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Llama
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For other uses, see Llama (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Lama.
Llama
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Genus: Lama
Species: L. glama
Binomial name
Lama glama
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Domestic llama and alpaca range[1]
The llama (/ˈlɑːmə/; Spanish: [ˈʝama] locally [ˈʎama] or [ˈʒama]) (Lama glama) is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era.
The height of a full-grown, full-size llama is 1.7 to 1.8 m (5.6 to 5.9 ft) tall at the top of the head, and can weigh between 130 and 200 kg (290 and 440 lb). At birth, a baby llama (called a cria) can weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 31 lb). Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more.[2][3][4]
They are very social animals and live with other llamas as a herd. The wool produced by a llama is very soft and lanolin-free. Llamas are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for 8 to 13 km (5–8 miles).[5]
The name llama (in the past also spelled 'lama' or 'glama') was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians.[6]
Llamas appear to have originated from the central plains of North America about 40 million years ago. They migrated to South America about three million years ago during the Great American Interchange. By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America.[5] As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America, and due to importation from South America in the late 20th century, there are now over 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas in the United States and Canada.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
2 Characteristics
3 Reproduction
3.1 Mating
3.2 Gestation
3.3 Crias
3.4 Breeding methods
3.5 Pregnancy
4 Nutrition
5 Behavior
5.1 Guard behavior
6 History
6.1 Pre-Incan cultures
6.2 Inca empire
6.3 Spanish empire
7 Fiber
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Classification[edit]
A traditionally dressed Quechua girl with a llama in Cusco, Peru
Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as a group), consist of the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna, prev. Lama vicugna), guanaco (Lama guanicoe), Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca (Vicugna pacos, prev. Lama guanicoe pacos), and the domestic llama (Lama glama). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while alpacas – as well as llamas – exist only as domesticated animals.[8] Although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae (1758) of Carl Linnaeus.[9] They were, however, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco.[10] Alpacas and vicuñas are in genus Vicugna. The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda, or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consist of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Whippomorpha (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic, if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa, standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of the other taxa.[citation needed]
A domestic llama
The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Joseph Leidy, Edward Drinker Cope, and Othniel Charles Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family.[citation needed] Llamas were not always confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida.[11]
The camelid lineage has a good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species back through early Miocene forms. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls.[citation needed] No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids, and that Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene.[12]
Characteristics[edit]
The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults:-incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2; total 32. In the upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla.[13] The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge.
Names of llama body parts: 1 ears – 2 poll – 3 withers – 4 back – 5 hip – 6 croup – 7 base of tail – 8 tail – 9 buttock – 10 hock – 11 metatarsal gland – 12 heel – 13 cannon bone – 14 gaskin – 15 stifle joint – 16 flank – 17 barrel – 18 elbow – 19 pastern – 20 fetlock – 21 Knee – 22 Chest – 23 point of shoulder – 24 shoulder – 25 throat – 26 cheek or jowl – 27 muzzle
The skull generally resembles that of Camelus, the larger brain-cavity and orbits and less-developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxilla.
Vertebrae:
cervical 7,
dorsal 12,
lumbar 7,
sacral 4,
caudal 15 to 20.
The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft.
In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.
The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals that have come under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors that have previously been domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics.
These are:
the llama, Lama glama (Linnaeus);
the alpaca, Vicugna pacos (Linnaeus);
the guanaco (from the Quechua huanaco), Lama guanicoe (Müller); and
the vicuña, Vicugna vicugna (Molina)
The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild, the former being endangered, and of a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other, the vicuña being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and having a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. The fiber is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity that each animal produces is minimal. Alpacas are descended from wild vicuna ancestors, while domesticated llamas are descended from wild guanaco ancestors, though a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred.
Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive, but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas do not.
Reproduction[edit]
Dam and her cria
Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators.[14] Through the act of mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("heat").[15]
Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age.[16]
Mating[edit]
Llamas mate with the female in a kush (lying down) position, which is fairly unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal.[17]
Gestation[edit]
The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach outside of the mouth more than half an inch (1.3 cm). Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns.[18]
Crias[edit]
A cria (from Spanish for "baby") is the name for a baby llama, alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco. Crias are typically born with all the females of the herd gathering around, in an attempt to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births take place between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern is speculated to be a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Crias are up and standing, walking and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth.[19][20][21] Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about 60 ml (2.1 imp fl oz) of milk at a time when she gives milk, so the cria must suckle frequently to receive the nutrients it requires.[22]
Breeding methods[edit]
In harem mating, the male is left with females most of the year.
