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The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (song)
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"The Trail of the Lonesome Pine"
Cover, sheet music, 1913
Song
Language
English
Published
1913
Songwriter(s)
Composer: Harry Carroll
Lyricist: Ballard MacDonald
"The Trail of the Lonesome Pine" is a popular song published in 1913, with lyrics by Ballard MacDonald and music by Harry Carroll. Inspired by John Fox, Jr.'s 1908 novel of the same title, the song expresses the singer's love for his "girl" June, who lives in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia. The chorus is:[1]
In the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia,
On the trail of the lonesome pine—
In the pale moonshine our hearts entwine,
Where she carved her name and I carved mine;
Oh, June, like the mountains I'm blue—
Like the pine I am lonesome for you,
In the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia,
On the trail of the lonesome pine.
"The Trail of the Lonesome Pine" was featured in Laurel and Hardy's 1937 film Way Out West. It was performed by The Avalon Boys and featured a section sung in deep bass by Chill Wills, lip-synced by Stan Laurel in the film.[2] In 1975, at a time when Laurel and Hardy films were popular on British television, the UK branch of United Artists Records produced an album of dialogue and songs, Laurel & Hardy – The Golden Age Of Hollywood Comedy, that included "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine". Released as a single, the song reached No. 2 in the UK Singles Chart, thanks largely to being championed by disc jockey John Peel on his Radio 1 evening show.[2] The song was also recorded by Vivian Stanshall and (as "Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia") by Tokyo Blade.
The song is featured in the stage play The Trail Of The Lonesome Pine, and is played during the opening credits of the 1936 film adaptation. Since 1964, the play has been performed in an outdoor theater in Big Stone Gap, Virginia, hometown of the novel's author: it was designated the "official outdoor drama" by the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1994,[3] and is now the sixth longest running outdoor drama in the United States.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MacDonald, "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine" (Sheet music).
^ Jump up to: a b Warner, Alan. "Two movie clowns who sang about 'The Blue Ridge Mountains Of Virginia'!". Wizwas.com. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Trail of the Lonesome Pine Amphitheatre/June Tolliver Playhouse Official Tourism Website of the Commonwealth of Virginia
Bibliography[edit]
MacDonald, Ballard (w.); Carroll, Harry (m.). "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine" (Sheet music). New York: Shapiro, Bernstein & Co., Inc. (1913).
External links[edit]
"The Trail of the Lonesome Pine", Manuel Romain (Edison Blue Amberol 1743, 1913)—Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project.
Transcription of Laurel & Hardy version
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Trail_of_the_Lonesome_Pine_(song)&oldid=796953451"
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House on the Rock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the parable of Jesus, see Parable of the Wise and the Foolish Builders.
House on the Rock
Location of the House on the Rock within Wisconsin
General information
Architectural style
Modernism
Town or city
Iowa County, Wisconsin
Country
United States
Coordinates
43°06′00″N 90°08′10″W / 43.10000°N 90.13611°W / 43.10000; -90.13611
Construction started
1945[1]
Completed
1959[2]
Design and construction
Architect
Alex Jordan Jr.
Website
www.thehouseontherock.com
The House on the Rock is a tourist attraction located between the cities of Dodgeville and Spring Green, Wisconsin. Opened in 1959,[2] it is a complex of architecturally distinct rooms, streets, gardens, and shops designed by Alex Jordan Jr.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Layout and attractions
3 Authenticity of the collections
4 Timeline
5 In other media
6 References
7 External links
Background[edit]
Both of Jordan's biographers[2][3] relate a story told by Sid Boyum,[4] which places the inspiration for the house in a meeting between Alex Jordan Jr. and Frank Lloyd Wright, at some unspecified time between 1914 and 1923. Jordan Sr. supposedly drove with Boyum to Taliesin to show Wright the plans for a building, the Villa Maria in Madison.[5] Jordan worshipped the famous architect and hoped for his approval. Wright looked at the plans and told Jordan: "I wouldn't hire you to design a cheese crate or a chicken coop. You're not capable." Fuming, on the drive back on Highway 23, Jordan pointed to a spire of rock and told Boyum: "I'm going to put up a Japanese house on one of those pinnacle rocks and advertise it."[6] Balousek says Wright "apparently didn't forget the incident", noting that Wright "complained publicly to Iowa County officials about the house the Jordans were building" and bought a nearby piece of property, "perhaps as a way to get back at Jordan."[7]
The House's "Infinity Room" is visible from an overlook off of Highway 23, almost a mile (1.6 km) away
The House on the Rock's website has posted information questioning the legitimacy of Boyum's story for the following reasons:[8]
The Villa Maria was built in 1923 and designed by well-known architect Frank Riley,[5] not Alex Jordan, Sr.
Both Sid Boyum[9] and Alex Jordan Jr. were born in 1914 and would have been less than nine years old when this story was to have happened. Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) would have been over 50 years old and unlikely to have known the nine-year-old Sid Boyum.
Frank Lloyd Wright was in Japan[10] working on the Imperial Hotel project from 1916–1922 and would not have likely been in Spring Green when this story was to have happened.
The legitimacy of this story is also questioned in the biography of Alex Jordan written by Tom Kupsh.[11] Tom Kupsh's book lists many of the same reasons as The House on the Rock website and also states that "The first agreement (an extended lease) with the Christianson family, who owned Deer Shelter Rock, was made some 30 years later in 1953 and no sign appeared at the road entrance until The House on the Rock opened to the public in 1960."
Layout and attractions[edit]
The "house" itself is atop Deer Shelter Rock, a column of rock approximately 60 feet (18 m), 70 feet (21 m) by 200 feet (61 m) on the top, which stands in a forest nearby.[12] Additions were made to the original structure and other buildings added over the course of several decades. The complex now features "The Streets of Yesterday", a re-creation of an early twentieth century American town; "The Heritage of the Sea", featuring nautical exhibits and a 200-foot model (61 m) of a fanciful sperm whale-like sea creature; "The Music of Yesterday", a huge collection of automatic music machines; and what the management bills as "the world's largest indoor carousel",[13] among other attractions. The carousel at the House on the Rock features 269 carousel animals, 182 chandeliers, over 20,000 lights, and hundreds of mannequin angels hanging from the ceiling. The carousel has no horses.[14][15] During the winter, the attraction features a Christmas theme, with decorations and a large collection of Santa Claus figures. Many of the bathrooms are decorated with strange objects, including mannequins, flowers, and preserved animals.
The earlier structures, namely the House on the Rock itself, the Gate House, and the Mill House, are reminiscent of the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, though much less coherently designed than is characteristic of Wright, given its patchwork of external structures and interior spaces. According to a likely apocryphal story, the building actually began partly to spite the master architect, who ran his Taliesin communal school near Spring Green. These early structures feature exposed stone, low ceilings, dark woodwork, and antiques on display.
Jordan sold the house in 1988 to a friend who continued building on the site, adding to the collections of knick-knacks and exhibits featuring authentic pieces, reproductions, and specially-made examples of everything. The most recent addition is the "Spirit of Aviation", a collection of large model airplanes in a themed room. Another exhibit, the "Transportation Building", is under construction, but visitors can walk through and view the work in progress.
Jane Smiley wrote this about the complex in 1993:
Though most people outside of the Midwest have never heard of it, the House on the Rock is said to draw more visitors every year than any other spot in Wisconsin. Also in the Wyoming Valley, but on top of a huge monolith, the House on the Rock reveals the spirit of its builder, Alex Jordan Jr., to be as single-minded and eccentric as Wright's, but in substance almost absurdly opposed.
... And it is hard not to be overwhelmed by the House on the Rock. The sheer abundance of objects is impressive, and the warmth most of the objects exude, the way that the toys ask to be played with, for example, makes the displays inherently inviting. But almost from the beginning, it is too much. The house itself is dusty. Windowpanes are cracked. Books are water damaged. The collections seem disordered, not curated. In fact, there is no effort to explore the objects as cultural artifacts, or to use them to educate the passing hordes. If there were informative cards, it would be impossible to read them in the dark. Everything is simply massed together, and Alex Jordan comes to seem like the manifestation of pure American acquisitiveness, and acquisitiveness of a strangely boyish kind, as if he had finalized all his desires in childhood and never grown into any others.[12]
Automated musical instruments, operated by inserting tokens. Some instruments play, while others are synthesized.
The Infinity Room juts out 218 feet (66 m) from the House on the Rock, without supports underneath. The room has over 3,000 windows.
