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Test cricket
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It has been suggested that Two-tier Test cricket be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2018.
A Test match between South Africa and England in January 2005. The two men wearing black trousers are the umpires. Test cricket is played in traditional white clothes and usually with a red ball – a pink ball in Day/Night Tests.
Test cricket is the longest form of the sport of cricket and is considered its highest standard.[1][2] Test matches are played between national representative teams with "Test status", as determined and conferred by the International Cricket Council (ICC). The two teams of 11 players each play a four-innings match, which may last up to five days (or longer in some historical cases). It is generally considered the most complete examination of teams' playing ability and endurance.[3][4][5] The name Test stems from the long, gruelling match being both mentally and physically testing.[6]
The first officially recognised Test match took place on 15–19 March 1877 and was played between England and Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), where Australia won by 45 runs.[7] A Test match to celebrate 100 years of Test cricket was held in Melbourne on 12–17 March 1977, in which Australia beat England by 45 runs—the same margin as that first Test.[8]
In October 2012, the ICC recast the playing conditions for Test matches, permitting day/night Test matches.[9] The first day/night game took place between Australia and New Zealand at the Adelaide Oval, Adelaide, on 27 November–1 December 2015.[10]
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Contents
1 Test status
2 Teams with Test status
3 Conduct of the game
3.1 Playing time
3.2 Play
4 Competitions
4.1 International Test Rankings
4.2 Test Championship
5 Early history
6 Perpetual trophies
7 See also
8 Notes and references
8.1 Notes
8.2 References
8.3 Bibliography
9 External links
Test status[edit]
Test matches are the highest level of cricket, although, statistically, their data form part of first-class cricket. Matches are played between national representative teams with "Test status", as determined by the International Cricket Council. As of June 2017[update], twelve national teams have Test status, the most recently promoted being Afghanistan and Ireland on 22 June 2017.[11] Zimbabwe's Test status was voluntarily suspended, because of poor performances between 2006 and 2011; it returned to competition in August 2011.[12]
In January 2014, during an ICC meeting in Dubai, the pathway for new potential Test nations was laid out with the winners of the next round of the ICC Intercontinental Cup playing a 5-day match against the bottom ranked Test nation. If the Associate team defeats the Test nation, then they could be added as the new Test country and granted full membership.[13]
A list of matches, defined as "Tests", was first drawn up by Australian Clarence Moody in the mid-1890s. Representative matches played by simultaneous England touring sides of 1891–92 (in Australia and South Africa) and 1929–30 (in the West Indies and New Zealand) are deemed to have "Test status".
In 1970, a series of five "Test matches" was played in England between England and a Rest of the World XI. These matches, originally scheduled between England and South Africa, were amended after South Africa was suspended from international cricket because of their government's policy of apartheid. Although initially given Test status (and included as Test matches in some record books, including Wisden Cricketers' Almanack), this was later withdrawn and a principle was established that official Test matches can only be between nations (although the geographically and demographically small countries of the West Indies have since 1928 been permitted to field a coalition side). Despite this, in 2005, the ICC ruled that the six-day Super Series match that took place in October 2005, between Australia and a World XI, was an official Test match. Some cricket writers and statisticians, including Bill Frindall, ignored the ICC's ruling and excluded the 2005 match from their records. The series of "Test matches" played in Australia between Australia and a World XI in 1971/72 do not have Test status. The commercial "Supertests" organised by Kerry Packer as part of his World Series Cricket enterprise and played between "WSC Australia", "WSC World XI" and "WSC West Indies" from 1977 to 1979 have never been regarded as official Test matches.
