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Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington)
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This article is about the monument in the United States. For similar monuments, see Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier or the Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to U.S. service members who have died without their remains being identified. Having no officially designated name, it is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I "Unknown" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals.[1][2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Tomb of 1921
2 Tomb of 1931
3 The Unknown of World War I
4 The Unknowns of World War II and Korea
5 The Unknown of Vietnam
5.1 Identification of the Unknown
5.2 Redesignation of the crypt
6 Tomb guards
6.1 Weapons
6.2 Walking the mat
6.3 Changing of the Guard
6.4 Dedication
7 Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Tomb of 1921[edit]
Tomb as of November 11, 1922. The Tomb of 1931 would occupy this same location.
On March 4, 1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater. On November 11, 1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three-level marble tomb. The bottom two levels are six marble sections each and the top at least nine blocks with a rectangular opening in the center of each level through which the unknown remains were placed through the tomb and into the ground below. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening.[4][5][6]
Tomb of 1931[edit]
Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3, 1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb and the expenditure of $50,000 (with a completed cost of $48,000). A design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich[nb 1] and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21, 1929, a contract for completion of the Tomb itself was entered into. The Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels (cap, die, base and sub-base) of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides.[4][7]
Quarrying the Yule marble (3.9 miles south of Marble, Colorado by the Vermont Marble Company) was a one-year process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the base required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries. In late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. The quarrying involved 75 men. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons. A wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons.
On February 3, the block reached the marble mill site (in the town of Marble) after a four-day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8. The block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia.[8] By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, at Arlington.
Assembly began in September 1931. An imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed. Finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones.[4][9] (The brothers also carved the Lincoln statue for the Lincoln Memorial). The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9, 1932.[10]
The Tomb[nb 2] was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II (south) and Korea (north). Between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam (middle). His remains were positively identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie, United States Air Force and were removed. Those three graves are marked with white marble slabs flush with the plaza.
The Tomb has a flat-faced form and is relieved at the corners and along the sides by neo-classical pilasters set into the surface with objects and inscription carved into the sides. The 1931 symbolism[9] of the objects on the north, south and east sides changed over time.[4][7]
North and South panel with 3 wreaths on each side represent (in 1931) "a world of memories" but later the six major battles engaged in by American forces in France; Ardennes, Belleau Wood, Château-Thierry, Meusse-Argonne, Oisiu-Eiseu, and Somme. Each wreath has 38 leaves and 12 berries.
East panel that faces Washington, D.C., are three Greek figures representing Peace, Victory, and "American Manhood" but later "Valor" instead of "American Manhood"
Western panel is inscribed the words (centered on the panel):
HERE RESTS IN
HONORED GLORY
AN AMERICAN
SOLDIER
KNOWN BUT TO GOD
Tomb Dimensions[nb 3] as of 2004[11] (xxx)* 1931 die block dimension coming out of the quarry.[8]
Level
Length
Width
Height
Cubic Feet
Tons
Cap 12'-5.4" 6'-6.7" 1'-3.3" 100.69 8.56
Die 12'-3.0" (14'-0")* 6'-6.4" (7'-4.8")* 5'-2.1" (6"-0")* 385.43 (621.6)* 32.76 (52.84)*
Base 13'-10.0" 7'-11.9" 1'-11.1" 198.64 16.88
Sub-Base 14'-10.4" 9'-0.2" 1'-10.9" 255.81 21.74
The Unknown of World War I[edit]
The World War I Unknown arriving at the Washington Navy Yard, 1921 (colorized)
On Memorial Day, 1921, four unknown servicemen were exhumed from four World War I American cemeteries in France. U.S. Army Sgt. Edward F. Younger, who was wounded in combat, highly decorated for valor and received the Distinguished Service Cross in "The Great War" selected the Unknown of World War I from four identical caskets at the city hall in Châlons-en-Champagne, France, on October 24, 1921.[6] Younger selected the World War I Unknown by placing a spray of white roses on one of the caskets. He chose the third casket from the left. The chosen Unknown was transported to the United States aboard the USS Olympia. Those remaining were interred in the Meuse Argonne Cemetery, France.[6]
The World War I Unknown lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda from his arrival in the United States until Armistice Day, 1921. On November 11, 1921, President Warren G. Harding officiated at the interment ceremonies at the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery. During the ceremony, the World War I Unknown was awarded the Victoria Cross by Admiral of the Fleet Lord Beatty, on behalf of King George V of the United Kingdom.[12] (The United Kingdom Victoria Cross was placed with the soldier. Earlier, on March 4, 1921, the British Unknown Warrior was conferred the U.S. Medal of Honor by General of the Armies John Pershing.) In 1928, the Unknown Soldier was presented the Silver Buffalo Award for distinguished service to America's youth by the Boy Scouts of America.[13]
The Unknowns of World War II and Korea[edit]
The Korean War Unknown joins the two candidates from World War II aboard the USS Canberra
On August 3, 1956, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill to select and pay the tribute to the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War. The selection ceremonies and the interment of these Unknowns took place in 1958. The World War II Unknown was selected from remains exhumed from cemeteries in Europe, Africa, Hawaii, and the Philippines.[14]
Two Unknowns from World War II, one from the European Theater and one from the Pacific Theater, were placed in identical caskets and taken aboard the USS Canberra, a guided-missile cruiser resting off the Virginia Capes. Navy Hospital Corpsman 1st Class William R. Charette, then the U.S. Navy's only active-duty Medal of Honor recipient who was an enlisted man, selected the World War II Unknown. The remaining casket received a solemn burial at sea.[14]
Four unknown Americans who died in the Korean War were disinterred from the National Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii. Army Master Sergeant Ned Lyle made the final selection.[14]
Both caskets arrived in Washington on May 28, 1958, where they lay in the Capitol Rotunda until the morning of May 30, when they were carried on caissons to Arlington National Cemetery. President Eisenhower awarded each the Medal of Honor, and the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War were interred in the plaza beside their World War I comrade.[14]
The Unknown of Vietnam[edit]
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The designation of the Vietnam Unknown has proven to be difficult. With improvements in DNA testing it is possible, though unlikely, that the recovered remains for every unknown soldier killed in the Vietnam War will be identified.