The House on the Rock Carousel
Authenticity of the collections[edit]
Some of the apparent antiques in the House on the Rock are real, but many are not what they seem: depending on one's point of view one could call them fakes, or replicas, or original and imaginative creations in the style of antiques. Moe's authorized biography suggests that the question of authenticity is not a problem, presenting it this way:
While the Regina Sublima music box is a real antique, as are many other pieces and exhibits at the House, everyone knows that other pieces are re-creations designed and built on the House property. It's part of the fun—guessing what's real at the House and what is the magic of imagination and re-creation.[16]
Much of the House's contents were built by Jordan and his associates. Balousek quotes Jordan associate Bob Searles as saying
We were creating entertainment. We were not making a historically accurate representation. There was never any need to worry about historical accuracy. We were creating a fun place.[17]
The "Phelps Car" in the Streets of Yesterday, for example, was made by Jordan associate Bob Searles from an old carriage and some motorcycle parts. Balousek quotes Searles as saying "We could fabricate any antiques we wanted to—that was the fun of it. It was just one guy's great big sandbox, where he kept building stuff." Balousek says that Jordan sometimes bought bonafide antiques, but "usually preferred a good copy that cost less," and quotes a supplier as saying "I suspect that Jordan would pay more for a good copy than he would for an original, because he could sit in a corner and laugh about the way he fooled everyone."[18]
In 1978, a disgruntled employee complained to the state Justice Department of consumer fraud, saying that these claims were tall tales. The "Tiffany" lamps, for example, were made by the Illinois firm of Bauer and Coble. The name of the Tusk of Ranchipoor was actually a pun on the name of Richard Rahn, a Mazomanie antiques dealer, who had built many of the fakes: "Rahn is poor." Jordan was enjoined from making false claims, the brochure was rewritten, and misleading signs were removed from the exhibit. However, the exhibits retained their colorful names, allowing visitors to surmise what they wished.[19]
The room-sized assemblages of what appear to be mechanical musical instruments are partly illusion. Some of the instruments actually play, but the strings and woodwinds in particular do not; their sound is actually produced by organ pipes, while the moving instruments fool visitors.[20]
Today, the nature of the exhibits is disclosed, though perhaps not emphasized, by the management; for example, the current website notes, "All the armor featured in this elaborate collection was made for The House on the Rock".[21] This was not always the case. According to Balousek, before 1978 brochures advertised authentic Tiffany lamps, said the Gladiator Calliope dated from 1895, that the Franz Josef music machine had actually belonged to the Austrian emperor, that the Tusk of Ranchipoor was genuine ivory carved by an "unknown Punjab artisan," and so forth.
The official 1993 brochure says that the house "boasts the largest collection of Bauer and Coble lamps in the world. The management considers them finer and expects them to be more valuable than Tiffany's," and boasts that "The 'Four Seasons' panels are thought to be the only exact replica of the original and very popular Tiffany effort."[22]
Timeline[edit]
c. 1920 – Alex Jordan Sr. allegedly vowed to "put up a Japanese house on one of those pinnacle rocks", to spite Frank Lloyd Wright[23]
c. 1945 – Alex Jordan Jr. began blasting to form a level foundation at the top of the pinnacle. He talked to the farmer who owned the rock but did not bother to secure formal rights at the time. The first structure on the rock was a simple "tent" (Moe) or a "picnic place with a tarpaper roof" (Balousek)[1]
1952 – An electric hoist was installed to aid construction.[24]
1959 – Labor Day: Jordan placed a stone marker on Highway 23 and officially opened the house to paying visitors.[2]
1962 – Wisconsin Trails magazine published a long article about the house by Howard Mead. The article marked the status of the house as a serious tourist attraction, and drew regional attention to it. State Industrial Commission gave the house its first formal inspection.[25]
1968 – the "Mill House" opened, containing "one of the world's largest" fireplaces. It is the first room in the house to emphasize collections of curiosities and antiques, including dolls, guns, and mechanical musical instruments.[26]
1971 – "Streets of Yesterday" opened, influenced by techniques devised by Paul Yank for a 1968 "Streets of Old Milwaukee" exhibit at the Milwaukee Public Museum.[27]
1974 – "Music of Yesterday" opened.[20]
1981 – Carousel Building and "World's Largest Carousel" opened, on Easter weekend.[28]
1985 – The "Infinity Room" was constructed.[29]
2008 – Two additional buildings; the Welcome Center and the Alex Jordan Jr. Center (a museum detailing Mr. Jordan's personal life and the construction of the complex's many buildings) were constructed.
In other media[edit]
In 1988, the Wisconsin State Journal published a four-part series on "The House on the Rock," which reporter Marv Balousek later expanded into a self-published book entitled House of Alex.[2] According to Balousek, Jordan Sr. hired "drunks and bums" from the Madison street to help blast the rock. Balousek says that according to Sid Boyum these workers were sometimes paid with whiskey and sometimes by check, but that Alex Jordan Jr. destroyed the cancelled checks later to further a myth that he had personally built the house himself.
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Balousek 1989, p. 60–62; Moe 1991, p. 25
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Balousek, Marv (1990). House of Alex: A true story of architecture and art; greed, deception and blackmail. Oregon, Wisconsin: Waubesa Press. ISBN 1-878569-06-6. (Waubesa Press is a subsidy imprint). Balousek describes himself as "a reporter for the Wisconsin State Journal in Madison since 1981", and the book is said to be based on three months of research which led to a four-part series published in the Wisconsin State Journal. According to Balousek: "[My book is] an unauthorized biography, [which has] not been sanctioned by the new owner of The House on the Rock, nor by those closest to Alex Jordan. Jennie Olson, his companion of 50 years, declined to be interviewed; so did Don Martin, who helped build every exhibit." (p. 182)
Jump up ^ Moe 1991; The spine gives "The House on the Rock" as the publisher's imprint. The back cover bears the House on the Rock corporate logo and the legend "The Authorized Biography". The author is described as a "magazine journalist" and "associate editor of Madison Magazine". Moe had access to and quotes Jennie Olson, Don Martin, and others not accessible to Balousek.
Jump up ^ Boyum was "Jordan's closest friend. .. [for] 60 years" Balousek 1990, p. 34. Balousek notes that Boyum "enjoys telling a good tale, whether it's true or not" and says the Burlington Liars' Club declared him World Champion Liar in 1976. According to Moe, Boyum said that he "decided to make a legend out of [Alex]" and wrote the copy for early brochures, which stretched the truth on many matters.
^ Jump up to: a b The building exists today, at 615 Howard Place, Madison, Wisconsin, and is being renovated: Lisa Schuetzin (2006-01-16). "Villa Maria Regains Some Of Its Classic Shine: New Owner Tries To Recapture The Building's Original Beauty In The Single-tenant Units". Wisconsin State Journal. Retrieved 2006-10-17. , which says: "Architect Frank Riley designed the Spanish Colonial revival building for Jordan. ... Its walls are stucco, broken up by irregularly spaced and sized windows. Dormer windows line the top of the structure. A large front terrace is surrounded by iron grillwork and the roof, which was originally covered with red tile as shown in a postcard from about 1950, is now shingled." The stucco was originally pink.
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990, p. 58; Moe 1991, p. 21 gives a virtually identical account, with Wright quoted as saying: "I wouldn't hire you to design a cheese case for me, or a chicken coop," and Jordan Sr. as saying: "I'm going to get even with him. I'm going to build a Japanese house out there."
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990, p. 58
Jump up ^ "Did Alex Jordan Build The House on the Rock to Spite Frank Lloyd Wright?" (PDF) (Press release). The House on the Rock. Retrieved 2014-06-12.
Jump up ^ Rajer, Anton; Host-Jablonski, Lou (Fall 1999). "Sid Boyum's Sculpture". The Journal of the Folk Art Society of America. 12 (4). Retrieved 2014-06-12.
Jump up ^ "Frank Lloyd Wright, The Prairie Style: From Theory to Practice". Retrieved November 7, 2017. "Finally, after years of project delays and several trans-Pacific crossings, Wright took up temporary residence in Tokyo in January 1917. Over the six tumultuous years he lived off and on in Tokyo, Wright poured his prodigious creativity into the Imperial Hotel project. It would remain, as the many decades of his career passed, his largest and most complex design."