For field mating, a female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left there for some period of time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates, a better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined.
Hand mating is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen and mating is monitored. They are then separated and remated every other day until one or the other refuses the mating. Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate a female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the mating is not successful within two to three weeks, the female is mated again.
Pregnancy[edit]
Llamas at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (December 2016)
Llamas should be tested for pregnancy after mating at two to three, six and at least 12 weeks.
For "spit" testing, bring the potentially pregnant dam to an intact male. If the stud attempts to mate with her and she lies down for him within a fairly short period of time, she is not pregnant. If she remains on her feet, spits, attacks him, or otherwise prevents his being able to mate, it is assumed she is probably pregnant. This test gets its name due to the dam spitting at the male if she is pregnant.
For progesterone testing, a veterinarian can test a blood sample for progesterone. A high level can indicate a pregnancy.
With palpation, the veterinarian or breeder manually feels inside the llama to detect a pregnancy. Some risks to the llama exist, but it can be an accurate method for pregnancy detection.
Ultrasound is the most accurate method for an experienced veterinarian, who can do an exterior examination and detect a fetus as early as 45 days.
Spit testing with an intact male is generally free and is usually accurate. However, some hormonal conditions in females can make them reject a male when they are in fact not pregnant, and, more rarely, accept a male when they are pregnant. Progesterone tests can give a high reading in some females with a hormonal problem that are in fact not pregnant. Neither of the previous methods, nor palpation, can give a reasonably accurate idea of the age of the fetus, while an ultrasound procedure can. In addition, an ultrasound procedure can distinguish between pregnancy and misleading physical conditions, or between a live and dead fetus. The disadvantages of an ultrasound procedure are cost, some training in the use of ultrasound equipment is required, and not all veterinarians have the equipment needed to perform the examination.
Nutrition[edit]
Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; a wide variety of commercial and farm-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young, actively growing llamas require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities.[23]
Estimated daily requirements[clarification needed (what units?)] of bromgrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as-fed and 100% dry matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds.[24]
Body weight
(lb)
Bromgrass
Alfalfa
Corn silage
(as fed)
(dry matter)
(as fed)
(dry matter)
(as fed)
(dry matter)
22 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.4
44 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 2.6 0.7
88 2.1 1.9 1.5 1.3 4.3 1.2
110 2.6 2.3 1.7 1.6 5.2 1.4
165 3.4 3.1 2.3 2.1 6.9 1.9
275 5.0 4.5 3.4 3.1 10.1 2.8
385 6.4 5.7 4.3 3.9 12.9 3.6
495 7.8 7.0 5.3 4.8 15.8 4.4
550 8.5 7.6 5.7 5.2 17.0 4.8
Behavior[edit]
A pack llama in the Rocky Mountain National Park
Llamas, which are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning, are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling.[citation needed]
When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a way of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down in the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant. Their fights are visually dramatic, with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting as a means of controlling other herd members.
While the social structure might always be changing, they live as a family and they do take care of each other. If one notices a strange noise or feels threatened, a warning bray is sent out and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication.
The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going "mwa" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. If a llama is agitated, it will lay its ears back. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit.
An "orgle" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout the act of procreation – from 15 minutes to more than an hour.[25][26]
Guard behavior[edit]
Main article: Guard llama
Llama guarding sheep on the South Downs in West Sussex
Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then.[27][28] They are used most commonly in the western regions of the United States, where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used.
Research suggests the use of multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bond with one another, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas appear to bond more quickly to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing. Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs.
Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care.[29][better source needed]
History[edit]
Moche 100–300 AD at Lombards Museum
This sculpture, originating from the Chancay Valley and adjacent Chillón Drainage region (Late Intermediate Period), captures the llama's natural inquisitiveness.[30] The Walters Art Museum.
Pre-Incan cultures[edit]
The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife.[31] The Moche culture of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics.
Inca empire[edit]
In the Inca empire, llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was of symbolic significance, and llama figures were often buried with the dead.[32] In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for the production of fiber and meat.[33]
The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama.[34]
Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer.[35]
Spanish empire[edit]
The first image of llamas in Europa, 1553
One of the main uses for llamas at the time of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains.[36] Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day, as many as 300,000 were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished.[37]
According to Juan Ignacio Molina, the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen observed the use of chilihueques (possibly a llama type) by native Mapuches of Mocha Island as plow animals in 1614.[38]
Fiber[edit]
Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments. The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many different colors ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown and black.