The Vietnam Unknown service member was designated by Medal of Honor recipient U.S. Marine Corps Sgt. Maj. Allan Jay Kellogg, Jr., during a ceremony at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, May 17, 1984.
Each branch of the Armed Services took part in the transportation to honor the unknown. The Marines from Marine Barracks Hawaii consisted of an Honor Guard of 9 enlisted men and Lt. Denis Muller. The Vietnam Unknown was transported aboard the fast frigate USS Brewton, where the Marines stood guard over the casket during the seven day ocean voyage to Naval Air Station Alameda, California where the debarkation ceremony turned the unknown over to the USAF on May 24. The next day, the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were then flown from Travis Air Force Base, California, arriving at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. Once there the remains were turned over to the US Army, where the remains were taken to Fort McNair for placement upon the horse-drawn wagon which later carried the Unknown to the Capital Rotunda for display before interment. While on display for public viewing, all branches of the US Armed Forces stood in honor, guarding the casket of the Unknown for 2 weeks.
The Tomb guards stood at death watch for the entire day as thousands of people braved the dreary weather to pay their respects.
The presidential wreath was brought forward toward President Reagan during the interment ceremony for the Unknown Serviceman of the Vietnam Era at the Tomb of the Unknowns on May 28, 1984.
Many Vietnam veterans and President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan visited the Vietnam Unknown in the U.S. Capitol. An Army caisson carried the Vietnam Unknown from the Capitol to the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery on Memorial Day, May 28, 1984.
President Reagan presided over the funeral, and presented the Medal of Honor to the Vietnam Unknown, and also acted as next of kin by accepting the interment flag at the end of the ceremony. The interment flags of all Unknowns at the Tomb of the Unknowns are on view in the Memorial Display Room.
Identification of the Unknown[edit]
In 1994, Ted Sampley, a POW/MIA activist, determined that the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were likely those of Air Force 1st Lt. Michael Joseph Blassie, who was shot down near An Lộc, Vietnam, in 1972. Sampley published an article in his newsletter and contacted Blassie's family, who attempted to pursue the case with the Air Force's casualty office without result. In January 1998 CBS News broadcast a report based on Sampley's investigation which brought political pressure to support the identification of the remains.[15] The body was exhumed on May 14, 1998. Based on mitochondrial DNA testing, Department of Defense scientists confirmed the remains were those of Blassie. The identification was announced on June 30, 1998, and on July 10, Blassie's remains arrived home to his family in St. Louis, Missouri; he was reinterred at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery on July 11.[16][nb 4]
Redesignation of the crypt[edit]
The slab over the crypt that once held the remains of the Vietnam Unknown has since been replaced. The original inscription of "Vietnam" and the dates of the conflict has been changed to "Honoring and Keeping Faith with America's Missing Servicemen" as a reminder of the commitment of the Armed Forces to the fullest possible accounting of missing service members.
Tomb guards[edit]
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge
The tomb guards are soldiers of the United States Army. The first military guards were troopers from the 3rd Cavalry, "Brave Rifles", who were posted nearby on Fort Myer. Since April 6, 1948, (known then as "Army Day"), when the regiment was reactivated, it has been guarded by soldiers from 3rd Infantry Regiment, "The Old Guard". The Old Guard is also posted to Fort Myer, Virginia, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery. It is considered one of the highest honors to serve as a Sentinel at the Tomb of the Unknowns. Fewer than 20 percent of all volunteers are accepted for training and of those only a fraction pass training to become full-fledged Tomb Guards. This attrition rate has made the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge the second least-awarded qualification badge of the United States military (the first being the Astronaut Badge).[17]
The soldier "walking the mat" does not wear rank insignia, so as not to outrank the Unknowns, whatever their ranks may have been. Non-commissioned officers (usually the Relief Commander and Assistant Relief Commanders), do wear insignia of their rank when changing the guard only. They have a separate uniform (without rank) that is worn when they actually guard the Unknowns or are "posted."
The duties of the sentinels are not purely ceremonial. The sentinels will confront people who cross the barriers at the tomb or who they perceive to be disrespectful or excessively loud.
Weapons[edit]
Over the years there have been several different types of weapons used by the Tomb Guards. The changes in weapons reflect the changes in the Army, including M1903 Springfield rifle, M1 Garand and M14 rifles, M1911 and M9 pistols. Tomb Guards currently carry M14 rifles, which are unloaded and affixed to ceremonial rifle stocks. These rifles are cleaned daily and kept ready for use at all times.[18]
Walking the mat[edit]
There is a meticulous routine that the guard follows when watching over the graves.[19] The Tomb Guard:
Marches 21 steps south down the black mat laid across the Tomb.
Turns and faces east, toward the Tomb, for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces north, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Marches 21 steps down the mat.
Turns and faces east for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces south, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Repeats the routine until the soldier is relieved of duty at the Changing of the Guard.
After each turn, the Guard executes a sharp "shoulder-arms" movement to place the weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors to signify that the Guard stands between the Tomb and any possible threat.