Jump up ^ page 29-30 Never Enough The Creative Life of Alex Jordan written by Tom Kupsh
^ Jump up to: a b Jane Smiley (1993-03-19). "Wisconsin: Three Visions Attained". The New York Times. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
Jump up ^ "The Attraction". The House on the Rock. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
Jump up ^ Photo of Fact Sheet from House on the Rock
Jump up ^ The House on the Rock. "Tour 2 - The Carousel". Retrieved 2008-03-02.
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, p. 106
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990, p. 91
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990: "Phelps car," "fabricate any antiques," p. 92; "laugh about the way he fooled everyone," p. 93
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990, pp. 103–4: antiques disclosed as fake
^ Jump up to: a b Moe 1991, p. 103
Jump up ^ "House on the Rock: Attraction". The House on the Rock. Archived from the original on 2006-09-01. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
Jump up ^ The House on the Rock, 1993, "Photography and factual data supplied by The House on the Rock executive staff.
Jump up ^ Balousek 1990, p. 58; Moe 1991, p. 21
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, p. 36
Jump up ^ Balousek 1989 p. 76
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, pp. 78–81
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, p. 86
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, p. 112
Jump up ^ Moe 1991, p. 30
Bibliography
Balousek, Marv (1990). House of Alex. Oregon, Wis.: Waubesa Press. ISBN 1878569066.
Moe, Doug (1991). Alex Jordan: architect of his own dream. Spring Green, WI: House of Wyoming Valley. ISBN 0963020706.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to House on the Rock.
Official website
2004 CBS article (with video)
The House That Alex Jordan Built, Madison Magazine Article, January 2009
Coordinates: 43°06′00″N 90°08′10″W / 43.1°N 90.136°W / 43.1; -90.136
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_on_the_Rock&oldid=821177078"
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Sickle cell trait
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the genetic transmission of sickle-cell diseases. For the disease itself, see sickle-cell disease.
Sickle cell trait
Sickle cells in human blood: both normal red blood cells and sickle-shaped cells are present
Classification and external resources
Specialty
hematology
ICD-10
D57.3
ICD-9-CM
282.5
OMIM
603903
MedlinePlus
000527
eMedicine
topic list
MeSH
D012805
[edit on Wikidata]
Sickle cell trait describes a condition in which a person has one abnormal allele of the hemoglobin beta gene (is heterozygous), but does not display the severe symptoms of sickle-cell disease that occur in a person who has two copies of that allele (is homozygous). Those who are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele produce both normal and abnormal hemoglobin (the two alleles are codominant with respect to the actual concentration of hemoglobin in the circulating cells).
Sickle cell disease is a blood disorder wherein there is a single amino acid substitution in the hemoglobin protein of the red blood cells, which causes these cells to assume a sickle shape, especially when under low oxygen tension. Sickling and sickle cell disease also confer some resistance to malaria parasitization of red blood cells, so that individuals with sickle-cell trait (heterozygotes) have a selective advantage in environments where malaria is present.
Contents
[hide]
1 Symptoms
2 Hemoglobin genetics
3 Prevalence
4 In athletes
4.1 Alpha-thalassemia
4.2 Signs, symptoms, and prevention
5 Association with malaria
5.1 Established associations
5.2 Suggested
6 See also
7 References
Symptoms[edit]
Sickle cell trait is a hemoglobin genotype AS and is generally regarded as a benign condition.[1] However, individuals with sickle cell trait may have rare complications. For example, in November 2010, Dr. Jeffery K. Taubenberger of the National Institutes of Health discovered the earliest proof of sickle-cell disease while looking for the virus of the 1918 flu during the autopsy of an African-American soldier. Taubenberger's autopsy results showed that the soldier suffered a sickle-cell crisis that contributed to his death even though he had only one copy of the gene.[2] There have been calls to reclassify sickle cell trait as a disease state, based on its malignant clinical presentations.[3] Significance may be greater during exercise.[4]
Hemoglobin genetics[edit]
Normally, a person inherits two copies of the gene that produces beta-globin, a protein needed to produce normal hemoglobin (hemoglobin A, genotype AA). A person with sickle cell trait inherits one normal allele and one abnormal allele encoding hemoglobin S (hemoglobin genotype AS).
The sickle cell trait can be used to demonstrate the concepts of co-dominance and incomplete dominance. An individual with the sickle cell trait shows incomplete dominance when the shape of the red blood cell is considered. This is because the sickling happens only at low oxygen concentrations. With regards to the actual concentration of hemoglobin in the circulating cells, the alleles demonstrate co-dominance as both 'normal' and mutant forms co-exist in the blood stream. It is interesting to note that unlike the sickle-cell trait, sickle-cell disease is passed on in a recessive manner.[5]
Whole genome sequence analysis has identified a single origin of the sickle trait, with one haplotype ancestral to all sickle-cell variants. This haplotype is thought to have originated in the Sahara during the Holocene Wet Phase around 7,300 years ago. Sickle cell variants descended from this ancestral haplotype comprise five haplotypes named after toponyms or ethnolinguistic groups (the Arabian/Indian, Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic/Bantu, and Senegal variants), and another designation earmarked for atypical sickle-cell haplotypes.[6][7] Their clinical importance is because some are associated with higher HbF levels (e.g., Senegal and Saudi-Asian variants tend to have milder disease).[8]
Prevalence[edit]
Global distribution of sickle cell.
Sickle cell trait prevalence is highest in West Africa, where it is found in 25% of the population. The trait also has a high prevalence in South and Central Americans, especially those in Panama. However, it also very infrequently appears in Mediterranean countries such as Italy, Greece, and Spain, where it most likely expanded via the selective pressure of malaria, a disease that was endemic to the region.[9]
In athletes[edit]
In some cases, athletes with sickle cell trait do not achieve the same level of performance as elite athletes with normal hemoglobin AA. Athletes with sickle cell trait and their instructors must be aware of the dangers of the condition during anaerobic exertion especially in hot and dehydrated conditions.[10] In rare cases, exercise-induced dehydration or exhaustion may cause healthy red blood cells to turn sickle-shaped, which can cause death during sporting activities.[11]
While more research is necessary on the topic, the correlation found between individuals with sickle cell trait and an increased risk of sudden death appears to be related to microcirculatory disorders, during exercise.[12] In recent years the NCAA has partnered with the ACSM and issued a joint statement, warning athletes about both the prevalence and the potential risk factors of sickle cell trait.[13] The NCAA has also recently encouraged athletes to become aware of their sickle cell trait status, as the trait itself does not typically result in symptoms under normal conditions but can become dangerous during extreme physical activity similar to the daily training that athletes undergo.
Normal hemoglobin (and hemoglobin S in the presence of oxygen) contains a deformability characteristic that allows erythrocytes to essentially squeeze their way into smaller vessels, including those involved in microcirculation to the capillaries within muscle tissue as well as blood supply embedded within organ tissues. When hemoglobin S is deprived of oxygen, it can polymerize, which is what is proposed to cause the "sickled" cells.[12] The sickled erythrocytes present a decreased deformability when compared to normal erythrocytes, leading to distress in circulation into the smaller vessels involved in microcirculation, particularly, in this case, the capillaries embedded in muscle tissue.
The resulting microvasculatory distress in capillaries specific to muscle tissue can cause acute rhabdomyolysis and necrosis within the muscle cells.[13][14] The inflammation and leakage of intracellular material resulting from muscle cell necrosis releases a particular protein, myoglobin, into the blood stream. While necessary in muscle tissue to bind iron and oxygen, myoglobin circulating through the bloodstream can break down into smaller compounds that damage kidney cells, leading to various complications, such as those seen in sickle cell trait athletes during high levels of physical exertion.[15]
Because of the link between deformability and sickled cells, deformability can be used to evaluate the amount of sickled cells in the blood. Deformability of the erythrocytes that cause the microcirculatory distress can be demonstrated through various other hemorheological characteristics.[12] In order to determine the deformability of erythrocytes multiple factors including blood and plasma viscosity and hematocrit (a calculation of the percent of red blood cells present in the blood) are measured.[10][12]
Alpha-thalassemia[edit]
Alpha-thalassemia, like sickle cell trait, is typically inherited in areas with increased exposure to malaria. It manifests itself as a decreased expression of alpha-globin chains, causing an imbalance and excess of beta-globin chains, and can occasionally result in anemic symptoms. The abnormal hemoglobin can cause the body to destroy red blood cells, essentially causing anemia.[16]
In endurance-trained individuals with sickle cell trait the presence of alpha-thalassemia has been shown to act protectively against microvasculatory distress before, during, and after exercise.[12]
Signs, symptoms, and prevention[edit]
Because of the microcirculatory distress, a telltale sign or symptom of a potential sickling collapse is cramping. Specifically to sickle cell trait, cramping occurs in the lower extremities and back in athletes undergoing intense physical activity or exertion.[14] In comparison to heat cramps, sickling cramps are less intense in terms of pain and have a weakness and fatigue associated with them, as opposed to tightly contracted muscles that lock up during heat cramps.