Teams with Test status[edit]
There are currently twelve Test-playing men's teams. The teams all represent individual, independent nations, except for England, the West Indies, and Ireland. Test status is conferred upon a country or group of countries by the International Cricket Council. Teams that do not have Test status can play in the ICC Intercontinental Cup, specifically designed to allow non-Test teams to play under conditions similar to Tests. The teams are listed below with the date of each team's Test debut:
England (15 March 1877)
Australia (15 March 1877)
South Africa (12 March 1889)
West Indies (23 June 1928)
New Zealand (10 January 1930)
India (25 June 1932)
Pakistan (16 October 1952)
Sri Lanka (17 February 1982)
Zimbabwe (18 October 1992)
Bangladesh (10 November 2000)
Ireland (11 May 2018)
Afghanistan (14 June 2018)
In the mid 2010s, the ICC evaluated proposals for dividing Test cricket into two tiers, however these were not implemented.[14][15][16]
In the ICC's annual conference held on 22 June 2017, Afghanistan and Ireland were awarded Test status to become the 11th and 12th full members of the International Cricket Council.[11] Afghanistan played their first Test against India in June 2018.[17]
Timeline of Test status of Teams[show]

Conduct of the game[edit]
Playing time[edit]
See also: Playing time (cricket)
A standard day of Test cricket consists of three sessions of two hours each, the breaks between sessions being 40 minutes for lunch and 20 minutes for tea. However the times of sessions and intervals may be altered in certain circumstances: if bad weather or a change of innings occurs close to a scheduled break, the break may be taken immediately; if there has been a loss of playing time, for example because of bad weather, the session times may be adjusted to make up the lost time; if the batting side is nine wickets down at the scheduled tea break, then the interval may be delayed until either 30 minutes has elapsed or the team is all out;[18] the final session may be extended by up to 30 minutes if 90 or more overs have not been bowled in that day's play (subject to any reduction for adverse weather);[19] the final session may be extended by 30 minutes (except on the 5th day) if the umpires believe the result can be decided within that time.[20]
Today, Test matches are scheduled to be played across five consecutive days. However, in the early days of Test cricket, matches were played for three or four days. Four-day Test matches were last played in 1973, between New Zealand and Pakistan.[21] Until the 1980s, it was usual to include a 'rest day,' often a Sunday. There have also been 'Timeless Tests', which did not end after a predetermined maximum time. In 2005, Australia played a match scheduled for six days against a World XI, which the ICC sanctioned as an official Test match, though the match reached a conclusion on the fourth day. In October 2017, the ICC approved a request for a four-day Test match, between South Africa and Zimbabwe, which started on 26 December 2017 and ended on the second day, 27 December.[22] The ICC will trial the four-day Test format until the 2019 Cricket World Cup.[23]
There have been attempts by the ICC, the sport's governing body, to introduce day-night Test matches.[24] In 2012, The International Cricket Council passed playing conditions that allowed for the staging of day-night Test matches.[9] The first day-night Test took place during New Zealand's tour to Australia in November 2015.[10]
Play[edit]
Further information: Cricket § Rules and game-play
Test cricket is played in innings (the word denotes both the singular and the plural). In each innings, one team bats and the other bowls (or fields). Ordinarily four innings are played in a Test match, and each team bats twice and bowls twice. Before the start of play on the first day, the two team captains and the match referee toss a coin; the captain who wins the toss decides whether his team will bat or bowl first.
In the following scenarios, the team that bats first is referred to as Team A and their opponents as Team B.
Usually the teams will alternate at the completion of each innings. Thus, Team A will bat (and Team B will bowl) until its innings ends, and then Team B will bat and Team A will bowl. When Team B's innings ends, Team A begin their second innings, and this is followed by Team B's second innings. The winning team is the one that scores more runs in their two innings.
A team's innings ends in one of the following ways:[25]
The team is "all out". This typically occurs when a team has lost ten wickets (ten of the eleven batsmen having been dismissed) and are "bowled out". It may occasionally occur with the loss of fewer wickets if one or more batsmen are unavailable to bat (through injury, for example).
The team's captain declares the innings closed, usually because they believe they have enough runs. A declaration before the innings starts is called an innings forfeiture.
The team batting fourth score the required number of runs to win.
The prescribed time for the match expires.
If, at the completion of its first innings, Team B's first innings total is 200 or more fewer than Team A's, the captain of Team A may (but is not required to) order Team B to have their second innings next. This is called enforcing the follow on.[26] In this case, the usual order of the third and fourth innings is reversed: Team A will bat in the fourth innings. It is rare for a team forced to follow on to win the match. In Test cricket it has only happened three times, although over 285 follow-ons have been enforced: Australia was the losing team on each occasion, twice to England, in 1894 and in 1981, and once to India in 2001.[27]
If the whole of the first day's play of a Test match has been lost because of bad weather or other reasons like bad light, then Team A may enforce the follow on if Team B's first innings total is 150 or more fewer than Team A's. During the 2nd Test between England and New Zealand at Headingley in 2013, England batted first after the first day was lost because of rain.[28] New Zealand, batting second, scored 180 runs fewer than England, meaning England could have enforced the follow on, though chose not to. This is similar to four-day first-class cricket, where the follow on can be enforced if the difference is 150 runs or fewer. If the Test is 2 days or fewer then the "follow-on" value is 100 runs.
After 80 overs, the captain of the bowling side may take a new ball, although this is not required.[29]The captain will usually take the new ball: being harder and smoother than an old ball, a new ball generally favours faster bowlers who can make it bounce more variably. The roughened, softer surface of an old ball can be more conducive to spin bowlers, or those using reverse swing. The captain may delay the decision to take the new ball if he wishes to continue with his spinners (because the pitch favours spin). After a new ball has been taken, should an innings last a further 80 overs, then the captain will have the option to take another new ball.