Handspun llama yarn from Patagonia
Average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers[39]
Animal
Fiber diameter
(micrometres)
Vicuña 6–10
Alpaca (Suri) 10–15
Muskox (Qiviut) 11–13
Merino 12–20
Angora Rabbit 13
Cashmere 15–19
Yak Down 15–19
Camel Down 16–25
Guanaco 16–18
Llama (Tapada) 20–30
Chinchilla 21
Mohair 25–45
Alpaca (Huacaya) 27.7
Llama (Ccara) 30–40
See also[edit]
Alpaca
Cama, a crossbreed between a llama and a camel
Grass Mud Horse, a parody originating from Mainland China of 2009 that features the alpaca and llama
Guard llama, llamas used as livestock guardians
Lamoid
Llama hiking
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Daniel W. Gade, Nature and culture in the Andes, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1999, p. 104
Jump up ^ "Llama Characteristics". Nose-n-Toes. 25 June 2007.
Jump up ^ "Llama Facts 1". Llamas of Atlanta. 25 June 2007.
Jump up ^ "Llama FAQ". Twin Creeks Llamas. 25 June 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Llama". Oklahoma State University. 25 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, "llama"
Jump up ^ South Central Llama Association (22 January 2009). "Llama Facts 2".
Jump up ^ Perry, Roger (1977). Wonders of Llamas. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-396-07460-X.
Jump up ^ Murray E. Fowler (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1. ISBN 0-8138-0397-7.
Jump up ^ "Lama". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Kurtén, Björn; Anderson, Elaine (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0231037333.
Jump up ^ Grayson, Donald K. (1991). "Late Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in North America: Taxonomy, chronology, and explanations". Journal of World Prehistory. Springer Netherlands. 5 (3): 193–231. doi:10.1007/BF00974990.
Jump up ^ Colorado State University, Hypertexts for Biomedical Science: Dental Anatomy of Ruminants
Jump up ^ Chen, B.X., Yuen, Z.X. and Pan, G.W. (1985). "Semen-induced ovulation in the bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).". J. Reprod. Fert. 74 (2): 335–339. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Greta Stamberg & Derek Wilson (12 April 2007). "Induced Ovulation". Llamapaedia. Archived from the original on 12 April 2007.
Jump up ^ L. W. Johnson (17 April 2007). "Llama reproduction". College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health.
Jump up ^ Chris Cebra; David E. Anderson; Ahmed Tibary; Robert J. Van Saun; LaRue Willard Johnson (15 February 2014). Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-24291-2.
Jump up ^ "The llama reproductive cycle". LlamaWeb. 17 April 2007. Archived from the original on 3 March 2007.
Jump up ^ The Department of Veterninary Clinical Sciences at Ohio State University (2002). Camelid Medicine, Surgery, and Reproduction for Veterinarians. Part II.
Jump up ^ Long, Patrick O. (1996). Llama & Alpaca Neonatal Care. p. 112. ISBN 0-9646618-3-7.
Jump up ^ Birutta, Gale (1997). A Guide to Raising Llamas. p. 327. ISBN 0-88266-954-0.
Jump up ^ Linda March. "Llamas: A Different Kind of Pet". University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved 15 May 2009. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Randy Sell (17 April 2007). "Llama". Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University.
Jump up ^ Murray E. Fowler, DVM (1989). "Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids; Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco". Iowa State University Press.
Jump up ^ Greta Stamberg & Derek Wilson (2 September 1997). "Behavior: Sounds". Llamapedia. Archived from the original on 15 October 2006.
Jump up ^ Brian and Jane Pinkerton (17 May 2008). "Llama Sounds". Humm Page. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008.
Jump up ^ International Llama Association. (1995). "Guard Llamas." ILA Educational Brochure #2.
Jump up ^ Walker, Cameron. "Guard Llamas Keep Sheep Safe From Coyotes." National Geographic, 10 June 2003.
Jump up ^ "Guard Llamas: An Alternative for Effective Predator Management".
Jump up ^ "Llama Effigy". The Walters Art Museum.
Jump up ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997 ISBN 0-500-01802-2.
Jump up ^ "Little Llamas". Inca culture. 10 October 2006.
