areas of significant carbon burial, with rates one hundred times greater than the ocean average.[52] Particulate organic carbon is buried in oceanic sediments, creating a pathway between a rapidly available carbon pool in the ocean to its storage for geological timescales. Once carbon is sequestered in the seafloor, it is considered blue carbon. Burial rates can be calculated as the difference between the rate at which organic matter sinks and the rate at which it decomposes.
Calcium carbonate preservation[edit]
The precipitation of calcium carbonate is important as it results in a loss of alkalinity as well as a release of CO2 (Equation 4), and therefore a change in the rate of preservation of calcium carbonate can alter the partial pressure of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere.[16] CaCO3 is supersatured in the great majority of ocean surface waters and undersaturated at depth,[10] meaning the shells are more likely to dissolve as they sink to ocean depths. CaCO3 can also be dissolved through metabolic dissolution (i.e. can be used as food and excreted) and thus deep ocean sediments have very little calcium carbonate.[16] The precipitation and burial of calcium carbonate in the ocean removes particulate inorganic carbon from the ocean and ultimately forms limestone.[16] On time scales greater than 500,000 years Earth's climate is moderated by the flux of carbon in and out of the lithosphere.[53] Rocks formed in the ocean seafloor are recycled through plate tectonics back to the surface and weathered or subducted into the mantle, the carbon outgassed by volcanoes.[2]
Human impacts[edit]
Oceans take up 15 – 40% of anthropogenic CO2,[54][55] and so far roughly 40% of the carbon from fossil fuel combustion has been taken up into the oceans.[56] Because the Revelle factor increases with increasing CO2, a smaller fraction of the anthropogenic flux will be taken up by the ocean in the future.[57] Current annual increase in atmospheric CO2 is approximately 4 gigatons of carbon.[58] This induces climate change that drives carbon concentration and carbon-climate feedback processes that modifies ocean circulation and the physical and chemical properties of seawater, which alters CO2 uptake.[59][60]
Ocean acidification[edit]
Full article: Ocean acidification
The pH of the oceans is declining due to uptake of atmospheric CO2.[61] The rise in dissolved carbon dioxide reduces the availability of the carbonate ion, reducing CaCO3 saturation state, thus making it thermodynamically harder to make CaCO3 shell.[62] Carbonate ions preferentially bind to hydrogen ions to form bicarbonate,[10] thus a reduction in carbonate ion availability increases the amount of unbound hydrogen ions, and decreases the amount of bicarbonate formed (Equations 1–3). pH is a measurement of hydrogen ion concentration, where a low pH means there are more unbound hydrogen ions. pH is therefore an indicator of carbonate speciation (the format of carbon present) in the oceans and can be used to assess how healthy the ocean is.[62]
The list of organisms that may struggle due to ocean acidification include coccolithophores and foraminifera (the base of the marine food chain in many areas), human food sources such as oysters and mussels,[63] and perhaps the most conspicuous, a structure built by organisms – the coral reefs.[62] Most surface water will remain supersaturated with respect to CaCO3 (both calcite and aragonite) for some time on current emissions trajectories,[62] but the organisms that require carbonate will likely be replaced in many areas.[62] Coral reefs are under pressure from overfishing, nitrate pollution, and warming waters; ocean acidification will add additional stress on these important structures.[62]
Iron fertilization[edit]
Full article: Iron Fertilization
Iron fertilization is a facet of geoengineering, which purposefully manipulates the Earth’s climate system, typically in aspects of the carbon cycle or radiative forcing. Of current geoengineering interest is the possibility of accelerating the biological pump to increase export of carbon from the surface ocean. This increased export could theoretically remove excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for storage in the deep ocean. Ongoing investigations regarding artificial fertilization exist.[64] Due to the scale of the ocean and the fast response times of heterotrophic communities to increases in primary production, it is difficult to determine whether limiting-nutrient fertilization results in an increase in carbon export.[64] However, the majority of the community does not believe this is a reasonable or viable approach.[65]
Dams and reservoirs[edit]