Out of respect for the interred, the sentinels command silence at the tombs. If the guard walking the mat must vocally confront a disturbance from spectators, or a threat, the routine is interrupted, and remains so until the disturbance is under control. The sentinel will exit the mat, place the weapon in port arms position, and confront the disturbance. Once under control, the sentinel then walks on the pavement to the other side of the mat, turns to shoulder arms, and continues the routine.
Twenty-one was chosen because it symbolizes the highest military honor that can be bestowed—the 21-gun salute.
The mat is usually replaced twice per year: before Memorial Day and before Veterans Day. This is required because of the wear on the rubber mat by the special shoes worn by Tomb Guards. The sentinels have metal plates built into the soles and inner parts of their shoes to allow for a more rugged sole and to give the signature click of the heel during maneuvers. The sentinels wear sunglasses because of the bright reflection from the marble surrounding the Tomb and the Memorial Amphitheater.
On the ground not covered by the mat, a rust pattern in the tile can be seen that corresponds to the precise steps taken during the changing of the guard. The metal from the guards' boots causes the brown rust markings on the stone. On the mat itself, footprints caused by standing guard are also visible.
Changing of the Guard[edit]
Changing of the Guard, 2005.
While Arlington National Cemetery is open, during the day in summer months from April 1 to September 30, the guard is changed every half hour. During the winter months, from October 1 to March 31, the guard is changed every hour. After the cemetery closes to the public (7 p.m. to 8 a.m. April through September, and 5 p.m. to 8 a.m. October through March), the guard is changed every 2 hours. The ceremony can be witnessed by the public whenever Arlington National Cemetery is open.[20][21]
The guard change is very symbolic, but also conducted in accordance with Army regulations. The relief commander or assistant relief commander, along with the oncoming guard, are both required for a guard change to take place. The relief commander orders the guard being relieved to "pass on your orders" to the oncoming guard. The guard being relieved will say to the oncoming guard, "Post and orders remain as directed." The oncoming guard's response is always, "Orders acknowledged." During changes when the public is witnessing the ceremony, the commander will inform the public that the ceremony is about to take place and that those in attendance should remain "silent and standing" throughout the entire event.
Dedication[edit]
A civilian guard was first posted at the Tomb on November 17, 1925, to prevent, among other things, families from picnicking on the flat marble slab with views of the city. A military guard was first posted on March 25, 1926. The first 24-hour guard was posted on midnight, July 2, 1937. The Tomb of the Unknowns has been guarded continuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, since that time.[22] Inclement weather,[23][24] terrorist attacks,[25] et cetera, do not cause the watch to cease.[26]
Since 1948, the Tomb Guards, a special platoon within the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) work on a team rotation of 24 hours on, 24 hours off, for five days, taking the following four days off. A guard takes an average of six hours to prepare his uniform – heavy wool, regardless of the time of year – for the next day's work. In addition to preparing the uniform, guards also conduct physical training, Tomb Guard training, participate in field exercises, cut their hair before the next work day, and at times are involved in regimental functions as well. Tomb Guards are required to memorize 17 pages of information about Arlington National Cemetery and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, including the locations of nearly 300 graves and who is buried in each one.[20]
A special Army decoration, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge is authorized for wear after passing a detailed test of 100 questions (from a pool of more than 300), a uniform test with two gigs (errors) or fewer (measured to the 1/64"), and a test on the guard changing sequence. After serving honorably for a period of nine months, and having passed the sequence of tests, a Tomb Guard is permanently awarded the Badge. Since the first award on February 7, 1958, fewer than 650 soldiers have completed training and been awarded this Badge, including four women. A small number of Tomb Guard Identification Badges have also been retroactively awarded to soldiers who served as Guards before 1959. Those numbers make the Badge the second rarest award currently issued in the United States Army; only the Army Astronaut Badge is rarer.[nb 5]
The badge was designed in 1956 and first issued to members of the Honor Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns on February 7, 1958. The badge was first issued only as a temporary wear item, meaning the soldiers could only wear the badge during their tenure as members of the Honor Guard. Upon leaving the duty, the badge was returned and reissued to incoming soldiers. In 1963, a regulation was enacted that allowed the badge to be worn as a permanent part of the military uniform, even after the soldier's completion of duty at the Tomb of the Unknowns.
Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument[edit]
The crack can be seen underneath the words "An American" and above the word "Soldier."