Jump up ^ Jean Larson, Judith Ho (25 June 2007). "Information Resources on the South American Camelids: Llamas, Alpacas, Guanacos, and Vicunas 1943–2006". Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). "The Inca Pantheon". The Incas. The People of America. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-631-17677-0.
Jump up ^ Anning, Caroline. (2011-05-22) BBC News – Inca success in Peruvian Andes 'thanks to llama dung'. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-08-21.
Jump up ^ Jared Diamond (12 April 2007). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The Show: Episode Two". PBS.
Jump up ^ Jared Diamond (12 April 2007). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The story of ... Llamas". PBS.
Jump up ^ Juan Bautista Ignacio Molina (1808). The geographical, natural and civil history of Chili, tr. by an American gentleman. II. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Beula Williams (17 April 2007). "Llama Fiber". International Llama Association.
References[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Llama". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to: Lama glama
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Llama.
"Llamapaedia Orgle Sound". Archived from the original (AIFF) on 30 October 2007.
Llamas Close Up – slideshow by Life magazine
"Llama". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. The dictionary definition of llama at Wiktionary
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text:
Dutch colonization of the Americas
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The Dutch colonization of the Americas began with the establishment of Dutch trading posts and plantations in the Americas, which preceded the much wider known colonisation activities of the Dutch in Asia. While the first Dutch fort in Asia was built in 1600 (in present-day Indonesia), the first forts and settlements on the Essequibo River in Guyana date from the 1590s. Actual colonization, with the Dutch settling in the new lands, was not as common as with other European nations. Many of the Dutch settlements were lost or abandoned by the end of the 17th century, but the Netherlands managed to retain possession of Suriname until it gained independence in 1975, as well as the Netherlands Antilles, which remain within the Kingdom of the Netherlands today.
Contents
1 Mainland In North America
2 Caribbean Sea
2.1 Netherlands (Dutch) Antilles
2.2 Tobago
2.3 Virgin Islands
3 South America
3.1 Brazil
3.2 Chile
3.3 Guyanas
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Mainland In North America[edit]
1685 reprint of a 1656 map of the Dutch North American colonies showing extent of Dutch claims, from Chesapeake Bay and the Susquehanna River in the South and West, to Narragansett Bay and the Providence-Blackstone Rivers in the East, to the St. Lawrence River in the North
Main articles: New Netherland and New Netherland settlements
In 1602, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands chartered a young and eager Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or "VOC") with the mission of exploring North America's Rivers and Bays for a direct passage through to the Indies. Along the way, Dutch explorers were charged to claim any uncharted areas for the United Provinces, which led to several significant expeditions and, over time, Dutch explorers founded the province of New Netherland. By 1610, the VOC had already commissioned English explorer Henry Hudson who, in an attempt to find the so-called northwest passage to the Indies, discovered and claimed for the VOC parts of the present-day United States and Canada. Hudson entered the Upper New York Bay by sailboat, heading up the Hudson River, which now bears his name.
On March 27, 1614, the States General would move away from traditional monopolistic endeavors and take a new and freer approach to exploration and commercial development of the New World; the issuance of the General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages, Havens, Countries, or Places stated that "the said undertaking to be laudable, honorable, and serviceable for the prosperity of the United Provinces and wishing that the experiment be free and open to all and every of the inhabitants of this country, have invited and do hereby invite all and every of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands to the aforesaid search."[1]
In 1614, Adriaen Block led an expedition to the lower Hudson River in the Tyger, and then explored the East River aboard the Onrust, becoming the first known European to navigate the Hellegat in order to gain access to Long Island Sound. Block Island and Block Island Sound are befittingly named in his honor. Upon his return to Amsterdam in 1614, Block compiled a map, and applied the name 'New Netherland' for the first time to the area between English Virginia and French Canada, where he was later granted exclusive trading rights by the Dutch government. Block quickly ascended and became Manhattan's first monopolist.
Area settled by the Dutch in 1660
After some early trading expeditions, the first Dutch settlement in the Americas was founded in 1615: Fort Nassau, on Castle Island along the Hudson, near present-day Albany. The settlement served mostly as an outpost for trading in fur with the native Lenape tribespeople, but was later replaced by Fort Orange. Both forts were named in honor of the House of Orange-Nassau.