There are over 16 million dams in the world[66] that alter carbon transport from rivers to oceans.[67] Using data from the Global Reservoirs and Dams database, which contains approximately 7000 reservoirs that hold 77% of the total volume of water held back by dams (8000 km3), it is estimated that the delivery of carbon to the ocean has decreased by 13% since 1970 and is projected to reach 19% by 2030.[68] The excess carbon contained in the reservoirs may emit an additional ~0.184 Gt of carbon to the atmosphere per year[69] and an additional ~0.2 GtC will be buried in sediment.[68] Prior to 2000, the Mississippi, the Niger, and the Ganges River basins account for 25 – 31% of all reservoir carbon burial.[68] After 2000, the Paraná (home to 70 dams) and the Zambezi (home to the largest reservoir) River basins exceeded the burial by the Mississippi.[68] Other large contributors to carbon burial caused by damming occur on the Danube, the Amazon, the Yangtze, the Mekong, the Yenisei, and the Tocantins Rivers.[68]
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^ Jump up to: a b Revelle, R; Suess, H (1957). "Carbon dioxide exchange between atmosphere and ocean and the question of an increase of atmospheric CO2 during the past decades". Tellus. 9: 18–27. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1957.tb01849.x.
Jump up ^ Takahashi, T; Sutherland, S; Wanninkhof, R; ...., ...; de Baar, H (2009). "Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 56 (8–10): 554–577. Bibcode:2009DSRII..56..554T. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.12.009.
Jump up ^ Fontela, M; Garcia-Ibanez, M; Hansell, D; Mercier, H; Perez, F (2016). "Dissolved organic carbon in the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation". Nature. 6: 26931. Bibcode:2016NatSR...626931F. doi:10.1038/srep26931.
Jump up ^ Robbins, L.L.; Hansen, M.E.; Kleypas, J.A.; Meylan, S.C. (2010). CO2calc—A user-friendly seawater carbon calculator for Windows, Mac OS X, and iOS (iPhone). U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010-1280. p. 16.
Jump up ^ Sabine, C.L.; Feely, R.A.; Gruber, N; Key, R.M.; Lee, K (2004). "The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2". Science. 305 (5682): 367–371. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..367S. doi:10.1126/science.1097403.
Jump up ^ Waldbusser, G; Powell, E; Mann, R (2013). "Ecosystem effects of shell aggregations and cycling in coastal waters: an example of Chesapeake Bay oyster reefs". Ecology. 94 (4): 895–903. doi:10.1890/12-1179.1.
Jump up ^ Galy, Valier; Peucker-Ehrenbrink, Bernhard; Eglinton, Timothy (2015). "Global carbon export from the terrestrial biosphere controlled by erosion". Nature. 521 (7551): 204–207. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..204G. doi:10.1038/nature14400.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Ocean acidification. Gattuso, Jean-Pierre., Hansson, Lina. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. 2011. ISBN 9780199591091. OCLC 823163766.
Jump up ^ Barton, Alan (2015). "Impacts of Coastal Acidification on the Pacific Northwest Shellfish Industry and Adaptation Strategies Implemented in Response". Oceanography. 25 (2): 146–159. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2015.38.
^ Jump up to: a b Aumont, O.; Bopp, L. (2006-06-01). "Globalizing results from ocean in situ iron fertilization studies". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 20 (2): GB2017. Bibcode:2006GBioC..20.2017A. doi:10.1029/2005gb002591. ISSN 1944-9224.
Jump up ^ Chisholm, S; Falkowski, P; Cullen, J (2001). "Dis-crediting ocean fertilization". Science. 294 (5541): 309–310. doi:10.1126/science.1065349.
Jump up ^ Lehner, B; Liermann, C; Revenga, C; Vorosmarty, C; Fekete, B; Crouzet, P; Doll, P; Endejan, M; Frenken, K; Magome, J; Nilsson, C; Robertson, J; Rodel, R; Sindorf, N; Wisser, D (2011). "High-resolution mapping of the world's reservoirs and dams for sustainable river-flow management". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9 (9): 494–502. doi:10.1890/100125.
Jump up ^ Regnier, P; Friedlingstein, P; ..., ...; Thullner, M (2013). "Anthropogenic perturbation of the carbon fluxes from land to ocean". Nature Geoscience. 6 (8): 597–607. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..597R. doi:10.1038/ngeo1830.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Maavara, T; Lauerwald, R; Regnier, P; Van Cappellen, P (2016). "Global perturbation of organic carbon cycling by river damming". Nature. 8: 15347. Bibcode:2017NatCo...815347M. doi:10.1038/ncomms15347.
Jump up ^ Barros, N; Cole, J; Tranvik, L; Prairie, Y; Bastviken, D; Huszar, V; del Giorgio, P; Roland, F (2011). "Carbon emission from hydroelectric reservoirs linked to reservoir age and latitude". Nature Geoscience. 4 (9): 593–596. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..593B. doi:10.1038/ngeo1211.
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Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812
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"Great Comet of 1812" redirects here. For the eponymous comet, see Great Comet of 1811.
Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812
The Great Comet
Music
Dave Malloy
Lyrics
Dave Malloy
Book
Dave Malloy
Basis
War and Peace
by Leo Tolstoy
Productions
2012 Off-Broadway
2014 Quito
2015 Cambridge
2016 Broadway
Awards
Richard Rodgers Award for Musical Theater
Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 is a sung-through musical adaptation of a segment of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace written by composer/lyricist Dave Malloy and directed by Rachel Chavkin. It is based on Volume 2, Part 5 of Tolstoy's novel, focusing on Natasha's affair with Anatole and Pierre's search for meaning in his life.[1]
After its original run at the Ars Nova in 2012, a staging in both the Meatpacking District and the Theater District of Manhattan in 2013, a 2014 Spanish-language staging in Quito, Ecuador, and a remounting at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 2015, the musical premiered on Broadway in November 2016 at the Imperial Theatre.
The musical received positive reviews, particularly for Phillipa Soo, Denée Benton, and Josh Groban's leading performances, as well as for the production's score and direction. The show was nominated for 12 awards—the highest number of nominations in the 2016–2017 season—for the 2017 Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Original Score, Best Book of a Musical, Best Actress in a Musical for Benton, Best Actor in a Musical for Groban, and Best Direction of a Musical for Chavkin. It won two awards: Best Scenic Design and Best Lighting Design in a Musical.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
1.1 Act 1
1.2 Act 2
2 Music
2.1 Musical numbers
3 Productions
3.1 Off-Broadway
3.1.1 Ars Nova
3.1.2 Kazino
3.2 American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.)
3.3 Broadway
3.4 National Tour
3.5 International productions
4 Characters
5 Original principal casts
5.1 Notable cast replacements
6 Critical response
7 Awards and nominations
7.1 Original Off-Broadway production
7.2 Original Cambridge production
7.3 Original Broadway production
8 Recordings
9 Book
10 References
11 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Act 1[edit]
The story is set in Moscow, 1812, just before Napoleon's invasion of Russia and the burning of the city. As the story begins ("Prologue"), Pierre, a wealthy aristocrat, is having an existential crisis, living a slothful life of wine, philosophy, and inaction ("Pierre"). He is best friends with Prince Andrey Bolkonsky, who has left to go to war. Andrey has recently become engaged to the young, beautiful countess Natasha Rostova. Natasha and her cousin Sonya arrive in Moscow to stay the winter with Natasha's godmother, Marya D., while Natasha waits for Andrey to return from the war. Marya D. is an old friend of Pierre's ("Moscow"). Marya D. advises Natasha that she must visit her future in-laws, the demented old Prince Bolkonsky and his pitiable spinster daughter Mary ("The Private and Intimate Life of the House"), to win their affection in advance of the marriage, which is critical to the status and fortune of the Rostov family. However, Natasha's visit with Mary and Bolkonsky ends in disaster ("Natasha & Bolkonskys"), as Mary finds Natasha vain, Natasha finds Mary cold, and Bolkonsky behaves bizarrely. Natasha leaves their home missing Andrey more than ever ("No One Else").
The next night Natasha is introduced to decadent Moscow society after an extravagant performance at "The Opera". There she meets Prince Anatole Kuragin, a young and handsome man and, it turns out, a notorious rogue ("Natasha & Anatole"); their interaction leaves Natasha feeling confused.
Anatole, his friend Dolokhov, and Pierre go out drinking; they are met by Pierre's unpleasant wife, Hélène (Anatole's sister), who taunts Pierre and flirts with Dolokhov. Anatole plots with Dolokhov and Hélène to have the young woman he just met, although he is already married. Pierre finds his wife's familiarity with Dolokhov offensive and drunkenly challenges him to a duel, accidentally wounding Dolokhov. When it is Dolokhov's turn to shoot, Pierre stands openly in front of the bullet, but Dolokhov miraculously misses him ("The Duel"). Alone, Pierre reflects on his near-death experience and realizes that despite wasting his life, he wishes to live ("Dust and Ashes").
Natasha and her family go to church ("Sunday Morning"). Hélène finds it amusing to encourage her brother Anatole's conquest of the young countess Natasha, which she knows would lead to Natasha's ruin. Hélène visits Natasha and invites her to the ball that night ("Charming"), where Anatole seduces Natasha, and she persuades herself that she loves him ("The Ball").
Act 2[edit]
Anatole and Natasha make plans to elope (she still does not know that he is married), and Natasha tearfully breaks off her engagement with Andrey ("Letters"). Sonya finds out about the plan and realizes it will mean Natasha's ruin ("Sonya & Natasha"); Sonya determines to save Natasha from herself even if it means she will lose her closest friend ("Sonya Alone"). That evening Anatole and Dolokhov plan for the elopement ("Preparations"), and Dolokhov tries to change Anatole's mind with no success. Balaga, their trusted troika driver ("Balaga"), soon arrives to take them to Natasha's house and a wild party ensues as Anatole bids farewell to his friends. However, they are thwarted at the last moment by Marya D. ("The Abduction"). Marya D. scolds Natasha but then tries to comfort her with Sonya's help. Natasha screams at them, breaks down and waits for Anatole to come back for her all night ("In My House").