Cracking and weathering are causing concerns for the long-term preservation of the Tomb Monument. A November 1963 report first recorded horizontal cracking of the monument's marble die block. Though this was the first time that the damage was documented, the report made it clear that the cracks had become visible some time before that date.[27]
In 1963–1964, there were two cracks—referred to as "primary" and "secondary"—extending approximately 34 feet around the die block. By 1974, they had extended to 40 feet. They grew another 4.6 feet over the next 15 years. Inspection has determined that the cracks have increased horizontally since 1990. Analysis also indicates that the cracks are not surficial but extend partially through the block and will eventually extend all the way through.[27]
The 1990 report documented deterioration of the marble's surface. As much as 2.85 mm of the marble surface has been lost through weathering. The study projected that before 2010, the Tomb Monument will have been weathered enough to have a negative effect on the experience of the visitors and concludes the only solutions are to enclose or replace the monument.[27]
Several options have been considered to deal with the damage. Officials at Arlington National Cemetery determined that proper repair can return the Tomb Monument to an acceptable appearance. However, because the cracks will continue to lengthen and widen, continuous grouting, regrouting, touch-up, monitoring, and maintenance would be required. Therefore, a report commissioned by Arlington National Cemetery and published in June 2006 confirmed the Cemetery's conclusion that "replacement of the three pieces of the Tomb Monument is the preferred alternative". A final decision was scheduled to be made on September 30, 2007.[27]
The National Trust for Historic Preservation objects to the plan to replace the authentic Tomb Monument. The Trust expressed concern that Arlington National Cemetery seeks to replace the existing monument with marble from the original quarry, which experts agree is likely eventually to crack.[28]
The Trust has observed that the Cemetery's own 1990 report recommended that the monument be repaired and that the Cemetery, in fact, commissioned Oehrlein Architects to repair the stone. In 2007, Mary Oehrlein informed Congressional staff members that: "The existing monument can easily be repaired, as was done 17 years ago, using conventional conservation methods to re-grout the cracks. Once repaired, the fault lines would be virtually invisible from the public viewing areas."[29][30]
On September 26, 2007, U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka announced that an amendment crafted together with Senator Jim Webb will be added to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (H.R. 1585) that would require a report on the plans of the Secretary of the Army and the Secretary of Veterans Affairs to replace the monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns. The secretaries would be required to advise Congress on the current efforts to maintain and preserve the monument. Additionally, they would have to provide an assessment on the feasibility and advisability of repairing rather than replacing the Tomb Monument. Finally, if the secretaries choose replacement, they would have to report those plans and detail how they intend to dispose of the current monument. Once the report is provided, the secretaries are prevented from taking action to replace the monument for at least 180 days. The Akaka-Webb amendment was included in the bill by unanimous consent of the Senate.[31] An amendment to the Fiscal Year 2008 Defense Authorization Bill authorized a review of the monument's condition. The bill also authorized repair, but not replacement, of the monument.[32] Final passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2008 (H.R. 4986) was signed by President Bush on January 28, 2008.
October 21, 2011: Completed repair of the cracks in the Tomb.
In 2003 John Haines, a retired car dealer, offered to donate a large slab of marble to the Arlington National Cemetery to replace the existing marble. Haines paid $31,000 for the marble slab.[33] The marble was not removed from the quarry, however, because imperfections were found and the block was rejected.
In June 2009 Arlington National Cemetery and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers announced that the monument was to be repaired, not replaced.[34] In 2010, the cracks were filled but the repairs lasted only a few months.[35] As of June 2011, the cemetery was struggling to repair the cracks in the monument, one of which measured 28.4 feet (8.7 m) long, with another at 16.2 feet (4.9 m).[36] In September 2011, the cracks were filled again[35] and on October 21, 2011, inspection by the Corps of Engineers and other experts pronounced the repairs a success.[37]
See also[edit]
Civil War Unknowns Monument
Tomb of the Unknown Confederate Soldier
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier - for list of similar memorials in other countries
Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier
World War I memorials
Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Unknown Warrior - London, UK
The Unknown Soldier - Paris, France
Military rites
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Syracuse University Archives has an extensive collection of Lorimer Rich (1914 Syracuse graduate) papers pertaining to his architect design work of the Tomb, including 44 numbered drawings of the Tomb. http://archives.syr.edu/collections/alumni/rich_box.html Archived February 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Many sources reference the 1931 Tomb as a sarcophagus, but it is not: in a sarcophagus, the remains are placed in a hollowed-out portion of the stone; the marble in the Tomb was not hollowed out and the remains are underneath the Tomb.
Jump up ^ 1931 body block tonnage calculated in 2004 is different (by 5.9%) from the other source amount of 56 tons and can not be explained with certainty. Sub-base cubic footage and tons was calculated from the source dimensions because cubic feet and tons were not included in the source data table. Per cubic foot, the marble weighs 170 pounds.
Jump up ^ The identification took place after Blassie's family lobbied the Pentagon to perform the DNA testing. His remains (6 partial bones) had originally been recovered several months after his aircraft had been shot down and were not sufficient to allow for positive identification at the time. CNN.com "Home at last for a fallen hero". June 11, 1998. Also see: U.S. National Library of Medicine – Visible Proofs, "Michael Blassie unknown no more", May 23, 2006
Jump up ^ The Tomb Guard Identification Badge is the only badge awarded by the United States Army that can be revoked after a soldier has left the military. The Regimental Commander of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment has the authority to revoke a Badge from any Guard (past or present) for any act that would bring discredit upon the Tomb of the Unknowns. "Army Regulation 600-8-22 – "Military Awards" (11 December 2006); para. 8-40f" (PDF). Department of the Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Arlington National Cemetery: The Tomb of the Unknowns". Arlingtoncemetery.mil. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Congressional Medal of Honor Recipients - World War I Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (archived from the original on October 22, 2006).
Jump up ^ World War I Unknown Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery website.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Quartermaster Review September – October 1963". United States Army. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Configuration of 1921 Tomb". Library of Congress. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Unknown Soldier of World War I". The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969. United States Army. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Tomb". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on November 16, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Marble, Colorado: City of Stone"; by Duane Vandenbusche and Rex Myers; Golden Bell Press; Denver, Colorado; 6th printing February 1996
^ Jump up to: a b "The Vermont Marble Museum". Vermont Marble Company. April 1931. Archived from the original on December 27, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dedication photo". Syracuse University Archives. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Digital Scan of the Tomb, 2004". Direct Dimensions Inc, Owing Mills, Maryland. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Victoria Cross". The British Army 212 (Yorkshire) Field Hospital (volunteers) website. Archived from the original on December 29, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Silver Buffalo Award Winners 1929-1926". Boy Scouts of America National Council. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Quartermaster Review (January–February 1964)". United States Army. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert M. Poole (2009). On hallowed ground: the story of Arlington National Cemetery. Walker & Company. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0-8027-1548-6.