By 1621, the United Provinces had charted a new company, a trading monopoly in the Americas and West Africa: the Dutch West India Company (Westindische Compagnie or WIC). The WIC sought recognition as founders of the New World – which they ultimately did as founders of a new Province in 1623, New Netherland. That year, another Fort Nassau was built on the Delaware River near Gloucester City, New Jersey.
In 1624, the first colonists, mostly Walloons and their slaves-bound servants, arrived to New Netherland by the shipload, landing at Governors Island and initially dispensed to Fort Orange, Fort Wilhelmus and Kievets Hoek. In 1626, Director of the WIC Peter Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the Lenape natives and started construction of Fort Amsterdam, which grew to become the main port and capital, New Amsterdam. The colony expanded to outlying areas at Pavonia, Brooklyn, Bronx, and Long Island.
On the Connecticut River, Fort Huys de Goede Hoop was completed in 1633 at present day Hartford. By 1636, the English from Newtown (now Cambridge, Massachusetts) settled on the north side of the Little River. In the Treaty of Hartford, the border of New Netherland was retracted to western Connecticut and by 1653, the English had overtaken the Dutch trading post.
Expansion along the Delaware River beyond Fort Nassau did not begin until the 1650s, after the takeover of a Swedish colony, obviously called New Sweden which had been established at Fort Christina in 1638. Settlements at Fort Nassau and the short-lived Fort Beversreede were abandoned and consolidated at Fort Casimir. By 1655 Fort Christina, sitting in what is today Wilmington, had already been renamed Fort Altena.
Not all inhabitants of New Netherlands, Manahattan's first European colonizers, were ethnically Dutch, but in reality came from many European countries. Along with the large number of African native peoples—originally brought over bound by the shackles of slavehood—many New Netherlanders were Walloons, Huguenots, Germans, Scandinavian and English relocated from New England.[citation needed]
In 1664, an English naval expedition ordered by Prince James, Duke of York and of Albany (later King James II & VII) sailed in the harbor at New Amsterdam, threatening to attack. Being greatly outnumbered, Director-General Peter Stuyvesant surrendered after negotiating favorable articles of capitulation. The Province then took a new name, New York (from James's English title). Fort Orange was renamed Fort Albany (from James's Scottish title). The region between the lower Hudson and the Delaware was deeded to proprietors and called New Jersey.
The loss of New Netherland led to the Second Anglo–Dutch War during 1665–1667. This conflict ended with the Treaty of Breda, which stipulated that the Dutch give up their claim to New Netherlands in exchange for Suriname.
From 1673 to 1674, the territories were once again briefly captured by the Dutch in the Third Anglo–Dutch War, only to be returned to England at the Treaty of Westminster. In 1674, Dutch navy captain Jurriaen Aernoutsz also briefly captured two forts in the French colony of Acadia, which he claimed as Dutch territory the new colony of New Holland. However, Aernoutsz's appointed administrator, John Rhoades, quickly lost control of the territory after Aernoutsz himself left for Curaçao to seek out new settlers, and with effective control of Acadia remaining in the hands of France, Dutch sovereignty existed only on paper until the Netherlands surrendered their claim in the Treaties of Nijmegen.
Caribbean Sea[edit]
Netherlands (Dutch) Antilles[edit]
Dutch colonization in the Caribbean started in the 1634 on St. Croix and Tobago (1628), followed in 1631 with settlements on Tortuga (now Île Tortue) and Sint Maarten. When the Dutch lost Sint Maarten (and Anguilla where they had built a fort shortly after arriving in Sint Maarten) to the Spanish, they settled Curaçao and Sint Eustatius. They regained half of Sint Maarten in 1648, from then on sharing the island with France. The border between the two portions of the island continued to be modified periodically, before being set for good in 1816
Sint Maarten in 1618
Bonaire in 1634
Curaçao in 1634
Sint Eustatius in 1636
Aruba in 1637
Saba in 1640
Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke before 1640
Until deep into the 19th century, the now Venezuelan islands of Aves, the Aves archipelago, Los Roques and La Orchila were also considered by the Dutch government to be part of the Dutch West Indies.
The Netherlands Antilles remained an overseas territory of the Netherlands. It was granted self-rule in 1954. In 1986, Aruba was granted autonomy, separately from the other islands. On October 10, 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dismantled. Like Aruba, the islands Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius became special municipalities of the Netherlands.