Marya D. calls on Pierre in the middle of the night ("A Call to Pierre"), begging him to handle the crisis, and Pierre finally learns that the object of Anatole's conquest is Natasha. Marya D. finds out that Anatole is married and tells a grief-stricken Natasha. Pierre, outraged, searches for Anatole ("Find Anatole"). When Pierre finds Anatole, he comes close to attacking him in rage, but instead gives him money and orders him to leave Moscow (”Pierre & Anatole”). Natasha poisons herself with arsenic ("Natasha Very Ill") but lives. The next day Andrey returns. Pierre explains the scandal to him and asks him to be compassionate, but Andrey is unable to forgive Natasha and will not ask for her hand in marriage again ("Pierre & Andrey"). Finally, Pierre visits Natasha ("Pierre & Natasha") and he comforts the distraught girl, giving her hope. After their meeting, Pierre experiences a moment of enlightenment himself while seeing The Great Comet of 1812 in the night sky.[2]
Music[edit]
Malloy's original score (orchestrated by the composer) merges Russian folk and classical music with indie rock and EDM influences. The piece is described by the composer as an "electropop opera" and is through-composed, with just one line of spoken dialogue, in Pierre and Natasha's only scene together.[3] On stage, nearly all of the actors play musical instruments augmenting the show's orchestra. Groban plays the accordion briefly, and plays large sections of the score on the orchestra's piano.[4]
The libretto contains many passages taken word-for-word from Aylmer and Louise Maude's 1922 translation of Tolstoy's novel.[2]
Musical numbers[edit]
Act I
"Prologue" – Ensemble
"Pierre" – Pierre, Ensemble
"Moscow" – Marya D., Natasha, Sonya
"The Private and Intimate Life of the House" – Bolkonsky, Mary
"Natasha & Bolkonskys" – Mary, Natasha, Bolkonsky
"No One Else" – Natasha
"The Opera" – Natasha, Sonya, Marya D., Hélène, Ensemble
"Natasha & Anatole" – Natasha, Anatole
"The Duel" – Anatole, Dolokhov, Pierre, Hélène, Ensemble
"Dust and Ashes" – Pierre, Ensemble
"Sunday Morning" – Natasha, Sonya, Marya D.
"Charming" – Hélène
"The Ball" – Natasha, Anatole
Act II
"Letters" – Natasha, Pierre, Mary, Anatole, Ensemble
"Sonya & Natasha" – Sonya, Natasha
"Sonya Alone" – Sonya
"Preparations" – Anatole, Dolokhov, Pierre
"Balaga" – Balaga, Anatole, Dolokhov, Ensemble
"The Abduction" – Ensemble
"In My House" – Marya D., Natasha, Sonya
"A Call to Pierre" – Marya D., Pierre
"Find Anatole" – Pierre, Anatole, Hélène, Natasha
"Pierre & Anatole" – Pierre, Anatole
"Natasha Very Ill" – Sonya
"Pierre & Andrey" – Andrey, Pierre
"Pierre & Natasha" – Pierre, Natasha
"The Great Comet of 1812" – Pierre, Ensemble
Note: An aria for Natasha, "Natasha Lost", was cut from the Broadway production but is included on the original cast recording between number 8 ("Natasha & Anatole") and number 9 ("The Duel"). In addition, "Dust and Ashes" was added for the Broadway production.
Productions[edit]
Off-Broadway[edit]
Ars Nova[edit]
The musical premiered on October 16, 2012, at Ars Nova; directed by Rachel Chavkin[5] the show was staged as an immersive production, with action happening around and among the audience. The set designed by Mimi Lien and lights by Bradley King transformed Ars Nova into a Russian supper club. The creative team was completed by Paloma Young as costume designer, Matt Hubbs as sound designer, and Dave Malloy as musical director. The cast included Malloy as Pierre, Phillipa Soo as Natasha, Lucas Steele as Anatole, Amber Gray as Hélène, Brittain Ashford as Sonya, Nick Choksi as Dolokhov, Shaina Taub as Mary, Blake DeLong as Andrey/Prince Bolkonsky, Amelia Workman as Marya D. and Paul Pinto (who also served as associate music director) as Balaga. The show was the first production of Ars Nova to ever transfer to Broadway.
Kazino[edit]
In May 16, 2013, the show opened in the Meatpacking District at Kazino,[6] a temporary structure designed as an opulent Russian club, where the immersive production was staged, again by the same creative team. The cast reprised their roles, except Choksi, now replaced by Ian Lassiter, and Workman, replaced by Grace McLean. David Abeles took over the role of Pierre on July 9, 2013. The show closed on September 1, 2013.
The show opened for a 14-week limited engagement in September 2013 at the Kazino and moved to the Theater District, with the final cast of the previous production. On December 10, 2013, the two-disc cast recording was released. The show was extended and ran until March 2, 2014.
American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.)[edit]
The team behind the original production remounted the show at the American Repertory Theatre (A.R.T.) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with performances beginning December 1, 2015 to January 2016. Now expanded to a proscenium stage, the set put audience onstage, with unique seating options, with banquette and dining tables added. Scott Stangland took over the role of Pierre, Denée Benton starred as Natasha, Lilli Cooper as Hélène, Nicholas Belton as Andrey/Prince Bolkonsky and the rest of the cast reprised their roles.