A Test match may end in one of six results:
All four innings are complete. The team batting fourth are all out before overtaking the other team, usually before matching the other team's score. The team that batted third are the winners by a margin equal to the difference in the aggregate runs scored by the two teams (for example, "Team A won by 95 runs"). Very rarely (in over 2,000 Test matches played, it has only happened twice) the scores can end level, resulting in a tie.
The team batting in the fourth innings overtakes the opposing team's run total. The match ends, and the team batting fourth is the winner by a margin equal to the number of wickets still to fall in the innings (for example, "Team B won by five wickets").
The third innings concludes with the team that batted twice still trailing the team that batted once. The match ends without playing a fourth innings. The team that batted only once is the winner by a margin equal to "an innings" plus the difference in aggregate run totals of the teams (for example, "Team B won by an innings and 26 runs").
Time for the match expires without a result being reached. This usually occurs at the end of the last day of the match. The result is a draw: there is no winner, no matter how superior the position of one of the sides. Rain causing a loss of playing time is a common factor in drawn matches, although matches may be drawn even without interference from the weather: usually as a result of poor time management or an intentional effort on the part of one team to avoid losing.
The match is abandoned because the ground is declared unfit for play. This has occurred three times, resulting each time in a draw being declared: England v Australia at Headingley, Leeds, 1975 (vandalism);[30] West Indies v England at Sabina Park, Kingston, Jamaica, 1998 (dangerous ground);[31] West Indies v England at Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, Antigua, 2009 (dangerous ground).[32]
The match is awarded through a forfeiture. If a team refuses to take the field of play, the umpires may award the match to the opposing team.[33] This has only happened once in Test cricket, in the 2006 Fourth Test between England and Pakistan.[34][35]
Competitions[edit]
Test cricket is almost always played as a series of matches between two countries, with all matches in the series taking place in the same country (the host). Often there is a perpetual trophy that is awarded to the winner, the most famous of which is the Ashes contested between England and Australia. There have been two exceptions to the bilateral nature of Test cricket: the 1912 Triangular Tournament, a three-way competition between England, Australia and South Africa (hosted by England), and the Asian Test Championship, an event held in 1998–99 and 2001–02.
The number of matches in Test series has varied from one to seven.[36] Up until the early 1990s,[37] Test series between international teams were organised between the two national cricket organisations with umpires provided by the home team. With the entry of more countries into Test cricket, and a wish by the ICC to maintain public interest in Tests in the face of the popularity of one-day cricket, a rotation system was introduced that sees all ten Test teams playing each other over a six-year cycle, and an official ranking system (with a trophy held by the highest-ranked team). In this system, umpires are provided by the ICC. An elite panel of eleven umpires has been established, and the panel is supplemented by an additional International Panel that includes three umpires named by each Test-playing country. The elite umpires officiate almost all Test matches, usually not Tests involving their home country.
International Test Rankings[edit]
ICC Test Championship
v
t
e
Rank
Team
Matches
Points
Rating
1
India 29 3,634 125
2
South Africa 35 3,712 106
3
Australia 33 3,499 106
4
New Zealand 23 2,354 102
5
England 39 3,772 97
6
Sri Lanka 38 3,668 97
7
Pakistan 21 1,853 88
8
West Indies 29 2,235 77
9
Bangladesh 19 1,268 67
10
Zimbabwe 8 12 2
–
Ireland* 1 0 0
–
Afghanistan* 1 0 0
*Countries that have not played enough matches to gain an official ranking
Reference: ICC Rankings, 23 July 2018
"Matches" is no. matches + no. series played in the 12–24 months since the May before last, plus half the number in the 24 months before that.
Test Championship[edit]
There has been no World Cup for Test Match conducted thus far by the ICC, since it is the longest format of the game, due to which the Championship might go on for years together. However, of late the ICC is holding discussions to conduct a World Test Championship over a span of 2 years (starting its first Championship from 2019-2021 ), after failing to execute their plan of conducting this tournament twice, once during 2013 and another time during 2017. The schedule for 2019-21 Test Championship is a set of typical bilateral series in various countries put together, where one team is the host and other team is the visitor. The length of the series would vary between 2 matches to 5 matches. The result of each match carries a weighting of the points depending upon the length of the series: a single match in a 5-match series will account for 20% of the series points, while a match in a 2-match series will account for 50% of the series points.[original research?]
Early history[edit]
Main articles: History of cricket, History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883, History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889, and History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900
Sides designated as "England" began to play in the late 18th century, but these teams were not truly representative. Early international cricket was disrupted by the French Revolution and the American Civil War. The earliest international cricket match was between USA and Canada, on 24 and 25 September 1844.[38] This has never been officially considered a "Test match". Tours of national English sides abroad took place, particularly to the USA, Australia and New Zealand. The Australian Aborigines team became the first organised overseas cricketers to tour England in 1868.