A sickling collapse comes on slowly, following cramps, weakness, general body aches and fatigue.[14][15] Individuals with known positive sickle cell trait status experiencing significant muscle weakness or fatigue during exercise should take extra time to recover and hydrate before returning to activity in order to prevent further symptoms.[17]
A collapse can be prevented by taking steps to ensure sufficient oxygen levels in the blood. Among these preventative measures are proper hydration[10] and gradual acclimation to conditions such as heat, humidity, and decreased air pressure due to higher altitude.[13][14][17] Gradual progression of exertion levels also helps athletes' bodies adjust and compensate, gaining fitness slowly over the course of several weeks.[13][14][18]
Association with malaria[edit]
Sickle cell trait provides a survival advantage over people with normal hemoglobin in regions where malaria is endemic. The trait is known to cause significantly fewer deaths due to malaria, especially when Plasmodium falciparum is the causative organism. This is a prime example of natural selection, evidenced by the fact that the geographical distribution of the gene for hemoglobin S and the distribution of malaria in Africa virtually overlap. Because of the unique survival advantage, people with the trait become increasingly numerous as the number of malaria-infected people increases. Conversely, people who have normal hemoglobin tend to succumb to the complications of malaria.[citation needed]
Although the precise mechanism for this phenomenon is not known, a several factors are believed to be responsible.
Infected erythrocytes (red blood cells) tend to have lower oxygen tension, because it is significantly reduced by the parasite. This causes sickling of that particular erythrocyte, signalling the phagocytes to get rid of the cell and hence the parasite within.
Since the sickling of parasite-infected cells is higher, these selectively get removed by the reticulo-endothelial system, thus sparing the normal erythrocytes.
Excessive vacuole formation occurs in those parasites infecting sickle cells.
Sickle trait erythrocytes produce higher levels of the superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide than normal erythrocytes do, both are toxic to malarial parasites.[19]
The sickle cell trait was found to be 50% protective against mild clinical malaria, 75% protective against admission to the hospital for malaria, and almost 90% protective against severe or complicated malaria.[20]
Established associations[edit]
Hematuria[21]
Hyposthenuria[22]
Renal medullary carcinoma, a cancer affecting the kidney, is a very rare complication seen in patients with sickle cell trait.[23]
Renal papillary necrosis[21] (only considered "possible" by some sources)[24]
Splenic infarcts at high altitude.[25] Surgery may not always be necessary.[26]
Sudden deaths during physical exertion in African-American US army recruits[27][28]
Urinary tract infection[29]
Suggested[edit]
Probable:[30] complicated hyphema, venous thromboembolic events, fetal loss, neonatal deaths, and preeclampsia
Possible:[30] acute chest syndrome, asymptomatic bacteriuria, and anemia in pregnancy
Insufficient evidence:[30] retinopathy, cholelithiasis, priapism,[31] leg ulcers, liver necrosis, avascular necrosis of the femoral head, and stroke. An association with complicated migraines has been suggested.[32]
There have been reports of pulmonary venous thromboembolism in pregnant women with sickle cell trait,[33] or men during prolonged airflight, and mild strokes and abnormalities on PET scans in children with the trait.
Sickle cell trait appears to worsen the complications seen in diabetes mellitus type 2 (retinopathy, nephropathy and proteinuria)[34] and provoke hyperosmolar diabetic coma nephropathy, especially in male patients.
See also[edit]
Ryan Clark (American football)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Roach, E. S. (2005). "Sickle Cell Trait". Archives of Neurology. 62 (11): 1781–2. doi:10.1001/archneur.62.11.1781. PMID 16286558.
Jump up ^ "From 1918 Autopsy, A First Glimpse of Sickle Cell — and a Warning" www.wired.com
Jump up ^ Ajayi, A.A. Leslie (2005). "Should the sickle cell trait be reclassified as a disease state?". European Journal of Internal Medicine. 16 (6): 463. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2005.02.010. PMID 16198915.
Jump up ^ Connes, Philippe; Reid, Harvey; Hardy-Dessources, Marie-Dominique; Morrison, Errol; Hue, Olivier (2008). "Physiological Responses of Sickle Cell Trait Carriers during Exercise". Sports Medicine. 38 (11): 931–46. doi:10.2165/00007256-200838110-00004. PMID 18937523.
Jump up ^ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21226[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Daniel Shriner, Charles N. Rotimi. "Whole genome sequence-based haplotypes reveal single origin of the sickle allele during the 2 Holocene Wet Phase". bioRxiv 187419  . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Okpala, Iheanyi (2008). Practical Management of Haemoglobinopathies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21. ISBN 1405140208. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Green NS, Fabry ME, Kaptue-Noche L, Nagel RL (Oct 1993). "Senegal haplotype is associated with higher HbF than Benin and Cameroon haplotypes in African children with sickle cell anemia". Am. J. Hematol. 44 (2): 145–6. doi:10.1002/ajh.2830440214. ISSN 0361-8609. PMID 7505527.
Jump up ^ Ragusa, A.; Frontini, V.; Lombardo, M.; Amata, S.; Lombardo, T.; Labie, D.; Krishnamoorthy, R.; Nagel, R. L. (1992). "Presence of an African β-globin gene cluster haplotype in normal chromosomes in sicily". American Journal of Hematology. 40 (4): 313–5. doi:10.1002/ajh.2830400413. PMID 1503087.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tripette, J.; Loko, G.; Samb, A.; Gogh, B. D.; Sewade, E.; Seck, D.; Hue, O.; Romana, M.; Diop, S.; Diaw, M.; Brudey, K.; Bogui, P.; Cisse, F.; Hardy-Dessources, M.-D.; Connes, P. (2010). "Effects of hydration and dehydration on blood rheology in sickle cell trait carriers during exercise". AJP: Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 299 (3): H908–14. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00298.2010. PMID 20581085.
Jump up ^ Eichner, ER (2007). "Sickle cell trait". Journal of Sport Rehabilitation. 16 (3): 197–203. PMID 17923725.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monchanin, Geraldine; Connes, Philippe; Wouassi, Dieudonne; Francina, Alain; Djoda, Bernard; Banga, Pierre Edmond; Owona, Francois Xavier; Thiriet, Patrice; Massarelli, Raphael; Martin, Cyril (2005). "Hemorheology, Sickle Cell Trait, and α-Thalassemia in Athletes: Effects of Exercise". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 37 (7): 1086–92. PMID 16015123.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "ACSM and NCAA Joint Statement on Sickle Cell Trait and Exercise", NCAA.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Consensus Statement: Sickle Cell Trait and the Athlete", National Athletic Trainers’ Association.
^ Jump up to: a b MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Rhabdomyolysis
Jump up ^ ""Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassemia", American Society of Hematology.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.sicklecelldisease.org/index.cfm?page=sickle-cell-trait-athletics[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ "Sickle Cell Trait". MetroHealth. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Malaria and the Sickle hemoglobin gene". Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH).
Jump up ^ Williams, Thomas N.; Mwangi, Tabitha W.; Wambua, Sammy; Alexander, Neal D.; Kortok, Moses; Snow, Robert W.; Marsh, Kevin (2005). "Sickle Cell Trait and the Risk ofPlasmodium falciparumMalaria and Other Childhood Diseases". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 192 (1): 178–86. doi:10.1086/430744. PMC 3545189  . PMID 15942909.
^ Jump up to: a b Zadeii, Gino; Lohr James W. (1997). "Renal Papillary Necrosis in a Patient with Sickle Cell Trait". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 8 (6): 1034–9. PMID 9189873.
Jump up ^ Gupta AK, Kirchner KA, Nicholson R, et al. (December 1991). "Effects of alpha-thalassemia and sickle polymerization tendency on the urine-concentrating defect of individuals with sickle cell trait". J. Clin. Invest. 88 (6): 1963–8. doi:10.1172/JCI115521. PMC 295777  . PMID 1752955.
Jump up ^ Davis, Charles J.; Mostofi, F. K.; Sesterhenn, Isabell A. (1995). "Renal Medullary Carcinoma The Seventh Sickle Cell Nephropathy". The American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 19 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1097/00000478-199501000-00001. PMID 7528470.