Tobago[edit]
The Netherlands made numerous attempts to colonize Tobago (Nieuw-Walcheren) in the 17th century. Each time, the settlements were destroyed by rival European powers. Dutch settlements on Tobago:[2]
1628 – 1 Jan 1637: Fort Vlissingen; massacred by the Spanish
Sept 1654 – Jan 1666: Forts Lampsinsberg, Beveren, and Bellavista; conquered by British, destroyed by French
1667 – 18 Dec 1672: Nieuw-Vlissingen; destroyed by British
1 Sept 1676 – 6 Dec 1677: Fort Sterreschans; destroyed by French
Virgin Islands[edit]
See also: Dutch Virgin Islands
As a group, the islands are known as the Maagdeneilanden in Dutch. The Dutch established a base on St. Croix (Sint-Kruis) in 1625, the same year that the British did. French Protestants joined the Dutch but conflict with the British colony led to its abandonment before 1650. The Dutch established a settlement on Tortola (Ter Tholen) before 1640 and later on Anegada, Saint Thomas (Sint-Thomas) and Virgin Gorda. The British took Tortola in 1672 and Anegada and Virgin Gorda in 1680.
South America[edit]
Brazil[edit]
Peter Schenk the Elder, after Frans Post: View of Mauritsstad, engraving, 1645 (Museu Nacional de Belas Artes, Rio de Janeiro)
Frans Post: Brazilian Landscape with a Worker's House, c. 1655 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
Main articles: Dutch Brazil and Dutch Brazilian
From 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic gained control of a large portion of northeastern Brazil from the Portuguese. The Dutch West India Company set up their headquarters in Recife. The governor, Johan Maurits, invited artists and scientists in order to help promote migration to the new South-American colony. However, the Portuguese fought back and won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. On 26 January 1654, the Dutch Republic surrendered and signed a capitulation returning control of all the northeastern Brazil colony to the Portuguese. After the end of the First Anglo-Dutch War in May 1654, the Dutch Republic demanded that Nieuw Holland (Dutch Brazil) be returned to Dutch control. Under threat of an occupation of Lisbon and a reoccupation of northeastern Brazil, the Portuguese, already involved in a war against Spain, acceded to the Dutch demand. However, the new Dutch political leader Johan de Witt deemed commerce more important than territory, and saw to it that New Holland was sold back to Portugal on August 6, 1661, through the Treaty of the Hague.[3]
After the devastation caused by World War II, the Dutch government stimulated emigration to Australia, Brazil, and Canada. Brazil was the only nation to allow the arrival of large groups of Catholics. With the consent of the Brazilian government, the Catholic Dutch Farmers and Market-gardeners Union (Dutch: Katholieke Nederlandse Boeren- en Tuindersbond) coordinated the emigration process. A group of approximately 5000 migrants from the province of North Brabant arrived in Brazil, establishing their first colony at the farm of Fazenda Ribeirão in the state of São Paulo. Holambra I was founded in 14 July 1948. After a referendum in 1991 where 98 % of the population voted in favor of political autonomy for the area, Holambra gained city status in January 1993.
Famous for its large production of flowers and plants and for the yearly event Expoflora, Holambra receives thousands of tourists each year. In April 1998 this fact was recognized as Holambra gained the status of Estância Turística, touristic location. Further immigration from the Netherlands, ended up creating the cities in Brazil where the majority of the population descends from these Dutch immigrants. These cities are Holambra, Castrolanda, Carambei, Não me Toque, Witmarsum (where most of the population are descendent of Dutch Frisian immigrants), Arapoti and Campos de Holambra.
Chile[edit]
Further information: Dutch expedition to Valdivia and Dutch Chilean
In 1600, the Chilean city of Valdivia was conquered by the Dutch pirate Sebastian de Cordes.[4] He left the city after a few months. In 1642, the VOC and WIC sent a fleet to Chile to conquer Valdivia and its supposed gold mines. This expedition was led by Hendrik Brouwer, a Dutch admiral. In 1643, Brouwer died before effecting the conquest of the Chiloé Archipelago; his lieutenant Elias Herckmans succeeded in capturing the ruins of the city, which he refortified and named Brouwershaven.[5][6] Finding no gold but many hostile natives, the Dutch soon abandoned the outpost.