Two rival English tours of Australia were proposed in the early months of 1877, with James Lillywhite campaigning for a professional tour and Fred Grace for an amateur one. Grace's tour fell through and it was Lillywhite's team that toured New Zealand and Australia in 1876–77. Two matches against a combined Australian XI were later classified as the first official Test matches. The first match was won by Australia, by 45 runs, and the second by England. After reciprocal tours established a pattern of international cricket, The Ashes was established as an ongoing competition during the Australian tour of England in 1882. Surprisingly beaten, a mock obituary of English cricket was published in the Sporting Times the following day: the phrase "The body shall be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia" prompted the subsequent creation of the Ashes urn. The series of 1884–85 was the first to be held over five matches: Shaw, writing in 1901, considered the side to be "the best ever to have left England".
South Africa became the third team to play Test cricket in 1888–89, when they hosted a tour by an under-strength England side.
Perpetual trophies[edit]
The following are the perpetual trophies in Test Cricket.
Name of trophy
Team 1
Team 2
First contested
Remarks
The Ashes England Australia 1882–83
Anthony De Mello Trophy India England 1951[39] For series played in India
Frank Worrell Trophy West Indies Australia 1960–61
Wisden Trophy West Indies England 1963
Trans-Tasman Trophy New Zealand Australia 1985–86
Border–Gavaskar Trophy India Australia 1996–97
Southern Cross Trophy Australia Zimbabwe 1999–2000[40]
Sir Vivian Richards Trophy West Indies South Africa 2000–01[41]
Clive Lloyd Trophy West Indies Zimbabwe 2001[42]
Basil D'Oliveira Trophy South Africa England 2004–05
Pataudi Trophy India England 2007 For series played in England
Warne–Muralidaran Trophy Sri Lanka Australia 2007–08
Freedom Trophy India South Africa 2015–16
Sobers–Tissera Trophy West Indies Sri Lanka 2015–16
Ganguly–Durjoy Trophy India Bangladesh 2017[43]
See also[edit]
Cricket portal
Toss (cricket)
ICC Test Championship
List of Test cricket grounds
List of Test cricket records
List of Test cricketers
One Day International
Twenty20 International
Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bond, David (29 July 2013). "Test cricket: Does the oldest form of the game have a future?". BBC. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Adam Gilchrist's Cowdrey Lecture, 2009". ESPN CricInfo. 24 June 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Lifeless pitches should not be accepted, The Telegraph. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Knight's return to proving ground, Retrieved 1 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Adam Gilchrist's Cowdrey Lecture, 2009, ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Rundell, Michael (2006). Dictionary of Cricket. London: A&C Black Publishers Ltd. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-7136-7915-1. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Australia v England 1st Test 1876/1877 – ESPNcricinfo.
Jump up ^ Australia v England Centenary Test – ESPNcricinfo.
^ Jump up to: a b "ICC paves way for Day-Night Tests". Wisden India. 29 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "First day-night Test for Adelaide Oval". ESPNCricinfo. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ireland & Afghanistan awarded Test status by International Cricket Council". BBC News. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Cricket Side Resume International Test Play After Six-Year Break – Voice of America.
Jump up ^ "Ireland and Scotland to get Test chance as ICC approves play-off". BBC Sport. BBC. 10 April 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "ICC planning two Test divisions amid major overhaul". ESPNcricinfo. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Two-tier proposal shelved at ICC meeting". ESPNcricinfo. 7 September 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Baseball-style conference structure proposed for Tests". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Afghanistan to play debut Test v India in Bengaluru in June". International Cricket Council. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Laws of Cricket – Law 15.8". Lords.org. Archived from the original on 24 November 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "ICC Standard Test Match Playing Conditions ("Playing Conditions") cl 16.1.1" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Playing Conditions cl 16.2" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Cremer senses opportunity in shorter contest". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Test, ODI leagues approved by ICC Board". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "South Africa to play Zimbabwe in inaugural four-day Test". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lord's could host first day night Test in May 2010". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "LAW 13 - INNINGS". Lords.org. Retrieved 22 Dec 2017.