Jump up ^ Mary Louise Turgeon (2005). Clinical Hematology: Theory and Procedures. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-0-7817-5007-3. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Amit K. Ghosh (13 June 2008). Mayo Clinic Internal Medicine Review: Eighth Edition. Informa Health Care. pp. 425–. ISBN 978-1-4200-8478-8. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Sheikha Anwar (2005). "Splenic syndrome in patients at high altitude with unrecognized sickle cell trait: splenectomy is often unnecessary". Canadian Journal of Surgery. 48 (5): 377–81. PMC 3211898  . PMID 16248136.
Jump up ^ Kark, John A.; Posey, David M.; Schumacher, Harold R.; Ruehle, Charles J. (1987). "Sickle-Cell Trait as a Risk Factor for Sudden Death in Physical Training". New England Journal of Medicine. 317 (13): 781–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM198709243171301. PMID 3627196.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Bruce L. (2007). "Sickle Cell Trait and Sudden Death—Bringing it Home". Journal of the National Medical Association. 99 (3): 300–5. PMC 2569637  . PMID 17393956.
Jump up ^ Betty Pace (2007). Renaissance of Sickle Cell Disease Research in the Genome Era. Imperial College Press. pp. 62–. ISBN 978-1-86094-645-5. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tsaras G, Owusu-Ansah A, Boateng FO, Amoateng-Adjepong Y (June 2009). "Complications associated with sickle cell trait: a brief narrative review". Am. J. Med. 122 (6): 507–12. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.12.020. PMID 19393983.
Jump up ^ Birnbaum BF, Pinzone JJ (2008). "Sickle cell trait and priapism: a case report and review of the literature". Cases J. 1: 429. doi:10.1186/1757-1626-1-429. PMC 2628646  . PMID 19116025.
Jump up ^ Osuntokun, B. O.; Osuntokun, O. (1972). "Complicated Migraine and Haemoglobin AS in Nigerians". BMJ. 2 (5814): 621–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5814.621. PMC 1788370  . PMID 5031686.
Jump up ^ Austin H, Key NS, Benson JM, et al. (August 2007). "Sickle cell trait and the risk of venous thromboembolism among blacks" (Free full text). Blood. 110 (3): 908–12. doi:10.1182/blood-2006-11-057604. ISSN 0006-4971. PMID 17409269.
Jump up ^ Ajayi AA, Kolawole BA (August 2004). "Sickle cell trait and gender influence type 2 diabetic complications in African patients". Eur. J. Intern. Med. 15 (5): 312–315. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2004.06.003. ISSN 0953-6205. PMID 15450989.
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Jamie Brewer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Jamie Brewer
Brewer at the 2015 Make-Up Artists & Hair Stylists Guild Awards, February 2015
Born
(1985-02-05) February 5, 1985 (age 33)
California, U.S.
Occupation
Actress, model
Years active
2011–present
Jamie Brewer (born February 5, 1985) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles in the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. In its first season, American Horror Story: Murder House, she portrayed Adelaide "Addie" Langdon, the daughter of the main antagonist, Constance Langdon; in the third season, American Horror Story: Coven, she portrayed Nan, an enigmatic and clairvoyant witch; in the fourth season American Horror Story: Freak Show, she portrayed Chester Creb's vision of his doll, Marjorie, and in the seventh season American Horror Story: Cult, she portrayed Hedda, a member of the original 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life and career
2 Model
3 Activism
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Web
5 References
6 External links
Life and career[edit]
Brewer grew up loving all forms of the arts, especially movies and theater productions. She started by taking theater classes in 1999 at a College for Kids class during her middle school years. She performed in dramas, musicals, comedies, and many improvisations during her theater training at Dionysus Theater. Brewer appeared and spoke in PSAs for the Super Bowl of Caring Houston Food Drive in Houston, Texas for two consecutive years which aired on NBC, ABC, and CBS. Brewer continues her stage training through The Groundlings Theater and School.
In 2011, Brewer made her television debut as Adelaide "Addie" Langdon in American Horror Story: Murder House.[1] "I first got word of the audition for the show from a friend of mine." She said. "They were looking for a young lady with Down syndrome who could act. My headshot and resume were submitted and I was called for an audition and, to my surprise I got the part. I was so excited."[2] About her role, Brewer stated: "Adelaide is a complex character, but the most difficult part of playing Adelaide is learning how to portray someone who isn’t always viewed acceptable to her mother and society. This is a new challenge for me."[3]
After the show's first season ended, she appeared on Southland in an episode titled "Heat", which aired on February 20, 2013. Also in 2013, she returned to American Horror Story for the third season, subtitled Coven, playing the supporting role of Nan, a young witch who is clairvoyant.
It was announced at the 2014 PaleyFest that Brewer would return to the series for the fourth season, subtitled American Horror Story: Freak Show.[4] Although, at a later date, show creator Ryan Murphy indicated Brewer may not appear during the season. Brewer was later confirmed after appearing in a promo for the final two episodes.[5][6] She both voiced and played Marjorie, the ventriloquist dummy / alternate personality of another character.
In February 2015, Brewer became the first woman with Down syndrome to walk the red carpet at New York Fashion Week, which she did for designer Carrie Hammer.[7][8] Talking about the experience, Brewer said, "It's amazing that the fashion industry are including individuals with disabilities," she said. "It's an amazing opportunity for women, women that are disabled."[9] During Another time she also said,"Young girls and even young women [see me] and say 'hey, if she can do it so can I'. It's a true inspiration being a role model for any young women to [encourage them] in being who they are and showing who they are."[10]
In July 2015, she appeared as a character named Jamie in three episodes of the web series Raymond & Lane,[11][12] while In September, Brewer appeared on Switched at Birth in an episode titled "Between hope and fear".[13][14]
Model[edit]
Brewer was the first model with Down syndrome to walk the New York Fashion Week catwalk.[15]
Activism[edit]
Brewer at PaleyFest 2014 for American Horror Story: Coven
Brewer has been active in the Down syndrome community. She is the youngest person with this condition to be elected president of the ARC of Fort Bend Chapter.[citation needed] From there, she was appointed to the State of Texas ARC Board, then elected to the Executive Board as Treasurer. Brewer was then asked to serve on the ARC Governmental Affairs Committee for the State of Texas, and while on the committee, spoke with Senators at the Texas State Capitol to persuade them to pass the law for Texas to abolish the word "retarded" from state legislation and to improve recognition of the needs of people with disabilities within the state. The effort was successful and Texas now uses the term "Intellectual Developmental Disability" in their legislation.
Brewer is involved with several other non-profit organizations, including DSALA, DSiAM, BTAP, Best Buddies International, National Down Syndrome Congress, American Association of People with Disabilities of the United States, and Civitan International.[citation needed]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2017 Whitney's Wedding Whitney Short film
2017 Kill Off Sonja Short film
2019 My Next Breath TBA Documentary film; post-production
TBA Turnover Gina Pre-production
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2011 American Horror Story: Murder House Adelaide Langdon Recurring role; 6 episodes
2013 Southland Amanda Episode: "Heat"
2013–2014 American Horror Story: Coven Nan Recurring role; 9 episodes
2015 American Horror Story: Freak Show Marjorie Guest role; 2 episodes
2015 Switched at Birth Teacher's Aide Episode: "Between Hope and Fear"
2017 American Horror Story: Cult Hedda Episode: "Valerie Solanas Died for Your Sins: Scumbag"
2017 Love You More Maggie Television film
Web[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2015 Raymond & Lane Jamie Guest role; 3 episodes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Adam Lawton (November 21, 2011). "Interview with Jamie Brewer". Media Mikes. Jamie Brewer plays the role of Adelaide on the hit FX series American Horror Story. Media Mikes had a chance to speak with Jamie recently to discuss the show.
Jump up ^ Adam Lawton (November 21, 2011). "Interview with Jamie Brewer". Media Mikes. Jamie Brewer plays the role of Adelaide on the hit FX series American Horror Story. Media Mikes had a chance to speak with Jamie recently to discuss the show.