Broadway[edit]
The Broadway production at the Imperial Theatre began previews on October 18, 2016 and opened on November 14, 2016, starring Josh Groban as Pierre and Denée Benton as Natasha, both making their Broadway debuts, with choreography by Sam Pinkleton, sets by Mimi Lien, costumes by Paloma Young, lights by Bradley King, sound by Nicholas Pope and music direction by Or Matias.[7][8] With sets similar to the A.R.T. remounting, the production took the proscenium stage, but removed almost 200 seats from the audience to accommodate the design. Again, the options of stage seats, in banquettes or dining tables is available. The Broadway production cost about $14 million to stage.[9]
Following Groban's departure on July 2, 2017, Dave Malloy assumed the role of Pierre from July 3 to 9, 2017. Okieriete Onaodowan and Ingrid Michaelson assumed the roles of Pierre and Sonya on July 11 through August 13; Onaodowan was originally supposed to begin performances on July 3.[10] Mandy Patinkin was set to replace Onaodowan as Pierre on August 15 through September 3, 2017, yet has since withdrawn after casting backlash.[11][12]
The Broadway production played its final performance on September 3, 2017, having played 32 previews and 336 performances.[13]
National Tour[edit]
A national tour is planned for 2018.
International productions[edit]
In September 2014, the show had its South American premiere, at Teatro Parapluie in Quito, Ecuador, in a Spanish language production.
Characters[edit]
Character[14]
Voice[15]
Description[16]
Natasha Rostova Soprano
G3–F#5
"Natasha is young": A nineteen-year-old ingenue who is innocent, doe-eyed, and profoundly, lethally romantic. She is betrothed to Andrey and loves him dearly. She goes to Moscow under the care of her godmother, Marya D, with her cousin and best friend Sonya. During her first 3 days there, she meets Anatole and falls for him.
Pierre Bezukhov Baritenor
G2–B4
"Dear, bewildered, and awkward Pierre...rich, unhappily married Pierre": The illegitimate son of a famous Russian family. Socially awkward and with a melancholy streak, he is an outsider in society despite his wealth. He is a good friend of Andrey and keeps an eye on Natasha for him while Andrey is away at war.
Anatole Kuragin Tenor
C2–C#5
"Anatole is hot": An aristocratic, seductive hedonist, who spends his money on women and wine. He is the brother of Hélène and best friend of Dolokhov. He is an otherworldly, David Bowie type. During the course of the show, he develops feelings and falls in love with Natasha.
Sonya Rostova Mezzo
F#3–E5
"Sonya is good": Natasha's cousin and closest friend. She is fiercely dedicated to her cousin and will do anything and everything to keep her safe.
Hélène Bezukhov Alto
E3–F5
"Hélène is a slut": Anatole's sister who married Pierre for money. She is highly sexualized, manipulative, and dedicated to her brother.
Marya Dmitriyevna Alto
G3–E5
"Marya is old-school, a grand dame of Moscow": She is Natasha's godmother, and is a very strict woman. However, she is also kind. Natasha and Sonya live with her during their time in the city.
Fedya Dolokhov Baritone
E3–F4
"Dolokhov is fierce, but not too important": Anatole's friend and an extremely talented marksman. He is possibly having an affair with Hélène, Pierre's wife.
Andrey Bolkonsky/
Old Prince Bolkonsky Baritone
Ab3–Eb4
"Andrey isn't here": He is fighting in the war for much of the show, and is betrothed to Natasha. He is serious and slightly bitter.
"Old Prince Bolkonsky is crazy" and suffering from many age-related ailments. He is taken care of by his daughter Mary, but he torments her regardless.
Mary Bolkonskaya Mezzo
G3–F5
"Mary is plain": the daughter of Bolkonsky and Andrey's sister. She lives at home with her father as his caretaker, where she is tormented and abused by him. She is confined to the home and has no friends.
Balaga Baritone
A2–E4
"Balaga's just for fun": He's a famous troika driver, and assists Anatole with his plot for escaping Moscow to go to Poland. He is wild and mystical.
(Lines in quotations are lyrics from the opening song, "Prologue," which introduces the characters)[17]
Original principal casts[edit]
Character
Ars Nova
(2012)
Off-Broadway
Kazino Meatpacking District (2013)
Off-Broadway
Kazino Times Square (2013)
American Repertory Theater
(2015)
Broadway
(2016)
Natasha Rostova
Phillipa Soo Denée Benton
Pierre Bezukhov
Dave Malloy Scott Stangland Josh Groban
Anatole Kuragin
Lucas Steele
Sonya Rostova
Brittain Ashford
Hélène Bezukhova
Amber Gray Lilli Cooper Amber Gray
Marya Dmitriyevna
Amelia Workman Grace McLean
Fedya Dolokhov
Nick Choksi Ian Lassiter Nick Choksi
Andrey Bolkonsky/Old Prince Bolkonsky
Blake DeLong Nicholas Belton
Mary Bolkonskaya
Gelsey Bell Shaina Taub Gelsey Bell
Balaga
Paul Pinto Ashkon Davaran Paul Pinto
Notable cast replacements[edit]
Composer Dave Malloy temporarily replaced Josh Groban as Pierre on several performances from May 4 to June 27 and July 3 to July 9, 2017.[10] He replaced Scott Stangland as Pierre on August 22, 2017.[13]