Jump up ^ "Law 14 – The follow-on". MCC. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "HowSTAT! Winning after Following-On". Howstat.com. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "2nd Test: England v New Zealand at Leeds, May 24–28, 2013 | Cricket Scorecard". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Law 4 – The ball". MCC. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "On This Day: 19 August". BBC News. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "1st Test: West Indies v England at Kingston, Jan 29 – Feb 2, 1998 | Cricket Scorecard". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "2nd Test: West Indies v England at North Sound, Feb 13–17, 2009 | Cricket Scorecard". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Law 16 – The result". MCC. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "England awarded abandoned Oval Test 'win'". The Guardian. London. 1 February 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Test abandoned after ball dispute". BBC News. 20 August 2006. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Australia v England, Seventh Test, 1970–71". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Rajesh, S. (16 April 2011). "Neutral umpires". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
Jump up ^ United States of America v Canada 1844 – ESPNcricinfo.
Jump up ^ "India-England series played for Anthony De Mello trophy: BCCI". 6 November 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Southern Cross Trophy, 1999/00". Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Statistics / Statsguru / Test matches / Team records". Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Test trophy to be named after Clive Lloyd". 28 July 2001. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "India vs Bangladesh 2016 Test series to be named Ganguly-Durjoy Trophy". 26 May 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Ground Rules – A Celebration of Test Cricket, Barney Spender & David Gower, Dakini Books Ltd (Nov 2003), ISBN 0-9537032-6-6
The Wisden Book of Test Cricket, Sir Donald Bradman (Foreword), Bill Frindall (Editor), Headline Book Publishing (1995), ISBN 0-7472-1118-3
Marylebone Cricket Club (2003), The Laws of Cricket. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
International Cricket Council (2008), Standard Test Match Playing Conditions. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
External links[edit]
Origin of the name "Test"
USA v Canada – The oldest international sporting fixture
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Woodland period
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Periods in North American history
[hide]
Lithic stage 18,000 BC - 5000/3000 BC
Archaic period
Mesoamerican
2000 BC-250 AD
General
8,000-1,000 BC
Formative stage
Mesoamerican
3500 BC-1800 BC
General
1,000BC-500AD
Woodland period 1000BC-1000AD
Classic stage 500–1200
Post-Classic stage
Mesoamerican
900-1519
General
1200-today
See also
List of archaeological periods (North America)
List of archaeological periods (Mesoamerica)
v
t
e
In the classification of Archaeological cultures of North America, the Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures spanned a period from roughly 1000 BCE to European contact in the eastern part of North America, with some archaeologists distinguishing the Mississippian period, from 1000 CE to European contact as a separate period.[1] The term "Woodland Period" was introduced in the 1930s as a generic term for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the agriculturalist Mississippian cultures. The Eastern Woodlands cultural region covers what is now eastern Canada south of the Subarctic region, the Eastern United States, along to the Gulf of Mexico.[2]
This period is variously considered a developmental stage, a time period, a suite of technological adaptations or "traits," and a "family tree" of cultures related to earlier Archaic cultures.[3] It can be characterized as a chronological and cultural manifestation without any massive changes in a short time but instead having a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leather crafting, textile manufacture, cultivation, and shelter construction. Many Woodland peoples used spears and atlatls until the end of the period, when they were replaced by bows and arrows; however, Southeastern Woodland peoples also used blowguns.
The most cited technological distinction of this period was the widespread use of pottery (although pottery manufacture had arisen during the Archaic period in some places), and the diversification of pottery forms, decorations, and manufacturing practices. The increasing use of horticulture and the development of the Eastern Agricultural Complex, consisting of weedy seed plants as well as gourd cultivation, also meant that groups became less mobile over time and, in some times and places, people lived in permanently occupied villages and cities. Intensive agriculture characterizes the Mississippian period from ca. 1000-1400 CE and may have continued up to European contact, around 500 years ago.[4]
Contents
1 Early Woodland period (1000–200 BCE)
1.1 Interaction
1.2 Pottery
1.3 Subsistence Strategies
2 Middle Woodland period (200 BCE–500 CE)
3 Late Woodland period (500–1000 CE)
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Early Woodland period (1000–200 BCE)[edit]
The Early Woodland period continued many trends begun during the Late and Terminal Archaic periods, including extensive mound-building, regional distinctive burial complexes, the trade of exotic goods across a large area of North America as part of interaction spheres, the reliance on both wild and domesticated plant foods, and a mobile subsistence strategy in which small groups took advantage of seasonally available resources such as nuts, fish, shellfish, and wild plants. Pottery, which had been manufactured during the Archaic period in limited amounts, was now widespread across the Eastern Interior, the Southeast, and the Northeast; the Far Northeast, the Sub-Arctic, and the Northwest/Plains regions widely adopted pottery somewhat later, about 200 BCE.