Jump up ^ Adam Lawton (November 21, 2011). "Interview with Jamie Brewer2". Media Mikes. Jamie Brewer plays the role of Adelaide on the hit FX series American Horror Story. Media Mikes had a chance to speak with Jamie recently to discuss the show.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (March 29, 2014). "'American Horror Story' Enlists Michael Chiklis for 'Freak Show'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved March 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (October 9, 2014). "'American Horror Story: Freak Show' premiere: Ryan Murphy talks sex, scary clowns, and season 5clues". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved October 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Whitney, Erin (December 18, 2014). "Here's Your First Look At Neil Patrick Harris In 'American Horror Story'". Huffington Post. Retrieved December 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ Jessica Probus, Stephanie McNeal. "Meet The First Woman With Down Syndrome To Walk At Fashion Week". BuzzFeed.
Jump up ^ Lori Grisham, USA TODAY Network (February 12, 2015). "First model with Down syndrome in New York Fashion Week".
Jump up ^ Sarah Flanigan (February 18, 2015). "'AHS' Star Jamie Brewer Talks About Being First Model With Down Syndrome at NYFW". EOline. It's amazing that the fashion industry are including individuals with disabilities," she said. "It's an amazing opportunity for women, women that are disabled.
Jump up ^ "Jamie Brewer". IMDb. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Raymond & Lane: The Theater Series with American Horror Story's Jamie Brewer". Anon Magazine. July 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jamie Brewer, from American Horror Story, guest stars in the Season Two finale!". Raymond and Lane.
Jump up ^ ""Switched at Birth" Between Hope and Fear (TV Episode 2015)". IMDb.com. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jamie Brewer". www.Listal.com. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Why Down's Syndrome model Jamie Brewer has changed the game". Independent.co.uk. February 13, 2015. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
External links[edit]
Jamie Brewer on IMDb
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Letter frequency
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Iraqi mathematician Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD), who formally developed the method (the ciphers breakable by this technique go back at least to the Caesar cipher invented by Julius Caesar, so this method could have been explored in classical times).
California Job Case
Letter frequency analysis gained additional importance in Europe with the development of movable type in 1450 AD, where one must estimate the amount of type required for each letterform, as evidenced by the variations in letter compartment size in typographer's type cases.
Linguists use letter frequency analysis as a rudimentary technique for language identification, where it's particularly effective as an indication of whether an unknown writing system is alphabetic, syllablic, or ideographic. For example, the Japanese Hiragana syllabary contains 46 distinct characters, which is more than most phonetic alphabets; by contrast, the English and Hawaiian alphabets have only 26 and 13 letters, respectively.
No exact letter frequency distribution underlies a given language, since all writers write slightly differently. However, most languages have a characteristic distribution which is strongly apparent in longer texts. Even language changes as extreme as from old English to modern English (regarded as mutually unintelligible) show strong trends in related letter frequencies: over a small sample of Biblical passages, from most frequent to least frequent, enaid sorhm tgþlwu (æ)cfy ðbpxz of old English compares to eotha sinrd luymw fgcbp kvjqxz of modern English, with the most extreme differences concerning letterforms not shared.[1]
Linotype machines for the English language assumed the letter order, from most to least common, to be etaoin shrdlu cmfwyp vbgkjq xz based on the experience and custom of manual compositors. The equivalent for the French language was elaoin sdrétu cmfhyp vbgwqj xz.
Modern International Morse code (generally believed to have been developed by Alfred Vail based on English-language letter frequencies of the 1830s) encodes the most frequent letters with the shortest symbols; arranging the Morse alphabet into groups of letters that require equal amounts of time to transmit, and then sorting these groups in increasing order, yields e it san hurdm wgvlfbk opxcz jyq. Similar ideas are used in modern data-compression techniques such as Huffman coding.
Letter frequency was used by other telegraph systems, such as the Murray Code.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Relative frequencies of letters in the English language
3 Relative frequencies of the first letters of a word in the English language
4 Relative frequencies of letters in other languages
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Introduction[edit]
Letter frequencies, like word frequencies, tend to vary, both by writer and by subject. One cannot write an essay about x-rays without using frequent Xs, and the essay will have an idiosyncratic letter frequency if the essay is about the frequent use of x-rays to treat zebras in Qatar. Different authors have habits which can be reflected in their use of letters. Hemingway's writing style, for example, is visibly different from Faulkner's. Letter, bigram, trigram, word frequencies, word length, and sentence length can be calculated for specific authors, and used to prove or disprove authorship of texts, even for authors whose styles are not so divergent.
Accurate average letter frequencies can only be gleaned by analyzing a large amount of representative text. With the availability of modern computing and collections of large text corpora, such calculations are easily made. Examples can be drawn from a variety of sources (press reporting, religious texts, scientific texts and general fiction) and there are differences especially for general fiction with the position of 'h' and 'i', with H becoming more common.
Herbert S. Zim, in his classic introductory cryptography text "Codes and Secret Writing", gives the English letter frequency sequence as "ETAON RISHD LFCMU GYPWB VKJXQ Z", the most common letter pairs as "TH HE AN RE ER IN ON AT ND ST ES EN OF TE ED OR TI HI AS TO", and the most common doubled letters as "LL EE SS OO TT FF RR NN PP CC".[2]
Also, to note that different dialects of a language will also affect a letter's frequency. For example, an author in the United States would produce something in which the letter 'z' is more common than an author in the United Kingdom writing on the same topic: words like "analyze", "apologize", and "recognize" contain the letter in American English, whereas the same words are spelled "analyse", "apologise", and "recognise" in British English. This would highly affect the frequency of the letter 'z' as it is a rarely used letter elsewhere in the English language.[3]
The "top twelve" letters constitute about 80% of the total usage. The "top eight" letters constitute about 65% of the total usage. Letter frequency as a function of rank can be fitted well by several rank functions, with the two-parameter Cocho/Beta rank function being the best.[4] Another rank function with no adjustable free parameter also fits the letter frequency distribution reasonably well[5] (the same function has been used to fit the amino acid frequency in protein sequences.[6]) A spy using the VIC cipher or some other cipher based on a straddling checkerboard typically uses a mnemonic such as "a sin to err" (dropping the second "r")[7][8] or "at one sir"[9] to remember the top eight characters.
The use of letter frequencies and frequency analysis plays a fundamental role in cryptograms and several word puzzle games, including Hangman, Scrabble and the television game show Wheel of Fortune. One of the earliest descriptions in classical literature of applying the knowledge of English letter frequency to solving a cryptogram is found in E.A. Poe's famous story The Gold-Bug, where the method is successfully applied to decipher a message instructing on the whereabouts of a treasure hidden by Captain Kidd.[10]
Letter frequencies had a strong effect on the design of some keyboard layouts. The most frequent letters are on the bottom row of the Blickensderfer typewriter, and the home row of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard.
Relative frequencies of letters in the English language[edit]
There are three ways to count letter frequency that result in very different charts for common letters. The first method, used in the chart below, is to count letter frequency in root words of a dictionary. The second is to include all word variants when counting, such as "abstracts", "abstracted" and "abstracting" and not just the root word of "abstract". This system results in letters like "s" appearing much more frequently, such as when counting letters from lists of the most used English words on the Internet. A final variant is to count letters based on their frequency of use in actual texts, resulting in certain letter combinations like "th" becoming more common due to the frequent use of common words like "the". Absolute usage frequency measures like this are used when creating keyboard layouts or letter frequencies in old fashioned printing presses.
Relative frequencies of letters in text.
Relative frequencies ordered by frequency.
An analysis of entries in the Concise Oxford dictionary, ignoring frequency of word use, gives an order of "EARIOTNSLCUDPMHGBFYWKVXZJQ".[11]
The letter-frequency table below is taken from Pavel Mička's website, which cites Robert Lewand's Cryptological Mathematics.[12]
Letter
Relative frequency in the English language
a 8.167% 8.167
b 1.492% 1.492
c 2.782% 2.782
d 4.253% 4.253
e 12.702% 12.702
f 2.228% 2.228
g 2.015% 2.015
h 6.094% 6.094
i 6.966% 6.966
j 0.153% 0.153
k 0.772% 0.772
l 4.025% 4.025
m 2.406% 2.406
n 6.749% 6.749
o 7.507% 7.507
p 1.929% 1.929
q 0.095% 0.095
r 5.987% 5.987
s 6.327% 6.327
t 9.056% 9.056
u 2.758% 2.758
v 0.978% 0.978
w 2.360% 2.36
x 0.150% 0.15
y 1.974% 1.974
z 0.074% 0.074
According to Lewand, arranged from most to least common in appearance, the letters are: etaoinshrdlcumwfgypbvkjxqz Lewand's ordering differs slightly from others, such as Cornell University Math Explorer's Project, which produced a table after measuring 40,000 words.[13]
In English, the space is slightly more frequent than the top letter (e)[14] and the non-alphabetic characters (digits, punctuation, etc.) collectively occupy the fourth position (having already included the space) between t and a.[15]
Relative frequencies of the first letters of a word in the English language[edit]
The frequency of the first letters of words or names is helpful in pre-assigning space in physical files and indexes.[16] Given 26 filing cabinet drawers, rather than a 1:1 assignment of one drawer to one letter of the alphabet, it is often useful to use a more equal-frequency-letter code by assigning several low-frequency letters to the same drawer (often one drawer is labeled VWXYZ), and to split up the most-frequent initial letters — S, A, and C - into several drawers (often 6 drawers Aa-An, Ao-Az, Ca-Cj, Ck-Cz, Sa-Si, Sj-Sz). The same system is used in some multi-volume works such as some encyclopedias. Cutter numbers, another mapping of names to a more equal-frequency code, are used in some libraries.