The second emigration from the Netherlands to Chile was in 1895. Under the so-called "Inspector General of Colonization and Immigration Chilean", a dozen Dutch families settled between 1895 and 1897 in Chiloé, particularly in Mechaico, Huillinco and Chacao. In the same period Hageman Egbert arrived in Chile.[7] with his family, 14 April 1896, settling in Rio Gato, near Puerto Montt. In addition, family Wennekool which inaugurated the Dutch colonization of Villarrica.[8]
In the early twentieth century, there arrived in Chile a large group of Dutch people from South Africa, which had been established where they worked mainly in construction of the railway. When the Boer War, which would eventually lead to the British annexation of both republics in 1902. These emigrants decided to emigrate to Chile with the help of the Chilean government.
On 4 May 1903, a group of over 200 Dutch emigrants sailed on the steamship "Oropesa" shipping company "Pacific Steam Navigation Company, from La Rochelle (La Pallice) in France. The majority of migrants were born in the Netherlands: 35% was from North Holland and South Holland, 13% of North Brabant, 9% of Zeeland and equal number of Gelderland.
On June 5, arrived by train to their final destination, the city of Pitrufquén, located south of Temuco, near the hamlet of Donguil. Another group of Dutchmen arrived shortly after to Talcahuano, in the "Oravi" and the "Orissa". The Netherlands colony in Donguil was christened "New Transvaal Colony. There were established more than 500 families in order to start a new life. Between 7 February 1907 and February 18, 1909 above the last group of families Boers.
It is currently estimated at about 50,000 descendants of Dutch, mostly located in Malleco, Gorbea, Pitrufquén, Faja Maisan and around Temuco and Osorno.[9][10]
Guyanas[edit]
Main article: Dutch colonisation of the Guianas
The Dutch West Indian Company built a fort in 1616 on the Essequibo River. The Dutch traded with the Indian peoples and, as in Suriname, established sugar plantations worked by African slaves. While the coast remained under Dutch control, the English established plantations west of the Suriname River. Conflict between the two countries meant parts of the region changed hands a number of times, but by 1796 Britain had control of the region. The Netherlands ceded the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice to Britain in 1814.
The colony in Suriname had originally been founded in the 1650s by Lord Francis Willoughby, the British governor of Barbados. It was captured by the Dutch under Abraham Crijnsen during the Second Anglo–Dutch War. On July 31, 1667, under the Treaty of Breda the Dutch offered New Netherland (including New Amsterdam, modern-day New York City) in exchange for their sugar factories on the coast of Suriname. In 1683 Suriname was sold to the Dutch West India Company. The colony developed an agricultural economy based on African slavery. England controlled Suriname during the Napoleonic Wars from 1799 until 1816, when it was returned to the Dutch. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863 and later imported indentured labor from the British Raj and the Dutch East Indies to keep the economy going. Internal self governance was granted in 1954 and full independence in 1975. The prospect of independence prompted many to migrate to the Netherlands. Political instability and economic decline after independence resulted in even more migration to the Netherlands. The Surinamese community in the Netherlands is now almost as large as half of the population in the country itself (about 350,000).
See also[edit]
Atlantic World
Dutch Empire
Dutch West India Company
New York history
New Amsterdam
New Netherland
Netherlands Antilles
New World Dutch barn
References[edit]
Jump up ^ General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages, Havens, Countries, or Places; March 27, 1614
Jump up ^ Ramerini, Marco. Colonial Voyage. "Dutch and Courlanders on Tobago: A History of the First Settlements, 1628–1677 Archived 2012-11-10 at the Wayback Machine.". Accessed 23 Nov 2012.
Jump up ^ Facsimiles of 20 manuscripts from the Dutch West India Company, relating the events in Brazil in the 17th century, from the first capture of Salvador, expansion, defeat and final peace treaty (PT & NL).
Jump up ^ "Tradiciones Coloniales" (in Spanish).
Jump up ^ "Historia Valdivia" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2009-05-31. Retrieved 2010-09-08.
Jump up ^ "Intento de Colonización" (in Spanish).
Jump up ^ Egbert Hageman.
Jump up ^ Netherlands in Chile.
Jump up ^ Dutch immigration. Archived August 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Holando-bóers al sur de Chile.
Further reading[edit]
Israel, J.I., Dutch primacy in world trade, 1585–1740, Oxford University Press, 1989
Klooster, Wim. The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World. (Cornell University Press, 2016). 419 pp.
External links[edit]
Dutch West Indies 1630-1975 documentary
(in English) (in Dutch) "Conditions as Created by their Lords Burgomasters of Amsterdam" from 1656, about Dutch goals to populate their New World colonies
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