Interaction[edit]
The Adena culture built conical mounds in which single- or multiple-event burials, often cremated, were interred along with rich grave goods including copper bracelets, beads, and gorgets, art objects made from mica, novaculite, hematite, banded slate, and other kinds of stone, shell beads and cups, and leaf-shaped "cache blades." This culture is believed to have been core to the Meadowood Interaction Sphere, in which cultures in the Great Lakes region, the St. Lawrence region, the Far Northeast, and the Atlantic region interacted. The large area of interaction is indicated by the presence of Adena-style mounds, the presence of exotic goods from other parts of the interaction spheres, and the participation in the "Early Woodland Burial Complex" defined by William Ritchie [5]
Pottery[edit]
Pottery was widely manufactured and sometimes traded, particularly in the Eastern Interior region. Clay for pottery was typically tempered (mixed with non-clay additives) with grit (crushed rock) or limestone. Pots were usually made in a conoidal or conical jars with rounded shoulders, slightly constricted necks, and flaring rims. Pottery was most often decorated with a variety of linear or paddle stamps that created "dentate" (tooth-like) impressions, wavy line impressions, checked surfaces, or fabric-impressed surfaces, but some pots were incised with geometric patterns or, more rarely, with pictorial imagery such as faces. Pots were coiled and paddled entirely by hand without the use of fast rotation such as a pottery wheel. Some were slipped or brushed with red ochre.
Pottery, agriculture, and permanent settlements have often been thought of the three defining characteristics of the Woodland period.[6] However, it has become evident that, in some areas of the United States, prehistoric cultural groups with a clearly Archaic cultural assemblage were making pottery without any evidence of the cultivation of domesticated crops. In fact, it appears that hunting and gathering continued as the basic subsistence economy and that subsistence horticulture/agriculture did not occur in much of the Southeast for a couple of thousand years after the introduction of pottery, and in parts of the Northeast, horticulture was never practiced.[7] This research indicated that a fiber-tempered horizon of ceramics greatly predates 1000 BCE, first appearing about 2500 BCE in parts of Florida with the Orange culture and in Georgia with the Stallings culture.[8] Nevertheless, these early sites were typical Archaic settlements, differing only in the use of basic ceramic technology. As such, researchers are now redefining the period to begin with not only pottery, but the appearance of permanent settlements, elaborate burial practices, intensive collection and/or horticulture of starchy seed plants (see Eastern Agricultural Complex), differentiation in social organization, and specialized activities, among other factors. Most of these are evident in the Southeastern United States by 1000 BCE.
In some areas, like South Carolina and coastal Georgia, Deptford culture pottery manufacture ceased after ca. 700 CE.
Subsistence Strategies[edit]
In coastal regions, many settlements were near the coast, often near salt marshes, which were habitats rich in food resources. People tended to settle along rivers and lakes in both coastal and interior regions for maximum access to food resources.[9] Nuts were processed in large amounts, including hickory and acorns, and many wild berries, including palm berries, blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries, were eaten, as well as wild grapes and persimmon. Most groups relied heavily on white-tailed deer, but a variety of other small and large mammals were hunted also, including beaver, raccoon, and bear. Shellfish formed an important part of the diet, attested to by numerous shell middens along the coast and interior rivers.
Coastal peoples practiced seasonal mobility, moving to the coast during the summer take advantage of numerous marine resources such as sea mammals and shellfish, then moved to interior locations during the winter where access to deer, bear, and anadromous fish such as salmon could see them through the winter. Seasonal foraging also characterized the strategies of many interior populations, with groups moving strategically among dense resource areas.
Recently evidence has accumulated of a greater reliance of woodland peoples on cultivation in this period, at least in some localities, than has historically been recognized. This is especially true for the middle woodland period and perhaps beyond. C. Margaret Scarry states "in the Woodland periods, people diversified their use of plant foods. . . [they] increased their consumption of starchy foods. They did so, however, by cultivating starchy seeds rather than by gathering more acorns." [10] Smith and Yarnell refer to an "indigenous crop complex" as early as 3800 B.P. in parts of the region.[11]
Middle Woodland period (200 BCE–500 CE)[edit]
Hopewell Interaction Area and local expressions of the Hopewell tradition
The beginning of the Middle Woodland saw a shift of settlement to the Interior. As the Woodland period progressed, local and inter-regional trade of exotic materials greatly increased to the point where a trade network covered most of the Eastern United States. Throughout the Southeast and north of the Ohio River, burial mounds of important people were very elaborate and contained a variety of mortuary gifts, many of which were not local. The most archaeologically certifiable sites of burial during this time were in Illinois and Ohio. These have come to be known as the Hopewell tradition. Due to the similarity of earthworks and burial goods, researchers assume a common body of religious practice and cultural interaction existed throughout the entire region (referred to as the "Hopewellian Interaction Sphere"). Such similarities could also be the result of reciprocal trade, obligations, or both between local clans that controlled specific territories. Access to food or resources outside a clan's territory would be made possible through formal agreements with neighbors. Clan heads would then be buried along with goods received from their trading partners to symbolize the relationships they had established. Under this scenario, permanent settlements would be likely to develop, leading to increased agricultural production and a population increase.