Both the overall letter distribution and the word-initial letter distribution approximately match the Zipf distribution and even more closely match the Yule distribution.[17]
Often the frequency distribution of the first digit in each datum is significantly different from the overall frequency of all the digits in a set of numeric data—see Benford's law for details.
An analysis by Peter Norvig on Google Books data determined, among other things, the frequency of first letters of English words:[18]
Letter
Relative frequency as the first letter of an English word
a 11.682% 11.682
b 4.434% 4.434
c 5.238% 5.238
d 3.174% 3.174
e 2.799% 2.799
f 4.027% 4.027
g 1.642% 1.642
h 4.200% 4.2
i 7.294% 7.294
j 0.511% 0.511
k 0.456% 0.456
l 2.415% 2.415
m 3.826% 3.826
n 2.284% 2.284
o 7.631% 7.631
p 4.319% 4.319
q 0.222% 0.222
r 2.826% 2.826
s 6.686% 6.686
t 15.978% 15.978
u 1.183% 1.183
v 0.824% 0.824
w 5.497% 5.497
x 0.045% 0.045
y 0.763% 0.763
z 0.045% 0.045
Relative frequencies of letters in other languages[edit]
This article possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. Please help improve this article by checking for citation inaccuracies. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Letter
English
French [19]
German [20]
Spanish [21]
Portuguese [22]
Esperanto [23]
Italian [24]
Turkish [25]
Swedish [26]
Polish [27]
Dutch [28]
Danish [29]
Icelandic [30]
Finnish [31]
Czech
a 8.167% 7.636% 6.516% 11.525% 14.634% 12.117% 11.745% 12.920% 9.383% 10.503% 7.486% 6.025% 10.110% 12.217% 8.421%
b 1.492% 0.901% 1.886% 2.215% 1.043% 0.980% 0.927% 2.844% 1.535% 1.740% 1.584% 2.000% 1.043% 0.281% 0.822%
c 2.782% 3.260% 2.732% 4.019% 3.882% 0.776% 4.501% 1.463% 1.486% 3.895% 1.242% 0.565% 0 0.281% 0.740%
d 4.253% 3.669% 5.076% 5.010% 4.992% 3.044% 3.736% 5.206% 4.702% 3.725% 5.933% 5.858% 1.575% 1.043% 3.475%
e 12.702% 14.715% 16.396% 12.181% 12.570% 8.995% 11.792% 9.912% 10.149% 7.352% 18.91% 15.453% 6.418% 7.968% 7.562%
f 2.228% 1.066% 1.656% 0.692% 1.023% 1.037% 1.153% 0.461% 2.027% 0.143% 0.805% 2.406% 3.013% 0.194% 0.084%
g 2.015% 0.866% 3.009% 1.768% 1.303% 1.171% 1.644% 1.253% 2.862% 1.731% 3.403% 4.077% 4.241% 0.392% 0.092%
h 6.094% 0.737% 4.577% 0.703% 0.781% 0.384% 0.636% 1.212% 2.090% 1.015% 2.380% 1.621% 1.871% 1.851% 1.356%
i 6.966% 7.529% 6.550% 6.247% 6.186% 10.012% 10.143% 9.600%* 5.817% 8.328% 6.499% 6.000% 7.578% 10.817% 6.073%
j 0.153% 0.613% 0.268% 0.493% 0.397% 3.501% 0.011% 0.034% 0.614% 1.836% 1.46% 0.730% 1.144% 2.042% 1.433%
k 0.772% 0.049% 1.417% 0.011% 0.015% 4.163% 0.009% 5.683% 3.140% 2.753% 2.248% 3.395% 3.314% 4.973% 2.894%
l 4.025% 5.456% 3.437% 4.967% 2.779% 6.104% 6.510% 5.922% 5.275% 2.564% 3.568% 5.229% 4.532% 5.761% 3.802%
m 2.406% 2.968% 2.534% 3.157% 4.738% 2.994% 2.512% 3.752% 3.471% 2.515% 2.213% 3.237% 4.041% 3.202% 2.446%
n 6.749% 7.095% 9.776% 6.712% 4.446% 7.955% 6.883% 7.987% 8.542% 6.237% 10.032% 7.240% 7.711% 8.826% 6.468%
o 7.507% 5.796% 2.594% 8.683% 9.735% 8.779% 9.832% 2.976% 4.482% 6.667% 6.063% 4.636% 2.166% 5.614% 6.695%
p 1.929% 2.521% 0.670% 2.510% 2.523% 2.755% 3.056% 0.886% 1.839% 2.445% 1.57% 1.756% 0.789% 1.842% 1.906%
q 0.095% 1.362% 0.018% 0.877% 1.204% 0 0.505% 0 0.020% 0 0.009% 0.007% 0 0.013% 0.001%
r 5.987% 6.693% 7.003% 6.871% 6.530% 5.914% 6.367% 7.722% 8.431% 5.243% 6.411% 8.956% 8.581% 2.872% 4.799%
s 6.327% 7.948% 7.270% 7.977% 6.805% 6.092% 4.981% 3.014% 6.590% 5.224% 3.73% 5.805% 5.630% 7.862% 5.212%
t 9.056% 7.244% 6.154% 4.632% 4.336% 5.276% 5.623% 3.314% 7.691% 2.475% 6.79% 6.862% 4.953% 8.750% 5.727%
u 2.758% 6.311% 4.166% 2.927% 3.639% 3.183% 3.011% 3.235% 1.919% 2.062% 1.99% 1.979% 4.562% 5.008% 2.160%
v 0.978% 1.838% 0.846% 1.138% 1.575% 1.904% 2.097% 0.959% 2.415% 0.012% 2.85% 2.332% 2.437% 2.250% 5.344%
w 2.360% 0.074% 1.921% 0.017% 0.037% 0 0.033% 0 0.142% 5.813% 1.52% 0.069% 0 0.094% 0.016%
x 0.150% 0.427% 0.034% 0.215% 0.253% 0 0.003% 0 0.159% 0.004% 0.036% 0.028% 0.046% 0.031% 0.027%
y 1.974% 0.128% 0.039% 1.008% 0.006% 0 0.020% 3.336% 0.708% 3.206% 0.035% 0.698% 0.900% 1.745% 1.043%
z 0.074% 0.326% 1.134% 0.467% 0.470% 0.494% 1.181% 1.500% 0.070% 4.852% 1.39% 0.034% 0 0.051% 1.503%
à 0 0.486% 0 0 0.072% 0 0.635% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
â 0 0.051% 0 0 0.562% 0 ~0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
á 0 0 0 0.502% 0.118% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.799% 0 0.867%
å 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.338% 0 0 1.190% 0 0.003% 0
ä 0 0 0.578% 0 0 0 0 0 1.797% 0 0 0 0 3.577% 0
ã 0 0 0 0 0.733% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ą 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.699% 0 0 0 0 0
æ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.872% 0.867% 0 0
œ 0 0.018% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ç 0 0.085% 0 0 0.530% 0 0 1.156% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ĉ 0 0 0 0 0 0.657% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ć 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.743% 0 0 0 0 0
č 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.462%
ď 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.015%
ð 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.393% 0 0
è 0 0.271% 0 0 0 0 0.263% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
é 0 1.504% 0 0.433% 0.337% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.647% 0 0.633%
ê 0 0.218% 0 0 0.450% 0 ~0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ë 0 0.008% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ę 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.035% 0 0 0 0 0
ě 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.222%
ĝ 0 0 0 0 0 0.691% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ğ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.125% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ĥ 0 0 0 0 0 0.022% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
î 0 0.045% 0 0 0 0 ~0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ì 0 0 0 0 0 0 (0.030%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
í 0 0 0 0.725% 0.132% 0 0.030% 0 0 0 0 0 1.570% 0 1.643%
ï 0 0.005% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ı 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.114%* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ĵ 0 0 0 0 0 0.055% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ł 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.109% 0 0 0 0 0
ñ 0 0 0 0.311% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ń 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.362% 0 0 0 0 0
ň 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.007%
ò 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.002% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ö 0 0 0.443% 0 0 0 0 0.777% 1.305% 0 0 0 0.777% 0.444% 0
ô 0 0.023% 0 0 0.635% 0 ~0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ó 0 0 0 0.827% 0.296% 0 ~0% 0 0 1.141% 0 0 0.994% 0 0.024%
õ 0 0 0 0 0.040% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ø 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.939% 0 0 0
ř 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.380%
ŝ 0 0 0 0 0 0.385% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ş 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.780% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ś 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.814% 0 0 0 0 0
š 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.688%
ß 0 0 0.307% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ť 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.006%
þ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.455% 0 0
ù 0 0.058% 0 0 0 0 (0.166%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ú 0 0 0 0.168% 0.207% 0 0.166% 0 0 0 0 0 0.613% 0 0.045%
û 0 0.060% 0 0 0 0 ~0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ŭ 0 0 0 0 0 0.520% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ü 0 0 0.995% 0.012% 0.026% 0 0 1.854% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ů 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.204%
ý 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.228% 0 0.995%
ź 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.078% 0 0 0 0 0
ż 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.706% 0 0 0 0 0
ž 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.721%
*See Dotted and dotless I.