Multi-platinum singer-songwriter Ingrid Michaelson temporarily replaced Brittain Ashford as Sonya on July 3 through August 13, 2017. Ashford returned to the role on August 15.[18][19]
Okieriete Onaodowan, best known for originating the roles of James Madison and Hercules Mulligan in the 2015 musical Hamilton, took over the role of Pierre from Dave Malloy on July 11 through August 13, 2017.[10][11][20]
Scott Stangland replaced Okieriete Onaodowan as Pierre from August 15 through 20, 2017.[13]
Critical response[edit]
The piece was very well-received by the New York press; Charles Isherwood in the New York Times called it "a vibrant, transporting new musical," and both Times theater critics included the show on their Best of the Year lists.[21] The Times' classical critic, Anthony Tommasini, called it "a breathless, roughish and ravishing quasi-opera. This is a pastiche score of a cavalier sort. Mr. Malloy lifts styles with such abandon, making willful shifts – from punk riffs to agitated Broadway ballads, mock-pompous recitative to gritty Russian folk songs or drinking choruses with klezmer clarinets – that you lose track of what is being appropriated and really don't care."[22] Time Out New York gave the piece five out of five stars, and also included it on both critics' Best of lists, stating "this is theater like no other in New York. It grounds you and transports you at once, and leaves you beaming with pleasure.”[23]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Original Off-Broadway production[edit]
Sources: TheaterMania[24] Internet Off-Broadway Database[25]Village Voice[26]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
2013 Obie Award[27] Special Citations Dave Malloy & Rachel Chavkin Won
Drama League Award[28] Distinguished Performance Award Phillipa Soo Nominated
Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off-Broadway Musical Nominated
Drama Desk Award[29] Outstanding Musical Nominated
Outstanding Music Dave Malloy Nominated
Outstanding Lyrics Nominated
Outstanding Director of a Musical Rachel Chavkin Nominated
Outstanding Costume Design Paloma Young Nominated
Off-Broadway Alliance Awards[30] Best New Musical Won
2014 Lucille Lortel Award[31] Outstanding Musical Nominated
Outstanding Director Rachel Chavkin Nominated
Outstanding Lead Actress in a Musical Phillipa Soo Nominated
Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical Lucas Steele Won
Blake DeLong Nominated
Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical Brittain Ashford Nominated
Shaina Taub Nominated
Outstanding Scenic Design Mimi Lien Won
Outstanding Costume Design Paloma Young Won
Outstanding Lighting Design Bradley King Nominated
Outstanding Sound Design Matt Hubbs Nominated
Original Cambridge production[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
2016 Elliot Norton Award[32][33] Outstanding Musical Production by a Large Theatre Won
Outstanding Design, Large Theatre Won
Outstanding Director, Large Theatre Rachel Chavkin Won
Outstanding Performance by an Actor Lucas Steele Nominated
Scott Stangland Won
Outstanding Performance by an Actress Denée Benton Nominated
Outstanding Ensemble, Large Theatre Nominated
Original Broadway production[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
2017 Tony Award[34] Best Musical Nominated
Best Book of a Musical Dave Malloy Nominated
Best Original Score Nominated
Best Orchestrations Nominated
Best Actor in a Musical Josh Groban Nominated
Best Actress in a Musical Denée Benton Nominated
Best Featured Actor in a Musical Lucas Steele Nominated
Best Scenic Design in a Musical Mimi Lien Won
Best Costume Design in a Musical Paloma Young Nominated
Best Lighting Design in a Musical Bradley King Won
Best Direction of a Musical Rachel Chavkin Nominated
Best Choreography Sam Pinkleton Nominated
Drama Desk Awards[35] Outstanding Director of a Musical Rachel Chavkin Won
Outstanding Set Design Mimi Lien Won
Outstanding Lighting Design for a Musical Bradley King Won
Outstanding Sound Design in a Musical Nicholas Pope Won
Drama League Award[36] Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off-Broadway Musical Nominated
Distinguished Performance Award Denée Benton Nominated
Josh Groban Nominated
Outer Critics Circle Award[37][38] Outstanding Set Design Mimi Lien Won
Outstanding Lighting Design Bradley King Won
Outstanding Sound Design Nicholas Pope Nominated
Theatre World Award[39] Denée Benton Honoree
Josh Groban Honoree
Amber Gray Honoree
Dave Malloy Special Award Honoree
Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography[40][41] Outstanding Ensemble in a Broadway Show Won
ACCA Award for Outstanding Broadway Chorus[42] Sumayya Ali, Courtney Bassett, Josh Canfield, Kennedy Caughell, Ken Clark, Erica Dorfler, Lulu Fall, Ashley Pérez Flanagan, Paloma Garcia-Lee, Nick Gaswirth, Alex Gibson, Billy Joe Kiessling, Mary Spencer Knapp, Blaine Alden Krauss, Reed Luplau, Brandt Martinez, Andrew Mayer, Mary Page Nance, Shoba Narayan, Azudi Onyejekwe, Pearl Rhein, Celia Mei Rubin, Heath Saunders, Ani Taj, Cathryn Wake, Katrina Yaukey, and Lauren Zakrin Recipient