Ceramics during this time were thinner and better quality than earlier times. Examples also show pottery also was more decorated than Early Woodland. One style was the Trempealeau phase which could have been seen by the Hopewell in Indiana. This type included a round body, and lines of decoration with cross-etching on rim. The Havana style found in Illinois had a decorated neck. One of the major tools unique to this era was Snyders Points. These were quite large and corner-notched. They were made by soft-hammering percussion, and finished by pressure flaking.[12]
Although many of the Middle Woodland cultures are called "Hopewellian," and groups shared ceremonial practices, archeologists have identified the development of distinctly separate cultures during the Middle Woodland period. Examples include the Armstrong culture, Copena culture, Crab Orchard culture, Fourche Maline culture, the Goodall Focus, the Havana Hopewell culture, the Kansas City Hopewell, the Marksville culture, and the Swift Creek culture.
The Center for American Archeology specializes in Middle Woodland culture.
Late Woodland period (500–1000 CE)[edit]
The late Woodland period was a time of apparent population dispersal, although populations do not appear to have decreased. In most areas construction of burial mounds decreased drastically, as well as long-distance trade in exotic materials. At the same time, bow and arrow technology gradually overtook the use of the spear and atlatl, and agricultural production of the "Three Sisters" (maize, beans, and squash) was introduced. While full scale intensive agriculture did not begin until the following Mississippian period, the beginning of serious cultivation greatly supplemented the gathering of plants.
Late Woodland settlements became more numerous, but the size of each one (with exceptions) was smaller than their middle Woodland counterparts. The reasons for this are unknown, but it has been theorized that populations increased so much that trade alone could no longer support the communities and some clans resorted to raiding others for resources. Alternatively, the efficiency of bows and arrows in hunting may have decimated the large game animals, forcing the tribes to break apart into smaller clans to better use local resources, thus limiting the trade potential of each group. A third possibility is a colder climate may have affected food yields, possibly affected by Northern Hemisphere extreme weather events of 535–536, also limiting trade possibilities. Lastly, it may be that agricultural technology became sophisticated enough that crop variation between clans lessened, thereby decreasing the need for trade.
As communities became more isolated, they began to develop in their own unique ways, giving rise to small-scale cultures that were distinctive to their regional areas. Examples include the Baytown, Troyville and Coles Creek cultures of Louisiana, the Alachua and Weeden Island cultures of Florida, and the Plum Bayou culture of Arkansas and Missouri.
Although the 1000 CE ending of the Late Woodland period is traditional, in practice many regions of the Eastern Woodlands adopted the full Mississippian culture much later than that. Some groups in the north and northeast of the current United States, such as the Iroquois, retained a way of life that was technologically identical to the Late Woodland until the arrival of Europeans. Furthermore, despite the widespread adoption of the bow and arrow during this time, the peoples of a few areas of the United States appear never to have made the change. During Hernando de Soto's travels through the southern United States around 1543, the groups at the mouth of the Mississippi river still preferentially used the spear.
See also[edit]
Glenwood culture
Rock Eagle Effigy Mound
Rock Hawk Effigy Mound
Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)
Pinson Mounds
The Bluff Point Stoneworks
Mound builder (people)
Crystal River Archaeological State Park
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ McDonald and Woodward, Indian Mounds of the Atlantic Coast: A Guide from Maine to Florida, McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company, Newark OH, 1987 p.13
Jump up ^ "Eastern Woodland Indians Culture". Native Art in Canada. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
Jump up ^ Mason, Ronald J. (1970). "Hopewell, Middle Woodland, and the Laurel Culture: A Problem in Archaeological Classification." American Anthropologist 72(4):802–15.
Jump up ^ Neusius, Sarah W. and G. Timothy Gross (2014). "Seeking Our Past: An Introduction to North American Archaeology." Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Ritchie, W. A. (1955). "Recent Discoveries Suggesting an Early Woodland Burial Cult in the Northeast." New York State Museum and Science Service Circular 40. The University of the State of New York, Albany.
Jump up ^ "Quick study: Woodland Period". learnnc.org. Research Laboratories of Archaeology. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Woodland Period (ca. 2000 B.C.- A.D. 1000)". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Kenneth E. Sassaman (2002). "Woodland Ceramic Beginnings". In David G. Anderson and Robert C. Mainfort Jr. The Woodland Southeast. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-1137-8.