Jump up ^ Memorial day tribute: holiday holds special meaning for Blassie family - LaVonne Johnson, Citizen Airman. June 2003.
Jump up ^ McVeigh, Alex (February 11, 2009). "First Tomb Badge recipient laid to rest". The Official Home Page Of The United States Army.
Jump up ^ "Who Are The Tomb Guards". tombguard.org. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Changing of the Guard". Arlington, Virginia: Arlington National Cemetery. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Frequently Asked Questions". Society of the Honor Guard – Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Visiting Arlington National Cemetery". Retrieved September 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier FAQ". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Still Vigilant at the Tomb of the Unknowns Despite Irene - ABC News
Jump up ^ PHOTO: Despite Sandy, Soldiers Stand Guard At Tomb Of The Unknown Soldier : The Two-Way : NPR
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20091014110013/http://www.tombguard.org/Nov01_Jan02.pdf
Jump up ^ The Sentinel, "Post and Orders Remain as Directed" (PDF). August 2002 – September 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Arlington National Cemetery Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Repair or Replacement Project (draft)" (PDF). June 1, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 27, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Take Action for Historic Preservation". Nationaltrust.org. Retrieved September 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Crack Mars Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, ABC News May 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ John Paul Woodley, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works); William F. Tuerk, Under Secretary for Memorial Affairs, Department of Veterans Affairs (2008). "Report on Alternative Measures To Address Cracks in the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia". Congressional Record. Retrieved February 25, 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Akaka-Webb Amendment to Halt Replacement of the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns is Approved by Senate". September 26, 2007. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Ruane, Michael E., "Bid to Replace Tomb Monument Stalls", Washington Post, January 30, 2008, p. A03.
Jump up ^ Nancy Lofholm, Marble for Unknowns tomb just sits, Denver Post, August 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ McMichael, William (June 26, 2009). "Tomb of Unknowns to be repaired, not replaced". Army Times. Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b video by Army Corps of Engineers, Norfolk District
Jump up ^ Davenport, Christian, "Repairs On Persistent Cracks At Tomb Of Unknowns Delayed", Washington Post, June 9, 2011, p. B1.
Jump up ^ Army Corps of Engineers photos and text
Further reading[edit]
The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969, CHAPTER I, The Unknown Soldier of World War I, State Funeral, 23 October–11 November 1921 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tomb of the Unknowns.
Official U.S. Army Tomb Guard and Tomb of the Unknowns website
Arlington Cemetery official site
Arlington Historical Society
Arlington Convention and Visitors Service official website
Snopes's article on the Tomb of the Unknowns
Society of the Honor Guard - Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
Video of the Changing of the Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns, by Dover Lodge #489
video of a changing of the guard
The short film Interment Ceremony Of The Vietnam Unknown (1985) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Historic film footage of November 11, 1921 interment ceremony for the World War I Unknown Soldier at the tomb of 1921
The Unknowns - 2016 Documentary film
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Typhoons in the Philippines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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PAGASA's Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale
Category
Sustained winds
Super Typhoon
≥119 knots
≥220 km/h
Typhoon
64–119 knots
118–220 km/h
Severe Tropical Storm
48–63 knots
89–117 km/h
Tropical Storm
34–47 knots
62–88 km/h
Tropical Depression
≤33 knots
≤61 km/h
Tracks of tropical cyclones worldwide, 1945–2006. The Philippines is under the red and yellow tracks northeast of Borneo. The southern island of Mindanao can be seen south of most tracks.
Tracks of all typhoons of the 2016 Pacific season. No typhoons made landfall on Mindanao.
Map of Philippine Area of Responsibility
Map of the path of Typhoon Frank, showing it making landfall in the Eastern Visayas before taking a northwesterly path
Approximately twenty tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility yearly of which ten will be typhoons with five being destructive.[1] The Philippines is "the most exposed country in the world to tropical storms" according to a Time Magazine article in 2013.[2] In the Philippine languages, typhoons are called bagyo.[3]
Typhoons can hit the Philippines any time of year, with the months of June to September being the most active, with August being the most active individual month and May the least active. Typhoons move east to west across the country, heading north as they go. Storms most frequently make landfall on the islands of Eastern Visayas, Bicol region, and northern Luzon[2] whereas the southern island and region of Mindanao is largely free of typhoons.