Extraordinary Excellence in Diversity[43] Recipient
Recordings[edit]
In December 10, 2013 Ghostlight Records released a two-disc original cast album of the entire score.[44]
The original Broadway cast recording was released on May 19, 2017.
Book[edit]
On November 22, 2016 the book Natasha, Pierre, and the Great Comet of 1812: The Journey of a New Musical to Broadway was released. The book, edited and compiled by Steven Suskin, includes interviews with many of the original cast members, as well as the annotated script and photos of both the Kazino and Broadway casts. The book also includes a CD with five songs from the show: three from the original cast recording, and two featuring Josh Groban and a 25 piece orchestra.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vincentelli, Elisabeth (October 17, 2012). "Over the Moon For Comet". The NY Post. New York.
^ Jump up to: a b Original Cast Recording [CD booklet]. New York: Sh-k-boom Records.
Jump up ^ Clarke, David. "Natasha, Pierre and the Great Comet of 1812 (Original Cast Recording) is Astonishingly Complex", Broadway World, December 22, 2013, accessed April 7, 2014
Jump up ^ Amodio, Joseph V. "Josh Groban talks Broadway debut in Great Comet of 1812", Newsday, January 17, 2017
Jump up ^ "Natasha, Pierre and the Great Comet of 1812". ARS NOVA. 2016-03-29. Retrieved 2017-01-25.
Jump up ^ "Richard Rodgers Award-Winning Musical Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 Opens May 16 at NYC's Kazino | Playbill". Playbill. Retrieved 2017-01-25.
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew. "Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 Will Play the Imperial", Playbill, March 7, 2016. accessed March 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Isherwood, Charles. "Review: Natasha, Pierre and the Great Comet of 1812, on the Heels of Hamilton" The New York Times, November 14, 2016
Jump up ^ Paulson, Michael (2017-08-29). "Race, Money and Broadway: How ‘Great Comet’ Burned Out". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sblendorio, Marissa (2017-06-30). "Hamilton's Okieriete Onaodowan Will Make His Great Comet Debut on July 11". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved 2017-07-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Gans, Andrew (2017-07-26). "Mandy Patinkin Will Return to Broadway in The Great Comet | Playbill". Playbill. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
Jump up ^ "What About Oak? GREAT COMET Producer Explains Okieriete Onaodowan's Exit". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-07-26. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lefkowitz, Andy (2017-08-08). "Natasha, Pierre & the Great Comet of 1812 Will Close on Broadway; Creator Dave Malloy to Rejoin Cast". Broadway.com. Retrieved 2017-08-09.
Jump up ^ "Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 | Samuel French". www.samuelfrench.com. Retrieved 2016-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Audition for NATASHA, PIERRE & THE GREAT COMET OF 1812 at Off Broadway Theatre TBA in New York on 01/25". www.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 2016-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Audition for NATASHA, PIERRE & THE GREAT COMET OF 1812 at Off Broadway Theatre TBA in New York on 01/25". www.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 2016-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Dave Malloy (Ft. Dave Malloy & Phillipa Soo) – Prologue". Genius. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew (2017-06-14). "Ingrid Michaelson Will Make Broadway Debut in The Great Comet | Playbill". Playbill. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
Jump up ^ Henry, Alan (2017-08-02). "Brittain Ashford Confirms Great Comet Return; Who Will Play Pierre?". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
Jump up ^ Paulson, Michael (2017-02-15). "A Hamilton Star Is to Replace Josh Groban in Great Comet". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-05-26.
Jump up ^ Isherwood, Charles. "Review", The New York Times, May 16, 2013
Jump up ^ Tommasini, Anthony. "Pastiche, Parody, Homage and Theft", The New York Times, May 22, 2014
Jump up ^ Feldman, Adam. "Review" Time Out New York, October 16, 2012
Jump up ^ Levitt, Hayley. " 'Here Lies Love' and 'Natasha, Pierre & the Great Comet of 1812' Break Lucille Lortel Award Records" theatermania.com, April 2, 2014
Jump up ^ " 'Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812' Off-Broadway" lortel.org, accessed May 18, 2016
Jump up ^ "Obies" villagevoice.com, accessed May 18, 2016
Jump up ^ "2013 | Obie Awards". Obie Awards. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ Miller, Gregory E. (2013-04-23). "2013 Drama League Awards nominations announced". New York Post. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "The 58th Annual Drama Desk Award Winners Are Announced!". TheaterMania.com. 2013-05-19. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