The figure below illustrates the frequency distributions of the 26 most common Latin letters across some languages. All of these languages use a similar 25+ character alphabet.
Based on these tables, the 'etaoin shrdlu'-equivalent results for each language is as follows:
French: 'esait nruol'; (Indo-European: Romance; traditionally, 'esartinulop' is used, in part for its ease of pronunciation[32])
Spanish: 'eaosr nidlt'; (Indo-European: Romance)
Portuguese: 'aeosr idmnt' (Indo-European: Romance)
Italian: 'eaion lrtsc'; (Indo-European: Romance)
Esperanto: 'aieon lsrtk' (artificial language – influenced by Indo-European languages, Romance, Germanic mostly)
German: 'enisr atdhu'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Swedish: 'eanrt sildo'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Turkish: 'aeinr lkdım'; (Turkic)
Dutch: 'enati rodsl'; (Indo-European: Germanic)[28]
Polish: 'aieon wrszc'; (Indo-European: Slavic)
Danish: 'ernta idslo'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Icelandic: 'arnie stulð'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Finnish: 'ainte slouk'; (Uralic: Finnic)
Czech: 'aeoni tvsrl'; (Indo-European: Slavic)
See also[edit]
Corpus linguistics
ETAOIN SHRDLU
RSTLNE (Wheel of Fortune)
Frequency analysis (cryptanalysis)
Linotype machine
Most common words in English
Scrabble
Arabic Letter Frequency
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Moreno, Marsha Lynn (Spring 2005). "Frequency Analysis in Light of Language Innovation" (PDF). Math UCSD. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Zim, Herbert Spencer. (1961). Codes & Secret Writing: Authorized Abridgement. Scholastic Book Services. OCLC 317853773.
Jump up ^ "British and American spelling - Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Li, Wentian; Miramontes, Pedro (2011). "Fitting ranked English and Spanish letter frequency distribution in US and Mexican presidential speeches". Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 18 (4): 359. arXiv:1103.2950  . doi:10.1080/09296174.2011.608606.
Jump up ^ Gusein-Zade, S.M. (1988). "Frequency distribution of letters in the Russian language". Probl. Peredachi Inf. 24 (4): 102–7.
Jump up ^ Gamow, George; Ycas, Martynas (1955). "Statistical correlation of protein and ribonucleic acid composition" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 41 (12): 1011–19. doi:10.1073/pnas.41.12.1011. PMC 528190  . PMID 16589789.
Jump up ^ Friedrich L. Bauer. "Decrypted Secrets: Methods and Maxims of Cryptology". 2006. p. 57.
Jump up ^ Greg Goebel. "The Rise Of Field Ciphers: straddling checkerboard ciphers" 2009.
Jump up ^ Dirk Rijmenants. "One-time Pad"
Jump up ^ Poe, Edgar Allan. "The works of Edgar Allan Poe in five volumes". Project Gutenberg.
Jump up ^ "What is the frequency of the letters of the alphabet in English?". Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Mička, Pavel. "Letter frequency (English)". Algoritmy.net.
Jump up ^ "Frequency Table". cornell.edu.
Jump up ^ "Statistical Distributions of English Text". data-compression.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-18.
Jump up ^ Lee, E. Stewart. "Essays about Computer Security" (PDF). University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. p. 181.
Jump up ^ Herbert Marvin Ohlman. "Subject-Word Letter Frequencies with Applications to Superimposed Coding". [1] Proceedings of the International Conference on Scientific Information (1959).
Jump up ^ Hemlata Pande and H. S. Dhami. "Mathematical Modelling of Occurrence of Letters and Word’s Initials in Texts of Hindi Language".
Jump up ^ "English Letter Frequency Counts: Mayzner Revisited or ETAOIN SRHLDCU". norvig.com. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "CorpusDeThomasTempé". Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
Jump up ^ Beutelspacher, Albrecht (2005). Kryptologie (7 ed.). Wiesbaden: Vieweg. p. 10. ISBN 3-8348-0014-7.
Jump up ^ Pratt, Fletcher (1942). Secret and Urgent: the Story of Codes and Ciphers. Garden City, N.Y.: Blue Ribbon Books. pp. 254–5. OCLC 795065.
Jump up ^ "Frequência da ocorrência de letras no Português". Retrieved 2009-06-16.
Jump up ^ "La Oftecoj de la Esperantaj Literoj". Retrieved 2007-09-14.
Jump up ^ Singh, Simon; Galli, Stefano (1999). Codici e Segreti (in Italian). Milano: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-8-817-86213-4. OCLC 535461359.
Jump up ^ Sefik Ilkin Serengil, Murat Akin. "Attacking Turkish Texts Encrypted by Homophonic Cipher" Proceedings of the 10th WSEAS International Conference on Electronics, Hardware, Wireless and Optical Communications, pp.123-126, Cambridge, UK, February 20–22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Practical Cryptography". Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Jump up ^ Wstęp do kryptologii, counting [space] 17.2%, [dot point] 0.9%, [comma] 0.9% and [semicolon] 0.5%
^ Jump up to: a b "Letterfrequenties". Genootschap OnzeTaal. Retrieved 2009-05-17.
Jump up ^ "Practical Cryptography". Retrieved 2013-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Practical Cryptography". Retrieved 2013-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Practical Cryptography". Retrieved 2013-10-24.
Jump up ^ Perec, Georges; Alphabets; Éditions Galilée, 1976
Notes
Some useful tables for single letter, digram, trigram, tetragram, and pentagram frequencies based on 20,000 words that take into account word-length and letter-position combinations for words 3 to 7 letters in length. The references are as follows:
Mayzner, M.S.; Tresselt, M.E. (1965). "Tables of single-letter and digram frequency counts for various word-length and letter-position combinations". Psychonomic Monograph Supplements. 1 (2): 13–32. OCLC 639975358.
Mayzner, M.S.; Tresselt, M.E.;Wolin, B.< R.< (1965). "Tables of trigram frequency counts for various word-length and letter-position combinations". Psychonomic Monograph Supplements. 1 (3): 33–78.
Mayzner, M.S.; Tresselt, M.E.;Woliin, B.< R,.. (1965). "Tables of tetragram frequency counts for various word-length and letter-position combinations". Psychonomic Monograph Supplements. 1 (4): 79–143.
Mayzner, M.S.; Tresselt, M.E.Wolin, B,.< R.> (1965). "Tables of pentagram frequency counts for various word-length and letter-position combinations". Psychonomic Monograph Supplements. 1 (5): 144–190.
External links[edit]
A site with content of Cryptographical Mathematics by Robert Edward Lewand
Some examples of letter frequency rankings in some common languages
JavaScript Heatmap Visualization showing letter frequencies of texts on different keyboard layouts
An updated version of Mayzner's work using Google books Ngrams data set by Peter Norvig
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Letter_frequency&oldid=843717918"
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