The deadliest overall tropical cyclone to impact the Philippines is believed to have been the Haiphong typhoon which is estimated to have killed up to 20,000 people as it passed over the country in September 1881. In modern meteorological records, the deadliest storm was Typhoon Yolanda (international name Haiyan), which became the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone ever recorded as it crossed the Visayas in central Philippines on November 7–8, 2013. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 14–18, 1911 cyclone which dropped over 2,210 millimetres (87 in) of rainfall within a 3-day, 15-hour period in Baguio City.[4] Tropical cyclones usually account for at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines while being responsible for less than 10 percent of the annual rainfall in the southern islands. PAGASA Senior Weather Specialist Anthony Lucero told the newsite Rappler that the number of destructive typhoons have increased recently but it is too early to call it a trend.[1]
Tropical cyclones entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility are given a local name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), which also raises public storm signal warnings as deemed necessary.[5][6]
Preparation and response to typhoons is coordinated by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC). Each Philippine province and local government in the Philippines has a corresponding Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (DRRMO). Each provincial and local government is required to set aside 5% of its yearly budget for disaster risk reduction, preparations, and response.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology of "bagyo"
2 Storm naming conventions: national and international names
3 Variability in activity
4 Tropical Cyclone Warning Signals
5 Deadliest Cyclones
6 Most destructive
7 Wettest recorded tropical cyclones
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology of "bagyo"[edit]
Sources including a dictionary,[3][7] a language course,[8] and a meteorological society[3] claim that the term bagyo, a Tagalog language word meaning typhoon arose after a 1911 storm in the city of Baguio had a record rainfall of 46 inches within a 24-hour period.[dubious – discuss] However, this theory is impossible[according to whom?] because the Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala first published in 1754 contains an entry for "BAG-YO" defined in Spanish as "Tempestad, uracan" (tempest, hurricane), proof that the term "bagyo" already existed in Tagalog in the 1700s.[citation needed] The reverse entry for "Huracan" translates it into Tagalog as "Baguio, Bag-yo".[citation needed]
Storm naming conventions: national and international names[edit]
Since the middle of the 20th Century, American forecasters have named tropical storms after people, originally using only female names.[9] Philippine government forecasters started assigning Filipino names to storms in 1963 following the American practice, using names of people in alphabetical order, from A to Z.[9] Beginning in January 2000, the World Meteorological Organization"s Typhoon Committee began assigning names to storms nominated by the 14 Asian countries who are members with each country getting 2 to 3 a year.[9] These names, unlike the American and Filipino traditions, are not names for people exclusively but include flowers, animals, and food, and they are not in alphabetical order by name but rather in alphabetical order by the country that nominated the name.[9] After January 2000, Filipino forecasters continued their tradition of naming storms that enter the Philippines Area of Responsibility and so there are often two names for each storm, the PAGASA name and the so-called "international name".
Variability in activity[edit]
On an annual time scale, activity reaches a minimum in May, before increasing steadily through June, and spiking from July through September, with August being the most active month for tropical cyclones in the Philippines. Activity reduces significantly in October.[10] The most active season, since 1945, for tropical cyclone strikes on the island archipelago was 1993 when nineteen tropical cyclones moved through the country (though there were 36 storms that were named by PAGASA).[11] There was only one tropical cyclone which moved through the Philippines in 1958.[12] The most frequently impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern Luzon and eastern Visayas.[13] A ten-year average of satellite determined precipitation showed that at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones, while the southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones.[14]
Tropical Cyclone Warning Signals[edit]
Signal #1
winds of 30–60 km/h (20-37 mph) are expected to occur within 36 hours
Signal #2
winds of 61–120 km/h (38–73 mph) are expected to occur within 24 hours
Signal #3
winds of 121–170 km/h, (74–105 mph) are expected to occur within 18 hours.
Signal #4
winds of 171–220 km/h, (106–137 mph) are expected to occur within 12 hours.
Signal #5
winds of at least 220 km/h, (137 mph) are expected to occur within 12 hours.
The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) releases tropical cyclone warnings in the form of Tropical Cyclone Warning Signals.[6] An area having a storm signal may be under:
TCWS #1 - Tropical cyclone winds of 30 km/h (19 mph) to 60 km/h (37 mph) are expected within the next 36 hours. (Note: If a tropical cyclone forms very close to the area, then a shorter lead time is seen on the warning bulletin.)
TCWS #2 - Tropical cyclone winds of 61 km/h (38 mph) to 120 km/h (75 mph) are expected within the next 24 hours.
TCWS #3 - Tropical cyclone winds of 121 km/h (75 mph) to 170 km/h (110 mph) are expected within the next 18 hours.
TCWS #4 - Tropical cyclone winds of 171 km/h (106 mph) to 220 km/h (140 mph) are expected within 12 hours.
TCWS #5 - Tropical cyclone winds greater than 220 km/h (140 mph) are expected within 12 hours.
These Tropical Cyclone Warning Signals are usually raised when an area (in the Philippines only) is about to be hit by a tropical cyclone. As a tropical cyclone gains strength and/or gets nearer to an area having a storm signal, the warning may be upgraded to a higher one in that particular area (e.g. a signal No. 1 warning for an area may be increased to signal #3). Conversely, as a tropical cyclone weakens and/or gets farther to an area, it may be downgraded to a lower signal or may be lifted (that is, an area will have no storm signal).
Classes for Preschool are canceled when Signal No. 1 is in effect. Elementary and High School classes and below are cancelled under Signal No. 2 and classes for Colleges and Universities and below are cancelled under Signal Nos. 3, 4 and 5.
Deadliest Cyclones[edit]
Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) to make landfall over Leyte in November 2013
Typhoon Megi nearing landfall over the Philippines on October 18, 2010
Rank[15]
Storm
Dates of impact
Deaths
1 Haiphong 1881 1881, September 27 20,000
2 Haiyan/Yolanda 2013 2013, November 7–8 6,300[16]
3 Thelma/Uring 1991 1991, November 4–7 5,101[17]
4 Bopha/Pablo 2012 2012, December 2–9 1,901
5 Angela Typhoon 1867, September 22 1,800[18]
6 Winnie 2004 2004, November 27–29 1,593
7 October 1897 Typhoon 1897, October 7 1,500[18]
8 Ike/Nitang 1984 1984, September 3–6 1,492
9 Fengshen/Frank 2008 2008, June 20–23 1,410
10 Durian/Reming 2006 2006, November 29-December 1 1,399
Most destructive[edit]
Animated enhanced infrared satellite loop of Typhoon Haiyan from peak intensity to landfall in the Philippines
Rank
Name
Year
PHP
USD
1 Haiyan (Yolanda) 2013 89.6 billion 2.02 billion
2 Bopha (Pablo) 2012 42.2 billion 1.04 billion
3 Rammasun (Glenda) 2014 38.6 billion 871 million
4 Parma (Pepeng) 2009 27.3 billion 608 million
5 Nesat (Pedring) 2011 15 billion 333 million
6 Fengshen (Frank) 2008 13.5 billion 301 million
7 Megi (Juan) 2010 11 billion 255 million
8 Ketsana (Ondoy) 2009 11 billion 244 million
9 Mike (Ruping) 1990 10.8 billion 241 million
10 Angela (Rosing) 1995 10.8 billion 241 million
Sources
Destructive Typhoons from 1970 until 2003 by NDRRMC.