Jump up ^ Fiedel, Stuart J. (1992). "Prehistory of the Americas, 2nd Edition." Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ C. Margaret Scarry (2003). "Patterns of Wild Plant Utilization in the Prehistoric Eastern Woodlands" In Paul E. Minnis, People and Plants in Ancient Eastern North America, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Jump up ^ Bruce D. Smith and Richard A. Yarnell (2009). "Initial formation of an indigenous crop complex in eastern North America at 3800 B.P.," PNAS, vol. 106, no. 16, 6561–6566
Jump up ^ Behm, Jeffrey (2007 March) Middle Woodland. University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh. Oshkosh, WI
References[edit]
Bense, Judith A. (1994). Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-089060-7.
Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1273-2.
National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center. "The Woodland Period". Retrieved August 6, 2009.

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Adena Culture
List of Adena culture sites
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List of archaeological periods (North America)
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Related topics
Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley
burial mound
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Hopewellian peoples
Woodland period
List of Hopewell sites
Mound builder (people)
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Benham Mound
Cary Village Site
Cedar-Bank Works
Dunns Pond Mound
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Mann Site
O'byams Fort site
Wilson Site
Yankeetown Site
Goodall Focus
Goodall Site
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Havana Hopewell culture
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Golden Eagle-Toppmeyer Site
Kamp Mound Site
Mound House site
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Ogden-Fettie Site
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Renner Village Archeological Site
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Crooks Mound
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Miller Site
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Laurel Complex
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Exotic trade items
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woodland_period&oldid=856282011"
Categories:
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text:
Geron Davis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Geron Davis
Born
(1964-12-01) December 1, 1964 (age 53)
Origin
Bogalusa, Louisiana
Genres
Gospel music, Inspirational
Occupation(s)
Christian music singer, songwriter
Years active
1994–present
Labels
Meadowgreen Music
Geron Davis (1964) is a musician best known as a composer. He was first signed by Meadowgreen Music and best known for penning the song "Holy Ground".[1] Davis married partner Becky Davis and have collectively written several songs which include, "In the Presence of Jehovah", "Mercy Saw Me", "Send It On Down", "Holy Of Holies", "Gentle Hands", "Peace Speaker", and "Something About My Praise". Davis, also a vocalist, asked his sister Alyson Lovern and her husband Shelton to join him and Becky in forming the group, "Kindred Souls" and have been performing together for more than ten years. They released their debut album, "Let It Rain," in 2002 which gained considerable attention on AC charts.[2]
Works[edit]
Holy Ground - Geron Davis - Geron Davis (1994)
WOW Worship: Orange - CD2 - March 28, 2000
Songs 4 Worship: Holy Ground - 2001
WOW Worship: The Platinum Collection - 2002
Let It Rain - Geron Davis & Kindred Souls - September 19, 2002
It Took A Lamb - Geron Davis
Closer - February 3, 2004
Sing Joy - Geron Davis (Featuring Grace Baptist Worship Choir, Knoxville, TN)- June 14, 2005
Celebrate Jesus - Hosanna Music
Portraits Of Worship Vol 1 - Featuring Westgate Chapel
Offer Up This Praise - Live in Denver (Featuring the Riverside Worship Choir, Denver, CO) - Geron Davis
Send It On Up - Featuring the Mount Paran Church of God Festival Choir, Atlanta, GA
Song of Praise - Geron Davis, Bradley Knight
Then & There, Settled & Done - Easter with Geron Davis
Cradle That Rocked the World - Geron Davis, Christopher Phillips, and Jukka Palonen
AMEN - Geron Davis
He Is Great - Geron Davis & Kindred Souls
Hallelujah Jesus Is Born - Christmas with Geron Davis
Rejoice - Christmas Worship (Geron Davis - Worship Leader - Brentwood-Benson) 2009
A Night Of Hope - Christmas Worship • Geron Davis, Bradley Knight (featuring Randy Phillips, Dan Dean, Geron Davis, & Dave Clark - Lillenas Publishing) 2009
Everywhere - Worship with Geron Davis (Praise Band/Praise Team version - Brentwood-Benson) 2010
All I Need - Worship with Geron Davis (Choir & Orch version - Brentwood-Benson) 2010
Where Praise Begins - A Worship Collection -Geron Davis, Bradley Knight (featuring Randy Phillips, Dan Dean, Geron Davis, & Dave Clark - Lillenas Publishing) 2011
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Christensen, Phil; MacDonald, Shari (2000-09-27). Our God Reigns: The Stories Behind Your Favorite Praise and Worship Songs. Kregel Publications. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8254-2369-7. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Davis, Geron. "Geron Davis Biography". Geron Davis Biography. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
ISNI: 0000 0000 4377 4701
MusicBrainz: 2c531fb1-4b7a-492c-802c-044486b93a53
VIAF: 41390533

This article about an American musician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geron_Davis&oldid=841753542"
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