Jump up ^ "2013 OBA Awards – Off Broadway Alliance". offbroadwayalliance.com. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "2014 Nominations". www.lortelaward.com. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "THEATER: 2016 ELLIOT NORTON AWARD NOMINATIONS!". Joyce's Choices. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Elliot Norton Awards". Elliot Norton Awards. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "The 2017 Tony Awards – And the Nominees Are... Complete List! NATASHA, PIERRE & THE GREAT COMET OF 1812 and HELLO, DOLLY! Lead Pack". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-05-02. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ "2017 Drama Desk Award Nominations Announced | Playbill". Playbill. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
Jump up ^ Cox, Gordon (2017-04-19). "Daniel Craig, Cate Blanchett, Allison Janney Nominated for Drama League Awards". Variety. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Outer Critics Circle Nominations Announced: Hello, Dolly!, Anastasia, Groundhog Day and More!". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-04-25. Retrieved 2017-04-25.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News: HELLO, DOLLY! & COME FROM AWAY Top Outer Critics Circle Winners; Full List!". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-05-08. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
Jump up ^ "Breaking: Stars from GREAT COMET, ANASTASIA, MISS SAIGON & More Earn 2017 Theatre World Awards!". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-05-11. Retrieved 2017-05-11.
Jump up ^ "Bandstand, Cats, Holiday Inn, Sweet Charity Among 2017 Chita Rivera Award Nominees". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-05-01. Retrieved 2017-05-02.
Jump up ^ Lefkowitz, Andy (2017-09-11). "Corbin Bleu, Megan Sikora & More Win Chita Rivera Awards". Broadway.com. Retrieved 2017-09-12.
Jump up ^ "Actors' Equity Association Honors GREAT COMET with Outstanding Broadway Chorus Award". BroadwayWorld.com. 2017-06-14. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
Jump up ^ "A Doll's House, Part 2, Come From Away, Great Comet Receive Equity Diversity Award". TheaterMania.com. 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ Gioia, Michael (September 24, 2013). "Two Disc Cast Album of Natasha Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 Will Be Released in 2013". Playbill. New York.
External links[edit]
Internet Off-Broadway Database
Internet Broadway Database
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Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1869)
Main characters
Pierre Bezukhov
Andrei Bolkonsky
Natasha Rostova
Marya Bolkonskaya
Nikolai Rostov
Hélène Kuragina
Sonya Rostova
Anatole Kuragin
All characters
Historical characters
Napoleon
Mikhail Kutuzov
Barclay de Tolly
Pyotr Bagration
Fyodor Rostopchin
Alexander I of Russia
Events
Battle of Schöngrabern
Battle of Austerlitz
Treaties of Tilsit
Battle of Borodino
Fire of Moscow
Battle of Krasnoi
French invasion of Russia
Napoleonic Wars
Adaptations
War and Peace (1942 opera)
War and Peace (1956 film)
War and Peace (1966–67 film series)
War and Peace (1972 TV series)
War and Peace (2007 miniseries)
Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012 musical)
War & Peace (2016 TV series)
Related
War and Peace (1980 board game)
War and Peace: 1796–1815 (2002 video game)
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values: Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical

values: Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical

values: Tony Award for Best Scenic Design in a Musical

values: Tony Award for Best Lighting Design in a Musical

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values: Edit section: Original Off-Broadway production

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values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical

values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical

values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Costume Design

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Bradley King (Lighting Designer)

values: Edit section: Original Cambridge production

values: Edit section: Original Broadway production

values: Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical

values: Tony Award for Best Costume Design in a Musical

values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Set Design

values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lighting Design for a Musical

values: Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Sound Design in a Musical

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Ghostlight Records

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//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331

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values: Category:Adaptations of works by Leo Tolstoy

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values: Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 – Italian

values: Наташа, Пьер и Большая комета 1812 года – Russian

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