Situation Report No. 50 of the Effects of TS Ondoy and TY Pepeng by NDRRMC.
Situation Report No. 27 of the Effects of TS Juan by NDRRMC.
Situation Report No. 38 of the Effects of TY Pablo by the NDRRMC.
NDRRMC Updates re Effects of TY YOLANDA (HAIYAN)
NDRRMC FINAL REPORT re Effects of Typhoon "GLENDA" (RAMMASUN)
v
t
e
Wettest recorded tropical cyclones[edit]
Main article: List of wettest tropical cyclones by country
Wettest tropical cyclones and their remnants in the Philippine islands
Highest-known totals
Precipitation
Storm
Location
Ref.
Rank
mm
in
1 2210.0 87.01 July 1911 cyclone Baguio City [19]
2 1854.3 73.00 Parma (Pepeng) 2009 Baguio City [20]
3 1216.0 47.86 Carla (Trining) 1967 Baguio City [19]
4 1116.0 43.94 Zeb (Iliang) 1998 La Trinidad, Benguet [21]
5 1085.8 42.74 Utor (Feria) 2001 Baguio City [22]
6 1077.8 42.43 Koppu (Lando) 2015 Baguio City [20]
7 1012.7 39.87 Mindulle (Igme) 2004 [23]
8 902.0 35.51 Kujira (Dante) 2009 [24]
9 879.9 34.64 September 1929 typhoon Virac, Catanduanes [25]
10 869.6 34.24 Dinah (Openg) 1977 Western Luzon [26]
See also[edit]
2016 Pacific typhoon season
2017 Pacific typhoon season
List of Pacific typhoon seasons (1939 onwards)
List of retired Philippine typhoon names
For other storms impacting the Philippines in deadly seasons, see:
Effects of the 2009 Pacific typhoon season in the Philippines
Effects of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season in the Philippines
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c de la Cruz, Gwen (March 19, 2016). "IN NUMBERS: Typhoons in the Philippines and the 2016 polls". Rappler. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, Sophie (November 11, 2013). "The Philippines Is the Most Storm-Exposed Country on Earth". Time. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Glossary of Meteorology. Baguio. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
Jump up ^ J. L. H. Paulhaus (1973). World Meteorological Organization Operational Hydrology Report No. 1: Manual For Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation. World Meteorological Organization. p. 178.
Jump up ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: What are the upcoming tropical cyclone names?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Republic of the Philippines. Department of Science and Technology. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. (n.d.). The Modified Philippine Public Storm Warning Signals. Retrieved November 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ English, Fr. Leo James (2004), Tagalog-English Dictionary, 19th printing, Manila: Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, p. 117, ISBN 971-08-4357-5
Jump up ^ Philippine Center for Language Study; Jean Donald Bowen (1965), Jean Donald Bowen, ed., Beginning Tagalog: a course for speakers of English (10 ed.), University of California Press, p. 349, ISBN 978-0-520-00156-5
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Names". Typhoon2000.com. David Michael V. Padua. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Ricardo García-Herrera, Pedro Ribera, Emiliano Hernández and Luis Gimeno (2003-09-26). "Typhoons in the Philippine Islands, 1566-1900" (PDF). David V. Padua. p. 40. Retrieved 2010-04-13. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Joint Typhoon Warning Center (2009). "Member Report Republic of the Philippines" (PDF). Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
Jump up ^ Joint Typhoon Warning Center (1959). "1958". United States Navy. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Colleen A. Sexton (2006). Philippines in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-2677-3. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
Jump up ^ Edward B. Rodgers; Robert F. Adler & Harold F. Pierce. "Satellite-measured rainfall across the Pacific Ocean and tropical cyclone contribution to the total". Retrieved 2008-11-25.
Jump up ^ Ten Worst Typhoons of the Philippines (A Summary)
Jump up ^ "TyphoonHaiyan - RW Updates". United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. December 28, 2013. Philippines: Hundreds of corpses unburied after Philippine typhoon. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Leoncio A. Amadore, PhD Socio-Economic Impacts of Extreme Climatic Events in the Philippines. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Pedro Ribera; Ricardo Garcia-Herrera & Luis Gimeno (July 2008). "Historical deadly typhoons in the Philippines". Weather. Royal Meteorological Society. 63 (7): 196. Bibcode:2008Wthr...63..194R. doi:10.1002/wea.275.
^ Jump up to: a b J. L. H. Paulhaus (1973). World Meteorological Organization Operational Hydrology Report No. 1: Manual For Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation. World Meteorological Organization. p. 178.
^ Jump up to: a b Nick Wiltgen (October 21, 2015). "Former Super Typhoon Koppu (Lando) Weakens to Remnant Low over Northern Philippines". The Weather Channel. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Guillermo Q. Tabios III; David S. Rojas Jr. Rainfall Duration-Frequency Curve for Ungaged Sites in the High Rainfall, Benguet Mountain Region in the Philippines (PDF) (Report). Kyoto University. Retrieved 2015-06-02.
Jump up ^ Leoncio A. Amadore, Ph.D. Socio-Economic Impacts of Extreme Climatic Events in the Philippines. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
Jump up ^ Padgett, Gary; Kevin Boyle; John Wallace; Huang Chunliang; Simon Clarke (2006-10-26). "Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary June 2004". Australian Severe Weather Index. Jimmy Deguara. Retrieved 2007-01-13.
Jump up ^ Steve Lang (May 7, 2009). "Hurricane Season 2009: Kujira (Western Pacific Ocean)". NASA. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Coronas, José (September 1929). "Typhoons and Depressions – a Destructive Typhoon Over Southern and Central Luzon on September 2 and 3, 1929" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. Weather Bureau. 57 (9): 398–399. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1929)57<398b:TADDTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Narciso O. Itoralba (December 1981). Annual Tropical Cyclone Report 1977. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. p. 65.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tropical cyclones in the Philippines.
Philippine Tropical Cyclone Update
Typhoon2000
Monthly typhoon tracks: 1951-2010
Typhoon Haiyan coverage by CBSnews
CRS International relief organization quickly mobilizes to help Philippine Typhoon victims
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typhoons_in_the_Philippines&oldid=813006960"
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Northern Renaissance
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The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. Before 1497, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century, its ideas spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Low Countries, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths.
In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Venetian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci), and built grand palaces at great expense, starting the French Renaissance. Trade and commerce in cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries, however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models.[1]
Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia and finally Britain by the late 16th century. Writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance (which overlapped with the Elizabethan era) writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance.
In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, most of Europe began emerging as nation-states or even unions of countries. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation with the resulting long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church having lasting effects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Age of Discovery
3 Art
4 The Renaissance
5 References
6 Bibliography
6.1 Further reading
7 External links
Overview[edit]
Feudalism had dominated Europe for a thousand years, but was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance. The reasons for this decline include the post-plague environment, the increasing use of money rather than land as a medium of exchange, the growing number of serfs living as freemen, the formation of nation-states with monarchies interested in reducing the power of feudal lords, the increasing uselessness of feudal armies in the face of new military technology (such as gunpowder), and a general increase in agricultural productivity due to improving farming technology and methods. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe.
Reproduction of Johann Gutenberg-era Press on display at the Printing History Museum in Lyon, France.
Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church. The slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long-established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of many secular institutions and beliefs. Among the most significant of these, humanism, would lay the philosophical grounds for much of Renaissance art, music, and science. Desiderius Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, and was a central figure at the intersection of classical humanism and mounting religious questions. Forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles.
The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press. Its power to disseminate information enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the printing press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation.
Age of Discovery[edit]
Main article: Age of Discovery
One of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and travel over the Atlantic feasible. While first introduced by the Italian states and the early captains, such as Giovanni Caboto, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Columbus, who were Italian explorers, the development would end Northern Italy's role as the trade crossroads of Europe, shifting wealth and power westwards to Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the Netherlands. These states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery. Eventually European power spread around the globe.
Art[edit]
The Ghent Altarpiece (interior view) by Hubert and Jan van Eyck, painted 1432. Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium. Early Netherlandish painting often included complicated iconography, and art historians have debated the "hidden symbolism" of works by artists like Hubert and Jan van Eyck.
See also: Early Netherlandish painting, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting, and Northern Mannerism
The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting was greatly respected in Italy, but there was little reciprocal influence on the North until nearly the end of the 15th century.[2] Despite frequent cultural and artistic exchange, the Antwerp Mannerists (1500–1530)—chronologically overlapping with but unrelated to Italian Mannerism—were among the first artists in the Low Countries to clearly reflect Italian formal developments.
Around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there. Other notable painters, such as Hans Holbein the Elder and Jean Fouquet, retained a Gothic influence that was still popular in the north, while highly individualistic artists such as Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder developed styles that were imitated by many subsequent generations. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a great impact on their work.
Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes more prominently than northern artists, and likewise the famous 15th-century German and Dutch paintings tend to be religious. In the 16th century, mythological and other themes from history became more uniform amongst northern and Italian artists. Northern Renaissance painters, however, had new subject matter, such as landscape and genre painting.
As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they changed and were adapted to local customs. In England and the northern Netherlands the Reformation brought religious painting almost completely to an end. Despite several very talented Artists of the Tudor Court in England, portrait painting was slow to spread from the elite. In France the School of Fontainebleau was begun by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino in the latest Mannerist style, but succeeded in establishing a durable national style. By the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders.
The Renaissance[edit]
The Renaissance is one of the most interesting and disputed periods of European history. Many scholars see it as a unique time with characteristics all its own. A second group views the Renaissance as the first two to three centuries of a larger era in European history usually called early modern Europe, which began in the late fifteenth century and ended on the eve of the French Revolution (1789) or with the close of the Napoleonic era (1815). Some social historians reject the concept of the Renaissance altogether. Historians also argue over how much the Renaissance differed from the Middle Ages and whether it was the beginning of the modern world, however defined.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Janson, H.W.; Anthony F. Janson (1997). History of Art (5th, rev. ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-3442-6.
Jump up ^ Although the notion of a north to south-only direction of influence arose in the scholarship of Max Jakob Friedländer and was continued by Erwin Panofsky, art historians are increasingly questioning its validity: Lisa Deam, "Flemish versus Netherlandish: A Discourse of Nationalism," in Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 1 (Spring, 1998), pp. 28–29.
Bibliography[edit]
Chipps Smith, Jeffrey (2004). The Northern Renaissance. Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-3867-0.
Campbell, Gordon, ed. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Northern Renaissance Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533466-1.
Further reading[edit]
O'Neill, J, ed. (1987). The Renaissance in the North. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Northern Renaissance paintings and Renaissance by country.
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